Full text of "Denatured or industrial alcohol; a treatise on the history, manufacture, composition, uses, and possibilities of industrial alcohol in the various countries permitting its use and the laws and regulations governing the same, including the United States .."

See other formats

ilFiiiiilB^^^^^^^^

i|; Hi

ll!l

il) <>:

Hinililllll. ■!:!!!:!

iililjiilli

il!!! !

I 111

illilii '!!'

n.^A'

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2007 with funding from

Microsoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/denaturedorindusOOherruoft

^MirHPR^

hH^^^HQ?^

1 f«r4^ .. ^. c r wvi^

W^^^m^^^^iSKM

B^^^r^TiMH^^^^^ V *

(F'^^^t^^jm

H^H'^ \3^^^vf^«>%

J "-^ -^

IK: ^^^l^iM^^Mt

^*r$jgfe^^"l^iW ' i "^^EMI^jriipEL^hii^i

J^- i'^^'^^ -"^^ ;'^ ^Ho^lfl^i

*^Y'^»rfflB' * ■si"'"''*'*'^;^^^' '~^ ^*»^Bi^P5y^rK ^jk'- «L7^9^^^^h

^'^W^^^^^^J^iSRrj4f^i^^3s

'*^P^^^^^S^M^&4i^^^ln^^

-''^^Bte^^^G&i*' %iii^f^jR" ifm3^lflH^^^P^ilo

^ i^^^^^^Ik^^aC^'^'^' .^% ^/W'««HI^^^^^^'''^\i^

' ^■^■v^^B^^Bttii^^Hl^i^rvT^v ^wJ^S^^^I^^ -^n^^ ■' ^

^^^^^M^^w^i^^^

.J^!^llt9^Sb>^^M^t^KK^^i^^mJl^^^SKm

'^^^^SL^^^^SS^^^S^r&ltK^Kfw^^^ll^^l^^^^BI^^Bt

^w|f|^j.^s^^|^^i^^^^HpH|B

^ f /'r " ''W^^^ff^^^''^*^^''\3^KM^^^m

m^^ i£a ' i-)MFpJBy''r|M|^BBiJ7P*^-a^|AjJH^B^piRyy y '^ttiS'^Tfc^ffllB

'^^t^am^, i^^jl^''^^M^^B^^^^^W£l[^^[^^Tf sl^^^S^^'

"iSy ^^' ^i^^jjislJg^pSjo^^MiliiJBMJ^BBB^B^^^^fe

jBt^^^^^^^^^^HIHH

^j^^^l^HHHH^HH

'VH^^^i^H^^^'^^^^l.'^^^i^^^'ff^^K

^j||^^!i^iii^j^gjHi^^;^i^i>|^^j^^" j^^

^^^k^^^nHw^^^^^^OB

)fl[^C^^^^^^^yHBl^S9nREi^^S^^^^^IHi^^B«Hk. if^^BiMp^ *^

"^^RI^^^sBi^^^iinBHlHi

> "y^ lVS^if<#g«RW5?B8^^HMBE3!r^t^-^aCT^: -^^aWSI^^^^^^^^^^^B

ttJ^tti^wLi^^

atwik'^mp\'i

S^ufe",--. .*'^-

*4^B^f^

^1^^

L iBL ^1^ '.'»' 'Vi^

^%MS:- ■■•'-

iWiMili

- '^■-* ^ 'V

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL
ALCOHOL

A TREATISE ON

THE HISTORY, MANUFACTURE, COMPOSITION, USES, AND

POSSIBILITIES OF INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL IN THE

VARIOUS COUNTRIES PERMITTING ITS USE,

AND THE LAWS AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE SAME,

INCLUDING THE UNITED STATES

WITH CONCISE TABLES, METHODS, AND NOTES FOR

THE USE OF THE ENGINEER, CHEMIST, MANUFACTURERS

OF ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOL MAKING AND USING

APPARATUS, INCLUDING ALCOHOL MOTORS, ENGINES,

ILLUMINATING LAMPS,

AND HEATING AND COOKING STOVES

EUFUS FEOST HERRICK

CoN8cn.TiKG Chemist and Chkmical Engineer
Member of the American Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry,
and the Society of Arts of the Massachusetts Institute of ' '

Technology, Boston, Mass.

FIRST EDITION
FIRST THOUSAND

494616

NEW YORK

JOHNT WILEY & SO]^S

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited

1907

4-. r 4-3

Copyngrnt, 1907

RUFUS F. HERRICK

ROBERT DRUMMOND COMPANY, PRINTERS, NEW YORK

PREFACE*

The enactment of legislation by our Congress, June 7, 1906 (per-
mitting the general use of tax-free domestic alcohol, after it has been
suitably denatured, for industrial purposes and for light, heat, and
power) immediately created a wide-spread interest and inquirj- through-
out the United States as to the facts relating to this whole matter.
This law takes effect January 1, 1907.

The scarcity of literature treating the subject of Denatured or
Industrial Alcohol is so great that there are practically no books con-
cerning it. This book has therefore been prepared for the above
reasons and to supply the facts in answer to the inquiries mentioned.

The author had the honor to represent the American Chemical
Society and the Society of Chemical Industry, through their New Eng-
land sections, in favor of Denatured Alcohol, at the so-called "Free
Alcohol" Congressional hearings, held at Washington, D. C, Februar}--
March, 1906, on the matter of repealing the internal-revenue tax on
domestic alcohol after it had been suitably denatured. The testimony
given at these hearings was from a great variety of sources and possessed
a highly educational value and interesting character, and was afterwards
published by our Government. ^lany important abstracts from such
testimony are given in this book under their appropriate subjects. •

The author has also availed himself of the large fund of data furnished
by the Report of the British Departmental Committee on Industrial
Alcohol, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of His
Majesty, March 23, 1905. This report (with the appendices gi\ang por-
tions of the testimony taken before this Committee in England, France,

* Since this preface was written, supplementary legislation has been enacted
amending and liberalizing the denatured alcohol law. A copy of such legislation is
given on page 489.

iii

IV PREFACE.

Germany, and other continental countries) is given in the Appendix
to this book. The complete United States Government Rules and
Regulations, No. 30, concerning Denatured Alcohol, under the Act of
Congress of June 7, 1906, as well as the United States Government tests
and methods prescribed for the denaturing materials and the methods
for the denaturing of alcohol, are also included in the Appendix to this
book. A list of books of reference on industrial alcohol and allied
subjects is given in the bibliography on page 493.

There is also a very complete list, on page 494, from the Patent
Review, New York, of all the important patents relating to improve-
ments in the manufacture of alcohol and in alcohol -distilling apparatus
for the past twenty years. Some original work for this book has been
done by the author, but the field is so large that it is an impossibility
for any one person to cover it. For this reason the assistance of lead-
ing experts has been gladly welcomed by him in the various phases and
subjects treated in this book.

The furnishing of important public foreign data, through our Depart-
ment of State from accredited sources as to Denatured Alcohol, has
been greatly appreciated by the author, and acknowledgment of the
same is hereby duly made, as well as to our Department of Commerce
and Labor, for similar aid.

The thanks of the author are cordially extended to Prof. Samuel
C. Prescott for collaboration in the material and calculations for Chapter
II, to Dr. G. N. Lewis for assistance in preparing the elaboration of the
theories connected with the processes of distillation in Chapter III; also
to Dr. Augustus H. Gill, Associate Professor of Technical Analysis, for
aid in the calculations and data (involved in the combustion of various
liquid fuels) in Chapter VII. All of these experts are associated with
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.

The author also desires to express his obligation to Mr. Henry J.
Williams, Chemical Engineer and Expert on Coals, Boston, Mass., for
work done in determining the fuel value of denatured alcohol and the
calculations thereon for Chapter VII, as well as to Mr. Frank E. Davis,
Mechanical Engineer, Boston, Mass., for data on investigations of the
use of alcohol in American types of internal-combustion engines. It is
also a pleasure to record the indebtedness of the author to Mr. Leonard
V. Goebbels, Mechanical Engineer of The Otto Gas Engine Works,
Philadelphia, Pa., for securing the German data relating to alcohol
engines and motors, furnished the author through their head company,
the Deutz Gas Engine Works of Deutz-Cologne, Germany. The ac-
knowledgements of the author are also due to Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chief of

PREFACE. V

the Division of Chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C, for tables and data furnished on the composition of the
raw materials used for the manufacture of alcohol and on the methods
for its determination. Thanks are also due to other friends of the
author who have given him many valuable suggestions used in the
preparation of this book.

^ The effect of the excessive internal revenue tax (of about $2.08 per
gallon on alcohol in this country, gradually, from about the year 1860,
increased to this sum) has been to prohibit the use of alcohol for indus-
trial purposes. Meanwhile, wood alcohol, being tax free and much
cheaper, was introduced for such uses and nearly replaced the better
and more desirable, but taxed, ethyl alcohol. As however wood alcohol
is at best a poor substitute for the tax-free Denatured Alcohol, we may
confidently expect it will in turn replace wood alcohol.

The whole problem of Denatured Alcohol in this country is therefore
in a pioneer state of development, and for this reason the alcohol-using
apparatus here described is largely of foreign make.

The American manufacturers of internal-combustion engines and
motors, as well as of other alcohol-using apparatus, have however begim
thorough investigations on the use of alcohol and expect, from results
so far obtained, to be able to place upon the market such engines and
apparatus adapted to alcohol. The use of alcohol for illuminating pur-
poses has been very highly perfected abroad, and a very promising field
for such uses evidently awaits alcohol in this country.

It is the hope and belief of the author that we Americans can solve
for this country the problem of Denatured Alcohol in such a successful
manner that all the world may secure, from the results we here attain,
uses and benefits much greater than those heretofore achieved.

RuFus Frost Herrick.
Boston, October, 1906.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

COMPOSITION, HISTORY, AND USE OF DENATURED ALCOHOL.

Page

Composition of Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries 1

Distilled Spirits Defined 2

History of Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries 3

History of Tax-free Alcohol in the United States 7

Use of Denatured or Industrial Alcohol in Foreign Countries 8

Use of Industrial Alcohol in Cuba 13

Use of Industrial Alcohol in the United States 15

CHAPTER II.

. THE MANUFACTURE OP ALCOHOL.

The Raw Materials Used 17

The Preparation of the Raw Materials for Fermentation 18

The Composition of the Raw Materials Used 27

Malting 28

The Fermentation 30

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol 33

The Micro-organisms 39

The Use of Moulds in Saccharification 42

The Fermentation Period 43

Wild and " Disease" Yeasts 43

The Control of the Fermentation Operations 44

(a) The Control of the Yeast 44

(6) The Estimation of the Fermentable Matter 45

The Conditions Favorable to Alcoholic Fermentation 50

CHAPTER HI.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

Theory of Vapor Pressure and Boiling-point 64

Boiling-points of Mixtures of Ethyl and Methyl Alcohol 65

vii

viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Boiling-points of Mixtures of Ethyl Alcohol and Water 65

Theory of Distillation 67

Simple Distillation 67

Constant Boiling Mixtures 66

Theory of Fractional Distillation 67

Theory of Compound Distillation 70

Dephlegmation 70

The Efficiency of Fractional Distillation 73

The Extraction of the Alcohol by Distillation 76

The Rectification of the Alcohol 78

History of the Distillation of Alcohol 79

Commercial Apparatus for the Distillation of Alcohol £0

American Alcohol-distilling Apparatus. . . # 104

CHAPTER IV.

ALCOHOLOMETRY .

The Determination of Alcohol by the Alcoholometer 122

The Determination of Alcohol by Distillation 123

The Alcohol Tables Adopted by the A. O. A. C 127

The U. S. Proof Gallon, Wine Gallon, and Taxable Gallon 140

The U. S. Alcohol Tables for the Control of Denatured Alcohol 141

The Detection and Determination of Ethyl and Methyl Alcohols in Mixtures

by the Immersion Refractometer 145

The Determination of Methyl Alcohol in Denatured Alcohol by the Immersion

Refractometer .• 155

Tests for the Detection of Acetone, Methyl Alcohol, and Ethyl Alcohol 163

The Denatured Alcohol Motor for Laboratory Power Purposes 167

CHAPTER V.

THE COST OF ALCOHOL AND OF ALCOHOL-DISTILLING PLANTS,

Cost of Alcohol from Different Raw Materials 169

By-products in the Distillation of Alcohol 175

Fusel-oil 175

The Composition of Fusel-oil 175

The Value of the Slop or Spent Wash 177

The Manufacture of Ethyl Alcohol from Sawdust 181

Ethyl Chloride as a Refrigerant 182

Plan of Distillery for Distilling Alcohol from Corn 183

Cost of Buildings for Alcohol-distiUing Plants 186

Cost of Alcohol-distilhng Plants 200

Cost of Commercial Wood Alcohol (Methyl Alcohol) 201

CHAPTER VI.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

The Incandescent Mantle for the Alcohol Lamp 207

The Incandescent Alcohol Lamp 210

CONTENTS. IX

PAGE

The Alcohol lUuminated-sign Lamp 224

The German Incandescent Alcohol Street Lights 224

Cost of Lighting by Kerosene 229

The Incandescent Welsbach Gas Liglit 229

Acetylene as a Source of Illumination 232

The Electric Incandescent and Arc Light 237

Alcohol Compared to other Sources of Illumination 237

CHAPTER VII.

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL COMPARED WITH THE OTHER USUAL LIQUID FUELS.

The Wilhams Bomb Calorimeter 239

The Thermal Efficiency of a Fuel s, 244

The Fuel Value of Denatured Alcohol 245

Calculations of the Volume of Air Necessary for Complete Combustion of Alco-
hol, Gasoline, Kerosene, and Crude Petroleum 248

Ratio of Prices of Various Fuels 255

Ratio of Vitiation of the Atmosphere by Combustion of these Fuels 256

Table of the Calorific Value of the Usual Liquid Fuels 258

Alcohol Heating and Cooking Apparatus and Stoves 259

CHAPTER VIII. '

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

The Deutz Alcohol-engine 277

The Deutz Alcohol-motor or Portable Engine 286

American Alcohol-engines 290

The Alcohol-motor for the Automobile 302

The Diesel Engine 307

The Kerosene-oil Engine 310

The Gasoline-engine and its Adaptation to Alcohol 315

Comparison of the Economy of the Steam-engine with Other Types of Engines 319

The Gas-engine Compared with Other Types of Engines 323

Outhne of the Methods Used in Testing Internal-combustion Engines 324

CHAPTER IX.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL.

In Foreign Countries 329

Law for Denatured Alcohol in the United States 338

Cost of Denaturing Alcohol in Foreign Countries 340

Cost of Denaturing Alcohol in the United States 344

Properties of Denaturing Materials 344

Special Denaturing Methods in Foreign Countries '. 345

Tests Prescribed by Foreign Countries for the Denaturing Materials Used 345

Tests Prescribed by the United States for the Denaturing Materials Used. 351
Completely Denatured Alcohol and Specially Denatured Alcohol in the United

States 351

X CONTENTS.

PAGE

Recovery of Denatured Alcohol is Fermi tted by the United States Regula-
tions 356

Spirit Varnishes 358

CHAPTER X.

DENATURED ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES.

The Impracticability of Purifying Denatured Alcohol 361

The Possibilities of Industrial Alcohol in the United States 364

APPENDIX.
The United States Regulations and Instructions Concerning the De-

NATURATION OF AlCOHOL AND THE HANDLING AND USE OF SaME UnDER

THE Act of Congress of June 7, 1906 375

Amendments to the Act of Congress of June 7, 1906 489

Report of the British Departmental Committee on Industrial Alcohol,
Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty,

March 23d, 1905 421

Appendices from Minutes of Evidence Taken before the British
Departmental Committee on Industrial Alcohol, Presented to

BOTH Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty 447

Abstract from British Revenue Act, 1906, as to Spirits Used in Art,
Manufacture, etc., and Supplemental Amendments of the Spirits

Act 486

Bibliography of Denatured Alcohol and Books of Reference 493

List of Patents Relating to the Manufacture of Alcohol and Alcohol-
distilling Apparatus 494

General Index 499

Index to U. S. Regulations and Instructions 510

Index to Report of the British Departmental Committee 515

Index to Appendices from Minutes of Evidence taken before the
British Departmental Committee 516

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

CHAPTER I.
COMPOSITION, HISTORY, AND USE OF DENATURED ALCOHOL.

Composition of Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries. Distilled Spirits
Defined. History of Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries. History of Tax-
free Alcohol in the United States. Use of Denatured or Industrial Alcohol in
Foreign Countries. Use of Industrial Alcohol in Cuba. Use of Industrial
Alcohol in the United States.

Murray's New English Dictionary defines Denature, "2. To alter
(anything) so as to change its nature; e.g., to render alcohol unfit for con-
sumption. Hence Denatured, ppl. (a) 1882, Athenaeum, 25 Mar.,
385/1. A paper on the Denaturation of Alcohol by the action of Wood
Spirit. (6) Denaturation, 1882, Chemist and Druggist, XXIV, 5/2. A
commission in Germany has reported on the process of denaturalisa-
tion of alcohol for manufacturing purposes.''

From the above definitions it is seen that we "denature " ordinary
alcohol, or deprive it of its nature as a beverage, when w^e mix w4th it
some substance requisite for this purpose. As to the spelling of the
word which signifies such change, philology would indicate the choice
of brevity if no shade of meaning were thereby sacrificed. It happens
that the shortest word is also the simplest of those which have been
used to describe such change.

Between the spellings. Denatured, Denaturalized, Denaturalised, and
Denaturized, all of which words have the same meaning when they refer
to alcohol, the preference is overwhehningly in favor of the first. This
spelling was also used by the Departmental Committee in their Report
on Industrial Alcohol to the British Parliament, March 23, 1905.*

* Since the above was written, the United States Regulations and Instnictiona
have been issued, and the word is there spelled Denatured.

'i DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Composition of Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries. — Denatured
alcohol is made by mixing with ordinary alcohol some substances of a
poisonous and repugnant character, but which do not detract from the
use of such alcohol for industrial purposes. Among the principal sub-
stances so used may be mentioned commercial wood alcohol, pyridine
partially rectified, bone-oil which contains large amounts of pyridine,
benzine, and benzol; and for special purposes, ether, castor-oil, spirits of
turpentine, caustic soda, distilled grease from sheeps' wool, and a number
of other substances are used as denaturing agents, as will be shown. As
a rule the denatured alcohol, as sold for general uses, contains from 90%
to 95% of alcohol by volume. Its alcoholic strength therefore
conforms to these percentage figures by Tralles' scale. Of such
alcohol present a part is usually wood alcohol. The proportion of the
latter is governed by the laws in each particular country relative to
such denaturing.

The word alcohol is usually understood to mean ethyl alcohol or
ordinary grain alcohol, and it is made on the commercial scale by fer-
menting and distilling processes, in which such raw materials as corn,
rye, potatoes, sugar-beets, and molasses are used. The United States
Government definition of ethyl alcohol is given as follows :

Distilled Spirits Defined.— Section 3248 of the Revised Statutes
defines distilled spirits, spirits, alcohol, and alcoholic spirit, within the
true intent and meaning of the act, to be that substance known as ethyl
alcohol, hydrated oxide of ethyl, or spirit of wine, which is commonly
produced by the fermentation of grain, starch, molasses, or sugar, includ-
ing all dilutions and mixtures of this substance, and declares that the
tax shall attach to this substance, as soon as it is in existence as such,
whether it be subsequently separated as pure or impure spirit, or be
immediately, or at any subsequent time, transferred into any other
substance, either in the process of original production or by any subse-
quent process.

Ethyl alcohol is also made, commercially, from sawdust by Claassen's
recent process, which will be discussed in Chapter V.

Ethyl alcohol must not be confused with wood alcohol, which is not
made by fermenting at all, but by destructively distilling (heating) the
wood in iron retorts or ovens and then condensing the vapors. It is
then refined as described in Chapter V. The alcohol thus obtained
is methyl alcohol and is also called, in commerce, wood alcohol. In
appearance it is sometimes a pale straw color, sometimes colorless.
It is volatile, inflammable, and is a solvent for many resins, gums,
etc. It distills unchanged at 66° C. when pure. The valuable dism-

CXDMPOSITION, HISTORY, Ax\D USE. 3

fectant, formaldehyde, is made from it and also a number of aniline
dyes, as the methylene blues, methyl greens, and the methyl violets.

Oil of wintergreen is also made, synthetically, from methyl alcohol.
Commercial wood alcohol has a very marked and repugnant odor and
taste. The fumes or vapors from it occasion violent headaches, a de-
pressed nervous condition, and often blindness, when prolonged exposure
to such vapors has occurred.* Taken internally it nearly always causes
blindness or death, and the internal use of wood alcohol is now consid-
ered fatal. For this reason it is an admirable substance for denaturing
ethyl or ordinary alcohol, being, in fact, one of the best for such a pur-
pose. Specially denatured alcohol, as denatured at the manufactory in
foreign countries, will be discussed under Laws and Regulations of these
countries.

History of Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries. — Great Britain
was the first country which attempted to denature or methylate ordinary
alcohol. The use of methylated (denatured) spirit, duty-free, w^as first
authorized in 1855 by the Act 18 and 19 Vict., C. 38. The present law
on the subject is contained in the Spirits Act, 1880, as amended by the
Customs and Inland Revenue Act, 1890, and Section 8 of the Finance Act,
1902. t Such denaturing was accomplished by mixing ten per cent of
commercial wood alcohol with ordinary alcohol, the resulting mixture
being called methylated spirit. The word methyl was taken from the
methyl cr wood alcohol, and the word spirit is the common designation
of the ordinary alcohol. The Standard Distionary defines "Spirit," 9.
as ''a strong distilled liquor or liquid, especially alcohol, commonly
plural — as ardent spirits." Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis, 1898,
Vol. I, p. 78, mentions Methjdated Spirit of Wine (alcohol) as "a mixture
of 90 per cent of rectified spirit (ethyl or ordinary alcohol) with 10 per
cent of commercial wood spirit." The acetone and other constituents
of the wood naphtha are so difficult to remove that the spirit (so methyl-
ated) is considered to be permanently unfitted for drinking purposes
and is therefore not subject to duty. The wood spirit and wood naphtha
mentioned mean commercial wood alcohol. We note from the U. S.
Daily Consular and Trade Reports of the Department of Commerce and
Labor, Bureau of Manufactures, Washington, D. C, April 17, 1906, that

* See case of Mr. Charles Bedell, a painter permanently blinded by the fumes
of wood alcohol, who so testified at the Congressional "Free Alcohol" hearings,
at Washington, D. C, February-March, 1906.

t Action has since been taken by Parliament with the result that new and
much more liberal regulations have been issued under date of October 1, 1906.
These regulations are given in Chapter IX.

4 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL

the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced in Parliament recently, in
response to an inquiry as to whether anything was to be done to free
British manufacturers using alcohol in their business from the disadvan-
tages they now suffer compared with their European competitors, that
"the matter is now under consideration," and he "hoped to introduce
legislation at an early day."

In Germany the use of pure spirits free of tax was first permitted in
1879, modified and liberalized in 1887. The denaturing at the beginning
in 1879 was done with wood alcohol. Until 1887 the German Govern-
ment used what was practically the system employed in England. Later,
in order to permit freer general use, the pyridine bases were added, and
this was regarded as an advance on the English system. These pyridine
bases are exceedingly repugnant to the taste and smell; they belong to
the group of alkaloids of which pyridine is the type, and are obtained as
"by-products " from the liquid or "coal-tar " portions, which result from
the destructive distillation of coal. Other substances are thus obtained,
and from them the beautiful aniline or coal-tar dyes, and other coloring
materials used in dyeing, are made. The pyridine bases can also be pro-
duced by the refining of bone-oil. Bone-oil is commonly made by the
destructive distillation of bones. In Germany the "partially rectified "
pyridine is the kind used for general denaturing purposes.

France has permitted the use of denatured alcohol, under benefit of a
special tax of 37.50 francs per hectolitre, since the law of August 2, 1872.
(A hectolitre =26.4179 U. S. gallons.) This was revised by the consulta-
tive committee on May 11, 1881, and modified so as to render the law
more efficacious by making it impossible to use any methyl alcohol
except that which, being possessed of the characteristic odor of this
commercial product, renders any alcohol to which it has been added
absolutely unfit for consumption. Such a methyl alcohol is furnished
by the commercial wood alcohol.

They used in addition some heavy benzine from the distillation of
coal, and some malachite or aniline green dye. This gave a methylated
or denatured alcohol of pale-green color, intended for general use. By
the law of April 16, 1895, an extra tax of 0.80 franc per hectolitre was
added to cover the expense of supervision by the treasury.

The French have also considered the use of an additional denaturing
agent, such as the product obtained by Dr. Lang of Switzerland, from
the destructive distillation of the grease from sheeps' wool. The sub-
stance so obtained is said to be a mixture of several methyl derivatives
of very repugnant smell and taste.

Switzerland has permitted untaxed methylated or denatured alcohol

COMPOSITION, HISTORY, AND USE. 5

since January 31, 1.893, by decree of the Federal Council, pursuant to
Article 6 of the law relating to spirituous liquors of December 23, 1886,
on the proposition of its Department of Finances and Taxes. By a major-
ity of the voting citizens, as well as by a majority of the cantons, the
following change in the federal constitution of 1874 has been adopted :

" Art. 32. The Confederation is authorized, by way of legislation,
to issue directions relating to the manufacture and sale of distilled
liquors.

" At this legislation those products that are either to he exported or that
have undergone a preparation excluding their use as a beverage shall not
he subjected to any taxation.

" The distilling of wine, fruit, and their wastes of fell-wort, of juniper
berries, and of similar materials does not, concerning manufacture and
taxation, fall under federal legislation."

The choice of methylating substances was left to the federal depart-
ment of finance, which may require, as an additional guaranty against
unlawful employment, that the alcohol intended for relative methylation
be diluted with water.

Wood alcohol, pyridine bases, and solvent naphtha were used as
denaturing agents in Switzerland.

Belgium granted the use of denatured or methylated alcohol by the
law of April 15, 1896, and further liberalized by revisions of June 15,
1896, and July 19, 1896. The minister of finance determines the process
of methylation and the nature and the proportion of the materials
destined to render the alcohol unfit for human consumption. Methyl or
wood alcohol has been used by Belgium as one of the methylating sub-
stances. Alcohol has also been specially denatured at the manufactory
where it was used.

The Netherlands permitted denatured alcohol since the enactment of
the laws of the 7th of July, 1865, and the 14th of September, 1872.

The methylating was done by mixing with wood spirits or commercial
wood alcohol, whereby the spirits were made unfit to serve as a beverage.
The government also reserved the right to fix the requisite precautions
relating to exemption from excise for use of alcohol in vinegar manu-
factories and in state, provincial, and communal institutions of instruc-
tions in the ph3^sical sciences.

Italy, by a law under the royal decree of August 29, 1889, concerning
the use of untaxed alcohol, gave relief by means of a drawback for spirits
used in making vinegar and manufacturing oenolin.

Sweden, by royal decree of October 10, 1890, permitted the denatur-
ing of alcohol free of taxes, and the selling of the same, by circular of

6 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

this date, relating to 'the manufacture of alcohol, etc., paragraph 10,
mom. 4, and the regulations of July 13, 1887.

Wood alcohol and pyridine bases were prescribed for denaturing
agents, and permits were given for special denaturing by manufacturers
of varnishes, fulminate and percussion caps, alkaloids, chloroform, iodo-
form and chloral, tannic acid, vinegar, acetates of lead, and other ace-
tates. Denatured alcohol kept for sale must be mixed with suitable
coloring-matter, by special regulation of the chief of the Bureau of Control
and Adjustment. Paragraph 24, decree of October 10, 1890, prescribes:
1. Charges for denaturing the alcohol are 3 ore (from January 1, 1895,
2 ore, in accordance with royal circular of June 1, 1894) for each liter of
normal strength. 2. When restitution of taxes is ^ made these charges
should be included, but charges for . denaturing made at distilleries are
accounted for by deducting taxes from 94 per cent of the denatured
alcohol.

In Norway, by royal decree of June 13, 1891, becoming operative Jan-
uary 1, 1892, and by government resolution of June 29, 1894, No. 23,
untaxed alcohol, either as methylated (denatured) brandy or when it is
found in some other satisfactory manner to be guaranteed against being
used for drink, which the government department may allow, is per-
m^itted to be relieved of the production tax in the same way as brandy,
and the owner of the brandy has to bear the cost of the methylation
and the supervision thereof.

Portugal has permitted the use of untaxed alcohol, all the expenses
for the methylation, whether it be voluntary (requested by the manu-
facturer or owner) or obligatory (when decreed for purposes of shipment
or on the occasion cf a visit), shall be borne by the manufacturer or
owners of the liquids to be methylated.

Austria- Hungary has allowed exemption from the consumption tax
on methylated alcohol by the Exchequer decree cf April 10, 1888. Sup-
plement III to Sections 6, 66-69, and 73 of the law contains the regula-
tions for the spirits destined for use free of duty. Wood alcohol and
pyridine bases were prescribed for denaturing agents. Phenolphthalein
was prescribed in addition to these two substances by Exchequer decree
of August 15, 1889, Govern. Law Gazette, No. 130; Ordinance Gazette,
No. 13. The phenolphthalein has the quality that it easily dissolves
in alcohol, concentrated, as also diluted, without changing the color of
the latter, and when soda-lye or caustic-soda solution is mixed with
such alcohol it gives at once an intense-red color, the coloration being
said to be noticeable even in as weak a mixture as one of phenolphthalein
in ten million of denatured alcohol mixture.

COMPOSITION, HISTORY, AND USE. 7

Through the addition of phenolphthalein to the denatured or methyl-
ated alcohol, therefore, the controlling officials are put in a position, in
a simple manner, at all times to prove whether potable (beverage) spirits
have been manufactured from spirits which have been methylated for
the common commerce or are blended or not blended with such spirits.
And besides this, perhaps, to establish whether or not spirits (alcohol)
already methylated by the usual wood alcohol and pyridine bases are
presented for methylation. Special denaturing methods were also per-
mitted by Austria-Hungary, in which were used vinegar, animal oil,
turpentine-oil, ether, shellac solution, mineral oil, and castor-oil soap.

History of Tax-free Alcohol in the United States. — In 1817 the inter-
nal-revenue tax on distilled spirits was repealed, and from that time until
the outbreak of the Civil War no recourse was had to internal taxes of
any kind, though the Treasury suffered periodically from diminished
revenues. When, at the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861 it became
necessary to resort to every possible means to raise money, a tax was
levied on distilled spirits of 20 cents a gallon. As early as 1864 it has
been understood Congress wished to relieve the industrial uses of alcohol
from taxation, and to tax only that consumed as a beverage, but no way
could be devised, as at that time denaturing was not an established fact
as it is now. Interest increased in the subject throughout the country,
culminating in the passage by our Congress of such legislation as would,
by a rebate or repayment of the internal -revenue tax, provide free alco-
hol for industrial uses. This law became operative by the tariff act of
August 28, 1894, and Section 61 of this law provided for such rebate.
No provision was made in this law. Section 61 of this act, for rendering
such tax-free alcohol unfit for use as a beverage or denaturing it. Again,
Section 61 of this law (the tariff act, August 28, 1894) provided tax-free
alcohol under regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of the Treas-
ury, and as such regulations were never formulated, the law^ was there-
fore inoperative. This led to claims from manufacturers, covering some
twelve months of the period it was in force, aggregating some $2,500,000,
against the government. Suits were brought by these manufacturers
for this rebate on alcohol, and these suits were tried in the U. S. Supreme
Court and were not allowed.

An act to repeal Section 61 of the law permitting tax-free alcohol
for industrial purposes, as explained, was enacted by our Congress and
was approved June 3, 1896. In this act of June 3, 1896, Section 2 pro-
vided that a Joint Select Committee from the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives was authorized to consider all questions relating to the use
of alcohol in the manufactures and arts free of tax, and to report their

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

conclusions to Congress on the first Monday in December, 1896. The
Committee were unable to finish the hearings and inquiries at that date,
and so stated in their report to Congress, in which they respectfully
suggested that the provisions of Section 2 of the act approved June 3,
1896, be continued in force for such purposes. Reports were made by
the Senate Finance Committee, January 12, 1895, on the same subject.
The Joint Select Committee on alcohol in the manufactures and arts
reported on this subject, including hearings, December 17, 1897.

The Joint Select Committee did not recommend exempting alcohol
as used in the manufactures and arts from taxation. At this point
attention is called to a provision which w^as incorporated in the so-
called Mills bill in October, 1888, as reported by the Senate Com-
mittee on Finance, and passed by the Senate, for the untaxed use of
alcohol under supervision therein specified. The report on that bill
(Senate Report, No. 2332, Fiftieth Congress, First Session) contains,
among others, the following reference to this subject: ''The heavy tax
upon alcohol unnecessarily increases the price of many manufactured
products, with no corresponding benefit except the resulting revenue,
which is now unnecessary.^' This provision in the Mills bill, in October,
1888, was deemed by the manufacturers wholly impracticable.

Use of Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries.

Use of Methylated Spirits (Denatured Alcohol) in the United Kingdom

(British Isles).

Comparison of the Quantity of Spirits, etc., Used in Making Methylated
Spirits, and of the Methylated Spirits Produced for the Five Years
ending March 31, 1904, in the United Kingdom (British Isles).

Year Ending
March 31.

Ordinary
(Unmineralized)

Methylated
Spirit for Manu-
facturing Purposes.

Mineralized

Methylated

Spirit for Retail

Sale.

Total.

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904

Gallons.
2,058,450
2,075,514
2,157,127
2,213,580
2,139,784*

Gallons.
1,328,162
1,439,243
1,410,603
1,464,672
1,527,573

Gallons.
3,386,612
3,514,757
3,567,730
3,678,252
3,667,357

* The decrease in 1903-4 is mainly due to the fact that certain firms, e.g., the British Xylonite
Company, Nobels, and Leitch and Company, have been allowed the use of duty-free alcohol
denatured by other substances than wood naphtha. ,„. „n^

The total quantity so allowed in 1903-4 was 206,452 proof gallons, which woula be 12o,885
bulk gallons at 64° o.p. 93.5 per cent real alcohol.

Yofe. — For British method calculating absolute alcohol from strength of spirit,
in terms of their standard of '"proof" and comparison with United States ditto,
see Chapter IV. i • i i ^ r.

To convert British or Imperial gallons into U. S. gallons multiply by 1 .2.

COMPOSlTIOxX, HISTORY, AND USE.

Use of Denatured Alcohol in Germany.
Quantities of Duty-free Spirit Issued during 1901-1905.

Year.*

Completely
Denaturetf.

Incompletely
Denatured.

Undenatured.

Total.

1901

Gallons.
17,210,490
15,504,038
19,804,180
25,998,865
25,889,102

Gallons.

7,474,588

7,609,668

7,936,060

10,195,553

10,353,633

Gallons.
744,040
1,307,394
391,424
575,335
701,134

Gallons.
25,429,118
24,421,100
28,131 664

1902

1903

1904

36,769,753

1905

36,943,869

• * From report U. S. Consul-General Alexander M. Thackara, Berlin, Germany.

The use of undenatured duty-free spirit in the preparation of
medicinal tinctures and prescriptions was formerly allowed in Germany.
This privilege was withdrawn after September 30, 1902. The unde-
natured alcohol is now only allowed to be used duty-free in certain
hospitals, asylums, and public scientific institutions, and for the making
of smokeless powders, etc., mainly used in government factories. The
sudden increase from 33,820 hectolitres in 1901 to 59,427 hectolitres in
1902 was probably connected with the publication of the intention of
the government to disallow the use of pure, duty-free spirits for medicinal
purposes, this intention being published a year in advance of the time
that it was to take effect.

Use of Denatured Alcohol in France.

Table Showing the Quantities of Denatured Spirit Used in France for
Various Manufacturing Purposes during the Years 1900-1G03.

Manufacture, etc., for which Used.

Lighting, heating, motor-engines

etc

Varnishes, lacquers, and polishes.

Dyeing

Celluloid, etc

Drugs and chemical preparations.

Ether and explosives

Scientific purposes

Various

Total

Gallons* of Pure Alcohol.

1900.

2,764,256

385,264

3,432

158,356

100,408

1,427,206

8,492

19,294

4,866,708

1901.

3,366,110

360,426

16,346

111,518

60,852

1,530,848

9,438

78,892

5,534,430

1902.

4,999,566

312,136

902

87,186

149,886

1,539,912

8,932

88,000

7,186,520

1903.

5,764,792t
317,834t
ll,704t
101,090t
613,162
1,405,338
11,418
15.818

8,241,156

* British or Imperial gallons.

t These spirits, as well as a large proportion of that classed under "chemical preparations"
and "explosives,'' contain 10 per cent of wood naphtha.

Since January 1, 1902. a drawback of 9 francs per hectolitre (about 2^d. per proof gallon)
has been allowed on alcohol used for lighting and heating, to compensate for the cost of methyl-
atine, and to enable this spirit to compete with petrol in motor-cars. etc.

There was some alteration in the classification of "drugs," "ether," etc., in 1903.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Use of Denatured Alcohol in Switzerland.

Quantity of Denatured Spirit of All Kinds Sold in Switzerland

During 1903.

Kilograms at
93^ to 95°.

Equivalent

Gallons at

63° to 66° o.p.

"Absolutely" denatured

''Relatively" denatured:

From monopoly

From importations

Total

4,758,003

110,980
1,567,602

1,284,660*
453,217

1,678,582

6,436,585

1,737,877

♦British or Imperial gallons.

Duty- free Spirit.

Abstract of the Swiss Regulations. — The Alcohol Department are
authorized to sell denatured spirits in quantities of not less than 150
liters (33 gallons) at cost price for the following purposes:

(a) For cleansing, heating, cooking, lighting, as well as for use in

motor-engines;
(6) For industrial purposes generally, except the preparation of

beverages or of liquid cosmetics and perfumes;

(d) For scientific purposes;

(e) For preparing pharmaceutical products which do not contain any

alcohol in their finished condition and are not mixed with
alcohol when used.

Use of Industrial Alcohol in Italy.

Under date of January 20, 1905, the American Minister in Rome
(Mr. Meyer) transmits the following translation of a communication
from the Foreign Office and Ministry of Finance of Italy relative to the
taxation and consumption of alcohol in that kingdom:

'^The taxation imposed in Italy on the manufacture of spirits is 190
lire per 100 liters ($36.67 per 105 quarts) of anhydrous alcohol (pure
alcohol), at the temperature of 15.56°, according to the centesimal ther-
mometer (60° F.). Deductions are allowed of 10 per cent upon manu-
factures of the first category, those in which starch and starchy sub-
stances and remains of the manufacture and refining of sugar are used,

COMPOSITION, HISTORY, AND USE. 11

and of 15 per cent upon manufactures of the second category, distilla-
tions of fruits, wines, dregs of pressed grapes, and other remains of wines
only.

'' Deductions on products of factories provided with meters are allowed
of 25 per cent for distillations of fruits, dregs of pressed grapes, and
remains of wines, and of 30 per cent for distillations of wmes and small
wmes. The co-operative societies manufacturing articles of the second
category enjoy a deduction of 18 per cent, which may rise to 28 per cent
if they distill dregs of pressed grapes and other remains mentioned, and
34 per cent if they distill wine only. The last two advantages depend,
however, on the condition that the factories are furnished with meters.

"Complete exemption from taxation is not granted, except to spirits
derived from wine, dregs of pressed grapes, and other remains from
wines when properly adulterated and intended only for lighting, heat-
ing, motor power, or other industrial and determined uses; while for
spirits obtained from substances not containing wine the taxation is
reduced to 15 lire per 100 liters ($2,895 per 105 quarts) of pure alcohol
if destined for the above-mentioned purposes. During the financial
year 1903-4, for such purposes 17,662 hectolitres (466,277 gallons) of
pure alcohol were adulterated, of which 15,077 hectolitres (413,477
gallons) were from substances containing wine and 2585 hectolitres
(52,800 gallons) from other substances."

Consul James E. Dunning, of Milan, reports, under date of Monday,
August 6, 1906: ''There is no demand in Italy, so far as I have been
able to discover, for alcohol as fuel for engines, automobiles, etc. Neither
is gasoline used for these purposes. Benzine is the principal fuel, and
the price in quantities is $16.80 per 100 quarts for German stock, while
gasoline is quoted at $23.75 per 100 quarts. I find American benzine is
quoted among the dealers in fuel for automobiles at about $16.25 per
100 quarts. Milan dealers tell me that American benzine is imported in
exceedingly small quantities, through the port of Venice, but that it is
not in favor here. There appears to be no better reason than that no
special effort has been made to introduce it here. Most of the benzine
used in Italy comes from Germany and Austria, the German stock having
a very long lead. The Italian import duty on benzine is $9.50 per hun-
dred kilos, or 220 pounds. Italy has no customs conventions with other
countries on oils of this classification, excepting that with the United
States, which allows turpentine-oil free entry. The entire manufacture
of alcohol is in the way of becoming a government monopoly, on account
of the heavy taxation placed upon it and the impossibility of importmg
any stocks from outside the country under the protective tariff which

12 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

stands against it. The present price of 95 per cent proof ethyl (grain)
alcohol to first hands is 54 cents per quart in large quantities."

Use of Denatured Alcohol in Belgium.

Consul-General G. W. Roosevelt, of Brussels, reports that as denatur-
ing alcohol for fuel is not allowed in Belgium, there is no demand for
alcohol as fuel for engines and automobiles. To denature ethyl alcohol,
acetonized methylene is specially used, also methylethy Ike tone, but only
on a small scale.

Wood (methyl) alcohol 100° is quoted at 75 francs ($14.47) per 100
liters (26.417 gallons); grain (ethyl) alcohol, 90°, at 50 francs ($9.65) per
100 liters. Gasoline for automobiles and motors sells in iron casks
(minimum, 100 liters) for 23 francs ($4.44) per 100 liters.

From the British report on industrial alcohol we learn that the quan-
tities of denatured alcohol used during the years 1902-4 in Belgium
are as follows:

1902. 1903. Nine Months of 1904.

Gallons at 50*. Gallons at 60^ Gallons at 60°.

769,956. 1,321,584 1,257,146.

Richard Guenther, Consul-General, Frankfort, Germany, March 31,
1905, reports that, according to German papers, there are two industries
in Belgium which owe their existence to-day to the fact that denatured
alcohol is not subject to any tax in Belgium, namely, the manufacture
of ether and of artificial silk, which use more than 2,500,000 gallons * a
year. The demand for alcohol by these industries has increased thirteen-
fold since 1896.

Use of Industrial Alcohol in Spain.

The Report of U. S. Consul-General Benj. H. Ridgely, Barcelona,
Spain, January 17, 1905, states that ''the organization of a great alco-
hol trust is the most important recent industrial and commercial develop-
ment in Spain. The formation of La Sociedad Union Alcoholera Espaiiola
has just been completed, with home office at Madrid, and a capital of
16,000,000 pesetas, equal nominally to $3,088,000. t

''The basis is the molasses contract entered into with the Sociedad
General Azucarera, which owns most of the sugar-mills in Spain. Be-
sides these the combine has already acquired the largest and best situated
grain distilleries, and hopes to be able to control also the production of

* This probably means the number of gallons in terms of 50°.
t The consul-general estimates the peseta at its gold value, 19.3 cents; the
value of the peseta of general currency is about 15 cents. — U. S. Bureau of Statistics.

COMPOSITION, HISTORY, AND USE. 13

vinic alcohol. The proposal to form an alcohol trust was, at the outset,
regarded with doubts and misgivings by producers of what is known as
industrial alcohol when they learned the conditions under which the
trust was to be formed; but more than half of all the manufacturers of
Spain have now given their adherence, and among them are some of the
largest distillers in the country. The director states that the object of
the formation of the trust is the acquisition of molasses or dregs from the
National Sugar Company on the production of alcohol therefrom on a
cheaper scale. The formation of the trust has been favorably welcomed
by manufacturers.

" There are 54 industrial alcohol factories, and up to the present 31 of
them form part of the Society, the most modern and important estab-
lishments being included. The annual production of industrial alcohol
is calculated to be 600,000 hectolitres (15,850,200 gallons). We trust
that by producing cheaper alcohol the consumption for industrial pur-
poses will increase. The immediate effect of the new alcohol law has
been to turn things upside down. Alcohol at present is used almost
exclusively for heating, but our purpose is to bring it into general use for
light and power."

The above report states, further, that in order to enable the trust to
completely control the trade in times such as the present year, when the
low price of wine prevents industrial alcohols from competing with vinic
alcohol, it has been proposed to invite the distillers of vinic alcohol to
join the combine. In any case considerable time must elapse before the
trust can hope to be in a position to operate.

Use of Industrial Alcohol in Cuba.

Under date of August 20, 1904, at Havana, Cuba, Mr. H. G. Squiers,
the American Minister, writes as follows concerning the use of alcohol
motors and pumps in Cuba:

''Matanzas, a city of about 40,000 inhabitants, has water connection
in 1700 out of 4000 houses, which use about 100,000 gallons a day. The
water- works, operated by an American company incorporated in the
State of Delaware, are located a few miles distant from the city, where
there are springs giving excellent water in sufficient quantity to supply
a city of 100,000 people.

''The alcohol motor-pump, used on Sunday last for the first time, is
of German manufacture, and cost complete, with installation, $6000.
This motor-pump is a 45-horse-power machine, and is operated at a fuel
cost of about 40 cents an hour, or $4 a day of ten hours, pumping 1,000,000

14 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

gallons of water. As alcohol is very cheap (10 cents a gallon) the run-
ning expenses of these motors are at the minimum. The Germans are
selling in Cuba many such motors for electric-lighting and water plants
at very low prices. One firm has a contract to put in an alcohol motor-
pump at Vento, for use in connection with the Havana water-supply,
which is expected to develop 180 horse-power, to cost, with installation,
about $25,000, and to pump 1,000,000 gallons an hour, at a fuel cost of
$1.60. The same firm has installed an electric-plant alcohol motor cf
45 horse-power, which supplies 138 lights (Hersh lamps), at a fuel cost
of 5 cents an hour.'^

Under date of August 6, 1906, Consul-General Frank F. Steinhart, of
Havana, reports that "the consumption in motive power is as yet insig-
nificant, as there are but few motors operated by alcohol. Denatured
alcohol is used for illuminating purposes in the household to some extent
outside of the cities. The molasses obtained as a by-product in the
manufacture of cane-sugar in Cuba amounts to thousands of tons. This
molasses tests about 50° polarization. If the sugar-factories should set
up distilleries to convert this molasses into alcohol, it would resolve the
problem of fuel, the most important in sugar industry, by burning alcohol
as a spray over the bagasse or spent cane, as is done by the planters of
Louisiana with petroleum, and also would furnish low-priced alcohol for
industrial purposes."

Quality. — For domestic purposes, as well as for industrial purposes,
two kinds of alcohol, of different density, are employed, viz., that called
aguardiente, generally 20° to 22° proof, Cartier, or 60° centesimal, and
rectified alcohol, 42° Cartier proof, or 90° to 92° centesimal; and as both
kinds have the same origin the difference consists only in that the former
contains more water and has in solution slight quantities of oily acids,
characteristic of the main liquid, while that of 90° proof may be con-
sidered practically pure. For denaturalization, alcohol of 90° to 92°
proof is generally used.

Proportion of Fusel-oil. — As the alcohol produced and used in Cuba
proceeds from the fermentation of molasses or the juices of the sugar-
cane, it does not contain any fusel-oil. This substance has never been
considered as a problem in hygiene, nor are there any special regulations
in regard to it. Spirits, however, when accompanied by the products
when first distilled (mauvais gouts de i$te, as the French say), contain
methylic alcohol, and if accompanied by the products of secondary dis-
tillation they contain something of fusel-oil; but as these products are
easily separated by rectification, alcohol in use in Cuba, such as leaves
the distilleries, is practically pure.

COMPOSITION, HISTORY, AND USE. 15

Production. — No other prime material is used in the manufacture of
alcohol than the products of the sugar-cane. Up to the present time the
substance employed to denaturalize alcohol is camphor, at the rate of a
gram per liter of alcohol; but the Treasury Department of Cuba has
requested the Academy of Science to designate some agent for denatu-
ralization more convenient, and the Academy of Science has suggested
that a mixture composed of naphthaline and formaldehyde be used, at
the rate of 50 centigrams of each per liter. If the Secretary of the Treas-
ury accepts the proposal of the Academy of Science, the cost of denatu-
ralization of alcohol will be $0.0047 per American gallon. The camphor
now employed costs about $0.0135 per American gallon, but as there
does not exist any practical means to determine quantitatively the amount
of camphor dissolved, and as, moreover, the employees of the Depart-
ment do not witness the denaturalization, some suppose that the manu-
facturers put into the alcohol they make for sale a much less quantity
of camphor than is ordered by the authorities.

Per pound.

The present cost of camphor is $1 . 65

" '' '' '' formaldehyde is 0.25

" *' *' " naphthaline is 0.90

Denaturalization is tested by the characteristics, such as smell, taste,
etc., but in case of litigation or disagreement between parties a sample
is sent to the National Laboratory, where the alcohol is examined and
analyzed according to the usual chemical process.

The cost of the denaturalized alcohol which is generally sold for
public use is from $48 to $50 (Spanish gold) per large pipe, which contains
173 American gallons. The difference depends upon the graduation,
generally 40° to 42° Cartier, 90° to 92° centesimal.

It must be taken into account that the graduation or proof is taken
in commerce at the temperature of the air (atmosphere), and as the ap-
paratus is graduated at from 15° to 17.5° centigrade, the real strength of
the alcohol is about 36° to 40° Cartier. Retailers sell the "garafon "
(dem.ijohn), about 4.55 gallons, at $1.60 to $1.70 Spanish silver, while
bottles of about the fifth of a gallon in capacity are sold at $0.08 Spanish
silver.

Ether, chloroform, smokeless powder, and other explosives, some of
which are made from alcohol, are not Cuban industries, and what are
consumed there are generally brought from the United States.

Use of Industrial Alcohol in the United States.— In 1838 Augustus
Van Horn Webb invented and introduced his "Webb's Camphene
Burner." This illuminating lamp used a mixture called "burning

16 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

fluid," one part of Webb's camphene and four and one-half parts of 95
per cent alcohol. The use of alcohol for lighting purposes increased to
such an extent that during the year 1860, according to the authority of
the Hon. David A. Wells, Commissioner of Internal Revenue from 1866
to 1870, in manufacturing this ''burning fluid" there were used some
25,000,000 gallons of proof-spirits, equivalent to about 13,157,894 gallons
of alcohol of 95 per cent strength, as 1.88 gallons of proof-spirits were
required to manufacture each gallon of alcohol used in such "burning
fluid." The imposition of the internal-revenue tax on distilled spirits
in 1861, and the fact that camphene rose in price from 35 cents per gal-
lon, prior to the Civil War, to $3.80 in 1864, increased the cost of this
'^ burning fluid " beyond the possibility of using it in competition with
kerosene, which was discovered, refined, and put on the market at about
this time. It is interesting to note that about four fifths, or 80 per cent,
of the use of industrial alcohol in the United States prior to 1860 was for
the "burning fluid " described above. The small remaining product met
the requirements of the druggists and of that used in the arts and
manufactures at that time.

As time passed the taxed distilled spirits or alcohol was used by those
manufacturers who weye obliged to use pure alcohol, but, finally, owing
to the excessive internal-revenue tax of $2.08 per gallon on high-proof
alcohol, such use was practically prohibited.

Another fact which operated effect ivel}^ to decrease the use of alcohol
was the introduction of wood or methyl alcohol, made by destructively
distilling wood in iron retorts or ovens.

Up to the time the present law, permitting denatured alcohol, was
passed, such wood alcohol, untaxed, owing to its cheapness, had prac-
tically superseded tax-paid ethyl alcohol for industrial uses in the United
States. Wood alcohol, 95 per cent in strength, sells for about 75 cents
per gallon, while the taxed alcohol sells in the vicinity of $2.50 per gallon.
This law permits tax-free, domestic, denatured alcohol for general pur-
poses after January 1, 1907. A copy of this law is given in Chapter
IX, and a complete copy of the United States Regulations and In-
structions concerning Denatured Alcohol is published in the Appendix
of this book.

CHAPTER II.

THE MANUFACTURE* OF ALCOHOL.

The Raw Materials Used. The Preparation of the Raw Materials for Fermenta^
tion. The Composition of the Raw Materials Used. Malting. The Fermentation.
Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol. The Micro-organisms. The Use
of Moulds in Saccharification. The Fermentation Period. Wild and ''Disease"
Yeasts. The Control of the Fermentation Operations: (a) The Control of the
Yeast; (h) The Estimation of the Fermentable Matter; (c) The Estimation of
the Yield in Alcohol from the Fermented Mash. The Conditions Favorable to
Alcoholic Fermentation.

In practice on the commercial scale, the manufacture of alcohol is
conveniently considered under the five following heads or processes:

1. The preparation of the raw materials.

2. The transformation of the starch into a fermentable sugar (sac-

charification).

3. The conversion of this sugar, or other sugars present in the sweet

wort or mash, by fermentation into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

4. The extraction of the alcohol by distillation.

5. The rectification of the alcohol.

In some instances 4 and 5 are combined in one process, as will be
shown in Chapter III.

The Raw Materials Used. — The raw materials usually employed in
the manufacture of alcohol are corn, rye, barley, rice, (white) potatoes,
sweet potatoes, and molasses. Barley is not used as a direct source of
alcohol, but serves to make the malt used in the saccharification process.
Sugar-cane molasses is largely used as a source of alcohol, while beet
molasses is not employed for this purpose to any great extent, but is
used as an ingredient of cattle-feed.

The Preparation of the Raw Materials. — The impurities of all sorts
should be removed from the raw materials before they are put into
process. Such impurities are dust, dirt, stones, grain accidentally pres-
ent, etc. Without such purification treatment the distilling apparatus will

18 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

be liable to become filthy and subject to injury, and a noxious influence
be exerted upon the different chemical operations. There will also result
a less yield and an inferior quality of alcohol. The treatment respecting
the barley, to be used in the production of the malt for saccharification
and in the preparation of the yeast cultures, should be particularly care-
ful, otherwise the impurities accompanying the barley will cause mould i-
ness during the malting, which will prevent the best results from the
distillery.

The preparation of potatoes or other tubers requires the employment
of a washing apparatus, while the grains are cleaned and separated by
the aid of ''sorters " or sieves. Some potato-washing machines are sup-
plied with a circular wire cage or barrel, into which the potatoes are fed
for conducting them into the washing-machine proper. This removes a
large amount cf adhering and extraneous dirt and foreign matters. In
Fig. 1 is shown a potato-washing machine and elevator as used in the
German industrial alcohol distilleries. The manipulation of this machine
is clearly indicated by the cut. It is supplied by power, using a fast-and-
loose pulley. The capacity of this German potato-washing machine and
elevator is from 1000 to 3000 kilograms per hour (from 2200 to 6600
pounds).

After the potatoes have been thoroughly washed they are conveyed,
by means of the automatic elevator shown at the right of Fig. 1, to a
high-pressure mash-cooker and mashing apparatus. By this apparatus,
which is shown in Fig. 2, page 20, the potatoes are converted into a
condition of gelatinization which practically liquefies the starch. The
liquor thus made is strained and passed through cooling-pipes to the
ferment ing-vats, where it is fermented for about thirty hours, and
is then conveyed to a patent still. Potatoes in Germany contain
20 per cent of starch on an average, and are therefore better fcr a
source of alcohol than the potatoes in this country, which contain on
an average about 17.5 per cent of starch, as is shown by the table en
page 28. In using sweet potatoes, their preparation for fermentation
purposes can be accomplished in the manner as given for white potatoes,
or in tropical climates the conversion of the starch into glucose is
effected by hydrolyzing with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, the reaction
being complete when no further test for starch is given by the iodine
test. By this method (Gustav Wassmuss') there are used about 5.5 kilcs
of 20 per cent hydrochloric acid for 100 kilos (220 pounds) starch in the
form of potatoes, or for 100 kilos sweet potatoes, containing 17 per cent
starch, 0.935 kilo 20 per cent hydrochloric acid, or an equivalent amount
of sulphuric acid. After coolin'^ this mash is neutralized with soda and

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

then manipulated, as with any other mash. The chemical changes
brought about by this acid treatment are similar to those produced by
malting (either floor or pneumatic malting) in grain.

These mash-cookers have a capacity in the largest sizes of about
6000 liters (1584 gallons), corresponding to a charge of 1300 kilograms
(2860 pounds) of grains and of about 4000 kilograms (8800 pounds) of
white or sweet potatoes. In the case of the grains the time for the

Fig. 2. — High-pressure Mash-cooker and Mashing Apparatus.

cooking and mashing is from 2 to 2J hours, while for potatoes only about
1 hour is required. This cooker can also ba furnished with a power-stirrer.
After the charge is cooked it is forced, under steam-pressure from the
cooker, into the power-macerator shown at the left of Fig. 2, where
it is cooled to the requisite temperature for the mash.

As already intimated, the raw materials must first undergo a pre-
liminary treatment before fermentation is practicable. Where cane-
sugar molasses is used it is first diluted with about 3 parts of water.
Such molasses usually has a density of about 41.5° Beaume and weighs

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

about 11.75 pounds to the gallon. It is a base molasses, generally called
*' black-strap," and is supposed to contain a total of 50 per cent sugars,
sucrose and invert. The diluted molasses is best treated by steam to
destroy some of the germs present, after which it is cooled and the yeast

Fig. 3. — Three-pair High Six-roller Mill for Grinding Corn-meal.

for the fermentation is added. The use of beet-sugar molasses is prac-
tically analogous to that of cane-sugar molasses for the manufacture of
alcohol, and the preparatory treatment is therefore quite similar, except
that the reaction must be adjusted to a faintly acid one. In the prep-

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

aration of whole sugar-beets abroad for fermentation it has been found
most advantageous to express the juice by a roller-press and to ferment
it. If grains or corn are employed, it is finely ground in a mill of the
type shown in Fig. 3, and is then treated with hot water and steam,
under pressure, in a special apparatus, to gelatinize and liquefy the
starch. The treatment of this liquefied starch, after cooling, with malt,

Fig. 4. — Grain-sorter or Power-sieve; runs by power as well as by hand.
Built by Vennuleth & EUenberger, Darmstadt, Germany.

completes the transformation to sugar. It may be mentioned that two
important points of advantage result from such grinding: 1. A greater
speed of conversion; 2. More thorough conversion.

In the use of corn about 15%-20% solids is used, that is, a mixture
of corn and water in the cooker is so prepared, and then the steam blown
in for the cooking. In describing the grinding-mill shown in Fig. 3, it
may be said that such mills are made in four sizes: 7 X 14-inch rolls.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

capacity 30-45 bushels per hour; 7 X 18-inch rolls, cap. 40-60 bu.
per hour; 9X 18-inch rolls, cap. 50-75 bu. per hour; and 9X24-inch
rolls, cap. 65-100 bu. per hour. This is the most modern grinding-
machine now in use in distilleries.

Referring to the preliminary treatment of the grains for fermentation
purposes, mentioned on pages 17-18, for the purpose of cleansing them

Fig. 5. — Steel Mash-tub. Built by Hoffman- Ahlers Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.

from adhering dirt and foreign substances by means of a power-sieve
or "sorter," attention is called to the kind of machine which is used,
as shown in Fig. 4, page 22.

For the purpose of preparing raw materials for fermentation by
mashing, a steel mash-tub is sometimes used and is shown in Fig. 5. This
type of cooker is preferred by most whiskey distillers, as it is an open
mash-tub, and lower temperature is obtained than in some other forms
of mash-cookers, the claim being that extremely high temperatures of
other kinds of cookers injure the flavor of the whiskey. In making

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(3
e3

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

alcohol for denatured alcohol, however, the question of flavor is eliminated
and the higher temperature suitable for larger yields can be employed.
These steel mash-tubs are made in any size from 6 ft. in diameter to 20
ft., and are supplied with a perforated steam inlet-pipe for heating, and

Fig. 7. — Cooker Thermometer and Pressure-scale.

with copper cooling-coils and a power-rake to keep the mash uniformly
stirred.

Another type of mashing apparatus is that shown in Fig. 6, page 24,
the vacuum mash-cooker. This type is not used by breweries, but by
alcohol distillers, and a better yield is produced by using these cylin-
drical cookers, which are made to stand a pressure of 100 pounds, the

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

mash being thus heated to about 312° F., thereby producing a better
conversion and larger yield of alcohol than is the case by using the open
mash-tub, where it is not possible to get over 212° F. The cooling
is effected by means of a vacuum pump, which draws off the hot
vapors and cools the mash to the proper temperature in not more
than twenty minutes. These cookers are made in sizes ranging from
50 bushels to 250 bushels each, and are supplied with a revolving

Fig. 8. — Vacuum Mash-cooker and Pump: Small Grain-masher; Double Pipe-cooler
for Mash and Slop; Drop-tub and Hopper-scales. Built by The Vulcan Copper
Works Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.

power-rake, the steam being introduced by means of a number of small
inlets in the bottom by a steam manifold pipe.

In order to control the temperature in these mash-cookers which we
have just described, a thermometer is used of the type shown in the
accompanying Fig. 7. The thermometer is permanently fitted in the
mash apparatus, the screw-thread fastening it, while the glass bulb
containing the mercury passes through the side of the vessel and is

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

exposed to the temperatures of the hot vapors during the cooking. As
of further interest in the matter of the cooking of the mash and the
details of manipulation of the same, an apparatus for this purpose made
by The Vulcan Copper Works Co., of Cincinnati, Ohio, is shown in
Fig. 8, page 26. This is called the vacuum mash-cooker and pump, and
consists of a small grain-masher, a double pipe-cooler for mash and
slop, a drop-tub and hopper-scales. In explanation of this cut it may
be stated that this is the equipment necessary for the "mashing "
department of a modern distillery. The large boiler-shaped apparatus
on the first floor represents the vacuum-cooker, for cooking the mash
in its preparation for the fermenting-tubs.

The tank containing the rake, on the floor above, is for preparing
the "small grain," ready for its conveyance into the cooker, at the
proper time, with the meal that has gone through the cooking process.
Hopper-scales for weighing the meal are shown on the third floor.
After the mash has been properly cooked and partially cooled, it is
conveyed to the " drop-tub," from which it is pumped through the
double pipe-cooler to the left of the wall to the fermenting-vats. The
yeast is next added, fermentation takes place, and the
fermented liquor, or "beer," is in readiness for distilla- v¥

tion through the continuous still, to be described in
Chapter III. In the cut an end view only of the double
pipe-cooler is shown. The length and height is governed ^ p

by the amount of mash to be cooled in a given time, and
varies from 500 feet to 5000 feet in length.

The mash is pumped through a 3-inch copper tube,
which is enclosed in a 5-inch iron tube. While the hot
mash is being pumped through the copper tube in one
direction, cold water is circulating in the opposite
direction. The mash imparts its heat to the water,
while the water is cooling the mash to the proper tem-
perature for the fermenting-vats. Fig. 9 represents a
floating thermometer, used for taking the temperature
of the mash. The water heated by such cooling of the
hot-mash liquor can be utilized to save fuel, in the ^ig- 9- — Floating
cooking of additional mash and other purposes. ermome er.

The Composition of the Raw Materials Used.* — We give on page
28 a table showing the average composition of the various raw materials
we have considered for the manufacture of alcohol.

* See Bulletins U. S. Dept. of Agric. 9, 45, 58.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Table Furnished by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau
OF Chemistry, Washington, D. C.

Molasses
(Cane).

Water. . . .

Ash

Protein. . .

Fat

Fibre. . . .
Pentosans.

Sugars.
Starch.

and
Nitrogen-free extract.

Corn.

Rye.

Barley.

White
Potatoes.

Sweet
Potatoes.

Molasses
(Beet).

9.3

8.9

6.5

76.5

69.0

19.3

1.5

2.1

2.9

0.9

1.1

11.7

10.7

11.6

11.5

2.1

—

5.5

1.8

2.7

—

1.0

—

1.4

1.5

3.8

0.7

2.6

—

6.5

7.6

7.2

Sugars,

Cane and

Invert

2.2

7.6

7.0

6.0

49.7

1
I

f 17.5

17.1

Non-

[62.9

58.9

58.4

sugars,
Organic

Substances

[ 2.3

1.1

19.3

20
6

Sugars,
Cane and
Invert
60

Non-
sugars,
Organic
Substances
14.0

In the above table the figures given under Nitrogen-free extract
represent, beside the starch, the amounts of gum, resins, etc., but
as these are not present in any appreciable quantity in cereals, the
Nitrogen-free-extract figures may practically be taken as starch.

Although the content of starch in rice is extremely high, something
like 76 per cent, it may be stated that rice is at present too expensive a
material for the making of alcohol in this country. The cost of rice,
therefore, prohibits its consideration as a competing material with
corn, notwithstanding the considerable excess of its starch content over
that of corn.

Malting. — Malt is the name given to barley (or other grain) which has
been moistened, kept at a moderate warmth, and thus allowed to ger-
minate under artificial conditions, with the result that the acrospire and
rootlets develop, the cells produce a large amount of diastase, and the
starch is thereby changed to maltose. There appear to be two well-marked
periods of diastase secretion, one occurring on about the second day of
growth, the other somewhat later. The most rapid action takes place
with malt which has reached the second period, which may be in from
three to eight days. Further growth of the grain is stopped by heat,
but care is taken not to heat strongly enough to destroy the enzyme
itself. The product thus prepared may retain its power of saccharifica-
tion for a long time, and is therefore of great use in bringing about the
conversion of the soluble starch to sugar.

In order to prepare the malt for the conversion process just described
it is first crushed through a machine shown in Fig. 10 on page 29. This
machine has a capacity up to 2000 kilograms (4400 pounds) of malt
per hour.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 29

After crushing, the malt is best treated with water in a special macer-
ating machine. This produces a fluid of milk-like consistency in which
the diastase is largely dissolved in consequence of the extremely fine state
of division. Under these conditions the saccharifying power of the
diastase is very largely increased. This apparatus is therefore of much
importance in large modern alcohol distilleries on account of the service
it can render and the economy it can effect.

As stated, the ordinary raw materials for the preparation of alcohol

Fig. 10. — Malt-crusher.

are the grains and such other vegetable products as contain a large amount
of stored-up starch or sugar, or some substance which can be readily con-
verted into sugar. Most important of the raw materials are com, rye,
barley, rice, white potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar-beets, and cane-
molasses; w^heat is not widely used for this purpose and beet-molasses
is largely used as an ingredient for cattle feed.

The very high percentage of starch w^hich can be readily converted
to fermentable sugar, together with the keeping qualities and case cf
transportation, make the grains the most important sources of alcohol,
although there are many facts which show conclusively the high value
of the other raw materials mentioned.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The next process in the manufacture of alcohol is

The Fermentation. — Fermentation is the name commonly applied to
certain physiological chemical processes in which a transformation of an
organic substance is effected through the agency of micro-organisms.
Before considering the fermentation we call attention to a modern
fermenting-house as designed by George Stade, of Berlin, Germany. It
will be seen that the design permits of the filtration of the air, which is
a matter of great advantage and importance, as by this simple expedient
:much greater freedom from foreign germs hurtful to the process of

Fig. 11. — Modern Fermenting-house as planned by Stade.

■fermentation is assured. Strict cleanliness in carrying out the fermen-
tation processes is absolutely necessary.

On page 31 we show a modern fermenting-house as designed by The
Vulcan Copper Works Co., of Cincinnati, Ohio. The cut shows the de-
tails and the pipes for conveying the mash and the yeast. (See Fig. 12.)

In continuation of the description of the fermenting-house shown in
Fig. 12, it may be stated that the combination of apparatus here
presented represents a practical working arrangement of the yeasting
and fermenting appliances for a grain or molasses distillery. Malt and
rye meal which is supplied in proper proportions from the meal floor
above is conducted into the tubs through the meal-spouts attached to
a movable hopper-truck. This meal is '' mashed '' or mixed with water
at a certam temperature. It stands for a" fixed period, during which a
lactic-acid souring takes place, which souring is needed for effective yeast
production, as will be explained under control of the yeast. The mash

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

I-
g

i
o

32 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

is then reduced in temperature by means of cooling water circulating
through the coils and by stirring. The yeast in the dona or culture
tub, which has been previously built up from a mother-yeast, is now
added to the mash in the yeast-tubs. During the following ten- or
twelve-hour period the entire mass becomes impregnated with yeast-
cells, and is at a proper time conducted into the fermenting-vats. The
fermentation period requires ordinarily seventy-two hours, at the end
cf which the product now technically known as "beer" is emptied into
the beer-well. From the beer-well the beer or alcoholic liquor is
pumped to the distilling apparatus, where the distilling operation begins.

As before stated, fermentation is the name commonly applied to cer-
tain physiological chemical processes in which a transformation of an
organic substance is effected through the agency of micro-organisms.

The most familiar example of such a chemical change is the one by
which sugars are split into alcohol and carbon dioxide, as in the manu-
facture of cider, wine, or beer, hence the term fermentation is frequently
but erroneously limited to this process.

It is now recognized, however, that this is only one of a large number
of such possible changes, others equally familiar being the souring of
milk and the turning from cider or wine to vinegar. These different
kinds of fermentations vary as the substances acted upon and the organ-
ism causing the change vary. It may be stated, however, that each kind
cf change has its specific organism or race of organisms which can excite
the fermentation. Of course, many organisms differing but slightly
in character may give rise to fermentation essentially alike.

The carbohydrates are the organic materials yielding the largest
amount of definite products, hence, according to some writers, carbo-
hydrates only are recognized as materials for fermentation processes.
There seems to the author no reason for such a limitation, however,
inasmuch as the mechanism of the process is probably essentially similar
in all classes of organic matter affected. Hence he would define fer-
mentation as the change induced in organic matter through the agency,
direct or indirect, of micro-organisms or their enzym.es.

The fermenting-vats used vary in size according to circumstances.
In Fig. 13, page 33, is shown the largest fermen ting-vat in the world,
built by Geo. Stade, Berlin, Germany, for a spirit and rum refinery in
Mexico. The capacity of this vat is stated to be 54,000 gallons.

In this country the fermenting-vats are made in capacities ranging
from 25 bushels to 1000 bushels, figuring 45 gallons of mash to each
bushel. In Fig. 14, page 34, is shown the improved manner of
operating the valve in the bottom, which discharges the mash.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol. — In the manufacture
of alcohol a knowledge of the theoretical yield is of great importance.

The formation of alcohol depends, as has already been hinted, on
the power of yeast to decompose sugars. The monosaccharids or sugars

34 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

having the general formula C6H12O6 are most readily broken up, the

characteristic chemical equation being C6Hi206=2C2H50H + 2C02. It

180 92 88

is thus evident that almost exactly one half the sugar should be trans-
formed into alcohol while the rest is evolved as carbon-dioxide gas.
Among the monosaccharids are included dextrose and levulose. Next
to the monosaccharids the disaccharids or C12H22O11 sugars are most

Fig. 14. — Fermenting-vat with Improved Valve. Built by Hoffman- Ahlers Co.

readily fermentable. Of these maltose and cane-sugar are the most
important. The more complex carbohydrates, polysaccharids, are fer-
mentable only when they have first undergone hydrolysis, which con-
verts them into sugars of the simpler types. This conversion may be
brought about by the action of acids, especially mineral acids, or by cer-
tain substances, enzymes, the so-called soluble ferments, secreted by

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 35-

living cells, which bring about a similar transformation as in malting.
The latter method is the better for spirit production. The conversion
of starch to soluble starch may also be brought about by use of steam
under pressure, and the process of transforming starch to sugar prac-
tically may thereby be much simplified. For this purpose a tempera-
ture of 145°-160° C. is employed. The starch thus acted upon is readily
changed to the fermentable sugar by malt.

This process of hydrolysis is by no means as simple as would appear
from the statement just made, but involves very deep-seated chemical
changes, in which the starch is transformed through a series of steps
into products partaking more and more strongly of the qualities of sugar
as the action goes on. These intermediate bodies may be numerous.
A few of them are characterized by fairly definite chemical reactions,
and so may be recognized. The general name dextrins or malto-dex-
trins is given to them. These intermediate products are formed and
then still further split up by the enzymes, so that in the process of malt-
ing, a process essentially that of germination, the starch is gradually
changed to the sugar maltose. During germination much more of the
enzymes causing the conversion is secreted by the cells than is actually
required to convert the starch, so that ordinary malt always contains
an excess of enzyme which is ready to react upon more starch. This,
fact is made use of in fermentation industries, when starchy materials
such as corn-flakes are added to the mash.

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol. — ^To determine the
approximate amount of alcohol which may be obtained from a given
weight of starch it is then necessary to consider the hydrolytic change
as well as the fermentation one.

Regarding the formula of starch as CeHioOs, which is actually far
too simple, the change to sugar may be expressed as follows:

C6Hio05+H20 = C6Hi.206.

72+10 + 80 18 180

162

That is, in the conversion, the starch takes up one ninth its own
weight of water or nine tons of starch would make ten tons of ferment-
able sugar. Applying now our first equation

CeHi sOe =2C02 +2C2H5OH
180 88 92

180 : 92:: 10 : x = 5.111

or nine tons of starch would theoretically give a little more than five

36 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(5.111) tons of alcohol, hence 56.78% by weight of absolute alcohol is
the theoretical yield from starch.

The theoretical yield which may be computed in this way is, how-
ever, never obtained in practice, because of the losses due to evaporation
and to imperfect fermentation. It should be possible, however, to get
90% of the theoretical yield, and this is constantly done in well-managed
whiskey houses.

This yield should certainly be possible then, when conditions can be
made most suitable for yield, and where questions of flavor, etc., do
not have to be considered as in the case of denatured alcohol. Allow-
ing for a loss of 10%, we have practically neutralized the gain in weight
through hydrolysis, and a fair means of estimating the possible yield
in alcohol would be to regard it as 50% of the weight of the available
starch.

In case the raw material contains cane-sugar instead of starch, as
in the beet- juice or molasses, a yield of 50% would hardly be expected,
as the gain in hydrolysis is only about half that when starch is used.

This is shown by the two chemical equations involved by theory
as follows:

Cane-sugar. Invert-sugar.

C12H22O11 -I-H2O =2C6Hi206,

342 360

and theoretically therefore 100 parts by weight of cane-sugar will give
105.26 parts by weight of invert-sugars; and from

Invert-sugar. Alcohol. Carbon Dioxide.

C6Hi206=2C2H50H + 2CO2,

180 92 88

whereby we find that 180:92: : 105.26: a; or 53.80, from which it is seen
that 100 parts of cane-sugar by weight will give a theoretical yield of
53.80 parts of alcohol by weight. If we assume 90% of the theoretical
yield of alcohol in the case of sugar we should have a yield of about
48.42 per cent, but in practice such yield usually averages about 45 per
cent.

The theoretical yields may be thus tabulated:*

CgHiaOe, dextrose, levulose, glucose, and grape-sugar, 51 . 11% absolute alcohol

Ci^HgaOii, sucrose or cane-sugar, and maltose 53.80% " "

C^HioOs, starch 56.78%,

* See researches of Pasteur: Maercker's Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation, 1898;
Maercker-Delbriick's Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation, 1903.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 37

In case the raw material contains cane-sugar instead of starch, aa
in beet-juice or molasses, however, no special process of hydrolysis
needs to be introduced, as the yeast itself secretes an inverting fer-
ment which will bring about the transformation.

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol from Corn. — In calcu-
lating the theoretical yield of absolute alcohol from corn, the table
given on page 28 is used. By this table it is seen that the average
composition of corn shows a content of 2.2 of sugars and 62.9 of starch.
The weight of a bushel of corn is 56 pounds, and the calculation is given
as follows:

2.2% sugar = 1.232 lbs. sugar
62.9% starch =35.224 lbs. starch
1.232X0.5380 (alcohol from sugar) = 0.6628 lbs. absolute alcohol
35.224X0.5678 (alcohol from starch) = 20.0000 " " *'

1 bushel of corn yields by theory. . . 20.6628 " " "

,7. ,j . J.' r 1 u u 1 / ^5 U. S. proof gallons alcohol

Yield m practice from 1 bushel corn < ^, ,, , ^, , , ,

I =2^ gallons absolute alcohol

2.5X6.61 (weight 1 gallon absolute alcohol) =16.53 lbs. absolute alcohol

-t n CO

^ ' ' =80% of the theoretical yield of absolute alcohol is obtained, in practice, from
corn

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol from Rye,

Rye, 56 pounds to a bushel
7.6% sugar = 4.256 lbs.
58.9% starch = 32.98 lbs.
4.25X0.538 (alcohol from sugar) = 0.2289 lbs. absolute alcohol
32.98X0.5678 (alcohol from starch) = 18.7300 " " "

18.9589 " " "

1 bushel rye yields in practice 4.77 gallons U. S. proof spirits

= 2.38 gallons 200 U. S. proof or absolute alcohol
= 2.38X6.61=15.73 lbs. absolute alcohol

15 73

jg^ = 83% of the theoretical yield of absolute alcohol is obtained, in practice,

*f rom rye

Rye is not used, however, for making industrial alcohol. This is
on account of its high price, about 68 cents per bushel, and the
relatively small amount available for this purpose in comparison with
corn, molasses, or potatoes. According to the report of the Department
of Agriculture for 1905 the crop of rye in the U. S. gave a total yield
of 27,616,045 bushels.

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol from Cane Molasses. — If
we take the base molasses, or black-strap as it is called, which is used

38 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL

for making alcohol, and which is largely obtained from the Southern
States, Cuba, and Porto Rico, we find the average total sugar content
is supposed to be 50 per cent, ranging from 32 to 38 per cent sucrose
and 12 to 18 per cent of invert-sugars, or an average of 35 per cent
sucrose and 15 per cent of invert-sugars. Such molasses weighs, on
an average, 11.75 pounds p3r gallon. The content per gallon on- above
figures will be 4.11 pounds sucrose and 1.76 pounds of invert-sugars.

4.11 lbs. sucrose X0.o38 =2.21 lbs. absolute alcohol
1.76 lbs. invert X51. 11=0.899 " ** " •

Yield of absolute alcohol per 1 _q nno
eallon of such molasses J

gallon

The actual yield, in practice, is as high as 0.85 U. S. proof gallon of
alcohol per such gallon of molasses, which yield is equal to 0.425 gallon
absolute alcohol, and 0.425Xt.61 =2.81 lbs. alcohol, divided by 3.1
gives 90 per cent of the theoretical yield obtained, in practice, from
such molasses.

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol from Potatoes. — A bushel
of potatoes weighs about 60 pounds. In the last campaign in Ger-
many the yield of alcohol was about one gallon of absolute alcohol to
1.26 bushels of potatoes, or about 26.45 gallons per ton of 2000 pounds.

This represents 26.45X6.61 = 174.8 lbs. absolute alcohol per ton of
2000 lbs. The average content of starch in the German potatoes is about
20 per cent. One ton of potatoes, 2000 lbs.X0.20=400 lbs. starch and
400X0.5678=227.12 lbs. absolute alcohol, by theory from a ton (2000
lbs.), showing the actual yield to be about 77 per cent of the theoret-
ical yield of absolute alcohol in the case of German potatoes.

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol from Sweet Potatoes. —
From the preceding table the per cent of sugar is shown to be 6 per cent,
and starch 17 per cent, in the average sweet potatoes. (The table does
not state whether this is the Southern sweet or the dryer, more Northern
Virginia one.) A bushel of sweet potatoes w^eighs 54 pounds.

6% of 54 lbs. =3.24 lbs. sugar
17% of 54 lbs. =9.18 lbs. starch

3.24X0.5380 = 1.74 lbs. absolute alcohol
9.18X0.5678=5.21 "

Yield from one bushel sweet potatoes =-- 6.95 " *' "

Actual yield in practice from figures furnished by M. S. Durot, man-
ager of a large sweet-potato distillery in Isle de Terceira, Azores, was 10
to 12 liters absolute alcohol per 100 kilograms of sweet potatoes.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 39

A liter = 1.056 United States quarts.

A kilogram =2.20 lbs. avoirdupois.

This mean yield =11.62 quarts of absolute alcohol from 220 lbs.,

or ■ X6.61 = 19.17 lbs., or from 54 lbs. (1 bushel) of sweet potatoes

the actual yield of absolute alcohol is 4.70 lbs., or about 68 per cent of
the theoretical yield.

Theoretical versus Practical Yields of Alcohol from Sugar-beets. — In
this country sugar-beets are not used in the manufacture of alcohol.
E. Hourier's Manuel de la Distillation, 1901, revised by Albert Larbaletrier,
gives the yield from 2000 kilograms of sugar-beets of 1 hectolitre of 90
per cent alcohol (26.41 gallons), which is equal to about 157 lbs. of abso-
lute alcohol. These beets were Silesian beets and contained from 10 to
11 per cent of sugar. In 2000 kilograms (1 kilo =2.20 pounds) there are
4400 pounds, and lOi per cent of this =462 pounds of sugar, which by
theory will yield 462 XO.538 =248 lbs. absolute alcohol. The actual yield

157
is therefore ^r— = about 64 per cent of the theoretical yield.

Let us now further consider the micro-organisms or their enzjTnes.

The Micro-organisms. — The micro-organisms capable of bringing
about such changes may be grouped as three classes of lower fungi, —
bacteria, yeasts, and moulds. Of these the bacteria occupy the lowest
position, being in some respects the simplest, as indeed they are the
smallest, plants known. They are characterized by their method of
division by splitting or fission, their small size and lack of coloring matter^
and to some extent by remarkable vitality and chemical energy under
certain conditions. They attack not merely the carbohydrates, but
proteids, and to some extent fats and other organic bodies. Frequently
acids are produced as a result of their action, especially upon carbo-
hydrates. They do not produce alcohol.

The fermentation products from the proteids are very variable, some
of them, as the toxins of the pathogenic bacteria, being extremely poison-
ous. Ethyl alcohol is rarely if ever produced, although some higher
alcohols are developed in small amounts.

The yeasts and moulds belong to a somewhat more highly organized
group of plants, but are also colorless. A strict Classification of the
''mould " is difficult, since many organisms belonging to different botan-
ical groups are here lumped together under a convenient name, but one
really without taxonomic value. The moulds show great variability in
form and in fermentation power, but comparatively few of them are of
great practical importance. Some may be utilized to convert starch to

40 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

sugar, as will be mentioned later, and some may, under certain conditions,
give rise to a more or less vigorous alcoholic fermentation.

The organisms of special interest to the alcohol producer are the
yeasts, or saccharomycetes, a sub-group of the ascomycetous fungi. Of
these there are many kinds which are imperfectly classified into species,
varieties, and races. In addition to the yeasts certain other fungi have
the power of bringing about alcoholic fermentation to a limited degree,
but the yeasts are the most important alcohol producers. Yeast consists
of small oval or rounded cells, reproducing by budding rather than direct
fission, and forming spores under certain restricted conditions. Their
most striking characteristic, however, is the power to attack sugars,
especially of the C6H12O6 and C12H22O11 types, and sp\it> them into
alcohol and carbon dioxide. Upon this property the industries involving
alcoholic fermentation depend. These are therefore the organisms of
chief importance in this work.

While the phenomenon which we call fermentation has been known
for hundreds of years, it is only within the last century that definite
knowledge regarding it has been gained. As yeast is a microscopic
organism its study was dependent upon the development of the micro-
scope, and although some of the earlier microscopists may have seen
yeast, it was not until the instrument had reached a fairly high state of
perfection that the organism was systematically studied.

In 1822 Persoon gave to yeast the systematic name mycoderma. In
1837 Kutzing elaborated a theory of fermentation which was essentially
correct, inasmuch as he assumed the yeast to be the cause of the fer-
mentation rather than merely a product. The organism was regarded
as a plant at about this time by Cagniard Latour, Schwann, and Meyen,
as well as by Kutzing, and it is to Meyen that we are indebted for the
botanical name Saccharomyces, which has ever since been retained.

In the early forties important contributions to the chemistry and
biology of yeast were made by Mitscherlich, as he doubtless was the first
to observe that yeast secretes invertin, and he also made observations on
the development of the cells by budding and the multiplication of yeast.

The controversy as to spontaneous generation kept the knowledge
of these subjects in check for many years, but the real relation of yeast,
as a specific fermetit to the alcoholic fermentation, was again made
evident from the remarkable work of Pasteur as outlined in his '' Studies
on Beer and Studies on Wine."

These Studies, no doubt, supplied the impetus which led Hansen to
his investigation, which culminated in the Hansen methods of pure yeast
cultivation and their application to practical fermentation. Of the latter

THE xMANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 41

work mention need be made only of E. Buchner, who was the first to
demonstrate that by crushing yeast-cells and submitting them to high
pressure an extract may be obtained which is capable of fermenting
sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide as a result of the intracellular enzymes
which are thus liberated.

The manner in which yeast brings about the decomposition of the
sugar has been a subject of much study and speculation for many years.
One of the early theories supposed that the sugar was actually taken in
as food by the yeast, and the alcohol and carbon dioxide excreted as
waste products. Liebig held that the sugar was mechanically decom-
posed as a result of molecular motion, and that the yeast was not an
exciting cause, but rather a product of the change. This view was some-
what modified in his later years, but he never accepted the true physio-
lo^^ical explanation of the phenomenon.

Pasteur at one time held the opinion that fermentation is life without
air, and that the activity of the yeast in decomposing sugar was due to
its shattering the molecules of sugar in order to obtain the oxygen. That
this theory was erroneous Pasteur himself later proved.

Traube, in 1858, explained fermentation as due not to the yeast-cell
itself but to certain substances elaborated or secreted by the cells —
the enzymes — which act like digestive juices upon the sugar and break
it into the simpler molecules of alcohol and carbon dioxide. This theory,
though long rejected, has in recent years been shown to be correct, and
at the present time it is believed that all fermentation processes are the
results of enzyme action.

This merely introduces an intermediary between the organism and
the change, for only living cells are capable of producing the enzymes
which thus react upon the sugar. However if we have actively de-
veloping and vigorous yeast-cells it is possible, as Buchner has shown,
to obtain the enzymes in solution capable of bringing about the change
even if the organic cells themselves are not present. Such solutions of
the enzymes are obtained generally by crushing the cells and subjecting
them to heavy pressure, when the liquid containing the enzymes may
be recovered as a yellowish opalescent solution of strong fermenting
power.

The fact that the enzymes can be obtained only by breaking the
cells seems to indicate that fermentation as carried on in the usual way
is an intracellular process, and that the enzyme zymase differs from
most other enzymes in its inability to permeate the walls of the cell and
thus get into the sugar solution.

The yeasts present a number of different types or '* species,'' most im-

42 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

portant of which we may group into beer yeasts, those which are em-
ployed in the beer- or ale-brewing industries and generally regarded as

of species Saccharomyces cerevisise, the
wine yeasts occurring in nature on the
skins of fruits and of use in wine-mak-
ing. S. ellipsoideus is the name given
to them. Distillery yeasts are not so
Fig. 15.— Shows Sprouting Yeast- pronounced in type as the foregoing,
cells {Saccharomyces cerevisi(B). (a, but culture yeasts generally of the S.
after Liirssen; b, after Hansen.) . . ,

cerevisise type.

Use of Moulds in Saccharification. — Many moulds, especially those
belonging to the Mucorese, secrete diastatic enzymes in abundance, and
can therefore bring about readily the transformation of starch to sugar.
This property was first commented upon by Gayon and Dubourg in
1886, who studied Mucor circinelloides, and found that this power is not
possessed by the normal mycelium, but only when the fungus is develop-
ing in aggregations of gemmse, or buds. Since this time numerous obser-
vations have been made by Calmette, Eijkmann, and Wehmer.

"Chinese yeasf owes its activity to the combined action of the
mucors, which bring about saccharification, and yeasts which ferment
the sugar thus formed. Suggestions to utilize these fungi in spirit manu-
facture have been made by some authors. As a result, the so-called
amylomyces process has been developed, a process which depends on
the saccharification of the starch by the mould, other micro-organisms
having been eliminated by sterilization. During this part of the process
germ-free air is forced into the mash, and the material is thoroughly
mixed by mechanical agitators. When thoroughly converted the air-
supply is cut off, yeast added, and the alcoholic fermentation proceeds
rapidly.

Some alcohol is formed by the action of the moulds during the sacchari-
fying process. The details of procedure differ somewhat in different
works. At Seclin, near Lille, the process has been in operation for several
years. Corn, the material employed, is mixed with twice its weight of
water and steamed for three hours under a pressure of SJ to 4 atmospheres,
then mixed in a mashing-tank with a weight of green malt equivalent to
1% of the weight of the corn used and sufficient cold water to reduce the
temperature to 70° C. After thorough mixture by an hour's stirring the
whole mass is transferred to an autoclave, sterilized at 120° C, and then
forced into a closed cylindrical metal fermenting-tun. The steam is
then shut off and sterilized air is forced into the tank so as to keep the
mash under pressure during the cooling, which is effected by cold water

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 43

flowing down over the outside of the tank. When cooled to about 38° C.
a pure culture of spore-bearing Amylomyces is introduced and the mash
kept in motion by a stirrer, air being gently forced in at the same time.
During the next twenty-four hours the development of the fungus pro-
ceeds rapidly and is accompanied and followed by a strong converting
action. A small amount of pure culture yeast is then added and a
period of twenty-four hours is allowed for its increase. At the end of
this time the air-supply is cut off and both species of organisms work
together during the next three days.

A patent on a similar process, but in which the addition of
yeast was omitted, the moulds doing all the work, was taken out in
1898.

This process has been employed in a simpler form at Antwerp. In
this case the mash, after mixing with malt, is run directly into the fer-
menting-tun, where it is boiled a short time by steam, then cooled and
aerated, and then inoculated with Amylomyces. When the mash no
longer gives a starch reaction with iodine the yeast is added.

It is claimed for the Amylomyces process that it gives increased
yields of alcohol over the other methods. At SecHn a yield of 66.2 liters
cf absolute alcohol for each 100 kilos of starch is reported. No data
are at hand to determine if this increased output is balanced by increased
expense in operation. The question is still receiving much study espe-
cially by European investigators.

The Fermentation Period. — The time required to bring about com-
plete fermentation of sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide is greatly
dependent upon the temperature, since a change of a few degrees in the
temperature range may make an enormous difference in the rate of
activity of the yeast.

Owing to the law in this country preventing the recharging of fer-
menting-vats in distilleries oftener than once in seventy-two hours it has
sometimes been supposed that this length of time was necessary to
bring about the change. With temperatures approaching the optimum
for yeast, however, this is not the case. While a fermentation carried
on with a temperature of 18°-22° C. might require seventy-two hours
for complete splitting of the sugar, at higher temperatures the time
may be much shortened, and with a vigorous race of yeast thirty-six
hours at 26°-27°, or even less than this time might suffice. It is even
probable that twenty-four hours with proper temperature and other
conditions might be most economical.

Wild and " Disease" Yeasts. — Wild and '^ disease" yeasts are those
occurring in nature without cultivation and capable sometimes of pro-

44 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

ducing bad fermentation, hence the appHcation of the term "disease.**
For classification see Klocher's admirable work on Fermentation.
Organisms.

In the preparation of spirits the character of the yeast is in many
ways not as important as in brewing or wine-making, since in these proc-
esses the development of flavor, turbidity, etc., are of importance, and
the yeast may have a strong bearing on these matters. For fermentations
in the preparation of denatured alcohol, the desired yeast is one which
ferments vigorously and quickly, and will maintain these qualities under
conditions not rigidly fixed and for many generations. Numerous races
of distillery yeast have been developed by the different laboratories^
stations, and spirit establishments.

THE CONTROL OF THE FERMENTATION OPERATIONS.

(a) The Control of the Yeast. — One of the most important factors
contributing to a successful fermentation, and hence the largest yield of
alcohol in the manufacture of denatured alcohol, is a suitable and
properly developed yeast culture. Different races of yeast differ
widely in their ability to attack different kinds of materials, and
a yeast that will ferment a grain mash with rapidity and a high
yield in alcohol may give quite unfavorable results when used with
molasses.

Having obtained a good culture, however, the question arises as to
how it may be kept in good condition and propagated for successive
fermentations.

In most distillery operations no attempt is made to keep the yeast
a pure culture in the technical sense, but the fermentation is started by
introducing into the prepared mash a certain amount of the yeast from
a previous fermentation. This must be in active condition for good
results. This method has the merit of being easy to apply, and so long
as the yeast does not become badly contaminated by other organisms it
gives satisfactory results. If, however, bacteria or other fungi gain the
upper hand, it may be necessary to build up a culture afresh, starting
with a single cell, such a yeast being prepared in a separate room, in a
perfectly cleanly manner, so as to avoid as far as possible the presence of
dust laden with germs, or to use some other method, such as washing the
yeast with an antiseptic solution or heating to a low pasteurizing tem-
perature for a few minutes. The latter methods cannot be recommended
without reservation, as the yeast itself may be seriously damaged unless

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 45

great care is taken and one knows exactly how much the yeast can
stand.

The method of preparing a pure yeast from a single cell is a long
and somewhat painstaking process. A description of it may be found
in the various books on fermentation organisms. It has the advantage
that the culture thus prepared is free from invading organisms, but is,
of course, practically useless unless the material to be fermented is sterile.
For ordinary fermentation operations the extra care and apparatus in-
volved probably are not repaid by a markedly higher yield.

Effront has perfected a process in which fluorides, which have a strong
germicidal action on bacteria, but are not harmful to the yeast, are intro-
duced. This method has given good results in European practice, but
has not been of sufficient advantage in this country to warrant its intro-
duction on a large scale. Abroad it is possible to buy pure yeast cultures
at the government stations where it is prepared, but in this country it
is customary for the distiller to prepare his own yeast, and for this pur-
pose the so-called jug-yeast method is employed.

The introduction of a small amount of lactic acid, either by produc.
ing it in the mash by fermentation or by the addition of the prepared
acid, has also been used with good success, and probably because of the
selective antiseptic action of the acid.

(b) The Estimation of the Fermentable Matter. — In most fermen-
tation operations the percentage of sugar, or fermentable material, is
determined, not by the polariscope, but by a form of hydrometer known
as the saccharo meter. Like other hydrometers, its use depends on the
fact that the greater the specific gravity of a liquid the more buoyant
force it exerts upon solid bodies thrust into it. The saccharometer con-
sists of a spindle with elongated bulb, weighted at one end by means of
mercury and provided with a stem or slender, graduated shaft on which
a scale is made. The Balling hydrometer is provided with a thermometer-
bulb, which gives the temperature-correction scale at once. When
plunged into a solution it maintains an upright position, and sinks to a
greater or less depth, according to the density of the solution. In taking
readings, the level of the liquid, i.e., the bottom of the meniscus, is the
mark which should be noted rather than the slightly raised line on the
stem, due to capillary attraction. As the thermometer-bulb gives the
temperature correction at once, no table is required for making correc-
tions. Based on the results obtained in this way, we have instruments
known as hydrometers, which give direct readings, and which are un-
doubtedly accurate enough for practical work. These are .of many kinds,
according to the use to which they are to be put, but all are alike in

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

theory, depending on the fact that, as liquids vary in density, their
power to support or buoy up soUds also varies. The practical value
cf the hydrometer depends on the fact that it displaces
exactly its own weight of liquid, so that the depth
to which the instrument sinks in the liquid is a measure
cf its density. As hydrometers are usually made with
a weight at one end and a slender, graduated tube at
the other, they maintain an upright position in the
liquid, and may give very accurate readings if carefully
constructed. Hydrometers are usually employed in
fermentation work in preference to the pycnometer.
Several types of saccharo meter have been devised, but
that in common use in this country was introduced
by Balling in 1833, and has undergone but little change
since that time. This is shown in Fig. 16. It indicates
approximately the percentage of dry extract in a mash
liquor, or wort, that is, if the saccharometer sinks to
the 15° mark it shows that the solution contains 15
pounds of dry extract of malt in 100 pounds of wort.
In pure water, at 17.5° C. (14° R., the standard tem-
perature for the instrument) it should sink to 0. The
Balling hydrometer is actually standardized by use of
cane-sugar solutions, since these can be prepared more
Fig. 16. — Th e^^^^^^^^y ^^^ accurately, and differ from malt extract
Balling Hydrom- only to a negligible extent. If solutions warmer than
14° R. are used, the indication is too low, because of the
less density of the liquid and vice versa. These variations being con-
stant for constant temperature variations, the instrument is generally
provided with a table of corrections for other temperatures than 14°
R., so that the trouble of bringing to this point may be avoided.
In order to give accurate readings the saccharometer must be handled
with care, kept perfectly clean, and lowered into the solution to be
tested, and the solution should be free from foam or gas. Kaiser's sac-
charometer is based upon exactly the same data, but differs in the
manner of making the scale. The table on page 47 gives the relation
between specific gravity and per cent extract by Balling.

For specific gravities between those here given, the Balling reading
may be estimated by interpolation, or recourse may be had to the com-
plete table as found in works on hydrometric measurements. Another
form of hydrometer is that of Brix, which is so arranged that if floated
in a watery solution of sugar its scale directly indicates the percentage

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL

of sugar present in such solution. Correction has to be made in accord-
ance with the temperature as indicated by the tables furnished with
this instrument.

Table Showing the Relation between Specific Gravity and Per Cent

Extract by Balling.

Specific
Gravity.

Per Cent Balling.

Specific
Gravity.

- -1
Per Cent Balling.

1.000

0.000

1.009

2.250

1.001

0.250

1.010

2.500

1.002

0.500

1.020

5.000

1.003

0.750

1.030

7.463

1.004

1.000

1.040

9.901

1.005

1.250

1.050

12.285

1.006

1.500

1.060

14.666

1.007

1.750

1.070

17.000

1.008

2.000

1.080

19.272

(c) The Estimation of the Yield in Alcohol from the Fermented
Mash. — To determine the amount of alcohol in a mixture of alcohol
and water, another kind of hydrometer known as the Tralles alcoholom-
eter is used. It gives distinct readings of the percentage of absolute
alcohol, by volume, in the solution at 12.5° R. (15.6° C). The scale
is graded from 0 to 100, showing 0° in distilled water and 100° in abso-
lute alcohol of specific gravity 0.07939 at the temperature mentioned.
The temperature corrections may be very much larger than with the
saccharometer. As the greater the amount of alcohol present the
less dense the solution, a higher temperature causes the readings to be
too high, and a lower temperature too low. Generally each alcoholom-
eter is provided with a table of corrections. The Tralles alcoholom-
eter is shown in Fig. 17, page 48, and the hydrometer- jar used with it.

In testing the alcoholic wash solution the alcohol should be obtained
by distillation. Since alcohol has a lower boiling-point than water,
it will therefore be driven off in the form of alcohol- vapor when a
solution containing it is heated to the necessary degree (boiling-point).
By condensing the vapor thus driven off, it may be recovered in the
form of alcohol, mixed with a small amount of water. Repeated dis-
tillation gives a still purer alcohol, until about 90 or 95 per cent strength
is reached. To prepare absolute alcohol, quicklime, anhydrous copper
sulphate, and metallic sodium are employed. For the distillation, in
determining the amount of alcohol formed in a fermentation at least
a half-liter should be used, and larger amounts, up to 2 or 3 liters, are
probably preferable.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The distillation is carried out in a glass or metal flask, and the alcoholic
vapors are condensed in a tube, or worm, surrounded by cold running
water, and collected in a receiver. A German laboratory apparatus

Fig. 17. — Tralles' Spirit Hydrometer, with Glass Cylinder or Hydrometer-jar.

(Illustrations furnished by the Emil Grenier Co., New York City.)

for this purpose is shown in Fig. 18. A specially made small alcohol
hydrometer and jar is shown at the left of this cut. The heat is sup-
plied by burning denatured alcohol.

Practically all the alcohol will be contained in an amount of the
distillate equal to two fifths of the alcoholic solution taken. This is
then accurately made up' to the original volume and the specific gravity
determined by the pycnometer.

The Pycnometer. — The pycnometer is an instrument used for deter-
mining the specific gravity of a liquid. Having determined this with
accuracy, the quantity of sugar, alcohol, etc., may be discovered by
referring to the tables which have been devised. Various forms of

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

pycnometers are in use. In fermentation work the instrument is used
at a standard temperature of 15°, and water at the same tempera-
ture is taken as a standard. To determine the specific gravity of a
liquid, the instrument is weighed dry, and then again, after filhng with
the distilled water, and cooling to 15°. Weighing should be carried
out to three places of decimals. The difference in weights obtained

Fig. 18. — German Laboratory Apparatus for the Estimation of Alcohol in the

Wash Liquor.

will give the weight of the water. The weight of the solution, the specific
gravity of which is desired, is then found in the same way.

Wt. of solution
Wt. of water

sp. gravity.

The temperature must be carefully noted and either a correction
applied or the solution brought to some standard temperature, as
variations in temperature give considerable variation in specific gravity.
In obtaining the per cent of alcohol the tables given in Chapter IV,
pp. 127-141, are used. These tables were adopted by the Association
of Official Agricultural Chemists, as published November 14-16, 1901,
in Bull. No. 65, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
A small variation in estimating the per cent of alcohol in the wash
means quite an amount when figured on the yearly production of the
alcohol of the distillery, and hence there is need of the greatest accu-
racy possible in such attempted control of the operations. While dis-

50 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

tillers in this country ordinarily Tigure yields in terms of gallons of
proof spirit per bushel of grain or gallon of molasses it is often con-
venient for the chemist to express such yields by a decimal system.
Such a table is referred to above. The United States Alcohol Tables
from the Gauger's Manual are given on pp. 143-145.

Conditions Favorable to Alcoholic Fermentation. — The factors to
be considered in determining for alcoholic fermentation are character
of the must, temperature, acidity, and light. For favorable results it is
desirable to have these conditions as constant as practicable, since the
fermentation organisms are all more or less sensitive to variations in
their physical and chemical environments.

Alcoholic fermentation will proceed most vigorously and generally
with best results in mashes containing 10-15% of solids of which 65-
70% is fermentable. In other words, a content in fermentable sugar
of from 7.5 to 10% offers the most suitable opportunity for activity.
Much stronger solutions may be fermented, but it is the opinion of
expert practical men that there is no appreciable gain by the use of
heavier mashes.

Temperature plays a most important part in fermentation. Although
capable of enduring and working under a considerable range of tem-
perature and it is in proximity to temperatures of 75°-80° that the best
results are obtained, as this is generally most stimulating to yeast fer-
mentation, and any temperature above 85° is almost certain to b^
dangerous.

Lower temperatures are not necessarily injurious, but retard the fer-
mentative processes.

Light. — As in all fermentations, darkness or a weak diffused light is
far better than intense light.

Acidity. — A medium mildly acid with organic acids seems to be
the most readily attacked. Alkalis are harmful to yeasts.

Cleanliness. — Filtered air is of great advantage. By this simple
expedient much greater freedom from foreign germs hurtful to the
process of fermentation is avoided. Strict cleanliness in carrying out
the fermentation processes is absolutely necessary.

It is believed that the inclusion of the following paper will prove
of interest.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 51

THE FERMENTATION OF CANE MOLASSES AND ITS BEARING ON
THE ESTIMATION OF THE SUGARS PRESENT.*

By Dr. George Harker.

The question of the determination of the sugars, and more especially of
the saccharose, in cane-molasses is one which has caused much discussion.
On account of the large proportion of reducing sugars present in cane-
molasses it is recognized that no reliance can be placed on the saccharose
figure obtained by direct polarization, since the reducing sugars present
also affect the polarization. For exact determination recourse is gen-
erally had to the Clerget method, which is not affected by the presence
of reducing sugars. In this method, after obtaining the figure for direct
polarization, the solution is inverted with acid and the polarization again
made. The reducing sugars are not affected by the acid , and the difference
in the two polarizations is taken to be due to the production of invert-
sugar from the saccharose originally present. From this difference the
saccharose is calculated.

Fresh interest has been aroused recently by Remy (Bull. Assoc. Chim.
Sucr. Dist., 1904, 21, 1002), who has opposed the Clerget method, on
the ground that the polarization of the levulose present in the molasses
is not, as assumed, the same in nevitral as in acid solutions. Lindet,
however (Bull. Assoc. Chim. Sucr. Dist., 1905, 22, 574), has shown that
the error can only be a very slight one.

An important paper dealing with the whole question of the deter-
mination of saccharose in cane-molasses has been published recently by
H. and L. Pellet (Bull. Assoc. Chim. Sucr. Dist., 1905, 22, 744-752).
Numerous experiments have been made by the authors with different
molasses, in which the reducing-sugars present before and after inversion
with acids were determined by means of Fehling's solution. The saccha-
rose was thus calculated by a method independent of the optical prop-
erties of the sugars, and in all cases was found to be in very close agree-
ment with the Clerget figure for the same sample. The authors consider
that the accuracy of the Clerget method is beyond question.

Now when cane-molasses is fermented, the quantity of alcohol pro-
duced is generally much less than that which is indicated by calculation
from the figures of analysis for the saccharose and reducing-sugars in
the molasses; and it is evident that the yield of alcohol has an important
bearing on the question of the determination of the sugars. In this con-

* Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., No. 17, Vol. XXV, Sept. 15, 1906. Sydney (Australia)
Section.

52 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

nection an account of some experiments undertaken by the author on
the fermentation of cane-molasses may be of interest, as they seem to
cast some doubt on the methods of analysis for the sugars present.

To account for the low yield of alcohol obtained fromthe fermentation
of molasses several explanations have been given. Of these, apart from
bacterial losses, the most important seem to be the presence of organic
acids and the possible presence in the molasses of sugars fermentable only
with difficulty.

Lafar has shown (Z. Spiritusind, 1895, 18, 238) that free organic
acids hinder fermentation.

Bau (Z. Spiritusind, 1894, 17, 366) has discussed the resistance of
beet-molasses to fermentation and concludes that it is chiefly due to the
presence of sugars fermentable only with difficulty. Boiling with sul-
phuric acid not only removes volatile acids, but also inverts such sugars
as raffinose, fermentable only with difficulty, and so increases the yield.

The majority of the experiments, of which an account is given in this
paper, were performed upon a sample of molasses which had the following
composition:

Saccharose (Clerget) 41 . 52

Reducing-sugars 9 . 26

Other organic matter ' 11 . 66

Ash 11.50

Water 26.06

100.00

Brix '. 75 . 1

Specific gravity 1 .3832

Total sugar as reducing-sugar 52.94(43.68+9.26)

Polarization direct 38 . 80

After inversion with acids, 55.12 per cent of reducing -bodies, esti-
mated by Fehling's solution, were present; subtracting from this the
9.26 per cent present before inversion, and, following Pellet, calculating
the saccharose from the difference, the figure 43.57 was obtained, which
seemed to show that the Clerget figure was, if anything, lower than the
the truth. It was only as the investigation proceeded that a contrary
opinion was formed.

In all the fermentation experiments, whether saccharose or molasses
w^as employed, the solutions were always made so as to contain 10 grms.
of sugar, calculated as reducing-sugar, in every 100 c.c. of solution. By
this means a comparison of results was rendered very easy. The volume

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

of solution fermented was in all cases 500 c.c. The solutions were placed
in bottles previously cleaned, sterilized, and dried. The mouth of each
bottle was closed by a plug of cotton-wool and the bottles were then
placed in a water-bath, which was kept at a temperature of 310° C. by
means of a thermostat. The yeast employed for most of the experi-
ments was pure culture yeast and was obtained fresh for each set of in-
oculations. In a few experiments ordinary brewery yeast was used.

The attenuation of the solution on fermentation was taken as a basis
for calculating the yield of alcohol. The attenuation is the figure (multi-
plied by 1000) giving the difference in the specific gravity of the solution
before and after fermentation. When 16 or 20 solutions were fermented
in one operation, as was often the case, it w^ould be difficult to estimate
the alcohol in each by distillation on account of the time occupied. The
yield of alcohol could be calculated with close approximation by means
of the following formula:

Attenuation X 100
47.5

At the end of a number of experiments the alcohol was removed by
distillation and the yield so obtained compared with that calculated
from the attenuation. The distillations were conducted with great
care, a long fractionating column being used. According to Pasteur,
100 grms. of reducing-sugar produces on fermentation 48.47 grms. alcohol,
and as each solution of 500 c.c. contained 50 grms. of sugar calculated
as reducing-sugars the maximum yield of alcohol obtainable was 24.235
grms.

The following table gives a comparison of some of the yields of alcohol
actually obtained by distillation, with the yields calculated from the
attentuation figures:

Material Fermented.

Attenuation
Obtained.

Percentage Yield

Calculated from

Attenuation.

Alcohol
Produced.

Percentage Yield
Calculated from
Alcohol Produced.

Saccharoses

Molasses

43.0
39.3
39.3

90.5

82.7
82.7

22.01
19.90
19.81

90.8
82.1
81.75

In the case of the cane-sugar the yield actually obtained was slightly
above, while with molasses it was somewhat below, that calculated from
attenuation, and this was observed in other cases; but by adding
0.5 per cent to the yield calculated in the case of the saccharose solutions
and by subtracting 0.5 per cent in the case of molasses, figures were

54 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

obtained which were in good agreement with the percentage yields of
alcohol obtainable by actual distillation. Accordingly in calculating the
yields from the attenuation figures these corrections were applied.

Fermentation of the Molasses. — As the total sugar by analysis in the
molasses was 52.94 per cent, each solution for fermentation (500 c.c.)
contained 94.45 grms. of molasses. When the molasses was fermented
in simple aqueous solution without any previous treatment the attenu-
ation obtained was 38.3, corresponding to a yield of 80.1 per cent by
calculation. The yield of alcohol was not increased to a material extent
by boiling the solution to sterilize it, nor by adding sulphuric acid before
fermentation. The addition of Pasteur's mineral nutrient increased the
attenuation to 39.3, corresponding to a calculated yield of 82.2 per cent.
In a few experiments the sugar in the molasses solutions was completely
inverted by treating with excess of sulphuric acid (10 grms. per 500 c.c.)
at 70° C. After this treatment the acid was nearly neutralized with
sodium carbonate, mineral nutrient matter was added, and the solution
fermented. Although no sugar was destroyed during inversion the
yield of alcohol was very little increased — attenuation 39.5. In all
cases in which the molasses was fermented the fermentation was vigorous.

Although treatment with sulphuric acid may improve the yield from
beet-molasses, it was of very little value here, and consequently the
explanation given by Bau to account for the difficulty of fermenting
beet-molasses cannot be applied to the cane-molasses under consideration.
Further, as after the acid treatment all the sugar was present as reducing-
sugar, the low yield obtained under ordinary circumstances cannot be
due to incomplete inversion of the saccahrose, as has been asserted.
The maximum attenuation obtained, viz., 39.5, corresponded to a per-
centage yield of 82.7, so that even under the best conditions the yield of
alcohol was very low.

To whatever treatment the molasses solutions were subjected before
fermentation, there was always a small quantity of some substance present
in the spent wash which, although unfermentable, reduced Fehling's
solution. The quantity of this, although small, was constant, and
amounted to about 2.46 per cent on the weight of molasses taken. In
calculating the possible yield of alcohol obtainable from a given molasses,
it is always taken that the reducing-sugars given by analysis are com-
pletely fermentable; but if we assume that the substance left in the
' spent wash, which reduces Fehling's solution, is present in the original
molasses and is not formed during the fermentation, a correction must
be appUed to the analysis figures if we wish to know the amount of fer-
mentable reducing-sugar. Thus, in the molasses under consideration, of

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 55

the 9.26 per cent of reducing-bodies present, only 6.80 can be considered
as fermentable sugars; the total sugar calculated as reducing-sugar falls
to (52.94— 2.46)= 50.48 per cent, and the percentage yield of alcohol

obtainable becomes — ' ^ — = 95.3 per cent of that originally calcu-
lated as the maximum possible.

The yield of alcohol of 82.7 per cent actually obtained was calculated
on the basis of 52.94 per cent of fermentable sugar, but this is still con-
siderably less than 95.3 per cent, and if, after making the allowance for
the reducing substance in the spent wash, the figures of analysis for
saccharose and fermentable reducing-sugars are correct, then the low
yield of alcohol can only be explained by the harmful effect on the fer-
mentation of bodies either present in the original molasses or produced
during the course of the fermentation.

Defecation of the Molasses before Fermentation. — A few preliminary
experiments were made in order to determine the effect of removing
organic matter by means of lead salts. To solutions of molasses not
too concentrated basic lead acetate was added to precipitate organic
matter. After filtering off the precipitate, the excess of lead was re-
moved by sulphuretted hydrogen, and after boiling to remove this gas,
the solutions were made nearly neutral and were fermented. Before
fermentation a sample was taken for the determination of saccharose
and reducing-sugars present, and the percentage yield of alcohol was
calculated from these figures. Although the solutions fermented rapidly
the yield of alcohol was not improved. To avoid the accumulation of
acetic acid in the solution, resulting from the employment of basic lead
acetate, normal lead nitrate and lime were also used to precipitate the
organic matter, but the yield of alcohol was not raised.

Fermentation of Saccharose in Pure Nutrient Solutions and in
Solutions of Spent Wash. — ^To determine with more certainty whether or
not the presence of the non-sugar bodies in the molasses exerts a deterrent
effect on the fermentation, as is constantly asserted, experiments were
made in which saccharose was fermented in solutions of spent wash.
For purposes of comparison cane-sugar was also fermented in pure nu-
trient solutions under similar conditions. In these latter cases the
solutions contained 47.5 grms. of pure cane-sugar, equal to 50 grms. of
reducing-sugars in each 500 c.c. and in addition the nutrient materials
necessary for the growth of the yeast-cells. Pasteur's nutrient mixture
was found the best of several tried, but when used by itself the fermen-
tation of the cane-sugar took several days to complete, while in the case
of a molasses solution, or of a solution of cane-sugar in spent wash, the

56 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

fermentation was always finished in forty-eight hours. However, by
the addition to every solution of 2 grms. of a nitrogenous yeast food sold
under the name of "levurogene," which itself contained no fermentable
material, the time taken over the fermentation was reduced to two or
three days. ^

The fermentation of saccharose in the pure nutrient solutions did
not proceed so regularly as was expected. In many cases the attenua-
tion reached the figure 45.5, corresponding to a yield of alcohol of 96.3
per cent; a considerable number varied between 45 and 45.5, but some-
times with poor fermentations the attenuation was as low as 43. The
principal aim, however, was not to obtain a theoretical yield of alcohol,
but to find out how much alcohol was produced when cane-sugar was
fermented under conditions approaching as closely as possible to those
employed during the experiments on the fermentation of molasses. The
experiments showed that under these conditions from a definite weight
of cane-sugar the alcohol obtained was about 96 per cent of the quantity
obtained by Pasteur.

In the case of the fermentation of cane-sugar in solutions of spent
wash, the solutions were prepared by evaporating the alcohol from
solutions of molasses which had been completely fermented, care being
taken that the solutions were not being too strongly heated. In many
cases the solutions had been allowed to stand several days after all
fermentation was finished before the alcohol was removed; 47.5 grms. of
saccharose were then dissolved in the solution, nutrient matter and yeast
added, and the volume made up to 500 c.c. In this way a known amount
of sugar was fermented in the presence of all the non-sugar bodies con-
tained in the molasses, with the exception, perhaps, of the most volatile
organic acids. The quantity of these removed could only have been
very small, as the acidity of the solution of spent wash did not alter to
any extent during the removal of the alcohol. Many experiments were
made; the fermentation was always more vigorous and the results
obtained more regular than with saccharose in nutrient solutions. The
addition of Pasteur's nutrient improved the yield slightly, but no gain
resulted from the addition of ^'levurogene," as the spent wash itself
contained sufficient nitrogenous food for the growth of the yeast-cells.

The experiments proved conclusively that the yield of alcohol
obtained is just as large when saccharose is fermented in solutions of
spent wash as when fermented in pure nutrient solutions, and that
consequently the non-sugar bodies present in the spent wash exercise
no harmful influence on the. fermentation.

In some cases the attenuation was as low as 43 or 44, but in most

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 57

it varied from 45 to 45.5. In one or two cases the calculated figures
were checked by actual distillation of the alcohol, when it was found,
as for saccharose in nutrient solution, that the yield by distillation
was slightly higher than the calculated. A yield of at least 96 per
cent of the maximum (taking Pasteur's figures) was obtained.

These results gave rise to a strong belief that the low yields obtained
in the case of the molasses were due to the fact that the percentage of
sugars present in the molasses is much less than that show^n by analysis.
It might be said, however, that in the case of molasses the bodies
originally present, whatever they may be, which exercise a harmful
influence on the fermentation, are themselves altered during the course
of the fermentation, and that consequently, although pure sugar gives
a theoretical yield of alcohol when fermented in spent wash, it might
not do so if fermented in the original molasses.

Experiments already described had shown that a solution containing
47.5 grms. of cane-sugar in 500 c.c. gave an attenuation of 45.5, and
one containing 94.45 grms. of molasses in 500 c.c. an attenuation of 39.5.
Hence, if the fermentation of saccharose proceeds as well in molasses
solutions as in pure nutrient solutions, 23.75 grms. of cane-sugar and
37.22 grms. of molasses in 500 c.c. should give an attenuation of 41.5.

The average figure for seven separate determinations was 41.3,
giving further evidence that on fermentation the sugar in a molasses
solution is completely converted into alcohol.

Assuming that this is the case, the amount of fermentable sugar
present can be calculated. On the basis of 52.94 per cent of fermentable
reducing-sugar, it was found that the best results obtained from the
fermentation of the molasses gave a yield of 82.7 per cent of alcohol;
when pure saccharose was fermented in spent wash under similar con-
ditions the yield of alcohol was 96 per cent, or, in other w^ords, only a
small proportion of the sugar was not converted into alcohol. Assum-
ing that this slight loss of sugar takes place also in the case of the
molasses, we may consider that

82.7X100X52.94

= 45.63

is the percentage of fermentable sugar, in terms of reducing-sugar,
present in the molasses. This quantity is 86.2 per cent of the amount
given by analysis.

Determination of Ratio of Carbon Dioxide to Alcohol on Fermen-
tation of the Molasses. — In order to determine whether the fermen-
tation of the molasses was normal, the ratio of the carbon dioxide to

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

alcohol was obtained. The ratio was also determined for pure nutrient
solutions of saccharose.

The solutions for fermentation were prepared as previously described,
and out of each 500 c.c, 50 c.c. were removed for the estimation of
the carbon dioxide. The remainder, to act as a check, was placed in
a bottle and fermented under the same conditions as the smaller quan-
tity. The 50 c.c. were placed in a small flask, which was immersed
in water kept at 31° C. The carbon dioxide was estimated from the
loss of weight sustained by the flask and attached drying apparatus.
In the first experiments on molasses and saccharose the gas which
escaped was absorbed in potash bulbs to ensure that the loss was due
to carbon dioxide, but this precaution was found unnecessary. A
current of dry air removed the last of the carbon dioxide from the
apparatus.

Results.

Material.

Attenuation.

Grams
Carbon Dioxide.

Grams
Alcohol.

Ratio Alcohol to
Carbon Dioxide.

Saccharose

< (

Molasses

< (

44.0
45.5
39.3
39.3

2.325
2.34
2.02
2.00

2.257
2.336
1.993
1.993

0.971
0.998
0.986
0.996

Each 50 c.c. of solution contained 5 grms. of sugar in terms of reduc-
ing-sugar, it being understood that in the case of molasses the solutions
were always made up on the assumption that the analysis figures were
correct, and that the content of the molasses in fermentable sugar
was 52.94 per cent. Pasteur gives for the fermentation of 5 grms.
of reducing-sugar: carbon dioxide, 2.338 grms.; alcohol, 2.424 grms.;
ratio: carbon dioxide to alcohol = 1:1.037.

The fermentations of the nutrient saccharose solutions were never
so good as those obtained by Pasteur, hence the ratios of carbon dioxide
to alcohol were lower. It is interesting to note, however, that the
ratios with molasses were quite as high as those obtained from the
nutrient saccharose solutions.

Inversion of Sugar in Molasses by Means of Invertase. — Although
all the evidence derived from the fermentation experiments seemed
to indicate the presence of less sugar than was given by analysis, the
quantity of reducing-bodies produced by inversion with acids supported
the analysis figures. Consequently it was of importance to determine if
possible the amount of reducing-bodies produced in molasses by the
action of invertase.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 59

The invertase was prepared by mixing a weighed quantity of fresh
yeast with water and keeping it at a temperature of 60° C. for some
time. Tlie solutions for inversion were made so as to contain 10 grms^
of sugar calculated as reducing-sugar per 100 c.c, and generally 200 c.c.
were mverted in each experiment. The temperature of inversion
was between 55° C. and 60° C. Saccharose either in aqueous solution
or dissolved in spent wash was inverted rapidly and completely.

Turning now to molasses, the action of invertase was found to be
much slower. In solutions of saccharose in spent wash 98 per cent
of the sugar added was inverted in twenty-four hours, while fortj^-
eight hours were required for the maximum inversion in molasses. If
the figures of analysis for saccharose and reducing-sugars are correct,
there should have been present, after inversion with invertase, 10 grms.
of reducing-sugars in each 100 c.c. of solution, but the quantity obtained
actually was only 86 to 87 per cent of this.

Now it has already been shown that the quantity of alcohol obtained
on the fermentation of the molasses accounts for about 86 per cent
of the sugar indicated by analysis, and this quantity should all be
present after inversion with invertase; but to this must be added the
unfermentable reducing substance found in the spent wash after fer-
mentation of a molasses solution. Although this does not contribute
to the production of alcohol, it is present in the solution. Its amount
was found to be 2.46 per cent, calculated on the molasses, or 4.65 per
cent of the total sugar, in terms of reducing-sugar. Hence, after inver-
sion with invertase, at least 91 per cent of the sugar indicated by analysis
would be expected. The amount found in the experiments was not
more than 86 to 87 per cent. When the solutions, after inversion
with invertase, were fermented, the yield of alcohol obtained was some
2 or 3 per cent low^er than usual, so that evidently a little fermentable
sugar had been destroyed through the prolonged inversion. The
amount of the loss was easily calculated by subsequent fermentation,
-and allowing for it, the total quantity of reducing-bodies after inversion
was found to be about 90 per cent (9 grms. per 100 c.c.) of that indi-
cated by the analysis. Of this 4.65 per cent is unfermentable, and
the quantity of fermentable sugar in the molasses, in terms of reducing-
sugar, becomes 45.18 per cent. The figure obtained before from con-
sideration of the alcohol produced from the molasses was 45.63 per
cent, and although both these figures are only approximations, the
agreement between them made it clear that wh^n the molasses was
treated with invertase just that quantity of reducing-sugar was formed
which was necessary to produce the quantity of alcohol obtained when

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the molasses was fermented. Consequently a considerable portion of
what analysis indicated as saccharose was not inverted by invertase^
and was in reality not that substance.

Although the action of invertase on molasses took a longer time than
when cane-sugar was inverted in a solution of spent wash, the results ob-
tained were fairly concordant. This was also found in the case of another
molasses treated in a similar way, though with one particular sample no
results of value could be obtained, as the action of invertase speedily
came to an end, there being evidently something present which inhibited
the action of the enzyme. The experiments with invertase confirmed in
a striking manner the results obtained earlier in the investigation, and
left no room for doubt that the analysis figure for saccharose was con-
siderably too high.

The quantity of reducing-bodies produced by the action of acids was
very much greater than by that of invertase, but on subsequent fermen-
tation the yield of alcohol — allowing for the slight destruction of fer-
mentable sugar during inversion with invertase — was no greater. Hence
the reducing-bodies produced by acids and not by invertase were not
fermentable sugars, and were therefore not derived from saccharose.

H. and L. Pellet, in the paper referred to above, laid great stress on
the close agreement of the figures for saccharose in cane-molasses ob-
tained by the Clerget method, and by calculation from the reducing-
bodies present before and after inversion with acids. Thus for the
molasses under consideration we have:

Saccharose
(Clerget).

Reducing-bodies
after Inversion.

Reducing-bodies
before Inversion.

Difference.

Saccharose
calculated.

41.52

55.12

9.26

45.86

43.57

The authors mentioned obtained a much closer agreement for the
molasses examined by them, and they regard it as a complete confirmation
of the accuracy of Clerget's process, but since a considerable proportion
of the reducing-bodies obtained by inversion with acids are not fer-
mentable sugars, no figure for saccharose of any value can be deduced
from them.

The conclusion of the investigation was, therefore, that the possible
yield of alcohol from cane-molasses indicated by analysis is considerably
higher than that which can be obtained by fermentation, and that this is
due to the fact that the analytical figures overstate the amount of fer-
mentable sugars actually present.

By making use of the figures obtained in some of the experiments it

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 61

becomes possible to apply a correction to the ordinary analysis. Thus
for the molasses under consideration, the quantity of fermentable reduc-
ing-sugar being 6.80 instead of 9.26, the figure for saccharose can be
obtained by first subtracting this from the total fermentable sugar,
expressed in terms of reducing-sugar. For this two figures were arrived
at, viz., 45.63 and 45.18. Taking the mean of these, viz., 45.41, and
subtracting 6.80, we obtain 38.61 as the figure for saccharose expressed

in terms of reducing-sugars; whence saccharose itself, — '-tttt: — = 36.68

per cent.

On making these corrections we have:

Original Corrected

Analysis. Analysis.

Saccharose 41 .52 36.68

Sugars reducing 9 . 26 6 . 80

Other organic matter 1 1 . 66 18 . 96

Ash 11.50 11.50

Water 26.06 26.06

100.00 100.00

Total sugar as reducing-sugar. ... 52 . 94 45 . 41

If we call the possible yield of alcohol calculated from the total sugar
in the original molasses 100, then the yield possible from the corrected
analysis is only 85.8.

One of the most interesting but puzzling questions in connection
with the investigation related to the manner in which the character of
the unfermentable bodies, appearing as saccharose in the original analysis*
changes during the course of the fermentation. If these bodies did not
alter they could be estimated in the spent wash after fermentation, and
there would be no difficulty in accounting for the low production of
alcohol from the molasses. But the fact that only a small quantity of
reducing-bodies is found in the spent wash, even on inversion of this with
acids, makes it appear as if a loss of sugar actually took place.

When measured quantities of liquid were removed from a solution of
molasses at different stages of the fermentation, and were treated with
acid, and the reducing-bodies so produced estimated, it was found that
they diminished rapidly during the earlier stages of the fermentation.
Thus:

Reducing-bodies (Expressed in Terms
Attenuation. of Reducing-sugars).

Grams per 100 c.c.

0.0 10.3

0.5 9.5

2.5 8.62

6.5 8.28 .

Fermentation complete 0.7

62 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Hence when alcoholic fermentation had only just started (atten.,
0.5), the quantity of reducing-bodies which could be produced by inver-
sion with acids had already become very considerably diminished, and
was, very little in excess of the quantity (9.0 grms.) produced by treating
the molasses with invertase.

A similar observation was made in the experiments with invertase.
When inversion with invertase was complete, an estimation of the reduc-
ing-bodies produced by inversion with acids, including those already
produced by invertase, showed that the quantity of these was not much
in excess of these latter, whereas before the action of the invertase the
quantity of reducing-bodies produced by the acid treatment was much
greater. Thus if we call the quantity of reducing-bodies produced from
a given weight of molasses by the action of acids 10.3, and the quantity
by invertase 8.7 grms., then after inversion with invertase further treat-
ment with, acids produced a total quantity of only 9.0 grms., showing
that a considerable change in the character of the bodies invertible by
acids and not by invertase had taken place. This was quite apart from
any loss of fermentable sugar during the inversion, which loss, as proved
by subsequent fermentation, was very small. Besides, if it had been
fermentable sugar which was disappearing owing to, say, bacterial action,
the loss should have increased with the time, but it did riot. Sufficient
evidence has already done given that the loss of fermentable sugar due
to bacterial action during the fermentation of the molasses could only
have been very small, since even prolonged treatment with sulphuric acid
failed to materially raise the yield, and further, if bacteria were present
we should expect the wash to become acid. Under ordinary circum-
stances, however, the increase of acidity in the solutions during fermen-
tation is slight.

It appears probable that the bodies, whatever they may be, which
appear as saccharose in the analysis and which are inverted by acids but
not by invertase, are decomposed by some enzyme in the yeast during
the earlier stages of fermentation.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. J. A. Schofield asked if the ordinary methods of analysis, when
applied to beet-molasses, also gave high results. It was rather strange
that the sugar that seemed to disappear should not only have the rotary
power of saccharose, but should also yield bodies with the same reducing
power as invert-sugar.

Dr. R. Greig-Smith suggested that the apparent loss of sugars might
arise from these particular bodies being readily decomposable, and thus

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL. 63

supplying cell material for the growing yeast. During his researches on
vegetable gums he had found some bodies that yielded, on hydrolysis,
reducing substances that were not sugars capable of forming ordinary
osazones, for the compounds melted at too low a temperature and yielded
tarry bodies, with acetic acid. Possibly some similar substance might be
present in molasses. With regard to sugar in molasses fermenting more
quickly than pure sugar aided by Pasteur's nutrient, he thought this was
due to the high proportion of salts present. He deprecated the assump-
tion that some ''enzyme " had been acting, when, as a matter of fact, the
nature of the change was simply imknown.

Dr. Harker, in reply to ^Ir. Schofield, said that in beet-molasses
reducing-sugars were absent, and raffinose was the only substance known
to be present that made a correction necessary in the polariscopic read-
ing. With regard to Dr. Greig-Smith's remarks, he thought the disap-
pearance of the apparent saccharose was too rapid to be explained as
due to its being used as food for yeast-cells. He was of opinion that the
rapidity of fermentation in molasses was due to the large proportion. of
nitrogenous yeast foods rather than to the salts.

CHAPTER III.
THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

Theory of Vapor Pressure and Boiling-point. Boiling-points of Mixtures of
Ethyl and Methyl Alcohol. Boiling-points of Mixtures of Ethyl Alcohol and Water.
Theory of Distillation. Simple Distillation. Constant Boiling Mixtures. Theory
of Fractional Distillation. Theory of Compound Distillation. Dephlegmation.
The Efficiency of Fractional Distillation. The Extraction of the Alcohol by
Distillation. The Rectification of the Alcohol. History of the Distillation of
Alcohol. Commercial Apparatus for the Distillation of Alcohol. American Alco-
hol-distilling Apparatus.

If any liquid is introduced into an exhausted enclosure it evaporates
until its vapor reaches a definite pressure, known as the vapor pressure
of the liquid. This vapor pressure depends solely upon the temperature.

If the enclosure into which the liquid is introduced, instead of being
exhausted, contains air or other gas, the liquid evaporates nevertheless
to just the same extent as before. If, however, the liquid is placed in
the open air the vapor is carried away by diffusion and the liquid con-
tinues to evaporate until it entirely disappears.

If the temperature is gradually raised the vapor pressure increases,
and this surface evaporation becomes more rapid until suddenly a new
phenomenon appears. This is at the point where the vapor pressure
becomes equal to the pressure of the atmosphere.

The vapor, in order to escape, no longer needs to diffuse through the
atmosphere, but is able to push it away bodily. Evaporation is now
not confined to the surface. Bubbles of vapor rise from the interior and
the liquid is said to boil. The boiling-point is therefore the temperature
at which the vapor pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure
and the boiling-point is higher the greater this pressure is.

When the liquid is a mixture of two or more constituents, each is
present in the vapor above the liquid, and each has a "partial'' vapor
pressure which depends on the composition of the liquid and the tem-
perature. At a given temperature these partial vapor pressures are

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

never as great as the vapor pressures of the respective constituents in
the pure state. The boiling-point of a mixture is the temperature at
which the sum of the partial vapor pressures is equal to the atmospheric
pressure. Usually the boiling-point of a mixture of two liquids lies
between the boiling-points of the pure liquids, but this is not always
the case. It is true of mixtures of common (ethyl) alcohol and wood
alcohol (methyl alcohol), but it is not true of mixtures of ethyl acohol
and water, as shown in the following tables. Table I gives the boiling-
points, at the normal pressure of 760 mm., of mixtures of the first pair of
liquids.

Table I. — Methyl Alcohol and Ethyl Alcohol.

Per Cent

Boiling-point,

Per Cent

Boiling-point,
Degrees Centigrade.

Methyl Alcohol.

Degrees Centigrade.

Methyl Alcohol,

100.0

64.7

46.0

70.3

88.1

65.7

42.4

70.8

74.6

67.0

36.5

71.6

65.4

67.9

24.9

73.5

55.9

69.0

11.1

76.1

50.0

69.7

0.0

78.3

46.2

70.2

Table II gives the boiling-points, at the normal pressure of 760 mm.,
of mixtures of the second pair.

Table II. — Ethyl Alcohol and Water.

Per Cent

Boiling-point,

Per Cent

Boiling-point,

Per Cent

Boiling-point,

Ethvl

Degrees

Ethyl

Degrees

Ethyl

Degrees

Alcohol

Centigrade.

Alcohol.

Centigrade.

Alcohol.

Centigrade.

100.0

78.300

88.0

78.445

55.0

81.77

99.5

78.270

87.0

78.530

48.0

82.43

99.0

78.243

86.0

78.575

37.0

83.76

98.5

78.222

85.0

78.645

35.0

83.87

98.0

78.205

84.0

78.723

29.0

84.86

97.5

78.191

83.0

78.806

26.0

85.41

97.0

78.181

82.0

78.879

22.0

86.11

96.5

78.179

81.0

78.968

20.0

87.32

96.0

78.174

80.0

79.050

18.0

87.92

95.5

78.176

79.0

79.133

13.0

90.02

95.0

78.177

78.0

79.214

10.0

91.80

94.5

78.186

77.0

79.354

8.0

93.10

94.0

78.195

76.0

79.404

7.0

93.73

93.5

78.211

75.0

79.505

5.5

94.84

93.0

78 . 227

73.0

79.683

4.5

95.63

92.5

78.241

71.0

79.862

3.0

97.11

92.0

78.259

69.0

80.042

2.0

98.05

91.0

78.270

67.0

80.237

1.5

98.55

90.0

78.323

65.0

80.438

1.0

98.95

89.0

78.385

63.0

80.642

0.5

99.65

66 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Table I is calculated from the data of Haywood (Jour. Amer. Chem.
Soc, 21,996).

Table II is taken from the paper of Noyes and Warfel (Jour. Amer.
Chem. Soc, 23, 467).

In order to show clearly the difference between the two cases the
data given in the tables is plotted in Figs. I and II, and that part of
the curve in Fig. II which is of special interest, namely, between 90 per
cent and 100 per cent of alcohol, is plotted on a larger scale in Fig. III.

It is obvious from the diagrams that if we start with ethyl alcohol
and add little by little the lower boiling methyl alcohol, the boiling-point
of the mixture drops and steadily approaches the boiling-point of pure
methyl alcohol. If, on the other hand, we add similarly to water sue-

78°

76°

§74°

§70°

68°
66°

■v

lOji 20 30 40 50 60 70

> Percentage of Methyl Alcohol

Percentage of Ethyl Alcohol «■

90 1005«

Fig. I. — Boiling-points of Mixtures of Ethyl Alcohol and Methyl Alcohol.

cessive portions of the lower boiling ethyl alcohol, the boiling-point drops
as before, but when the alcohol in the mixture has reached about 90 per
cent the boiling-point has already fallen to that of pure alcohol. As
more alcohol is added the boiling-point continues to decrease until it is
about 0.13° lower. With further additions of alcohol the boiling-point
increases and approaches again that of pure alcohol.

According to the experiments of Young and Fortey (Trans. London
Chem. Soc, 81, 717) the mixture of lowest boiling-point contains 95.57
per cent of alcohol by weight or 97.2 per cent by volume. It will be
shown presently that the existence of this mixture of minimum boiling-
point is of the very greatest importance in the technical distillation of
alcohol. Such a unique mixture is known as a constant boiling mixture.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

Theory of Distillation. Simple Distillation. — The process of distilla-
tion consists in leaxiing the vapor from a boiling liquid into a cooler
vessel, where it recondenses.

98°
96°

92°

86°
81°
82°
80°

-«^

1051 20 30 40 50 60 70

> Percentage of£thyl Alcohol

. Percentage of Water <—

80 90 1O0)(

. Fig. n. — Boiling-points of Mixtures of Ethyl Alcohol and Water.

fcC

= 78.2
78.1

3°
.2 =

1°

90j( 92 94 96

> Percentage of Ethyl Alcohol
Percentage of Water ♦— —

100)(

Fig. in. — Boiling-points of Mixtures of Ethyl Alcohol and Water from 90% to

100% on a Larger Scale.

The simplest apparatus for the purpose, which is shown in Fig. 18,
consists of a glass flask (or a retort) in which the liquid or liquid mixture
is boiled and the condenser into which the vapor thus formed is con-
ducted and by which it is recondensed, the distillate being collected in
the receiving-flask.

This form of condenser consists of two tubes between which a current
of cold water flows in an upward direction or opposite to the flow of the
distillate. The inner tube of this condenser as well as the outer is some-
times made of glass and in some instances of metal.

68 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

This form of condenser is called the ''Liebig/' from the illustrious
chemist who invented it.

The flask in which the distillate collects is called the receiver. In
using such an apparatus the process is called simple distillation. In
practice the common still, a large boiler heated by fire or steam, supplies
the place of the flask or retort of the laboratory apparatus, while the

Fig. 18. — Laboratory Distilling Apparatus, with Liebig Condenser.

Liebig condenser is replaced by a spiral tube of copper (called a worm)
which is immersed in a tank supplied with a current of cold water, the
vapor thereby being exposed to a great degree of cold surface.

The tank or vessel containing the worm is called the condenser.
Such an apparatus is called the common or simple still, and a repre-
sentation of it is shown in Fig. 19, the distillate being collected in the
receiver c at a. A represents the boiler and B the still-head of the still.

In the column still (compound still) this still-head of the simple
still is replaced by a column or *Mephlegmator," the theory of which
and the principles governing its operation will be explained later on in
this chapter.

Theory of Fractional Distillation. — When a pure Hquid is distilled
the boiling-point remains constant until the distillation is complete.
When a mixture is distilled this is sometimes, but rarely, true. In
all other cases the liquid which appears in the condenser has a lower
boiling-point than the original mixture, while the residue in the still
always has a higher.

This is a rule which was first devised by Konowalow (Annalen der
Physik, 14, 341, 1881). It is unnecessary in a book of this sort to give
the rigorous proof of this theorem. It will be sufficient to point out
that any contradiction of this rule would incur a contradiction of the
fundamental laws governing this phenomenon. Furthermore this rule
has been repeatedly verified by a large number of practical experiments.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

In general if th6 distillation of a mixture is stopped before it is com-
pleted, two mixtures are obtained, one in the receiver of the lower boil-
ing-point and one left in the still of the higher boiling-point. If each of
these portions is then partially distilled the distillate of the former has
a still lower boiling-point, and the residue from the latter a still higher
boiling-point.

This process of successive differentiation is known as fractional

Fig. 19. — The Common or r^iinple ►StiU.

distillation, and is one of the most common methods of separating
the constituents of a liquid mixture.

An example of this process in its simplest form is given by Maercker.

A fermented mash liquor of 11.3 per cent of alcohol by weight was
distilled in a simple still until the liquor remaining in the still was prac-
tically free from alcohol.

This residue was then discarded and the distillate redistilled until
again a residue was left practically free from alcohol. This process
was repeated five successive times and the results are recorded in the
following table:

Alcoholic Mixture. ^%?^5^i^h?°^

Original wash liquor 11.3

First distillate 32.3

Second distillate 55.0

Third " 70.3

Fourth " 78.5

Fifth " 83.0

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

In Fig. 20 below are shown two kinds of flasks for fractional dis-
tillation in the laboratory, each flask being fitted with a thermometer,
the one on the right of cut having a T tube.

Ordinarily the process of fractionation is made somewhat more
complex than this by dividing each distillate into successive portions each
of which is then distilled in turn. The efficiency is thus increased,
but in any case such a fractional distillation carried on by means of a

Fig. 20.— Flasks for Laboratory Fractional Distillation.

simple still is a tedious and laborious process, and this fact has led to
important modifications in stills used for fractionating.

Theory of Compound Distillation. Dephlegmation. — If the neck
of the distilling-flask, or the still-head, is constructed in such a way
that the liquid that condenses there does not return immediately to
the body of the still it remains in small pools. The composition of the
liquid in these pools varies and the boiling-point is lower the farther
the pool is from the body of the still. The vapor passing through
these pools on its way to the condenser changes in composition (becomes
richer in alcohol) as it progresses and finally when it enters the con-
denser it is leaving a liquid of much lower boiling-point than that in
the bottom of this still. As the mixture passes up the still-head it
is thus subjected to what is equivalent to a fractional distillation, while
the weaker alcoholic liquors run back gradually into the still. Such

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

an arrangement produces therefore a much more effective separation
and much more highly concentrated alcohol than does a simple still.
In Figs. 21 and 22 are shown two such arrangements for laboratory pur-
poses known as the "rod-and-disc " still-heads, and the Linnemann
dephlegmator, from Young's Fractional Distillation, page 163.

Other forms of laboratory dephlegmator apparatus are shown in
Figs. 23 and 24, page 72.

^ cA

Fig. 21.— The *'Rod-and-disc" StiU-
heads: (a) without, (6) with con-
strictions in the outer tube.

Fig. 22.— The "Linnemann" Dephleg-
mator.

In a this consists of a T tube and spherical bulbs and is the Wurtz
dephlegmator. This is shown merely to include it among the different
forms given. Linnemann 's apparatus in another form of earlier date
is shown by h in the same figure and has cups of platinum gauze in
the vertical tube as shown.

Hempel's tube is shown by c in the same figure. It is filled with
specially made glass beads, and shown provided with T tube and ther-
mometer in this cut.

The Le Bel-Henninger tube shown by d, in Fig. 24, is usually pro-
vided wdth platinum cones to cause the obstruction which is effected
by placing these cones on the constrictions between the bulbs blown
on the vertical tube; each bulb is connected by a reflux tube with
the one below it so that the liquid is carried back from bulb to bulb
and not straight to the still.

The Glinsky dephlegmator, shown by e in Fig. 24, is provided
with only one reflux tube, which carries the excess of liquid from

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the large bulb to the tube below the lowest obstruction practically back
to the still. It is therefore faulty in construction, as no opportunity
is afforded the ascending alcoholic vapors to come in contact and be
washed by such drawn-off alcoholic liquid and thereby be enriched by it

(^ u

Fig. 23. — Laboratory Dephlegmator
Apparatus, a, Wurz; b, Linne-
man; c, Hempel.

Fig. 24. — d, Le Bel-Henninger's
Laboratory Dephlegmator; e,
Glinksky's Laboratory De-
phlegmator.

to the extent that they should. Another serious fault in construction
in these dephlegmators of Le Bel-Henninger and Glinsky consists in
the fact that the reflux tubes are external and unlike the Coffey still;
the returning' liquid is thus exposed to the cooling action of the
air.

The laboratory dephlegmators of Brown and of Young and Thomas
follow the principle of the Coffey still more closely, the reflux tubes being
much shorter and being heated by the ascending vapor. In Fig. 25
the ''Young and Thomas " dephlegmator is shown. In the wide
tube are sharp constrictions on which rest coneave rings of platinum

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

Fig. 25.— The "Young and
Thomas" Dephlegmator.

gauze, R, and these support small glass reflux tubes, T, of the form

shown in this cut. The narrow V-shaped part serves as a trap.

The enlargement A prevents the reflux tube from slipping through the

ring if the tube is inverted. One of the internal

projections is shown at B in the tube b. A

horizontal section of the tube at B is shown

bye.

On comparing the eSiciency of these different
dephlegmators it was found by Young that for
large quantities (400grms.) of liquid Glinsky's
apparatus was inferior to the Le Bel and also
to that of Young and Thomas. With small
quantities (50 grms.) of liquid he found that the
Young and Thomas dephlegmator gave better
results than either the Le Bel or the Glinsky
dephlegmators. The first dephlegmator em-
ployed in the laboratory was devised by Linne-
mann, and has already been shown in its earlier
form. In this dephlegmator, however, the liquid
gradually accumulates until the quantity becomes unmanageable, when
the distillation has to be discontinued until the liquid flows back to the still.
This entailed waste of time and increased loss of alcohol by evaporation,
and it was impossible to make an accurate record of the temperature. The
Hempel dephlegmator, already shown in Fig. 23, is simple and efficient,
but the amount of liquid (alcohol) which collects in this tube or still-
head is excessive, and it is therefore unsuitable for the distillations of
small quantities of liquid. The description just given of laboratory
dephlegmators also serves as a history of their development. Commer-
cial stills based on the principle of the ''rod -and -disc " still-head and the
dephlegmator just described will be discussed later.

The EflSciency of Fractional Distillation. — The efficiency of a frac-
tional separation depends upon the character of the still and upon the
number of fractions and redistillations. Moreover, the efficiency of each
distillation is greater the slower it is and the more regular the heating.
In practice it is necessary to some extent to sacrifice efficiency to speed.

It is frequently assumed that by perfecting our stills and our methods
of fractionation it is possible to come as near as we please to effecting
the complete separation of the constituents of a mixture. While this is
true of some mixtures, it is not true of others, and the distinction between
the two classes is of very great importance.

A mixture of ethyl and methyl alcohols after enough fractionations

74 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

in an efficient still yields on the one side practically pure ethyl alcohol,
on the other practically pure methyl alcohol, and we have every reason
to believe that with an ideally perfect still the separation could be made
complete. But with mixtures of ethyl alcohol and water this is far from
being true. Young and Forty (Trans. London Chem. Soc, 81, 717) de-
scribe the results of a very efficient fractionation, starting with 92.6 per
cent alcohol by weight. They used an eighteen-column dephlegmator
and fractionally distilled seven times. By this means instead of abso-
lute alcohol they obtained only 95.3 per cent alcohol. Even more sig-
nificant is the experiment described by Le Bel (Comptes Rend., 88,
912), who showed that 98 per cent alcohol yielded a distillate weaker in
alcohol (97.4 per cent) and a residue stronger in alcohol (99.5 per cent).
The clue to this remarkable difference in behavior between a mixture
of methyl and ethyl alcohol on the one hand and a mixture of ethyl
alcohol and water on the other is obvious if we return to Figs. I, II, and
III, pp. 66, 67. Let us consider first a mixture of ethyl alcohol and
water containing 95.57 per cent by weight of alcohol. We have stated
as a universal rule that a liquid never gives a distillate of higher
boiling-point than its own. But in this particular case it is impossible
for the mixture to yield a distillate of lower boiling-point than its own,
for we see from the curve that it has the lowest boiling-point of any
mixture of alcohol and water. When it distills, therefore, it must
pass over at constant temperature and without change of composition.
Such a unique mixture is known as a constant boiling mixture. All
other mixtures distill invariably in such a way that the distillate is
represented by a point lower down on the boiling-point curve, the residue
by a point higher up on the curve. Whenever, therefore, in any pair of
liquids there is one mixture of lowest boiling-point, then on (repeated)
distillation the distillate will always tend toward the lowest boiling
mixture. Thus upon repeated distillation of a mixture of methyl alcohol
and ethyl alcohol the distillate will approach closer and closer to pure
methyl alcohol, the residue to pure ethyl alcohol. But upon repeated
distillation of a mixture of ethyl alcohol and water of less than 95.57 per
cent the distillate will approach 95.57 per cent alcohol and the residue
will approach pure water. If we started with a mixture stronger in al-
cohol than the constant boiling mixture described, then the distillate
would again approach 95.57 per cent alcohol, while the residue would
approach pure alcohol. No matter how perfect a still may be, therefore,
it is hopeless to attempt to obtain absolute alcohol from dilute alcohol
by mere distillation.

In order to obtain absolute alcohol some hygroscopic substances, such

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 75

as quicklime or anhydrous copper sulphate, are employed as stated in
Chapter II. After digesting or allowing the strong alcohol to remain in
contact with such substances in closed vessels for a sufficient length of
time to separate the water from the alcohol, in such a constant boiling
mixture as has been described, the absolute alcohol is recovered by careful
distillation. Metallic sodium is also used for such purposes. It is thus
seen that the assistance of chemistry is necessary in addition to that of
physics and mechanics to solve the problems in the technical distillation
of alcohol.

The curve showing the boiling-points of ethyl alcohol and water
shows the slight minimum which we have commented upon. In the

Fig. 26. — Laboratory Vacuum Distilling Apparatus.

case of mixtures of the higher liquid alcohols with water, this boiling-
point minimum is more pronounced the higher the alcohol is in
the series, and it is therefore impossible by mere distillation to come
even as near a complete separation from water as in the case of ethyl
alcohol.

Before discussing the technical distillation of alcohol two methods
of distillation, known as distillation under reduced pressure and distilla-
tion with steam, may be mentioned.

These methods are chiefly used in cases where for fear of decomposi-
tion or for other reason it is undesirable to heat the substance to its
normal boiling-point. In Fig. 26 the air is exhausted from the distilling-
flask in any convenient manner.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

In Fig. 27 is shown BruhPs apparatus, whereby, in distilling under

reduced pressure, the receiver can
be changed in fractional distilla-
tions without breaking the vac-
uum.

Distillation with steam is chiefly
used in the case of substances
which are non-miscible with water.
The steam passing through the
liquid to be distilled becomes
saturated with its vapor and the
vapor condensed with the steam
in the condenser is then readily
separated from the condensed
water in the receiver.

Such a laboratory steam distil-
ling apparatus is shown in Fig. 28.

Fig. 27. — BriihPs Laboratory Vacuum
Distilling Apparatus.

In case it is desired to superheat the steam used for such laboratory
distillations as have been mentioned, it is done by passing the steam
through a heated copper coil like the one shown in Fig. 29, page 77.

Fig. 28. — Laboratory Steam Distilling Apparatus.

The Extraction of the Alcohol by Distillation. — ^This is the fourth step
in the processes involved in the manufacture of alcohol, as mentioned in
Chapter II. We have shown by what has preceded that it is technically

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 77

impossible to make use of the method of simple distillation for the pro-
duction of high-proof alcohol.

This is because of the great number of repeated distillations required
involving a consequent enormous loss of time and expense.

The fermented mash Uquor or wash usually contains, as has been stated
in Chapter II, from 10 to 12 per cent of alcohol.

It is the object of the alcohol distiller to extract and concentrate this
alcohol from the wash and to obtain it at a high degree of proof.

The theory of compound distillation proceeds upon the idea of effect-
ing this object in one operation in a compound apparatus, thus imitating
the repeated vaporizations and condensations (repeated number of dis-
tillations) of the simple still necessary for this purpose, which we have

Fig. 29. — Laboratory Copper Coil for Superheating Steam.

described. A great saving of time is thus made and much less expense
is involved. There is also much less loss of alcohol by evaporation. In
the compound still many repeated vaporizations and condensations take
place in a continuous manner, whereby both fractional distillation and
fractional condensation occur as shown in the course of the vapors and
the return flow of weaker alcohol through the chambers, the details of
which are given, on an enlarged scale, in Fig. 30. The result is the
constant increased concentration of the alcoholic vapors and the constant
increased attenuation of the watery weak alcoholic liquor in its down-
ward course through the chambers to the still, where it is finally dis-
charged as spent wash.

In Fig. 30 the course of the vapor bubbling up through the pools of
alcoholic liquid in the chambers is shown by the arrows. In the upper
drawing the flow of returns, or weaker alcohoUc liquid over heads, down
through the chambers is indicated by the arrows. Finally the nearly
pure alcohol vapor passes over to the final condenser to be recondensed
and obtained as high-proof alcohol. In this country two distillation
processes have been used. In the first the alcohol is obtained at 140
proof or 70 per cent; in the second the alcohol is rectified and obtained
at the high proof desired.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The Rectification of the AlcohoL — In modern continuous stills, pres-
ently to be described, there is needed no filtration through charcoal (rectifi-

DETAI.L OF COLUMN CHAMBERS

arrows indicate vapor course
through chambers

Fig. 30.

cation) of the potable spirits produced. Formerly abroad, as in this
country to-day, such filtration method was necessary to purify the spirit.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL 79

The name rectifying-still or rectifying-column still clings to the appara-
tus (dephlegmator) which accomplishes the purification in the cases of
the modern stills. In the case of denatured alcohol it is a matter of profit
to remove the fusel-oil in making the alcohol, as it is a valuable product
and consists largely of amyl alcohols, which are used as a base in the
form of amyl acetate for the manufacture of water-proof lacquers, arti-
ficial leather, sanitary sheeting for hospitals, etc.

The strength of alcohol produced in distillation depends upon the
efficiency of the still, its proper manipulation, and also upon the number
of chambers or plate partitions in the rectifying-column, and whether
one or more rectify ing-columns are used. It also depends upon the
amount of cooling surface possessed by the dephlegmating apparatus, or
fractional condenser, as it is now more properly called in the laboratory,
or the ''goose,'' as it is called in practice.

Formerly the rectification of the spirits marked a distinct (fifth)
and last step in the processes involved in the manufacture of high-proof
alcohol.

History of the Distillation of Alcohol. — Alcohol in a dilute form as
an intoxicating beverage has been known among all races and conditions
of people since very ancient times. A conmaon form of such alcohol is
wine, the fermented juice of the grape. All the juices of plants which
contain sugar and all vegetable matters which contain starch will yield
alcohol by fermentation.

The preparation of an alcoholic liquor by separating the more vola-
tile portions of the fermented juices of fruits and infusions of grains by
distillation does not appear to have been understood by the ancients
according to Muspratt. Ure says: "It seems to have been invented by
the barbarians of the north of Europe as a solace to their cold and humid
clime, and was first made known to the southern nations in the wTit-
ings of Amoldus de Villa Nova and his pupil, Raymond Lully of
Majorca."

The first stills were naturally of the most primitive design and con-
struction. The contents were boiled by direct fir.e, and even to-day
such a method of heating is used for special distillations. The object
of distillation is to obtain the alcohol in a more concentrated form from
the fermented liquor. The next step after the fermentation of the raw
material in making alcohol, therefore, is the process whereby such fer-
mented mash or wash liquor is subjected to distillation to extract the
alcohol from it. By repeated distillations and rectifications, in one or more
operations, the highly purified alcohol is obtained from such fermented
liquor, or wash as it is often called, the high-proof alcohol obtained being

80 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL. ]

known as commercial 95 per cent alcohol, Cologne spirits, and neutral
spirit of high proof, as the case may be.

Before turning to the long and interesting development of the appa-
ratus for the distillation of alcohol upon a commercial scale, whereby
such great degree of perfection has finally been attained, it may be well
to state that concerning the statement of Ure it has been ascertained
that in the times of the Ptolemies the Greek-Egyptian chemists were
acquainted with the art of simple distillation.*

COMMERCIAL APPARATUS FOR THE DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL.

FOREIGN ALCOHOL-DISTILLING APPARATUS.

Edouard Adam's Still. — The origin of the first still which abolished to
a great extent the use of the worm and substituted condensing vessels,
which principle of fractional condensation, as well as the '^heater" or
dephlegmator (reflux condenser), has been retained with modifications in
nearly all subsequent inventions of the kind, is due to a Frenchman named
Edouard Adam, who is said to have been a distiller unacquainted with
anything more than the routine of his trade. In 1801 he witnessed some
experiments with a Woulfe apparatus at a chemical lecture in Mont-
pellier, and was so impressed with its advantages that he soon after con-
structed a still upon the same principle. This succeeded so well that the
whole process of distillation was soon completely changed. The use of
Woulfe 's apparatus is described in any technology or work on gas, and
by referring to that it will be seen that Adam's still v/as one of the hap-
piest adaptations of a laboratory appliance to a manufacturing purpose.
The modification as made by M. Adam is represented in Fig. 31.

It will be noticed that the terminal egg-shaped copper vessels are con-
nected on the one hand with the retort or boiler containing the fermented
liquor or wine, and on the other with a w^orm which is immersed in a
cooler, F. The neck of the retort passes into the first egg-shaped vessel,
dipping below the surface of the liquor. It is perforated at its termina-
tion by minute holes through which the vapor passes. A pipe from the
first egg leads to the second, also dipping below the surface of the liquor,
and so on, from one to the next, whate^'er the number may be.

* Saridakes (from Lasche's Magazine, Vol. I, p*. 189) gives the statement that
" the origin of the art of distiUing has been wrongly attributed to the Arabians,
whose noticeable appearance in the world's history dates only since 622 a.d. The
art is much anterior to the above date: it was originated by Greek-Egyptian
chemists during the Hellenization of Egypt, under the reign of the Ptolemies,
330 to 323 B.C."

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

From the last egg a tube enters the globe B before passing into the
worm, whose use will presently be explained. From the next to the last
egg, or from any one of the series, an extra tube, C, also passes into the
globe B, by which arrangement one or more of the eggs may be dispensed
with when the distillation does not need to be carried very high. Another
pipe, D, connects each egg and also the boiler with a small worm, V,
which is used for testing the strength of the distillate in any one of the
eggs, or from the boiler. Another pipe, E, leads from the cooler F into
the boiler, and another, H, into the cooler from the storehouse where the
wines are kept. The worm in the cooler F, moreover, leads into another
worm in the cooler G. This still is worked in the following manner: The

Fig. 31.— fidouard Adam's Still.

cocks connecting the upper tubes are closed, and those in the lower pipe,
E, are opened. The wine is pumped from the storehouse through the
tube H into the cooler F, whence it *flows into the boiler. When
this is about two thirds full the cock next it is closed and the
wane is forced up into the first egg; when this is about half-filled the cock
next it is closed, when the second egg is treated in the same manner; and
so on through the series, except the last one, which serves as a condenser
and is surrounded with cold water. The lower cocks are now closed and
the upper ones communicating between the eggs and with the worm are
opened. Heat is applied to the boiler and the mixture of alcoholic and
watery vapor is carried into the first egg and there condensed by the
wine quite rapidly in the beginning of the process, so that for a time no
vapor passes over into the second egg. The wine in the first egg, however,
gradually comes to its boiling-point, which, by reason of its containing
more alcohol than that in the boiler, is at a lower temperature. In con-

82 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

sequence the vapor which passes into the second egg has a greater per-
centage of alcohol than that which it received. This vapor, being
condensed, will cause the liquor in the second egg to be stronger than in
the first, and therefore to boil at a still lower temperature. The succes-
sive eggs as they recede from the boiler will thus contain stronger and
stronger spirits, so that the last one may be made to receive alcoholic
vapor of any desired strength. This is passed into the worm in F and
condensed either in that or in the succeeding worm in the tub G below,
which is filled with water, kept cool by a constant flow. The upper cooler,
or wine-heater, containing the wine is kept closed, except that a pipe
leads into the globe B. This arrangement is for the purpose of prevent-
ing loss of spirit by evaporation, which would be considerable at the
temperature it attains by contact with the worm. The excise laws of
Great Britain prevented the introduction of this still into that country
until after their modification in 1815.

While, as is readily apparent from the above explanation, Adam^s
still was a very important contribution to the practice of the distillation
of alcohol, nevertheless it was a periodic and not a continuous distilling
apparatus.

The principle of continuous distillation of alcohol will next be described.
While in Dorn's distilling apparatus by one operation spirit containing
about 60 per cent of spirit is obtained, two important improvements in
stills over his apparatus were made, one by Derosne in France and the
other by Coffey in England. Both of these stills further perfected the
process of continuous distillaiion.

Derosne's StilL — Edouard Adam's apparatus was in the meantime,
from 1801 to 1815, much improved in France by Isaac Berard, Cellier-
Blumenthal, and Derosne. The modification of Gellier-Blumenthal,
improved by Derosne and now called Derosne 's still, is represented
in Fig. 32, page 83. This still made possible the method of con-
tinuous distillation. It consists of two boilers (or tandem stills), A
and A') a first rectifier, C; a wine-heater, D, containing a dephleg-
mator; a condenser, F) a supply-regulator, Ej for controlling the flow
of wine from the reservoir G, which is accomplished by means of a float-
valve.

The still is worked in the following manner: The boilers are about
two thirds filled with wine, or the liquor to be subjected to distillation,
through the cocks c, c'. The proper quantity is indicated by the glass
gauges d. df. Wine from the reservoir G is then let into the funnel
J, by which the condenser F and the wine-her.ter D are filled. In
the distillation the low-wine vapors pass from the lower into the upper

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

boiler through the pipe ^^ the extremity of which is enlarged and per-
forated with small holes. Here the vapors are condensed, increasing
the strength of the wine in the upper boiler and consequently lower-

FiG. 32.— Derosne's Still.

ing its boiling-point. The vapors ascend into the rectifiers B and C.
The lower rectifier B contains a number of shallow pans perforat-ed
with holes, and a number of spherical discs, also perforated with holes,
placed above them in pairs, the convexity of each disc being upward,

84 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

and receiving the drip of the shallow pan next above it. This drip
is produced by warmed wine which flows from the wine-heater through
the pipe L. By these means the vapors ascending from the upper boiler
have their more watery portions condensed, while the alcohoUc vapor
continues to ascend.

The dripping wine also has a portion of its alcohol expelled in the
form of vapor, which ascends with the vapor coming from below into
the upper rectifier through the orifice 0 in its base. This upper rec-
tifier communicates through the tube M with a worm (which is the
dephlegmator) in the wine-heater D, the worm ending in the tube
w, which again terminates in the worm contained in the condenser F
through a cylindrical connection in its upper part. The worm in F
terminates in a small vessel, N, which is furnished with an alcoholom-
eter. The alcohol in TV flows from its upper part into the cistern H.
The upper rectifier C is divided into a number of compartments by
as many horizontal partitions, each disc having an orifice in its centre,
like the orifice at 0. To each of these orifices on the upper side of the
partition is adjusted a short open vertical tube. A short distance
above each tube is placed an inverted pan, having its edges descending
about three fourths of an inch below the level of the upper orifice of
the tube. As the vapors ascend from the lower rectifier into the upper
one, a portion of them condense and collect upon the bottom of the
compartments until they rise slightly above the edges of the inverted
pans and nearly to the upper orifices of the tubes. When this takes
place the vapor can only pass upward by forcing its way under the
edges of the pans, by which means the more watery portion is still
further condensed, the (stronger) alcoholic vapor, having a higher
tension, retaining its gaseous form, and passing on through the tube M
into the dephlegmatory worm in the wine-heater, there to be partially
condensed; which process heats the wine surrounding the worm. A
phlegma collects in the lower convolutions, which may be drawn off
by means of the pipes p, 'p, p, and transferred at pleasure either into
the tube m or into the upper rectifier. The purer alcoholic vapors
which arise pass through the dephlegmator into the condensing worm
in the condenser F, whence they flow in liquid form into the vessel N
and thence into the reservoir or receiver H, while the spent wash liquor,
free from alcohol, is run off by the outlet-pipe from A\ The strength
of the alcohol produced by this still depends upon the number of wind-
ings of the dephlegmator and the number of partitions in the upper
rectifier. Derosne's still requires but little fuel, distills rapidly, and
yields a good spirit, which may be varied in strength at pleasure.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 85

Pistorius' Still. — The distilling apparatus shown in Fig. 33 was
invented by Pistorius, in Berhn, in the year 1817. This cut shows the
still according to his original drawing in the works of Liidersdorff-
Pistorius on the manufacture of alcohol.

In operating this still the wash liquor is boiled by a direct fire in
the lower boiler or still A. The weak alcoholic vapors evolved are
conducted by the tube D into the second still C. In order to prevent
the scorching or burning of the contents of these stills, they are pro-
vided with mechanical stirrers or agitators, by means of which the
contents can be kept in motion.

The wash liquor in the second boiler or still C is brought to boiling
by the alcoholic vapors entering it from the still A and also by the hot
iiue-gases from the furnace fire under the still A. The alcoholic vapors
from the still C escape into the rectificator E through the tube a, sur-
mounted by the cap b, and must force their way through a pool or layer
of alcoholic liquor in the bottom of E, becoming greatly enriched in
alcohol thereby, after which they pass on through G to the rectifying-
column H, H2, H3, which is cooled by water from the pipe h, and
these still stronger alcoholic vapors are finally condensed as about 80 per
cent alcohol in K and collected in practice from L in the receiver. Mean-
time the cold wash liquor is being heated in F, a saving in fuel being
thus effected, and as this wash liquor is heated a partial or fractional
condensation of the alcoholic vapors is thus accomplished, and the
weaker alcoholic liquor so obtained furnishes the layer for the bot-
tom of E, as mentioned above. The low wines also return from the
rectifying-column into E through G, G, and also contribute to this layer
or pool of weak alcohol in E. In practice the tubes L, G, G, and D
are properly connected up, although in this drawing of Pistorius they
are left open. It will thus be seen that E is really a "heater" or
dephlegmator apparatus. The surplus low wines from E are returned
to C At the point c in the tube to 5 is a cock for condensing
the vapors from A through the condenser m and collecting the dis-
tillate at /. When such a tested sample proves to be alcohol-free the
contents of A are spent and this is run off. It is called the slop and
is the residue from the distillation of the wash or fermented weak liquor.
After A is emptied the contents of C are then run into A, and the hot
wash liquor from the "heater " F is run into C; then F is refilled with
cold wash liquor and the distillation again proceeds. Such a still is
periodic and not continuous. This still possesses the advantages of
the wash "heater" and of the rectifying-column. It has since been
improved over this original design.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

— Oh

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

Saint-Marc's Still.— In Fig. 34 is shown the distilling appara-
tus of Saint-Marc. In this still the number of plates was increased
over that of the Pistorius still, which
assisted in developing the process of
continuous distillation. The discharge-
pipe for the spent wash or residue
from the distillation is shown at the
bottom of the still in this cut. In this
form this apparatus found employment
in the English colonies for the distil-
lation of rum. Saint-Marc was a veteri-
nary surgeon on the staff of Napoleon I.
and after the battle of Waterloo he went,
in 1823, to England and became interested
in the distillation of spirits, with the re-
sult that he there perfected this still and
about the year 1827 took out a patent
therefor.

The Coffey Still.— In 1832 an English-
man named Coffey patented the con-
tinuous form of distilling apparatus
shown in Fig. 35. This still has proved
to be of great value to the distiller. Its
objects are two-fold :

1. To economize the heat as much ^ig. 34.— Saint-Marc's DistiUing
as possible by exposing the liquid to a Apparatus.

very extended heating surface ;

2. To cause the evaporation of the alcohol from the wash by passing
a current of steam through it.

In operating this still the wash is pumped from the reservoir M
through L into the zigzag pipe m, which passes from top to bottom
of the rectifier K. In circulating through this tube m the wash liquor
is heated to quite an extent. Arrived at the last convolution of this
tube in the rectifier, the heated wash passes by the tube m in at the
top of the still. It falls and collects upon the top shelf or plate until
this overflows, whence it falls on to the second shelf and so on to the
bottom of the still. All the while steam, supplied by the tube b, passes
upward through the tubes and perforations in these shelves. As the
wash gradually descends in the still it becomes rapidly weaker, partly
from condensation of the steam which is passed into it and partly from
loss of alcohol, either evaporated or expelled by the steam, until when

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

it arrives at the bottom it has parted with the last trace of alcohol.
This spent wash is drawn off by the trapped pipe N.

At the same time the vapor as it rises through each shelf of the

Fig. 35.— The Coffey Still.

still bubbles through the liquid on them and becomes continuously
richer in alcohol, and thus contains less and less water in consequence
of its condensation; it then passes from the top of the still in at the
bottom of the lower compartment of the rectifier K. Here it ascends

through perforated plates similar to those
in the column of the still and bubbling
through the liquid, between the windings of
the descending wash-pipe, on the shelves
until it is conducted through R into the
finished spirit-condenser, to be finally recon-
densed as high-proof alcohol of about 91 per
cent by weight.

The low wines run from the bottom of the
rectifier K, where they collect, to L and are
pumped into the top of the still with the wash,
to be again distilled and thereby concentrated into high-proof alcohol.
In order to still further economize heat, the water for supplying the
steam-boiler is made to pass through a long coil of pipe immersed in

Fig. 36.— The Coffey
Dephlegmator.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 89

the boiling but spent wash, by which means its temperature is raised
before it enters the boiler.

This still in the larger sizes works off upward of 3000 galleys of
wash per hour.

In Fig. 36 is shown the construction and design of the Coffey dephleg-
mator.

As pointed out earlier in this chapter it is enclosed, and the returning
condensed alcoholic liquid is not thus exposed to the cooling action
of the air, the wash flowing through the tubes of this dephlegmator
being thus heated by the ascending alcoholic vapors.

The Ilges Automatic Continuous Distilling Apparatus.* — According
to the investigations of Hayduck (Zeitschr. f . Spir.-Ind., 1890, No. 49), this
apparatus furnishes pure spirit of a superior degree of strength and in the
same process separates the fusel-oil. This apparatus is shown in Fig. 37,
p. 90. The claims made for it are that it is simple to work, that it is
economical in its use of steam and water, that the process is continuous
and that by one operation pure 96 per cent spirit is made.

Referring to the cut show^n in Fig. 37, the method of operating
the still becomes readily apparent. The wash is supplied from the
reservoir or tank to the still A by the action of the wash-regulator G.
The steam-regulator F supplies the steam to the still. The discharge
of the spent wash or slop is controlled by the slop-regulator C, and such
slop is tested at Q. The alcoholic vapors, together w^ith those of the
fusel-oil, enter the dephlegmator D by the pipe a. The dephlegmator
consists of eight or nine partitions or chambers filled with porcelain balls
and cooling-tubes. The pure-spirit vapors are conveyed to the condenser
E by the tube h. The low wines, together with the fusel-oil, run down
through the dephlegmator chambers mentioned, becoming more and
more enriched with fusel-oil until, at a strength of about 15 per cent
alcohol by volume, they pass out of the dephlegmator through the tube
c into the low-wine condenser M and give up their content of fusel-oil,
which is drawn off.

The separated low wines are conveyed by the tube h to the fore-
heater R over into the low-wine column 0 in order to be again distilled,
and finally the spent low wines are discharged from the pipe i, k, free
from alcohol and fusel-oil. The testing apparatus for the spent low-wine
liquor is at P.

It is noticed that no use is made of any rectifying process (by filtra-
tion) involving charcoal batteries in connection with this still.

* Maercker's Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation, 1898.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

German Continuous Distilling Apparatus and Rectifying-stilL—

In Figs. 38, 39, and 40 there is shown the Braunschweigische apparatus,
as iillows: Fig. 38 shows a portion of the mash-column, which is equiva-

FiG. 37. — The Ilges Automatic Continuous Still.

lent to our American continuous beer-still. This German apparatus is
fitted with dephlegmator or mash fore-heater and sieve-column.

While the German apparatus shown in Figs. 39 and 40 distill con-

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

tinuously, the makers recommend that the separation of the fusel-oil
and other impurities take place in a second rectifying apparatus for

D>;;:-:..iiii:il|llii!!l!illllL'!;.i!;;

■in;:!lii..'iliii- "

Fig. 38. — ^Mash-column with a Heating-tube System. Built by Braunschweigische
Maschinenbau-Anstalt, Braunschweig, Germany.

periodical charging, which apparatus is shown in Fig. 40, page 93. It is
claimed that in this manner great simplicity of ser\'ice and security in
working is obtained when contrasted with the complex automatic contin-

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

uous alcohol-distilling apparatus which simultaneously separates the fusel-
oil. In the United States such separate and periodic rectifying methods
are also followed, as the descriptions to follow will show.

I^G. 89. — Continuous Wash-distilling Apparatus. Built by Braunschweigische
Maschinenbau-Anstm, Braunschweig, Germany.

The Periodic Wash-distilling Apparatus for Agricultural Spirit
Distilleries. — In Fig. 41, page 94, is shown a periodic spirit-still quite
similar in principle to the American three-chambered charging-still. This
foreign still is claimed to possess considerable merit, and the advantages
claimed for it are simplicity of construction, ease of working, small
amounts of water and steam needed, quick extraction of the alcohol
from the wash, and the high grade of the spirits produced.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 93

■■il

Fig. 40. — Alcohol Rectifying Apparatus. Built by Braunschweigische Maschinenbaii-
Anstalt, Braunschweig, Germany.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The direct continuous rectifying apparatus shown in Fig. 42, page 95,
is built by E. Barbet, Paris, France. The maker claims the following
advantages for this still: The alcohol produced by it is of the best qual-
ity. It is especially adapted for the rectification of wines, but the reagent
vessels, here shown, are necessary on account of the special impurities
of wines. This type of rectifying-still, which has been tried in France

'^^^mtMrn

Fig. 41. — Distilling Apparatus, or Periodic Still. Built by Novdk & Jalin,

Prague, Austria.

and foreign countries, is claimed to be the most perfect of its kind. EE'
is a necessary refiner, to which are adjusted the reagent vessels designed to
purify the alcoholic vapors. The pasteurization acts, in the third place,
as a complementary refining process, practically final. The wine takes
the following course: It enters in the first place at the bottom of the
wine-heater M, and from there it goes to the refining-plates at E\ Once
arrived in the sub-chamber E^' it is relieved of its most volatile impurities,
gas and aldehydes. It then descends to the plates at C, where it is sub-
mitted to a more active boiling, which effects the entire exhaustion of
the alcohol. The vapors, which are separated at the plates C, pass by

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

the pipe ST to the rectificator proper, called G. The wine-heater M and
the refrigerator N, or condenser, furnish the retrogressions (returns)
necessary to concentrate the alcohol to 96.5%. N shows the apparatus

Pig. 42. — Direct Continuous Rectifying Apparatus. Built by E. Barbet,

Paris, France.

which extracts the pasteurized alcohol, P the condensing apparatus, and
P the testing apparatus. As for those impurities which may remain,
separated by the condenser N, they return to the testing apparatus E,
At the base of the rectifying-column G the last refluxes are purified and

96 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

extracted apart in the fusel-oil columns at D. H is the special condenser
of the fusel-oil. These impurities pass out in a highly concentrated form
and are recondensed in the refrigerator K. This apparatus produces
a pure neutral spirit in one continuous operation. Barbet mentions that
among the reagents used in these stills are fragments of marble and
saline solutions.

In connection with Barbet ^s continuous rectifying apparatus, shown
in Fig. 42, it will be of interest from the French standpoint to know
that among the problems to be solved by rectification Sorel mentions
" the difficulties caused by the principal bodies concurrently existing or
present in the phlegms (or raw spirits), which are ethers formed by the
reaction of the acids upon the alcohols; acids formed by the oxidation of
the alcohols; glycerine, and sometimes acrolein as an accompanying
product; acetaldehyde and the aldehydes which correspond to the divers
homologues of ethyl alcohol; furfurol; ammonia, and a number of organic
bases apparently existing in the phlegms as products formed because of
the non-assimilation of the yeast, etc.

'' All, or nearly all, of these substances are able to react one upon the
other to produce new compounds, and are able to divide themselves and
to transform themselves under the prolonged action of the water and the
heat; one must therefore contend against a veritable Proteus. If these
substances were anhydrous there would still be extreme difficulty experi-
enced in separating them; the presence of water acts for some of them
in the presence of the others to still further complicate the problem.

"The numerous chemical methods of treatment (for the separation of
these substances) have been successively proposed and rejected; finally
they have been wholly abandoned. It is, then, to the purely physical
processes that the constructor of rectifying apparatus must address him-
self, and these methods demand a profound knowledge concerning the
laws of physics of the most delicate character: the solubility of the dif-
ferent component parts one in the other, the vapor pressure of the different
mixed liquids, specific heats, the latent heats of vaporization, density of
the vapors, radiation, etc. Upon this profound knowledge and the rig-
orous choice of the proportions of the divers organic parts of the apparatus
depend the success or failure of the apparatus itself.''

The Stade Continuous Automatic Still. — An exceedingly effective
type of continuous still for the extraction of alcohol direct from the
wash is shown in Fig. 43, p. 98.

This is the automatic and continuous working still built by Geo.
Stade, Berlin, Germany. This type as shown is called construction
B, for cologne spirits and rum, separating in one operation the fusel-

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 97

oil and impurities. The strength of the refined spirit should be 96 per
cent Tralles.

For making ordinary rum 90 to 92 per cent Tralles are sufficient as
a rule.

The advantages claimed for this still are that no charcoal filters or
rectifying apparatus are necessary for cleansing the raw spirit as dis-
tilled from the wash as has heretofore been customary in other and
less modern makes of apparatus.

The product therefore suffers no deterioration, as no decomposition
of the fusel-oil occurs, for by this new process of distillation the fusel-
oil vapors are separately condensed and collected in an uninterrupted
stream.

In soimd wash experience the products of fermentation are found
in a purer form in the wash than in the spirit as usually distilled from
it; for although the wash contains fusel -oil perhaps averaging ^ of
1 per cent for different washes as the quantity is different in different
washes, the wash contains no volatile aldehydes or ethers.

In less modern types of stills aldehydes are formed by contact of
the alcoholic vapors with the atmosphere in the cooler.

The final results of the older methods of rectifying show a further
deterioration; for if the better products of the common rectifying
process, i.e., the different high wines and the rectified spirits, after having
been laboriously separated were combined afresh with the ordinary
alcohol and the first and second runnings the mixture would be con-
siderably more impure than the original raw spirit.

For the above reasons the makers of this type of still claim that
their automatic still for refined spirit encounters none of these dis-
advantages inasmuch as it extracts directly from the wash the volatile
substances therein contained, namely, the ethyl alcohol and raw fusel-
oil, separately and without decomposition.

As to the size of this still it may be said that its height is 10 meters
(a meter =39.3 inches), the floor-space it occupies is 6 meters X 1.50
meters, and its capacity is 2500 gallons of wash liquor per hour.

The Wash-regulator. — The wash-regulator consists of a vat with
overflow-pipe and the capacity of the wash-pump is so calculated that
a continuous overflow takes place at full opening of the outlet-valve,
in order to keep a constant level in this vat.

The wash outlet-pipe is connected with a graduated cock handled
from the working platform below. The outlet-opening of the vat has
to be brushed out and cleaned after using so as to be sure this open-
ing is clear of dead ferments.

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The Still Water-regulator. — This works in the same way as the wash-
regulator with constant level. The regulating outlet-cock is fixed on
the spu-it-condenser, but is handled from below, where a gradient is
put up.

The overflow of this tank returns to the cool tanks as refresherator
or to the suction-well. It is a most important requisite to have this
water free from incrustation-forming salts, as otherwise the tubes in

tr^

Fig. 43. — Patent Automatic and Continuous Working Still, Construction B. Built
by Geo. Stade, Berlin, Germany.

the condenser and the dephlegmator get coated and cause great irregu-
larities in the long run.

The Steam-regulator. — This is the most important of all. The
change in pressure is effected by means of lead weights on the regu-
lating piston; as a rule 0.5 atmosphere is the working pressure. How-
ever 0.3 to 0.7 atm. may be used if required. The apparatus is put
up exactly level and care must be taken that all steam pumps and
pipes are quite clean. A few days before starting the still, this steam-
regulator must be tested and fully lubricated with gasoline and kero-
sene. No oil is allowed. The safety-valve of the steam-receiver is
charged ^V of ^n atmosphere higher than the working pressure of the
regulator. Exhaust-steam from the central pumping-engine as well as
exhaust from the sugar-works are led into this receiver.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 99

All engines are to be lubricated by mineral-oil.

The direct steam enters the regulator after passing a reducing-
valve at 3 to 4 atm. This secures even working of the pumping-engine
and even quality of exhaust-steam for the receiver. This receiver is
acting as steam accumulator for the still. The steam-receiver as
well as all steam-pipes are covered with heat-insulating composi-
tion.

The condensed-water valve on the bottom of the receiver is always
kept a little open.

In order to operate this still the proceeding is as follows: First see
that all joints are tight, and in case of a new still the apparatus is com-
pletely filled with water for this purpose. The water is then discharged
through the lees regulating-pipe and steam is turned on. The wash-
regulator is now filled up. For starting, the wash-column steam-cock
is put at 10%, rising to 40%. As soon as the dephlegmator becomes
heated to the third or fourth body, the wash-cock is opened say
20 to 30%, and when the spirit appears in the spirit-gauge the
water is put on gradually. All cocks and valves are fixed in such
a manner that a maximum of wash is worked off. This maximum
is reached as soon as wash appears in the wash gauge-glass. The wash-
cock is then shut a little so that no wash or only very little appears
in the glass. At the same time in the lees and singlings tester the small
spirit hydrometers are visible.

The regulator analysis of lees and singlings will soon show at what
position the small alcohol hydrometers or alcoholometers have to stand
to avoid any possible loss.

Now the temperature of the singlings running from the dephlegmator
is regulated by the water-cock on the condenser. If pure spirit is
desired, the temperature for separation of the fusel-oil appears to be
87°-88° C, the best temperature being 87.8° C. As soon as the fusel-
oil appears in the sight-glass of the separator it is drawn off either
continuously or temporarily, while the singlings are returned to the
wash-reservoir.

For manufacturing rum no separation of fusel-oil is looked for and the
temperature may be kept from 89° to 92° C, according to the quality
of the rum required. The strength of the refined spirit should be 96%;
for making ordinary rum 90 per cent to 92 per cent Tralles are suf-
ficient as a rule.

The spirit made is measured by the Siemens meter, shown at the
left in Fig. 43. This still causes no loss of alcohol, while in filtering and
rectifying fully 2i per cent of alcohol is lost. The only by-product of

100 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

this automatic still for refined spirit (when using molasses wash) is fusel-
oil, which has a good market value.

All the exhaust-steam of the engines can be used in the distillation.

Only 250 kilograms (1 kilo = 2.20 lbs.) of steam are required for 1000
liters (a liter= 1 quart) of wash, which is equivalent to one ton of coal
(of good quality) for 1000 imperial gallons = 1120 American gallons of
molasses.

The construction of this still is such that very little expense for repairs
is necessary.

The Ilges Automatic Rectifying-still,* used in Germany for producing
pure 96 per cent alcohol (192° U. S. proof) continuously from the wash
or from raw spirits, separating in one operation the fusel-oil and im-
purities, is illustrated in Fig. 44.

In this cut the details of the construction are plainly indicated by
the vertical sectional drawings. This still is elaborated and still further
improved over the earlier type of the similar Ilges still shown in Fig. 37,
page 90.

It will be noticed that this improvement consisted principally in the
addition of a second or additional rectifying-column. This still has
three very important advantages or features:

1. It recovers or extracts 90 per cent of all the alcohol contained in
the wash and produces it as an absolutely pure spirit of from 96 to 96.5
per cent strength by volume, or from 192 to 193 per cent U. S. proof.

2. It recovers all the fusel-oil of a strength of 80 per cent.

3. It recovers all the low wines at a strength of 97 per cent by volume
or 194 per cent U. S. proof.

This still gives satisfaction no matter what the nature of the raw
materials used for the mashes; whether the mashes are thick and turbid,
whether the wash or raw spirits contain dregs or settlings, the product
is equally good and is obtained free from all low wines, fusel-oil, or
furfurol.

As an example of the ability and capacity of this still to also purify
raw spirits the following example is given: A distiller owning one of these
stills had been in the habit of distilling his mash; working six hours a
day to do so, using a still heated directly by fire, he found that, by running
night and day continuously with this still for etn equal period of six months,
in purifying the raw spirits from a distillery company he increased
the quantity of alcohol so obtained by more than fourfold without any
change in his methods.

* From Maercker-Delbriick's Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation, 1903.

51, 55 -s O o

li;;HI;;;:iin:'l::&:i_lM:jl

%=^

102 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

To return to the still shown in Fig. 44, it is seen that the wash is
supplied automatically, through the pipe H, from the elevated wash
reservoir or tank, to the still by the pipes 3 and 4.

In the case of distilling raw spirits, these are supplied to the still, from
the elevated tank at the extreme right of the cut, mixed with warm water
from the tank 0, by connecting the pipe 4 to the still.

Steam is supplied to the still through the steam-regulator F at the
lower right-hand side of this cut. The spent wash is discharged through
the tube 5 in the slop or spent-wash regulator beside the still. This
spent-wash or slop regulating apparatus is provided with a device for
testing the slop by an alcohol hydrometer, to see if it is free from alcohol,
before it is discharged.

The alcoholic vapors from the still are conveyed to the first rectifier
K by the pipe a, entering the rectifier at its base by the tube 6. The
object of this rectifier is to concentrate the alcohol to 96.5 per cent and
to remove the fusel-oil.

At K there is an empty space in this first rectifier into which the
vapors from the low-wine dephlegmator or cooler m enter by the tube 7,
and where they are mixed with the vapors from the still. The space
between K and I is completely filled with porcelain balls.

The high-proof alcohol vapors now pass from the first rectifier K
by the tube h into the second rectifier at 21, through the dephlegmator
r, being thus freed from practically all of the contained aldehydes, after
which the condensed high-proof alcohol runs down through the porcelain
balls in the chambers 19 and 18 through the tube 23, being conveyed
in a zigzag manner, where the spirit is partially vaporized and deprived
of the last traces of aldehydes in S, and the now absolutely pure alcohol
vapors are now conveyed by the tube h to the final spirit-condenser and
the pure 96.5 per cent alcohol is drawn off at R.

When the low-wine vapors mixed with the fusel-oil a^e separated and
condensed by the dephlegmator I from the pure alcohol vapors, they
run down through the chambers and are conducted by / into the low-
wine condenser and thence into the fusel-oil separator by the pipe 12,
and the fusel-oil is collected by the pipe 10 in the fusel-oil reservoir 11.
The low wines pass on to the spent low-wine condenser, and their vapors
(singlings) again pass into the first rectifier K by the tube 7 as stated.
The spent low wines are tested at C before being discharged.

The tube c conveys the small amounts of the vapors of low wines
(which get past the first to the second rectifying-column), containing the
traces of aldehydes, to the< condenser, where these bodies are recondensed
and drawn off at *S.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECITFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

103

The Siemens Alcohol Meter. — In the description of the patent Stade
continuous still, on pages 96-98, it was stated that such still was pro-

— — = Ml

Fig. 45. — ^The Siemens Alcohol Meter.

vided with the Siemens alcohol meter. These meters can, of course, be
used with any make of similar still of large capacities. In Fig. 45 is

Fig. 46. — Sectional Drawing of the Siemens Alcohol Meter.

shown an illustration of this meter. In Germany the wort is left to fer-
ment for thirty hours, and is then conveyed to a patent still. On issuing

104 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL,

from the condenser the spirit passes through a domed glass case in which
is a gauging-cup. In this cup, into which the spirit flows and from which
it overflows, there float a thermometer and a hydrometer, to indicate the
strength of the spirit passing. From this apparatus (similar in purpose
to the American separating-boxes) the spirit flows into a Siemens meter,
fitted with an indicator which records the quantity, reduced to the stand-
ard of absolute alcohol, of spirit transmitted, and from the meter the
spirit passes on to the receiver. A sectional drawing of this ingenious
metering apparatus is shown in Fig. 46.

AMERICAN ALCOHOL-DISTILLING APPARATUS.

The Continuous Beer-still. — ^Turning now to American apparatus,
in Fig. 47, p. 105, there is shown a patent continuous beer-still, with
tubular heater and condenser combined, and cooler for high- and low-
proof spirits. This still is made in capacities of from 300 gallons of
wash per hour to 13,000 gallons of wash per hour. It is also used for the
production of high wines, which are charged into the copper kettles as
shown in Fig. 48, page 106.

In using this continuous still for the production of high-proof
spirits the return-pipe M is used to carry back to the still the low wines,
or singlings, condensed by the cold beer passing through the tubes, which
are surrounded by the vapor from the still. For low-proof spirit the pipe
M is dispensed with, the vapor passing direct to the worm, or cooler.

Returning to Fig. 48, page 106, the Alcohol and Cologne Spirit Appara-
tus, it may be said that the kettles or stills are made, in capacities of
from 50 to 600 barrels, with a rectifying-column, goose condenser, and
final condenser, producing the highest grades of cologne spirits and
alcohol of a proof of 192 per cent or 96 per cent alcohol.

The cut shown in Fig. 49 on page 107 is the continuous ''beer " still
shown in Fig. 47, with the addition of a goose condenser or tubular con-
denser, whichever is preferred, with return to top chamber of still, the
three or four top chambers being regular column chambers. The vapor
passes from the goose to a final condenser, then through Ihe tail-box to
a small copper receiving-tank, from where it is drawn into the cistern, or
if below the required proof, is returned to the still by means of the steam-
syphon. By this method alcohol of 180 per cent proof, or 90 per cent
alcohol, can be produced by continuous distillation.

A Continuous-distilling and Redistilling Apparatus is shown in Fig.
50 on page 108. This cut represents an apparatus designed to fill the
needs of a distilling and redistilling process continuously. It consists of

THE DISTILLATIOxN AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 105

the continuous beer-still fitted with brass boiUng-caps and tubular con-
denser, the vapor outlet from which is discharged into the rectifying-kettle,
which is supplied with a steam-boiling scroll, rectifier-column, goose, and

Fig. 47. — Continuous Beer-still. Built by Hoffman-Ahlers Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.

final condenser. It will produce a high-proof product, or it can be changed
by means of gate-valves in the vapor-pipe into separate distilling and
redistilling apparatus. The final condenser can be either a tubular or

106

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

worm condenser, whichever is preferred. By this apparatus alcohol of
188 per cent proof or 94 per cent strength can be made.

From what has preceded in this chapter it is believed that no detailed
description of the four types of stills just described is necessary. By
inspection of Figs. 47-50 the details of their construction are plainly evi-

FiG. 48. — Alcohol and Cologne Spirit Apparatus. Built by Hoffman-Ahlers Co.

dent, and we see that they are designed on the basis of the theories of
distillation which we have already discussed.

The Continuous Beer-still Apparatus. — ^This apparatus of the '* con-
tinuous " type, shown in Fig. 51, p. 109, is simple in its construction and
operation and most effective in results, producing a clear, sweet, high

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 107

Fig. 49. — Continuous Beer-still with Goose Attached. Built by Hoffman-Ahlers Co.

108

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

wine of 150 per cent U. S. standard proof or 75 per cent alcohol by-
volume.

Flo. 60. — Continuous Distilling and Redistilling Apparatus.
Built by Hoffman-Ahlers Co.

In the operation of this apparatus the beer is delivered to the still
by means of the pump through the tubes of the heater. After entering
the still it flows over plate A, which is perforated with copper-capped

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 109

Fia. 51. — Continuous Beer-still, showing Heater and Condenser. Built by
The Vulcan Copper Works Co.

no DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

holes, to down pipe B, by which means it enters seal C and again over-
flows plate A in the chamber below. This process is continued until the
bottom chamber is reached, from which the spent beer is automatically
discharged through the automatic waste-valve H. The level of the beer
in the lower chamber is regulated by the float 7, connected by means of
a rod to automatic valve H.

Steam enters a perforated pipe in the bottom of the still through
manifold E. Connections are made for both live steam F and exhaust-
steam G. The steam entering the still at the bottom chamber passes
upward through the tongued holes in the plates, thoroughly boiling out
the beer flowing over the plate and carrying with it the alcoholic vapors
to the next chamber above. After reaching the top chamber the vapors
are conducted to the heater, passing downward and around the tubes
(through which the beer is being pumped) to the final condenser.

This type of heater embodies several important improvements over
the old style and performs a double function, namely, heating the beer
and condensing the low-proof vapors, the latter being returned to the
still. The high-proof vapors pass through to the final condenser to the
tail-box W, where they are recondensed and conducted through pipes
to the receiving-tanks.

A small portion of the vapors in the lower chamber are conducted to
the slop-tester J. This consists of a small condenser, and by means of a
hydrometer-stem any loss of alcohol is immediately detected.

The vessel M is also connected to the lower chamber, and the pressure
carried in the still is registered on the tally-board K by means of the
float N in the tube. The float rises or lowers according to the amount of
pressure brought to bear on the surface of the water in the vessel M.
The pressure will vary according to the number of chambers and ranges
from one and a half to three pounds. *

D are braces to support the centre of the plates in the stills of larger
diameter; P are manheads; R, gauge-glasses; S, washout; Q, try-
cocks; U, water inlet; V, water overflow; and Z, air-pipe. F is a small
pipe conducting the alcohol to hydrometer-cup X, so that the quality of
the product can be readily seen during the entire operation of the appara-
tus. This type of still is built as large as nine feet in diameter.

Following is a table of sizes of still and the number of gallons of wash
they will handle per hour:

20" diameter still 400 gallons per hour.

24"

30"
36"
40"

48"

500

1000

1500

2000

3000

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL 111

Spirit Apparatus. — The apparatus shown in Fig. 52, page 112, is de-
signed to raise to a higher proof the product of the continuous beer-
still apparatus previously described, and is built in sizes to. charge from
3 to 500 barrels.

The still proper on the lower floor is built either in a horizontal or
upright form. The horizontal stills are smaller in diameter and greater
in length, while the upright stills are greater in diameter and less in
height.

These stills have steam-coils, running horizontally with the still,
by means of which its contents are brought to the boiling-point. The
coils have one or more steam inlets and outlets according to the size
of still. The vapors pass upward from the still to the column by means
of the dome and vapor-pipe on the top of the still.

The end of the vapor-pipe being submerged in the column, the vapors
bubble through the liquid and ascend to the chamber above, the means
of entrance being through the vapor- pipe and bonnet, necessitating the
passing of the vapor thrpugh the liquid, or it returns twice in each
chamber before it passes to the next chamber above.

Ample space is provided for the passage of the vapors between the
top edge of the vapor-pipe and the bonnet, with a corresponding space
between the lower edge of the bonnet and head or floor of the chamber.
During this process the vapors grow stronger in proof as they ascend
to the top of the column.

While the high-proof vapors are ascending, the returns are drop-
ping back from chamber to chamber through the down pipes, and find
their way back to the still by means of the trap in the bottom of the
column as shown in the cut.

The liquid in each chamber is carried to the level of the down pipes
as shown in the open section bf the column. The vapor-pipes with
their bonnet coverings are also plainly shown.

The vapors on emerging from the top of the column are conducted
to a manifold connected to five sections of the "goose." They are
here split up and pass upward and downward through the five sections
until they reach the manifold or equalizing drum connecting the entire
ten sections of the " goose " at the back end. The vapor after leaving
the first five sections enters the next five sections and is "forced upward
and downward till it reaches the manifold on the front of the " goose "
and passes on to the final condenser.

The "goose " is submerged in a tank of water and here the finer
separations take place. Each of the bottom return bends is provided
with a return pipe, and the returns, or low-proof alcohol, are conducted

112

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Fig. 52. — Spirit Apparatus. Built by the Vulcan Copper Works Co.

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 113

back to the column by means of the trapped return pipe at the bottom
of the ''goose" tank.

The final condenser may be either of the Bevis or tubular form.
The Bevis condenser consists of two cylinders, one within the other,
leaving a space of about one half inch all around. A copper wire of
one half inch or five eighths inch diameter is soldered spirally around,
filling up the space between the two cylinders, thus forcing the vapors
to travel between the spirals while being subjected to the cooling
waters in which the condenser is submerged.

These condensers are built in sections and connected by means of
brass bends, as shown in the open part of the cut. At the lower end
of the Bevis condenser is the spirit outlet, to which is connected the
tail-box, of the same pattern as described in connection with the con-
tinuous beer-still apparatus.

The return or wash-out cocks on the right of the column are for
draining the chambers. The small cocks on the left of the column
are test-cocks. The cock on the bottom of the trap in the return-pipe
from "goose" to column is for running off the fusel-oil after the column
has been in operation for some length of time. The smaller pipe enter-
ing the top of this trap and connected to the "goose" tank is used in
washing out the column and charging the chambers of the column
after they have been drained. The still is also provided with a gauge-
glass, manhead, vacuum-valve, charge-cock, blow-out cock, and pres-
sure-gauge.

Fig. 53 shows the "kettle" or upright still, which is provided with
steam-coils, and with one or more steam inlets and outlets, according
to the size of the still. The interior arrangement of the chambers in
this type of column are of an entirely different construction from the
one just described in Fig. 52.

This construction is plainly shown in the enlarged detail. The
vapor-pipes with their bonnet coverings are rectilinear, splitting up
the vapors more thoroughly and subjecting them to a more complete
washing. The travel of the returns in their downward course over
the heads or plates is also much longer than in the previously described
column and the number of chambers more than twice as many.

The column being connected directly to the still, with the tubular
separator in place of the "goose," and the tubular condenser make a
compact apparatus, requiring much less space both in regard to floor-
space and height as compared to the other type.

By referring to the cuts showing the detail construction of the heads
or plates the upward course of the vapor and the downward course of

114 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the returns, or weaker alcoholic liquor, are plainly shown by the darts.
(See Fig. 53, page 115, where the arrows indicate the flow of returns
over heads and the vapor course through the chambers of the column
of this still.)

The tubular separator has a diaphragm through its centre, with the
sides and top riveted to the sides of the shell and upper-tube head,
leaving it open on the lower end. The vapor enters the tubular con-
denser at the top, surrounds the tubes (through which the cooling-water
is passing on its downward course), and passes through the bottom
opening of the diaphragm on its upward course to the outlet and final
condenser.

For the larger stills of this type, the separator furnished vdth this
style of apparatus has several distinguishing features, making it a
superior apparatus in every respect as compared with the old style
of the same type. The features of this type are its simplicity, compact-
ness, and efficiency. It produces a grade of alcohol eminently clean
and satisfactory.

In Fig. 53 the arrows indicate flow of returns over heads and
vapor course through chambers; the detail of column chambers is also
shown.

In the field of distillery operation in the United States are to be found
plants of the most tremendous size, the like of which can be seen in no
other part of the world. These colossal establishments, in which from
ten to fifteen thousand bushels of grain are handled daily, call for appara-
tus of the highest perfection in design and constructive detail to expedi-
tiously and effectively accomplish the desired results. This applies in
particular to the rectifying department of the distillery, where the suc-
cess-determining factor of the entire operation is centred. The spirit-
rectifying apparatus illustrated in Fig. 54 is in use in nearly all of the
largest American distilleries. The Vulcan Copper Works Company, of
Cincinnati, Ohio, are the builders.

The component parts of the apparatus as a whole are the still at the
base, to which is connected the rectifying-column, from whence the
vapors proceed into the goose separator and then into the final condenseT.
The still, which as here presented is horizontal in construction, is like-
wise built upright or kettle-shaped. The largest of these stills has a
capacity of twenty-five thousand gallons. They are built of heavy
copper-plate throughout, securely riveted and soldered. Heat is applied
by means of longitudinal steam-coils firmly stayed in the bottom of the
still. The foundation supports consist of brick or concrete saddle-piers
spaced at requisite intervals and extending half-way up the sides in

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 115

Fig. 53.— The "Kettle" or Upright Still (Spirit Apparatus). Built by The Vulcan

Copper Works Co.

116 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

which the still rests. A glass gauge, manhead, charge-cock, and discharge-
cock comprise the attachments. In the centre of the top is a dome in
which the vapors are accumulated before passing over into the column.

A column of proportionate size to that of the still specified above is
6 feet in diameter and stands 40 feet high. It is composed of a series of
individual chambers each containing an equipment of especially con-
trived boiling-pipes and caps so applied as to obtain a most thorough
distribution and highly effective wash of the vapors as they ascend
through the column chambers. Down-pipes for returning the products
condensed out of the vapor also form a part of the equipment for each
chamber. Out of the bottom chamber is a connection for carrying these
accumulated returns back into the still. On this interior construction
detail of the column is dependent the entire efficiency of the apparatus.
Return-cocks are provided in all the chambers for draining the contents
successively from one chamber to the next preparatory to cleansing the
apparatus.

The goose separator consists of a series of copper-pipe sections, the
individual pipes being connected one to the other by means of copper
return-bends. There are six of these sections, each containing twenty
pipes representing an aggregate of 1500 square feet of separating surface.
The whole is contained in a steel water-tank 8 feet wide by 22 feet long
by 8i feet deep. The purpose of this separator is to effect a fi.nal minute
and delicate separation of the vapors after leaving the column. The
condensed products in this separator are returned into the upper-column
chamber.

The condenser is of the internal tubular type, in which the vapors pass
through the tubes and the cooling-water surrounds them. It is 60 inches
in diameter and 24 feet high. The finished spirit discharges from the
base of the condenser into a separating box with glass sides, through
which the flow of the spirit can be observed.

The apparatus is particularly striking because of the simplicity of the
operating detail and the entire absence of any intricate adjustments
calling for attention from the operator. It produces an absolutely pure
neutral spirit free from every contaminating impurity, 192 per cent U. S.
proof, corresponding to 96 per cent by volume in strength.

A Distilling Apparatus, the invention of W. E. Lummus, Lynn, Mass.,
is shown in Fig. 55, page 118.

The combined effects of a baffle-plate and fractional condensation
are effected by this construction. Cross-currents of the vapors are thus
produced and the utmost degree of concentration of the vapor is aimed
at by this device, while an extension of this one chamber shown can

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 117

Fig. 54.— Spirit Apparatus, Built by The Vulcan Copper Works Co.,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

118

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

easily be made by bolting a number of other chambers together. The
rectangular form of the said chambers secures uniform action of the

Fig. 55. — The Lummua Patent Distilling Apparatus.

liquids and vapors upon one another. The liquid descending the column
through the pipes G always moves in a general direction opposite to that

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL. 119

Fig. 56. — "Separating -boxes" for Spirit Distilleries.

120 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

of the ascending vapor, which bubbles through the pools of alcoholic
liquid shown in the cut, and, as the temperature is highest in the bot-
tom chamber, the liquid, which leaves each chamber at its hottest point,
enters the next lower and warmer chamber at its coolest point and is
therefore constantly encountering hotter vapor and absorbing more heat
from the vapors in contact with the outside of the pipes G, which are the
conductors for the condensing medium and are arranged in inclined rows,
as shown, and act as deflectors to the ascending vapors. This absorption
of heat effects a fractional condensation of the least volatile vapors,
which fall in a spray on the diaphragms FF' and joining the discard from
the down pipes H (the returns) are swept down into the next lower cham-
ber to be redistilled, this process continuing until the contents of the
charge have all been distilled and thus separated into high-proof alcohol,
which is finally condensed from the ascending vapors cf pure alcohol,
while the spent alcohol-free wash remains in the still, as this apparatus
is intended not for continuous but periodic distillation. Upon recharg-
ing the still the operation of distillation is again begun.
In Fig. 56., page 120, are shown two '' separa ting-boxes.'"
The method of testing the strength of the spirit during the distillation
by means of an alcohol hydrometer becomes readily apparent upon an
inspection of Fig, 56. The upper box shows a side pipe from which
the spirit enters the hydrometer- jar inside this box on turning the cock.
The lower box shows a different design for the same purpose. The
spirit as it is distilled and condensed flows through these boxes, which
are locked and under the control of the U. S. inspector, to the receiving
cistern.

Summary of Chapter III.

In summing up the different reasons for the very remarkable de-
velopment in the intricate and delicate distilling apparatus shown and
the perfection attained in these high-class types of practically perfect
continuous and periodic fractionating stills no one advance in the long
series was more notable than the application of steam to the purposes
of distillation.

It rendered possible the extended application of the continuous-dis-
tilling method and practically revolutionized the art.

Some dilution occurs from the use of steam, but the quality of spirit
produced is naturally much better. The use of steam rendered possible
the availing of the residue of the distillation, in case such was valuable,
for an ingredient in the rations for feeding cattle, and in this country

THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL.

121

such residue or slop from distilling com and grains is largely so employed.
A still further marked advantage in the use of steam is the freedom from
any obstructions due to accumulations of solid matter in the stills, and
which is now prevented by the more active ebullition when the heat is
supplied in this manner. This results in a much less cost for cleaning
and repairing these intricate and expensive stills, a matter of great im-
portance in the economics of the manufacture of alcohol.

In the choice of a still so many factors enter into the case that no
arbitrary rule can be laid down. Local conditions, the nature of the
mash, the cost of the water obtainable, the. cost of the coal, etc., are,
however, a few factors which may be mentioned.

An alcohol still is like any other piece of apparatus whatever be its
nature, in that it should be chosen with the idea of its being as near
perfectly adapted as possible to the conditions and the purposes in hand.

The production of alcohol and its extraction from the fermented
mash liquor or wash has been explained in Chapters II and III.

After being distilled the alcohol in this country is received in cisterns
or stored in tanks in accordance with the U. S. regulations for dis-
tilled spirits. From these tanks it is drawn off for the filling of packages
by automatic barrel-fillers. The operation of these fillers is shown in the
view given in Fig. 57 below.

Fig. 57. — Automatic Barrel-fillers.

CHAPTER IV.
ALCOHOLOMETRY.

The Determination of Alcohol by the Alcoholometer. The Determination of
Alcohol by Distillation. The Alcohol Tablos Adopted by the A. O. A. C. The
U. S. Proof Gallon, Wine Gallon, and Taxable Gallon. The U. S. Alcohol Tables
for the Control of Denatured Alcohol. The Detection and Determination of Ethyl
and Methyl Alcohols in Mixtures by the Immersion Refractometer. The Deter-
mination of Methyl Alcohol in Denatured Alcohol by the Immersion Refractome-
ter. Tests for the Detection of Acetone, Methyl Alcohol, and Ethyl Alcohol.
The Denatured Alcohol Motor for Laboratory Power Purposes.

The Determination of Alcohol by the Alcoholometer.* — '' The alco-
holometer usually employed is known by the name of Gay-Lussac, from
the chemist who first made practical use of it in the determination of
alcohol. It is constructed in such a way as to read directly the volume
of absolute alcohol contained in one hundred volimies of the liquid at a
temperature of 15°.6. The instruments employed should be carefully
calibrated and thoroughly cleaned by washing with absolute alcohol
before use. The stem of the instrument must be kept free from any greasy
substance, and this is secured by washing it with ether. After this last
w^ashing the analyst should be careful not to touch the stem of the
instrument with his fingers. It is most convenient to make the
determination exactly at 15°.6, but when made at other temperatures
the reading of the instruments is corrected by tables which may be found
in works especially devoted to the analysis of wines.''

In this country the alcoholometer is used to some extent. A cut of
the U. S. Customs hydrometer for alcohol and spirits is shown in
Fig. 58. t This instrument has four scales; two scales in the stem.
The one marked "Tralles" indicates the direct volume percentage of
alcohol and water when floated in spirits. The second scale is the U. S.

♦Wiley in *' Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis," pp. 612-16.
*' The quantity of alcohol in a mixture may be determined by ascertaining the tem-
perature of the vapors produced on boiling. This is the principle involved in the
use of the ebuUioscope. This method is not employed to any extent in this country."

t Furnished by Eimer & Amend, New York.

122

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

123

proof scale running from the mark P (being equal to proof or 53.71
per cent by volume of water and 50 per cent by volume of alcohol) up
to 100 and down to 100, indicating in this way the number of degrees
below the proof (below 50% alcohol), and above proof (indicating the
degrees above 50% alcohol). The body of the hydrometer contains
two sets of scales, one giving direct degrees of temperature in
Fahrenheit, and the other three scales to the left and two to the right
indicate the number of degrees to be added or deducted according to
temperature. The same instrument is also made without the thermom-
eter and without the temperature correction.

*' In this country the official method is based upon the determina_
tion of the specific gravity by an instrument constructed in
every respect like the alcoholometer, 'but giving the specific
gravity of the liquor at 15°.6 instead of its percentage by
volume in alcohol. The reading of the instrument having been
determined at a temperature of 15°.6, the corresponding per-
centage of alcohol by volume or by weight is taken directly
from the tables given further on." (A. 0. A. C.)

Fig 58.

Fig. 59.

Fig. 58. The U. S. Customs Hydrometer for Alcohol and Spirits.
Fig. 59. Metal Distilling Apparatus.

The Determination of Alcohol by Distillation. — " The metal appa-
ratus employed in the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture for
the distillation of fermented beverages in order to determine the
percentages of alcohol by the method given above is shown in Fig. 59.

124 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The apparatus consists of a retort of copper, carried on supports in
such a way as to permit an alcohol or Bunsen lamp to be placed under
it. It is connected with a block-tin condenser, and the distillation is
received in a tall graduated cylinder, placed under the condenser, in such
a way as to prevent the loss of any alcohol in the form of vapor.

" Exactly 300 cubic centimeters of the wine, or fermented beverage,
are used for the distillation. Any acid which the wine contains is first
saturated with calcium carbonate before placing in the retort. Exactly
100 cubic centimeters of distillate are collected and the volume of the
distillate is completed to 300 cubic centimeters by the addition of
recently distilled water. The cylinder containing the distillate is brought
to a temperature of 15°.6, the alcoholometer inserted, and its reading
taken with the usual precautions.

'' Official Method. — The alcoholometers employed in the official
methods are calibrated to agree with those used by the officers of the
Bureau of Internal Revenue. They are most conveniently constructed,
carrying the thermometer-scale in the same stem with that showing the
specific gravity. It is highly important that the analyst assure him-
self of the exact calibration of the instrument before using it. Inas-
much as the volume of the distillate may not be suited in all cases to
the use of a large alcoholometer, it is customary in this laboratory to
determine the specific gravity by means of the hydrostatic balance.
Attention is also called to the fact that in the official method direc-
tions are not given to neutralize the free acid of the fermented beverage
before the distillation. Since the Internal Revenue Bureau is con-
cerned chiefly with the determination of alcohol in distilled liquors,
this omission is of little consequence. Even in ordinary fermented
beverages the percentage of volatile acids (acetic, etc.) is so small
as to make the error due to the failure to neutralize it of little conse-
quence. In order, however, to avoid every possibility of error it is
recommended that in all instances the free acids of the sample be
neutralized before distillation. In this laboratory the distillations are
conducted in a glass apparatus, shown in the accompanying figure.
The manipulation is as follows:

" One hundred cubic centimeters of the liquor are placed in a flask
of from 250 to 300 cubic centimeters capacity, fifty cubic centimeters of
water added, the flask attached to a vertical condenser by means of a
bent bulb tube, 100 cubic centimeters distilled, and the specific gravity
of the distillate determined. The distillate is also weighed, or its weight
calculated from the specific gravity. The corresponding percentage of
alcohol, by weight, is obtained from the appended table and this figure

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

125

multiplied by the weight of the distillate and the result divided by the
weight of the sample gives the per cent of alcohol, by weight, con-
tained therein. The percentage of alcohol by volume of the liquor
is the same as that of the distillate and is obtained directly from the
tables on pages 127-140.

" In distilled Hquors about thirty grams are diluted to 150 cubic cen-
timeters, 100 cubic centimeters distilled, and the per cent of alcohol,
by weight, determined as above. The percentage of alcohol, by volume,

Fig. 60. — Laboratory Distilling Apparatus.

in the distillate is obtained from the tables mentioned. This figure,
divided by the number expressing the volume in cubic centimeters of
the liquor taken for the determination (calculated from the specific
gravity) and the result multiplied by 100 gives the per cent of alcohol,
by volume, in the original liquor.

'' Determining the Specific Gravity of the Distillate. — ^The specific gravity
of the distillate may be determined by the pyknometer, alcoholometer,
hydrostatic balance, or in any accurate way. The volume of the dis-
tillate is not always large enough to be conveniently used with an alco-

126 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

holmeter, especially the large ones employed by the Bureau of Internal
Revenue. In the laboratory of the Agricultural Department it is cus-
tomary to determine the density of the distillate by the hydrostatic
balance, consisting of an analytical balance and Westphal sinker. The
specific gravity is in each case determined at 15°. 6, referred to water
of the same temperature, or if at a different temperature, calculated
thereto.

" Calcidating Results. — ^The specific gravity of the alcohoHc distillate
having been determined by any approved method, and corrected to a
temperature of 15°. 6, the corresponding per cent of alcohol by volume
and by weight is found by consulting the following Tables I and II,
which are the official tables adopted by the Association of Official Agricul-
tural Chemists, November 14-16, 1901. If the specific gravity found
fall between two numbers in these tables, the corresponding per cents
are determined by interpolation."

ALCOHOLOMETRY,

127

REFERENCE TABLES ADOPTED BY THE ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS.

(November 14-16, 1901.)

Table I. — Specific Gravity and Percentage of Alcohol. ^

(According to Squibb.)

Per

Specific Gravity.

Per

Cent

Alcohol

by
Volume.

Specific (

Gravity.

Per

Cent

Alcohol

by
Volume.

Specific

Gravity.

Cent
Alcohol

by
Volume.

At
15.56°
15.56 ^•

25° „
15.56^'

At
15.56° „
15.56 ^•

At
25° ^
15.56^-

At
15.56° „
15.56 •

At
25°
15.56^-

0.9985

0.9970

0.9578

0.9521

0.8875

0.8796

0.9970

0.9953

0.9565

0.9507

0.8850

0.8771

0.9956

0.9938

0.9550

0.9489

0.8825

0.8746

0.9942

0.9922

0.9535

0.9473

0.8799

0.8719

0.9930

0.9909

0.9519

0.9456

0.8769

0.8689

0.9914

0.9893

0.9503

0.9438

' 76

0.8745

0.8665

0.9898

0.9876

0.9490

0.9424

0.8721

0.8641

0.9890

0.9868

0.9470

0.9402

0.8696

0.8616

0.9878

0.9855

0.9452

0.9382

0.8664

0.8583

0.9869

0.9846

0.9434

0.9363

0.8639

0.8558

0.9855

0.9831

0.9416

0.9343

0.8611

0.8530

0.9841

0.9816

0.9396

0.9323

0.8581

0.8500

0.9828

0 . 9801

0.9381

0.9307

0.8557

0.8476

0.9821

0 . 9793

0.9362

0.9288

0.8526

0.8444

0.9815

0.9787

0.9343

0.9267

0.8496

0.8414

0.9802

0.9773

0.9323

0.9246

0.8466

0.8384

0.9789

0 . 9759

0 . 9303

0.9226

0.8434

0.8352

0.9778

0.9746

0.9283

0.9205

0.8408

0.8326

0.9766

0.9733

0.9262

0.9184

0.8373

0.8291

0.9760

0.9726

0 . 9242

0.9164

0.8340

0.8258

0.9753

0.9719

0.9221

0.9143

0.8305

0.8223

0.9741

0.9706

0.9200

0.9122

0.8272

0.8191

0 . 9728

0.9692

0.9178

0.9100

0.8237

0.8156

0.9716

0.9678

0.9160

0.9081

0.8199

0.8118

0 . 9709

0.9668

0.9135

0.9056

0.8164

0.8083

0 . 9698

0.9655

0.9113

0.9034

0.8125

0.8044

0 . 9691

0.9646

0.9090

0.9011

0.8084

0.8003

0 . 9678

0.9631

0.9069

0 . 8989

0.8041

0.7960

0.9665

0.9617

0 . 9047

0.8969

0.7995

0.7914

0.9652

0.9603

0.9025

0.8947

100

0.7946

0.7865

0.9643

0.9594

0.9001

0.8923

0.9631

0.9582

0.8973

0.8895

0.9618

0.9567

1 68

0.8949

0.8870

0 . 9609

0.9556

0 . 8925

0.8846

0 . 9593

0.9538

0.8900

0.8821

128

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol.

(Recalculated from the determinations of Gilpin, Drinkwater, and Squibb.)

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams
lOO^c.c.

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams

per
100 c.c.

1.00000

0.00

0.99701

2.00

1.59

0.99992

0.05

0.04

0.99694

2.05

1.63

1.62

0.99984

0.10

0.08

0.99687

2.10

1.67

1.66

0.99976

0.15

0.12

0.99679

2.15

1.71

1.70

0.99968

0.20

0.16

0.99672

2.20

1.75

1.74

0.99961

0.25

0.20

0.99665

2.25

1.79

1.78

0.99953

0.30

0.24

0.99658

2.30

1.83

1.82

0.99945

0.35

0.28

0.99651

2.35

1.87

1.86

0.99937

0.40

0.32

0.99643

2.40

1.91

1.90

0.99930

0.45

0.36

0.99636

2.45

1.95

1.94

0.99923

0.50

0.40

0.99629

2.50

1.99

1.98

0.99915

0.55-

0.44

0.99622

2.55

2.03

2.02

0.99907

0.60

0.48

0.99615

2.60

2.07

2.06

0.99900

0.65

0.52

0.99607

2.65

2.11

2.10

0.99892

0.70

0.56

0.99600

2.70

2.15

2.14

0 . 99884

0.75

0.60

0.99593

2.75

2.19

2.18

0.99877

0.80

0.64

0 . 99586

2.80

2.23

2.22

0.99869

0.85

0.67

0.99579

2.85

2.27

2.26

0.99861

0.90

0.71

0.99571

2.90

2.31

2.30

0.99854

0.95

0.75

0.99564

2.95

2.35

2.34

0.99849

1.00

0.79

0.99557

3.00

2.39

2.38

0.99842

1.05

0.83

0.99550

3.05

2.43

2.42

0.99834

1.10

0.87

0.99543

3.10

2.47

2.46

0.99827

1.15

0.91

0 . 99536

3.15

2.51

2.50

0.99819

1.20

0.95

0.99529

3.20

2.55

2.54

0.99812

1.25

0.99

0.99522

3.25

2.59

2.58

0.99805

1.30

1.03

0.99515

3.30

2.64

2.62

0.99797

1.35

1.07

0.99508

3.35

2.68

2.66

0.99790

1.40

1.11

0.99501

3.40

2.72

2.70

0.99782

1.45

1.15

0 . 99494

3.45

2.76

2.74

0.99775

1.50

1.19

0.99487

3.50

2.80

2.78

0.99768

1.55

1.23

0.99480

3.55

2.84

2.82

0.99760

1.60

1.27

0.99473

3.60

2.88

2.86

0.99753

1.65

1.31

0.99466

3.65

2.92

2.90

0.99745

1.70

1.35

0.99459

3.70

2.96

2.94

0.99738

1.75

1.39

0.99452

3.75

3.00

2.98

0.99731

1.80

1.43

0.99445

3.80

3.04

3.02

0.99723

1.85

1.47

0.99438

3.85

3.08

3.06

0.99716

1.90

1.51

0.99431

3.90

3.12

3.10

0.99708

1.95

1.55

0.99424

3.95

3.16

3.14

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — {Continited).

129

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity
at^F

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams
lOO^c.c.

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams

per
100 c.c.

0.99417

4.00

3.20

3.18

0.99149

6.00

4.80

4.76

0.99410

4.05

3.24

3.22

0.99143

6.05

4.84

4.80

0.99403

4.10

3.28

3.26

0.99136

6.10

4.88

4.84

0.99397

4.15

3.32

3.30

0.99130

6.15

4.92

4.88

0.99390

4.20

3.36

3.34

0.99123

6.20

4.96

4.92

0.99383

4.25

3.40

3.38

0.99117

6.25

5.00

4.96

0.99376

4.30

3.44

3.42

0.99111

6.30

5.05

5.00

0.99369

4.35

3.48

3.46

0.99104

6.35

5.09

5.04

0.99363

4.40

3.52

3.50

0.99098

6.40

5.13

5.08

0.99356

4.45

3.56

3.54

0.99091

6.45

5.17

5.12

0.99349

4.50

3.60

3.58

0.99085

6.50

5.21

5.16

0 . 99342

4.55

3.64

3.62

0.99079

6.55

5.25

5.20

0.99335

4.60

3.68

3.66

0.99072

6.60

5.29

5.24

0 . 99329

4.65

3.72

3.70

0 . 99066

6.65

5.33

5.28

0.99322

4.70

3.76

3.74

0.99059

6.70

5.37

5.32

0.99315

4.75

3.80

3.77

0.99053

6.75

5.41

5.36

0.99308

4.80

3.84

3.81

0.99047

6.80

5.45

5.40

0.99301

4.85

3.88

3.85

0.990.0

6.85

5.49

5.44

0.99295

4.90

3.92

3.89

0.99034

6.90

5.53

5.48

0.99288

4.95

3.96

3.93

0.99027

6.95

5.57

5.52

0.99281

5.00

4.00

3.97

0.99021

7.00

5.61

5.56

0.99274

5.05

4.04

4.01

0.99015

7.05

5.65

5.60

0.99268

5.10

4.08

4.05

0.99009

7.10

5.69

5.64

0.99261

5.15

4.12

4.09

0.99002

7.15

5.73

5.68

0.99255

5.20

4.16

4.13

0.98996

7.20

5.77

5.72

0.99248

5.25

4.20

4.17

0.98990

7.25

5.81

5.76

0.99241

5.30

4.24

4.21

0.98984

7.30

5.86

5.80

0.99235

5.35

4.28

4.25

0.98978

7.35

5.90

5.84

0 99228

5.40

4.32

4.29

0.98971

7.40

5.94

5.88

0.99222

5.45

4.36

4.33

0.98965

7.45

5.98

5.92

0.99215

5.50

4.40

4.37

0.98959

7.50

6.02

5.96

0.99208

5.55

4.44

4.40

0 . 98953

7.55

6.06

6.00

0.99202

5.60

4.48

4.44

0.98947

7.60

6.10

6.04

0.99195

5.65

4.52

4.48

0.98940

7.65

6.14

6.07

0.99189

5.70

4.56

4.52

0.98934

7.70

6.18

6.11

0.99182

5.75

4.60

4.56

0.98928

7.75

6.22

6.15

0.99175

5.80

4.64

4.60

0 . 98922

7.80

6.26

6.19

0.99169

5.85

4.68

4.64

0.98916

7.85

6.30

6.23

0.99162

5.90

4.72

4.68

0.98909

7.90

6.34

6.27

0.99156

5.95

4.76

4.72

0.98903

7.95

6.38

6.31

130

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — {Continued).

Alcohol.

Specific

Gravity

60° „

Gravity
Of 60° ^

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams
lOO^c.c.

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams

per
100 c.c.

0.98897

8.00

6.42

6.35

0.98660

10.00

8.04

7.93

0.98891

8.05

6.46

6.39

0.98654

10.05

8.08

7.97

0.98885

8.10

6.50

6.43

0.98649

10.10

8.12

8.01

0.98879

8.15

6.54

6.47

0 . 98643

10.15

8.16

8.05

0.98873

8.20

6.58

6.51

0.98637

10.20

8.20

8.09

0.98867

8.25

6.62

6.55

0.98632

10.25

8.24

8.13

0.98861

8.30

6.67

6.59

0.98626

10.30

8.29

8.17

0.98855

8.35

6.71

6.63

0.98620

10.35

8.33

8.21

0.98849

8.40

6.75

6.67

0.98614

10.40

8.37

8.25

0.98843

8.45

6.79

6.71

0.98609

10.45

8.41

8.29

0.98837

8.50

6.83

6.75

0.98603

10.50

8.45

8.33

0.98831

8.55

6.87

6.79

0.98597

10.55

8.49

8.37

0.98825

8.60

6.91

6.83

0 . 98592

10.60

8.53

8.41

0.98819

8.65

6.95

6.87

0.98586

10.65

8.57

8.45

0.98813

8.70

6.99

6.91

0.98580

10.70

8.61

8.49

0 . 98807

8.75

7.03

6.95

0.98575

10.75'

8.65

8.53

0 . 98801

8.80

7.07

6.99

0.98569

10.80

8.70

8.57

0.98795

8.85

7.11

7.03

0.98563

10.85

8.74

8.61

0.98789

8.90

7.15

7.07

0.98557

10.90

■ 8.78

8.65

0.98783

8.95

7.19

7.11

0 . 98552

10.95

8.82

8.69

0.98777

9.00

7.23

7.14

0 . 98546

11.00

8.86

8.73

0.98771

9.05

7.27

7.18

0 . 98540

11.05

8.90

8.77

0 . 98765

9.10

7.31

7.22

0.98535

11.10

8.94

8.81

0.98759

9.15

7.35

7.26

0.98529

11.15

8.98

8.85

0.98754

9.20

7.39

7.30

0.98524

11.20

9.02

8.89

0.98748

9.25

7.43

7.34

0.98518

11.25

9.07

8.93

0.98742

9.30

7.48

7.38

0.98513

11.30

9.11

8.97

0.98736

9.35

7.52

7.42

0.98507

11.35

9.15

9.01

0.98730

9.40

7.56

7.46

0.98502

11.40

9.19

9.05

0.98724

9.45

7.60

7.50

0.98496

11.45

9.23

9.09

0.98719

9.50

7.64

7.54

0.98491

11.50

9.27

9.13

0.98713

9.55

7.68

7.58

0.98485

11.55

9.31

9.17

0.98707

9.60

7.72

7.62

0.98479

11.60

9.35

9.21

0.98701

9.65

7.76

7.66

0 . 98474

11.65

9.39

9.25

0.98695

9.70

7.80

7.70

0.98468

11.70

9.43

9.29

0.98689

9.75

7.84

7.74

0.98463

11.75

9.47

9.32

0 . 98683

9.80

7.88

7.78

0.98457

11.80

9.51

9.36

0.98678

9.85

7.92

7.82

0.99452

11.85

9.55

9.40

0.98672

9.90

7.96

7.85

0.98446

11.90

9.59

9.44

0.98666

9.95

8.00

7.89

0.98441

11.95

9.63

9.48

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II.— Percenatqe op Alcohol — {Contimbed),

131

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

at^F.

Per Cent

Grams

»*^F.

Per Cent

Grams

"^^60

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 CO.

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

0.98435

12.00

9.67

9.52

0.98219

14.00

11.31

11.11

0.98430

12.05

9.71

9.56

0.98214

14.05

11.35

11.15

0.98424

12.10

9.75

9.60

0.98209

14.10

11.39

11.19

0.98419

12.15

9.79

9.64

0.98203

14.15

11.43

11.23

0.98413

12.20

9.83

9.68

0.98198

14.20

11.47

11.27

0.98408

12.25

9.87

9.72

0.98193

14.25

11.52

11.31

0.98402

12.30

9.92

9.76

0.98188

14.30

11.56

11.35

0.98397

12.35

9.96

9.80

0.98182

14.35

11.60

11.39

0.98391

12.40

10.00

9.84

0.98177

14.40

11.64

11.43

0.98386

12.45

10.04

9.88

0.98172

14.45

11.68

11.47

0.98381

12.50

10.08

9.92

0.98167

14.50

11.72

11.51

0.98375

12.55

10.12

9.96

0.98161

14.55

11.76

11.55

0.98370

12.60

10.16

10.00

0.98156

14.60

11.80

11.59

0.98364

12.65

10.20

10.03

0.98151

14.65

11.84

11.63

0.98359

12.70

10.24

10.07

0.98146

14.70

11.88

11.67

0.98353

12.75

10.28

10.11

0.98140

14.75

11.93

11.71

0.98348

12.80

10.33

10.15

0.98135

14.80

11.97

11.75

0.98342

12.85

10.37

10.19-

0.98130

14.85

12.01

11.79

0.98337

12.90

10.41

10.23

0.98125

14.90

12.05

11.82

0.98331

12.95

10.45

10.27

0.98119

14.95

12.09

11.86

0.98326

13.00

10.49

10.31

0.98114

15.00

12.13

11.90

0.98321

13.05

10.53

10.35

0.98108

15.05

12.17

11.94

0.98315

13.10

10.57

10.39

0.98104

15.10

12.21

11.98

0.98310

13.15

10.61

10.43

0.98099

15.15

12.25

12.02

0.98305

13.20

10.65

10.47

0.98093

15.20

12.29

12.06

0.98299

13.25

10.69

10.51

0.98088

15.25

12.33

12.10

0.98294

13.30

10.74

10.55

0.98083

15.30

12.38

12.14

0.98289

13.35

10.78

10.59

0.98078

15.35

12.42

12.18

0.98283

13.40

10.82

10.63

0.98073

15.40

12.46

12.22

0.98278

13.45

10.86

10.67

0.98068

15.45

12.50

12.26

0.98273

13.50

10.90

10.71

0.98063

15.50

12.54

12.30

0.98267

13.55

10.94

10.75

0.98057

15.55

12.58

12.34

0.98262

13.60

10.98

10.79

0.98052

15.60

12.62

12.37

0.98256

13.65

11.02

10.83

0.98047

15.65

12.66

12.41

0.98251

13.70

11.06

10.87

0.98042

15.70

12.70

12.45

0.98246

13.75

11.11

10.91

0.98037

15.75

12.75

12.49

0.98240

13.80

11.15

10.95

0.98032

15.80

12.79

12.53

0.98235

13.85

11.19

10.99

0.98026

15.85

12.83

12.57

0.98230

13.90

11.23

11.03

0.98021

15.90

12.87

12.61

0.98224

13.95

11.27

11.07

0.98016

15.95

12.91

12.65

132

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.
Table IL — Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

a no

Gravity

at|5-°F.

Per Cent

Grams

^^i-F.

Per Cent

Grama

, by

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

0.98011

16.00

12.95

12.69

0.97808

18.00

14.60

14.28

0.98005

16.05

12. 9J

12.73

0.97803

18.05

14.64

14.32

0.98001

16.10

13.03

12.77

0.97798

18.10

14.68

14.36

0.97996

16.15

13.08

12.81

0.97793

18.15

14.73

14.40

0.97991

16.20

13.12

12.85

0.97788

18.20

14.77

14.44

0.97986

16.25

13.16

12.89

0.97783

18.25

14.81

14.48

0.97980

16.30

13.20

12.93

0.97778

18.30

14.85

14.52

0.97975

16.35

13.24

12.97

0.97773

18.35

14.89

14.56

0.97970

16.40

13.29

13.01

0.97768

18.40

14.94

14.60

0.97965

16.45

13.33

13.05

0.97763

18.45

14.98

14.64

0.97960

16.50

13.37

13.09

0.97758

18.50

15.02

14.68

0.97955

16.55

13.41

13.13

0.97753

18.55

15.06

14.72

0.97950

16.60

13.45

13.17

0.97748

18.60

15.10

14.76

0.97945

16.65

13.49

13.21

0.97743

18.65

15.14

14.80

0.97940

16.70

13.53

13.25

0.97738

18.70

15.18

14.84

0.97935

16.75

13.57

13.29

0.97733

18.75

15.22

14.88

0.97929

16.80

13.62

13.33

0.97728

18.80

15.27

14.92

0.97924

16.85

13.66

13.37

0.97723

18.85

15.31

14.96

0.97919

16.90

13.70

13.41

0.97718

18.90

15.38

15.00

0.97914

16.95

13.74

13.45

0.97713

18.95

15.39

15.04

0.97909

17.00

13.78

13.49

0.97708

19.00

15.43

15.08

0.97904

17.05

13.82

13.53

0.97703

19.05

15.47

15.11

0.97899

17.10

13.86

13.57

0.97698

19.10

15.51

15.15

0 . 97894

17.15

13.90

13.61

0.97693

19.15

15.55

15.19

0.97889

17.20

13.94

13.65

0.97688

19.20

15.59

15.23

0.97884

17.25

13.98

13.69

0.97683

19.25

15.63

15.27

0.97879

17.30

14.03

13.73

0.97678

19.30

15.68

15.31

0.97874

17.35

14.07

13.77

0.97673

19.35

15.72

15.35

0.97869

17.40

14.11

13.81

0.97668

19.40

15.76

15.39

0.97864

17.45

14.15

13.85

0.97663

19.45

15.80

15.43

0.97859

17.50

14.19

13.89

0.97658

19.50

15.84

15.47

0.97853

17.55

14.23

13.92

0.97653

19.55

15.88

15.51

0.97848

17.60

14.27

13.96

0.97648

19.60

15.93

15.55

0.97843

17.65

14.31

14.00

0.97643

19.65

15.97

15.59

0.97838

17.70

14.35

14.04

0.97638

19.70

16.01

15.63

0.97833

17.75

14.40

14.08

0.97633

19.75

16.05

15.67

0.97828

17.80

14.44

14.12

0.97628

19.80

16.09

15.71

0.97823

17.85

14.48

14.16

0.97623

19.85

16.14

15.75

0.97818

17.90

14.52

14.20

0.97618

19.90

16.18

15.79

0.97813

17.95

14.56

14.24

0.97613

19.95

16.22

15.83

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

133

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

«s^F-

Per Cent

Grams

-^^^-

Per Cent

Grams

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

0.97608

20.00

16.26

15.87

0.97406

22.00

17.92

17.46

0.97603

20.05

16.30

15.91

0.97401

22.05

17.96

17.50

0.97598

20.10

16.34

15.95

0.97396

22.10

18.00

17.54

0.97593

20.15

16.38

15.99

0.97391

22.15

18.05

17.58

0.97588

20.20

16.42

16.03

0.97386

22.20

18.09

17.62

0.97583

20.25

16.46

16.06

0.97381

22.25

18.13

17.66

0.97578

20.30

16.51

16.10

0.97375

22.30

18.17

17.70

0.97573

20.35

16.58

16.14

0.97370

22.35

18.21

17.74

0.97568

20.40

16.59

16.18

0.97365

22.40

18.26

17.78

0.97563

20.45

16.63

16.22

0.97360

22.45

18.30

17.82

0.97558

20.50

16.67

16.26

0.97355

22.50

18.34

17.86

0.97552

20.55

16.71

16.30

0.97350

22.55

18.38

17.90

0.97547

20.60

16.75

16.34

0.97345

22.60

18.42

17.94

0.97542

20.65

16.80

16.38

0.97340

22.65

18.47

J7.98

0.97537

20.70

16.84

16.42

0.97335

22.70

18.51

18.02

0.97532

20.75

16.88

16.46

0.97330

22.75

18.55

18.06

0.97527

20.80

16.92

16.50

0.97324

22.80

18.59

18.10

0.97522

20.85

16.96

16.54

0.97319

22.85

18.63

18.14

0.97517

20.90

17.01

16.58

1 0.97314

22.90

18.68

18.18

0.97512

20.95

17.05

16.62

0.97309

22.95

18.72

18.22

0.97507

21.00

17.09

16.66

0.97304

23.00

18.76

18.26

0.97502

21.05

17.13

16.70

0.97299

23.05

18.80

18.29

0.97497

21.10

17.17

16.74

0.97294

23.10

18.84

18.33

0.97492

21.15

17.22

16.78

0.97289

23.15

. 18.88

18.37

C. 97487

21.20

17.26

16.82

0.97283

23.20

18.92

18.41

0.97482

21.25

17.30

16.86

0.97278

23.25

18.96

18.45

0.97477

21.30

17.34

16.90

0.97273

23.30

19.01

18.49

0.97472

21.35

17.38

16.94

0 . 97268

23.35

19.05

18.53

0.97467

21.40

17.43

16.98

0.97263

23.40

19.09

18.57

0.97462

21.45

17.47

17.02

0.97258

23.45

19.13

18.61

0.97457

21.50

17.51

17.06

0.97253

23.50

19.17

18.65

0.97451

21.55

17.55

17.10

0.97247

23.55

19.21

18.69

0.97446

21.60

17.59

17.14

0.97242

23.60

19.25

18.73

0.97441

21.65

17.63

17.18

0.97237

23.65

19.30

18.77

0.97436

21.70

17.67

17.22

0.97232

23.70

19.34

18.81

0.97431

21.75

17.71

17.26

0.97227

23.75

19.38

18.84

0.97426

21.80

17.76

17.30

0.97222

23.80

19.42

18.88

0.97421

21.85

17.80

17.34

0.97216

23.85

19.46

18.92

0.97416

21.90

17.84

17.38

0.97211

23.90

19.51

18.96

0.97411

21.95

17.88

17.42

0.97206

23.95

19.55

19.00

134

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

Alcohol.

Specific

Gravity

* 60° „

at 7:77- F.

Gravity

ati^F.

Per Cent

Grams

Per Cent

Grams

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

Volume.

Weight.

100 C.C.

0.97201

24.00

19.59

19.04

0.96991

26.00

21.27

20.63

0.97196

24.05

19.63

19.08

0.96986

26.05

21.31

20.67

0.97191

24.10

19.67

19.12

0.96980

26.10

21.35

20.71

0.97185

24.15

19.72

19.16

0.96975

26.15

21.40

20.75

0.97180

24.20

19.76

19.20

0.96969

26.20

21.44

20.79

0.97175

24.25

19.80

19.24

0.96964

26.25

21.48

20.8a

0.97170

24.30

19.84

19.28

0.96959

26.30

21.52

20.87

0.97165

24.35

19.88

19.32

0.96953

26.35

21.56

20.91

0.97159

24.40

19.93

19.36

0.96949

26.40

21.61

20.95

0.97154

24.45

19.97

19.40

0.96942

26.45

21.65

20.99

0.97149

24.50

20.01

19.44

0.96937

26.50

21.69

21.0a

0.97144

24.55

20.05

19.48

0.96932

26.55

21.73

21.07

0.97139

24.60

20.09

19.52

0.96926

26.60

21.77

21.11

0.97133

24.65

20.14

19.56

0.96921

26.65

21.82

21.15

0.97128

24.70

20.18

19.60

0.96915

26.70

21.86

21.19

0.97123

24.75

20.22

19.64

0.96910

26.75

21.90

21.23

0.97118

24.80

20.26

19.68

0.96905

26.80

21.94

21.27

0.97113

24.85

20.30

19.72

0.96899

26.85

21.98

21.31

0.97107

24.90

20.35

19.76

0.96894

26.90

22.03

21.35

0.97102

24.95

20.39

19.80

0.96888

26.95

22.07

21.39

0.97097

25.00

20.43

19.84

0.96883

27.00

22.11

21.43

0.97092

25.05

20.47

19.88

0.96877

27.05

22.15

21.47

0.97086

25.10

20.51

19.92

0.96872

27.10

22.20

21.51

0.97081

25.1^

20.56

19.96

0.96866

27.15

22.24

21.55

0.97076

25.20

20.60

20.00

0.96861

27.20

22.28

21.59

0.97071

25.25

20.64

20.04

0.96855

27.25

22.33

21.63

0.97065

25.30

20.68

20.08

0.96850

27.30

22.37

21.67

0.97060

25.35

20.72

20.12

0.96844

27.35

22.41

21.71

0.97055

25.40

20.77

20.16

0.96839

27.40

22.45

21.75

0.97049

25.45

20.81

20.20

0.96833

27.45

22.50

21.79

0.97044

25.50

20.85

20.24

0.96828

27.50

22.54

21.83

0.97039

25.55

20.89

20.28

0.96822

27.55

22.58

21.86

0.97033

25.60

20.93

20.32

0.96816

27.60

22.62

21.90

0.97028

25.65

20.98

20.36

0.96811

27.65

22.67

21.94

0.97023

25.70

21.02

20.40

0.96805

27.70

22.71

21.98

0.97018

25.75

21.06

20.44

0.96800

27.75

22.75

22.02

0.97012

25.80

21.10

20.47

0.96794

27.80

22.79

22.06

0.97007

25.85

21.14

20.51

0 . 96789

27.85

22.83

22.10

0.97001

25.90

21.19

20.55

0.96783

27.90

22.88

22.14

0.96996

25.95

21.23

20.59

0 . 96778

27.95

22.92

22.18

ALCOHOLOMETRY,

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued),

135

S|»ecific

Alcohol

Specific
Gravity

atgQ F.

Alcohol

Gravity

^'60-^-

Percent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams
I00?.c.

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Percent

by
Weight.

Grama

0.96772
0.96766
0.96761
0.96755
0.96749

28.00
28.05
28.10
28.15
28.20

22.96
23.00
23.04
23.09
23.13

22.22
22.26
22.30
22.34
22.38

0.96541
0.96535
0.96529
0.96523
0.96517

30.00
30.05
30.10
30.15
30.20

24.66
24.70
24.74
24.79
24.83

23.81
23.85
23.89
23.93
23.97

0.96744
0.96738
0.96732
0.96726
0.96721

28.25
28.30
28.35
28.40
28.45

23.17
23.21
23.25
23.30
23.34

22.42
22.45
22.49
22.53
22.57

0.96511
0.96505
0.96499
0.96493
0.96487

30.25
30.30
30.35
30.40
30.45

24.87
24.91
24.95
25.00
25.04

24.01
24.04
24.08
24.12
24.16

0.96715
0.96709
p. 96704
0.96698
0.96692

28.50
28.55
28.60
28.65
28.70

23.38
23.42
23.47
23.51
23.55

22.61
22.65
22.69
22.73
22.77

0.96481
0.96475
0.96469
0.96463
0.96457

30.50
30.55
30.60
30.65
30.70

25.08
25.12
25.17
25.21
25.25

24.20
24.24
24.28
24.32
24.36

0.96687
0.96681
0.96675
0 . 96669
0 . 96664

28.75
28.80
28.85
28.90
28.95

23.60
23.64
23.68
23.72
23.77

22.81
22.85
22.89
22.93
22.97

0.96451
0.96445
0.96439
0.96433
0.96427

30.75
30.80
30.85
30.90
30.95

25.30
25.34
25.38
25.42
25.47

24.40
24.44
24.48
24.52
24.56

0 . 96658
0.96652
0.96646
0 . 96640
0.96635

29.00
29.05
29.10
29.15
29.20

23.81
23.85
23.89
23.94
23.98

23.01
23.05
23.09
23.13
23.17

0.96421
0.96415
0.96409
0.96403
0.96396

31.00
31.05
31.10
31.15
31.20

25.51
25.55
25.60
25.64
25.68

24.60
24.64
24.68
24.72
24.76

0.96629
0.96623
0.96617
0.96611
0.96605

29.25
29.30
29.35
29.40
29.45

24.02
24.06
24.10
24.15
24.19

23.21
23.25
23.29
23.33
23.37

0.96390
0.96384
0.96378
0.96372
0.96366

31.25
31.30
31.35
31.40
31.45

25.73
25.77
25.81
25.85
25.90

24.80

24.84
24.88
24.92
24.96

0.96600
0.96594
0.96587
0.96582
0.96576

29.50
29.55
29.60
29.65
29.70

24.23
24.27
24.32
24.36
24.40

23.41
23.45
23.49
23.53
23.57

0.96360
0.96353
0.96347
0.96341
0.96335

31.50
31.55
31.60
31.65
31.70

25.94
25.98
26.03
26.07
26.11

25.00
25.04
25.08
25.12
25.16

0 . 96570
0.96564
0.96559
0.96553
0.96547

29.75
29.80
29.85
29.90
29.95

24.45
24.49
24.53
24.57
24.62

23.61
23.65
23.69
23.73
23.77

0 . 96329
0 . 96323
0.96316
0.96310
0.96304

31.75
31.80
31.85
31.90
31.95

26.16
26.20
26.24
26.28
26.33

25.20
25.24
25.28
25.32
25.36

136

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — {Continued),

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

at^F.

Per Cent

Grama

Per Cent

Grams

""60

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

0.96298

32.00

26.37

25.40

0.96043

34.00

28.09

26.98

0.96292

32.05

26.41

25.44

0.96036

34.05

28.13

27.02

0.96285

32.10

26.46

25.48

0.96030

34.10

28.18

27.06

0.96279

32.15

26.50

25.52

0.96023

34.15

28.22

27.10

0.96273

32.20

26.54

25.56

0.96016

34.20

28.26

27.14

0.96267

32.25

26.59

25.60

0.96010

34.25

28.31

27.18

0.96260

32.30

26.63

25.64

0.96003

34.30

28.35

27.22

0.96254

32.35

26.67

25.68

0.95996

34.35

28.39

27.26

0.96248

32.40

26.71

25.71

0.95990

34.40

28.43

27.30

0.96241

32.45

26.76

25.75

0.95983

34.45

28.48

27.34

0.96235

32.50

26.80

25.79

0.95977

34.50

28.52

27.38

0.96229

32.55

26.84

25.83

0 . 95970

34.55

28.56

27.42

0.96222

32.60

26.89

25.87

0.95963

34.60

28.61

27.46

0.96216

32.65

26.93

25.91

0.95957

34.65

28.65

27.50

0.96210

32.70

26.97

25.95

0.95950

34.70

28.70

27.54

0.96204

32.75

27.02

25.99

0.95943

34.75

28.74

27.58

0.96197

32.80

27.06

26.03

0.95937

34.80

28.78

27.62

0.96191

32.85

27.10

26.07

0.95930

34.85

28.83

27.66

0.96185

32.90

27.14

26.11

0.95923

34.90

28.87

27.70

0.96178

32.95

27.19

26.15

0.95917

34.95

28.92

27.74

0.96172

33.00

27.23

26.19

0.95910

35.00

28.96

27.78

0.96166

33.05

27.27

26.23

0.95903

35.05

29.00

27.82

0.96159

33.10

27.32

26.27

0.95896

35.10

29.05

27.86

0.96153

33.15

27.36

26.31

0.95889

35.15

29.09

27.90

0.96146

33.20

27.40

26.35

0.95883

35.20

29.13

27.94

0.96140

33.25

27.45

26.39

0.95876

35.25

29.18

27.98

0.96133

33.30

27.49

26.43

0.95869

35.30

29.22

28.05

0.96127

33.35

27.53

26.47

0.95862

35.35

29.26

28.05

0.96120

33.40

27.57

26.51

0.95855

35.40

29.30

28.09

0.96114

33.45

27.62

26.55

0.95848

35.45

29.35

28.13

0.96108

33.50

27.66

26.59

0.95842

35.50

29.38

28.17

0.96101

33.55

27.70

26.63

0.95835

35.55

29.43

28.21

0.96095

33.60

27.75

26.67

0.95828

35.60

29.48

28.25

0.96088

33.65

27.79

26.71

0.95821

35.65

29.52

28.29

0.96082

33.70

27.83

26.75

0.95814

35.70

29.57

28.33

0.96075

33.75

27.88

26.79

0.95807

35.75

29.61

28.37

0.96069

33.80

27.92

26.82

0.95800

35.80

29.65

28.41

0.96062

33.85

27.96

26.86

0 . 95794

35.85

29.70

28.45

0.96056

33.90

28.00

26.90

0.95787

35.90

29.74

28.49

0.96049

33.95

28.05

26.94

0.95780

35.95

29.79

28.53

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — {Continued).

137

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

at T F.

Per Cent

Grama

»t^F.

Per Cent

Grams

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

0.95773

36.00

29.83

28.57

0.95487

38.00

31.58

30.16

0.95766

36.05

29.87

28.61

0.95480

38.05

31.63

30.20

0.95759

36.10

29.92

28.65

0.95472

38.10

31.67

30.24

0.95752

36.15

29.96

28.69

0.95465

38.15

31.72

30.28

0.95745

36.20

30.00

28.73

0.95457

38.20

31.76

30.32

0.95738

36.25

30.05

28.77

0.95450

38.25

31.81

30.36

0.95731

36.30

30.09

28.81

0.95442

38.30

31.85

30.40

0.95724

36.35

30.13

28.84

0.95435

38.35

31.90

30.44

0.95717

36.40

30.17

28.88

0.95427

38.40

31.94

30.48

0.95710

36.45

30.22

28.92

0.95420

38.45

31.99

30.52

0.95703

36.50

30.26

28.96

' 0.95413

38.50

32.03

30.56

0.95695

36.55

30.30

29.00

0.95405

38.55

32.07

30.60

0.95688

36.60

30.35

29.04

; 0.95398

38.60

32.12

30.64

0.95681

36.65

30.39

29.08

0.95390

38.65

32.16

30.68

0.95674

36.70

30.44

29.12

0.95383

38.70

32.20

30.72

0.95667

36.75

30.48

29.16

0.95375

38.75

32.25

30.76

0.95650

36.80

30.52

29.20

i 0.95368

38.80

32.29

30.79

0 . 95653

36.85

30.57

29.24

: 0.95360

38.85

32.33

30.83

0.95646

36.90

30.61

29.29

0.95353

38.90

32.37

30.87

0.95639

36.95

30.66

29.32

0.95345

38.95

32.42

30.91

0,95632

37.00

30.70

29.36

0.95338

39.00

32.46

30.95

0.95625

37.05

30.74

29.40

0.95330

39.05

32.50

30.99

0.95618

37.10

30.79

29.44

0.95323

39.10

32.55

31.03

0.95610

37.15

30.83

29.48

0.95315

39.15

32.59

31.07

0.95603

37.20

30.88

29.52

0.95307

39.20

32.64

31.11

0.95596

37.25

30.92

29.56

0.95300

39.25

32.68

31.14

0 95589

37.30

30.96

29.60

0.95292

39.30

32.72

31.18

0.95581

37.35

31.01

29.64

0.952^4

39.35

32.77

31.22

0.95574

37.40

31.05

29.68

0.95277

39.40

32.81

31.26

0.95567

37.45

31.10

29.72

0.95269

39.45

32.86

31.30

0.95560

37.50

31.14

29.76

0.95262

39.50

32.90

31.34

0.95552

37.55

31.18

29.80

0.95254

39.55

32.95

31.38

0.95545

37.60

31.23

29.84

0.95246

39.60

32.99

31.42

0.95538

37.65

31.27

29.88

0.95239

39.65

33.04

31.46

0.95531

37.70

31.32

29.92

0.95231

39.70

33.08

31.50

0.95523

37.75

31.36

29.96

0.95223

39.75

33.13

31.54

0.95516

37.80

31.40

30.00

0.95216

39.80

33.17

31.58

0.95509

37.85

31.45

30.04

0 . 95208

39.85

33.22

31.62

0.95502

37.90

31.49

30.08

0.95200

39.90

33.27

31.66

0.95494

37.95

31.54

30.12

0.95193

39.95

33.31

31.70

138

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.
Table IL — Percentage of Alcohol — {Continued),

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

ana

Gravity

at^°F.

Per Cent

Grams

^<^i^F.

Per Cent

Grama

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

0.95185

40.00

33.35

31.74

0.94868

42.00

35.13

33.33

0.95177

40.05

33.39

31.78

0.94860

42.05

35.18

33.37

0.95169

40.10

33.44

31.82

0.94852

42.10

35.22

33.41

0.95161

40.15

33.48

31.86

0.94843

42.15

35.27

33.45

0.95154

40.20

33.53

31.90

0.94835

42.20

35.31

33.49

0.95146

40.25

33.57

31.94

0.94827

42.25

35.36

33.53

0.95138

40.30

33.61

31.98

0.94820

42.30

35.40

33.57

0.95130

40.35

33.66

32.02

0.94811

42.35

35.45

33.61

0.95122

40.40

33.70

32.06

0.94802

42.40

35.49

33.65

0.95114

40.45

33.75

32.10

0.94794

42.45

35.54

33.69

0.95107

40.50

33.79

32.14

0.94786

42.50

35.58

33.73

0.95099

40.55

33.84

32.18

0.94778

42.55

35.63

33.77

0.95091

40.60

33.88

32.22

0 . 94770

42.60

35.67

33.81

0.95083

40.65

33.93

32.26

0.94761

42.65

35.72

33.85

0.95075

40.70

33.97

32.30

0.94753

42.70

35.76

33.89

0.95067

40.75

34.02

32.34

0.94745

42.75

35.81

33.93

0.95059

40.80

34.06

32.38

0.94737

42.80

35.85

33.97

0.95052

40.85

34.11

32.42

0.94729

42.85

35.90

34.00

0.95044

40.90

34.15

32.46

0.94720

42.90

35.94

34.04

0.95036

40.95

34.20

32.50

0.94712

42.95

35.99

34.08

0.95028

41.00

34.24

32.54

0.94704

43.00

36.03

34.12

0.95020

41.05

34.28

32.58

0.94696

43.05

36.08

34.16

0.95012

41.10

34.33

32.62

0.94687

43.10

36.12

34.20

0.95004

41.15

34.37

32.66

0.94679

43.15

36.17

34.24

0.94996

41.20

34.42

32.70

0.94670

43.20

36.21

34.28

0.94988

41.25

34.46

32.74

0.94662

43.25

36.23

34.32

0.94980

41.30

34.50

32.78

0.94654

43.30

36.30

34.36

0.94972

41.35

34.55

32.82

0.94645

43.35

36.35

34.40

0.94964

41.40

34.59

32.86

0.94637

43.40

36.39

34.44

0.94956

41.45

34.64

32.90

0.94628

43.45

36.44

34.48

0.94948

41.50

34.68

32.93

0.94620

43.50

36.48

34.52

0.94940

41.55

34.73

32.97

0.94612

43.55

36.53

34.56

0.94932

41.60

34.77

33.01

0.94603

43.60

36.57

34.60

0.94924

41.65

34.82

33.05

0.94595

43.65

36.62

34.64

0.94916

41.70

34.86

33.09

0.94586

43.70

36.66

34.68

0.94908

41.75

34.91

33.13

0.94578

43.75

36.71

34.72

0.94900

41.80

34.95

33.17

0.94570

43.80

36.75

34.76

0.94892

41.85

35.00

33.21

0.94561

43.85

36.80

34.80

0.94884

41.90

35.04

33.25

0.94553

43.90

36.84

34.84

0.94876

41.95

35.09

33.29

0.94544

43.95

36.89

34.88

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

139

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

ano

Gravity

ana

at^F.

Per Cent

Grams

at 577" r.

Per Cent

Grams

per

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

Volume.

Weight.

100 c.c.

0.94536

44.00

36.93

34.91

0.94188

46.00

38.75

36.50

0.94527

44.05

36.98

34.95

0.94179

46.05

38.80

36.54

0.94519

44.10

37.02

34.99

0.94170

46.10

38.84

36.58

0.94510

44.15

37.07

35.03

0.94161

46.15

38.89

36.62

0.94502

44.20

37.11

35.07

0.94152

46.20

38.93

36.66

0.94493

44.25

37.16

35.11

0.94143

46.25

38.98

36.70

0.94484

44.30

37.21

35.15

0.94134

46.30

39.03

36.74

0.94476

44.35

37.25

35.19

0.94125

46.35

39.07

36.78

0.94467

44.40

37.30

35.23

0.94116

46.40

39.12

36.82

0.94459

44.45

37.34

35.27

0.94107

46.45

39.16

36.86

0.94450

44.50

37.39

35.31

0.94098

46.50

39.21

36.90

0.94441

44.55

37.44

35.35

0.94089

46.55

39.26

36.94

0.94433

44.60

37.48

35.39

0.94080

46.60

39.30

36.98

0.94424

44.65

37.53

35.43

0.94071

46.65

39.35

37.02

0.94416

44.70

37.57

35.47

0.94062

46.70

39.39

37.06

0.94407

44.75

37.62

35.51

0.94053

46.75

39.44

37.09

0.94398

44.80

37.66

35.55

0.94044

46.80

39.49

37.13

0.94390

44.85

37.71

35.59

0.94035

46.85

39.53

37.17

0.94381

44.90

37.76

35.63

0.94026

46.90

39.58

37.21

0.94373

44.95

37.80

35.67

0.94017

46.95

39.62

37.25

0.94364

45.00

37.84

35.71

0.94008

47.00

39.67

37.29

0.94355

45.05

37.89

35.75

0.93999

47.05

39.72

37.33

0.94346

45.10

37.93

35.79

0.93990

47.10

39.76

37.37

0.94338

45.15

37.98

35.83

0.93980

47.15

39.81

37.41

0.94329

45.20

38.02

35.87

0.93971

47.20

39.85

37.45

0.94320

45.25

38.07

35.91

0.93962

47.25

39.90

37.49

0.94311

45.30

38.12

35.95

0.93953

47.30

39.95

37.53

0.94302

45.35

38.16

35.99

0.93944

47.35

39.99

37.57

0.94294

45.40

38.21

36.03

0.93934

47.40

40.04

37.61

0.94285

45.45

38.25

36.07

0.93925

47.45

40.08

37.65

0.94276

45.50

38.30

36.11

0.93916

47.50

40.13

37.69

0.94267

45.55

38.35

36.15

0.93906

47.55

40.18

37.73

0.94258

45.60

38.39

36.19

0.93898

47.60

40.22

37.77

0.94250

45.65

38.44

36.23

0.93888

47.65

40.27

37.81

0.94241

45.70

38.48

36.26

0.93879

47.70

40.32

37.85

0.94232

45.75

38.53

36.30

0.93870

47.75

40.37

37.89

0.94223

45.80

38.57

36.34

0.93861

47.80

40.41

37.93

0.94214

45.85

38.62

36.38

0.93852

47.85

40.46

37.97

0.94206

45.90

38.66

36.42

0.93842

47.90

40.51

38.01

0.94197

45.95

38.71

36.46

0.93833

47.95

40.55

38.05

140

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

REFERENCE TABLES, A. O. A. C.

Table II. — Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued),

Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams

per
100 c.c.

Per Cent

by
Volume.

Per Cent

by
Weight.

Grams

per
100 c.c.

0.93824

48.00

40.60

38.09

0.93636

49.00

41.52

38.88

0.93815

48.05

40.65

38.13

0.93626

49.05

41.57

38.92

0.. 93805

48.10

40.69

38.17

0.93617

49.10

41.61

38.96

0.93796

48.15

40.74

38.21

0.93607

49.15

41.66

39.00

0.93786

48.20

40.78

38.25

0.93598

49.20

41.71

39.04

0.93777

48.25

40.83

38.29

0.93588

49.25

41.76

39.08

0.93768

48.30

40.88

38.33

0.93578

49.30

41.80

39.12

0.93758

48.35

40.92

38.37

0.93569

49.35

41.85

39.16

0.93749

48.40

40.97

38.41

0.93559

49.40

41.90

39.20

0.93739

48.45

41.01

38.45

0.93550

49.45

41.94

39.24

0.93730

48.50

41.06

38.49

0.93540

49.50

41.99

39.28

0.93721

48.55

41.11

38.53

0.93530

49.55

42.04

39.32

0.93711

48.60

41.15

38.57

0.93521

49.60

42.08

39.36

0.93702

48.65

41.20

38.61

0.93511

49.65

42.13

39.40

0.93692

48.70

41.24

38.65

0.93502

49.70

42.18

39.44

0.93683

48.75

41.29

38.68

0.93492

49.75

42.23

39.48

0.93679

48.80

41.34

38.72

0.93482

49.80

42.27

39.52

0.93664

48.85

41.38

38.76

0.93473

49.85

42.32

39.56

0.93655

48.90

41.43

38.80

0.93463

49.90

42.37

39.60

0.93645

48.95

41.47

38.84

0.93454

49.95

42.41

39.63

The United States Proof Gallon. — Considerable confusion exists in
the public mind as to the precise meaning of the terms U. S. Proof Gallon,
U. S. Wine Gallon, and U. S. Taxable Gallon.

In an endeavor to make the Government meaning clear, these terms
will be explained in their above order.

U. S. Proof Gallon. — "Section 3249, Revised Statutes, provides that
proof spirit shall be held to be that alcoholic liquor which contains one
half its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of seven thousand nine
hundred and thirty-nine ten-thousandths (0.7939) at 60° Fahrenheit,
referred to water at its maximum density as unity." It is thus seen
that the U. S. proof gallon is one half alcohol hy volume or hulk and
therefore contains 50 per cent absolute alcohol, while 200 proof contains
100 per cent absolute alcohol by volume. The volume percentage of
absolute alcohol multiplied by 2, therefore, gives the proof. The degree
or per cent proof divided by 2 gives the percentage of absolute alcohol
bv volume.

ALCOHOLOMETRY. 141

U. S. Wine Gallon. — ^The U. S. wine gallon contains the same number
of cubic inches as the U. S. standard gallon, viz., 231 cubic inches.

A wine gallon of high-proof alcohol is therefore a U. S. standard
gallon.

The U.S. Taxable Gallon {in csLse of Distilled Spirits). — ^The present
tax on distilled spirits is ''$1.10 on each proof gallon or wine gallon
when below proof, and a proportionate tax at a like rate on all fractional
parts of such proof or wine gallon: Provided, that in computing the tax
on any package of spirits all fractional parts of a gallon less than one
tenth shall be excluded. . . . Under the above provisions, in computing
the tax on any package of spirits, officers will exclude the hundredths of
a gallon less than one tenth whenever they may arise. . . . When spirits
are below proof the tax attaches to the wine gallons as heretofore. For
example, in case of a package of spirits, when the loss is not excessive,
if the contents are found to be 44.59 wine gallons and 44.15 proof gal-
lons, the tax will be computed on 44.5 gallons." In this case the strength
of the spirits was 99.2 degrees proof.

Other provisions for allowance for loss of spirits while in warehouse
and further exact facts relating to the above can be found in the U. S.
Internal Revenue Regulations and Instructions concerning the Tax
on Distilled Spirits.

A barrel may hold, for instance, 50 wine gallons, 50 proof gallons,
and 50 taxable gallons, and in this case the strength of the spirits is 50
per cent by volume or 100 U. S. proof or "proof," which means 50 per
cent by volume, as described, and as there are 50 wine gallons, or bulk
gallons, there results 50 taxable gallons on which $1.10 per gallon has to
be paid.

Denatured alcohol is of course untaxed, but the above definitions
with regard to distilled spirits have been given for the reasons stated.

In the control of denatured alcohol the tables published in the
Gaugers' ^Manual, U. S. Internal Revenue, will be used.

The tables given on the following pages (pp. 143-145) were taken
from the edition of 1900 of this manual. In testing spirits for their alco-
holic strength in per cents of proof by these tables a ganger's cup, shown
in Fig. 62, p. 142, and alcohol hydrometers, shown in Fig. 61, p. 142, are
used. Proof or 100 will be indicated on the hydrometer when the tem-
perature of the spirit is at 60° F. Tables for correction of temperature
when it varies from 60° F. are supplied in this manual.

The ganger's cup is filled with the spirit to be tested according to
the directions in this manual, and the hydrometer is carefully placed
therein and the degree or per cent proof is read from the scale on the

142

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

stem at the surface of the spirits according to these published directions.
A complete set of five stems according to the Standard of the U. S.
Internal Revenue is shown in Fig. 61, ranging from water marked 0 to
absolute alcohol marked 200.

The British proof gallon is defined by law to be such spirit as at
the temperature of 51° F. shall weigh ff of an equal measure of dis-
tilled water. Absolute alcohol contains 175^ per cent by measure or

Fig. 61. Fig. 62.

Fig. 61. — Spirit Hydrometer showing Set of 5 Stems According to the Standard

Adopted by the U. S. Internal Revenue Dept. Furnished by Emil Grenier Co.,

New York City.
Fig. 62. — Gangers' Cup, with Thermometer. Furnished by Hoffman-Ahlers Co.,

Cincinnati, Ohio.

volume of proof spirit in the English system. The percentage by volume
of absolute alcohol may be obtained by multiplying the percentage of
proof spirit by the factor 0.5706.

The percentage by volume of proof spirit may be obtained by dividing
the percentage of absolute alcohol by volume by 0.5706 or multiplying
it by 1.7525. The British proof gallon is further described in the
Appendix of this book.

ALCX)HOLOMETRY.

143

TABLE

Giving the Respective Volumes of Absolute Alcohol and Water Contained
IN 100 Volumes of Spirits of Different Strength, and also the Specific
Gravities of the Mixtures, Referred, for Convenience, to the Density
* of Water at 60° Fahr. as Unity.

(From Gaugers' Manual, p. 575

1900. U. S

. Internal Revenue.)

Per Cent
Proof.

Alcohol.

Water.

Specific
Gravity.

Per Cent
Proof.

Alcohol.

Water.

Specific
Gravity.

Vols.

0.50

99.53

0 . 99929

20.50

81.26

0.97549

1.00

99.06

0.99858

21.00

80.81

0.97498

1.50

98.59

0.99787

21.50

80.36

0.97447

2.00

98.13

0.99716

22.00

79.91

0.97396

2.50

97.66

0.99645

22.50

79.47

0.97344

3.00

97.19

0.99574

23.00

79.02

0.97292

3.50

96.72

0.99503

23.50

78.57

0.97241

4.00

96.25

0.99431

24.00

78.12

0.97190

4.50

95.78

0.99360

24.50

77.67

0.97139

5.00

95.32

0.99289

25.00

77.22

0.97087

5.50

94.85

0 . 99224

25.50

76.77

0.97034

6.00

94.39

0.99160

26.00

76.32

0.96981

6.50

93.93

0 . 99098

26.50

75.87

0.96928

7.00

93.48

0 . 99036

27.00

75.42

0.96874

7.50

93.02

0.98974

27.50

74.97

0.96821

8.00

92.56

0.98911

28.00

74.52

0 . 96767

8.50

92.10

0 . 98849

28.50

74.06

0.96711

9.00

91.64

0 . 98787

29.00

73.61

0.96655

9.50

91.18

0 . 98725

29.50

73.16

0 . 96598

10.00

90.72

0 . 98663

30.00

72.70

0.96541

10.50

90.26

0 . 98608

30.50

72.25

0.96484

11.00

89.81

0 . 98552

31.00

71.79

0 . 96426

11.50

89.36

0.98497

31.50

71.33

0.96364

12.00

88.91

0.98441

32.00

70.87

0.96&02

12.50

88.45

0 . 98386

32.50

70.42

0.96240

13.00

88.00

0 . 98330

33.00

' 69.96

0.96178

13.50

87.55

0.98275

33.50

69.49

0.96114

14.00

87.10

0.98220

34.00

69.03

0.96049

14.50

86.65

0.98167

34.50

68.57

0.95982

15.00

86.20

0.98114

35.00

68.10

0.95915

15.50

85.75

0 . 98063

35.50

67.64

0.95847

16.00

85.30

0.98011

36.00

67.17

0.95779

16.50

84.85

0.97959

36.50

66.70

0.95707

17.00

84.40

0.97907

37.00

66.23

0.95635

17.50

83.95

0.97856

37.50

65.77

0 . 95564

18.00

83.50

0.97804

38.00

65.30

0.95492

18.50

83.05

0.97753

38.50

64.82

0.95417

19.00

82.60

0.97702

39.50

64.35

0 . 95342

19.50

82.16

0.97651

39.50

63.88

0.95267

20.00

81.71

0.97600

40.00

63.41

0.95192

144

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Respective Volumes of Alcohol and Water, and Specific Gbavity-

(Continued).

Per Cent
Proof.

Alcohol.

Water.

Specific
Gravity.

Per Cent
Proof.

Alcohol.

Water.

Specific
Gravity.

Vols.

40.50

62.93

0.95112

121

60.50

43.16

0.91234

41.00

62.45

0.95031

122

61.00

42.65

0.91122

41.50

61.97

0 . 94950

123

61.50

42.14

0.91010

42.00 •

61.50

0.94869

124

62.00

41.63

0.90897

42.50

61.01

0.94785

125

62.50

41.12

0 . 90784

43.00

60.53

0.94701

126

63.00

40.61

0.90671

43.50

60.05

0.94617

127

63.50

40.10

0.90556

44.00

59.57

0.94532

128

64.00

39.59

0 . 90441

44.50

59.08

0.94446

129

64.50

39.07

0.90326

45.00

58.60

0.94359

130

65.00

38.56

0.90211

45.50

58.12

0.94271

131

65.50

38.05

0.90093

46.00

57.63

0.94183

132

66.00

37.53

0.89975

46.50

57.14

0 . 94093

133

66.50

37.01

0.89856

47.00

56.66

0 . 94003

134

67.00

36.50

0.89737

47.50

56.16

0.93909

135

67.50

35.98

0 . 89616

48.00

55.67

0.93815

136

68.00

35.46

0.89495

48.50

55.18

0.93721

137

68.50

34.94

0.89375

49.00

54.69

0.93627

138

69.00

34.42

0.89254

49.50

54.20

0.93532

139

69.50

33.90

0.89129

100*

50.00

53.71

0.93437

140

70.00

33.38

0.89003

101

50.50

53.21

0.93341

141

70.50

32.86

0.88878

102

51.00

52.72

0 . 93245

142

71.00

32.33

0 . 88753

103

51.50

52.22

0.93144

143

71.50

31.81

0 . 88627

104

52.00

51.72

0.93043

144

72.00

31.29

0 . 88500

105

52.50

51.22

0.92941

145

72.50

30.76

0 . 88374

106

53.00

50.73

0.92839

146

73.00

30.24

0.88247

107

53.50

50.23

0.92737

147

73.50

29.71

0.88119

108

54.00

49.73

0.92635

148

74.00

29.19

0.87990

109

54.50

49.22

0.92531

149

74.50

28.66

0.87860

110

55.00

48.72

0.92427

150

75.00

28.13

0.87730

111

55.50

48.22

0.92322

151

75.50

27.61

0.87599

112

56.00

47.72

0.92217

152

76.00

27.08

0 . 87467

113

56.50

47.22

0.92111

153

76.50

26.55

0 . 87334

114

57.00

46.71

0.92004

154

77.00

26.02

0.87200

115

57.50

46.21

0.91896

155

77.50

25.48

0.87067

116

58.00

45.70

0.91788

156

78.00

24.95

0.86933

117

58.50

45.19

0.91679

157

78.50

24.42

0 . 86796

118

59.00

44.69

0.91569

158

79.00

23.88

0 . 86659

119

59.50

44.18

0.91458

159

79.50

23.35

0 . 86522

120

60.00

43.67

0.91346

160

80.00

22.81

0 . 86384

* Proof: In mixing alcohol and water a contraction in volume ensues. There are required,
therefore, to make 100 gallons of proof spirit, 50 gallons of absolute alcohol and 53.71 gallons of

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

145

Respective Volumes of Alcohol and Water, and Specific Gravity —

(Continued).

Per Cent
Proof.

Alcohol.

Water.

Specific
Gravity.

Per Cent
Proof.

Alcohol.

Water.

Specific
Gravity.

Vols.

161

80.50

22.28

0.86244

181

90.50

11.30

0.83216

162

81.00

21.74

0.86104

182

91.00

10.74

0.83046

163

81.50

21.20

0 . 85962

183

. 91.50

10.17

0.82876

164

82.00

20.66

0 . 85820

184

92.00

9.60

0.82706

165

82.50

20.12

0.85678

185

92.50

9.03

0.82527

166

83.00

19.58

0.85535

186

93.00

8.45

0.82348

167

83.50

19.04

0.85390

187

93.50

7.87

0.82165

168

84.00

18.50

0.85245

188

94.00

7.29

0.81981

169

84.50

17.95

0.85098

189

94.50

6.70

0.81790

170

85.00

17.41

0.84950

190

95.00

6.10

0.81598

171

85.50

16.86

0 . 84803

191

95.50

5.51

0.81394

172

86.00

16.32

0.84656

192

96.00

4.91

0.81190

173

86.50

15.77

0.84502

193

96.50

4.31

0.80983

174

87.00

15.22

0.84347

194

97.00

3.70

0.80776

175

87.50

14.66

0.84189

195

97.50

3.10

0.80566

176

88.00

14.11

0.84031

196

98.00

2.48

0.80356

177

88.50

13.55

0.83873

197

98.50

1.87

0.80137

178

89.00

12.99

0.83715

198

99.00

1.25

0.79918

179

89.50

12.43

0 . 83550

199

99.50

0.62

0.79690

180

90.00

11.87

0.83385

200

100.00 1

0.00

0.79461

Absolute alcohol.

* The Detection and Determination of Ethyl and Methyl Alcohols
in Mixtures by the Immersion Refractometer. — fThe immersion refrac-
tometer used is the recently devised instrument made by Zeiss. The
•construction of the immersion refractometer is such that, as its name
impUes, it may be immersed directly in an almost endless variety of solu-
tions, the strength of which within limits may be determined by the
degree of refraction read upon an arbitrary scale. Thus, for example,
the strengths of various acids and of a variety of salt solutions used as
reagents in the laboratory, as well as of formaldehyde, of sugars in solu-
tion and of alcohol, are all capable of determination by the use of the
immersion refractometer.

Fig. 63 shows the form used by the authors of this test. P is a glass
prism fixed in the lower end of the tube of the instrument, while at the
top of the tube is the ocular Oc, and just below this, on a level with the

* By Albert E. Leach and Hermann C. Lythgoe. Reprinted from the Journal
of the American Chemical Socety, Vol. XXVII, No. 8, August, 1905.
t From Leach's Food Inspection and Analysis.

146

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOIv.

vernier screw Z, is the scale on which is read the degree of refraction of
the Hquid in which the prism P is immersed. The tube may be held in
the hand and directly dipped in the liquid to be tested, this liquid being
contained in a vessel with a translucent bottom, through which the light
is reflected.

Fig. 63. — The Zeiss Immersion Refractometer.

But the preferable method of use is, however, that shown in Fig. 63,
the Zeiss immersion refractometer. A is a metal bath with inlet and
outlet tubes, arranged whereby water is kept at a constant level. The
water is maintained at a constant temperature, which will be found of
great convenience when the instrument is used constantly, especially
with the solid fats. In the bath A are immersed a number of beakers
containing the solutions to be tested. T is a frame on which is hung the
refractometer by means of the hook H, at just the right height to permit
of the immersion of the prism P in the liquid in any of the beakers in the
row beneath. Under this row of beakers the bottom of the tank is

ALCOHOLOMETRY. 147

composed of a strip of ground glass, through which light is reflected by
an adjustable pivoted mirror. The temperature of the bath is noted by
a delicate thermometer immersed therein, capable of reading to tenths
of a degree.

Returning to the main refractometer-tube, R is sl graduated ring or
collar, v/hich is connected with a sleeve within the tube with a compound
prism near the bottom, the construction being such that by turning the
collar R one way or the other, the chromatic aberration or dispersion of
any liquid may be compensated for and a clear-cut shadow or critical
line projected across the scale. By the graduation on the collar R the
degree of dispersion may be read. Tenths of a degree on the main scale
of the instrument may be read with great accuracy by means of the
vernier screw Z, graduated along its circumference, the screw being
tuFned in each case till the critical line on the scale coincides with the
nearest whole number.

The scale of the instrument reads from —5 to 105, corresponding to
indices of refraction of from 1.32539 to 1.36640. It should be noted that
the index of refraction may be read with a greater degree of accuracy
on the immersion refractometer than on the Abbe instrument. This
instrumen is shown in Fig. 64 (the Abbe refractometer with tem-
perature-controlled prisms).

A Zeiss heating apparatus for heating the metal bath A is shown
in Fig. 65. A supply reservoir A is secured to the wall and is connected
by means of a rubber inlet-tube G to the water-faucet C. The reservoir
is provided with a waste overflow-pipe and with an outlet-tube D, the
flow through the latter being regulated by the cock H. The tube D
leads to the spiral heater HS, which is heated by a Bunsen burner.

From the heater the tube E conducts the warm water through the
refractometer, from which it flows through the tube F, either directly
into the sink or into the intermediate vessel B. The temperature of
the water is regulated by adjusting the cock H and the height of the
flame of the Bunsen burner. Such a heater is of great convenience when
using this instrument with the solid fats. It can be obtained of the
manufacturers.

For convenience of reference a table showing specific gravity and
percentage of alcohol for use with this refractometer is given on pages
158-163 (according to Hehner).

The use of wood alcohol in various preparations which come within
the domain of the public analyst for examination is apparently on the
increase. It is especially to be looked for as an adulterant in medicinal
preparations, liniments, tinctures, and in all varieties of flavoring and

148

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Fig. 64. — ^The Abb6 Refractometer with Temperature-controlled Prisms.

Fig. 65. — The Zeiss Heating Apparatus for all Forms of Refractometer.
Shown in Connection with the Pulfrich Refractometer.

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

149

other extracts high in alcohol. In Massachusetts we have found methyl
alcohol in various pharmaceutical preparations, such as tincture of
iodine, and in lemon and orange extracts.

Existing methods for the detection of wood alcohol, with one or two
exceptions, are extremely unsatisfactory. Most of the older methods,
such, for example, as the potassium permanganate test, depend upon the
presence of acetone in the methyl alcohol. With the improved refining

■20

30 40 50 00 Tj

Per-ct^iii Alcohol by Weigh:

100

Diagram illustrating the Wide Difference in Refraction between Ethyl and

Methyl Alcohol.

processes used at the present day wood alcohol is readily obtainable free
from more than traces of acetone, so that it is impossible to distinguish
it from ethyl alcohol by its odor. Crude wood alcohol with acetone
present in marked degree is frequently capable of being indicated even
in mixture with ethyl alcohol by the sense of smell. It is the refined or
deodorized methyl alcohol sold under a variety of trade names, such as
Columbian spu-its, Hastings spirits. Colonial spu-its, purified wood alcohol,
etc., that one finds as an adulterant of tinctures, extracts , and beverages.

150 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The most practical method hitherto used for the detection of methyl
alcohol is that of Mulliken and Scudder,* which depends on the oxidation
of the methyl alcohol in the sample to formaldehyde by the use of a red-
hot spiral of copper wire, using, however, the hydrochloric acid and milk
test for the detection of formaldehyde in the oxidized solution, f

Attention is further called to the German official process of Windisch,t
a color reaction depending on the transformation of the methyl alcohol
to methyl violet.

Methods for the quantitative determination of wood alcohol are even
more rare. Duprey § has suggested a method of concentrating the
alcohol by repeated distillation, after which part of the final distillate is
oxidized to acetic acid, the latter being titrated with alkali, while the
alcohol is determined in the other portion of the distillate from the
specific gravity. Both methods with pure ethyl alcohol should give
concordant results, whereas in presence of methyl alcohol a lower result
is obtained by the oxidation process.

The specific gravity of absolute methyl and ethyl alcohol is prac-
tically identical, and it is also true that when mixed with varying pro-
portions of water the specific gravity of both alcohols is so nearly the same
(with the same proportions of water in each) that the same tables for
computation of percentage of alcohol from the specific gravity may be
used in one case as in the other.

A very important physical constant, however, which we have found
to differ most widely in the two alcohols is the index of refraction, and
it is on this property that we base our method for the detection and de-
termination of methyl alcohol.

We use for this purpose the immersion refractometer of Zeiss. This
instrument was fully described in a former paper by us.|| To illustrate
the wide difference in refraction between the two alcohols, the strongest
commercial ethyl alcohol found on the market (the alcohol of the U. S.
Pharmacopoeia, which contains 91 per cent of absolute alcohol by weight)
gives a reading with the immersion refractometer of 98.3° at 20° C, while
the reading of methyl alcohol of 91 per cent strength by weight is 14.9°.
Fifty per cent ethyl alcohol by weight has a refraction on the immersion
refractometer of 90.3°, while the same strength (50 per cent) of methyl

* Am. Chem. Jour., 24, 444 (1900); ibid , 27, 892.

t Ann. Rept. Mass. State Board of Health, 1897, p. 558; Leach, Food Inspec-
tion and Analysis, p. 666.

t Vereinbar. z. Unters. v. Nahr. u. Genussm., Heft II, p. 130.

§ Analyst, 1, p. 4.

II Am. Chem. Jour., 26, 1196 (1904).

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

151

alcohol refracts on the instrument at 39.8°, all readings being made at
20° C. From this wide variation it is readily seen that there is no trouble
in detecting even small amounts of methyl alcohol in mixtures. Table 1

Table I. — Percentage by Weight of Ethyl and Methyl Alcohols Corre-
sponding TO Scale Readings on Zeiss Immersion Refractometer at
20° C.

Scale
Read-

Per Cent Alcohol by Weight.

Per Cent

Scale
Reading,

Ethyl
Alcohol

Scale
Reading,

Per Cent
Ethyl Alcohol

ing.
20° C.

Methyl Alcohol.

Ethyl
Alcohol.

20- C.

by
Weight.

20^0'.

by Weight.

14.73

38.82

15.23

39.64

100.00

15.73

40.64

99.33

16.23

41.64

98.69

16.73

42.75

98.06

17.23

43.75

97.44

17.73

44.75

96.80

18.23

46.00

96.13

18.73

47.25

95.42

19.23

48.38

94.71

19.73

49.62

94.00

20.25

93.28

20.77

50.87 100.00

92.55

21.29

62.66 99.00

91.75

21.81

54.00 98.00

1.34

90.92

0.33

22.33

55.80 97.00

3.00

90.08

1.00

22.85

57.60 96.00

4.67

89.25

1.62

23.38

59.60 95.00

6.34

88.45

2.25

23.90

61.75 94.00

8.00

87.64

2.93

24.43

98
99

64.00 91.60
66.75 88.50

9.67

86.73

3.56

24.94

100

70.00 85.50

11.34

85.80

4.19

25.50

13.00

84.80

4.82

26.06

101

75.00

14.67

83.60

5.39

26.60

16.17

82.40

5.94

27.15

17.72

81.20

6.50

27.71

19.33

80.00

7.06

28.29

20.93

78.75

7.58

28.88

22.47

77.43

8.09

29.44

23.96

76.00

8.64

30.00

25.50

74.57

9.20

30.71

27.18

73.14

9.76

31.47

28.67

71.50

10.32

32.21

30.33

70.00

10.87

32.93

32.00

68.00

11.43

33.69

33.50

66.00

11.99

34.43

35.16

64.00

12.54

35.09

37.00

62.00

13.10

35.99

40.00

59.75

13.64

37.00

43.93

14.19

37.90

152 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

shows the percentage by weight at 20° C. of the two alcohols correspond-
ing to each degree of scale reading on the refractometer.

The difference in refraction between the two alcohols varies con-
siderably for different strengths. In the case of methyl alcohol, start-
ing at zero (or water containing no alcohol), at which the reading on the
immersion at 20° is 14.5, the refraction gradually increases with increas-
ing strength of methyl alcohol up to about 50 per cent of the latter by
weight, where the refraction reaches its maximum, after which for higher
strengths of methyl alcohol it drops quite rapidly until at 100 per cent
the refraction is but 2.0.

In the case of ethyl alcohol, starting, as before, with pure water and
increasing the strength of the solution in alcohol, the refraction increases
quite rapidly up to solutions of about 75 per cent strength, where it then
drops slightly, but by no means to such an extent as in the case of methyl
alcohol. It will thus be seen that by far the widest variations in refrac-
tion between the two alcohols take place above 50 per cent in strength.

From the peculiar shape of both alcohol curves, rising gradually to a
maximum and then falling, no confusion should be caused by the fact
that in some cases one scale reading may correspond to two different
percentages of strength of the same alcohol.

The detection of wood alcohol by this method is comparatively simple
and consists in submitting to refraction with the immersion refractometer
the distillate which one makes for the determination of ethyl alcohol in
the regular manner in alcoholic beverages, essences, tinctures, extracts,
or whatever may be the nature of the substances to be examined. If the
refraction of the liquid shows the percentage of alcohol agreeing with
that obtained from the specific gravity in the regular manner, it may
safely be assumed that no methyl alcohol is present. If, however, there
is an appreciable amount of methyl alcohol the low refractometer reading
will at once indicate the fact. If the absence in the solution of other
refractive substances than w,ater and the alcohols is assured this qualita-
tive test by difference in refraction is conclusive, but if there is doubt
a confirmatory test by the Mulliken and Scudder method * should be
made.

Not only can methyl alcohol be thus readily detected, but the amount
may be approximately and in some cases very accurately determined.
Addition of methyl to ethyl alcohol decreases the refraction in direct
proportion to the amount present. Hence the quantitative calculation
may be readily made by interpolation in Table II, which follows, using

* Loc. cit. supra.

ALCOHOLOMETRY

153

the figures for pure ethyl and methyl alcohol of the same alcoholic strength
as the sample. The degree of accuracy of this calculation varies with
the strength of alcohol. For instance, with an alcoholic strength of 10
per cent there is less exactness than at 50 per cent strength, where 1
per cent or even less can be readily determined. From this point on the
delicacy of the process naturally increases, until at 90 per cent strength
0.1 per cent of methyl alcohol may be determined with accuracy.

Table II. — Scale Readings on Zeiss Immersion Refractometer at 20° C.
Corresponding to Each Per Cent by Weight of Ethyl and Methyl
Alcohol.

Per
Cent

Scale Readings.

Per Cent
Alcohol

by
Weight.

Scale Readings.

Per Cent
Alcohol

by
Weight.

Scale Readings.

Alcohol
by

Methyl

Ethyl

Methyl

Ethyl

Methyl

Ethyl

Weight.

Alcohol.

14.5

35.2

74.4

34.0

99.4

- 1

14.8

16.0

35.8

75.8

33.5

99.7

15.4

17.6

36.3

76.9

16.0

19.1

36.8

78.0

33.0

100.0

16.6

20.7

37.3

79.1

32.3

100.2

17.2

22.3

37.7

80.2

31.7

100.4

17.8

24.1

31.1

100.6

18.4

25.9

38.1

81.3

30.4

100.8

19.0

27.8

38.4

82.3

29.7

101.0

19.6

29.6

38.8

83.3

29.0

101.0

39.2

84.2

28.3

100.9

20.2

31.4

39.3

85.2

27.6

100.9

20.8

33.2

39.4

86.2

26.8

100.8

21.4

35.0

39.5

87.0

22.0

36.9

39.6

87.8

26.0

100.7

22.6

38.7

39.7

88.7

25.1

100.6

23.2

40.5

39.8

89.5

24.3

100.5

23.9

42.5

23.6

100.4

24.5

44.5

39.8

90.3

22.8

100.3

25.2

46.5

39.7

91.1

21.8

100.1

25.8

48.5

39.6

91.8

20.8

99.8

39.6

92.4

19.7

99.5

26.5

50.5

39.5

93.0

18.6

99.2

27.1

52.4

39.4

93.6

17.3

98.9

27.8

54.3

39.2

m.i

28.4

56.3

39.0

94.7

16.1

98.6

29.1

58.2

38.6

95.2

14.9

98.3

29.7

60.1

38.3

95.7

13.7

97.8

30.3

61.9

12.4

97.2

30.9

63.7

37.9

96.2

11.0

96.4

31.6

65.5

37.5

96.7

9.6

95.7

32.2

67.2

37.0

97.1

8.2

94.9

36.5

97.5

6.7

94.0

32.8

69.0

36.0

98.0

5.1

93.0

33.5

70.4

35.5

98.3

3.5

92.0

34.1

71.7

35.0

98.7

34.7

73.1

34.5

99.1

100

2.0

91.0

154 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Table II shows the refraction on the immersion refractometer corre-
sponding to each percentage of alcohol, both ethyl and methyl, by weight,
all readings being taken at exactly 20° C. This table will show at a
glance whether a solution of given strength of alcohol as determined
from the specific gravity contains ethyl or methyl alcohol or is a mix-
ture of the two.

The fact should be borne in mind that in the examination of flavor-
ing extracts it is difficult to so completely separate out the volatile oils
as to prevent minute traces from appearing in the distillate. These,
and indeed any volatile substances present in marked degree, appreciably
affect the accuracy of the quantitative results, though mere traces do
not cause serious error. The presence of notable amounts of acetone
exercises also a marked effect, but the purified wood alcohol commonly
used as an adulterant contains so little acetone that it may ordinarily
be neglected in expressing approximate results. Pure acetone refracts
considerably lower than ethyl alcohol.

Two or three examples of actual cases as found in the routine inspec-
tion of foods and drugs in Massachusetts will best illustrate the method
of calculation. For determination of total alcohol from the specific
gravity Hehner's alcohol tables were used (as given on pages 158-163).

(1) A lemon extract found by the polariscope to contain 4.9 per cent
of lemon-oil by volume and 90.20 per cent of alcohol by volume at 15°
was freed from lemon-oil by diluting four times with water, treating with
magnesia in the regular manner and filtering. A measured portion of
the filtrate was then distilled and the distillate made up to the measured
portion taken. This distillate was found to have a specific gravity of
0.9736, corresponding to 18.38 per cent alcohol by weight,* and to have
a refraction of 35.8 on the Zeiss immersion refractometer.

By interpolation in Table II the readings of ethyl and methyl alcohol
corresponding to 18.38 per cent alcohol are 47.2 and 25.4 respectively,
the difference being 21.8. 47.2-35.8 = 11.4. (11.4^21.8)100=52.3. In
this case 52.3 per cent of the altohol present was methyl.

(2) An orange extract was found with 1.5 per cent of orange-oil and
83.2 per cent of alcohol by volume at 15° C. The specific gravity of

* Our methyl-ethyl alcohol tables being most conveniently worked out on the
weight-per cent basis, the per cent by weight rather than by volume of the dikite
distillate is here taken. Percentage of total alcohol in the extract as well as of
lemon-oil we commonly express by volume. In this case the specific gravity
0.9736 corresponds to 22.55 per cent alcohol by volume. The per cent by volume
of total alcohol in the extract, 90.20 at 15° C, is found by multiplying 22.55 by
4 to correct for the dilution. The alcohol tables used are given on pp. 158-163. >

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

155

the one-fourth strength distillate, freed from oil as in the case of the
lemon extract, was 0.9754, corresponding to 16.92 per cent alcohol by
weight. Refraction of the distillate at 20° C. was 42.0. Readings of
ethyl and methyl alcohol of 16.9 strength are, according to Table II,
44.3 and 24.5 respectively. Difference 19.8. 44.3-42 = 2.3. (2.3-^
19.8) 100 = 1.2. Thus, 1.2 per cent of the alcohol present was methyl.

(3) 6.3 c.c. of tincture of iodine, after titration with N/10 sodium
thiosulphate (in the regular manner for determining its strength accord-
ing to the U. S. Pharmacopoeia), were neutralized with N/10 sodium
hydroxide and distilled, collecting 25.2 c.c. of the distillate, correspond-
ing to a dilution of 1:4 of the sample. The distillate contained 20.92
per cent alcohol by weight, refraction 27.5 at 20° C, indicating 99 per
cent of the alcohol to be methyl. There is no doubt that the alcohol in
this case was entirely methyl, the slightly high refraction of the distillate
being due to the presence of a slight amount of volatile substance formed
by decomposition of the tincture of iodine.

The accuracy of the method is shown in a general way by a series of
experiments, the results of which are tabulated as follows:

Table 111. — Readings of Experimental Mixtures of Methyl and Ethyl

Alcohols.

Methyl Alcohol,

Ethyl Alcohol,

Specific
Gravity

Por Ponf

Scale

Alcohol by

Reading,

15° C.

Weight.

20° C.

Prepared,

As
Found,

As
Prepared,

As
Found,

Per Cent.

0.8190

91.36

33.9

68.52

69.88

22.84

21.48

0.8190

91.36

54.9

45.68

47.41

45.68

44.95

0.9239

47.41

51.9

35.56

35.42

11.85

11.99

0.8190

91.36

76.3

22.84

23.75

68.52

67.61

0.9326

43.43

62.4

21.71

21.38

22.71

22.05

0.9643

25.64

37.2

19.23

19.76

6.41

5.88

0 . 9207

48.86

77.5

12.21

11.77

36.65

37.09

0 . 9753

17.00

34.0

8.50

8.92

8.50

8.08

0.9666

23.92

50.2

5.98

. 6.48

17.94

17.44

* The Determination of Methyl Alcohol in Denatured Alcohol by
the Zeiss Immersion Refractometer. — This method of Leach and
Lythgoe just described is applied more particularly to the pure wood
alcohol (which is practically free from odor and impurities, and would
therefore be less desirable for denaturing purposes) , but in the case of

* This procedure does not separate the two alcohols, but merely removes these
other substances in order that the calculation may be made.

156

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

denatured alcohol which contains acetone and petroleum benzine a
slightly different procedure is necessary. They recommend a test as
follows: Take 25 c.c. of the sample of denatured alcohol and dilute to
100 c.c. with water; add about 5 grms. powdered magnesium carbonate,
shake well, and filter.

The filtrate is free from petroleum benzine, but contains the acetone
and the alcohols.

A measured portion of this filtrate 55 c.c. is washed into a distilling-
fiask and treated with 10 grms. of powdered potassium bisulphite and,
after standing an hour, is distilled, taking 55 c.c. of distillate.

This distillate is free from acetone, but contains some sulphurous
acid, and in order to remove this it is distilled with sodium hydroxide,
the final distillate being made up to 55 c.c.

The specific gravity and refraction of this final distillate is taken,
and the percentage of methyl and ethyl alcohols is calculated from
the tables. The percentage of the alcohols in this last distillate must
be multiplied by 4 to express the results in terms of the original
sample. The alcohol tables us3d are given on pp. 158-163.

The Abh6 refractometer may be used for approximate work, but
does not give the accuracy which is obtained by the immersion refrac-
tometer.

A table which may be used in connection with the Abbe instrument
is given as follows:

Table for Use with the Abbe Refractometer.

Per

Cent
Alcohol

by
Weight.

Index of Refraction,
nD.

Per Cent
Alcohol

by
Weight.

Index of Refraction,
nD.

Per Cent
Alcohol

by
Weight.

Index of Refraction,
nD.

Methyl
Alcohol.

Ethyl
Alcohol.

Methyl
Alcohol.

Ethyl
Alcohol.

Methyl
Alcohol.

Ethyl
Alcohol.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1.3330
1.3331
1.3334
1.3336
1.3338
1.3340
1.3343
1.3345
1.3347
1.3350

1.3330
1.3336
1.3342
1.3348
1.3354
1.3360
1.3367
1.3374
1.3381
1.3388

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

1.3352
1.3354
1.3357
1.3353
1.3361
1.3364
1.3366
1.3369
1.3371
1.3374

1.3395
1.3402
1.340^
1.3416
1.3423
1.3429
1.3437
1.3444
1.3452
1.3459

20
21
22
23
24
25

1.3376
1 . 3378
1.3381
1.3384
1.3386
1.3388

1.3467
1.3474
1.3481
1.3488
1.3495
1.3502

ALCOHOLOMETRY. 157

Example of the Determination of Methyl Alcohol in Denatured Alcohol by
the Zeiss Immersion Refractometer.

The sample of denatured alcohol was made by mixing

100 c.c. of commercial 95% alcohol;
10 c.c. of commercial wood alcohol;
0.5 c.c. of petroleum benzine.

This sample was then analyzed by the above method with the follow-
ing result;

Specific gravity of final distillate 0.9707.
Refraction of final distillate 47.5.

Alcohol corresponding to sp. gr. 19 . 08% by weight,

=23.38% by volume,
Refraction of 19.08% ethyl =48 . 7
Refraction of methyl alcohol =25.9

22.8

F^y^=^-^-

Hence 5.26% of the total alcohol is methyl alcohol;
23.38X4 =93.52% total alcohol by volume;
93.52X0.526= 4.92% methyl alcohol by volume in sample;

88 . 60% ethyl alcohol by volume in sample.

A second analysis gave results so close to this one that it vras con-
sidered unnecessary to include it here.

The small amounts of pyroligneous impurities always present in
commercial wood alcohol will have a slight effect upon the refraction
of the distillate, making the percentage of methyl alcohol slightly less
than it should be.

158

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Tables Showing the Specific Gravity and Percentage of Alcohol.
(According to Hehner.)

Absolute Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

Per Cent

Grams

Per Cent

Grams

15.6° C.

per

15.6° C.

per

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

1.0000

0.00

0.9999

0.05

0.07

0.05

0.9959

2.33

2.93

2.32

0.11

0.13

0.11

2.39

3.00

2.38

0.16

'0.20

0.16

2.44

3.07

2.43

0.21

0.26

0.21

2.50

3.14

2.49

0.26

0.33

0.26

2.56

3.21

2.55

0.32

0.40

0.32

2.61

3.28

2.60

0.37

0.46

0.37

2.67

3.35

2.65

0.42

0.53

0.42

2.72

3.42

2.70

0.47

0.60

0.47

2.78

3.49

2.76

0.53

0.66

0.53

2.83

3.55

2.81

0.9989

0.58

0.73

0.58

0.9949

2.89

3.62

2.87

0.63

0.79

0.63

2.94

3.69

2.92

0.68

0.86

0.68

3.00

3.76

2.98

0.74

0.93

0.74

3.06

3.83

3.04

0.79

0.99

0.79

3.12

3.90

3.10

0.84

1.06

0.84

3.18

3.98

3.16

0.89

1.13

0.89

3.24

4.05

3.22

0.95

1.19

0.95

3.29

4.12

3.27

1.00

1.26

1.00

3.35

4.20

3.33

1.06

1.34

1.06

3.41

4.27

3.39

0.9979

1.12

1.42

1.12

0.9939

3.47

4.34

3.45

1.19

1.49

1.19

3.53

4.42

3.51

1.25

1.57

1.25

3.59

4.49

3.57

1.31

1.65

1.31

3.65

4.56

3.63

1.37

1.73

1.37

3.71

4.63

3.69

1.44

1.81

1.44

3.76

4.71

3.74

1.50

1.88

1.50

3.82

4.78

3.80

1.56

1.96

1.56

3.88

4.85

3.85

1.62

2.04

1.61

3.94

4.93

3.91

1.69

2.12

1.68

.4.00

5.00

3.97

0.9969

1.75

2.20

1.74

0.9929

4.06

5.08

4.03

1.81

2.27

1.80

4.12

5.16

4.09

1.87

2.35

1.86

4.19

5.24

4.16

1.94

2.43

1.93

4.25

5.32

4.22

2.00

2.51

1.99

4.31

5.39

4.28

2.06

2.58

2.05

4.37

5.47

4.34

2.11

2.62

2.10

4.44

5.55

4.40

2.17

2.72

2.16

4.50

5.63

4.46

2.22

2.79

2.21

4.56

5.71

4.52

2.28

2.86

2.27

4.62

5.78

4.58

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

159

Specific Gravity and Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

Absolute Alcohol.

Specific
Gravity

Per Cent

Grams

Per Cent

Per cent

Grams

15.6° C.

per

15.6° C.

per

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

0.9919

4.69

5.86

4.65

0.9879

7.33

9.13

7.24

4.75

5.94

4.71

7.40

9.21

7.31

4.81

6.02

4.77

7.47

9.29

7.37

4.87

6.10

4.83

7.53

9.37

7.43

4.94

6.17

4.90

7.60

9.45

7.50

5.00

6.24

4.95

7.67

9.54

7.57

5.06

6.32

5.01

7.73

9.62

7.63

5.12

6.40

5.07

7.80

9.70

7.70

5.19

6.48

5.14

7.87

9.78

7.77

5.25

6.55

5.20

7.93

9.86

7.83

0.9909

5.31

6.63

5.26

0.9869

8.00

9.95

7.89

5.37

6.71

5.32

8.07

10.03

7.96

5.44

6.78

5.39

8.14

10.12

8.04

5.50

6.86

5.45

8.21

10.21

8.10

5.56

6.94

5.51

8.29

10.30

8.17

5.62

7.01

5.57

8.36

10.38

8.24

5.69

7.09

5.64

8.43

10.47

8.31

5.75

7.17

5.70

8.50

10.56

8.38

5.81

7.25

5.76

8.57

10.65

8.45

5.87

7.32

5.81

8.64

10.73

8.52

0.9899

5.94

7.40

5.88

0.9859

8.71

10.82

8.58

6.00

7.48

5.94

8.79

10.91

8.66

6.07

7.57

6.01

8.86

11.00

8.73

6.14

7.66

6.07

8.93

11.08

8.80

6.21

7.74

6.14

9.00

11.17

8.87

6.28

7.83

6.21

9.07

11.26

8.93

6.36

7.92

6.29

9.14

11.35

9.00

6.43

8.01

6.36

9.21

11.44

9.07

6.50

8.10

6.43

9.29

11.52

9.14

6.57

8.18

6.50

9.36

11.61

9.22

0.9889

6.64

8.27

6.57

0.9849

9.43

11.70

9.29

6.71

8.36

6.63

9.50

11.79

9.35

6.78

8.45

6.70

9.57

11.87

9.42

6.86

8.54

6.78

9.64

11.96

9.49

6.93

8.63

6.85

9.71

12.05

9.56

7.00

8.72

6.92

9.79

12.13

9.64

7.07

8.80

6.99

9.86

12.22

9.71

7.13

8.88

7.05

9.93

12.31

9.77

7.20

8.96

7.12

10.00

12.40

9.84

7.27

9.04

7.19

10.03

12.49

9.92

160

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Specific Gravity and Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

Absolute Alcohol.

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

Per Cent

Grams

Per Cent

Grams

15.6° C.

per

15.6° C.

per

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

0.9839

10.15

12.58

9.99

0.9799

13.23

16.33

12.96

10.23

12.68

10.06

13.21

16.43

13.03

10.31

12.77

10.13

13.38

16.52

13.10

10.38

12.87

10.20

13.46

16.61

13.18

10.46

12.96

10.28

13.54

16.70

13.26

10.54

13.05

10.36

13.62

16.80

13.33

10.62

13.15

10.44

13.69

16.89

13.40

10.69

13.24

10.51

13.77

16.98

13.48

10.77

13.34

10.59

13.85

17.08

13.56

. 10.85

13.43

10.67

13.92

17.17

13.63

0.9829

10.92

13.52

10.73

0.9789

14.00

17.26

13.71

11.00

13.62

10.81

14.09

17.37

13.79

11.08

13.71

10.89

14.18

17.48

13.88

11.15

13.81

10.95

14.27

17.59

13.96

11.23

13.90

11.03

14.36

17.70

14.04

11.31

13.99

11.11

14.45

17.81

14.13

11.38

14.09

11.18

14.55

17.92

14.23

11.46

14.18

11.26

14.64

18.03

14.32

11.54

14.27

11.33

14.73

18.14

14.39

11.62

14.37

11.41

14.82

18.25

14.48

0.9819

11.69

14.46

11.48

0.9779

14.91

18.36

14.58

11.77

14.56

11.56

15.00

18.48

14.66

11.85

14.65

11.64

15.08

18.58

14.74

11.92

14.74

11.70

15.17

18.68

14.83

12.00

14.84

11.78

15.25

18.78

14.90

12.08

14.93

11.85

15.33

18.88

14.98

12.15

15.02

11.92

15.42

18.98

15.07

12.23

15.12

12.00

15.50

19.08

15.14

12.31

15.21

12.08

15.58

19.18

15.21

12.38

15.30

12.14

15.67

19.28

15.30

0.9809

12 46

15.40

12.22

0.9769

15.75

19.39

15.38

12.54

15.49

12.30

15.83

19.49

15.46

12.62

15.58

12.37

15.92

19.59

15.54

12.69

15.68

12.44

16.00

19.68

15.62

12.77

15.77

12.51

16.08

19.78

15.70

12.85

15.86

12.59

16.15

19.87

15.76

12.92

15.96

12.66

16.23

19.96

15.84

13.00

16.05

12.74

16.31

20.06

15.90

13.08

16.15

12.81

16.38

20.15

15.99

13.15

16.24

12.89

16.46

20.24

16.06

ALCOHOLOMETRY.

161

Spectfic Gravity and Percentage of Alcouou— {Continued).

Absolute Alcohol.

Absolute Alcohol. ,

Specific

Specific
Gravity

Gravity

Per Cent

Grams

Per Cent

Grams

15.6° 0.

per

15.6° C.

per

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

0.9759

16.54

20.33

16.13

0.9719

19.75

24.18

19.19

16.62

20.43

16.21

19.83

24.28

19.27

16.69

20.52

16.28

19.92

24.38

19.36

16.77

20.61

16.35

20.00

24.48

19.44

16.85

20.71

16.43

20.08

24.58

19.51

16.92

20.80

16.50

20.17

24.68

19.59

17.00

20.89

16.57

20.25

24.78

19.66

17.08

20.99

16.65

20.33

24.88

19.74

17.17

21.09

16.74

1 •

20.42

24.98

19.83

17.25

21.19

16.81

20.50

25.07

19.90

0.9749

17.33

21.29

16.89

0.9709

20.58

25.17

19.98

17.42

21.39

16.97

20.67

25.27

20.07

17.50

21.49

17.05

20.75

25.37

20.14

17.58

21.59

17.13

20.83

25.47

20.22

17.67

21.69

17.20

20.92

25.57

20.30

17.75

21.79

17.29

21.00

25.67

20.33

17.83

21.89

17.37

21.08

25.76

20.46

17.92

21.99

17.46

21.15

25.86

20.52

18.00

22.09

17.54

21.23

25.95

20.59

18.08

22.18

17.61

21.31

26.04

20.67

0.9739

18.15

22.27

17.68

0.9699

21.38

26.13

20.73

18.23

22.36

17.76

21.46

26.22

20.81

18.31

22.46

17.82

21.54

26.31

20.89

18.38

22.55

17.90

21.62

26.40

20.96

18.46

22.64

17.97

21.69

26.49

21.03

18.54

22.73

18.05

21.77

26.58

21.11

18.62

22.82

18.13

21.85

26.67

21.18

18.69

22.92

18.19

21.92

26.77

21.25

18.77

23.01

.18.27

22.00

26.86

21.33

18.85

23.10

18.34

22.08

26.95

21.40

0.9729

18.92

23.19

18.41

0.9689

22.15

27.04

21.47

19.00

23.18

18.48

22.23

27.13

21.54

19.08

23.38

18.56

22.31

27.22

21.61

19.17

23.48

18.65

22.38

27.31

21.68

19.25

23.58

18.73

22.46

27.40

21.76

19.33

23.68

18.80

22.54

27.49

21.83

19.42

23.78

18.88

22.62

27.59

21.90

19.50

23.88

18.95

22.69

27.68

21.96

19.58t

23.98

19.03

22.77

27.77

22.01

19.67

24.08

19.12

22.85

27.86

22.12

162

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Specific Gravity and Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

Absolute Alcohol.

Specific

Gravity

Per Cent

Grams

Per Cent

Grams

15.6° C.

per

15.6° C.

per

Weight.

Volume.

100 CO.

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

0.9679

22.92

27.95

22.18

0 . 9470

36.00

42.95

34.09

23.00

28.04

22.26

0 . 9452

37.00

44.06

34.96

23.08

28.13

22.33

0 . 9434

38.00

45.16

35.85

23.15

28.22

22.40

0.9416

39.00

46.26

36.72

23.23

28.31

22.47

0 . 9396

40.00

47.35

37.58

23.31

28.41

22.54

0 . 9376

41.00

48.43

38.44

23.38

28.50

22.61

0 . 9356

42.00

49.50

39.30

23.46

28.59

22.69

0.9335

43.00

50.57

40.14

23.54

28.68

22.76

0.9314

44.00

51.63

40.97

23.62

28.77

22.83

0.9292

45.00

52.68

41.81

0.9669

23.69

28.86

22.90

0.9270

46.00

53.72

42.64

23.77

28.95

22.97

0.9248

47.00

54.76

43.47

23.85

29.04

23.05

0 . 9226

48.00

55.79

44.28

23.92

29.13

23.11

0.9204

49.00

56.82

45.09

24.00

29.22

23.19

0.9182

50.00

57.84

45.91

24.08

29.31

23.27

0.9159

51.00

58.85

46.71

24.15

29.40

23.33

0.9135

52.00

59.84

47.50

24.23

29.49

23.40

0.9113

53.00

60.85

48.29

24.31

29.58

23.48

0.9090

54.00

61.84

49.08

24.38

29.67

23.55

0.9069

55.00

62.84

49.88

0.9659

24.46

29.76

23.62

0.9047

56.00

63.82

50.66

24.54

29.86

23.70

0 . 9025

57.00

64.80

51.44

24.62

29.95

23.77

0.9001

58.00

65.77

52.21

24.69

30.04

23.84

0.8979

59.00

66.74

52.98

24.77

30.13

23.91

0.8956

60.00

67.69

53.74

24.85

30.22

23.99

0.8932

61.00

68.64

54.49

24.92

30.31

24.05

0.8908

62.00

69.58

55.23

25.00

30.40

24.12

0.8886

63.00

70.52

55.98

25.07

30.48

24.19

0.8863

64.00

71.46

56.72

. 0

25.14

30.57

24.26

0.8840

65.00

72.38

57.46

0.9638

26.00

31.57

25.06

0.8816

66.00

73.30

58.19

0.9623

27.00

32.73

25.98

0.8793

67.00

74.22

58.91

0.9609

28.00

33.89

26.90

0 . 8769

68.00

75.12

59.63

0.9593

29.00

35.05

27.82

0 . 8745

69.00

76.01

60.34

0 . 9578

30.00

36.20

28.73

0.8721

70.00

76.91

61.05

0.9560

31.00

37.34

29.63

0.8696

71.00

77.78

61.74

0.9544

32.00

38.47

30.53

0.8672

72.00

78.66

62.44

0.9528

33.00

39.61

31.43

0 . 8649

73.00
74.06

79.54

63.14

0.9511

34.00

40.74

32.32

0.8625

80.40

63 . 83

0.0490

35.00

41.84

33.21

0.8603

75.00

81.28

64.52

The British proof gallon at 15.6° C. has a specific gravity of 0.9198 and con-
tains 49.24 per cent of absohite alcohol by weight and 57.06 per cent of absolute
alcohol by volume.

ALCOHOLOMETRY. 163

Specific Gravity and Percentage of Alcohol — (Continued).

Absolute Alcohol.

Specific
Gravity

Per Cent

Grams

Per Cent

Grama

15.6° C.

per

15,6° C.

per

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

Weight.

Volume.

100 c.c.

0.8581

76.00

82.16

65.22

0.8254

89.00

92.54

73.46

0.8557

77.00

83.00

65.89

0.8228

90.00

93.29

74.05

0.8533

78.00

83.85

66.56

0.8200

91.00

94.00

74.62

0.8508

79.00

84.67

67.21

0.8172

92.00

94.71

75.18

0.8483

80.00

85.49

67.86

0.8145

93.00

95.42

75.75

0.8459

81.00

86.32

68.52

0.8118

94.00

96.13

76.31

0.8434

82.00

87.12

69.16

0.8089

95.00

96.80

76.85

0.8408

83.00

87.91

69.79

0.8061

96.00

97.49

77.39

0.8382

84.00

88.70

70.41

0.8031

97.00

98.14

77.90

0.8357

85.00

89.49

71.03

0.8001

98.00

98.78

78.41

0.8331

86.00

90.26

71.65

0.7969

99.00

99.37

78.89

0.8305

87.00

91.02

72.25

0.7939

99.97

99.98

79.37

0.8279

88.00

91.78

72.86

Abs.

Ale.

0.7938

100.00

79.38

Tests for the Detection of Acetone, Methyl Alcohol, and Ethyl

Alcohol.

For the detection of acetone, methyl alcohol, and ethyl alcohol the
following tests will be found of value. They are taken from Vol. I of
Mulliken's " Identification of Pure Organic Compounds," 1903.

Tests for the Detection of Acetone.

Mulliken gives the following properties and tests in his Vol. I, "Com-
pounds of Order I," " Identification of Pure Organic Compounds/' 1903:

p. 141, Acetone.

Genus VII, Ketones.

Division B, Liquid Ketones.

Boiling-point (C. "). Specific Gravity. Ketones Colorless and Liquid.

56.5 0.8191 t Acetone, Me.CO.Me.

* Miscible with aq. alcohol or ether. Odor

alcoholic-ethereal
** Identify by test 711, p. 148."
** "Test 711 (p. 148). Acetone. (Properties tabulated on p. 141.)
"1. Apply the color reactions with sodium nitroprusside, described in Test 701,
p. 146, bearing in mind that since nearly all soluble ketones and aldehydes give
colorations of some kind when thus treated, the result will be significant only when

* aq. = water, or aqueous.

t Placed before the name of a compound indicates that the position of the latter in the ana-
lytical system has been experimentally determined in the author's laboratory.

164 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the colors obtained correspond closely to the specified hues of the color standard '^
(as pubhshed with Mulliken's book).

''This procedure is to be especially recommended for the preliminary examina-
tion of aqueous solutions and distillates supposed to contain at least several per cent
of acetone. In examining such a solution, simply substitute 2 c.c. of it for the
same volume of the solution of definite concentration prescribed in the general direc-
tions. Very dilute solutions should first be somewhat concentrated by a rectifica-
tion with the assistance of a small distilling-tower. If a solution contains only
1% of acetone, the color of 'portion a ' will at first be yellow-orange (YO) instead
of orange; while 'portion b,' with acetic acid, will give a very pale tint of red, RT3,
instead of R RTl, which, after standing for twenty minutes, will fade to a tone of
the same hue, but so pale as to be barely distinguishable.

"2. Place in a dry 6-inch test-tube two drops of the ketone and 0.4 c.c. of cold
water. Add 0.4 c.c. of benzaldehyde, 2.0 c.c. of strong alcohol, and 0.5 c.c. of a 10 per
cent aqueous sodium-hydroxide solution. Mix by shaking. Boil very gently over
a small flame for one minute, counting the time from the moment when the mix-
ture first actually boils. If no precipitate appears, cool and shake vigorously.
Filter off the crystals "'•• and wash with 2 c.c, of cold strong alcohol. Recrystallize
from 2 c.c. of boiling alcohol. Cool, and if necessary shake until crystals appear.
Filter. Wash w^ith 1 c.c. of cold alcohol. Press on filter-paper or porous tile. Then
transfer to a watch-glass and dry half an hour or longer at 100°. In taking the
melting-point raise the temperature at the rate of about one degree in twenty
seconds.

"The product formed in this test is dibenzyhdeneacetone (C^H5-CH:CH);;-C0.
It crystallizes in pale yellow lustrous plates which melt at 111°- 112° (uncor.).

'' Observations on the Application of Procedure 2 to Aqueous Solutions of Acetone.
—If a solution contains less than 75% of acetone, take 1 c.c. instead of two drops
as above directed, and add no water. The quantities of the other reagents and the
method of procedure may be allowed to remain unchanged. The test has been used
for solutions containing as little as 2% of acetone. But with solutions between 5%
and 2%, cooling and shaking after heating frequently gives only an emulsion. The
addition of 1 c.c. of strong cold alcohol and shaking will, in such cases, produce a
crystalline precipitate, which can then be treated in the usual manner.

"If the quantity of crystals obtained from an acetone solution after the first
filtration is small, wash with 1 c.c. of alcohol (instead of 2.0 c.c), and recrystallize
from 1 c.c. of boiling alcohol (instead of 2 c.c). If no crystals then appear on cool-
ing and shaking, add cold water (0.5 c.c-l.O c.c. is usually enough) until the solution
becomes turbid. Shaking will then produce crystals. Wash these with 0.5 c.c. of
cold alcohol (instead of 1 c.c). Crystals thus obtained from dilute alcohol will be
found to melt at 0.5°-1.5° lower than those from strong alcohol. It is, on the
whole, advisable to concentrate very dilute acetone solutions by distillation rather
than to test them by this method at very low concentrations.

"For the detection of traces of acetone by this method, see Vorlander, Hobohm
B. 29, 1840."

* If the precipitate, instead of consisting of crystals, is an oil or pasty mass, the procedure
given requires no modification. Such products usually become crystalline, either during the
washing with alcohol, or upon the cooling of the solution prepared from the washed oil.

ALCOHOLOMETRY. 165

Tests for the Detection of Methyl Alcohol.

"Genus VIII, Alcohols.

Methyl Alcohol (p. 160).

Alcohols Colorless and Liquid,
Boiling-point (C. '). Specific Gravity. with Specific Gravity less

than 0.90 at 20V4°.

66 0.798' V,5 t Methyl Alcohol, Me.OH

Miscible with aq. Odor alcoholic
* Identify by Test 819, p. 171."

"♦Test 819 (p. 171). Methyl Alcohol. (Properties tabulated on p. 160.)

"1. (Color reaction). Dissolve one drop of the alcohol in 3 c.c. of water in a
6-inch test-tube. Wind a piece of rather light copper wire around a lead-pencil,
so that the closely coiled spiral shall form a cylinder 2 cm. in length, while 20 cm.
of the wire is left unbent to serve as a handle. Oxidize the spiral superficially by
holding it in the upper part of the flame of a Bunsen burner; and then, while still
at a red heat, plunge it into the alcohohc solution. (This treatment oxidizes a
portion of the methyl alcohol to formic aldehyde.) Withdraw the spiral imme-
diately and cool the test-tube with running water. Repeat the oxidation of the
solution twice by the method given. Add one or two drops of 0.5 per cent
aqueous solution of resorcin. Pour the mixture slowly into a second inclined test-
tube containing 3-5 c.c. of pure concentrated sulphuric acid. The procedure and
the phenomena in the test from this point on are the same as described in the latter
part of Test 114-1 for formic aldehyde.

"Many methyl ethers and methyl esters that are sufficiently soluble in water
to be tested by this method, and tertiary butyl alcohol, show the same behavior as
methyl alcohol. Remember that the actual separation of bright-red sohd flocks
from the aqueous layer above the sulphuric acid after standing is essential to the
proof that methyl alcohol is present.

"Many compounds besides those mentioned give traces of formic aldehyde
when oxidized by a hot copper wire, but not enough to give a separation of the
characteristic flocks. Test 114-2 for formic aldehyde will often show the presence
of these traces, and therefore must not be substituted for Test 114-1. Ethyl,
propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, hexyl, and allyl alcohols, ethyl ether, and acetone
give strong yellow, amber, ocherous, or dirty-greenish colorations; and, if present
in relatively large quantities in mixtures containing methyl alcohol, will interfere
with its detection by destroying the purity of color required in the flocks.

"Weak aqueous solutions suspected to contain methyl alcohol may be oxidized
directly with the copper wire and then tested with resorcin in the usual manner,
solutions much weaker than the one recommended in the procedure giving entirely
satisfactory results.

"In examining organic mixtures for methyl alcohol the precautions mentioned in
the following paragraphs should be observed:

"(a) Use for the test only that part of any mixture that can be completely
distilled between 50° and 100°, and which, after distillation, gives a clear colorless
solution v.hen diluted with several volumes of water.

'•(6) Make a blank experiment before oxidation with the copper spiral, by
pouring 2 c.c. of a clear aqueous distillate of the proper boihng-point, to which one

166 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

drop of 0.5 per cent resorcin solution has been added, so as to form a layer upon
concentrated sulphuric acid in a test-tube. If a precipitate or strongly colored
ring makes its appearance, the solution is not suitable for testing without preliminary
treatment.

" (c) Do not test by this method any solution that is suspected to contain phenols
or organic bases.

*** 2. Convert four drops of the alcohol into its 3, 5-dinitrobenzoate by the pro-
cedure detailed in the first paragraph of Test 814-1 for ethyl alcohol.

"Boil the reaction product with 12 c.c. of dilute ethyl alcohol (3:1). Cool,
shake, allow to stand for a minute or two, and filter. Wash with 2 c.c. strong cold
alcohol. Recrystallize from 12 c.c. of boiling dilute alcohol (3:1). Cool, shake, and
allow to stand for a minute or two, and filter. Wash the crystals with 2 c.c. of cold
strong alcohol. Dry at a temperature not above 100° and determine the melting-
point.

"The crystalline methyl dinitrobenzoate obtained in this test melts at 107.5°
(uncor.).

*'(/) (P- 114). Methyl Alcohol and other Lower Fatty Alcohols and Ketones. — If
the distillate (obtained as directed) is a clear solution without layers, and is odor-
less or has a mild alcoholic odor, remove 2 c.c, oxidize with a hot copper spiral,
and examine for methyl alcohol by Specific Test 819. If no colored ring whatever
appears in this test, the distillate does not contain any volatile alcohol provided for
in this method or acetone; and unless some non- volatile alcohol can be separated
from the salts remaining in the distilling-flask, the compound under examination
must next be sought among the species of Genus VI, Acid Anhydrides and Lactones,"

* The crystalline methyl 3, 5-dinitrobenzoate described suggests a hint worthy of a trial to
see if such compound can furnish a quantitative method for estimating methyl alcohol, first
purifying it by a preliminary treatment.

Tests for the Detection of Ethyl Alcohol.

^'Genus VIII, Alcohols.
Ethyl Alcohol (p. 161).

Alcohols, Colorless and Liquid,
Boiling-point (C. "). Specific Gravity. with Specific Gravitv less

than 0.90 at 20°/4°.

78.4 0.794^''- Vi5.5 t Ethyl Alcohol, Et.OH. Odor alcoholic

Miscible with aq.
** Identify with Test 814, p. 168.

** "Test 814 (p. 168). Ethyl Alcohol (Properties tabulated on p. 161.)

"The ready formation of iodoform at 50°-60° — but not in the cold — in Test 801

is the most convenient preliminary test for ethyl alcohol. The following very

satisfactory confirmatory test is, of course, applicable only to a nearly pure alcohol

containing not more than about 10 per cent of water. The same general procedure

t Placed before the name of a compound indicates that the position of the latter in the ana-
lytical system has been experimentally determined in the author's laboratory. The "specific
descriptions " for such compounds are also based, for the most part, on experimentally verified
data.

ALCOHOLOMETRY. 167

with slight modifications, may be used in the identification of many of the homo-
logues of ethyl alcohoir

" 1. Heat together gently in a 3-inch test-tube held over a small flame 0.15 grm.
of 3, 5-dinitrobenzoic acid (see foot-note) and 0.20 grm. of phosphorus pentachlo-
ride.

Note. — This new reagent is listed by C. A F. Kahlbaum of Berlin at 8 marks per 100 grms.,
and may be obtained in i\ew York trom Eimer & Amend. It may also be readily prepared in
tne laboratory trom benzoic acid.

When signs of chemical action are seen, remove the heat for a few seconds. Then
heat agam, boihng the liquefied mixture very gently for one minute. Pour out on a
very small watch-glass and allow to solidity. As soon as solidification occurs
remove the liquid phosphorus oxychloride with which the crystalline mass is im-
pregnated by rubbing the latter between two small pieces of porous tile. Place the
powder in a dry 5- or 6-inch test-tube. Allow four drops of the alcohol to fall upon
it, and then stopper the tube tightly without delay." When employing this pro-
cedure for the propyl and butyl alcohols use six drops of the alcohol instead of
four; for the alcohol must always be present in moderate excess. "Immerse the
lower part of the test-tube in water having a temperature of 75°-85°. Shake gently
and continue the heating for ten minutes.

'To purify the ester produced in the reaction crush any hard lumps that may
form when the mixture cools with a stirring-rod, and boil gently with 15 c.c. of
methyl alcohol (2.1) until all is dissolved, or for a minute or two." in testing for
other alcohols than ethyl, all directions for the use of the solvent in this paragraph
must be modified as elsewhere specified. Cf. tests for methyl, propyl, butyl, and
isobutyl alcohols. " Filter boiling hot if the solution is not clear. Cool. Shake
and filter. Wash with 3 c.c. cold methyl alcohol (2:1). Recrystallize from 9 c.c.
of boiling methyl alcohol (2:1). Wash with 2 c.c. of the same solvent. Spread
out the product on a piece of tile. Allow to become air-dry, and determine the
melting-point.

"* Ethyl 3, 5-dinitrobenzoate, the product in this test crystallizes in white
needles melting at 92°-93° (uncor.)."

The Denatured Alcohol Motor for Laboratory Purposes. — In con-
nection with very small power capacities for laboratory purposes it is
of interest to know that an alcohol motor for such work can be supplied.
In Fig. 66 is shown such a motor.

These motors are operated by the expansive force of hot air. They
are made in a number of sizes (six in all) using respectively from
3 to 10 pints of denatured alcohol per hour, and are used for very
Ught work, like running a fan, stirrer, etc., in the laboratory. These
motors can also be operated with gas. They oocupy a space of about
9^X18 inches and run at 400 to 500 revolutions per minute. The fly-

* The crystalline ethyl 3, 5-dinitrobenzoate described suggests a hint worthy of a trial to
see if such compound can furnish a quantitative method for estimatmg ethyl alcohol, first puri-
fying It by a preliminary treatment.

168

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

wheel is 6 inches in diameter; belt pulleys IJ, 2, and 3 inches in diameter.
Where gas is not obtainable for these little motors'", denatured alcohol

Fig. 66. — Hot-air Motor driven by Denatured Alcohol.
(Furnished by Eimer & Amend, New York.)

offers quite a satisfactory fuel solution for them, and may be preferred to
gas for such intermittent uses of small power.

CHAPTER V.
THE COST OF ALCOHOL AND OF ALCOHOL-DISTILLING PLANTS.

Cost of Alcohol from Different Raw Materials. By-products in the Distillation
of Alcohol. Fusel-oil. The Composition of Fusel-oil. The Value of the Slop or
Spent Wash. The Manufacture of (Ethyl) Alcohol from Sawdust. Ethyl Chlo-
ride as a Refrigerant. Plan of Distillery for Distilling Alcohol from Corn. Cost
of Buildings for Alcohol-distilling Plants. Cost of Alcohol-distilling Plants. Cost
of Commercial Wood Alcohol (Methyl Alcohol)

Cost of Alcohol from Different Raw Materials. — Cost of Alcohol from
Corn. — In calculating the cost of alcohol from corn in the United States
the table on p. 170 * giving the corn crop for 1905, will be of interest.

Taking the cost of corn in the West at 40 cents per bushel and the
yield of alcohol from one bushel of corn at five gallons of proof spirits,
we have 8 cents as the cost of one gallon of proof spirits.

For commercial 95 per cent alcohol, or 190° proof, this cost would be
1.9X8 = 15.2 cents per gallon for the material alone at the distillery.
To this cost must be added the manufacturing cost, the cost of the pack-
age or barrel, the freight charges, and the cost of the denaturing, which
added charges would probably bring such cost to about 30 cents per
gallon. With the further addition of the costs of distribution and the
profits to be considered it would appear that completely denatured
alcohol of 95 per cent strength, or 190° proof, would retail in the vicinity
of about 40 cents per gallon.

Cost of Alcohol from Molasses. — As shown in Chapter II, the yield of
alcohol from one gallon of the base molasses, from the manufacture of
cane-sugar, is about 0.85 gallon of proof spirit in the most modern dis-
tilleries. At 7 cents per gallon for such molasses, one gallon of proof
spirit costs $0.0823, and one gallon of 190° proof alcohol therefore costs
$0.0823X1.9 = 15.64 cents, which is about the same cost for material
alone as in the case of com at 40 cents per bushel for material alone.

* Furnished by U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

169

170 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Table Showing the Corn Crop of 1905 in the United States.

States and Territories.

Corn.

Acreage.

Yield
per
Acre.

Production.

Price

per

Busiiel.

Total Farm
Value.

Maine

New Hampshire.

Vermont

Massachusetts. . .
Rhode Island. . .

Connecticut

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania. . .

Delaware

Maryland

Virginia

North Carolina. .
South Carolina. .

Georgia

Florida,

Alabama

Mississippi

Louisiana

Texas

Arkansas

Tennessee

West Virginia. . .

Kentucky

Ohio

Michigan

Indiana

Illinois

Wisconsin

Minnesota

Iowa

Missouri

Kansas

Nebraska

South Dakota. . .
North Dakota. . .

Montana

Wyoming

Colorado

New Mexico. . . .

Arizona

Utah

Nevada

Idaho

Washington

Oregon

California

Oklahoma

Indian Territory.

Acres.

13,000

27,045

58,238

44,799

10,011

55,595

613,103

277,749

1,441,797

196,472

628,795

1,859,610

2,704,772

1,878,978

4,295,924

645,416

2,903,483

2,099,830

1,424,562

6,532,695

2,215,245

3,138,533,

765,541

3,195,072

2,973,529

1,228,704

4,597,804

9,616,886

1,473,613

1,507,614

8,767,597

6,014,639

6,977,467

8,035,115

1,623,105

89,405

3,941

2,107

116,659

39,423

7,614

11,353

Bush.

34.3

37,

34,

37,

32,

42.

35.8

38.9

30.4

36.9

23.4

13.9

10.9

11.0

10.1

14.8

14.3

13.7

21.3

17.3

24.6

29.8

29.7

37.8

34.0

40.7

39.8

37.6

32.5

34.8

33.8

27.7

32.8

31.8

27,

19,

26.

25.

27,

36.

Bushels.

445,900

1,000,665

2,020,859

1,679,962

325,358

2,373,906

19,312,744

9,943,414

66,085,903

5,972,749

23,202,536

43,514,874

37,596,331

20,480,860

47,255,164

6,518,702

42,971,548

30,027,569

19,516,499

139,146,404

38,323,738

77,207,912

22,813,122

94,893,638

112,399,396

41,775,936

187,130,623

382,752,063

55,407,849

48,997,455

305,112,376

203,294,798

193,275,836

263,551,772

51,614,739

2,458,638

76,455

56,678

2,776,484

997,402

205,578

410,979

Cents.
69
69
68
70
71
71
61
55
54
47
48
53
64
74
70
66
64
65
61
49
55
50
53
43
43
46
38
38
42
33
34
37
33
32
31
36
68
75
47
69
97
70

5,506

10,796

17,556

56,592

1,902,948

1,905,131

27.2
24.2
23.0
32.0
25.3
32.7

149,763

261,263

403,788

1,810,944

48,144,584

62,297,784

66
60
59
76
32
37

Dollars.

307,671

690,459

1,374,184

1,175,973

231,004

1,685,473

11,780,774

5,468,878

30,286,388

2,807,192

11,137,217

23,062,883

24,061,652

15,155,836

33,078,615

4,302,343

27,501,791

19,517,920

11,905,064

68,181,738

21,078,056

38,603,956

12,090,955

40,804,264

48,331,740

19,216,931

71,109,637

145,445,784

23,271,297

16,169,160

103,738,208

75,219,075

63,781,026

84,336,567

16,000,569

885,110

51,989

42,508

1,304,947

688,207

199,411

287,685

98,844

156,758

238,235

1,376,317

15,406,267

23,050 180

United States,

94,011,369

28.8

2,707,993,540

41.2

1116,696,738

COST OF ALCOHOL.

171

Cost of Alcohol from Potatoes. — Before considering this cost we call
attention to the view shown in Fig. 67 of a scene representing har-
vesting potatoes near Greeley, Colorado. To return we may say that
in Germany, where alcohol for industrial purposes is very largely made
from potatoes, the yield of absolute alcohol (or 200° U. S. proof) is one
gallon from 1.26 bushels of potatoes. In calculating at what price pota-
toes can be used for the making of industrial alcohol in the United States,
it would appear that if the price is based on the cost, for materials alone,
of alcohol from corn at 40 cents per bushel it would necessitate a price

Fig. 67. — Harvesting Potatoes on the Ranch of F. H. Badger, near Greeley,
Colorado. (See Frontispiece.)

of from 12 to 14 cents per bushel for such potatoes. This is arrived at

as follows: 1 bushel corn yields 5 gallons of proof spu-its, 1.26 bushels

of potatoes yield 2 gallons proof spirits, and a yield of 5 gallons of proof

spirits requires 3.15 bushels of potatoes. In the case of com at 40 cents

per bushel, the price paid for such potatoes per bushel for making de-

40
natured alcohol could only be — — , or about 13 cents per bushel. As

o.iO

to the availability of such cheap potatoes (the usual price in car-load
lots at Chicago is fully 25 cents per bushel) the following data are given:
In determining the price of potatoes the cost to the farmer for
raising them is important. In Fig. 67 is shown a view entitled "Har-
vesting Potatoes on the Ranch of F. H. Badger, near Greeley, Colorado."
Concerning the cost per bushel for raising potatoes to the farmer

172 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Mr. F. H. Badger writes the author as follows: ''It costs the farmer 20
to 30 cents per bushel to raise potatoes, perhaps 25 cents per bushel will
be about the average cost. The farmer will sell as first-class, marketable
potatoes from 65 per cent to 90 per cent, the best fields running as high
as 95 per cent. A very small amount is fed to cattle and pigs, as the
well-shaped little potatoes are planted, and the culls are sold to the
starch factories for 12 cents a bushel. Greeley, Colorado, is the centre of
a potato district that raises about 8,000,000 bushels per annum, and
if we take as an average 10 per cent of culls we will have some 800,000
bushels of cheap potatoes. The bulk of our potatoes are sorted up in
the dug-out and the culls taken from the dug-out to the starch factory."

Messrs. Albert Miller <^ Co., Chicago, Illinois, one of the largest whole-
sale dealers in potatoes in this country, inform the author that "in
the West the farmers figure that it costs, in an average season, about 10
to 12 cents per bushel to grow and load potatoes.

"We can contract them here at about 25 cents per bushel in almost
any season. In fact we could contract almost any amount at this
price, or might do it a little less if we took them field run. . . . There
is no average price that strach factories pay. It depends of course
upon conditions. When potatoes are scrace and high they use the
culls. When they are cheap they buy them field run. As a rule they
cannot afford to pay over 20 cents per bushel.

"The proportion of the potato crop that the farmer uses is a ques-
tion that is impossible to answer. It would depend of course upon
how much he raised. Some farmers will grow four or five acres and
some one hundred acres. '^

Regarding the raising of potatoes in Maine the author is informed
that the crop for 1905 in Aroostook County was approximately 13,000,000
bushels. The amount sold to the starch factories and used on the
farm constitutes about 15 per cent of the crop.

The starch factories pay from 25 cents to 50 cents per barrel of
165 lbs. net for potatoes run of field. A bushel of potatoes weighs
60 lbs., making this average price 13.6 cents per bushel run of field.
The average cost to the farmer for raising potatoes is about 25 cents
per bushel. It is thus seen that the cost of potatoes at present is too
high for their economical use in the manufacture of denatured or indus-
trial alcohol.

It is of great interest to consider the conditions in Germany relative
to this subject, and from the report of the U. S. Consul-General, Alex-
ander M. Thackara, Berlin, Germany, Sept. 10, 1906, we learn that
"in the campaign year 1904-5 the average price of potatoes was 42.58

COST OF ALCOHOL.

173

mark ($10.13) per 1000 kilograms (2204.6 pomids) or 27.6 cents per
bushel.

"The crop for 1905 was 1,775,579,073 bushels of 60 pounds each,
an average of 217 bushels to the acre. With the exception of 1901
this crop exceeds all previous years. The value of this crop of 1905
was $490,059,948.

'In 1904 the potato crop of the United States was placed at
332,830,300 bushels, of a farm value of $150,673,392, or 45.2 cents per
bushel.

•'According to Dr. W. Behrens, one of Germany's experts, in 1901,
out of the 26,250,000 hectares (65,000,000 acres) of arable land,
3,300,000 hectares (8,100,000 acres), or 12 J per cent, were planted
in potatoes.

"The doctor now claims that Germany plants more potatoes in pro-
portion to its area and number of inhabitants than any other civilized
country.

" About 50 per cent of the potato crop in Germany may be safely
estimated is used for human food purposes. The most important ingre-
dient in potatoes — starch — is used for manufacturing alcohol and also
pure starch and its products.

"The following table shows the production of alcohol in Germany
for the past five campaign years and the materials from which the
spirit was distilled.

" The figures show very clearly the great extent to which potatoes
are used in the German alcohol distilleries.

"The figures represent hectolitres (1 hectolitre =26.417 gallons)."

Table Showing Production of Alcohol in Germany for the Past Five Cam-
paign Years and Materials from which the Spirit was Distilled.

Materials.

1900-1901.

1901-2.

1902-3.

1903-4.

1904-5.

Potatoes

Grain

3,302,780

613,749

83,797

51,534

3,519,171
594,177

88,728
36,832

2,649,952
625,785

88,124
19,073

3,045,605

692,483

92,838

33,373

2,877,344

765,727

107,950

36,431

Molasses

Others

Total

Gallons

4,051,860
107,038,175

4,238,908
111,979,432

3,382,934
89,367,127

3,854,299
101,819,197

3,787,452
100,053,300

" In all the statistics in this report the gallon, unless specially men-
tioned otherwise, refers to the United States gallon of 231 cubic inches
of pure alcohol. *'

As above shown, potatoes are very largely used for the production

174 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

of alcohol in Germany. It would be of much importance to determine
just exactly what is the cost of such production. Regarding this inter-
esting phase of the subject, this report of Mr. Thackara states that ''I
have been unable to obtain satisfactory data regarding the cost of
production of alcohol from the different materials. It depends upon
many different conditions: the size of the distillery, the efficiency of the
apparatus, and the methods used, upon whether or not the owners of
the plants have other industries connected with them, upon the disposi-
tion which is made of the by-products, etc."

Cost of Alcohol from Sweet Potatoes. — *In the Azores the actual yield
of absolute alcohol from 100 kilograms (220 pounds) of sweet potatoes
is 10 to 12 liters (an average of 11.62 quarts as a liter =1.056 quarts).
A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 54 pounds and costs approxi-
mately 25 cents to 35 cents at the farm, run of field, i.e. small and
large. On the above figures a bushel would yield about 1.5 gallons
of U. S. proof spirits and would cost about 20 cents per gallon for the
material alone. As this is an increase of about one third in cost as
compared with corn at 40 cents per bushel for materials alone, it is
seen that sweet potatoes are not an economical source for industrial
alcohol. As a result of the methods used by the distillery here quoted,
there was finally obtained from 90 to 95 per cent of pure alcohol, and
5 to 10 per cent of the impure quality for industrial uses, although
about 600 per cent of pure alcohol and 40 per cent of the somewhat
impure could be made if desired. The two distilleries formerly man-
aged by M. Durot have been closed, as he writes, for three years. The
closing down of this industry is a real disaster for the agricultural inter-
ests of this island according to M. Durot, as the culture of the sweet
potato had been a source of revenue to the island for twenty years.

The author has been told that the cultivation of sugar-beets has
now been introduced as a source of sugar and will largely replace the
cultivation of the sweet potatoes.

Cost of Alcohol from Sugar-beets. — ^Taking the yield of 180° proof
alcohol from sugar-beets in France from the example given in Chapter II
we have a yield of 1 hectolitre (26.41 gallons) of 180° proof alcohol
from 4400 lbs. or 2.2 tons of sugar-beets. At $5.00 per ton in the United
States this is $11.00 cost, for materials alone, for this yield from sugar-
beets, or a cost of about 42 cents per gallon for the 180° proof alcohol.

As the average yield of sugar per short ton of beets in the United

* Statement furnished the author by M. S. Durot, manager of a sweet-potato
distillery at Isle de Terceira, Azores.

COST OF ALCOHOL. 175

States is about 250 pounds, the yield of sugar is therefore about 12^ per
cent, or about one fifth more than in case of the above French figures.
This however would only lower the above cost of the alcohol to about
35 cents per gallon, based on the costs of the beets alone. Sugar-beets
are therefore not an economical source of alcohol in the United States
and cannot hope to compete with corn and with cane-molasses. About
50 pounds of beet-molasses are usually obtained in sugar-houses per
ton of sugar. The greater part of such molasses is used as a cattle
food, being mixed and dried with beet pulp, millers' refuse, chopped
hay or straw, and other absorbent materials and marketed under the
trade names of ''sucrene," ''blomo," etc. The feeding value of beet
pulp, from making sugar, as compared with grain, has been placed at
S4.00 per ton. In the manufacture of beet-sugar the abolition of the
molasses is a very important point and continual experiments are made
in this direction. Hence for the above reasons and because the beet-
sugar industry is now successfully established in this country, the sugar-
beet will not be utilized for the manufacture of alcohol in the United
States. <

By-pr©ducts in the Distillation of Alcohol. — Fusel-oil. — In the
fermented mash or wash liquor there are formed, as a result of the
fermentation, a number of substances, all of which possess different
boiling-points. In addition to- the alcohol and water present, such a
liquor contains fusel-oil. This is not a definite substance, but is a
complex mixture, and varies somewhat in composition, according to
the nature of the raw material from which the alcohol is fermented
and the manner of fermentation used. To give an approximate idea
of its composition, we may mention that it usually contains a large
percentage of amyl alcohol and isoamyl alcohol, together with small
amounts of compound ethers, higher alcohols, and small percentages
of free fatty acids and esters.

* Karl Windisch gives the composition of 1 kilogram of fusel-oil,
freed from water and ethyl alcohol, from potatoes as —

Normal propyl alcohol 68 . 54 gm.

Isobutyl alcohol 243 .50

Amyl alcohols 687 .60

Free fatty acids 0.11

Fatty acid ester 0 . 20

Furf urol and bases 0 . 05

* Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamt, 1892, Bd. 8.

176 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

In 100 parts of free acids and acid esters from potato fusel-oil are
contained —

Capric acid 36 parts

Peiargonic acid 12

Caprylic acid 32

Caproic acid 14

Butyric acid 0.5

Acetic acid 3.5

1 kilogram of fusel-oil from corn contains —

Normal propyl alcohol 36 . 90 gm.

Isobutyl alcohol 157.60 *'

Amyl alcohols 758.50 '*

Hexyl alcohol 1.33 *'

Free fatty acids 1.60 '*

Fatty acid esters 3.05 '*

Terpenes 0.33 '*

Terpene hydrate 0.48 ''

Furfurol, bases, and heptyl alcohol 0.21 '*

In 100 parts by weight of the free acids and acid esters from corn
fusel-oil are contained —

Free Fatty

Fatty Acids. Acid Esters.

Capric acid 44. 1 40 . 7

Peiargonic acid ■ 12 . 9 14 . 2

Caprylic acid 26.7 34.8

Caproic acid 13.2 9.6

Butyric acid 0.4 0.4

Acetic acid 2.7 0.3

The terpene CioHie, as well as the terpene hydrate CioHigO, pos-
sesses even in extremely diluted condition the characteristic corn-brandy
odor and contributes very essentially to the aroma of corn brandy.
An identification of this particular terpene with any of the other known
terpenes has not yet been effected, but this terpene appears to resemble
phillandrene. The fusel-oil from potatoes, according to Kruis and
Raymann, contains in one kilogram —

Ethyl alcohol 48.88%

Normal propyl alcohol 0 . 85%

Isobutyl alcohol 4. 19%

Amyl alcohol 942.42%

Hexyl alcohol 0.19%

Caprylic acid — ethyl ester 0 . 26%

" —amyl ester 1.00%

Caprinic acid— " '' 0.66%

Residue not determined 1 . 45%

COST OF ALCOHOL. 177

It may further be said that the researches of Pasteur, Le Piel, and
Ley have proved that the amyl alcohol of fusel-oil really consists of a
mixture of two primary amyl alcohols of nearly identical boiling-points
and specific gravities. One of these (isobutyl carbinol) is optically
inactive, but the other secondary butyl carbinol has the property of
rotating the plane of a polarized ray of light to the left. For further
study of fusel-oil the reader is referred to the authorities mentioned,
as well as to Sorel's Rectification de L'Alcohol and to E. Houriers'
Manual de la Distillation. Also to Bull. No. 65, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, A. 0. A. C, to Leach's Food Inspection and Analysis,
and Maercker-Delbruck's Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation, 1903, for
methods and tests for the determination of fusel-oil.

Rabuteau's frequently cited statement that fusel-oil contains iso-
propyl alcohol has been refuted by later investigators.

The Value of the Slop or Spent Wash. — Any by-products of value
which can be obtained in the distillation of alcohol will, of course, lower
the initial cost of the alcohol, and hence could tend to lower the selling
price of denatured alcohol.

The usual production of the valuable by-product, fusel-oil, has already
I)een mentioned, and at the present time there are also the values of the
residues from the distillation of corn and molasses to consider, as these
will be the principal raw materials for the manufacture of alcohol at least
for some time to come.

In Europe potash residues from the molasses used for distilling pur-
poses are used extensively as manure. There is not enough potash in
the residue from sugar-cane molasses to make it very valuable for this
purpose. Inquiry reveals the fact that the residue from distilling cane-
sugar molasses in the United States has very little value. It is difficult
to arrive at an estimate of the value of the residue from the distillation
in the case of com for the purposes of a cattle food. All the refuse of
the glucose factories and distilleries is used for feeding stuff, either directly
or after drying, but figures are not readily available as to its worth for
such purposes.

* An average of several analyses from distillers' grains shows:

Ash 2.13 per cent.

Crude fibre 15.50 " "

" protem 34.29 '' ''

'* fat 10.51 '' ''

Pentosans 23.91 '' ''

Cellulose, starch, and undetermined 13 . 60 ' ' ' '

* From Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

178 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

When properly dried and cured this is a very valuable concentrated
food, containing a large amount of protein and fat, the two most expen-
sive components of a ration from the feeder's standpoint.

In the Water Supply and Irrigation Paper, No. 179, Series L, Quality
of Water, 14, of the Department of the Interior, United States Geological
Survey, Charles T. Walcott, Director, are given, under the title ''Preven-
tion of Stream Pollution by Distillery Refuse," some very interesting
and important facts as to the value of distillers' grains for a feeding-
stuff, based on the investigations of Herman Stabler at Lynchburg, Ohio,
an outline of which is here given. A plant for the evaporation of slop
was installed at the Lynchburg distillery late in the autumn of 1905.

After twice screening the slop by brass screens, it was pumped to be
filtered in two 40-plate presses. Each press is 20 feet in length and 3
feet in diameter and has a net filtering area of 230 square feet. The
thin slop from both screens is received in large wooden tanks from which
it is pumped to the evaporator.

The evaporating apparatus is of chief importance and will therefore
be described in some detail. The machine used is the Hoffman-Ahlers
triple-effect vacuum evaporator, a view of which is shown in Fig. 68.
Each effect consists essentially of two chambers connected by four large
pipes, and also by a great number of tubes, placed within the steam-
chamber.

A sectional view of the arrangement of these tube's in the steam-
chambers is shown, in the middle effect, in Fig. 68. This apparatus is
capable of treating more than 40,000 gallons of the thin slop in twenty
hours (guaranteed capacity 2700 gallons per hour) and reducing it 88
to 90 per cent in volume. It is now operated with 40 pounds of steam
pressure in the first effect, a 3- or 4-inch vacuum in the second effect, and
a 26-inch vacuum in the third effect. This apparatus costs, in place,
$16,000.

The magma from the evaporator is added to the feed from the filter-
presses, and the two are thoroughly mixed by passing through a screw-
conveyer 1 foot in diameter and 40 feet in length. It is then dried by
passing through a direct-heat rotary drier 40 feet in length and 6 feet in
diameter and a steam rotary drier 20 feet in length and 6 feet in diameter.

The product of these machines is placed in sacks for shipment. The
installation at Lynchburg proves that the cost figures can be reduced in
the main by about 25 per cent, so that even under pioneer and imperfect
conditions a substantial profit upon the investment is being made.. The
new feed is sweeter and has a more attractive odor. It has a higher
specific gravity. Although chemical analysis shows that the protein and

COST OF ALCOHOL.

179

CD
(!>
CO

I
I

180 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

fat content for corn and the fat content for rye are slightly decreased,
this decrease is more than made up by the increased digestibility of the
other constituents.

The paper quoted also contains the results of a series of chemical
analyses made of these cattle-feed grains and of concentrated corn and
rye slop by A. Lasche, iMilwaukee, Wis.

In the summary of these results the paper states that about 45 gal-
lons of waste slop liquor are discharged for each bushel of grain mashed,
and that this liquor contains approximately 5 per cent (by weight) of
solid matter, nearly half of which is held in solution. Also that stream
pollution may be wholly avoided by means of evaporation recovery of
cattle-feed grains from the slops. As applied to a distillery using daily
1750 bushels of corn for a season of 150 days and 1392 bushels of rye
for a season of 50 days the following data regarding the process may
be accepted as approximate :

(a) Cost of complete recovery plant $52,000

(6) Annual profit over operating expenses on investment in

complete plant for evaporation recovery, per cent 73

{c) Cost of additional plant to add evaporation to recovery by

screening $40,000

{d) Annual profit over operating expenses afforded by increased

product, based on investment in additional plant to add

evaporation to recovery by screening, per cent 34

Ordinarily from 10 to 40 per cent of the slop cannot be profitably
used and is run to waste. The trial at Lynchburg, Ohio, substantiates
all the claims made for it and indicates that it will prove to be a rather
greater source of profit than had been expected.

In connection with the drying of distillery slop or spent grains the
Biles rotary steam drier and press may be mentioned. A view of these
machines is shown in Fig. 69, p. 181, as installed in a one-story house.
This press, with gradual low pressure, is claimed to deliver the feed
at from 55 to 60 per cent moisture, the drying being done by either
the Biles steam or direct-heat drier.

While there has been a considerable use of such slop in the past
for cattle-feeding purposes, it would appear that this improved method,
which has been described by Herman Stabler, offers greatly increased
advantages and possibilities along these lines.

A short description of the composition of fusel-oil is here given.
It is hoped to treat this important subject in a more extended manner
in a later edition.

COST OF ALCOHOL.

181

* The Manufacture of Ethyl Alcohol from Sawdust. — The con-
version of the cellulose of sawdust or similar material into glucose
and the alcoholic fermentation of this sugar have been frequently at-
tempted on a large scale but accomplished only recently through the
operation of methods devised largely by Claassen.

In ordinary soft woods we have a mixture of true cellulose and
oxycelluloses, the latter of which may be rather easily hydrolyzed and
converted into sugar. By the Claassen process this is accomplished by
heating sawdust with sulphurous acid under pressure in large lead-lined

Fig. 69. — The Biles Rotary Steam Drier and Press.

drums. At the end of the operation on opening a valve the main por-
tion of the sulphurous acid escapes and may be absorbed in water to
be used in a second operation. This is perhaps the most important
feature of the process, since in all the older processes the removal of
the hydrochloric or sulphuric acid employed as a converting agent
was found to be very difficult in practice and too expensive to admit
of actual working. The Claassen process was first worked in America
by the Lignin Inversion Company in an experimental plant at Chicago.
In this plant it was found that a ton of dry pine sawdust would 3'ield
about 20 per cent of sugar, or about 400 pounds, three fourths of which
was readily fermentible with yeast. Twenty-five gallons of 188°

* The author is indebted for this article to Prof. J. H. Long of the Northwestern
University, Chicago, 111.

182 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

alcohol (94 per cent by volume) was found to be a good working
yield.

Following the demonstrations in this experimental plant the Claassen
Lignin Company was organized to work the process on the commercial
scale. A plant was built at Hattiesburg, Mississippi, in an important
lumber region, and after much delay on account of defective machinery
was brought finally to the condition of working efficiency.

A considerable quantity of high-grade ethyl alcohol has been pro-
duced and put on the market. The operating company seems to be
convinced that the process can be worked at a profit. From latest
rejDorts it appears that the plant is being enlarged and that a new one
is to be built on the Pacific Coast.

The alcohol secured in this process is of high grade and practically
free from by-products occurring when certain other materials are worked
up. The sawdust which is not converted into sugar is left in a con-
dition for easy compression into briquettes, for direct use or conversion
into charcoal.

The practical difficulties in the working of this Claassen process are
largely physical, as the chemical conversion and fermentation seems
to be simple enough. The most trouble has been encountered in the
extraction of the treated sawdust so as to secure the sugar for fermen-
tation. Several types of extraction batteries were tried before success
was reached; experience in the beet-sugar extraction seemed to be
of little value here, but at last accounts the difficulties had been over-
come, and nothing seems to stand in the way of ultimate success in
this new industry.

The available supply of raw material is enormous, and saving this
may have some effect on the lumber industries.

Ethyl Chloride as a Refrigerant. — One of the many uses of alcohol
that have been proposed is the manufacture of ethyl chloride to be
used as a refrigerant.

On this subject Prof. John H. Long of the Northwestern University,
Chicago, 111., writes the author under date of August 9, 1906, as follows:
''Some years ago I was very much interested in a plant used to cool a
warehouse in Chicago in which ethyl chloride was the expanding agent.
The warehouse was in the wholesale market district and was used for
eggs, butter, poultry, etc.

'' The refrigerator was successful, but the first cost of material was
then high, as a relatively large amount had to be used: the chief advan-
tage in the process was in the ease of recovery by compression. My
connection with the matter was merely as consulting chemist.

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS. 183

"It was hoped by the people interested in this project to perfect a
plant to be used in meat and fruit cars, the idea being to use a storage-
cylinder and compression-pump in each individual car. The motion of
the car-axle worked the pump. This worked all right as long as the car
was moving, but if side-tracked some hours the temperature ran up. I
have always thought the ethyl-chloride process worthy of more experi-
mentation."

Plan of 200-bushel Daily Capacity Distillery. — It was intended to
have published the plans for a 5000-bushel distillery, that is, a plant
having a daily capacity of 5000 bushels of corn, for the manufacture of
alcohol. It has been found necessary to postpone the preparation of
these plans until a later edition of this book. Such a model plant is
shown in Fig. 73, p. 187, and a careful inspection of the view sho^vn in
this cut will give a very good idea of the size, construction, and arrange-
ment of an alcohol plant of the most modern type. In default of the
plans mentioned above we present the plan of a 200-bushel daily capacity
distillery, which will also serve to give quite a good idea, as the principle
is the same, of the plan and arrangements in such a plant, the equipment,
etc., for the production of high-proof alcohol. These plans were fur-
nished by the Hoffman-Ahlers Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.

On the three following pages are shown the plans, as mentioned above,
for a small distillery of a daily capacity of 200 bushels, or, approximately,
520 gallons of commercial 95 per cent alcohol. The scale to which these
plans are drawn is 3/32 inch = 1 foot. From these plans we see the loca-
tion of boiler, engine, and gearing, with grain elevator and mills, yeast-
and mash-tubs, fennenters, beer-still, doubler, and condensers, by which
those contemplating the erection of a distillery may obtain an idea of
its practical construction. Regarding the details of the equipment of
such a distillery it may be stated that it consists of a cold-water tank,
grain-hopper, meal-hopper, Bevis condenser, beer-still, beer-heater, mash-
tub, mash-tub stack, yeast-tubs, roller-mill, pipe-cooler, fermenter, beer-
sink, boiler, engine, beer-pump. In the case of a molasses distillery, as
no grinding-mills or mashing machinery are required, the cost will be less
than for a distillery of this character. The approximate cost of this
plant here shown is $20,000.

The continuous distillation for 190^ proof is not recommended by
these builders, as by so doing the fusel-oil is lost. This is a valuable
product and can only be produced by fractional distillation, it being
drawn from the rectifying-column. The fusel-oil is worth about $1.25
per gallon in barrel lots, and about two gallons are obtained to each 100
bushels of grain, which would mean an income of about $5 a day for a

184

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS.

185

186

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

200-bushel house. The apparatus as shown is complete for double dis-
tillation to produce alcohol of 190 per cent proof. The cost of such a
distillery of 200 bushels' capacity, complete, without the land is about
$20,000, including the requisite redistilling apparatus.

Fig. 72.— End Elevation of 200-busheI Distillery. (Scale 3/32 inch =1 foot.)

Cost of Buildings for Alcohol-distilling Plants.* — The most modem
requirements call for as nearly fire-proof construction in these buildings
as can be attained. The still-room or house is usually about five stories
in height for the size or capacity of the plants we have described, i.e.,
of about 5000 bushels daily capacit5% or 12,000 gallons daily capacity of
molasses. For the above reasons this still-house ^hotrld be built of con-

* These figures and diagrams were furnished through the kindness of Mr. Charles
T. Main, Mill Engineer, Boston, Mass.

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLLNG PLANTS. 189

Crete and steeL The tanks for the storage of alcohol should be in part
of this house.

The other buildings can be built of brick and hard pine. This is
what is known as mill construction for textile manufacturing. This type
is also known as the "slow-burning " type of buildings. Of course all
the buildings of the plant can be built of concrete and steel, which is the
best and most fire-proof construction yet devised. If this is done the cost
for buildings will be about 15 per cent more than where brick and hard
pine are used. Frame construction is undesirable in every way. The
saving by the use of frame construction for walls instead of brick is not
as great as many persons think. The only saving is in somewhat lighter
foundations and in the outside surfaces of the building. The floor^
columns, and roof must be the same strength and construction in any
case. It will be of some assistance in approximating the cost of
brick and hard-pine construction for buildings for alcohol manufacturing
plants if a unit'of cost in terms of square feet of floor-space can be ascer-
tained. This is because there is a much wider range of cost than is
commonly supposed, it being not an uncommon thing to hear the cost
of such buildings (mill buildings) placed from only 60 to 80 cents per
square foot of floor-space. The cost per square foot of floor-space depends
upon the width, length, height of stories, and number of stories.

As the construction used in mill buildings for textile manufacturing
purposes has become a standard type for many other kinds of manufac-
turing purposes as well as for the construction used in the most modern
alcohol manufacturing plants the estimates and diagrams here presented
apply equally as well to the cost of buildings for the latter purpose in
terms of square feet of floor-space. The cost of labor in these estimates
will be about one third of the total cost. These figures cover the cost of
buildings designed to carry a floor load of about 100 pounds to the square
foot. If greater floor loads than this are to be carried the cost of the
buildings will he increased.

In the basis of estimates here given the present costs of the different
materials, as well as the present average cost of labor, should be sub-
stituted for the values here given, as these costs vary of necessity from
time to time. With these exceptions the principle here laid down applies
fully to present-day costs of such buildings. The costs given include
plumbing, but no heating or sprinklers.

Use of Diagrams. — 1. The diagrams can be used to determine the
probable approximate cost of proposed brick buildings to be used for
manufacturing purposes, and these can be taken from the diagrams
readily. For example, if it is desired to know the probable cost of a

190 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

mill 400 feet long by 100 feet wide by 3 stories high, refer to the sheet
showing the cost of three-story buildings. On the curve for buildings
100 feet wide, find the point where the vertical line of 400 feet in length
cuts the curve, then move horizontally along this line to the left-hand
vertical line, on which will be found the cost of 66 cents. For present
prices of materials and labor add about 5 per cent, making the total
about 70 cents per square foot.

The cost given is for brick manufacturing buildings under average
conditions, and can be modified if necessary for the following conditions:

a. If the soil is poor or the conditions of the site are such as to require
more than the ordinary amount of foundations the cost will be increased.

h. If the end or a side of the building is formed by another building
the cost of one or the other will be reduced.

c. If the building is to be used for ordinary storage purposes with
low stories and no top floors, the cost will be decreased about 10 per cent
for large low buildings to 25 per cent for small high ones, about 20 per
cent usually being fair.

d. If the buildings are to be used for manufacturing purposes and
are to be substantially built of wood, the cost will be decreased about 6
per cent for large one-story buildings to 33 per cent for high small build-
ings, and 15 per cent would usually be fair.

e. If the buildings are to be used for storage with low stories and
built substantially of wood, the cost will be decreased from 13 per cent
for large one-story buildings to 50 per cent for small high buildings, and
30 per cent would usually be fair.

/. For office buildings the cost must be increased according to the
finish.

The cost of very light wooden structures is much less than the above
figures would give.

The table which follows the curves shows the approximate ratio
of the costs of different kinds of buildings to the cost of those shown
by the curves.

2. The diagrams can be used as a basis of valuation of different
buildings.

A building, no matter how built or how expensive it was to build,
cannot be of any more value for the purpose to which it is put than a
modern building properly designed for that particular purpose. The
cost of such a modern building is then the limit of value of existing
buildings.

Existing buildings are usually of less value than new modern build-
ings for the reason that there has been some depreciation due to age,

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS. 191

and that the buildings are not as well suited to the business as a modern
building would be.

Starting with the diagrams as a base, the value can be approxi-
mately determined by making the proper deductions.

3. The diagrams can be used as a basis for insurance valuations
after deducting about 5 per cent for large buildings to 15 per cent for
small ones for the cost of foundations, as it is not customary to include
the foundations in the insurable value.

Basis of Estimates. — ^The following table shows the costs which form
the basis of the estimates, and these unit prices can be used to com-
pute the cost of any building not covered by the diagrams.

The cost of brick walls is based on 22 bricks per cubic foot, costing
$15.00 per thousand laid. Openings are estimated at 33 cents per
square foot, including windows, doors, and sills.

Ordinary mill floors, including timbers, planking, and top floor,
with Southern pine timber at S30.00 per thousand feet, board measure,
and spruce planking at $20.00 per thousand, cost about 25 cents per
square foot, which has been used as a unit price. •

Ordinary mill roofs covered with tar and gravel, with lumber at
the above prices, cost about 20 cents per square foot, and this has been
used in the estimates.

Add to above for stairways, elevator-wells, plumbing, partitions
and special work.

The present prices for materials and labor would increase the cost
as shown on the diagrams about 5 per cent.

Deductions from Diagrams. — 1. An examination of the diagrams
shows immediately the decrease in cost as the width is increased. This
is due to the fact that the cost of the walls and outside foundations,
which is an important item of cost, relative to the total cost, is de-
creased as the width increases.

For example, supposing a three-story building is desired with 30,000
-square feet on each floor.

If the building were 600 feet by 50 feet its cost would be about 80
cents a square foot.

If the building were 400 feet by 75 feet its cost would be about 71
cents a square foot.

If the building were 300 feet by 100 feet its cost would be about 68
cents a square foot.

If the building were 240 feet b}^ 125 feet its cost would be about
66 cents a square foot.

2. The diagrams show that the minimum cost per square foot is

192

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Table Showing Ratio of Cost of Buildings Designated, Compared with
Brick Mills of Standard Construction.

Frame Mills.

Superficial

Feet of Floor

in One Story.

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

Six

Story.

Stories.

1,250

0.859

0.675

2,500

0.862

0.727

5,000

0.888

0.779

0.751

0.726

0.703

0.674

7,500

0.895

0.791

0.765

0.738

0.716

0.6£0

10,000

0.904

0.801

0.775

0.749

0.727

0.703

15,000

0.913

0.816

0.792

0.769

0.747

0.724

20,000

0.919

0.833

0.810

0.787

0.765

0.743

25,000

0.923

0.847

0.824

0.802

0.781

0.758

30,000

0.927

0.858

0.835

0.814

0.795

0.770

35,000

0.930

0.865

0.844

0.821

0.804

0.778

40,000

0.933

0.870

0.848

0.828

0.810

0.7S6

45,000

0.936

0.873

0.852

0.832

0.815

0.792

50,000

0.939

0.875

0.855

0.836

0.818

0.797

Brick Storehouses.

Superficial

Feet of Floor

in One Story.

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

Six

Story.

Stories.

1,250

0.798

0.728

2,500

0.845

0.725

5,000

0.833

0.800

0.777

0.764

0.755

0.748

7,500

0.852

0.807

0.783

0.772

0.763

0.755

10,000

0.866

0.813

0.790

0.778

0.770

0.762

15,000

0.887

0.825

0.805

0.792

0.783

0.775

20,000

0.896

0.836

0.817

0.804

0.795

0.786

25,000

0.905

0.847

0.828

0.815

0.805

0.796

30,000

0.910

0.856

0.836

0.823

0.814

0.805

35,000

0.915

0.864

0.842

0.830

0.821

0.812

40,000

0.919

0.869

0.848

0.835

0.826

0.817

45,000

0.922

0.872

0.852

0.839

0.831

0.822

50,000

0.924

0.875

0.856

0.843

0.834

0.826

Frame Storehouses.

Superficial

Feet of Floor

in One Story.

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

Six

Story.

Stories.

1,250

0.696

0.505

2,500

0.747

0.578

5,000

0.744

0.602

0.561

0.531

0.508

0.483

7,500

0.765

0.625

0.581

0.551

0.530

0.506

10,000

0.784

0.645

0.602

0.574

0.552

0.527

15,000

0.810

0.678

0.638

0.610

0.588

0.563

20,000

0.824

0.703

0.667

0.637

0.614

0.590

25,000

0.834

0.720

0.685

0.655

0.632

0.608

30,000

0.841

0.733

0.697

0.667

0.645

0.621

35,000

0.848

0.741

0.706

0.677

0.655

0.632

40,000

0.855

0.749

0.715

0.687

0.665

0.643

45,000

0.861

0.758

0.723

0.697

0.676

0.653

50.000

0.869

0.767

0.732

0.707

0.686

0.664

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS.

193

reached with a four-story building. A three-story building costs a
trifle more than a four-story. A one-story building is the most expen-
sive. This is due to a combination of several features.

a. The cost of ordinary foundations does not increase in proportion
to the number of stories, and therefore their cost is less per square
foot as the number of stories is increased, at least up to the limit of
the diagrams.

h. The roof is the same for a one-story building as for one of any
other number of stories, and therefore its cost relative to the total cost
grows less as the number of stories increases.

c. The cost of columns, including the supporting piers and castings,
does not vary much per story as the stories are added.

d. As the number of stories increases, the cost of the walls, owing
to increased thickness, increases in a greater ratio than the number of
stories, and this item is the one which in the four-story building offsets
the saving in foundations and roof.

3. The saving by the use of frame construction for, walls instead
of brick is not as great as many persons think. The only saving is in
somewhat lighter foundations and in the outside surfaces of the build-
ing. The floor, columns, and roof must be the same strength and con-
struction in any case.

Prices and Other Data Used for Estimating the Cost of Brick Buildings
FOR Textile Manufacturing.

One-story building. ..
Two -story building. .
Three-story building.
Four-story building .
Five story building. .
Six-story building. . .

Foundations,
including Excavations.
Cost per Linear Foot.

For Outside
Walls.

For Inside
Walls.

$1,

2
3
4
4
•5.

75
50
25
00
80
80

$1
"2
2
3
3
4,

50
00
50
00
50
00

Brick Walls.

Cost per Square Foot of

Surface.

Outside
Walls.

$0.33

0.37

40
43
46
50

Inside
Walls.

$0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40

Columns,
including
Piers and

Castings.

Cost of One.

$12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00

ASSUMED HEIGHT OF STORIES.

From ground to first floor 3' Buildings 75' wide, stories 15' high

Buildings 25' wide, stories 13' high " 100' " " 16' "

50' " " 14' '' " 125' '' " 16' "

Floors, 25 cents per square foot of gross floor-space.

Roof, 20 cents per square foot. Roof to project 18" all around buildings.
Stairways, including partitions, SlOO each flight.

Allow 1 stairway and one elevator tower for buildings up to 150' long.
" 2 stairways" " " " " " " ''300' "

"3 '* <« <« tc a a a ^^^^^ 3QQ/ a

Plumbing, $75 for each fixture, including piping and partitions.
Allow 2 fixtures on each floor up to 5,000 square feet of floor-space and add
1 fixture for each additional 5,000 square feet of floor or fraction thereof.

194

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

: DIAGRAM Sh

OWING ESTIMATED COST

BRICK BUILDINGS

t/ost Ur

TILE MANUFACTURING

rUK 1 tA

1 OA

^'^^ PFR RO FT

. OF GROSS FLOOR SPACE.

1.70 - - --

,TORY BUILDINGS.

ONL b

1.60 ----

[

1 «^ft \

i.ou - - t^

1 /in S

^s.

\JiTir\t\.

1 Qft 'V „

i.dU ^ s^

1 Pfof

1 — ,_ ^

1.20 ^ V^ ^n ^

L.^_±^^^i 25-

J-S.

1 in l1_ >_

1.10 r ^^

X ^^

vS "^^

i l\\ ^

1 ftft JC^-± ^*. -

l-'OO .vV- ^<- ^

N^.r*' r">-.. 1

= = = = - = = ^i^= = =T"^^T'

T -1- '

qft::::::::s5-s;I::::::

: ::i:xL::::::--:: 50

.90 - - - - ^-^^'^-- 1

1 ' M^

fin -_l_-- _ --Ii... _^-

E=^^|g^|i4===;::=: 75.

C L__T-i4.... .^25_

7A___

. <u

J_'___ _ ___

_ _ _ _

.60 -

trn it _1_

: d:

Length

Feet

-50-
-100-
-150-
-200-

-250-
-300-
-350-
-400-
-450-

Fig. 74. — Estimated Cost of Buildings.

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLLXG PLANTS.

195

lAGRAM SHOWING ESTIMATED COST

OF BRICK BUILDINGS

FOR TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

ER SQ. FT. OF GROSS FLOOR SPACE.

Cost

1 »^A

1.^0 --I —

TWO STORY BUILDINGS.

1 . 1 1

ij i 1 '

i.ou — ^ —

\ '111

i ! 1 ;

i I M

1 ' i '

1 !

: i ■

i 1

\ ■ ' i 1 1 1

ill;

III!

1 . '

' '

' i , i

1 1

i.OU ■

' 1

■1 4t\

1.40 r

! -■ V 1 ■

' ' : 1

' . 1

Width

Feet

i 1

1 V 1

: 1 ! i

il : i

i ' !

■ ! 1

1 ; 1 . '\,l <

! 1 '

Ml;

1 ! ' i

1 { 1

' '■ V

1 PA ' !

• '

' 1 ■

! i i

! ! 1 -

1 '

"*s,»_

l\' M '

^^~*.^^

_ViJ_

. : ■ [

-]—

—25-

l.iU 1

i\ ' \

111 1

1 \ s

i\ ^

■i t\f\

1.00 -

\ ^( '^V

\l\ \

Oft 1

\ \ 1 1^

^"^^^^

-^-■^

^^>^^^

^— —

-r , ' '

—50-

Rft -

\ >s ^

^"*"^^

^^^^

^-^.^^

"•"^^^^^

.70

^--

—

■ '

—

-75-
-100-

—

^^'"—

-125-

nf\

! ;

.ou -

1 1 1 1 1 1

, ^ r-t c:t CI CO ^ ^ ^

1 ! 1 1 1 1 i 1 1

Fig. 75. — Estimated Cost of Buildings.

196

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

DIAGRAM SHOWING
OF BRICK
FOR TEXTILE M
PER SQ. FT. OF GR(

ESTIMATED COST
BUILDINGS
ANUFACTURING
DSS FLOOR SPACE.

Cost THREE STOF

1 Rf\

!Y BUILDINGS.

"TT~

1.50 - __ - -

X -- -- -4:"-

1 An

— ]—

i.oU

1.20 - [--

—J

1 10 - A

I ^

A \

Jf 5

1.00 - rn- ^- - -

t^ \

ut^ N

J& ^ ^^

on - Lu L ^^

.90 - 5^ ^: ~ "<"

^.5 ^^ "^*

Feet

:::::i:^^v$-::==:::4^

.80 --+- — =l^S-s--^-5

= = =^ = = = -50-

^^ S^ ""^"^^

1 1

^s^^^ ^--*

1 1

^s >>^ -

.70 :+::::::::i:::^i::^-^=.

'---H ""''^

ft A _ _ _

-r===±±___ _i25-

ftA

Lengtli

Feet

—50-
-100-
-150-
-200-

> o o o o

0 O JO O LO

1 CO CO '^l "^

1111

Fig. 76. — Estimated Cost of Buildings.

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS.

197

DIAGRAM SHOWIN

OF BRICK

FOR TEXTILE M

PER SQ. FT. OF GF

G ESTIMATED COST
BUILDINGS
ANUFACTURING
loss FLOOR SPACE.

Cost FOUR STOR
1 nn

Y BUILDINGS.

1 III

T -^

■t K(\ ., .

.xx _x

1 i 1

! 1

1 1

1 1 '

1 40 ' i 1

1 ' 1

i.W - It 1 ^ i i 1

1 1 II

1 1 i i

1 1 j II

ill

1 1 ! 1 1 i 1 !

, i i - , ; , : 1

1 on ' i ' ! M i ^ ' '

■ ■ . ■ ■■ • 1 II 1

l.OU , 1 1 1 . i i

1 ; 1 1 ' M 1 i 1 !

1 ill ! II

M i 1

11 II 1

■i n(\ !.__

i i ' ' I ! '

' '

i 1 1 '

t: :

1 i i 1 1 1 1 1 i 1

i \ i

1 i 1 i 1 1 1 1 ,

1 -• A \ J,' ... .. ,

! 1 M ; 1 , . , , i 1

''!'','.- Mi ' 1

^ \ ' ■

M ' — ' ' Mi 1

\ \

1 1

M I j

i AA \ \'' ' .__

M' II i-irs-»*v.

1-00 L \ > 1 ! j 1

t 1 widtn

V \' ' ^ I ' ! 1

' ' ' 1 5„

, i \ \ 1 Xj 1 i 1 [ II

I'M' .1 1 111

\V \ : Xi 1 i 1 !

' 1 t L.

00 1 \ \ ' \ 1 ■ 1 > . ' ' ' ! ' - '

1 1 1 M 1 M it Feet

"J^ Ml V\ 1^ h : i ^^-^

1 1 M 1 I'll 1 1

1 M 1 : III 1 1

Mil: ' ; hi i ' '

' ' ' : ! A N ' Xj ' . .

.80 ' i : ; aV+t'v;:— —

„ ; ^-r : . ■ ■ ■ ^^-

1 1 , 1 ' ■ ^ sXj ^^

_i__M_ : ' . [ • : , ■ ' : ! i

•70 -|" : : ^^ —

- _ _ M

.6o|^ ii i 1 1 Jh3—

frrfn -= -125-

: ' 1 ' 1 III: 1 ! ii

- I! Il II ! i i : i i

ill i 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 i 1

' M ! Mil 1 1 II III \ ' '■ i

KA i i 1 M i i 1 M ! 1 I ! i

: : II 1 1 II II 1 1 ' II 1 Mil

Length

In
Feet

—50-
-100-
-150-
-200-

i § § § §

?i CO CO Tj< "<#

III!

Fig. 77. — Estimated Cost of Buildings.

198

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

DIAGRAM SHOWINC
OF BRJCK
FOR TEXTILE M
PER SQ. FT. OF GR

3 ESTIMATED COST
BUILDINGS
ANUFACTURING
OSS FLOOR SPACE.

^°"* FIVE STOR^

f BUILDINGS. .

i.ou -._-_-__ _

1 - —

■< f!(\

1.50 --

-f A(\

■i QA _ _ _

1 "H - ; . .

: X

1 in ^ __ _ _ _

i.iu

^ ^

V \

\ ^

l-"0 - J^ -5

- -- Width

V, %

lAA 5

jft^^ - >.

on Xl^ ^^

r^„„*

.90 - -- t^-s" -^^^ - i:

^\ V "*,

::::::^"ffi::::iT#

.80 -t:::::^5^;5$;:::i::

r; __:—:=--==== — = -==-=-50-

V ^ >^

-^s ^^ ^^

i«.

nn " ^^^ ^^"-^

.70 - - - ^-v;;--*::^--

1 1 ,., ^"^

T " " ""TT"

^____ +-- = =^i+-±± ^QQ.

.60 #

Kf\

•50 ^^ - J. 1 ij

3 ^1 T T T '

-300-
-350-
-400-
-450-

Fig. 78. — Estimated Cost of Buildings.

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS.

199

DIAGRAM SHOWING

OF BRICK

FOR TEXTILE M

PER SQL. FT. OF GP

J ESTIMATED COST
BUILDINGS
ANUFACTURING
toss FLOOR SPACE.

^°'^ SIX STORY

1 fiO

BUILDINGS.

■t Kn

l.oO --

■t A{\

1 Qf) 1 !

X x

: X

it L X

1 OA \

l.-if V

ir :

itt

1 J 1i X

i 1 A !... _,_ !l .1. ... .... -

L.10 1 --\- ^

\ K

X \ "^

i V 5

I An „, ii\ V.

1.00 X V\ rsL i

JC5 ~rs:

a^k. X -5

: sjrs X x'*s^

Vaat

on 1 \ i\ s 1 1 1 1 r ^^

.j\j \\ s^ \ ' I 1 r*"-*^

1 1 1 1

\ \\ 1^ — •

___-i^_^ Ns^_M____^

^"*X~ "■-ri-..

CO N \ "^ ' 1

-^^h X~----- = = = = ^ = = = 50-

•^" i \ X ^^^ I

V >w ' ^^L

X X

1 V V^ 1 ' -^

i^x it zt

-hN^^^i--^

ffl+=HT----^ -= 7^

.70 -+-^ 1 hx^^^"^

p-^^""" ■ — ^-100-

.60 N p— L__

'^ — -125-

"xx

1 . ' . !

-UX

II \ ^ I ^ III

50 1

II 1 1 li IN

ii _ "So o o o <;

= .= c-ip o O O I?

^ 1 1 1 .

Fig. 79.— Estimated Cost of Buildings.

200 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Cost of Alcohol-distilling Plants. — In continuation of the costs of
alcohol-distilling plants it may be said that the larger the production
the cheaper in proportion is the operating cost. The same rule holds
as in the economics of any other manufacturing business. It costs
almost as much, therefore, to operate a 2500-bushel corn plant as one
of 5000 bushels daily capacity, and to operate a 6000-gallon molasses
plant as one of 12,000 gallons daily capacity. In addition the
larger part of the increase in cost from the smaller to the larger of
these capacities is for increased apparatus. This being the case, it is
merely a question of what is the minimum reasonable operating ex-
pense for such plants in terms of daily capacity of production. Experi-
ence has shown that such capacity, in case of corn, is 5000 bushels,
and of molasses, 12,000 gallons. Each plant, in such a case, has the
advantage at the start of the lowest operating expenses commensurate
with sound business experience and successful operation.

The daily production of 95% alcohol in the case of the 5000-bushel
corn plant is, in round numbers, about 13,000 gallons, while from
the 12,000-gallon molasses plant it is about 5400 gallons per day.
Several requirements may be broadly stated as also influencing
the cost of alcohol-distilling plants. The warmer the water for use
in the condensers, the more condensers are required for cooling
purposes. The condensers of the Southern plants are of a different
type from those in the North, and hence the construction varies. One
of the principal items is to have good cool fresh water, and lots of it.
As a rule, it is estimated in all the houses that it takes 500 gallons of water
to make about 4J of whiskey or proof spirits, counting water for boilers,
for mashing, and for the fermentation. Some plants without modern
improvements take more water than others, but this is an average
in figuring pumping capacity for a modern plant. In the grain-house
grinding and mashing machinery and apparatus are required, as has
been fully described in Chapter II. In a molasses-house no such
machinery is required, and hence the cost of the latter is lessened by
the proportional amount of money which such an equipment represents.
The nimiber of men required is, therefore, less than in the case of a
grain-house. In redistilling and rectifying there is a shrinkage of
alcohol according to the equipments of the house. In a house equipped
with all the latest improvements the loss is not so great as in one not
up to the standard. The shrinkage varies from 8 to 16 points, that is,
from 0.08 to 0.16 of a gallon of proof spirits.

The consideration of a continuous still which will prevent such loss
from double distillation by extracting the high-proof alcohol in one opera-

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS. 201

tion direct from the mash, while at the same time all the valuable fusel-
oil is saved, is therefore of prime importance in the manufacture of alco-
hol for denatured alcohol. This has been fully explained in Chapter III.
Such a type of still is necessarily very expensive. The construction of
alcohol-distilling plants of the kind we are considering includes a five-
story still-house of steel and concrete of fire-proof construction, a brick
storehouse for the filled packages (barrels) , and a corrugated-iron build-
ing for empty packages. The cost of a 5000-bushel corn distillery, with
complete equipment of boilers, machinery, and apparatus, exclusive of
land, is approximately $300,000. The cost of a molasses distillery of
12,000 gallons daily capacity, on the same basis of calculation, is approxi-
mately $180,000. No attempts have been made to itemize these esti-
mates. They were given the author by contractors and builders of
experience. Copper enters very largely into the question, and a price
to-day would not, perhaps, represent the conditions a year hence. The
same is also true of building materials and the proportion of the cost of
labor to the total cost of these plants. For preparing denatured alcohol
an additional building and appliances are required, also a denatured
alcohol warehouse, and the sum of $20,000 must be added to the above
estimates, in such case, for this additional equipment.

Cost of Commercial Wood Alcohol (Methyl Alcohol). — Methyl
alcohol is obtained in the United States chiefly by the destructive dis-
tillation of wood. In Europe it is sometimes manufactured by the
destructive distillation of peat and also from vinasse (the residue remain-
ing after the distillation of fermented beet-root molasses), and Allen
(Commercial Organic Analysis, Vol. I) points out that "methyl alcohol
may be prepared by a variety of synthetical reactions."

The products from peat and vinasse are, however, inconsiderable,
and are more or less incidental or by-products. The preparation of
methyl alcohol by synthesis is not practiced on a commercial scale, as it
is too expensive a process to admit of this being done at a profit.

The commercial demand for methyl alcohol for all purposes through-
out the world is met by submitting wood to dry distillation, the methyl
alcohol, together with many other products, being obtained from the
liquor condensed from the vapors evolved. The residue from the dis-
tillation is charcoal, which finds wide employment as a domestic fuel and
in the smelting of various ores, chiefly iron ores, for the production of
charcoal or Swedish pig-iron.

The operation mentioned above is called destructive distillation be-
cause, in the process of vaporizing, the temperatures attained are so
high that the original character of the wood is thereby destroyed and

202 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the product recovered by condensation represents a more or less acci-
dental rearrangement of the elementary substances that were present in
the wood. This destructive distillation as now carried on in the large
modern works takes place in huge iron retorts or ovens called "by-
product ovens," and is analogous to the operations involved and the
appliances employed in the destructive distillation of coal.

These retorts or ovens are heated by fires maintained in furnaces
below. The hot gases (products of combustion) circulate through flues
in the side walls, so arranged as to cause an even distribution of heat
throughout the charge of wood, with a maximum economy of fuel. Some
uncondensable gases are given off during the process, and these, together
with the '^ broken " charcoal (also called "breeze " and "brase ") and
residual tar, are employed as fuel in these furnaces.

The by-product oven or retort consists of massive masonry construc-
tion, open at each end, with heavy iron doors, and has a capacity of from
three to four steel cars, into which the wood is packed. The wood is cut
to a uniform length and of a maximum diameter of 4 to 5 inches. These
cars are now run into the carbonizing-chamber of this oven or retort,
after which the doors are closed and sealed air-tight by water-cooled
rubber gaskets. (In the older types of these retorts they are built in
pairs, and the covers are sealed air-tight by means of clay.)

In this modern "by-product oven " the wood is retorted or destruc-
tively distilled as has been described, the operation usually requiring
twenty-four hours. When the distillation is finished, the cars con-
taining the hot charcoal are drawn out of the oven, and cars newly
charged with wood are run in, the furnace fires meanwhile being kept up.

To prevent spontaneous combustion of the hot charcoal, the cars
containing it are at once run into steel chambers, which are then closed
to exclude the air. Here this charcoal is left for about forty-eight
hours, in order to allow it to cool to a point where it can be drawn out
and remain exposed to the air without danger of its taking fire.

The tar produced in such a modern plant furnishes with the com-
bustible waste gases, mentioned above, sufficient fuel for the heating
needs of the entire retorting or destructive distillation of the wood. In
some localities natural gas is used for fuel purposes. Coal is only neces-
sary in the older retorting systems.

The character of the product obtained from this destructive distilla-
tion of wood depends to a considerable extent upon the temperature at
which this distillation takes place, which is usually from 400° to 600° F.
where iron retorts are employed, and the distillate consists of a weak
complex liquid mixture of water, tarry substances, acetic acid (pyro-

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS. 203

ligneous acid or wood vinegar) , creosote, and wood naphtha, with small
amounts of other organic substances, and it possesses an extremely
repugnant odor and disagreeable taste.

Since the valuable portions of this distillate had their origin in the
solid fibres of the wood and not in the sap or moisture, a greater economy
of fuel is obtained by drying or seasoning the wood to the utmost de-
gree practicable before it is '* retorted " or distilled. For this reason
wood is cut a year before being used. And further, since the resinous
or tarry portions of the distillate are the least valuable and prepon-
derate in fir or balsamic trees, only leaf or foliage woods are employed.
In the United States, now the chief seat of this industry, maple, beech,
and birch are the woods usually employed as giving the richest dis-
tillate capable of the most economical "after treatment." The liquid
or distillate obtained as above described is now usually worked on an
improved system known as the "gray acetate system," a name de-
rived from one of its products, the so-called gray acetate of lime, and
which has superseded the less profitable and less cleanly "brown acetate "
process, which gave brown acetate of lime (an acetate containing a
large percentage of undesirable and valueless tarry impurities).

Brown acetate of lime is sold on a basis of 60 per cent of real acetate of
lime, while gray acetate of lime is sold on basis of 80 per cent. Both
kinds usually run from 2 to 7 per cent over these figures.

Fig. 80 shows a graphic representation of the steps in the destructive
distillation of wood and the products obtained by the "gray acetate
system " in the manufacture of crude wood alcohol of 82 per cent in
strength by Tralles' alcoholometer.

In explaining the improved process (" gray acetate " process) it
m^y be said that the entire distillate from the destructive distillation
of the wood is at once submitted to a second plain distillation, i.e., the
liquor is evaporated at a temperature below the critical point at which
the rholecules break up to form new products. This distillation takes
place in a copper still or in closed kettles connected by a vapor-pipe
from the top to a suitable condenser and receiving-tank. As the dis-
tillation commences, the wood naphtha, which constitutes the most
volatile portion of the liquor and is present to the extent of about
J of 1 per cent by weight of the original wood, begins to distill over
and is collected until the boiling-point has reached about 110° C.

As the wood naphtha becomes exhausted, the crude acetic acid
comes over very dilute and the distillation is continued until no more
acetic acid can be obtained. About all the water comes off with the
naphtha and acetic acid, so that the residue in the still consists of tar

204

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Wood

Destructively

Distilled

Charcoal

First
Distillate

Saleable and Erase

Distil Again

Tar

Acid and
Alkali

Fuel

Neutr
and

Lime

alize
Distil

< m

Gray-
Acetate
Solution

Dried

Waste

Dilute

Crude

Wood Alcohol

by
Heat

Distil

to Remove Ta

and

Gray .

Acetate
of Lime

Twice

rry Matters

Water

Crude Wood
Alcohol

82'Tralles

Fig, 80. — Graphic Representation of the Destructive Distillation of Wood in
making Crude Wood Alcohol 82 per cent Tralles.

COST OF ALCOHOL DISTILLING PLANTS. 205

creosote, and other oils of low value. These are usually employed as
liquid fuel in connection with a jet of steam, and thus contribute to
the economy of this first distillation of the wood.

The second distillate thus obtained is now neutralized with lime and
is again distilled. The distillate thus obtained consists of wood naphtha of
about 32%. The residue of gray acetate of lime is a product which has
a large variety of uses such as the manufacture of acetone, from which
chloroform is now principally made; the manufacture of acetic acid,
both commercial and pure, and for the making of acetates of various
kinds for different manufacturing purposes. The wood naphtha
32%, or dilute crude wood alcohol, is now twice distilled to further
remove tarry bodies and water and the product thus optained is the
crude wood alcohol 82 per cent by Tralles' alcoholometer, and this
is termed the strength in alcohol. As a matter of fact it is nothing
of the sort, and sucli a figure, owing to the acetone and other substances
present lighter than w^ater, does not represent the real alcoholic strength
in terms of absolute methyl alcohol. A content of acetone as high
as 30 per cent is sometimes met with in such crude (82 per cent) wood
alcohol.

Commercial Wood Alcohol (95 per cent strength). — This crude wood
alcohol, 82 per cent, is now shipped to a refinery usually so located
as to be central to many crude wood-alcohol plants in order to be assured
delivery of the large quantities of such crude wood alcohol needed for
the production of commercial wood alcohol (95 per cent strength), as
well as for the saving in freights and for economical operation.

The refining process necessary to convert this unmerchantable
crude wood alcohol into a condition or quality necessary for commer-
cial purposes is analogous to those used in the refining of crude petro-
leum or mineral oils.

Several alkaline distillations involving the use of alkaline substances
such as lime are necessary to remove the phenols, which are very per-
sistent impurities.

A distillation with acid is sometimes employed to fix the ammonia
and volatile basic substances. These chemical processes are combined
with a series of fractional distillations in order to remove impurities
for which chemical treatment alone will not suffice. The distillation
apparatus employed is very expensive and of highly complicated con-
struction. The final product thus obtained is commercial wood alcohol,
which is usually sold at 95 per cent strength by Tralles' alcoholometer,
and contains from 10 per cent to 20 per cent acetone and varying pro-
portions of other organic impurities.

206 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Usually there are required five gallons of crude 82 per cent wood
alcohol to produce four gallons of commercial 95 per cent wood alcohol.
As the cost at the plant for making the crude is about 39 cents a gallon,
the cost of one gallon of the commercial is about 55 cents, 5 cents being
added for the manufacturing cost. In shipping this conmiercial wood
alcohol 95 per cent, the price should include, in addition to the above, a
cost of about 11 cents a gallon for freight and distribution charges, mak-
ing the price about 67J cents a gallon when sold in large amounts.

Since the wood-alcohol industry was started the yield per cord of
wood in gallons of crude wood alcohol 82 per cent has increased from
3i gallons to as high as 12 gallons. This result has been accomplished
by the introduction of modern iron retorts and ovens to replace the
charcoal kilns formerly employed, and by modern continuous steam dis-
tilling apparatus and special methods of rectification.

Commercial wood alcohol is a favorite denaturing agent abroad and
possesses valuable properties for such purposes. It is an admirable
denaturing agent, and any method tending to reduce its cost is of the
highest importance. In view of the great progress and increased yields
mentioned in the history of this industry, it may confidently be expected
that the selling price of commercial wood alcohol may be reduced.^ Some-
times commercial wood alcohol is still more highly rectified and refined
up to strengths of from 97 to 98 per cent by volume of real methyl alcohol.
Some of these products are so pure that only an expert is enabled to
detect the difference between them and a sample of good-grade com-
mercial 95 per cent (ethyl) alcohol. Such products are sold under the
names of Manhattan Spirits, Columbian Spirits, Hastings' Spirits, Alco-
lene. Eagle Spirits, Colonial Spirits, and Lion d'Or. Concerning these
purified products, which are methyl alcohol, it may be said that the
laws of Massachusetts require that all methyl alcohol, whether crude or
refined, be labeled *^Wood Alcohol — Poison " in black letters of large
gothic type.

^ Since this prediction was made the selling price has dropped to 40 cents per
gallon.

CHAPTER VI.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

The Incandescent Mantle for the Alcohol Lamp. The Incandescent Alcohol
Lamp. The Alcohol Illuminated-sign Lamp. The German Incandescent Alcohol
Street Lights. Cost of Lighting by Kerosene. The Incandescent "Welsbach Gas
Light. Acetylene as a Source of Illumination. The Electric Incandescent and
Arc Light. Alcohol Compared to other Sources of Illumination.

The use of alcohol for illuminating purposes dates back to the year
1833 in the United States. In that year Augustus Van Horn Webb
introduced a substitute for the then existing portable lights, viz., candles
and whale-oil, calling it "spirit gas," being a mixture of alcohol and
spirits of turpentine. His chief difficulty consisted in the weakness of
the alcohol, druggists' alcohol or spirits of wine about 80 per cent proof
being the only obtainable commercial alcohol, which in itself was not of
sufficient strength to incorporate and hold in solution under all tempera-
tures the turpentine required to carbonize and impart body to the light
derived from alcohol.

Subsequent experiments resulted in the addition of other ingredients
such as gum-camphor, etc., whereupon he changed the name of the mix-
ture to ''camphorated gas." The increasing demand for the "gas " or
fluid resulted in the invention of the alcohol column by John Wright,
whereby, by a process of exhaustive distillation, what was thereafter
known as 95 per cent alcohol was produced, this being of sufficient
strength to receive and retain in perfect solution the requisite quantity
of spirits of turpentine to impart light and maintain perfect combustion.

In 1838 Mr. Webb invented and introduced his "Webb's camphene
burner." Ordinary spirits of turpentine containing too much rosin for
his purpose, he set about purifying it, and succeeded in relieving it of its
resinous properties. This he submitted to the eminent chemist. Dr.
James R. Chilton, for analysis, who gave it the name of "camphene,"
which term Mr. Webb adopted in his patents, and from this period. the
names "spirit gas " and "camphorated gas " were changed to "burning
fluid," a mixture of one part of Webb's camphene and four and a half
parts of 95 per cent alcohol.

207

208 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The decade from 1830 to 1840 witnessed the introduction of high-
proof alcohol and its use as a solvent for illuminating purposes, and the
almost entire substitution of camphene and burning fluid for candles and
whaleoil for artificial light. Indeed from* 1840 to 1860 camphene and
burning fluid were emphatically the '' lights of the world/' the former for
fixed lamps, the latter for portable lamps.

The distillation of alcohol from high wines or common whiskey was
then conducted exclusively by the rectifiers in the East, and so continued
until the 'fifties, when distillers in Cincinnati and Illinois produced some
95 per cent alcohol which found its way to the Eastern market.

From 1850 to the outbreak of the Civil War the business of distilling
alcohol and camphene, and the manufacture and sale of burning fluid,
became a distinct and very extensive business in the city of New York.

From the adoption of alcohol for illuminating purposes in the manu-
facture of burning fluid until the outbreak of the war four fifths of the
entire production of alcohol for home consumption was used in the manu-
facture of burning fluid. The remainder was used by druggists and in
arts and manufactures.

Late in the 'fifties experiments were made in the production of coal-
oil for illuminating purposes by the decomposition (destructive distilla-
tion) of coal, chiefly the Albert coal. Shortly thereafter came the dis-
covery of petroleum, which led to the introduction of kerosene oil, or
refined petroleum, for burning purposes, Samuel Downer of Boston being
mainly instrumental in bringing it before the public. Many may recall
the article known as ''Downer's kerosene."

At this period, say 1860 to 1864, attention was called to refining
petroleum for illuminating purposes, thus furnishing a substitute for the
camphene and burning-fluid lights. The price of camphene rose from
35 cents per gallon prior to the war to $3.80 per gallon in 1864-5; and
the imposition of the tax on distilled spirits (which included alcohol from
necessity, it being so intimately and indissolubly connected with the
spirit used by rectifiers, and almost identical with high-proof or cologne
spirit) increased its cost beyond the possibility of using it for burning
fluid in competition with kerosene oil.

The progress made in refining petroleum and the invention of lamps
for burning it during the interval of the disuse of burning fluid and cam-
phene rendered it an acceptable substitute for burning fluid and cam-
phene, and owing to its marvelous cheapness it became, and in all
probability may continue to be, ''the people's light." The abolition of
burning fluid caused a reduction of four fifths, or 80 per cent, in the con-
sumption of alcohol. The remaining small percentage of the product

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT. 209

met the requirements of druggists and that used in the arts and
manufactures.

It is interesting here to notice that, on the authority of the Hon.
David A. Wells, Commissioner of Internal Revenue from 1866 to
1870, written October 11, 1887, the use of proof spirits for the ''burning
fluid " above referred to, "in 1860, in places where coal-gas was not
available, was all but universal, and necessitated a production and con-
sumption of at least 25,000,000 gallons of proof spirits per annum, which
in turn would have required the production and use of some 10,000,000
to 12,000,000 bushels of corn. In Cincinnati alone the amount of alcohol
required every twenty-four hours by this industry was equivalent to the
distillate of 12,000 bushels of com. Each gallon of alcohol used in
this ' burning fluid ' requiring 1 .88 gallons of proof spirits for its manu-
facture." Therefore the 25,000,000 gallons of proof spirits used per
annum referred to were equal to about 13,157,894 gallons of commercial
alcohol of 95 per cent strength.

The almost complete disuse of alcohol in an industrial way in the
United States on account of the tax, as described, naturally prohibited
any development of apparatus for using alcohol, and our inventive facul-
ties and abilities were turned in other directions.

On this account the apparatus shown in this book is necessarily largely
of foreign make. As time passes we may speedily hope for a change
in this respect, and that American inventive genius mil improve on
these problems already solved and solve those as yet partially developed-

The Incandescent Mantle for Alcohol Lamps. — The adaptation cf
the mantle for use with the alcohol lamps for illuminating purposes
marked a notable improvement in the efficiency of this lamp and made
it a success.

There is therefore no longer any need of mixing purified spirits cf
turpentine or camphene with alcohol, as was necessary heretofore to
produce a luminous flame. The importance of this invention renders
of much interest a brief description of the discovery and manufacture
of the modern mantle.

* About the year 1880 a young German, Dr. Karl Auer, while
working in Professor Bunsen's laboratory, finding that for his chemical
experiments on the rare earths he needed a very light thin filament,
conceived the idea of saturating a cotton fibre with a solution of the
rare earth, and then burned out the cotton, leaving behind the skeleton
of the earth desired.

* Mr. H. S. Miner, chemist for the Welsbach Company, has kindly furnished
■these facts for the author.

210

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The invention by Professor Bunsen of the gas-burner which bears his
name gave a greater stimulus to the development of incandescent gas-
lighting than any one thing up to the work of Dr. Auer, and in fact with-
out this invention even his work would have been of little practical value.

The experiment of Dr. Auer was successful, and he eventually con-
ceived the idea of working out a new system of illumination.

After very exhaustive experiments he settled upon the composi-
tion of the present mantle, which consists practically of 99 per cent
thoria and 1 per cent ceria, and this composition gives practically the
best lighting efficiency.

The present process by which a mantle is made is to knit or weave
a cotton fabric, saturate it with a solution of the rare earths above
mentioned, after which the fabric is dried and the asbestos loop or ring
is attached to the top. The fabric is then incinerated, during which
process the thread is entirely removed and the earthy matter only
remains. After being subjected to a hardening process over an intense
gas-flame, the mantle is dipped in a collodion solution, which strengthens
it so it will resist the shocks incidental to handling and transportation.
A thousand hours is considered the reasonable burning life of a mantle.

The Incandescent Alcohol Lamp. — Before taking up the kinds and
details of these lamps it will be of interest to compare alcohol with
kerosene for lighting purposes. In order to ascertain the cost of lighting
by alcohol as compared to that of kerosene, the most widely used illu-
minant, careful duplicate photometric tests were made by the Electrical
Testing Laboratories of New York and the reports of such tests were
submitted by the author at the Congressional "free-alcohol" hearings
held in Washington, D. C, February-March, 1906.

The lamps shown in Fig. 81, p. 212, are those referred to in the photo-
metric tests of alcohol versus kerosene as illuminants, the tests being
as follows:

The first test, made February 2, 1906, gave the following data (Re-
port No. 1870, Orders Nos. 1783 and 1784).

Lamp.

One Gallon will
Last

Candle-power.

Candle-power
Hours.

Alcohol

Hrs. Min.

58 52
87 0

25
9

1471

Oil

783

The specific gravity of the denatured alcohol used in the above test
was 0.8180, or about 94.5 per cent by Tralles' scale. The specific gravity
of the kerosene used was 0.7930, and it was purchased from a local dealer.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

211

This test included the French "Boivin " incandescent-mantle alcohol
lamp and a fiat-wick kerosene lamp such as is in common use in this
country, using a good quality of alcohol and kerosene. The deduc-
tion to be made from this report is that if we had two lamps of equal
candle-power and equal capacity, one burning alcohol and the other
kerosene, the alcohol lamp would burn nearly twice as long as the kero-
sene lamp.

This is shown by the figures, because had the kerosene lamp been
25 candle-power it would have burned about thirty-one hours as against
about fifty-nine hours for the 25 candle-power alcohol lamp.

In order to determine just exactly what burners of identical shape
would burn of alcohol and kerosene in a given time, a second test was
made March 3, 1906, by the same authorities, as follows (Report
No. 1917, Order No. 1859):

Lamp.

One Gallon will
Last

Candle-power.

Candle-power
Hours.

Alcohol

Hrs. Min.
57 5
28 40

30.35
30.8

1732

Oil

883

The kerosene used in the above test was purchased from a dealer in
the vicinity. The specific gravity of this kerosene was 0.7950. The
specific gravity of the denatured alcohol used in this test was 0.8240,
or about 92.6 per cent by Tralles' scale.

It is also a matter of interest to know that extended photometric
tests were made in 1900 by Professor E. Rousseau, of the University of
Brussels, Belgium, to determine the comparative value of alcohol and
kerosene as illuminants. In the first series of such tests he used alcohol
of 96.4 per cent in strength, and in the second series alcohol of 94.2 per
cent in strength by the centesimal alcoholometer. These tests demon-
strated a difference in favor of alcohol of fully two to one, and are con-
firmed by the American tests just given. The author quoted from
this report of Professor E. Rousseau at the Congressional "Free Alcohol ''
hearings held at Washington, D. C, February-March, 1906.

This American test, mentioned above, in which a round-wick, central-
draft kerosene-burning lamp was used, in comparison with the "Boivin*'
incandescent-mantle alcohol lamp using a Welsbach mantle, shows con-
clusively that with two lamps of equal candle-power and equal capacity a
gallon of alcohol possesses about twice the illuminating value of a gallon
of kerosene. These lamps are shown in Fig. 81. The "Boivin" alcohol

212

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

burner in the lamp tested is easily regulated by means of a vapor screw
valve so that the amount of light furnished can be diminished or increased
at pleasure. The consumption of alcohol is also correspondingly
diminished or increased. Under all circumstances these photometric
tests show alcohol to possess about twice as much value as kerosene
for lighting purposes. Denatured alcohol therefore can easily compete
successfully with kerosene at twice the cost per gallon. Moreover kero-
sene can only be increased to one half the selling price of denatured

Kerosene Lamp.

Fig. 81.

French Alcohol Lamp.

alcohol for illuminating purposes at any given time, as these figures
show. In discussing the comparative costs of alcohol and kerosene
for illuminating purposes there are a number of features to consider
besides the simple economics of the matter. These may be considered
as follows:

1. Safety of the Alcohol Lamp.— Th^ alcohol lamp is much safer than
the kerosene lamp, as a fire started from alcohol is readily extinguished
by water, which mixes with alcohol in all proportions. Such is not the

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT. 213

case with kerosene, as the throwing on of water only serves to spread the
fire.

2. QiuUity of the Light Furnished. — ^The white light furnished by the
alcohol lamp is akin to daylight in its quality, and being also extremely
steady and uniform, it is preferable to the yellow light of the kerosene
lamp.

3. The Heat Given Off by Radiation. — ^This is much less in the case of
the alcohol lamp than from a kerosene lamp of equal candle-power,
because the flame of the kerosene lamp owes its luminosity to the
particles of carbon present, which, not being perfectly burnt, become
incandescent in the flame and radiate of necessity a considerable degree
of heat, as any one who has read beside the usual large round-wick
kerosene lamp, such as was used in these photometric tests referred to,
can testify. These conditions do not occur in the alcohol lamp, as the
mantle becomes incandescent and not the flame. The flame of alcohol
when burned in the wick lamp is, as is well known, of a pale bluish color
and practically non-luminous. Hence the adaptation of the incandescent
mantle to the alcohol lamp made it a commercial success, as has been
shown.

4. Maintenance of the Alcohol Lamp. — As the alcohol lamp bums no
wick, it is free from this troublesome feature invariably connected with
the use of kerosene. The alcohol lamp does not smoke and is practically
odorless. The fitting on of the mantle is easy and simple. The occa-
sional replacing of the suction-wick used in the reservoir (body) of the lamp
is quickly accomplished. The lighting of the alcohol lampis more easily
done than with kerosene, as the removal of the chimney or raising it is
imnecessary. There is also much less vitiation of the atmosphere from
burning denatured alcohol than in the case of kerosene, as we shall show
later.

Turning now to the details of the construction of the alcohol lamp,
we will discuss them under the following heads :

The Burner. — Fig. 82 shows the incandescent-mantle alcohol "Boivin "
burner. This consists of the little alcohol reservoir-piunp, the suction-
wick, the alcohol vaporizing-tube, V shape in form, and the mantle.
Just below the mantle is a small circular-shaped asbestos-lined copper
channel, in which a little alcohol is ignited by a match in lighting this
lamp.

The suction-wick merely brings the alcohol, by capillary attraction,
to the V-shaped vaporizing-tube. The tiny pump in the reservoir (body)
of the lamp furnishes the alcohol necessary in order to light this lamp.
This is done as follows: The vapor screw valve V is opened by

214

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

unscrewing it, and the spring lever 0 is pushed down to operate the
pump. The alcohol so brought up to the igniting channel is lighted with
a match through the small opening above 0. In about thirty seconds
the heat so produced vaporizes the alcohol furnished by the suction-wick.
This vapor burns as a gas, making the mantle white-hot, after which
the lamp burns automatically.

Fig. 82. — Alcohol Burner of the Boivin
Incandescent -mantle Alcohol Lamp.

Fig. 83. — Method of Changing the Suc-
tion-wick in the Boivin Alcohol Burner.

This burner is as easily regulated as gas, the amount of light fur-
nished, and hence of alcohol used, being reduced at will. It is claimed
that this burner consumes a liter (about one quart) of alcohol in fourteen
burning-hours, giving a light of 40 candle-power.*

A smaller alcohol burner is also made by E. Boivin, claimed to be of
20 candle-power and to consume one liter (about one quart) of alcohol
in twenty-eight burning-hours. These burners are intended for the
French denatured (not carbureted) alcohol of 90 per cent strength, but
will also burn U. S. completely denatured alcohol.

In Fig. 83 the suction-wick for this alcohol burner is shown, and
also the method of changing this wick. The wick is made of cotton,
very loosely twisted, and half an hour after being put in place it readily
becomes saturated with alcohol and the burner is then ready for use.

* French Standard Carcel.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

215

This suction-wick lasts for months and is therefore very infrequently
renewed, although this is readily done. The cuts showing the kerosene
and alcohol lamps used in the tests referred to are shown in Fig. 81,
p. 212. As with kerosene lamps, the form, design, and materials of the
alcohol lamp may be varied at pleasure, depending upon the cost. Some
of these lamps are of beautiful design and finish.

The "Boivin " French incandescent street light "La Parisienne" is
shown by Fig. 84. This light is also used in France for interiors.

Fig. 84. Fig. 85.

Fig. 84. Boivin Incandescent Alcohol Light for Interiors and also Out-of-door

Use : "La Parisienne."
Fig. 85. Students' Alcohol Lamp.

Some of the uses claimed for it are for halls, stores, studios, railway
stations, wharves, etc. This light has an illuminating power, it is claimed,
of from 40 to 200 candle-power, according to the number of burners
supplied, each burner giving 40 candle-power.

In the other cuts we are shown, as in Fig. 85, the students' or

216

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL

reading alcohol lamp. In Fig. 86 is shown the bracket reflector alcohol
lamp. The alcohol lamp for projecting screen-pictures or views is shown
in Fig. 87.

The alcohol lamp, as shown in Fig. 85, gives a very satisfactory light
for the purposes of study. As the lamp needs practically no attention
while burning, it contributes greatly to the comfort of the user. It is
readily moved and convenient in shape.

The alcohol lamp shown in Fig. 86 is used as a source of illumination
where the reflector is of great service. The focusing and concentration
of the rays of light by the reflector greatly enhances the lighting effici-
ency of this lamp. It is very practical in construction and possesses
great durability.

Fig. 86.— Bracket Reflector Alcohol
Lamp.

Fig. 87.— Alcohol Lamp for Projecting
Screen Pictures or Views.

In the alcohol lamp shown in the Fig. 87 we possess a superior
source of illumination for the purposes intended. The views shown by
this lamp are very distinct and strongly mark the contrasting light and
shade. This light may also prove of value in commercial photography.

The copy of the U. S. patent, No. 781,490, granted January 31,
1905, to Emile Boivin, of Paris, France, for the radiation-burner for spirit-
lamps, is herewith appended. The details are shown in Fig. 88, p. 218,
and Fig. 89, p. 219.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT. 217

No. 781,490. Patented January 31, 1905.

UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE.

EMILE BOIVIN, OF PARIS, FRANCE
RADIATIOX-BURXER FOR SPIRIT-LAMPS.

SPECIFICATION forming part of Letters Patent No. 781,490, dated January 31, 1905.

Application filed December 7, 1903. Serial No. 184,135.

To all whom it may concern:

Be it known that I, Emile Boivin, a citizen of the Republic of France,
and a resident of Paris, France, have invented certain new and useful
Improvements in Radiator-burners for Spirit-lamps, of which the follow-
ing is a specification.

The spirit-lamp burner which forms the object of the present applica-
tion is distinguished from other burners of the kind by the novel arrange-
ment in the chamber for the mixture of gases of a heating-radiator, the
object and advantage of which is to insure dry vapors and a suitable
form for the flame — that is to say, the form of a candle-flame — which
renders the mantle incandescent, and when the radiator and the parts
dependent thereon are thoroughly heated the mantle furnishes and main-
tains its maximum illuminating power, while a great saving of spirit is
effected.

The object and advantages of the radiator, which is the essential
feature of the invention, are as follows:

First. After the lamp has been alight for some time this radiator
becomes heated throughout and transmits this heat by contact to the
interior of the tubes c, in which vaporization is effected. This transmis-
sion of heat is intended to dry the vapors thus produced and to render
them suitable for partial and complete combustion.

Second. Independently of the form of the flame produced by the
radiator as mentioned above the radiator proper, e, in consequence of
its special form and the vertical slots formed in it promotes the move-
ment of the dry vapors which come from the mixing-chamber d.

In order to make the invention quite clear, it is illustrated in the
accompanying drawings.

Figure 1 is an elevation of the burner surmounted by the heating-
radiator and the rod for supporting the mantle; Fig. 2, a vertical section
through A B m Fig. 4; Fig. 3, a plan of the heating-radiator; Fig. 4, a
horizontal section through C Z) in Fig. 2; Fig. 5, a plan of the ejector
shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 6; Fig. 6, a vertical section of the burner, taken
at right angles to Fig. 2 ; and Fig. 7, a plan of the burner.

As shown in Figs. 1 and 2, the burner consists of a central tube a,
which dips into the reservoir or body of the lamp. This tube is furnished
with a suitable internal wick h. At a certain height the tube a is sur-

218

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

mounted by two flat tubes c, placed sufficiently apart for receiving be-
tween them a mixing tube or chamber d, Figs. 1, 2, and 4. The mixing-

Fig. 88. — Sectional Drawings showing the Construction and Details of the Radiation-
burner for the Boivin Patent Alcohol Lamp.

chamber d is brazed to the tube c and to the bottom of the radiator e,
through which it runs. To the circumference of the base of the radiator

AL(?OHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

219

e the heater / is likewise brazed, which is formed by a tube open at the
two ends and having two diametrically opposite openings. On the top
of the heater / is a head-piece formed by a ring g, closed at one end by
wire gauze h, through which the upper part of the radiator extends. The
two side tubes c are closed at the top by their abutments and by being
held in a circular recess formed in the base of the radiator e. In the
interior of each of these tubes is one arm of a U-shaped tube i, the junc-
tional horizontal part of which tube i is drilled with a hole communicat-
ing with the holes in a pipe k, with an internal regulating-valve I, which
passes across an ejector m, arranged on and brazed to the top of the tube
a. The base of the ejector m is drilled with two holes n registering with
the two flat tubes c and permitting the passage of the spirit-vapors from
the wick up into said flat tubes. The regulating-valve /, by means of
which the vaporizing operation can be started or the action of the burner
be stopped, is operated from the outside by a milled nut o, Figs. 1, 6, and
7. The radiator e is slightly conical and hollowed out inside. In the
sides thereof are a number of vertical slots p. The top of the radiator,

Sectional Drawings showing Details of the Radiation-burner for the
Boivin Patent Alcohol Lamp.

which runs through the gauze wire h, receives the rod q and mantle-
holder r. The radiator is placed over the mixing-chamber, and is in-
tended to diffuse the vapors issuing from the ejector m in order to give
them a desired form and heat them more and more until a complete
diffusion thereof is effected. This heating is effected by conduction —
that is to say, through the conductive power of the radiator to the heater
and from the heater to the tubes c without any external action.

The igniting of the burner may be effected in any manner, but prefer-
ably by the device described in relation to Figs. 1 and 7 of the accom-
panying drawings. This device consists of a cylinder s, drilled near the
top with an opening t, through which the spirit enters from the body of
the lamp. To the bottom of this de\dce an elevating-tube u is fitted,
the top of which enters the igniting-pan v and is then bent toward the
bottom of the vessel. The upper part of the cylinder s carries a tube w,
which acts as a guide for the rod x of a piston y, arranged in the cylinder
and the top of which is under the permanent action of a spring z. The
upper part of the piston-rod is bent outside the gallery a' in order that
it may be lowered when the ignition is effected. An orifice h' is formed

220 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

in the gallery a' to allow of the introduction of a match and the igniting
of the spirit which has been forced out of the cylinder s into the vessel v
by means of the piston y. This arrangement is suitable where simple
refined spirit is employed for lighting purposes ; but when for any reason
whatever carbureted spirit is employed, this spirit would not be suitable
for the ignition, and therefore 1 reserve the right of isolating the above-
described pump device in a reservoir- tube which is immersed in the body
of a lamp and into which spirit is poured suitable for several ignitions.

The burner thus described acts as follows : The lighting or priming is
effected as stated. The spirit is drawn up by capillary action near to
the ejector m. The vaporization begins in the central tube a and the
vapors ascend to the side tube c, which they enter, thence escaping
through the ejector and reaching the mixing-tube d become mixed, are
diffused and heated by the radiator e, and finally pass through the wire
gauze Ifi, taking the form desired for the .mantle.

What I claim, and desire to secure by Letters Patent, is —

1. In an incandescent-lamp burner, the combination with a mixing-
chamber, of two upright vaporizing- tubes adjacent thereto, and a U-
shaped pipe having a leg in each tube and provided with an aperture in
its horizontal part in line with said mixing-chamber.

2. In an incandescent-lamp burner, the combination with a wick-
tube, of two flat vaporizing-tubes extending up therefrom and closed at
their upper ends, a mixing-chamber between said vaporizing-tubes, a
U-shaped pipe having a leg in each flat tube an^d provided with an aper-
ture in line with said mixing-chamber, and a radiator above said mixing-
chamber.

3. The combination with a wick-tube, of an ejector having a base
closing the top of said tube and provided with two holes, vaporizing-
tubes registering with said holes, a heater having open sides and inclosing
and supporting said tubes, a mixing-chamber between the vaporizing-
tubes, a U-shaped pipe in said tubes having its horizontal portion extend-
ing across said ejector and provided with an aperture communicating
with the ejector, a valve controlling said ejector, and a slotted radiator
surmounting said heater above the mixing-chamber.

In testimony that I claim the foregoing, I have hereunto set my hand
this 23d day of November, 1903.

EMILE BOIVIN.
Witnesses :

EdxMOND Lecautweier,
H. C. CoxE.

In describing the Phoebus Incandescent Alcohol Lamp, of which a cut
is shown in Fig. 90, it may be said that the manipulation of this lamp is
practically the same as those heretofore described in this chapter. The
lamp is lighted at ^ by a match. It is extinguished by closing the screw
vapor-valve B. In filHng the lamp the alcohol is put in at the orifice C
D is the regulator. For a table lamp for reading purposes a shade is
placed upon the support E. The small rubber bulb shown, when com-

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

221

'^^M'-

Fig. 90.— The Phoebus Incandescent Alcohol Lamp. Made by Beese & Co.>
Dresden, Germany.

222

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

pressed, forces a little alcohol into the lighting chamber A. This bulb is
readily detachable, being provided with a metallic connection. The
lamp is here shown without the base in order to show the details. Any
design and material is supplied for the base by the manufacturers.

The accompanying cut shows the Phoebus Hanging Billiard Incan-
descent Alcohol Lamp. This lamp is of a beautiful design and furnishes
a very agreeable light for its purpose. The style shown is the large
model, and is finished in rich reddish brown or sea-green.

Fig. 91, — Phoebus Alcohol Billiard Lamp.

The ornate hanging Phoebus lamp (Fig. 92) is finished in an
exquisite variety of designs. As the manipulation of this lamp is readily
suggested by the cut, no description is necessary. The lamp is appropri-
ately used for hall-lighting purposes.

The Phoebus (small model) Indoor Alcohol Lamp, as shown in
Fig. 93, is supplied with a clear-glass globe and is very effective in its
power of illumination.

In Fig. 94, p. 224, is shown the beautifully decorated Phoebus Indoor
Alcohol Lamp. This lamp is furnished with a rich bead shade, which
can be had in any colors desired. The globe supplied with this lamp
admits of an abundant illumination and a pleasing quality of light.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

223

^SBB

Pig. 92. — Phoebus Hanging Alcohol
Lamp for Indoor Use.

Fig. 93.— Phoebus Small Model Indoor
Alcohol Lamp.

224

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

From the cut here given an idea is obtained of the appearance and
finish of the Phoebus Indoor Alcohol Light with ground-glass globe,

shown in Fig, 95.

Fig. 94. — Phoebus Indoor Alcohol Light Fig. 95. — Phoebus Indoor Alcohol Light
with Bead Shade. with Bronze Design.

For the purposes of Illuminating Sign Lamps or Art Lamps the
Phoebus lamp shown in Fig. 96 is an extremely satisfactory light. Any
character of illuminated sign can be availed of with the transparent
shade. The lamp is largely used for drug-stores, restaurants, hotels, etc.

The German Incandescent Alcohol Street Lights. — The German
Incandescent Alcohol Street Light ''Alba " is shown in Fig. 97, p. 226.
This light is guaranteed storm and rain proof. Each lamp is fully
guaranteed. The consumption of alcohol per burning-hour is J liter
(i quart), and the light thus furnished is claimed to be 220 candle-
power.* ''This light is also recommended for interior as well as for
out-of-door uses, as it is claimed to be smokeless and odorless." Alcohol
below 90 per cent in strength cannot be used in this light.

* Kerzen Standard.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

225

The details of the construction of this "Alba " light are shown by-
Fig. 98, p. 227. They are as follows:

A is the little reservoir for holding the quantity of alcohol necessary
to light the lamp. B is the principal or large alcohol reservoir of the
lamp. C is the lever-valve by which the alcohol needed for lighting is
drawn into A from B. D is the lighting-funnel. E is the heating-cup.

5lQ. 96. — ^The PhcEbus Alcohol Illuminating Sign Lamp.

F is the main-cock. The balance of the parts are described by Fig. 98
itself.

In order to light this alcohol light the proceeding is as follows, assum-
ing that it has been all prepared, all ready to light: First close the
main-cock F, then open the lever-valve C by pulling it down for twenty
seconds in order to allow the amount of alcohol needed for priming to
flow into A. The lever- valve C is then closed. The alcohol meanwhile
flows into E, where it is lighted by a match through D.

226

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The alcohol is permitted to burn for about a minute in order to facili-
tate the formation of the alcohol vapor, and after waiting for a minute, as
mentioned, which is the very earliest that the lighting should be attempted,

Fig. 97.— The "Alba" Alcohol Light. Made by Schwintzer and Grafif, Berlin,

Germany.

the alcohol that was in E now having all been burned, the lamp is ready
for lighting. This is accomplished by opening the main-cock F by
drawing or pulling down the ring and chain shown attached to F, when
after the lighting is effected the lamp burns automatically.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

227

If the main-cock is opened too soon or the above vaporizing for a
minute is disregarded, then the alcohol itself runs down, in place of the
alcohol-vapor, into the burner and the mantle is broken down from its

- 4^ Gasifler-Overflow

Filline orifice — -

Alcohol-Reservoir-
Alcohol-iiltering sieve

Gatif jjng-Tabe

Stop.cock,\._^

Closing Screw C^

Brake ^

Lighting Funnel ^-

Heating Cup --"

Burner

Burner nozzle or Tuyere --

Reservoir for condensed alcobol-

— Glass Globe
Uoper Cylinder
^f- 4 — 5- — Nozzle or Tuyere Holes

Chain Hingf

Fig. 1
"Vertical Section of the German Alcoho] Light "Alba"

FIG. 2
Wrench for turning
off and fastening the

"Slain-Cock in the
Gasconducting pipe.

ilG.3

Hook for drawing

out the Brake.

< FIG. 4
Brush for cleaning
theBrake-Kpe and
' the Tuyere-Pipe.

Fig. 98.— Vertical Section of the "Alba" Alcohol Light-

strap by the pressure. However this is not material, as by removing
the glass globe the broken mantle can be replaced by a new^ one.

The light is extinguished by closing the main-cock F by drawing

228 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

down the chain attached as shown. The alcohol-brake or regulating
device for controlling the flow of alcohol is very ingenious and effective.
It consists either of brass-wire cloth, wound about a central wire, or of
a perforated brass tube packed with asbestos. The alcohol flows by
gravity slowly through this regulator controlled in addition by a thumb-
screw, and is "gasified " and burned in the mantle. The alcohol-brake
is also used in many alcohol stoves and prevents any danger of ''back-
firing.'' The details of construction are shown in the vertical section of
the ''Alba '' light in Fig. 98.

The German Standard Alcohol Street Lamp. — Another form of
alcohol street light for circumstances where other forms of illumination
are not obtainable, as well as from the point of safety and absence of
smoke or odor, is the Standard light, which has given satisfaction. This
lamp is shown in Fig. 99, p. 230. With regard to the details of the lamp
they may be described as follows: The alcohol is kept in the closed
spirit-basin. From this a small tube leads down to the asbestos wick
or gas-generator. This gas-generator is enclosed in brass netting and
receives the spirit in its lower part. The pressure of the spirit in the
basin continuously pushes a small quantity of spirit through the generator-
tube, which in its upper part is exposed to the heat developed by the
burning spirit lamp. No back-firing is possible, as it is prevented by
the asbestos. In the upper part of the wick the spirit is now transformed
into vapor. This vapor, or spirit-gas, enters the gas-tube leading down
to the burner, keeping the Auer mantle at full heat, and in this manner
the light is produced continuously. To start the lamp a basin is fixed
underneath the gas-generator, and in opening the main-cock (in order
to light the lamp) a small quantity of spirit, just enough to start the
lamp, runs into this small basin. Here it is now lighted. It heats up
the wick and generates and ignites the gas, which shortly afterwards enters
the burner. The lighting can be done by an ordinary match, but where a
number of lamps are used a special lighting instrument is preferable.
To put out the light nothing more is required than to pull down the arm
marked Z, and the light is extinguished at once. From this description
it will be seen that simplicity of construction is one of the vital points
of these lamps, and this is the reason that they burn for months without
requiring any other attention than filling and lighting. The manipula-
tions otherwise necessary in connection with this light are very simple
also. There is only the exchange of the generators or wicks and the
renewing of the Auer mantle once after burning, say about 500 hours,
and this can be done by any one without special knowledge. It may be
stated that the consumption of alcohol in this light is about 1 liter (= 1.056

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT. 229

quarts) in ten burning-hours, and it develops about 70 candle-power of
light. The cost per burning-hour of this light varies \Wth the price of
the alcohol. As a rule the spirit used is about 172° American proof, as
claimed by the maker.

The cost of 95% strength denatured alcohol in Germany is 29.69
cents per U. S. gallon.

Cost of Lighting by Kerosene. — From the tests mentioned on
pages 210 and 211 we find that a gallon of good kerosene burned in a
9-candle-power lamp lasted 87 hours. At a cost of 15 cents per gallon
at retail for kerosene this lamp would cost, for this amount of light on
these figures, about 17/100 of a cent per burning-hour. The kerosene
burned in the 30.8-candle-power lamp lasted 28 hours and 40 minutes.
At a cost of 15 cents per gallon at retail for kerosene the 30.8-candle-
power lamp would cost, for this amount of light about 0.52 cent per
burning-hour.

Kerosene is burned as a vapor by means of a reservoir using 20
pounds pressure and ha\dng a piped system to the incandescent-mantle
lights. Each light has a vapori zing-chamber below it, and once this
has been heated, to start it, the lighting is automatic. As there is, how-
ever, a very tiny hole for the kerosene to be admitted to the heaters, any
dirt occurring in the kerosene will stop these small holes and hence shut
off the lights. Very high efficiencies in candle-power of fight are claimed
for this system.

Portable incandescent-mantle kerosene lamps are made abroad and
are being experimented with in this country. The shape of the mantle
is rather conical and the mesh rather open. The great delicacy of adjust-
ment needed and the almost constant attention required to prevent the
deposition of soot (carbon) on the mantle in these lamps, however, ren-
ders their general use somewhat difficult.

* The Incandescent Welsbach Gaslight. — In the development
of the Welsbach light the results of experiments conducted by Thomas
Drummond in the year 1826 constituted practically the first step in incan-
descent lighting. He used a stick of lime in an oxy hydrogen flame,
producing the ''lime-light" which with various modifications has been
in continuous use practically ever since. With the introduction of uncar-
bureted water-gas a number of devices in the forms of baskets, combs
perforated cylinders, etc., were invented to produce a luminous flame
from this ''blue gas." Typical among these are the lamps of Clammond
and Fohnehjelm.

* The author is indebted to Mr. H. S. Miner, chemist of the Welsbach Company,
for these facts.

230

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Fig. 99. — The Standard Incandescent Alcohol Street Lamp, made by George Stade,

Berlin, Germany.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT. 231

The invention and the perfecting of the incandescent mantle by Dr.
Karl Auer about the year 1880, as already described on page 209, brought
the development of the incandescent gaslight to a successful commercial
basis.

In Fig. 100 is presented a cut of the standard Welsbach lamp, and
in Fig. 101 is shown one of their inverted or "reflex" types of lamp. In
explanation of Fig. 100 it may be said that the Standard Welsbach light
using an 8-inch clear-glass chimney gives practically 100 candle-power
horizontal illumination with a consumption of 4.5 cubic feet per hour
on 21 candle-power water-gas containing about 650 B.T.U., when
burned at 20/10 inches pressure. This produces an efficiency of 22.2
candle-power per cubic foot. This efficiency will vary on different

Fig. 100.— Standard Welsbach Fig. 101.— The Inverted or "Reflex"

Light. Welsbach Lamp.

gases and under different conditions of consumption. The standard used
in these Welsbach-light tests is a 10-candle-power Harcourt pentane
lamp.

The Welsbach reflex inverted light shown in Fig. 101 consumes 3.5
cubic feet of gas per hour, and while the horizontal candle-power is not
so great as in the case of the upright burner, the light below the hori-
zontal is considerably greater, reaching in one photometric test, using
" Reflex " burner, "Reflex " mantle, and 8-inch-deep cone mirror reflector,
as high as 277 candle-power directly beneath the light and from 95 to
230 candle-power at lesser angles compared to the horizontal candle-
power.

With regard to the directions and care needed in using the Wels-
bach light it may be said that the instructions are as follows: The

232 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Bunsen tube should be securely screwed to the fixture-nipple after
the threads of the same have been coated with white lead or soap, and
then the gallery should be slipped over the Bunsen tube. The mantle
should be carefully removed from the box and mounted on the burner.
Then burn off the protecting coating, igniting at the top, and place the
glassware in position. The gas should then be turned on and lighted,
and the gas-adjusting device at the base of the burner should be manipu-
lated until the best light is obtained. The glassware should be removed
occasionally and thoroughly washed and dried, at which time the gallery-
carrying mantle should be taken off the Bunsen tube and any dust re-
moved by blowing upward through the burner. The gallery with the
glassware should then be replaced on the fixture.

As to care in handling the mantle it can be said that on account
of the extreme fragility of the mantle it is necessary at all times
to use the greatest care. The presence of dust in the burner-tube
will cause the mantle to carbonize. Many persons suppose that the
mantle is then worthless. After the dust has been blown out of the
burner, this carbon deposit may be burned off by turning down the gas
with the adjusting device at the base of the burner. Mantles giving a
mellow-white light are most preferable, as they are stronger and maintain
their light-giving qualities for a longer time. It may be stated that the
reasonable burning life of a mantle is 1000 hours.

Acetylene as a Source of Illumination. — Acetylene gas is growing
in importance as a source of illumination for special purposes, such as
for lamps used with automobiles, steam and naphtha launches, and
lighting-plants for hotels and houses. For this reason it has seemed
desirable to compare its uses as an illuminant with alcohol. Acetylene
is also used in the Government lighthouses in our Southern rivers and
bays for range-lights in marking dangerous shoals.

The generation of acetylene gas from calcium carbide is explained
in Chapter VII, and the properties of acetylene compared with other
substances used for fuel and lighting purposes. At the present time
the cost of acetylene is prohibitive for its use for general purposes of
light, heat, and power. There are difficulties not yet wholly overcome
which also prevent such general uses.

In Fig. 102 is shown the Acetylene Hanging Arc Lamp made by
Klemm & Co. It is arranged for four acetylene burners and is furnished
with a clear ground globe or alabaster globe as desired. This lamp is used,
according to the manufacturers, as an indoor lamp for lighting stores
and offices. It is provided with an 18-inch opal reflector and is finished
nickel-plated.

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT. 233

* The cost of lighting depends entirely upon the price paid for the
carbide, which at the present time can be had at retail for S3. 50 per
hundred pounds. The makers claim 5 cubic feet of gas per pound, but

Fig. 102. — Acetylene Hanging Arc Lamp. Made by Klemm & Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa.

in practice it is found that 4J cubic feet is the average yield per pound
at the burner. On this latter basis the gas costs 0.777 cents per cubic
foot.

The efficiency of different makes and different sizes of burners vary.
The best burners of large size yield 48 candle-power per cubic foot con-
sumed. The standard burner generally used for acetylene consumes
J cubic foot per hour and gives 24 candle-power approximately. If a

* From data supplied by Mr. N. Goodyear, manager engineering department of
J. B. Colt Company, New York.

234

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

16-candle-power burner were made, it would cost 0.259 cents per burn-
ing hour to maintain it.

Regarding the quaUties of acetylene the reader is referred to Bulletin
57, Department of Agriculture, State of Pennsylvania, containing a
report '* On the Application of Acetylene Illumination to Country Homes,"
by George Gilbert Pond, Ph.D. Writing from Harrisburg, Pa., regard-

FiG. 103.— Acetylene-gas Generator. Made by J. B. Colt Co., New York City.

ing this report, Mr. John Hamilton, Secretary of Agriculture, says, under
date of December 30, 1899: ''The new illuminant, acetylene, which
has now been tested to a considerable extent, has attracted the atten-
tion of residents in rural districts, and if found to be safe and easily con-
trolled will supply a brilliant and cheap illuminant very much needed. . . .
This department makes no recommendations in the use of acetylene gas,
and only presents the subject for the information of the public, leaving
each individual to judge for himself as to its desirability for his use."

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT.

235

In Fig. 103 is shown a sectional view of the Colt Acetylene Gen-
erator which is of the carbide feed type, the carbide being only fed
as the gas is required. An inspection of this cut shows the method of
feeding the carbide. The feed mechanism is positive and the valve, w^hich
is double, is provided with a rubber seat surrounded with a metal cylinder.
The inner valve descends when working on a clean seat, and makes a
tight joint, which is a distinctive and unique feature of this generator.

Fig. 104.— The Beck-lden Acetyl-
ene Lamp.

Fig. 105. — Sectional View of the
Beck-lden Acetylene Lamp.

The safety devices on the cold-generators are carefully planned and
constructed. Simplicity of operation and efficiency are marked features
of this generator.

The Beck-lden Household Acetylene Lamp. — * The Beck-lden Acetylene
Lamp is shown in Fig. 104, which gives an illustration of it, w^hile
the sectional view of the same lamp, given in Fig. 105, shows the
construction and details of the manner in which the carbide is fed to the

* The makers of this lamp furnish this statement.

236

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

water. Heretofore numerous attempts have been made to construct
acetylene lamps in which the water was fed to the carbide, but until the
above-mentioned lamp was produced acetylene lamps for household
use were in disfavor. The Beck-lden lamp, owing to the fact that it
feeds carbide to the water, precludes any after-generation of acetylene
gas when the feed is stopped. The success with which it has met is due
to this fact. By this process of feeding the lamp can be started or stopped
at will. The carbide used is in a finely granulated condition, being
contained in the urn of the lamp, while the water is in the lower part or
water-fount.

In starting the lamp the screw on the side marked E is turned on.
This permits the carbide to flow downward into the water. There is a

Fig. 106. — Sectional View of Beck-
lden Acetylene Lamp, Separated
for Filling.

Fig. 107. — Sectional View of Water-
fount of Beck-lden Acetylene
Lamp.

plug connected to a small gas-holder or diaphragm located in the top of
the lamp, and as the gas generated by the dropping of the carbide into
the water fills the gas-holder, this plug is raised and closes the feed-
opening, and holds it closed so that no more carbide can fall until the
gas in the holder is nearly used up by passing through the burner. When
this occurs the plug again opens automatically to drop in a small quan-
tity of carbide for the further generation of the gas. In this manner the
operation above outlined is repeated automatically until the shut-off
screw E is turned off, when the remaining gas in the lamp will pass out
at the burner, be consumed in about half a minute, and the light then
goes out. The charge of carbide for this lamp is about IJ pounds, last-
ing from 9 to 10 hours, and furnishes about 40 candle-power of light at
an expense of 1 cent an hour. On a 16-candle-power basis the cost of

ALCOHOL AS AN ILLUMINANT. 237

lighting is said to be approximately J cent per hour. When the carbide
is exhausted it is about like whitewash and pours out readily from the
water-fount. The refilling of the water-fount with fresh water each
time the lamp is filled is as necessary as the placing of more carbide in
the lamp. It is claimed that there is not enough gas in a whole charge
of the lamp to asphyxiate. Different sizes of burners are furnished.
The burning duration of the charge is less the larger the burner used. In
filling the lamp with carbide the top is separated, as shown in Fig. 106,
from the w^ater-fount. Fig. 107 shows the water-fount. This lamp
was accepted by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, having
passed the necessary tests of safety. The lamp is portable and the
quality of light given is like daylight; the lamp when burning is
odorless and free from any soot, smoke, or dirt.

The Electric Incandescent and Arc Lights. — ^This source of illumi-
nation is so well known that a brief description of it will suffice for the
purposes of our comparison with alcohol. Improvements which are being
made in the filaments will it is claimed increase the burning life for the
incandescent lamp to double the present figure, or from about 480 hours
to nearly 1000. Where cheap power for the generating of electricity
prevails as we have indicated, or where conditions warrant, as in our
large cities, this form of illumination has met with a very general and
deserved use. The cost of electric-lighting on a 16-candle-power basis
in very large cities is not over } cent per hour, as the price of electricity
is arranged on what is, in effect, a sliding scale of prices, so that the
larger the use the less is the price paid for it.

This results in a reduction in many cases of from j cent per lamp
hour for a 16-candIe-power-lamp basis to as low as i cent and to' an
even lower price in some instances on this basis.

Summary of Chapter VI.

We shall make no attempt to give a precise comparison of the illumi-
nating value of alcohol compared to the other som^ces that have been
considered. So many factors enter into such a statement that it can
only be made after very careful photometric tests conducted at one time
and under identical conditions. In addition we have neither the cost of
nor the standardized denatured alcohol as yet for such a precise test.

As it will be shown in the next chapter that denatured alcohol \itiates
the atmosphere least of all the open-flame illuminants, besides possess-
ing the other advantages we have mentioned, it will be seen that the
matter of the selling price of denatured alcohol, while of very great

238 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

importance, will probably not prevent some use of it for illuminating
purposes, no matter what it is.

In case of a reasonably low price, if it could sell for 25 cents per gallon
for instance, denatured alcohol could actively compete with kerosene,
the illuminant which it appears destined to replace, just as in this country,
previous to 1860, alcohol, as has been shown, replaced the cheaper candle
and the whale-oil lamp.

CHAPTER VII.

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL COMPARED WITH THE OTHER
USUAL LIQUID FUELS.

The Williams Bomb Calorimeter. The Thermal Efficiency of a Fuel. The
Fuel Value of Denatured Alcohol. Calculations of the Volume of Air Necessary
for Complete Combustion of Alcohol, Gasoline, Kerosene, and Crude Petroleum.
Ratio of Prices of Various Fuels. Ratio of Vitiation of the Atmosphere by Com-
bustion of these Fuels. Table of the Calorific Value of the Usual Liquid Fuels.
Alcohol Heating and Cooking Apparatus and Stoves.

Before considering the subject proper it may be of interest to indi-
cate in what manner the fuel value of any combustible, be it a solid or
a liquid fuel, may best be determined, as well as to briefly describe a
form of bomb calorimeter recently perfected by Mr. Henry J. Williams,
of Boston, that is to-day in all probability the most convenient and
reliable instrument yet devised for obtaining such results with accuracy.*

The instrument is shown in Fig. 108, which is a vertical section of
the apparatus with all parts in position for making a combustion of
coal. Fig. 2 shows a plan of the bomb. Fig. 3 shows the upper por-
tion of the casing of the electric stirrer. Fig. 4 shows a plan of the
calorimeter and water-jacket with attachments for firing. Fig. 5 shows
the bomb in position in the calorimeter-can and its connection to the
automatic electric contact for firing. Fig. 6 shows the calorimeter-can
and cover. Figs. 7, 8, and 9 show the platinum crucible and details of
the platinum crucible-stand.

The Williams Bomb Calorimeter represents the closed type of calori-
meters in which the combustion takes place in an atmosphere of

* The perfecting of this instrument was originally started in 1895 with the
late Prof. Silas W. Holman, of Boston, to whom full credit is due for suggesting
many valuable features of the apparatus. Due acknowledgment is also made to
Prof. Peter Schwamb, of the Mass. Institute of Technology, who, in 1897, designed
the form of bomb that, with but slight modifications, has been adopted.

239

240

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

oxygen gas. The bomb is made of aluminum bronze, which transmits
heat much more rapidly than steel. It is spherical in form, with the
exception of a short neck through which it is charged and by means of
which it can be sealed. The spherical form secures the maximum strength
and capacity attainable, with the minimum weight and bulk of metal,

Fig. 3

Fig. 1

Fig. 108.— The Williams Bomb Calorimeter.

SO that the bomb requires less water to cover it, owing to its compact
form, than if it had any other shape.

The bomb is closed by a lid, which is pressed directly downward by
means of a nut which screws into the neck of the bomb and which bears
upon a restricted area of the convex upper surface of the lid quite near
its centre. The outer edge of this lid, underneath, where the area is
greater, is brought into crushing contact with a light ring washer of tin
resting upon a flat shoulder within the neck of the bomb. All twisting
of the lid is thus avoided and all binding due to the crushing of the

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

241

washer is prevented, while a tight joint is invariably secured with but
little effort. A light check-valve, which the interior pressure within
the bomb forces upward when the oxygen is shut off, serves to automat-
ically confine the gas. The check-valve and closing-nuts replace the
long projecting stem or pin-valve of the Mahler bomb, and they are so

:fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 109. — Details of the Williams Bomb Calorimeter.

disposed as to make it possible to completely submerge the bomb, so
that no heat developed within it can escape measurement.

The calorimeter-can has a side-chamber adapted to exactly fit the
casing of the electric stirrer, and a cover which effectually prevents escape
of heat due to evaporation of liquid from the surface.

The shape of the bomb and calorimeter-can are such that 1500 grams
of water suffice to completely cover the bomb, an amount which is from
32 to 37 per cent less than is required to only partially cover the Mahler

242 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

bomb. In consequence the range of temperature obtained by the com-
bustion of a given weight of coal is much greater than Mahler obtains,
being 4 degrees where he would obtain only from 2.52 to 2.72 degrees,
and the small but unavoidable errors incidental to the reading of ther-
mometers are thereby greatly reduced.

The outside of the bomb is nickel-plated, while its interior walls are
very heavily coated with pure gold, which protects them perfectly against
corrosion and furnishes a sound and durable lining which transmits
heat far more quickly and perfectly than enamel. In making a calorim-
eter test of coal the finely pulverized coal is compressed in the form of
a little disc in which a deep slot can be cut to facilitate its adjustment
to the fuse-wire. The platinum crucible-stand has a deep crucible, across
the top of which the loop of platinum fuse-wire hangs, upon which the
slotted lump of coal, weighing exactly 1 gram, can be slipped. From this
it cannot get disconnected, for it is supported by the sides of the crucible.
When all adjustments, which are readily made, are completed, the cru-
cible-stand is lowered bodily into the bomb, which is firmly held in a
screw-clamp, and the upper extremity of the crucible-stand is adjusted
to its side in electrical contact with an insulated knob, outside of the bomb,
through which an electric current may be conveyed to the fuse-wire.

The arrangements are such that nothing can disturb the integrity of
the adjustments when they are once made, so that miss-fires are of very
rare occurrence. Moreover the coal being in one piece, the crucible of
deep form, and the crucible-stand entirely in the bottom of the bomb,
losses of fuel by scattering when oxygen is admitted, or by spilling,
cannot occur.

The stirring-apparatus consists of an electric motor, held in position
on a rod above the calorimeter, whose shaft, provided with propeller-
blades, is sufficiently prolonged to reach to the bottom of the calorimeter-
can. The shaft revolves within a light metal casing, open above and
below, in such manner that a rapid stream of water is drawn up from
under the bomb and is thrown out above and around it. The stirring is
rapid and perfect and requires no attention whatever, while the speed of
the propellers is sufficiently constant to have made it possible to de'ter-
mine with the greatest accuracy the exact frictional effect of the stirrer
and to apply to the determinations the proper correction therefor.

Finally the water-jacket which surrounds the calorimeter not only
has the usual outside covering of felt and enamel cloth, but its top has
also been provided with a heavy flat cover of non-conductive material,
BO that the space within which the operations and measurements are
conducted is absolutely protected against the influence of the surroundings,

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL. 243

and is only exposed to such influences as can definitely and accurately
be known. To make doubly sure of this the water-jacket is provided
with an electric stirrer of its own, so that its true temperature at all
times is no longer open to doubt.

The bomb having been charged, placed within the calorimeter-can,
covered with a known weight of water, both covers put on and the ther-
mometers adjusted, the two electric stirrers are set in motion and the
stirring takes place automatically. The influence of the water-jacket
upon the calorimeter is carefully observed and when it is found to be
uniform the charge is fired. The rise of temperature during combustion
is noted through a series of readings until the maximum is reached and
the readings are continued after the maximum, to determine the after-
influence of the water-jacket upon the calorimeter. Proper correction is
made for the amount of heat introduced through the fuse-wire, the melt-
ing of which is timed with an accurate stop-watch, from the dropping of
the needle of an ammeter placed in circuit.

After the combustion the bomb is removed from the calorimeter,
placed in the screw-clamp, the products of combustion drawn out and
analyzed, if desired, to prove that the combustion was complete, the acids
formed by the combustion washed down and carefully drawn out, and
the nitric and sulphuric acids formed determined by appropriate methods.
A somewhat elaborate calculation is now required to correct the deter-
mination for the influence of the surroundings, acids formed, fuse and
stirrer, but these corrections can all be made with the utmost precision
by calcula'tion from the very accurate and reliable data which have been
obtained. In short a result is obtained which accurately and positively
indicates the true calorific value of the fuel, without appreciable loss
of any kind, provided that the accuracy of all the instruments used has
been carefully verified.

The above instrument therefore furnishes the means of determining
with very great accuracy the true calorific power of combustibles, it being
assumed, of course, that all the precautions which it is necessary to take
in securing reliable samples have been observed.

This same bomb calorimeter is equally well adapted to determine
with accuracy the calorific value or heating-power of liquid fuels, such as
alcohol, gasoline, kerosene, fuel-oil, or other combustible liquids, but the
manipulation of the instrument has to be slightly modified to suit the
particular fuel operated upon.

A few of the more noteworthy features in the construction of the
bomb calorimeter above described are : That the bomb is nearly spherical
in form, that it is completely submerged and incorrodible, that, owing

244 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

to its shape, a minimum amount of water is required to cover it, and
that the calorimeter chamber is completely protected from outside influ-
ences. Moreover, all operations being either automatic or under full
control, the readings of the thermometers are thoroughly reliable, because
they are not altered by influences about which little or nothing can be
accurately known, as is too often the case in the use of other calorimeters.
It is not too much to say for this instrument, therefore, that it is justly
entitled, on its merits, to be considered far superior to any other bomb
calorimeter yet devised, both in convenience of handling and in accuracy,
and it is equally well adapted for determining the calorific value of any
combustible substance of whatsoever nature, be it a solid, a liquid, a
gas, or a food.

The usually accepted unit of heat, the French calorie, is used in the
calculations, this being the amount of heat required to raise the tem-
perature of one kilogram of water one degree Centigrade. French
calories can be reduced to British thermal units by simple multiplication
by the factor 1.8.

The values obtained in an accurate bomb calorimeter, which is the
closed form of calorimeter, indicate the total or actual heating power of
the fuel per pound or per kilogram, but we must bear in mind that
the figures so obtained cannot, for a number of reasons, ever be realized
in practice. We must discriminate, therefore, between the actual calorific
power as determined by the bomb and the realizable calorific power
which we should expect to reach in practice. With liquids this difference
is most important.

In the bomb, on the one hand, practically the whole of the water
produced during the combustion, as well as any water of dilution present
in the combustible (such as in denatured alcohol) , is changed into steam
or vaporized and then recondenses, and while doing so gives out its
latent heat, which is included in the measurement. In practice, on the
other hand, when the liquid is burned, this vapor seldom if ever escapes
at a lower temperature than 212° F., and the latent heat of vaporization
is necessarily lost. As with liquids the heat of vaporization of the water
is generally a very large quantity, it is preferable to calculate the amount
of latent heat lost during this vaporization into the corresponding number
of calories, which are then deducted from the total calories found by
calorimeter test. The remaining calories or their equivalent British
thermal units then represent the available heat-power or calorific value
of the fuel as it is used in practice.

The Thermal EflSciency of a Fuel. — The thermal efficiency obtained
from a fuel is the ratio of the heat-units .expended in useful work to the

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

245

original heat-units available in such fuel. If the greatest thermal eflB-
ciency is to be secured two essential conditions must be complied with:

First. In the internal-combustion engine or motor the denatured
alcohol or other fuel must he completely consumed.

Second. The temperature of the exhaust-gases must he as low as
possible.

This subject will be more fully discussed in Chapter VIII, where the
use of denatured alcohol for power will be taken up.

The Fuel Value of Denatured Alcohol. — A comparison of the
respective calorific values of commercial (ethyl) alcohol of 95 per cent
strength by volume and of denatured alcohol of a specified composition
is given in the following table.

Fuel Values of Alcohols, Theoretical and as Obtained by Calorimeter
Tests. (Henry J. "Williams.)

Fuel.

A mailable B.T.U. per Pound. All Water
Vaporized from and at 212" Fahr.

Theory.

By Calorimeter.

Commercial 95% alcohol (ethyl )

10,769
10,551

10,504
10,355

Denatured* alcohol

Commercial alcohol bought for 95 per cent ethyl alcohol by volume
proved to be only 94.5 per cent alcohol by volume, which, by Smithsonian
tables, for a specific gravity of 0.8180 at 15°.5 C, corresponds to only
91.5 per cent absolute alcohol by weight. The theoretical calorific value
of this commercial alcohol was calculated as follows.

* As the U. S. regulations for denatured alcohol had not been issued at the
■date of this writing, the composition of the denatured alcohol here mentioned
had to be arbitrarily decided upon. It was made up as follows:

100 liters commercial ethyl alcohol 95% (Druggists*)

10 " commercial wood alcohol 95%

i liter pure pyridine (E. Merck & Co.'s)

Corresponding to a percentage composition by weight of —

90.40% commercial ethyl alcohol 95%

9.04% commercial wood alcohol 95%

0.56% pure pyridine ^ (E. Merck & Co.'s)

The specific gravity of this denatured alcohol was 0.8192 at 60° F.

1 Pure pyridine was used because the commercial pyridine, such as is used abroad, was not
-vailabb.

246 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Composition on the Basis '

of 1 Gran:!.

Carbon 0.4776

Hydrogen 0 .0796, which by combustion forms water, 0.7164 gm.

Water 0.3578

0.9150
Water of dilution 0 . 0850

1.0000
We therefore have:

Carbon 0.4776 gm. X 8080« = 3859«.0

Hydrogen.. 0.0796 gm. X 34500« = 2746«.2

6605«.2 calories obtained by
combustion.
From which we must deduct the calories required
to vaporize all the water present in the form of
steam.

Total water = 1.1 592 gms. X 537° «= 622.5

5982^.7x1.8 = 10,769 B.T.U.
per pound.

The theoretical calorific values of denatured alcohol of the composition
given above are obtained by an entirely similar though more complex
calculation.

Commercial wood alcohol is of very variable as well as uncertain
composition. It invariably contains large quantities of acetone as well
as other impurities which greatly affect its heating value. Unless the
quantity of all of these is known the theoretical calculation can only be
of casual interest.

Analysis showed that the commercial wood alcohol used had prac-
tically the following composition:

^ Methyl alcohol 77 per cent by weight

Acetone 15 '' '' '' '^

Water 8 '' '* '' "

100

and that the theoretical calorific power of absolute methyl alcohol is,
by calculation, found to be 8248 B.T.U. per lb., while that of acetone is
12,407. We therefore have:

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL. 247

0.77 X 8248 =6351 B.T.U.

0.15X12407 =1861 " ^

8212 "
LessO.OSX 537X1.8= 77 "

8135 B.T.U. per lb. =theoretical calorific power of commer-
cial wood alcohol.

The theoretical calorific power of pure pyridine being 14,424 B.T.U.
per lb., we should have for denatured alcohol of the above composition:

Ethyl alcohol, 90 . 40% X 10769 = 9735 B.T.U.
Wood alcohol, 9.04% X 8135= 735 "
Pyridine, 0. 56% X 14424= 81 "

= 10551 B.T.U. perlb. =theoretical calorific power of
the denatured alcohol
specified.

From what has preceded and from theoretical calculations it would
appear that the low fuel value of denatured alcohol, as compared with
gasoline, kerosene, and fuel oil, were unfavorable to alcohol. On this
phase of the subject attention is called to a table of M. Henri Dupays, in
the Engineering Magazine of February, 1904, where the following values
for different combustibles, obtained in a Mahler calorimeter, are given:

Substance. Calorific Power.

* Denatured alcohol 5,906 calories per kilo (10,631 J B.T.U. per lb.)

1 50% carbureted alcohol 7.878 " *' "(14,180 " " *' )

Light petroleum essence (mean)... . 10,500 " " *' (18,900 " " ")

American crude oil 10,913 " " "(19,643 " "")

American refined petroleum 11,047 " " "(19,884 " «< w ^

And M. Dupays remarks: '^ These figures certainly do not appear favor-
able for alcohol. On the other hand, we must remember that, owing to
the lower heat generated by the combustion of alcohol, a motor using

* This denatured alcohol was made up as follows :

100 liters pure ethyl alcohol (probably commercial 95% alcohol)

10 liters methyl alcohol containing i „ _ , , ,

^^ 1 0.5 gram heavy benzol

t Carbureted alcohol is denatured alcohol to which a hydrocarbon has been
added in varying proportions.

J It should be noted in the above table that no mention is made of what be-
comes of the water-vapor resulting from the combustion, whether it is condensed
or remains in the form of vapor. As shown (p. 248), this might affect the results
over 1100 B.T.U. or even more, and it should be stated, as these results seem to
be much higher than we should expect.

248 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

that fuel will run more smoothly than if one of the other substances has
been employed. Further, a kilogram of alcohol requires less air for
complete combustion than does a kilogram of mineral oil (petroleum) :
according to Ringelmann, 1894, 1.4, and according to Sorel, 1.3 to 1.5,
the theoretical amount. This decreases the heat losses in the exhaust-
gases (of motors, engines, etc.) and gives a higher thermal efficiency."

In the theoretical calculation for denatured alcohol it may be of
interest to note that the quantity of heat required to drive out, in the
form of steam, all the water formed during the combustion of the various
components is a very large quantity.

The summarized loss of latent heat not available for doing work is
shown by the following calculation to be for the denatured alcohol
(pp. 245-247) :

90.40% of 622^5 for ethyl alcohol =562^7

9.04% of 583^2 for commercial wood alcohol = 52^7
0.56% of 305«.9 for pure pyridine = V.7

617M
617.1X1.8 = 1111 B.T.U. to vaporize all the water formed.

Calculations of the Volume of Air Necessary for Complete Com-
bustion of Alcohol, Gasoline, Kerosene, and Crude Petroleum. —

We may assume for the purposes of this discussion that these bodies have
the chemical composition indicated by the formulae given below:

Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH

Methyl alcohol CH3OH

Gasoline (hexane) C6H14

Kerosene (decane) C10H22

Crude petroleum C11H24

This latter is variable in composition. In general it contains about
85 per cent carbon and 15 per cent of hydrogen by weight, but its ele-
mentary composition gives no idea of the variety of hydrocarbons con-
tained in it.

If we show the complete combustion of these different fuels by means
of chemical equations the results will be indicated as follows :

Sthyl Alcohol

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

C2H5OH

3O2

2CO2 +

3H2O.

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL. 249

By this equation we see that 96 parts of oxygen by weight are neces-
sary for the complete combustion of 46 parts, by weight, of ethyl alcohol,
and by this combustion there are produced 88 parts, by weight, of carbon
dioxide and 54 parts, by weight, of water.

As the atmosphere consists of 20.9 per cent by volume and 23.1 per

96 X 100
cent by weight of oxygen, it is seen that from — we find 415 parts,

by weight, of air are necessary for the complete combustion of 46 parts,

by weight, of absolute ethyl alcohol.

Hence we find that one (1) part of absolute ethyl alcohol by weight

415
requires — , or about nine (9) parts of air by weight, for its complete

or perfect combustion.

Methyl Alcohol

Oyxgen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

2CH3OH

3O2

2CO2 +

4H2O.

From this equation we find that 64 parts, by weight, of absolute
methyl alcohol require 96 parts, by weight, of oxygen for its perfect
combustion, or one (1) part of absolute methyl alcohol, by weight, re-
quires six and one half (6.5) parts of air by weight.

Gasoline

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

2C6Hu

I9O2

I2CO2

I4H2O.

172

608

528

252

In this case 172 parts, by weight, of gasoline need 608 parts, by

weight, of oxygen for perfect combustion, or 172 parts, by weight, of

608 X 1 00
gasoline require — — — — 'or 2632 parts, by weight, of air and 1 part, bv

2632
weight, of gasoline requires — :^ or 15.3 parts, by weight, of air.

Kerosene Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water

2C10H22 + 3IO2 = 2OCO2 + 22H2O.

284 992 880 396

Hence in the case of kerosene we find that one (1) part by weight
requires about fifteen and one tenth (15.1) parts of air by weight for
perfect combustion.

Crude Petroleum

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

C11H24

I7O2

IICO2 +

I2H2O.

156

544

484

216

250 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

By theory also we see that one (1) part of crude petroleum by weight
needs about fifteen and one tenth (15,1) parts of air by weight for com-
plete combustion.

To find the number of cubic feet of vapor from a given weight of any
of these liquid fuels.

Find first the vapor density, that is, the specific gravity of the sub-
stance in the state of vapor referred to hydrogen as a unit.

It is a well-known chemical fact that the vapor density is one half
the molecular weight.

Multiplying the vapor density by the weight of an equal volume of
hydrogen, as for example a liter or a cubic foot, we find the weight of
a liter or a cubic foot of the vapor. In the case of ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH,
the molecular weight is 2X12+5+16 + 1=46, the vapor density conse-
quently is 23. The weight of a cubic foot of hydrogen is 2.54 gms.,
that of alcohol vapor 2.54X23=58.36 gms. considered as a vapor under
standard conditions; that is, at zero degrees of the Centigrade scale and
760 mm. barometric pressure.

Hence in the case of 1 cubic foot of absolute liquid ethyl alcohol we
find the number of cubic feet of vapor it will produce, by theory, as
follows:

One (1) cubic foot absolute ethyl alcohol will weigh 49.61 lbs. One
(1) pound avoirdupois = 453.6 gms. Therefore 49.61 lbs. X453.6 =22,503
gms., which is the weight of 1 cubic foot of absolute ethyl alcohol.

22,503 divided by 58.36 = 388 cubic feet of absolute ethyl alcohol
vapor (considered as a vapor at 0° C. and 760 mm. barometric pressure)
from 1 cubic foot of absolute liquid ethyl alcohol.

As the above calculation is made for alcohol vapor at a temperature
of 0° C. and 760 mm. barometric pressure, it is necessary to correct it to
the boiling temperature of absolute ethyl alcohol, 78.4° C. (for the pur-
poses of this discussion, as the alcohol will be vaporized in the internal-
combustion engine), which correction is effected by the well-known
formula

F:7'::273:273 + 78.4 or 388:7': : 273: 351.4 =499.

Hence one cubic foot of liquid absolute ethyl alcohol will furnish 499
cubic feet of vapor at the boiling-point of absolute ethyl alcohol, 78°.4 C.
As from the preceding equation one part of absolute ethyl alcohol by
weight requires nine (9) parts of air by weight for complete combustion,
we find that one cubic foot or 49.61 lbs. of absolute ethyl alcohol require
49.61X9 or 446 lbs. of air for complete combustion; hence 499 cubic feet
of vapor of absolute ethyl alcohol require 7113 cubic feet of air (from

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

251

446 -^ 0.0627, the weight in pounds avoirdupois of one cubic foot of air
at 78.4° C.) for complete combustion, or 7113-^499= about 14.25 cubic
feet of air to 1 cubic foot of absolute alcohol vapor, for complete com-
bustion, at the temperature of boiling alcohol, or 78.4° C. A graphic
representation of the volume of oxygen needed to secure perfect com-
bustion of a given volume of either of these fuels is shown by the follow-
ing equations:

Ethyl Alcohol

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

1
CsHjOH

= 2

1
COa

+ 3

1
H-O

This equation shows in the case of ethyl alcohol that one volume of
alcohol vapor requires three volumes of oxygen, or about fourteen and
three tenth volumes of air for perfect combustion, while there are pro-
duced two volumes of carbon dioxide and three volumes of water in the
form of steam.

In the same way we may represent the volumes of oxygen required
in the case of these other fuels, and from this figure multiplied by 4.78
we obtain the volume of air requisite for perfect combustion in each
case. These different cases are shown as follows:

Methyl Alcohol

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

1
CH30H

+ 3

= 2

1
CO,

4-4

H,0

Water

Showing that one volume of methyl alcohol-vapor requires one and one
half (1.5) volumes of oxygen, or about seven and two tenth (7.2)
volumes of air, for complete combustion.

Gasoline

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

+19

= 12

1
CO,

+ 14

From which graphic representation we find that one (1) volume of gaso-
line-vapor requires nine and one half (9.5) volumes of oxygen, or forty-
five and four tenths (45.4) volumes of air, for its complete combustion.

252 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Kerosene Oxygen Carbon Dioxide

Water

+31

=20

+22

By which equation it is seen that one (1) volume of kerosene vapor
requires fifteen and one half (15.5) volumes of oxygen, or seventy-four
(74) volumes of air, for its perfect combustion.

Crude Petroleum

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

1
1

+ 17

=11

CO,

+ 12

1
.H.,0

Using this graphic representation we find from this equation that one
volume of crude petroleum-vapor requires seventeen volumes of oxygen,
or about eighty-one and three tenth (81.3) volumes of air, for its perfect
combustion.

The U. S. regulations prescribe the following formula for completely
denatured alcohol (see Appendix, this book, p. 385) :

100 parts, by volume, of ethyl alcohol (not less than 180° proof) .
10 ^' ^' *' approved methyl alcohol,

i part '^ " " petroleum, or coal-tar benzine.

(For copy U. S. Specifications, see Circular No. 680, Chapter IX, pp.
352-354, this book.)

* For example, using gallons in the above formula we have a mixture
containing in 100 gallons approximately OOJ of ethyl alcohol, 9 of methyl
alcohol, and i of benzine. This corresponds to 81.45 gallons absolute
ethyl alcohol X 6.61 lbs. = 538.38 lbs. alcohol. The 9 gallons approved
methyl alcohol X 6.916 lbs. = 62.24 lbs.

As 100 c.c. such approved methyl alcohol must contain an average

of 20 grams of acetone and other substances estimated as acetone, the

20 X 100
percent of these substances estimated as acetone will be — — — = 24.08

per cent by weight. Therefore the 9 gallons of approved methyl alcohol
consist, approximately, of 62.24— 14.98 = 47^26 lbs. of approved methyl

* While this calculation is based on a theoretical assumption of the precise quan-
tities of the various substances composing completely denatured alcohol of 180°
proof, or 90 per cent by volume in strength, it is believed that it will be substantially
true in practice.

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL. 253

alcohol of 85.66 per cent by weight = 40.48 lbs. absolute methyl alcohol
and 14.98 lbs. of acetone. The half-gallon of petroleum benzine will

weigh ^r^ ^ = 3.33 lbs. The complete combustion of acetone

is shown by theory from the equation

Acetone Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water

CsHeO ^ + 402 = 3C02 + 3H2O.
58 128 132 54

From this equation it is seen that one part of acetone by weight requires

2.2 parts of oxygen, and therefore "1» — =9.52 parts of air by weight

for its complete combustion. This equation also shows that the com-
plete combustion of one part of acetone by weight produces 2.27 parts, by
weight, of carbon dioxide. Hence in 100 gallons of this completely dena-
tured alcohol we have 538.38+40.48 + 14.98+3.33 = 597.17, or 597 lbs. in
round numbers of combustible matter or fuel, requiring from the preced-
ing equations 5302 lbs. of air for complete combustion, as follows:

Absolute ethyl alcohol 538 . 38 X 9 =4845 . 42 lbs. of air

Absolute methyl alcohol 40.48X 6.5 = 263.12" " "

Acetone 14.98X 9.52= 142.61 " " '*

Petroleum benzine (taken as gasoline) 3.33X15.3 = 50.95 "" "

100 gallons, or 694 lbs., of completely denatured alcohol require 5302 . 10 lbs. of air
Or 1 lb. requires 7.64 lbs. of air, or 1.764 lbs. of oxygen.

The carbon dioxide produced from the complete combustion, by
theory, of the 100 gallons of completely denatured alcohol mentioned is
found from the preceding chemical equations, as follows:

Absolute ethyl alcohol 538.38 lbs. X 1 .91 = 1028.31 lbs. carbon dioxide

Absolute methyl alcohol 40.48 " xl.37= 55.46 " " "

Acetone 14.98 " X2.27= 34.00 " " "

Petroleum benzine (taken as gas-
oline) 3.33 " X3.06= 10.19" "

100 gals., or 694 lbs., of completely denatured alcohol = 11 27. 96 " " "

Hence 1 lb. of such completely denatured alcohol produces 1.625 lbs. carbon
dioxide when complete combustion occurs.

In case the coal-tar benzine, which can also be used, is employed as
one of the denaturants by the U. S. regulations as an alternative to the
petroleum benzine, the quantity of air required for the complete combus-
tion by theory of half a gallon of it in the above example is very close
to that required for the petroleum benzine. This is because the former,
boiling between 150° C. and 200° C. consists largely of commercial toulene

254

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

and xylene, with possibly some naphthalene dissolved and some slight
sulphur impurity. Calculations based on the assumption that such ben-
zine consisted largely of toluene and xylene give the following results
by theory for complete combustion expressed in the form of chemical
equations :

Toluene

C7H8- +

Xylene
2C8Hio +

212

Oxygen
9O2

288

Oxygen
2IO2
672

Carbon Dioxide

7CO2

308

Carbon Dioxide
I6CO2
704

Water
+ 4H2O,

Water
+ IOH2O,

180

from which it is seen that one part by weight of toluene requires 3.13
parts of oxygen, or 13.54 parts of air by weight, and one part by weight
of xylene requires 3.17 parts of oxygen, or 13.72 parts of air by weight,
by theory, for complete combustion. Hence in the calculation for the
complete combustion of the completely denatured alcohol above, the coal-
tar benzine is quite close to the petroleum benzine and is practically the
same.

Note. — On December 10, 1906, since the above was written, an amendment to
the U. S. regulations by Circular No. 686 was issued, permitting the use of methyl
alcohol and pyridine bases, as denaturants, by the following formula:

"To every 100 parts by volume of ethyl alcohol of the desired proof (not less
than 180°) there shall bo added two parts by volume of approved methyl alcohol
and one half of one part by volume of approved pyridine bases — for example, to
every 100 gallons of ethyl alcohol (of not less than 180° proof) there shall be added
two gallons of approved methyl alcohol and one half gallon of approved pyridin
bases."

Circular No. 686 is given in full in Chapter IJK and also in the U. S. regula-
tions in the Appendix of this book.

The theoretical B.T.U. in one pound of such completely denatured alcohol of
180° proof, mentioned in Circular No. 686, calculated from the preceding equations,
is about 10,000.

For purposes of illumination, the ratio of the vitiation of the atmosphere by
this completely denatured alcohol of Circular No. 686 corresponds substantially to
that given for the U. S. formula just described.

* Neither coal-tar benzol nor ergin, the latter also a coal-tar product,
have been used in the United States for internal-combustion engines,
their cost being prohibitive for such purpose.

In Germany ergin, which is much preferred to benzol, is consid-
ered safer, and is cheaper than benzol.

* Statement furnished by The Otto Gas Engine Works of Philadelphia, Pa.

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL. 255

Ergin has a specific gravity of 0.90, flashes at 95° F., and its boiling-
point is above 212° F. In internal-combuption engines it can be used
very much like alcohol, in that it will stand a very high compression, up
to 190 lbs. per square inch.

Ratio of Prices of these Various Fuels. — In comparing the ratio of
the prices of these various fuels, it may be stated that the following table
probably represents the average price, the highest-priced being given
first:

1. Benzol; 5. Kerosene,

2. Ergin, 6. Fuel oil,*

3. Denatured alcohol, 7. Crude petroleum.

4. Gasoline,

The choice of a fuel is not wholly dependent upon the price, as in
case of denatured alcohol it will be shown that it is safe, hygienic, and
that any one can use it; while in the case of these other fuels mentioned
the exhaust-gases from the engine or motor are apt to be detrimental
to health, and in case of fire at sea or on the land water will not help
to put it out. As gasoline, kerosene, and crude petroleum do not mix
with water, a fire will merely spread, as these fuels will float and burn
on water. In the case of denatured alcohol, however, as it will easily
mix with water, any fire which might accidentally occur is therfeore
readily extinguished.

Denatured alcohol when burned fouls the atmosphere much less than
any of these other liquid fuels we have mentioned.

The exhaust-gases from an alcohol-engine or motor are cooler and
not detrimental to health, as is very apt to be the case with gasoline and
other hydrocarbon fuels.

The ratio of air necessary for the complete combustion of all the
above fuels should be somewhat exceeded in practice over the above
theoretical calculations, in order to be sure the fuel is burned as com-
pletely as the conditions will admit.

The more imperfect the combustion the more wasteful is. the per-
formance of the engine or motor, and the liability of deposits of soot
(blackening) in the cylinder is greatly increased if the amount of air
introduced is not enough in the case of fuels other than alcohol.
With denatured alcohol an insufficient amount of air entails a great loss
of mechanical efficiency in the engine or motor, and liability to formation

* Fuel oil, while oftentimes crude petroleum, ,is usually a residue from which
the lighter portions have been separated.

256

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

of products, through incomplete combustion, which may corrode (rust)
the cyUnder and exhaust- valves.

In Germany this latter condition has not been seriously encountered.
In France, where the law requires wood alcohol to be present in much
larger amount in the denatured alcohol, some complaints have arisen
from this source.

In order to deduce some practical results from the preceding equa-
tions a table is here given showing the* volume of air by theory required
for complete combustion of given amounts of various fuels, with
exception of benzol and ergin, whose high cost compared to the other
fuels precludes their use.

Table Showing Volume of Air, b? Theory, Required for Complete
Combustion of Given Amounts of Fuels.

Kind of Fuel.

Air

Required

per

per U. S.
Gallon of

Pound of

Fuel.

Cu. Ft.

99.87

694

200.0

1,156

197.4

1,293

201.3

1,389

201.3

1,389

Air

Required

per Cubic

Foot of

Fuel.
Cu. Ft.

* U. S. completely denatured alcohol,

180^ proof

72 ' gasoline

135 F., fire-test kerosene

t Fuel oil

Crude petroleum, average Penna

5,193

8,572

9,684

10,409

* See page 253.

t Fuel oil is taken as of the same elementary composition as crude petroleum or 85 per cent
of carbon and 15 per cent of hydrogen by weight.

For specific gravities and weights used in calculating above table
see table, p. 258.

From the above table the markedly less amount of air required for
the complete combustion of the denatured alcohol, compared to other
usual liquid fuels, is readily apparent. Even absolute ethyl alcohol
only requires about 117.6 cubic feet per pound for complete or perfect
combustion. This feature is a decided advantage in case of denatured
alcohol. ■

It will also be of interest to compare acetylene gas with these other
fuel substances, and for this purpose it is thus mentioned in the next
section of this chapter.

Ratio of Vitiation of the Atmosphere by Combustion of these
Fuels. — As the use of acetylene gas generated for small capacities for
lighting purposes from calcium carbide is attaining quite a degree of
importance for some speciaf uses, it is interesting to ascertain the ratio

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

257

of air by weight necessary for the complete combustion of acetylene
This is found from the equation

Acetylene Gas

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

2C2H2

5O2

4CO2 +

2H2O,

160

176

from which we find that 3 parts, by weight, of oxygen, or about 13 parts,
by weight, of air are required for the perfect combustion of one part, by
weight, of acetylene gas. In such combustion there are produced from
one part, by weight, of acetylene gas about 3.38 parts, by weight, of car-
bon dioxide.

In order to show the weight of oxygen required, and the weight of
carbon dioxide formed, for the combustion of the same weight of each
of these fuels the following table is given.

In this table the ratio of vitiation of the atmosphere given is deduced
from the weight of carbon dioxide produced, in each case, from the same
weight of each fuel.

Table Showing Weight of Oxygen Required and Weight of Carbon Dioxide
Produced by the Perfect Combustion of Each of the Fuels Named* and
THE Ratio of Vitiation of the Atmosphere.

Kinds of Fuel.

Denatured alcohol 180^ proof *,

72' gasoline

135^ F., fire-test kerosene . . . .,

Fuel oil t

Crude petroleum

Acetylene gas

Coal gas

Pounds of

Oxygen for

One Pound of

Fuel.

1.764

3.53

3.49

3.487

3.076

2.793

Pounds of

Carbon

Dioxide

Produced per

Pound of Fuel.

Ratio of

Vitiation of the

Atmosphere.

1.625

3.070

3.098

3.102

3.38

2.18

100
188
190
191
191
208
134

Note. — One pound of acetylene gas = 13. 74 cubic feet.

Specific gravity = 0 . 90 (referred to air).
One pound of coal gas =31 .0 cubic feet.

Specific gravity = 0 . 40 (referred to air).

* See page 253.

t Fuel oil is taken as of the same elementary composition as crude petroleum or C11H24.

In the above table the weight of carbon dioxide produced from one
pound of denatured alcohol 180° U. S. proof is taken as unity, or 1(X),
and it is the lowest of these fuels in ratio of vitiation of the atmosphere.

The denatured alcohol therefore fouls the atmosphere much less
than these other fuels when burned in lamps, stoves, or used in explosive
types of engines. This fact is of marked advantage in the case of alcohol.

258

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The following table of comparison of th^se fuels is given as being of
convenience in matters of reference.

Table Showing the Specific Gravity, Degrees Beaume, Flashing-point, and
Weight per U. S. Gallon and Cubic Foot of Certain Fuels.

Kind of Fuel.

Ethyl alcohol 90 per cent, or 180'

U. S. proof

Ethyl alcohol 94 per cent, or 188°

tj. S. proof

Ethyl alcohol 95 per cent, or 190°

U. S. proof

Ethyl alcohol, absolute or 200' U. S.

proof

* Gasoline 76^ Beaums

* Gasoline 72^ Beaume

* Kerosene 135° F., fire test

* Kerosene 150^ F., fire test

Fuel oil

Crude petroleum, average Penna ...
Ergin

Pounds

Specific
Gravity.

Degrees
Beaum6.

Flashing-
point,
Degrees F.

in One

Gallon,

U.S.

Stand.

0.8339

58.1

6.95

0.8200

about 61

6.84

0.8161

61.7

6.80

0.7938

6.61

0.678

below 32

5.65

0.6930

" 32

5.78

0.7S6

125

6.55

0.788

134

6.57

0.8284

140

6.90

0.8100

6.75

0.900

25.5

7.50

Pounds
in One
Cubic
Foot.

51.20

50.95

49.61
42.32
42.86
49.06
49.19
51.71
50.56
56.18

* From Gill's Oil Analysis, and Gill and Healey, Tech. Quar., Vol. XV, p. 74.

For practical fuel purposes the specific gravity and strength of methyl
alcohol may be taken as the same as the (ethyl) alcohol in the above
table.

For convenience of reference the following table shows the calorific
value of the usual liquid fuels.

Table Showing the Calorific Value op the Usual Liquid Fuels.

Kind of Fuel.

* Denatured alcohol, specific gravity 0.8192.,

t 72 ' gasoline

135^ kerosene

Fuel oil

X Crude American petroleum

J Refined American petroleum

Coal gas

Pure benzol (by theory)

X Carbureted alcohol from —

50% petrol 1

50% French methylated spirits j

B.T.U.
per Pound.

10,355
18,900
18,520
19,000
19,630
19,880
19,375
18,031

14,200

B.T.U.
per Gallon.

70,621
109,242
121,306
131,100
132,502

B.T.U.
per Cu. Foot.

529,451
810,054
908,591
982,490
992,492

625

* See pape 245.

t Gill and Healey, Tech. Quar.. Vol. XV, p. 74, 1902.

t Bull. Assoc. Chem. Soc; Journ. S. I. C, Vol. XXIV, p. 1218.

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

259

The Beauin^ Hydrometer referred to is shown in the subjoined Fig.
110. In this cut is also shown the Hydrometer-jar (Fig. Ill), which is
filled with the liquid to be tested, and the hydrometer immersed therein.
The proper precautions as to temperature having been
taken, the degree in strength, in terms of the Beaum^
scale, are at once read from the scale of the hydrom-
eter. This hydrometer-jar happens to be shown in a
reduced size as compared with the hydrometer proper.
The actual jar is, of course, of sufficient height to allow the
hydrometer to sink its length in the liquid so as to fully
include the use of the whole scale.

The table given on p. 260 is of convenience for convert-
ing scale of Beaume degrees lighter than water into specific
gravity and vice versa for experiments and work in practice.
Alcohol Heating and Cooking Apparatus and Stoves. —
The alcohol self-heating flat-iron is shown in Fig. 112.
This is heated by converting the alcohol into a gas and
burning the vapor thus formed. It makes a very con-
venient heat-avoiding implement for use in smnmer-time.

/ %

Fig. 110.— Beaum^ Fig. 111.— Hydrometer- Fig. 112.— Foreign Alcohol Self-
Hydrometer, jar, Lip Form. heating Flat-iron.

In Fig. 113, p. 260, is shown a foreign type of alcohol cooking-
stove, the advantages of which are common to all alcohol stoves.
These advantages can be stated to be freedom from smoke, soot, ashes,
and dirt.

260

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

* Table Showing Relation of Beaume Degrees to Specific Gravity and the
Weight of One United States Gallon at 60° F.

a rA

*G 2

9f-^

C r,^

ct^rt

g.So

§-So

«a

j^.hO

=.t:0

1.0000

8.33

0.8695

7.24

0.7692

6.41

0.6896

5.75

0.9929

8.27

0.8641

7.20

0.7650

6.37

0.6863

5.72

0.9859

8.21

0.8588

7.15

0.7608

6.34

0.6829

5.69

0.9790

8.16

0.8536

7.11

0.7567

6.30

0.6796

5.66

0.9722

8.10

0.8484

7.07

0.7526

6.27

0.6763

5.63

0.9655

8.04

0.8433

7.03

0.7486

6.24

0.6730

5.60

0.9589

7.99

0.8383

6.98

0.7446

6.20

0.6698

5.58

0.9523

7.93

0.8333

6.94

0.7407

6.17

0 . 6666

5.55

0.9459

7.S8

0.8284

6.90

0.7368

6.14

0.6635

5.52

0.9395

7.83

0.8235

6.86

0.7329

6.11

0.6604

5.50

0.9333

7.78

0.8187

6.82

0.7290

6.07

0.6573

5.48

0.9271

7.72

0.8139

6.78

0.7253

6.04

0.6542

5.45

0.9210

7.67

0.8092

6.74

0.7216

6.01

0.6511

5.42

0.9150

7.62

0.8045

6.70

0.7179

5.98

0.6481

5.40

0.9090

7.57

0.8000

6.66

0.7142

5.95

0.6451

5.38

0.9032

7.53

0.7954

6.63

0.7106

5.92

0.6422

5.36

0.8974

7.48

0.7909

6.59

0.7070

5.89

0.6392

5.33

0.8917

7.43

0.7865

6.55

0.7035

5.86

0.6363

5.30

0.8860

7.38

0.7821

6.52

0.7000

5.83

0.6222

5.18

0.8805

7.34

0.7777

6.48

0.6965

5.80

0.8750

7.29

0.7734

6.44

0.6930

5.78

* From Gill's Oil Analysis.

The examples of French alcohol heating apparatus shown in the
cuts below are used in a similar manner to those already described.

Fig. 113. — Alcohol Cooking-stove.

An exceedingly useful burner is provided for laboratory purposes by
the Bunsen alcohol burner shown in Fig. 116.

The alcohol heating-stove shown in Fig. 117, p. 262, is a very satisfac-
tory source of heat for laboratory and other purposes. It will be noticed

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

261

that it is supplied with an adjustable notched ring, by which the heating
support can be placed close to, or at a distance from, the flame, which

Fig. 114. — Boivin Alcohol Heating-stove and Extinguishing-cap.

Fig. 115. — French Curling tongs and Alcohol Heater.

Fig. 116. — Alcohol Bunsen Burner for Laboratory.

is a very clever contrivance. Its principles of construction and method
of burning the alcohol are similar to other stoves of this character.

Another form of foreign alcohol cookmg-stove is shown in Fig. 118,

262

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Fig. 117.— Alcohol Heating-stove, Adjustable. VVhitall, Tatum & Co.,
New York City.

Fig. 118. — The upper cut shows the Barthel Alcohol Cooking- or Heating-stove
with two burners. The lower cut shows section of the burner. M^e by
G. Barthel.

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

263

p. 262. This stove has two burners, the alcohol-reservoir being shown
at the top.

The details of the burner are shown in the longitudinal vertical sec-
tion of the drawing at the lower part of Fig. 118. It is claimed this
stove does very satisfactory work with spirit of 90 per cent strength
or 180° U. S. proof, although 95 per cent strength or 190° U. S. proof
is also recommended. To light the stove a little alcohol is flowed into
the igniting-channel just beneath the burner. The alcohol-valve is then
closed and the spirit ignited with a match. Before the flame dies out
the alcohol-valve is opened again and the spirit-gas flame is developed.
The alcohol-valve is only opened two complete revolutions for this purpose,
as a complete supply is thus obtained.

The height of the flame is adjusted by means of the alcohol supply-
valve. When this valve is closed the flame is extinguished. The burner
can be used for several himdred hours, after which it should be cleaned,
or a new burner can be inserted as desired.

In the accompanying figure, 119, an alcohol laboratory burner is
shown which bums half a pint of alcohol in 90 minutes with full flame. The
flame-tube is 18 mm. in diameter (about
0.7 inch), and is claimed to melt a 3-mm.
copper wire in IJ minutes. The flame is 7
inches in height, and a heat equal to from
two to three ordinary Bunsen burners is
claimed to be produced by this burner.

The supply of air and height cf flame
may be regulated by the movable valve
in the burner-tube. If the opening in the
burner-tube becomes clogged, clean it
with the needles furnished Tsdth the lamp;
never use a pin. It is most important not
to enlarge this opening. In using this
burner the basin must first be filled with
spirit. The suction-wick in this lamp
merely brings the -alcohol by capillary ^^*^- ^^^•—B^'*ther^ ^^l<^ohol Lab-

^^ •;. ,"= ., • • u u oratory Burner,

attraction to the vaponzmg-chamber or

tube, where it is burned as a gas. The flame is perfectly blue and smoke-
less, and when the burner is not in use there is no loss of spirit by
evaporation.

A soldering and paint-removing lamp or torch is shown in the illus-
tration, Fig. 120, p. 264. It ^s-ill be noticed that this lamp has no pump,
as is the case with gasoline. It is therefore much simpler to operate and

2t)4

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

equally satisfactory in its results. To start this torch, all that is neces-
sary is to light a little alcohol in the igniting-dish, shown at the left of
the cut, when the alcohol very quickly begins to vaporize and the gas is
ignited at the mouth of the torch. The suction-wick shown in Fig. 121,
supplies the alcohol to this vaporizing-tube. The vapors then issue from
the nozzle inside the blowpipe and are ignited. The nozzle is shown in

Fig. 121.

Fig. 120.

Fig. 122.

Fig. 120. Alcohol Torch for Soldering and Paint-removing.
Fig. 121. Suction- wick for Torch. Fig. 122. Lamp-nozzle for Torch.

Fig. 122. In renewing the wick the brass plate of the wick must be
placed above, toward the blowpipe, the wick being pushed right up to
the end of the wick- tube. The brass cup, which fits on the container,
holds the correct charge for the lamp. After emptying this into the
container of the lamp, the .cap is screwed down tightly. The measur-
ing-cup when inverted serves to ignite the lamp, as shown above.

In the Alcohol Bunsen Burner shown in Figs. 123 and 124 the flame
is regulated by the controlling screw, but the flame should never be
smaller than IJ inches. After continued use the wire gauze, which should
always rest on the four spikes inside the tube, must be renewed. For a
stronger flame a wider-mesh gauze should be taken. The passages in

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

265

266

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the handle H and the body M , and occasionally the nozzle of the burner
D and valve C, Vvill become clogged in the course of from 500 to 1000
hours' use. The pricker is then used to restore the size of the flame.
Only iron-wire gauze is recommended when heating vessels, as, on
account of the heat of this burner, brass will fuse. In Fig. 123 the
alcohol-reservoir, the flexible tube for supplying alcohol to the burner, and
also the sectional drawing of this burner are shown.

American Alcohol Cooking-stoves. — The Quick Work Stove Company,
of Cleveland, Ohio, furnish the following statement concerning the cuts

Fig. 125. — No. 32, Cabinet Alcohol Cooking-stove. Made by the Quick Work
Stove Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

of their alcohol cooking-stoves, which are shown in the following pages:
*'We have been experimenting for the past three years to produce a
good alcohol stove for use in foreign countries where tax-free denatured

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

267

alcohol is used, and for this purpose we print our circular in both English
and Spanish. We mention a number of points of inter^t concerning

Fig. 126.— Oven of the Quick Work Stove.

perfected alcohol stoves whi(?h we shall incorporate in our next circular.
Our stovB; using a single burner with the fire turned on full, lasts about

Fig. 127.— Three-burner Hot-plate, No- 44, of the Quick Work Stove.

2f hours. In another test we kept water on our cooking-stove at the
boiling-point for six hours using one quart of alcohol as fuel. This shows

268

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

what saving can be made by an economical operator. We find the results
of burning gasoline and alcohol are about the same, but submit that, tak-
ing everything into consideration, alcohol is far ahead of any other liquid
fuel. Our stoves require no more care or attention, than any ordinary

BURNER

Fig. 128. — This cut shows Burner and Valve complete and the various Parts of
the Burner for the Quick Work Alcohol Stove.

cooking-stove to maintain them in good working order. In the case of
jelly, for instance, being boiled over and the vaporizer becoming filled, all
that is necessary to do is to remove the burner parts and scrape the dirt
out of the vaporizer. The burners are made of annealed cast iron, — not
cheap metal or tin, — and are the most effective, durable, and expensive
burner made. The construction of our hot-plate or platform stoves is
very compact, and if well crated they will stand long and severe trips by
rail or water. Any part of our stoves can l^e replaced without having to
purchase a whole new stove. Our system of generating fuel into gas
enables more air to be mixed with the gas than any other stove on the
market. This results in complete combustion of the fuel, which is a

Fig. 129. — Sectional view of complete Burner for Quick Work Alcohol Stove.

very desirable feature. As soon as a meal is prepared, the fuel- valve is
shut and no further fuel is consumed. All surplus heat is also avoided,
which is not the case with wood, coal, or charcoal. The oven with our
stove becomes thoroughly heated in about ten to fifteen minutes. These

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

269

Closed, 3f inches high.

Fig. 130. — Traveling Companion, capacity 1 pint. Nickel-plate, complete with

Egg-holder and Tea or Cotfee-maker. Made by S. Stemau & Co., Brooklyn, N . Y.

The stand, lamp, extinguisher, egg-holder, handle, and silver-plated tea- or coffee-
maker fit inside the cup. The handle is non-heating ebonized wood and is re-
movable.

This traveling companion is exceedingly convenient for heating milk or soups,
cooking cereals, boiling eggs, etc. For travelers, tourists, picnickers, sports-
men, etc., it is of great utility. For use in the nursery or in the sick-room it is
invaluable. The lamp holds one half gill, which will bum about twenty-three
minutes. All of the alcohol lamps shown here are the very best that have been
produced after an experience of twenty-three years.

270

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

stoves are portable, very convenient, and reliable in case of sickness
where hot water is quickly wanted. If, as time passes, the use of alcohol
■as a fuel becomes general, the consumption for cooking piyposes should
certainly be very large. In Fig. 125, p. 266, is shown the No. 32 Cabinet
Cooking-stove. This stove comprises four burners, and the illustration
shows it to be of an efficient character and fine, durable construction."

American Alcohol Cooking Apparatus. — The following illustra-
tions show some of the utensils for cooking purposes used in conjunction

Fig. 131. — Coffee-machine Set. Consists of coffee-machine with Sterno-Inferno

burner, alcohol flagon, cream-pitcher, sugar-bowl, wind-shield, and oblong

tray, size 12X18 inches. Capacity of coffee-machine 2^ pints or 14 atter-

dinner cups.

The Sterno-Inferno burner is the latest modern alcohol lamp; holds one gill,

and will burn about one hour. This coffee-machine distills the coffee and thus

extracts only the wholesome properties of the coffee. Coffee should never be

boiled, because boiling extracts the unwholesome properties, dissipates the aroma,

and spoils the flavor. With the foregoing coffee-machine coffee of a quality that

never varies can always be made on the table. These unusual and convenient

features one cannot fail to appreciate. When any of the parts of the coffee-machine

are worn out they can be replaced without getting a new machine complete.

with alcohol lamps. Each article has been designed so as to be durable
and practical in every respect, as well as appealing to the eye, and is
made in the most skillful way of solid copper. Besides being furnished
in polished copper, each article is also supplied in either nickel or silver-

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

273

plate, excepting the spoon, fork-skimmer, egg-poacher, and toaster,
which are made of nickel-silver, and also furnished in silver-plate highly

burnished. The apparatus shown in Figs. 130-133 is made by S. Stemau
and Co., Brooklyn, N. Y.

274

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The alcohol -gas stove shown in Fig. 134 is manufactured by Glogau
& Co.; Chicago, 111. It is of durable construction and a very convenient

forrn of heating apparatus for small
capacities. This stove is about five
inches in width and height, weighs
about eight ounces, and the reservoir
holds nearly half a pint of alcohol.
The materials are brass and the finish
is nickel-plate. Wherever gas is not
available or desirable, and for emer-
gency heating necessities, light house-
keeping, etc., it is extremely useful.

The principle of its operation con-
sists in the fact that it vaporizes the
alcohol and then burns it in the form of a gas, making an exceedingly
steady flame and reliable source of heat. A quart of water is boiled in
about eight minutes. The best results demand that the best spirits pro-
curable be used for fuel. As an illustration of the universal use which
the merit of this stove has obtained, it can be mentiond that it is used
in the camps and hospitals of the United States, German, British, and
French armies.

The Kerosene Burner for Steamer Automobiles. — This burner is
manufactured by the National Oil-heating Company of Melrose, Mass,

Fig. 134. — Glogau's Alcohol-gas
Stove.

Fig. 135. — Kerosene Burner for Steamer Automobiles. Easily adaptable for use

with alcohol.

It is started by a small alcohol burner or hand lamp specially designed
for the purpose, which in a few moments heats the kerosene to the vaporiz-
ing temperature and ignites it. The alcohol vaporizing lamp is then
withdrawn and the kerosene is soon ignited in the burner, where it

THE FUEL VALUE OF ALCOHOL.

275

automatically maintains its own combustion. A pipe from the kero-
sene pressure-tank to the main burner and one from the small pilot-
light tank to the pilot light is all the piping necessary. The general
appearance of this burner is similar to all steamer automobile burners in
that the main vaporizing-coil lies across the burner forcing the gas into
the mixing-tube, the kerosene being fed to the burner under pressure.
The burner is closed at the bottom and there is no opportunity for back-
firing. The flame and gases can only pass out through the boiler and
stack. Should alcohol be obtainable at a reasonable price the above
burner can be easily adapted for its use.

Foreign Alcohol Heating-stoves. — In the accompanying cut is.
shown the French alcohol heating-stove made by E. Boivin et Cie.,

Fig. 136. — Alcohol Heating-stove.

Paris, France. This stove is beautifully finished, as are all articles
of French manufacture. The highly planished or polished fluted copper
reflector in the front of the stove concentrates the rays of heat and
throws them forward into the apartment, greatly conserving the amount
of alcohol consumed. The advantages claimed for this stove are the
absence of any objectionable flue products, a heating effect not obtained
by any other (alcohol) system and no danger of explosion. It is also

276 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

stated that the stove is regulated with a cock in the same manner as the
ordinary gas-stove, and that the consumption of alcohol is reduced to a
minimum, the heating effect equaling that of the gas-stove. In this
stove the alcohol is first vaporized and then burns as a gas. The details
of the manipulation of this stove are as follows:

R, alcohol-reservoir, which is filled with denatured alcohol of 90 per
cent strength; B, alcohol-lighting cock; C, alcohol-igniting channel;
D, alcohol-feeding cock; E, handle for opening or closing shutter to
view the operation of the burner.

Note. — It is recommended for the best results in heating that the
reservoir be kept well filled.

Important Notice. — Do not open the cock D while the alcohol is burn-
ing in the igniting-channel C, and be careful that the cock D is always
closed when the stove is not in use.

This stove is merely an example of one type of alcohol stove used for
heating purposes.

CHAPTER VIII.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

The Deutz Alcohol-engine. The Deutz Alcohol-motor or Portable Engine
American Alcohol-engines. The Alcohol-motor for the Automobile, The Diesel
Engine. The Kerosene-oil Engine. The Gasohne-engine and its Adaptation
to Alcohol. Comparison of the Economy of the Steam-engine with Other Types
of Engines. The Gas-engine Compared with Other Types of Engines. Outline
of the Methods Used in Testing Internal-combustion Engines.

The Deutz Alcohol-engine. — As the experience with alcohol engines
has been extremely limited in the United States, it "Will be of advantage

Fig. 137. — Deutz Engine for Use with Alcohol, Gasoline, Kerosene, or Ei^in.

to conisder the progress made by Germany in this respect. This nation
has been a leading exponent in the development and uses of denatured

277

278

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

or industrial alcohol for the past twenty years. For this reason we will
begin with a description of the design and construction of the engines
built by the Deutz Gas-engine Works of Cologne-Deutz, Germany^
which company have furnished the author with the data here given
through the kindness of their American branch house, the Otto Gas-
engine Works, of Philadelphia, Pa. We show in Fig. 137, p. 275, an
illustration of the Deutz alcohol engine, type E-12, of 20 horse-power.

\zztzz±

Fig. 138.— Side Elevation of Type E-12, Deutz Alcohol Engine.

The original Otto or Deutz engines have been built in Germany for
a period of about forty years, the type cf the Otto gas-engine being the
pioneer in single-acting explosive engines.

"The original Otto engines types E-10, M-10, and E-12 are single-
acting explosive engines. The cylinder being closed at one end, a mix-
ture of air and gasoline, kerosene or alcohol vapor is exploded in the
cylinder, the resulting pressure moving a piston which transmits power
throughthe connecting-rod and crank to the fly-wheel shaft.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

279

"The engine operates on the 4-stroke cycle principle, that is at every,
fourth piston-stroke, or every two full revolutions of the crank-shaft, a

Fig. 139. — Cross-section of Type E-12, Deutz Alcohol Engine.

power impulse is generated. When the piston is at the end of its inner
stroke there remains between the piston-head and the inside end of the
cylinder a certain clearance space — the compression space, filled with

280

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

:air or the products of previous combustion, and beginning with this
position of the piston the following cycle of operations takes place:

''First (forward) stroke of the piston. During the outstroke of the
piston an explosive mixture of gaosline, kerosene, or alcohol-vapor and
air is drawn into the cylinder (charging period) .

''Second (backward) stroke of the piston. The explosive mixture
is compressed in the clearance space (compression period) .

"Third (forward) stroke of the piston. At the inner dead-center the
compressed charge is ignited, and the resulting high increase in pressure
drives the piston forward (working or power period) .

Fig. 140.— Vertical Section of Cylinder-
head.

Fig. 141. — Cross-section of Cooling-
water Jacket, by Evaporation.

"The strong impulse thus given to the fly-wheel suffices to keep
it in motion during the three following successive piston-strokes.

"Fourth (backward) stroke of the piston. The products of combus-
tion are expelled into the atmosphere through the open exhaust-valve.

"Close uniformity and regulation of speed of the engine is secured by
the use of a proportionally heavy fly-wheel.

"The engines of types E-10, M-10, and E-12 can be operated with
gasoline, kerosene, alcohol, or ergin. If built for gasoline or kerosene
and changed for operating on alcohol or ergin, the compression must be

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

281

increased. Generally the engines are tested at the shops for one par-
ticular fuel only.

*'The types enumerated differ somewhat, as follows:
"Type E-10 is a slow-speed engine and can be furnished equipped
with either cooling by water circulation or cooling by evaporation (see
paragraph describing methods of cooling). The charge is formed by
means of a spraying device, the fuel being admitted to this device either
through the pump or a float-valve.

Fig. 142. — Longitudinal Section of Cylinder-head.

''Type M-10 has a higher speed and is built only for the method of
cooling by evaporation. This method of cooling is recommended ia
places where water is scarce. The charge is admitted in the same manner
as in type E-10.

''Type E-12 is also a high-speed engine, but is being built for either
circulation or evaporation method of cooling. This type is equipped
with the latest designed vaporizer.

282

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

vdOTJ

Fig. 143. — Current -interrupter for
the Electric Igniting Apparatus.

"The types i\I-10 and E-12, as provided with cooling method by
evaporation, are especially designed for portable engines.

*'The accompanying illustrations show the working parts of type
E-12 and the details of construction and design. Fig. 138 (p. 278)

shows a side elevation of this engine
and the most important parts of the
valve-motion. Fig. 139 (p 279) illus-
trates a cross-section of the engine on
the lines I-II of Fig. 138. Fig. 140
(p. 280) illustrates a vertical section
through the cylinder-head in which
the fuel for the charge is supplied by
a pump. Fig. 141 (p. 280) represents
a cross-section through the cooling-
water jacket, with cooling method by
evaporation; Fig. 142 shows a longi-
tudinal section through the cylinder-head in which the charge is formed
by means of the new vaporizer; and Fig. 143 shows the current-inter-
rupter for the electric igniting apparatus on a larger scale, being a vertical
longitudinal section through the end of the cylinder-head.

"Formation of Charge. — a. When using fuel-pump and spraying
device. The fuel (gasoline, kerosene, alcohol, or ergin) is contained in
a tank placed beside the engine and connected to the pump h through
the pipe u. During each charging period the pump forces a fixed quan-
tity of fuel through the connection u^ and the sprayer g into the mixing-
chamber 0, which it enters as a finely divided spray. At the same time
the air drawn in through the action of the piston enters the mixing-
chamber through the air-cock / and the air-pipe e. While passing the
sprayer the air is intimately mingled with the atomized fuel and is forced
together with the fuel through the open inlet-valve C into the cylinder
space A. The fuel is here evaporated, both by heat radiating from the
cylinder-walls as well as through direct contact with these hot walls.

''For the purpose of being able to start a kerosene-, alcohol-, or ergin-
engine while the cylinder-walls are still cold, a gasoline starting -device
has been provided from the cylinder-head, consisting of a small gasoline-
reservoir which is connected with the mixing-chamber 0 by means of a
small pipe fitted with a spray-nozzle. Before starting this reservoir is
filled with gasoline. While the engine is being turned a small quantity
cf gasoline is drawn during the charging period into the mixing -chamber,
entering the air-current through the spray-nozzle, being immediately
vaporized on account of its high volatility and forming with the air an

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 283

explosive mixture. After the engine has been running for a short time
on the mixture generated in this manner as a gasoline-engine, and after
the cylinder-walls have been sufficiently heated, the fuel-pump can be
put in action and the engine be operated on kerosene, alcohol, or ergin.

*' FiLcl-jmrnp (Fig. 140). — The fuel-pump h is a. single-acting plunger-
pump and fitted with a vertical plunger operated from below and w'ith
automatic suction- and delivery-valves. The plunger is actuated by
means of a lever located in the pump-casing and connected to the outer
lever r\ The roller n' while mounting the inlet-cam actuates the plunger
from the lever r during its suction-stroke, and while the roller descends
from the cam (towards the end of the suction period of the engine) the
plunger actuated by a spring completes its discharge-stroke.

''The fuel is therefore injected only during the second half of the
charging period, thus securing a favorable formation of the charge and
reliable ignition.

"In order to change the stroke of the pump, and consequently the
quantity of fuel injected, the roller of the pump-lever r' acting upon the
lever-arm r is slideable and adjusted in a slot of the lever r'.

''The fuel-pump is equipped wath a hand-lever (not shown in illus-
tration) , by means of which the connections w' are filled with fuel before
the engine is started. In order to determine whether the fuel has reached
the sprayer g, a test -valve v has been provided immediately before the
sprayer. As soon as the liquid reaches this level, if this valve is open
the fuel will be expelled in a fine stream. Furthermore, this test-valve
enables one to control the proper working of the pump at any time
during the operation of the engine.

"6. When using Vaporizer. — The fuel is admitted to the float-casing
H, Fig. 142, flowing from a tank placed beside the engine through the
connections u, while a float in the casing H acts upon the needle- valve i,
so that the level of the liquid in the casing H is maintained at a constant
height. For instance, if the level of the liquid rises, the float will be
lifted and will close the needle-valve so that a lesser amount or no fuel
can enter the casing H. The constant level of the fuel must alw^ays be
below the openings o of the sprayer e connected with the casing H by
means of the connections s. During each charging-stroke of the engine
a partial vacuum is formed in the mixing-chamber E in accordance with
the amount of opening of the inlet-valve (see paragraph 'Regulation ')•
This depression causes the fuel to be drawn out of the float-casing H
and be atomized into fine streams through the sprayer o. The air enter-
ing through the cock d and passing the s>Tayer e with great velocity,
atomizes the streams of fuel, intimately mingles with the fuel, and with

2S4 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

this fuel enters the cyUnder, where evaporation takes place, the same as
when using the pump and sprayer described above. In order to effect
evaporation the engine must be started with gasoline.

" The shut-off device of the evaporator consists of a small hand- wheel
T, fitted with a projection which causes the valve k to be opened when
turning the hand-wheel and thus connecting the starting-reservoir with
the sprayer e. As the valve m remains closed the engine draws fuel from
the starting-reservoir. After the engine has been running for a while
the hand- wheel r is turned so that the projection opens the valve m; the
valve k closes automatically, and fuel can therefore only be admitted from
the float-casing. The hand-wheel can also be turned so that neither of
the valves is open, causing the engine to stop. The vaporizer operates
entirely automatically.

''Ignition. — The ignition of the charge in the cylinder is effected by
the electric spark. A current is generated in a magneto-electric appara-
tus through induction by imparting an oscillating motion to the finely
wound armature moving between the poles of a horseshoe magnet.
While the current is most intense the circuit inside of the cylinder is
interrupted by means of a contact-lever and a spark is generated which
ignites the charge.

^'The ignition device consists of a number of horseshoe magnets
between the poles of which a finely wound armature is rotatably held
in two bearings. Upon one end of the armature-shaft is located a
lever t, which operates the armature, and which is actuated from the
gear-shaft by means of a connecting-rod c with tongue c' (see Fig. 139).
The connecting-rod is pivoted to an eccentric guide-pin, so that by
turning the eccentric the point of ignition can be varied.

''Two springs attached to the lever of the armature-snaft and the
stationary casing are so arranged that a line drawn through the four
points at which the springs are fastened will go directly through the
centre of the armature-shaft when the apparatus is at rest. At every
other revolution of the engine these springs are put in tension by means
of the tongue c', which moves the lever to one side. After the lever has
been released the tension of the springs cause it to snap back into its
original position. This causes the armature to move rapidly, and during,
that time a current is generated. A rod h connected with the lever acts
upon the lever w of the igniter W whenever the armature lever is released.

''The circuit-breaker consists of the igniter-flange x^ (Fig. 143), the
firing-pin 7?y and the two-arm igniter-lever w-w\ The firing-pin is
insulated at both ends by means of the mica washers x'^. When the
inner arm w' of the igniter-lever rests against the firing-pin x^, the elec-

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 285

trie current from the armature of the ignition device passes into the frame
of the engine, and through this back into the armature by way of the
wire X, the firing-pin x^, and the igniter-lever w'. Ordinarily a spring
acting upon the lever-arm w of the igniter-lever causes the igniter-lever
to rest against the firing-pin, and the current generated can then pass
as described above. As soon, however, as the rod 6' connected with the
lever t imparts a shock to the lever w, the lever w?' is separated from the
firing-pin, the circuit is interrupted, and the electric spark is generated.

" Valve-motion. — All movable parts of the valve-motion are actuated
by m.eans of a gear-shaft lu^ running alongside of the engine and rotating
at half the number of revolutions of the crank-shaft. This gear-shaft is.
noiselessly operated from the crank-shaft by means of a pair of worm-
gears. Cam-sleeves located upon the gear-shaft act upon the levers of
the various valves. The exhaust-valve D is actuated by means of the
cam m, the roller m', and the lever q, while the inlet-valve C is operated
by the cam n, the roller n', and the lever connection p, p', and p". While
the exhaust cam-sleeve, which carries the exhaust-cam m is keyed tightly
to the gear-shaft, the inlet cam-sleeve can be shifted upon the shaft
through the action of the governor. The fuel-pump h is operated simul-
taneously with the inlet-valve, in that the arm r mounted upon the hub
of the lever p actuates the pump-lever r\

''Regulation. — The speed is regulated by varying the volume of the
charge while maintaining a constant proportion of the components of
the charge. As soon as the speed exceeds the normal to the least extent,
the governor Y shifts the inlet cam-sleeve fitted with a conical cam n,
so that a lower portion of the cam acts upon the inlet-valve roller. In
this way the inlet-valve C is opened to a lesser extent and the stroke of
the fuel-pump h is diminished; the total volume of the charge is there-
fore decreased and consequently the explosion and impulse becomes
weaker, resulting in a proportional decrease of the speed. The governor
therefore always regulates the fuel consumption in accordance with the
power developed by the engine while maintaining a constant speed.

''Cooling. — The burning of the charge in the cylinder generates a
high temperature, making it necessary to cool the cylinder and cylinder*
head. This cooling is accomplished through circulation by passing water
either from a main under pressure or through circulation from a cooling-
water tank through the water-jacket (Fig. 140), or through cooHng by
evaporation (Fig. 141), in which method the water-jacket of the cylinder
is extended upward in the shape of a box closed by a cover fitted with
a funnel for filling cooling-water. The steam generated by the heating
of the cooling-water escapes through a pipe attached to the cover.

286 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

"Facilitating Starting. — In order to facilitate starting, a second cam
not shown in the illustration is mounted upon the exhaust cam-sleeve,
known as the starting-cam. This cam is not in action while the engine
is running; while starting, however, the exhaust roller is shifted so that
it is operated by both cams. A portion of the charge in the cylinder is
thus expelled through the open exhaust-valve during the compresssion
period, thereby diminishing the resistance which would otherwise make
turning by hand difficult."

The Alcohol-motor. — The following statement is also furnished the
author by the Deutz Gas-engine Works of Cologne-Deutz, Germany:

^'The great desire to secure a native fuel, such as alcohol, which could
be easily produced from raw agricultural materials in Germany, as well
as the importance therefore of the need of also obtaining the highest
perfected type of alcohol-using motors for portable uses in Germany,
gave rise, in the year 1902, through the efforts of the German Agricultural
Association, to a competitive exposition in Mannheim, open to all visiting
motors, the features of the alcohol-using motor to be that it should
be portable, and also able to be successfully used for technical and agri-
cultural purposes as against the common kerosen and gasoline motors,
which latter had in turn replaced and succeeded steam-power for such
uses.

"Their low running cost and maintenance, and not the least their
merit in the less danger from their causing fires, has all tended to uni-
versally introduce these motors for industrial agricultural operations.

"The unbearable odor of kerosene acts as a restraint in the extension
of its universal use as well as its great tendency to sootiness, while with
gasoline the development of its use is offset by having to import it from
foreign countries, as the supply, in case of a foreign war, would be cut off.

"In addition to this the control by the excise officers of the premiums
granted by the government on engine gasolme affords a great deal of
annoyance to the users of gasoline-engines.

"The efforts of the motor manufacturers had been long ago directed
to producing from agricultural sources a native combustible or fuel
which could be economically used in motors, and this was successfully
accomplished, as demonstrated by the tests made at Mannheim by
Prof. E. Mayer.

" The Deutz Alcohol-motor, or Portable Engine. — Considering the fluc-
tuations in load met in practice, a 16-H.P. Otto Deutz alcohol portable
engine gave the most favorable results, viz., 389 grams (about 13.7 ozs.
avoirdupois) with normal and 507 grams (about 17.8 ozs. avoirdupois)
per effective horse-power hour with half-load. For maximum brake-load

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

287

effect the consumption is reduced to only 365 grams (about 12.8 ozs,
avoirdupois) per effective horse-power hour.

''The accompanying ilkistration (Fig. 144) shows such a Deutz alco-
hol portable engine, which is not only used in summer for threshing and
other agricultural purposes, but particularly as well also in the winter,

Fig. 144. — Threshing in Germany. The Deutz Alcohol Portable Engine

on account of its uniform speed, in the generation of electricity for
lighting purposes.

"A further employment of the alcohol-motor is that of the perfected
Deutz locomotive for mining-railway and field-railway uses, for which
purposes the more expensive use of horses, on account cf their cost to feed
as well as the unsanitary conditions resulting therefrom, have gradually
been superseded. This locomotive is shown in Fig. 145.

''The illustration shown in Fig. 146 is a locomotive for forest-railway
use by the Grand Ducal Hessian Chief -Forestry in Kelsterbach.

"At the present time, of all the Deutz locomotives now being used,
more than one third are run with alcohol. An extremely desirable
feature in enabling these new alcohol-motors to attempt to compete with
steam-locomotives is their much greater freedom from risks of causing
fire by the sparks thrown out by the steam-locomotive, as with alcohol

288

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

this is effectually precluded. This feature renders them especially desir-
able for agricultural uses. In Fig. 147 is shown the passenger railway at
Exposition Park, Lima, Peru, equipped with a Deutz alcohol-locomotive.

''The stationary Deutz alcohol-engines are 'also wholly preferred to
steam, and there has been an uninterrupted installation of such alcohol-
engines sinec 1901.

''The fuel consumption of these alcohol-engines for the average sizes-
(from 8 to 25 H.P.) is from 370 to 380 grams (about 13 ozs. to 13.4 ozs.

Fig. 145. — Mining Railway of the Krupp Collieries ''Hannover" and "Hannibal,'^
Westphalia. Equipped w itli the Deutz Alcohol-locomotive.

avoirdupois) per effective horse-power hour, and when using alcohol of a
calorific value of 6000 calories, or 10,800 B.T.U., there is obtained a ther-
mal efficiency of some 22 per cent. The sizes shown in these cuts are
nominally 8 H.P., but can easily develop 10 H.P.

"These most favorable figures of the fuel consumption are for the
greater part due to the high compression (10 to 14 atmospheres) gen-
erated, which is made possible by the water always present in consider-
able amount in the alcohol consumed.

"In no other country has such progress been made in the employ-
ment of alcohol for industrial and technical uses as in Germany.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

289

"The development of the industrial uses of alcohol merits most atten-
tion, therefore, in the case of Germany, as that country enjoys a leading
position among other nations in this respect.

"This condition of affairs has been largely attained by the efforts of
the great agricultural and industrial distilleries, as well as by the intelli-
gent attitude and legislation on the part of the governments, because
from their correct understanding of the great importance of this matter
they have constantly striven to grant such legislation as will furnish
■earnest incentives for the production of alcohol and the creation of new

Fig. 146. — Forest Railway of the Grand Ducal Hessian Chief-Forestry in Kelsterbach
Equipped with the Deutz Alcohol-locomotive.

methods for its industrial use. And such legislation has endeavored in
every way to facilitate and to expedite such ends.

"The great extent of such use is shown by the fact that there was
used in Germany, in the years 1887 and 1888, some 38,000,000 liters
(about 10,000,000 U. S. gallons) of alcohol for technical purposes, and
in the years 1900 and 1901 this great quantity had increased to 112,000,000
liters (about 29,500,000 U. S. gallons) , and especially has the consump-
tion of alcohol denatured with the standard denaturing agent increased to
the extent of some 79,000,000 liters (about 20,740,000 U. S. gallons) in
the years 1902 and 1903."

290

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

"The association formed in 1899 for the purpose of utilizing alcohol,
and which represents the majority of the German alcohol manufacturers,
also considers it their chief aim to stimulate in every way the increase of
the use of all kinds of spirits/'

The Mietz and Weiss Alcohol-engine. — In the building of alcohol-
engines by this firm the only change necessary was simply to increase the

Fig. 147. — Passenger Railway ct Exposition Park, Lima, Peru,
the Deutz Alcohol-locomotive.

Equipped with

compression over the kerosene-oil engine which they have so long sup-
plied and the merits of which are so well recognized.

A peculiarity of the use of alcohol is the necessity of a higher degree
of compression than in the case of the petroleum products in order to
secure the greatest efficiency.

A general view of the Mietz & Weiss double-cylinder marine oil- or
alcohol-engine is shown in Fig. 148. These engines are made in a
variety of sizes up to 50 horse-power.

As the ignition takes place from the rise in temperature by the com-
pression of the gases in the combustion spaces of the cylinders, no elec-
trical sparking devices or batteries are required. This feature contributes
very largely to the reliability of these alcohol-engines, as there are no
such devices to get out of order.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

293

Fitted into the cylinder-head is a pear-shaped hollow cast-iron ball
opening into the combustion-chamber of the cylinder. The end of this
ball is directly in Une with the injection-nozzle of the alcohol feed-pipe

Fig. 149. — Sectional View of the Mietz & Weiss Marine and Vertical Oil- or Alcohol-
engine, showing the cylinder and crank-case, piston, connecting-rod, and crank-
shaft ; also the igniter-ball and the ports showing the method of taking in the
air and exhausting the gases.

entering the side of the cylinder. In starting the engine the igniter-ball
is heated to a dull red by means of the hydrocarbon lamp attached to the
engine and operated by compressed air from a small tank. When the

294 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

igniter-ball is heated, which operation takes a few minutes, the engine
is ready for starting, maintaining the ignition temperature automatically
so long as it is in operation.

The simplicity of construction, there being no valves, no cams, no
gears, and no vaporizer or electrical sparking device to get out of order,
enable good results to be obtained from these engines without any special
mechanical knowledge or skill. The governor is of the centrifugal bal-
anced type. In the case of these engines for marine uses it is unaffected
by the rolling of the boat or vessel. The speed of the engine can also be
regulated by means of a throttle or hand-regulator, which limits the
stroke of the pump or throws it away from the governor eccentric, entirely
thereby stopping the flow of alcohol and stopping the engine.

A sectional view of this engine is shown in Fig. 149. In this sec-
tional view the parts are explained as follows:

64 is thei gnitor-ball; 2 is the cylinder; 3 is the connecting-rod;
4 is the piston; 164 is the lubricating-oil well; 179 is the regulator-
handle; 61 is the injection-nozzle.

A general view of the triple-cylinder Mietz & Weiss marine oil- or
alcohol-engine is shown in Fig. 150, p. 295. These engines are furnished
in sizes from 22 to 75 horse-power. The number of cylinders in these
engines can be easily increased owing to the principle involved in the
admission of the liquid fuel for the explosive charge, and the method of
governing, whereby the charge is admitted practically in an automatic
manner to the cylinders in rotation after the piston has closed the exhaust-
port and begins its compression period.

In comparing alcohol and kerosene at the present time as fuel for these
engines in constant operation, the point of advantage in economy will
lie heavily in favor of kerosene. There is the advantage in case of alcohol
over kerosene of absence of disagreeable odors. The same advantage
holds in case of alcohol compared to gasoline. Another advantage in
favor of alcohol over gasoline is its safety, as it will mix with water in
case of fire, and as it is not so readily volatilized it is also much safer on
this account than gasoline. In the case of kerosene, on account of its
absence of volatility at ordinary temperatures, alcohol has not the same
advantage. In case of accident by fire, as kerosene will not mix with
water, alcohol has the advantage over kerosene.

•As before stated, the complete reliability of these engines is not affected
by any question of vaporization of the alcohol, because they are so con-
structed that the handling of alcohol is a normal operation for this engine.

The Weber Alcohol-engine. — In Fig. 151, p. 297, is shown a cut of
the Weber alcohol-engine which is very similar in mechanical detail to

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

297

the gasoline-engine built by the same firm, the Weber Gas-engine Com-
pany. This alcohol-engine is provided with a high-speed centrifugal
governor, and the governing is accomplished by holding the air-valve

o
o

-t

and mixture-valve closed with exhaust-valve held open. This type of
engine and method of governing is particularly well adapted for alcohol
use.

The vaporizer is so arranged that at different altitudes, also during
different atmospheric conditions, the vaporizer will admit the proper
amount of alcohol and air for perfect combustion. The amount of fuel

298 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

consumed would be in proportion to the load on the engine, and the
governor itself will take of this very nicely.

The compression with this engine is quite a little higher than the
compression carried in the gasoline-engine, and owing to less heat having
to be absorbed by the water-jackets than- in the case with the gasoline-
engine the economy is quite high.

This company has found under actual conditions that the fuel con-
sumption per horse-power per hour is about the same pound for pound
whether using alcohol or gasoline. This alcohol-engine requires no external
heating arrangements, as the engine will start on the first turn on the
alcohol alone.

Some engines require the use of gasoline for the first few revolutions
in order to warm up different portions of the engine before alcohol is
turned on. With this engine as this company build it, however, there is
not required anything other than the drawing of the charge of alcohol-
vapor into the engine-cylinder and compressing same, when the engine
will immediately start in operation. The engine is provided with a pump
for keeping the supply of alcohol at a certain height in the vaporizer,
and it can also be fitted with a gravity tank if so desired.

When using alcohol in one of these engines it is especially noticeable
that the engine is not vitiated to the extent that it is when gasoline is
used for fuel. This company mentions that their gas-engines, however,
will work with perfect success on alcohol with but very slight changes.
They have taken their regular gasoline-engine and have used alcohol in
it directly after the gasoline has been exhausted. They have also taken
the same engine and operated it with alcohol without first starting it on
gasohne. The percentage of clearance in the cylinder of the Weber gas-
engine is 5 per cent. The percentage of clearance in the Weber alcohol-
engine is 3i per cent.

Gasoline Traction-engine as a Plowing-engine, and the Adaptation of
Alcohol in Place of Gasoline. — During recent years there has been a rapid
and remarkable advancement in the development of implements and
machinery devoted to farm uses. But comparatively few years ago
threshing-machines were operated by horse-power, while now a machine
operated by horses is a rarity. The universal success of the traction-
engine for threshing has caused it to be used for other power purposes,
such as feed-grinding, freighting, plowing, etc. We show in Fig. 152 the
Hart-Parr Company's 20-horse-power, nominal, traction-engine. This
company are large builders of the types of internal-combustion engines,
especially adapted for such purposes. They also manufacture portable
and stationary engines of the same kind. With respect to the use of

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

299

alcohol in these engines they make the following statement: "We have
watched with a great deal of interest, and added our efforts to help bring
about the free use of alcohol for power purposes. We have made a con-
siderable study of the methods of utilizing this fuel, and expect soon
to conduct extended experiments and arrive at definite results. Our
engine is so constructed that alcohol can be used as fuel with very
little change. By reducing the clearance space in the cylinder we will
add the proper degree of compression and thus furnish the efficient use
of alcohol as fuel.

"We have developed the feeding or carbureting devices with a
view to utilizing such fuel, and believe that they are as well adapted for

Fig. 152. — Gasoline Traction- or Flowing-engine. Built by the Hart-Parr Co.,

Charles City, Iowa. This engine can be easily adapted for use with alcohol.

it as any that can be constructed. In enclosed situations within doors,
where the odors from kerosene fuel are considerable, it is quite likely
that alcohol will take the place even if it does not sell as low as
petroleum fuel. We have several hundred of our traction-engines in very
successful operation through the Western States and Canada, and recently
made a shipment to the Hawaiian Islands.

"In the greater portion of the United States, where kerosene is very
cheap or where the distillates of the Western country are produced, it

300

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

will be a long time before alcohol will be low enough in price to com-
pete with these fuels for traction-engine use. In Fig. 153 is shown a

plowing scene, using the Hart-Parr Company's 20-horse-power, nominal,
traction-engine. Formerly our traction-engine was used entirely with
gasoline as fuel. The use of kerosene has greatly reduced the expense of

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

301

operation of these engines. Kerosene can be purchased in our section
at about 8 cents per gallon and yields a little more power per gallon than
does gasoline. In the sugar-growing regions, and probably in territories
lying so far distant that the freight on petroleum fuel makes it too expen-
sive, the use of alcohol will commence even in traction-engines of the
character which we are building. Accordingly this subject is of deep
interest to us. We candidly admit that the great majority of the gasoline
traction-engines previously offered have been failures. Experience, how-
ever, shows that the first crude machines in all kinds of labor-saving
machinery are but the stepping-stones to the later and more efficient
product.

"After years of patient efforts and work, repeated attempts and
failures, we have succeeded in producing the first really successful gaso-
Une traction-engine put on the market. We claim that our traction-
engine is superior in economy to the steam-engine for the above-named
purposes.

"In addition we claim there is no danger of setting fires by sparks
as with the steam traction-engine. Our traction-engine is more con-
venient to operate than the best of steamers and is not troubled with
leaky flues."

Power Uses of Alcohol. — ^The traction sa wing-machine, for sawing
cord-wood, which is shown in Fig. 1*54, is built by the Olds Gas Power

Fig. 154. — Traction Sawing -machine. Built by the Olds Gas Power Company.

Company and illustrates one of the many uses to which gasoline- and
alcohol-engines can be put. This company claim to be the largest manu-
facturers of gas- and gasoline-engines in the United States. They vdW
be ready to furnish a simple (mixer) attachment to their engine as soon as

302 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

denatured alcohol is available, so that their engine can be used with the
same ease, reliability, and economy with this fuel as is now the case with
the use of the present fuels.

The consideration of freedom from fire, combined with compactness,
comparatively light weight, ease of operation, and lack of danger, make
these engines particularly adaptable for general use by people with
comparatively little mechanical experience. The lack of danger from
fire makes them more desirable for farm use than any other power.
Farmers in general now realize that it is almost as essential to have one
of these engines as it is to have a plow.

The money and time saved by using them for pumping water, electric
lighting, cutting fodder, churning, separating cream, sawing wood, load-
ing and unloading hay, grain, etc., amounts to the saving of the labor of
frcm one to three men, which is something in these times of scarcity of
help that must be considered by every farmer.

They are also indispensable where power is necessarily portable, on
account of their light weight and compactness. A few of the uses to
which they are put in this direction are for running portable sawmills,
hoisters for unloading vessels, for building-contractors, sewer and viaduct
work, filling coal-pockets, hoisting and hauling ice, etc. They are also
valuable as a source of power for the spraying of the foliage of trees,
shrubbery, etc., for the extermination of the gypsy and brown-tail
moths and other insect pests.

In addition these engines furnish power for the blacksmiths, wheel-
wrights, grain-elevators, and all manufacturing where power is needed;
also for municipal and private water-pumping and electric-light sta-
tions. In fact there are so many uses for this form of power that to
enumerate them all would take more space than is available in this work.

While the demand for Olds engines has been constantly increasing,
this company expect a very much larger demand for them at the time
denatured alcohol is made available in all rural districts, as it undoubtedly
will be within a very few years after the law authorizing this product
goes into effect.

The Alcohol-motor for the Automobile. — If denatured alcohol can be
furnished at a price that will admit of its use for power purposes, the
consumption of it will be greatly increased. It would appear that the
field open for such use of alcohol at the present time consists in engines
of a capacity of 50 horse-power or less, and that its use as an alternative
fuel to gasoline offers a strong incentive for its development on these
lines. Taking up the question of the alcohol-motor for trackless vehicles,
such as automobiles, truck- wagons, etc., it is of interest to review the

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 303

results of foreign experience in this respect.* At the International Com-
petitive Exposition held in Paris, France, in 1902, of motors and appara-
tus using denatured alcohol, the best results obtained were with a mixed
fuel, consisting of 50 per cent methylated spirits and 50 per cent of a
hydrocarbon fuel. In a number of trials of several good motors, operated
successively with denatured alcohol alone and then with the same fuel
50 per cent carbureted, the superiority of the latter was as about seven
parts consumed to ten parts of the former. In the report of M. Sorel to
the ^linister of Agriculture he stated, among other conclusions, that from
the review of the motors by the jury, of which he was a member, the
best motors required at least one and a half times the quantity of air
theoretically necessary for completely utilizing the whole of the carbon
of the denatured alcohol alone, or of the 50 per cent carbureted denatiu-ed
alcohol in practice.

M. Sorel further stated that the results with certain motors were satis-
factory, while those with others were not; also that the combustion
appeared never to be complete, as was shown by the presence of appreci-
able quantities of acetic acid in the exhaust-gases. If the proper amount
of air for the complete consumption of either alcohol was not supplied,
incomplete combustion ensued, attended with a considerable degree of
loss in efficiency of the motor.

It may be further stated that from the results of the tests there
appeared to be an economy in 1902 over similar tests in 1901 of about
15 per cent. These results are the more interesting because they show
an improvement in the operation of the automobiles which was e^'idently
related to the consumption of the fuel. This is shown from the fact that
the types of these vehicles have varied but little ; the construction of the
motors was practically the same, as well as the mechanical devices for the
transmission of power and the variation of the speeds between 1901 and
1902. The manufacturers appear to have directed their efforts principally
in the utilization of alcohol by elevating the temperature of the carbu-
reter or of the explosive mixture at its entrance into the cylinder, and
by the increasing of the compression. The jury also state that for auto-
mobiles weighing more than 500 kilos (1100 lbs.) the lowest consumption
per kilometric ton was 87.10 c.c, or 73 grams of carbureted alcohol
(50 per cent of hydrocarbon fuel and 50 per cent of the methylated or
denatured alcohol).

*Froni the Ministere de 1' Agriculture, Concours International de Moteurs et
Apparells, utilisant L'Alcool Denature, ayant en lieu h Paris en Mai 1902. — Ra.p-
ports des Jurys, 1902.

304 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

In considering the facts brought out by the trials referred to
there are two factors which throw some light upon the somewhat
unsatisfactory results. One is that perhaps the 10 per cent content of
methyl alcohol in the denatured alcohol was too high, and the other is
that it may be possible to still further improve the alcohol-motor for
such uses in America. No serious complaints are experienced in Ger-
many from the corrosion of explosive-engine cylinders or exhaust-valves
from formation of acetic acid. In Germany only about IJ per cent of
methyl alcohol and i liter of methyl violet dye, together with from 2 to
20 liters of benzol, are used to denature 100 liters of alcohol. Possibly
the much smaller quantity of methyl alcohol in the German denatured
alcohol for motor use may partly account for their freedom from this
difficulty in their portable alcohol-motors and stationary engines. It
may also be partly due to their superior construction and efficiency.
As to improvements in the present American types of explosive motors,
looking to their being adapted for use with alcohol, it may be said that
competent engineering authorities believe that a successful alcohol-motor
for automobiles can be made and will shortly come into use.

Some changes in design are needed from the explosive motors now in
use, and it would appear that as mixed fuels are unreliable, apparently
combining the disadvantages of each and thus overcoming their good
points, it is more probable that with a small and separate gasoline-tank
connected with the vaporizer or mixer by a small pipe fitted with a spray-
nozzle the motor could be easily started with gasoline, on account of its
high volatility, in a few moments, after which the alcohol fuel could be
turned on and used at pleasure and with certainty of results. Or an
auxiliary alcohol heating device, consisting of a special alcohol torch-
lamp arranged to heat up the alcohol vaporizer for starting the alcohol
motor might be used.

In any event, if alcohol can successfully run explosive stationary and
portable agricultural motors — and practical experience has so demon-
strated on the authority of competent engineers, as already explained —
it is able also to successfully operate the automobile explosive motor.
If motors for using alcohol are so adapted, the question of its cost in
view of its many advantages will with some automobile owners not bar
its use.

In considering the second method, as above stated for using alcohol
in the automobile motor, the author is pleased to show in Fig. 155 a
French alcohol carbureter designed for such adaptation. This cut
and the following description were sent to the author by M. Henri
Dupays, of Paris, France:

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

305

"The carbureter proper and the distributor consist of two distinct
parts united by the tube t. The distributor is operated periodically,
at the moment of the aspiration (suction) of the air by a vertical
movement induced by the mechanism of the motor through the rod T.'
"This distributor is, in effect, a sort of force-pump, consisting of a
tube D, resting in the combustible (fuel) contained in the secondary
reservoir A, which is provided with a float C operating the valve H,
thus maintaining the fuel at a constant level in the reservoir A. A rod
K, fastened to T, maintains a larger or smaller space in the bottom of
the tube D by means of the small piston p. This rod K passes through
the piston p and is of sufficient length to pass through the small hole

©W=

P N

Fig. 155.— The Mechanical Distributing Carbureter used on the Bruhot Alcohol-
Motors.

in the lower end of the tube D. This rod K is fastened to the tube
D by the spring V held by the nut G, solid on K, on the upper part of
the tube D.

"When the rod jT is lowered it operates the rod K of the tube D
by the intermediate nut G and the spring V, the space in the bottom
of D being already filled with fuel. The tube D when it is lowered,
fits tightly on the seat of the valve of the vessel J under the reservoir A.

"When the tube D is forced down on the seat of this valve in / by
the movement of the rod T, the combustible held in the lower part of
D Is completely separated from the liquid outside of this tube in the
reservoir A, while the rod T continues its movement and overcomes
the tension of the spring V, the lever T is lowered more and more and
the rod K being also simultaneously lowered its end opens the escape-

306 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

valve of J, while the fuel contained in the tube D is forced by the piston
p into J and escapes through the tube t into the vaporizer.

''When T is again raised all the parts resume their original positions
and the tube D is recharged with the liquid fuel.

''The fuel is thus periodically pumped in definite measured quan-
tities into the carbureter, where it falls upon the coils of the heated
spiral tube S and upon the walls of the vaporizer, which is heated by the
exhaust-gases from the motor.

" The vaporization is facilitated by the small quantity of air drawn
in through the pipe M, as well as by the air which enters by N and
is heated by contact with S and R and finally with that of the cold
air arriving by 0.

"The explosive mixture or charge is conveyed by the pipe L to the
cylinder of the motor. The exhaust-gases from the motor enter the
vaporizer at P in the spiral tube S and are expelled through the cylin-
der RJ'

In the description, of which the above is a translation, it is not
stated how vaporization is effected in order to start the alcohol-engine
or motor when cold. It is evident that heat in some form must be
used to first heat up this vaporizer. Whether this is done by an auxiliary
alcohol blast-lamp or torch is not stated.

Neither is any mention made as to whether the cold-alcohol motor
is first started with gasoline from a small tank, after which the alcohol
fuel is turned on and used, the heat of the exhaust-gases neutralizing
the cooling due to evaporation.

^1. Dupays further writes the author on the whole question of de-
natured alcohol in France as follows: "My opinion has not changed
from that definitely given by me at the end of my article, published in
The Engineering Magazine, New York, U. S. A., in February, 1904."
This article of M. Dupays was entitled "Mechanical and Commercial
Aspects of the Alcohol-motor." The editors in a note published with
this article state that "alcohol has, further, qualities which recom-
mend it strongly for use in internal-combustion motors applied to the
driving of automobiles, and it is in this relation that M. Dupays dis-
cusses it most fully. His intimate connection with the most notable
experimental researches which have been made in this direction give
him especial standing as an authority." In this article M. Dupays
mentioned that "the best carbureter from a mechanical point of view
will be the one which introduces automatically into each cylinder that
quantity of alcohol which may be constant or variable, depending on
the system of governing employed, which is strictly necessary to do

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 307

the work, and in which the temperature is such as to insure rapid and
complete evaporation of this charge in the least volume of air required
to produce complete combustion. Carbureters fulfilling these con-
ditions for alcohol exist." "Constructed originally to be used in con-
net? tion with shale-oil, they have acted perfectly when alcohol, either
pure or carbureted, w^as substituted. It might be difficult to show
that the vaporizers now used with light mineral oils give equal satis-
faction."

In this article, how^ever, M. Dupays gave no \dew or sectional drawing
to show the appearance and construction of such a vaporizer. In order
to ascertain just w^hat was the construction and what were the principles
governing such alcohol vaporizer, the author, after reading this article
of ^L Dupays, entered into correspondence with him, resulting in the
securing of a cut and special description of such an alcohol carbureter
from M. Dupays. It is this special alcohol vaporizer w^hich forms
the subject of this description, and a sectional view of which has been
shown in Fig. 155. on page 305. In this same magazine article, already
mentioned, M. Dupays concludes as follows:

"In spite of the liberal encouragement given by the (French) govern-
ment, and in spite of the rapid strides made in perfecting the mechanical
appliances, the industrial development of alcohol as a fuel is at present
nearly at a standstill." "And this rather distressing condition of
affairs is due entirely to those whose own interests should prompt them
to foster the grow^th of the industry; for at the present price of the
commodity alcohol cannot compete successfully with its rivals." After
enumerating several reasons to account for Germany's successful ex-
perience with denatured alcohol, M. Dupays concludes his article,
mentioned above, as follows: "But the most important cause is found
in the application (in Germany) of the principle of co-operation. The
syndicate of agricultural distillers, w^hich controls 80 per cent of the
output, sells its entire product through a single agency — the Centrale
fur Spiritus Verwerthung (office for the sale of alcohol) — established
in 1899. The commercial organization of this company is in many
ways remarkable; it has succeeded in assuring to the manufacturer
a satisfactory profit, and to the public a condition which in France is
still a thing to be hoped for in the future, namely, a low price for
alcohol."

The American Diesel Engine. — In this comparison of alcohol for
power purposes with the usual Uquid fuels, the use of which has been
perfected after a long period of experiments, it is also of interest to con-
sider the Diesel engine, which uses crude petroleum or fuel oil. This

308 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

engine is a practical heat-engine, in which no system of igniting or mixing
device is used, and it has met with deserved success. In Fig. 156 is
shown a 225-horse-power triple-cyUnder Diesel engine. The action of
this engine is on the four-stroke or Otto cycle, which has been already
explained in detail under the title of "Otto Alcohol-engine," at the
beginning of this chapter.

The Diesel engine differs from all. previous internal-combustion engines
in compressing a full charge of air to a point above the igniting-point of
the fuel, whether liquid or gaseous, then injecting this fuel for a certain
period (variable according to load) into this red-hot air, where it burns
with limits of pressure and temperature under perfect control. There
are no explosions as in all other gas- or oil-engines, but steady combus-
tion at predetermined, much lower temperature and without essen-
tial increase in pressure, the combustion line being practically an
isothermal.

A small petroleum pump lifts the fuel into the chamber. A special
compressor serves to compress air to inject the fuel and to store a surplus
in an air-tank for starting the engine when cold. The fuel used is the
common fuel oil or crude oil of Pennsylvania, Texas, or California. In
speed regulation for sudden changes of load the Diesel engine will show
a control equal to the best types of automatic engines. An extremely
sensitive governor controlling the quantity of fuel injected for each
stroke regulates the heat and therefore the expansive power of the air
which is its medium.

The first experiments in 1893 by Rudolph Diesel, an eminent engineer
of Munich, Germany, had in view mainly small machines, and these were
more properly called by the appropriate name of motors. As more
extended and complete experiments were made, the sizes have increased
up to 450 horse-power, and 750-horse-power units are about to be
placed in construction.

The compression of the air for the fuel mixture in the cylinder of
this engine reaches 800 pounds per square inch, and is cooled before
introduction to the fuel-valve, which opens and a charge of liquid fuel
mixed with this compressed air is blown into the already red-hot air in
the cylinder.

After the fuel needle-valve closes, the hot gases expand until the
piston has traveled 90 per cent of its stroke, when the exhaust-valve
opens to relieve the pressure before commencement of the next upward
or exhaust stroke. The pressure at opening of the exhaust-valve for
normal load is generally 35 pounds per square inch and the temperature
about 700° Fahrenheit.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

309

The absolute efficiency claimed for this engine is about 28 per cent,
and in their larger units an absolute efficiency of 30 per cent is the standard
performance and is frequently excelled in practice. In calculating the

Fig. 156. — 225-horse-power Triple-cylinder Diesel Engine as installed in the Light
and Power Plant of the German Tyrolean Alps. Exhibited at the World's
Fair, St. Louis, 1904.

efficiency of the Diesel engine the losses as actually found in tests made
on a 20-horse-power Diesel motor in New York were taken. This is a
very high efficiency. With these engines in large sizes the heat losses

310 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

through the exhaust-gases can in many cases be largely reduced by
utihzing this heat for heating water or for producing steam for the heat-
ing of workrooms or for various mechanical purposes. In case of the loss
of heat to the cooling-water, it may be said such heated water can be
used for these same purposes, it being a question of temperature and
quantities whether these two sources of such heated water are to be
separately utilized or first combined. With these engines no difficulty has
been experienced in operating alternating-current generators in parallel.
By the use of such a cheap and universally obtainable fuel as crude
petroleum or fuel oil, and in the case of such large horse-power units,
this Diesel engine possesses special and unique advantages in the field
where conditions call for such a type of engine. The larger the size
horse-power used in these engines the more heat is generated from the
two causes above mentioned. The conditions should therefore be such
that this heat can be profitably utilized on a large scale, as has been
pointed out above, so as to reduce the heat losses to the lowest possible
point in the use of these engines. As the engines are of the stationary
type, and are tending more and more to larger sizes, they do not con-
flict with portable alcohol-motors and alcohol marine engines in sizes up
to 50 horse-power. The same may be said of engines for agricultural
purposes or for individual uses in cities, where the odor of the exhaust-
gases from crude petroleum or fuel oil may be objectionable, and where
other factors may determine, in case alcohol can be obtained at a low
enough price, that the latter type of engine should be used.

The Mietz & Weiss Kerosene-oil Engine. — It is of interest to also
consider kerosene oil as a fuel for power purposes in this chapter in
comparison with alcohol. For this purpose the following interesting test
from the Engineering News of September 15, 1904, Vol. LII, No. 11, is
taken:

TESTS OF AN OIL-ENGINE WITH STEAM INJECTION.

A test of a 15-H.P. engine of this type was conducted in the testing
department of Mietz & Weiss, of New York, by Messrs. Charles Wine-
burgh and S. J. Gold water. An abstract of these results is given
below.

Fuel. — ^The fuel used was ordinary American kerosene oil. Analysis
showed the composition to be

Carbon, 84.98 parts;

Hydrogen, 15.02 parts by weight.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 311

The available B.T.U. per pound found by means of the calorimeter,
calculated to represent the heat available in the engine, was 18,520.
Abstract from Table I. Sunmiary of data and results:

Number of run 6

Approximate load Full load

Duration of run, hours 2

Oil pints, total 32.01

Jacket-water, total, pints 79.48

Revolutions per minute 283.5

Explosions per minute 283.5

Brake-load, pounds, net 230.3

Ratio air to oil by weight 32.4

Specific heat of exhaust-gases 0.244

Maximiun pressure, pounds per sq. in. abs 185

Compression pressure, pounds per sq. in. abs 114

B.T.U. per D.H.P. per hour 16,000

Thermal efficiency from I.H.P., power end 0.209

net 0.193

'' " " D.H.P 0.159

Maximum thermal efficiency 0.445

Fig. 157, p. 312, shows a general view of the Mietz & Weiss kerosene-
oil engine with evaporating- jacket. Fig. 158, p. 312, gives a longitudinal
vertical section of the same engine. The starting of this engine is effected
as follows : The engine being in good working order in every respect, the
kerosene-tank is filled. The water is then turned on to the water-jacket
of the cylinder. By means of the kerosene blue burner furnished with
each engine the combustion-chamber is heated externally for a few
minutes to the temperature necessary for combustion. The combustion-
chamber is indicated at / in the cut. The air needed for the explosion
charge is now admitted to the cylinder and compressed by a throw of
the engine fly-wheel by hand. The charge of oil is now introduced into
the combustion-chamber by the hand-lever of the oil-pump. An explo-
sion occurs, the engine starts up, and after this runs automatically.

The kerosene blue burner, furnished with each engine for the external
heating of the combustion chamber, is shown in Fig. 158, p. 312. The
use of alcohol in this make of engine compared to kerosene has already
been discussed under the preceding section entitled The ilietz & Weiss
Alcohol-engine.

Endurance Test of the Kerosene-oil Engine. — ^The kerosene-oil engine
gives a satisfactory record for continuous work with but little cost for

312

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

repairs. In a case coming under the personal notice of the author, such
an engine used for pumping water ran 4J hours on an average per day
for a year. One revolution of the pump = 8.8 U. S. gallons. The average

Fig. 157. — The Mietz & Weiss Direct -coupled Kerosene-oil Engine and Generator.

FlO. 158. — Section of engine shown in Fig. 157, with Evaporating-jacket.

number of gallons of water pumped per day was 91,048. The average
number of gallons of oil used for pumping per day was 8i.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 315

This engine has run for seven years without repairs except a new
cap for the combustion-chamber. This was originally made of cast iron,
but this cracked and one made from cast steel was substituted with very
satisfactory results, it being free from this defect. The combustion-
chamber showed some deposit of soot, but required cleaning only at
infrequent intervals. Altogether this engine proved to be a satisfactory
and economical source of power for this purpose.

The Gasoline-engine and its Adaptation to Alcohol. — In Fig. 159,
p. 313, is shown the regular 50-horse-power gasoline-engine as made by
The Foos Gas-engine Company. In starting their small-size types of
engines, all that is necessary is to throw the switch in contact, open the
fuel- valve to the proper starting-point, and revolve the fly-wheel so as to
complete the four-s roke ycle, after which an explosion is obtained and
the engine takes its charge automatically until the rated speed is attained,
at which the goverrur takes hold and either throttles or cuts the charge
out entirely, according to which type oi governor is used.

To start their larger-size engines the switch is thrown in contact, the
fuel- valve and crank properly set, and by means of compressed air the
first four-stroke cycle is completed, after which the operation of the
engine is the same as just described for the smaller sizes. These engines
also start easily in using alcohol and run right along on alcohol. When
making tests of engines to be recorded at their works, this company
usually give an endurance test of about ten hours.

They have made more elaborate efficiency tests in connection -mth
gas, but have also made a number of minor tests with gasoline. They
find that the brake thermal efficiency ranges on their engines from 18 per
cent to 28 per cent, the maximum having been obtained from a 50-horse-
power engine operating on gas. Their experience has been that, o^Ning
to gasoline being drawn into an engine in a liquid state, the thermal
efficiency obtained is not as high as when the same engine is using
gas.

The indicated efficiency ranges from 23 per cent to 33 per cent. The
average mechanical efficiency is 87 per cent. The 50-horse-power
gasoline-engine shown in the cut is fitted with a combination fuel-
valve.

The Foos Co., can furnish these engines so equipped that they can be
used with either gas or gasoline, changing from one fuel to the other
without stopping the engine, but do not furnish this type as a regular
equipment.

On the smaller sizes of these engines a horizontal pump is furnished
and with this exception all sizes are built in the same way as in the case

316

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

of the regular 50 -horse-power engine shown in the cut. This engine
operates on gasoHne, naphtha, distillate, etc. As nearly all the principal
working parts are assembled on one side, the engine can be installed to

Mi:'JUUUl/>H'"

the best advantage and free access be had to the devices for regulating
speed, fuel, and air-supply, time of ignition, and for starting the engine.
Such advantageous features are, however, usually furnished by all the
leading engine manufacturers. From letters from users of these engines,

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 317

covering a long period of years, it is seen that the endurance and length
of life of these engines is extremely satisfactory.

The ignition system of the Foos engine is shown in Fig. 160. It
consists essentially of a patent revolving wipe-contact electric igniter
with two independent electrodes, the stationary and revolving, each
carrying a steel point, the two coming in contact each time a spark is
necessary. The electric spark is the only mode of firing which can be
used with all kinds of fuel, accurately timed, and which can always be
relied upon to enable starting the engine upon a moment's notice.

In the cut shown, the revolving blade A, coming in contact with the
spring B at each rotation, emits a large electric spark of high tempera-
ture, while at the same time the wiping contact of the two parts removes
any burnt carbon or scale, preventing the incrustation of their edges,
which in ordinary constructions is the cause of so much trouble. This
rubbing action keeps the points of contact brightly polished, and thus
insures continuous and even ignition. A large contact surface is thus
ensured, a point of much importance, and any needed adjustment for
wear is easily made, while the blades can be quickly renewed at trifling
cost.

On the larger Foos engines the time of ignition can be adjusted while
the engine is in motion by turning the thumb-screw^ C on the end of the
igniter-rod, and this is used also to retard the impulses in starting up,
which avoids any possibility of the engine starting backward. The
igniter is situated in the inlet-valve E, as showTi in Fig. 161. Its
location thus exposes it least to the heat of the cylinder, and the igniters
blades being in the direct course of the incoming charge are cooled by
every fresh intake of gas and air entering the cylinder. The spark is
thus produced where the mixture is the purest and most easily ignited.
Either part of the igniter can be removed independently and the action
and spark inspected by simply removing the cap F.

The inlet- and exhaust-valves of the Foos engine are showTi in Fig.
161. These valves belong to the vertical poppet type, and are stated by
this company to be far superior to the horizontal poppet-valves which so
often leak by reason of their not seating properly on account of the wear
on their stems and guides.

The inlet- valve E and exhaust-valve D are in separate castings, which
are thoroughly water- jacketed, attached to opposite sides of the cylinder,
and communicate by large ports with the combustion-chamber C. It is
not necessary to detach the castings to remove the valves. The inlet-
valve can be taken out by simply unscrewing the plug F and the exhaust-
valve by unscrewing the plug H.

318

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Suction in the cylinder is not relied upon in these engines, as in case
of most engines, to open the inlet- valve. It is lifted positively by a lever
A and closed by its own weight and by a strong spring B. This company
state that suction-valves are usually enclosed in a casing in the cylinder
or head, where they soon become distorted and destroyed by the heat.

The inlet- valve being opened by the cam, there is practically no
vacuum to prevent the cylinder being filled with the charge at atmos-
pheric pressure, and it not being closed until the proper point in the
stroke assists in preventing the vacuum suggested.

Fig. 161. — The Inlet- and Exhaust-valves for the Foos Gasoline-engine.

The fuel- valve regulates the supply of fuel and is positive in its action,
like all the other valves in this make of engine.

In these engines the piston passes over no ports and is free from the
destructive friction occasioned by the improper lubrication and loss of
efficiency caused by such construction.

The valve-gear is operated by steel cams driven by machine-cut
gears of a form indicating the highest efficiency. By adjusting with a
common wrench the screws carried by the lift-levers A, any wear or loose-
ness in the valve mechanism may be quickly and wholly taken up.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 319

With regard to the percentage of clearance space in these Foos gaso-
line-engines in which the cylinder-bore ranges from 4J to 16 inches, the
ratio of the combustion-chamber to piston displacement varies from 34
to 40 per cent for gasoline, while for gas this percentage runs from 22 to
28. In this engine there are no working parts in the cylinder-head.
Consequently the clearance is decreased behind the piston by simply
casting a cylinder-head in which there is a projection that extends into
the counterbore of the cylinder; the only eliminating point is a place in
which a greater compression would be a detriment.

In reference to the use of the Foos engine with alcohol, this company
state that they are still experimenting on this line. They have, however,
reached results which warrant them in saying that their engines, w^hen
used with this fuel, will start easily and run right along on alcohol just
the same as on gasoline.

Comparison of the Economy of the Steam-engine with Other
Types of Engines. — Before making this comparison w^e will discuss
the economy of steam as a source of powder by itself. The use of steam
as a source of power and the construction of the steam-engine are so well
known that a brief description of its uses is all that is needed in this
respect. By passing steam under pressure through the cylinder of a
steam-engine the energy represented by the expansive force of the steam
is availed of for useful work.

In order to do this the back or exhaust valve of the cylinder is set at
the least number of pounds pressure above that of the atmosphere as is
possible for economical use of the steam. Such back pressure is varied
according to conditions and circumstances. A simple engine is one in
which the steam is expanded but once. The steam is usually admitted
into the cylinder at from 80 to 100 lbs. pressure per square inch and ex-
hausts or leaves the cylinder at about 2 to 3 lbs. pressure unless the
exhaust-steam is used for heating or manufacturing purposes. After
the steam has expanded in the cylinder as described, it has lost the
greater part of its pressure and is allowed to escape by the exhaust-valve
as mentioned. This valve is usually set so that about 2 to 3 lbs. pres-
sure is left in the exhaust-steam.

In order to economize or use the heat left in this exhaust-steam
various methods are used according to circumstances. In some manu-
facturing establishments where a considerable amount of hot w^ater is
required this exhaust-steam can be used to heat such water. By a device
called a feed-water heater, such exhaut-steam can be used to previously
heat the water used for the steam-boilers. The water obtained by this
condensation of such exhaust-steam is incapable of being used except

320 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

for purposes where the presence of traces of oil from the cylinder of the
engine will make no difference. There is, however, so much waste in
using the simple type of steam-engine that in order to more fully econ-
omize the heat left in the exhaust-steam mentioned much more effective
types of steam-engines have been invented. One of these types is the
simple condensing -engine. The economy derived from the use of this
type is effected for the reason that a greater number of expansions is
obtained than in the non-condensing engine, and the temperature of the
escaping steam is very much lower.

In one of these types of engines the steam is expanded twice — once
in the high-pressure cylinder and again in the low-pressure cylinder —
after which the exhaust-steam is condensed. Such an engine is called
a compound condensing steam-engine. They are built both in vertical
and horizontal design. By condensing the exhaust-steam from the low-
pressure cylinder a vacuum is obtained of some 27 inches, thus rendering
very effective the exhaust-steam from the high-pressure cylinder after
it passes into the low-pressure cylinder, there to be again expanded.
The water heated by condensing the exhaust-steam from the low-pressure
cylinder, if it can be used, represents a still further gain in economy.
Another type of such engines is the triple-expansion steam-engine, in
which the steam is expanded three times, after which the steam is con-
densed as described. In a compound-condensing engine the steam is
admitted at a pressure of 125 to 150 lbs., and exhausts into the
low-pressure side or cylinder at a pressure of 5 to 10 lbs. In the
triple-expansion type of engine the steam is admitted to the first high-
pressure cylinder at 165 to 200 lbs. per square inch of pressure, to the
second cylinder at 50 lbs. pressure, and to the third at 5 to 10 lbs.
pressure.

The economy of using steam in engines is still further enhanced by
several other methods, which are as follows: The flue-gases from the
boilers are made to give up some of their heat by passing them through
a so-called '^economizer." This apparatus, or economizer, consists of a
series of iron pipes filled with circulating water which absorbs heat from
the escaping gases from the boiler-furnace on their way to the chimney
and thus raises the temperature of the feed-water. This hot water so
produced can be at once used in the steam-boilers. The water heated
by condensing the exhaust-steam from the engine can be used for various
purposes about the manufacturing plant where hot water is required.
The heat in the exhaust-steam from the feed-pumps and the steam-
cylinders of the condenser is made use of to heat the feed-water for the
steam-boilers.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER.

321

A few figures showing the comparative total coal consumption in
pounds, the fixed charges on plant at 11 per cent, cost of attendance,
cost of plant per horse-power on these various types of engines will
demonstrate very clearly the advances along the Unes of economy in
operation and maintenance which have been made. These comparative
figures are shown in the table submitted herewith. It is a promising
attempt to secure a unit of cost in the comparative expense of steam as
a source of power.

* Table of Yearly Cost of Steam-power with Fairly Steady Load, 308 Days,
10 Hours per Day.

Type of Engine.

Horse-
power of
Engine.

Cost of Plant
per H.P.,
including
Buildings.

Total Coal
Consumption
in Pounds
per H.P.
per Hour.

Fixed
Charges on

Plant at
11 Percent.

Cost of
Attend-
ance.

Engine and boiler combined
Simple non-condensing ....

Simple condensing.

Compound condensing.

100

500

1000

2000

S76.00

190.00

139.00

114.00

72.00

193.00

143.00

118.00

80.00

71.00

93.00

63.00

53.50

50.00

7.00
7.00
5.25
4.50
3.50
6.00
4.68
3.91

03
75
25
75
75
75

$83.60

209.00

305.80

376.20

594.00

212.30

314.60

389.40

660.00

781.00

1023.00

3465.00

5885.00

11000.00

S157.00

157.00

209.00

261.00

470.00

157.00

209.00

261.00

470.00

587.00

770.00

1694.00

3080.00

4620.00

* This table was compiled by Mr. Charles T. Main in January, 1898, and with due allowances
for the rise in prices of engines and building materials since that date it is substantially correct
at the present time. Mr. Main is a mill engineer of Boston, Mass. The table has been very kindly
contributed by him. The complete table, of which the above is a part, is not given, as it is
unnecessary to do so for the scope of comparisons made by the author below.

On the simple engines above one man attends engine, fires boiler, and
is supposed to do other work besides.

On the 10-horse-power plant one fourth of his time is charged to
attendance and three fourths on the 100-horse-power plant.

On the compound condensing-engine one man at $15 per week is
charged up to the 100-horse-power engine; one man at $15 per week, one
man at $12 per week, and one man at S6 per week are charged up to the
500-horse-power engine; one man at $18, two men $24, and two men
$18 per week are charged up to the 1000-horse-power engine; one man
at $24 per week, four men $48 per week, and two men $18 per week
are charged up to the 2000-horse-power engine.

322 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The wastefulness of the small type of steam-engine of the simple non-
condensing type is strikingly illustrated by the above table, as well as the
great economy resulting from the use of the large-size condensing types
of engines already mentioned. Roughly speaking, the waste entailed by
using the small sizes of non-condensing steam-engines is fully 25 per cent
over that of the larger sizes of condensing-engines.

From what has been said concerning the usual type of small-sized
non-condensing steam-engines, and also from the probability that sizes
of from 10 horse-power to 50 horse-power of alcohol-engines will be used
at first in the United States, and also for the reason that the steam-
engine possesses only about one half the thermal efficiency of the internal-
combustion type of engine, it can be seen that there exists a wide field for
the stationary type of alcohol-engine. The extent of its use will largely
depend upon the selling price of the denatured alcohol. No steam-
boiler is required for the alcohol-engine. The cost for attendance is
small compared to that required in the case of steam-engines of equal
size horse-power. The portability of the above sizes of alcohol-engines
enables them to be easily set up and used, for instance, about
the farm. The above reasons all point to the probability of these
engines being largely used in the United States for agricultural power
purposes.

The fact that the fire under the steam-boiler must be constantly
maintained so as to be ready for power demands at a moment's notice
makes the fuel cost under conditions where intermittent power is wanted
quite excessive. This is not the case with the alcohol-engine. When the
engine stops the use and the cost of the fuel also stops.

In comparing the economy of the steam-engine with these other types
of engines (internal-combustion engines) for the purposes of electric
lighting and large development of power for manufacturing purposes, etc.,
it is still recognized that the great uniformity and reliability in the per-
formance and endurance of the steam-engine, as well as its economy in
the large sizes of the condensing types of engines mentioned, entitle it
to very favorable consideration as a prime source of power. Whether
the rotary or turbine type of steam-engine will supplant the older recip-
rocating types in large-sized steam-engines is a feature that necessarily
does not call for discussion in this book.

It may, however, be remarked that even the present types of internal-
combustion engines are still built upon the design of the reciprocating
type of engine, and it would seem, as has been pointed out by Warren
in his article, " A Combination of Pressure Generator and Rotary Engine,'^
published in the Engineering Magazine, February, 1904, that ''in the

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 323

present state of development of the internal-combustion engine it is
undoubtedly true that the gain in thermal efficiency shown by the
internal-combustion type of engine over the steam-engine is prac-
tically offset by the mechanical limitations and disadvantages which it
presents."

It has long ago been recognized that we are far from obtaining with
the steam-engine the full mechanical equivalent of heat, even when
working under the most favorable circumstances. Even with the most
economical types of steam-engines only some 15 per cent of the power
of which the fuel is capable is obtained. To find a more economical
means than this of converting heat into mechanical effect is one of the
great problems of the present age.

The Gas-engine Compared with Other Types of Engines. — In com-
paring other types of engines with the simple gas explosive type of
engine it may be mentioned at the start that the gas-engine was
the pioneer in this type of power producers, the Otto gas-engine, or four-
cycle engine, the principles of which are described in this chapter, as used
for alcohol, gasoline, and kerosene fuels, being one of the earliest and the
leading engine of this kind.

Where natural gas or blast-furnace gas can be availed of the gas-
engine is very economical to use. It is also used largely in cities where
cheap illuminating-gas can be procured, and such engines are also now
furnished and run with their own small gas-producer plant for the sim-
ple and economical production of coal-gas for such purpose.

* At the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in London,
July 24-26, 1906, attended by American and Continental electrical
engineers, it was stated that there were ordered by German iron- works
and collieries, from March 1 to July 1, 1906, 31 gas-engines of about
36,150 horse-power, and that of forty-nine German smelting- works
thirty-two had already gas-engines at work and nine had ordered
such engines. There were at work 203 engines of about 184,000 horse-
power, and in course of erection and en order 146 engines of about 201,-
000 horse-power, making a total of 380,000 horse-power.

The recent gas-engine development since 1902 described above, includes
large-sized engines, of from 500 horse-power to 2500 horse-power, and
their use is largely local for the reason that shipyards, steel-works, and
plants requiring large powers make use of such engines. In some of the
shipyards in Glasgow steam-power has been largely supplanted by gas,

* From the Iron and Coal Trades Review, Friday, July 27, 1906, sent the author
by the Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute of London, England.

324 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

which is generated by a special ''producer " plant whose waste products
are said to be recovered and sold.

In steel-works where the iron blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, etc., can
be assembled this source of power promises to be of great importance
and effect considerable economy. In the case of waste gases from iron-
furaces and gases from coke-ovens there will be rendered available sources
of power for the cheap generation of electricity where local conditions
seem to warrant.

It will thus be recognized that the gas-engine is to become of vast
importance in a special field, and in such large sizes under such unique
conditions that alcohol cannot become a competitor for producing power
along these lines. As such development will be largely local in its charac-
ter and in large sizes of engines, it will not conflict with the smaller sizes
of explosive engines used throughout this country, in which class alcohol
will probably find its first large employment if the price is sufficiently low.
A further reason for calling attention to the gas-engine is because its
principles of working have been largely followed by the internal-combus-
tion or explosive engines, using these other fuels which we have discussed.

It is entirely beyond the scope of this book to attempt any extended
explanation of how the different tests showing the efficiency of gas-engines
are made, as the mathematics involved and the complex and intricate
procedure adopted preclude any such treatment of this phase of the
subject.

Outline of the Methods Used in Testing Internal-combustion
Engines. — It will, however, be of interest to sketch in outline the
theory of the methods used in the testing of engines of this type. We
will say, therefore, that the object of the test is to find that fractional
part of heat supplied in the fuel which is realized in useful work whatever
fuel is used. In order to do this we have to determine the input and
output.

In the case of input the measurement is the cubic feet or weight of fuel
used for a given time and its heating capacity.

In the case of output the measurement is (a) power developed in the
cylinder. This is obtained from indicator-cards which represent the his-
tory of the pressure at each point of revolution, and from the average
pressure thus obtained, together with the dimensions of the engine and
the number of the revolutions, the power "may be computed and is the
indicated horse-power. (6) Power delivered at pulley measured by brake or
electrically, and is the brake horse-power. The ratio of these different
quantities, representing the fractional part of the heat in terms of power
utilized, are termed efficiencies.

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER. 325

Indicated horse-power

Input
Brake horse-power

The indicated efficiency = i ut

The brake efficiency ,

^, 1 . , «^ . Indicated horse-power

The mechanical efficiency = — pj — -, — r •

*^ Brake horse-power

As a standard of reference we use the efficiency which would be ob-
tained in a ''perfect " or ideal gas-engine, i.e., an engine undergoing no
loss of heat and no loss of power through friction.

Without going into the mathematics necessary to prove the problem,
it may be stated that the ideal thermal or heat efficiency depends solely
upon the proportions of the engine and not at all upon the nature of the
fuel used.

Thus let PD= the volume of piston displacement

and C=the volume of clearance space,

that is, all the space left between the piston and cylinder-head and gas-
ports up to the valve, then the efficiency is given by the formula

Efficiency =1

\c+pd)

To find how nearly the actual engine approaches the ideal conditions
we have only to divide the actual efficiency by the ideal efficiency, which
is explained as follows:

Actual efficiency = -7 — ^-— -.
Input

Output = I.H.P.

Input = the total heat of combustion of the burning fuel (alcohol or

any fuel).

Both output and input must be expressed in the same terms or units.
To change British thermal units to foot-pounds multiply by 778.

As an example of the calculation of the best possible efficiency of an
engine using alcohol compared to the ideal or theoretical efficiency, vre
give an alcohol-engine (the Otto or Deutz engine) possessing 18 per cent
clearance. Then the piston displacement being 100 per cent, by loga-
rithms, we find

326 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Log C= log 18 =1.2553
Log (PD+C) = log (100 + 18) = 2.0719
Subtract • —

9.1834-10
.4

Log (p^p^)' = 3.67336- 4

= 9.6734-10.
Number corresponding = 0.4714,

E= 1—0.4714 (number corresponding) = 52.9% efficiency.

In the case of a similar size horse-power (Otto or Deutz) gas- or gaso-
line-engine the clearance is 28 per cent. In this case the best possible
efficiency calculates to 45.6%.

The American Diesel engine has 7 per cent clearance including valve-
chambers, and the best possible efficiency calculates to 66.4%, but is
not reahzed in practice. The Diesel cycle is supposed to depart some-
what from the Otto cycle so that its theoretical efficiency would be higher.
To find the theoretical temperature after compression we calculate it
from the equation

, PD+cy

r=1273°F.

We assume, for the purposes of calculation, that the initial tempera-
ture Tq = QOO° Fahr. absolute, as was found in one case, although this
value should be first determined in the case of any actual experiment
and test. By calculation, as follows, we obtain the value of T, assuming
adiabatic compression (no heat being given out or taken in) of a perfect
gas ; the relation between temperature and volume is shown by

Applied to the Deutz or Otto alcohol-engine under consideration, with
18 per cent clearance, we have

PD + C=vo = n8
C=v = 18

!ro = 600 (by assumption as explained above).

ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF POWER, 327

r=ro(^)

log ro = log 118 = 2.0719
logv =log 18=1.2553

0.8166
.4

0.3266
log To = log 600=2.7782

3.1048
T= 1273° F. absolute temperature,
461° absolute zero.

t= 812° F.

The temperature of the charge has thus been increased from 139° F.
at admission to 812° F. at the end of compression, or 673° F.

When ignition occurs there will be a further increase in tempera-
ture due to heat of combustion. The theoretical value of this assum-
ing no heat loss and instantaneous combustion would be

B.T.U. evolved bv combustion C Degrees increase

Specific heat at constant volume of gaseous mixture ( in temperature.

This is never realized because of heat losses and because the combus-
tion is not instantaneous. What this theoretical increase would be for
alcohol can be computed by assuming weight of fuel per revolution, heat
of combustion, and percentage mixture. The actual or initial tempera-
ture mentioned above at admission of the fuel charge must be deter-
mined by experiment, as has been said, and will vary vAih. quantity of
charge, size and speed of engine, mass of metal, etc. To guard against
preignition the actual temperature must not exceed that at which the
substance will burn, and such temperatures have to be determined by
actual experiment.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER Ylll.

In a general way it can be stated that the clearance in the cylinder
depends upon the nature of the fuel and also on the size and speed of
the engine.

Thus for each engine there is a definite clearance which gives the
maximum economy for any given fuel and speed. For power installa-
tions this must be taken into account, but for smaller engines, such as

328 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

are used in automobiles, where economy is a secondary consideration,
some deviation from the best clearance is permissible. Thus without
much loss of economy it might be possible to burn alcohol in a motor
designed for some other fuel.

In the Otto gas-engine the average consumption per horse-power per
hour when using illuminating-gas of approximately 650 B.T.U. is 18
cubic feet, with natural gas about 12 to 15 cubic feet, according to the
quality of the gas, and with producer-gas about 100 cubic feet. The field
for each of these types of engines we have described has been pointed
out and such comparisons as can be made in a book of this scope have
been given.

The question of the standardization of denatured alcohol in the
United States for the purposes of power has still to be solved, although
the presence of about 15 per cent, by weight, of water would appear to be
the lowest usable quality for such use. This strength of alcohol is about
180° U. S. proof.

CHAPTER IX.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL.

In Foreign Countries. Law for Denatured Alcohol in the United States. Cost
of Denaturing Alcohol in Foreign Countries. Cost of Denaturing Alcohol in the
United States. Properties of Denaturing Materials. Special Denaturing Methods
in Foreign Countries. Tests Prescribed by Foreign Countries for the Denaturing
Materials Used. Tests Prescribed by the United States for the Denaturing Mate-
rials Used. Completely Denatured Alcohol and Specially Denatured Alcohol in
the United States. Recovery of Denatured Alcohol is permitted by the United
States Regulations. Spirit Varnishes.

Laws and Regulations for Denatured Alcohol in Foreign Countries.

Laws and Regulations for Methylated Spirits in the United
Kingdom. (Abstract of the English Regulations.)

Duty-free Spirit.

I. Methylated Spirit. There are two kinds of methylated spirit:

A. "Ordinary " Methylated Spirit for use in manufacturing operations
— This consists of a mixture of 90 parts of ordinary ethylic alcohol of a
strength of 60 to 66, o. p. (i.e., containing from 91 to 95 per cent of real
alcohol) and ten parts of wood naphtha of an approved type.

Methylated spirit can only be made by

1. Distillers;

2. Rectifiers, i.e., persons who redistill duty-paid spirit;

3. Licensed methylators.

B. "Mineralized " Methylated Spirit. — This is the methylated spirit
which is sold by retail to the general public for use for burning in spirit
lamps, for cleansing and domestic purposes generally, and also to some
extent for mixing with paints, stains, varnishes, etc., and for polishing
purposes by cabinet-makers, etc.

In making "mineralized " methylated spirit, the alcohol is first mixed
with the wood naphtha, as in making the "ordinary *' methylated spirit.

329

330 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

After mixing with the wood naphtha, the whole contents of the vat of
''ordinary "methylated spirit, or a portion of the spirit not less than 100
gallons, removed to another vat, is further mixed with three eighths of
one per cent (0.375 per cent) of an approved ''mineral naphtha." This
mineral naphtha is an ordinary light mineral oil, having a specific gravity
of from 0.800 to 0.830. The addition of this mineral oil does not inter-
fere with the purposes for which this spirit is mainly used, viz., burning
in spirit lamps, etc.

With regard to the denaturing of alcohol in England, it may be said
that a new law went into effect October 1, 1906, a copy of which is re-
printed, in part, in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry,
No. 16, Vol. XXV, August 31, 1906. The purpose of the new law from
which this abstract is made is to reduce the amount of methyl alcohol
in the methylated spirits for industrial purposes from 10 to 5 per cent.
This allows a cheaper denatured alcohol in addition to the former mineral-
ized methylated spirit. In the mineralized methylated spirits for light-
ing and general use, the 10 per cent of approved wood alcohol is still
retained and the three eighths of 1 per cent of approved mineral naphtha.
The form of denatured alcohol above permitted by these new regulations
is termed industrial methylated spirits. This new law will thus effect a
larger use for industrial purposes of the new kind of denatured alcohol.
Certain products which could not be made with the ordinary denatured
alcohol under the old law are now permitted to be manufactured with
industrial methylated spirits. These products are sulphuric ether,
ethyl chloride, methyl chloride, and ethyl bromide, chloroform, and
hydrate of chloral for use as a medicine or in any art or manufacture;
and no objection is made to the substitution of methylated spirits in the
preparation of soap, compound camphor, aconite, and belladonna lini-
ments of the British pharmacopoeia. No methylated spirits nor any
derivative thereof, except sulphuric ether, ethyl chloride, methyl chloride,
ethyl bromide, chloroform, and hydrate of chloral, can lawfully be present
in any article whatever capable of being used either wholly or partially
as a beverage or internally as a medicine.

It is also of importance to note that these new British regulations
permit the exportation of methylated spirits (denatured alcohol) .

The New British Excise Regulations for Industrial Alcohol and
Methylated Spirits.* — The Commissioners of Inland Revenue, in pur-

* The author is indebted to Mr. Charles G. Cresswell, General Secretary of the
Society of Chemical Industry, London, England, for copy of the Statutory Rules
and Orders, 1906, No. 622, containing these regulations.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 331

suance of the powers vested in them, hereby prescribe the following
regulations which are to be observed from and after the 1st day of Octo-
ber, 1906:

Part I. — As to spirits other than methylated spirits.

1. In taking account of the quantity of spirits in the spirit store of a
distiller the officer must carry to the debit side of the account the quan-
tity of spirits computed at proof, which shall be from time to time duly
conveyed into the store from the spirit receiver in the distillery, and
must carry to the credit side of the account the quantity so computed,
which shall have been sent out under permit.

2. There must be legibly cut, branded, or painted with oil-colour
upon the head of every cask in warehouse containing racked or blended
spirits, in addition to the other marks required to be thereon, the word
*' Racked " or the letter '^R " in the case of racked spirits, and the word
** Blended " in the case of blended spirits.

3. The manner in which a permit or certficate is to be cancelled is to
be by writing in large letters in ink across the same the word "Received,"
and the day and the hour of the receipt, or by drawing lines in ink across
the permit or certificate, so as to prevent it from being again used for the
removal of spirits.

Part II. — As to spirits received for use in the arts and manujadures under
section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902.

* 4. The allowance payable under section 1, subsection 1, of the Rev-
enue Act, 1906, in respect of spirits received for use under section 8 of
the Finance Act, 1902, shall be paid to the person authorized to receive
the spirits on production by him to the Collector of Inland Revenue for
the collection within which the spirits are authorized to be received for
use, of a certificate signed by the officer who shall have taken account
of the spirits on receipt, and countersigned by the supervisor of the
district, setting forth the quantity of spirits at proof which shall have
been so received.

Part III. — As to methylated spirits.

5. All spirits to be used for methylation must be conveyed under
bond to the premises where the methylation is to take place, and must

* A copy of this British Revenue Act, 1906, is given in the Appendix of this
book. The author has been furnished with this copy through the courtesy of Sir
William Crookes, member of the Departmental Committee on Industrial Alcohol,
which reported to both houses of Parliament in 1905.

332 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

there remain without alteration or change in the cask or package in
which the same are dehvered until an account of the spirits has been
taken by the proper officer of Inland Revenue.

6. An authorised methylator must at the time of methylation mix
with and dissolve in all spirits then methylated other than industrial
methylated spirits as defined by the Revenue Act, 1906, in addition to
the matter prescribed by section 123 of the Spirits Act, 1880, a quantity
not less than three eighths of 1 per cent by volume of mineral naphtha
of a specific gravity of not less than 0.800, and the mineral naphtha*
shall before the mixing thereof be examined and approved by the Prin-
cipal of the Government Laboratory or other officer appointed in that
behalf.

7. The account to be kept by an authorised methylator of any indus-
trial methylated spirits, and any mineralised methylated spirits prepared
or received by him, and of the sale or delivery thereof, shall be in the
forms prescribed in the first and second parts, respectively, of the first
schedule hereto annexed. The methylator shall enter in the appropriate
account daily, and at any tim e when required by an officer, the quantity
of methylated spirits made or received, and the separate quantities sent
out, both in bulk and at proof, and he must keep the accounts at all
times open for inspection by any officer of Inland Revenue.

8. Essential oil or other flavouring matter must not without the'
express sanction of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue be added to
or mixed with methylated spirits.

9. Methylated spirits may be removed by a maker of methylated
spirits from the place of methylation for exporttion under the following
regulations, viz.:

(a) The methylator must give the proper officer 12 hours' written
notice of his intention to export, and state in the notice the number
of gallons to be exported and the time at which the officer's attendance
will be required, which must be between the hours of 8 a.m and 2 p.m.

(6) The quantity exported at any one time must not be less than
10 gallons.

(c) The spirits may be exported in casks or other vessels, each
containing not less than 10 bulk gallons, or they may be exported in
smaller vessels containing any number of complete gallons, provided
the vessels are packed in cases or packages containing not less than 10
bulk gallons each.

(d) The casks or vessels must be marked and numbered in the
prescribed manner, and be accompanied on removal by a permit
written by the methylator and endorsed by the officer.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 333

10. A retailer of methylated spirits must not sell or have in his pos-
session for sale any methylated spirits other than mineralized methylated
spirits, nor any methylated spirits containing any essential oil or other
flavouring matter; but this regulation shall not prevent a retailer of
methylated spirits, if duly authorized by the Commissioners, receiving or
having in his possession industrial methylated spirits for use in an art
or manufacture carried on by him.

IL ^ retailer of methylated spirits —

(a) Must not receive or have in his possession at any one time a
greater quantity of methylated spirits for sale than 200 gallons ;

(b) jMust not receive methylated spirits from a retailer of methyU
ated spirits in a quantity exceeding four gallons at a time ; and

12. The account to be kept by a retailer of methylated spirits shall
be in the form given in the second schedule hereto annexed. The account
is to be at all times open to inspection by any officer of Inland
Revenue.

13. A retailer of methylated spirits must not use methylated spirits
in any art or manufacture carried on by him unless he has been author-
ised by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue to do so.

14. A person who has been authorised to receive methylated spirits
for use in any art or manufacture carried on by him, whether he holds or
does not hold a licence as a retailer of methylated spirits, must obtain
all methylated spirits received by him from an authorised methylator,
and in the manner directed by subsection 4 of section 124 of the Spirits
Act, 1880.

15. A retailer of methylated spirits, and a person authorised to
receive methylated spirits, must on receiving any methylated spirits
accompanied by a permit, or a document in the nature of a permit, keep
the permit or document and deliver it to the officer of Inland Revenue
who first inspects his premises after the receipt thereof.

16. The allowance payable under section 1, subsection 1, of the
Revenue Act, 1906, shall, as regards spirits used in making industrial
methylated spirits, be paid to the authorised methylator, on production
by him to the Collector of Inland Revenue of the collection in which the
methylating premises are situate, of a certificate signed by the supervisor
and the officer who shall have witnessed the methylation, setting
forth the quantity of spirits at proof which have been used for that
purpose.

17. The regulations of June 15th, 1891, relating to the manufacture

334

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

First Schedule.
First Part.

FoBM OP Stock Account of Industrial Methylated Spirits to be Kept by an
Authorised Methylator.

M , Authorised Methylator.

Industrial Methylated Spirits
Made or Received into Stock.

Industrial Methylated Spirits Sent Out of Stock Accom-
panied by a Permit.

Date of
Receipt

or
Mixing.

Bulk
Gals.

Strength
O.P.

Gals.

at
Proof.

Date of

Sending

Out or

Delivery.

No. of
Permit

Name of

Person to

Whom

Sent or

Delivered.

Of
What
Place.

Bulk
Gals.

Strength
O.P.

Gallons

at
Proof.

Second Part.

Form of Stock Account of Mineralised Methylated Spirits to be Kept by an
Authorised Methylator.

[uthorised Methylator.

Mineralised Methylated Spirits
Made or Received into Stock.

Mineralised Methylated Spirits Sent Out of Stock Accom-
panied by a Permit.

Date of
Receipt

or
Mixing.

Bulk
Gals.

Strength
O.P.

Gals.

at
Proof.

Date of

Sending

Out or

Delivery.

No. of
Permit

Name of
Person

to Whom

Sent or

Delivered.

Of
What
Place.

Bulk
Gals.

Strength
O.P.

Gallons

Proof.

Second Schedule.
Form of Stock Account to be Kept by a Retailer of Methylated Spirits.

Requisition.

Permit.

Account of Sales,

Date.

No.
of.

Gallons
Requi-
sitioned.

Date.

From
What
Methyla-
tor Re-
ceived.

Of
What
Place.

Gals.

Date.

Full

Name of

Person

to Whom

Sold.

What

Place

and

Address.

Trade
or
Occupa-
tion.

Gallons

and Parts

of a

Gallon

Sold.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 335

and sale of spirits, and that of November 17th, 1900, relating to permits
are hereby annulled as from September 30th, 1906.

Dated this 11th day of August, 1906.

Signed by order of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue.

J. B. Meers, Secretary.

Alcohol for Industrial Purposes. — ^The Revenue Bill, which in-
cludes facilities for the use, without payment of duty, of spirits in arts
and manufactures (J. S. C I., 1905, 397-426; ib. 706) has received the
Royal assent. After having been considered in Committee, the report
stage passed the House of Commons without discussion on July 27, and
the bill was read a first time in the House of Lords on the same date.
The second reading was carried without dissent on July 31, and the third
reading took place on the same afternoon. Rules and regulations for
the use of duty-free spirit will be issued on October 1st next.

Laws and Regulations of Denatured Alcohol in Germany. (Abstract
of Regulations.)* — Spirit for employment in industrial operations, vine-
gar-making, cleaning, heating, cooking, lighting, as well as for educa-
tional or scientific purposes, may, after having been denatured according
to the regulations, or, in special cases, mthovi denaturing on proof of the
spirit having been so used, be granted freedom from the spirit taxes on
the following conditions:

The freedom from duty includes —

(a) The release from the "consumption " tax and its additions.

(b) The refunding of the " jermenting-vat " tax, at the rate of 0.16
mark per liter of pure alcohol, so far as the spirit has been subjected
to it.

Duty-paid spirit and spirit containing more than 1 per cent of fusel-
oil are not admitted for denaturing. The denaturing is either complete ,
i.e., such as is deemed sufficient to make the spirit undrinkable or incom-
plete, i.e., such as requires the employment of other means for the pre-
vention of the improper emplojinent of such spirit.

General denaturing agents for complete denaturing:

4 parts wood naphtha
and 1 part pyridine bases,

* From Report of the Departmental Committee on Industrial Alcohol to the
British Parliament, 1905.

336 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

to each liter of which may be added 50 grams of lavender-oil or rosemary-
oil. Of this mixture 2J liters are added to each hectolitre of alcohol.

German methylated spirit therefore contains 2 per cent of wood
naphtha and 0.5 per cent pyridine bases with, optionally, 0.125 per
cent of a lavender- or rosemary-oil.

For incomplete denaturing the following substances (special denatur-
ing agents) may be used. They are to be added for denaturing purposes
in the undernoted quantities per hundred liters of the spirit

(a) For industrial uses of all kinds :
5 liters of wood spirit
or 0.5 liter of pyridine bases.

[For other examples of incomplete denaturing, see Appendix.]
Pure Duty-free Alcohol.

Pure alcohol, without denaturing, may be delivered duty free —

(a) To certain hospitals, lying-in hospitals, and lunatic asylums,

as well as to public scientific institutions.

For use in motor-cars, etc., alcohol is completely denatured by the
use of 1.25 liters (1.32 quarts) of the general denaturing agent, 0.25
liter (0.26 quart) of a solution of methyl violet dye, and 2 to 20 liters
(2.11 to 21.13 quarts) of benzol to every hectolitre (26.4 gallons) of alco-
hol. For manufacturing there are many formulae allowed for incom-
pletely denatured alcohol for special purposes. Among these may be
mentioned: For varnishes and polishes of all kinds, 2 liters (2.11 quarts)
of wood alcohol and 2 liters of petroleum benzine, or 0.5 liter of turpen-
tine (0.53 quart); for transparent soap, various chemical preparations;
see Appendix at the back of this book. For general use on a large scale
for industrial and manufacturing processes of all kinds, what is classed
as *' wood-spirit denatured " alcohol is allowed to be made and sold under
special conditions. This consists of a mixture of 100 liters of alcohol of
not less than 90 per cent (or 180° U. S. proof) with 5 liters of wood
naphtha. There is also allowed for industrial uses 1/2 liter pyridine
bases to 100 liters of spirit.

Laws and Regulations in France for Denatured Alcohol.

Duty-free Spirit.
(Abstract of French Regulations.)
Spirits may be denatured by the ''general process " or by "special
processes." Denaturing by the ''special processes " is usually carried out
at the factories where the spirit is to be used.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 337

General Denaturing Process. — Ten liters of wood spirit of at least
90° (58 o. p.) and containing 25 per cent acetone, and 2.5 per cent of
*' impurities pyrogenees" for 100 liters of spirit. Spirit denatured by
this reagent is divided into two classes:

(1) For lighting, heating, and for making ''finish."

(2) For manufacturing purposes.

For lighting, heating, etc., this spirit must contain, in addition to
the general denaturing agent, 0.5 per cent of heavy benzine distilling
between 150° and 200° C. when used for heating and lighting and 4 per
cent gum-resin for "finish."

For manufacturing purposes, such as making varnishes, solid extracts,
solidified spirits, plastic substances, alkaloids, fulminate of mercury,
transparent soap, insecticides, etc., the spirit is denatured by this gen-
eral denaturing agent.

Certain industries cannot use methylated spirit, and the use of specially
denatured alcohol, adapted to the particular necessities of each manu-
facturer, is permitted. As examples of this class can be mentioned
ethers, simple and compound, for which the alcohol is mixed with 10
per cent of ether-making residues and 10 per cent sulphuric acid, to
denature it.

For the manufacture of chloroform, some chloride of lime in solution
is mixed with the alcohol in order to denature it. For chloral and chloral
hydrate the alcohol is denatured by a current of chlorine-gas. For mak-
ing collodion the alcohol is denatured by the addition of an equal volume
of ether, and to this mixture 6 grams guncotton for each liter of alcohol
are added.

Laws and Regulations of Denatured Alcohol in Austria-Hungary.

Duty-free Spirit.

Ordinary methylated spirit is made by mixing with alcohol of at
least 90° (58 o. p.) 2 per cent wood naphtha, J per cent pyridine bases,
and a trace of phenolphthalein.

A tax equivalent to about one third of a penny a gallon is charged
for denaturing.

For varnishes, fulminate of mercury, hat-making, etc., § per cent of
turpentine is the denaturing agent.

For vinegar the spirit is mixed with "anhydride.".

Very small quantities of pure alcohol are used for scientific purposes
under certain conditions free of duty.

338 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL

Laws and Regulations of Denatured Alcohol in Russia.

Duty-free Spirit.
(Abstract of Russian Regulations.)

Persons wishing to use spirit duty free must apply to the Minister
of Finance. Permission is generally limited to one year. Security for
the duty (bond) must be given.

The quantity of spirit allowed is determined each year and ''depends
on the productive power of the manufactory, conditions for disposal of
manufactured article, scale of annual consumption of spirit/' etc. The
spirit is issued from distilleries, rectifying-works, etc., on production of
the order of the Finance ^Minister. It is received and examined at the
factories by excise officers and, after having been denatured, is placed
under revenue seal in a special store, and is only issued as required by
an excise officer. Accounts of receipt and issue are strictly kept and
sent to auditing authorities at the end of each year.

As a general rule a special Excise Controller is attached to each
works for constant supervision of the proper use of the duty-free spirit,
and the proprietor of the works is bound to provide him with proper
dwelling accommodation and with furniture and fuel.

Foreign spirits cannot be imported duty free.

Law for Denatured Alcohol in the United States.

Copy of United States Law, Approved June 7, 1906, Permitting
Untaxed Domestic Denatured Alcohol for Industrial Uses.

[Public— No. 201.]
An Act For the withdrawal from bond, tax free, of domestic alcohol when rendered
unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by mixture with suitable denaturing
materials.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That from and after January
first, nineteen hundred and seven, domestic alcohol of such degree of
proof as may be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
and approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, may be withdrawn
from bond without the payment of internal-revenue tax, for use in the
arts and industries, and for fuel, light, and power, provided said alcohol
shall have been mixed in the presence and under the direction of an
authorized Government officer, after withdrawal from the distillery
warehouse, with methyl alcohol or other denaturing material or materials,

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 339

or admixture of the same, suitable to the use for which the alcohol is
withdrawn, but which destroys its character as a beverage and renders
it unfit for liquid medicinal purposes; such denaturing to be done upon
the application of any registered distillery in denaturing bonded ware-
houses specially designated or set apart for denaturing purposes only,
and under conditions prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury.

The character and quantity of the said denaturing material and the
conditions upon which said alcohol may be withdrawn free of tax shall
be prescribad by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who shall,
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, make all necessary
regulations for carrying into effect the provisions of this Act.

Distillers, manufacturers, dealers and all other persons furnishing^
handling, or using alcohol withdrawn from bond under the pro\dsions
of this Act shall keep such books and records, execute such bonds and
render such returns as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation require.
Such books and records shall be open at all times to the inspection of
any internal-revenue officer or agent.

Sec. 2. That any person who withdraws alcohol free of tax under
the provisions of this Act and regulations made in pursuance thereof,
and who removes or conceals same, or Ls concerned in removing, deposit-
ing, or concealing same for the purpose of preventing the same from
being denatured under governmental supervision, and any person who
uses alcohol withdrawn from bond under the provisions of section one
of this Act for manufacturing any beverage or liquid medicinal prepara-
tion, or knowingly sells any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation
made in whole or in part from such alcohol, or knowingly violates any
of the provisions of this Act, or who shall recover or attempt to recover
by redistillation or by any other process or means, any alcohol rendered
unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal purposes under the pro\isions of
this Act, or who knowingly uses, sells, conceals, or otherwise disposes
of alcohol so recovered or redistilled, shall on conviction of each offense
be fined not more than five thousand dollars, or be imprisoned not more
than five years, or both, and shall, in addition, forfeit to the United
States all personal property used in connection with his business, together
with the buildings and lots or parcels of ground constituting the premises
on which said unlawful acts are performed or permitted to be performed:
Provided, That manufacturers employing processes in which alcohol, used
free of tax under the provisions of this Act, is expressed or evaporated
from the articles manufactured, shall be permitted to recover such alcohol

340 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

and to have such alcohol restored to a condition suitable solely for reuse
in manfacturing processes under such regulations as the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury,
shall prescribe.

Sec. 3. That for the employment of such additional force of chemists,
internal-revenue agents, inspectors, deputy collectors, clerks, laborers,
and other assistants as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may deem proper and neces-
sary to the prompt and efficient operation and enforcement of this law,
and for the purchase of locks, seals, weighing beams, gauging instruments,
and for all necessary expenses incident to the proper execution of this
law, the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, or so much
thereof as may be required, is hereby appropriated out of any money in
the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, said appropriation to be imme-
diately available.

For a period of two years from and after the passage of this Act the
force authorized by this section of this Act shall be appointed by the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary
of the Treasury, and without compliance with the conditions prescribed
by the act entitled '^An Act to regulate and improve the civil service,''
approved January sixteenth, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, and
amendments thereof, and with such compensation as the Commissioner
of Internal Revenue may fix, with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury.

Sec. 4. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall make full report to
Congress at its next session of all appointments made under the provi-
sions of this Act, and the compensation paid thereunder, and of all
regulations prescribed under the provisions hereof, and shall further
report what, if any, additional legislation is necessary, in his opinion, to
fully safeguard the revenue and to secure a proper enforcement of this
Act.

Approved, June 7, 1906.

Cost of Denaturing Alcohol in Foreign Countries.* — '' With respect
to the cost of denaturing in the United Kingdom it may be said that this
cost touches a part only of the question of the price of the spirit used
for industrial purposes. An influence on price even more important
lies at an earlier stage of production of the spirit, viz., in the conditions

* From Report of the Departmental Committee on Industrial Alcohol to the
British Parliament, April, 1905; see Appendix, this book.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 341

under which spirit can alone be manufactured in this country. The duty
on spirit used as a beverage in the United Kingdom is very heavy, and
in imposing this duty it is essential to the protection of the revenue to
impose on the manufacture of spirit such restraints as may be necessary
to prevent any spirit from escaping payment of duty; and a consequence
of such restraints must be to cause an appreciable enhancement in the
cost of manufacture. Only an approximation can be reached as to what
the measure of this enhancement may be, as it is not susceptible of
precise determination. For our purpose it is sufficient to take the figures
that have been established by law and practice as representing an enhance-
ment of the cost of producing plain British spirits by Sd. the proof gallon,
or an increase of about 50 per cent on the cost that would otherwise
prevail in the production of industrial alcohol. It is patent that pro-
ducers thus hampered could not hope to compete successfully either in
the home or in foreign markets against rivals not similarly hampered,
unless some counterpoise were provided to the burdens that fiscal restric-
tions impose upon them. Accordingly the law does provide such a
counterpoise in the case of the home market by making the duty on
imported spirits exceed the duty on British spirits by an amount equiva-
lent to the burdens on the home producer, — this is called the *' Surtax ";
and in the case of foreign markets by granting to the home producer allow-
ances calculated on the same basis. These export allowances are at the
rates of 3c?. per proof gallon on plain spirits, and 5d. per proof gallon on
compounded spirits and it is the h'lgher of these two allowances that is
taken as determining the measure of the ' surtax ' on all imported spirits
other than rum or brandy, on which the 'surtax ' is 4d. the proof gallon.
The final result, upon the price of industrial spirit, of all the measures
taken to protect the revenue may be stated as follow^s: Spirit used in
manufacture is commonly about 64 overproof (about 93 per cent on the
continental standard of pure alcohol) and is plain spirit. Therefore the
price of a bulk gallon of the spirit is about 5c?. (10 cents, or about 8i
cents per U. S. bulk gallon) more than it ^vould have been but for excise
restrictions. The cost of methylating (or denaturing) may be put at
between Sd. and 4d. per bulk gallon (7 cents, or about 6 cents perU. S.
bulk gallon), so that of the price eventually paid by the manufacturer,
which at present may be taken at from 20c?. to 22c?. per bulk gallon for large
quantities at wholesale price, about 8hd. (17 cents) is attributable to
precautions on behalf of the revenue (about 14 cents per U. S. bulk'
gallon) .

" Cost of Denaturing in Germany. —In Germany the production of spirit
is a state-aided enterprise, the primary purpose of which is not so much

342 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL

the production of spirit on economic lines as the encouragement of agri-
culture in the less fertile provinces of the Empire, which lie on its eastern
frontiers, and in which the conditions of soil and climate are so unfavor-
able. Without some such encouragement the country would be in serious
danger of depopulation. It may be said that the fundamental principle
of the scheme is to make those interested in the production of alcohol
sharers with the state in the revenue collected on spirit used for potable
purposes. Thus in the year ended on 30th September, 1903, there was
collected from the taxes on spirit a total sum of £10,000,000, out of
which a sum of £3,100,000 was given back to persons interested in the
trade. But of this sum of £3,100,000 apparently some £700,000 had
been already levied as tax on the producers, so that their net subvention
would be £2,400,000 (about $11,688,000). In the same year the total
production of spirit in Germany was, in round figures, 132,000,000 proof
gallons, and accordingly the state subvention in that year represented
a bonus of nearly 4J(i. per proof gallon on all the spirit produced. The
figures must, of course, vary from year to year according to the circum-
stances of production and consumption; but probably not very widely.
This bounty, be it 4^(1. (9 cents) per gallon or more or less, is retained
by the producers or distributors as a rule, and only under certain circum-
stances do the German users of spirit secure a share in it. The cost of
complete denaturing is definitely known to be only a little more than Id,
the bulk gallon (about 1.7 cents per U. S. bulk gallon). In this case,
however, there is all the economy that results from simplicity, regularity,
and magnitude in the operations."

It may be said that it costs at present a little over 2 cents a gallon
to completely denature alcohol in Germany. Alcohol of 90 and 95 per
cent strength by volume is used in making denatured alcohol. The
Jelling price at retail for denatured alcohol is, for 95 per cent strength
by volume, 33 pfennigs per liter, or 29.69 cents per gallon; 90 per
cent strength by volume, 30 pfennigs per liter, or 27 cents per gallon.
The selling prices at wholesale range from 28 to 29 pfennigs per liter, or
from 25.2 to 26.1 cents per gallon. The German data are taken from
the report of U. S. Consul-General Alexander M. Thackara, Berlin, Ger-
many, September 10, 1906.

Cost of Denaturing in France. — ''In France, since January 1, 1902, a
drawback of 9 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol (about 2id. per proof
Igallon) has been allowed on alcohol used for lighting and heating to
compensate for cost of methylating (or denaturing) and to enable this
spirit to compete with petrol (gasoline) in motor-cars, etc. Denatured
alcohol pays a statistical tax of 0.25 franc per hectolitre of pure alcohol

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 343

(about 7c?. per 100 proof gallons) and also 0.80 franc per hectolitre
(about Is. lOd. per 100 proof gallons) to cover the expense of the examina-
tion of the samples and the supervision of the denaturing operations."
(This makes a cost of 1.05 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol, exclusive
of the denaturing materials, or 21 cents per 26.41 U. S. gallons of pure
alcohol.)

U. S. Consul-General Robert P. Skinner reports as follows: "De-
natured alcohol is composed, according to French law at the present
time (August 6, 1906), of one hundred parts of industrial ethyl alcohol
grading 90° (90 per cent) at a temperature of 15° C, of ten parts of
methyl alcohol industrially denominated methylene, and which itself is
composed of 75 per cent of methyl alcohol, 25 per cent of acetone,
a certain quantity of impurities, and finally a one-half part of heavy
benzol, boiling between 150° and 200° C, and differing essentially from
pure benzol, which indicates a density of 0.88 at 15° C. and boils at
80.4° C."

The price of alcohol at 90°, which serves as a basis, is very variable
and depends upon the demand and supply in the Paris market, which
is held daily. The price is actually about 43 francs ($8.30) per hectolitre
(26.41 U. S. gallons) naked, base 90°, with a premium for quaUty over
90°, and the tax on manufacture, i.e., 1.63 francs (31 cents) per hectolitre
(26.41 U. S. gallons) of pure alcohol taken at the distillery. The cost of
transportation is to be added to this price. For your information let me
say that we have seen the market reach 26 francs ($5.01) in 1901 and 57
francs ($11) in 1905. Thus you see how difficult it is to establish an
average price for this article which is so much speculated upon. Methyl-
ene responding to the requirements of the law is worth from 80 to 100
francs ($15.44 to $19.30) per hectolitre (26.41 U. S. gallons), and benzine
from 45 to 65 francs ($8.68 to $12.54)."

On the above formula the cost of denaturing a hectolitre of alcohol is,
for an average of these prices for the denaturing materials, 9.50 francs
($1.90 for 26.41 U. S. gallons, or about 7.2 cents per gallon). The rebate
of 9 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol is, for a hectoUtre of denatured
alcohol which contains about 81.5 Hters of pure alcohol, about 7.335
francs. The government tax of 1.05 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol
makes the tax on 81.5 liters of pure alcohol (contained in one hectolitre
of the denatured alcohol) as 0.856 franc, which, added to 9.50 francs,-
= 10.356 francs; less the rebate of 7.335 francs gives 3.021 francs per hec-
tolitre as the cost of denaturing in France. This is equal to about 60^
cents per 26.41 U. S. gallons, or about 2.2 cents per gallon. "Denatured
alcohol cannot be sold at this time (August 6, 1906) at retail in France

344 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

for less than 55 centimes (11 cents) per liter '' (about 44 cents per U. S.
gallon) .

The cost of denaturing in Russia, Switzerland, Holland, Austria-
Hungary, and Belgium are difficult to ascertain. Some data are given in
the ''Report on Industrial Alcohol/' pp. 422-85, in the Appendix of thiis
book.

Cost of Denaturing Alcohol in the United States. — With regard to
the cost of denaturing alcohol in the United States, it may be said that
such a figure or cost is difficult to estimate on account of the fact that
it is not certain what the price of the approved methyl alcohol will be,
and what proportion of costs the Government restrictions as to denatur-
ing will add. This will be explained in Chapter X. Given the cost of
the approved methyl alcohol, the additional cost mentioned above and
the cost of the petroleum, benzine, or the alternative coal-tar ''benzine,"
the calculation is easily made on the Government formulae for completely
denatured alcohol, one of which is as follows: 100 gallons of ethyl alcohol
of not less than 180° proof, 10 gallons of approved methyl alcohol, and
J gallon of the petroleum or coal- tar '^benzine." See also p. 355, this
chapter.

It will be of interest to know that coal-tar benzine boiling between
150° and 200° C. costs about 25 cents per gallon in this country and
that the cost of the pyridin bases here is about the same as in Germany,
about $1.50 per gallon. Both these bodies have been prescribed as
denaturants by the United States Government.

Properties of Denaturing Materials. — The materials which are used
for denaturing alcohol for general industrial uses both in this country
and abroad have characteristics and properties which render the alco-
hol to which they have been added extremely repugnant to the taste
and entirely unfitted for human consumption.

Wood alcohol or methyl alcohol is usually the principal one of several
ingredients chosen, and its fatally poisonous properties and injurious
effects upon the optic nerve, as well as the entire nervous system gener-
ally, are so well known that further mention, here, is unnecessary.

Chemical research is active all the time, on account of economic
reasons, to find cheaper sources of denaturing agents in order to cheapen
the cost of denatured alcohol, as well as in some cases abroad to allow
of pyridine, one of the denaturing agents in Germany, being used for
other purposes, and thus prevent a rise in the price (see Appendix, p. 441).
In cases where special denaturing materials are permitted and used,
these substances are, as a rule, the same as those used in the manu-
facture in question. Manufacturers who are allowed to denature alcohol
at the factory or works have to do so abroad under very strict supervision

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 345

of excise officials. After the special denaturing agent is mixed with the
alcohol it is usually kept in sealed tanks in care of trusted employees
until it is used. In many such cases the alcohol is thereby rendered
unfit for use other than as intended.

Special Denaturing Methods in Foreign Countries. — In the United
Kingdom spirits denatured with other substances than wood alcohol can
be used subject to the special permission of the Government. The dena-
turing substance is, as a rule, one used in the manufacturing operations
involved (as castor-oil in making transparent soap) . Traders using these
specially denatured spirits have to pay the cost of the revenue supervision.

Undenatured alcohol is allowed to be used by universities, colleges,
and other public institutions for research and teaching under certain
conditions. See Appendix, pp. 458, 467.

In Germany special denaturing agents are allowed for incomplete
denaturing. "The list includes a number of manufacturing purposes,
for which a different denaturing agent is permitted in each case." See
Appendix, p. 465.

"Pure alcohol without denaturing is permitted duty-free under certain
restrictions by the Government.'' See Appendix, pp. 465-66.

"Special denaturing substances are permitted by the French Govern-
ment." See Appendix, pp. 472-73.

The Swiss Government permit specially denatured alcohol. See
Appendix, p. 476.

For the Russian regulations as to special denaturing agents per-
mitted see Appendix, p. 481.

The Dutch regulations for special denaturing substances are given
on p. 482 of the Appendix.

Specially denatured alcohol is fully discussed in Chapter X under
Uses of Alcohol.

Tests Prescribed by Foreign Countries for the Denaturing Materials
Used. — The present legal provisions or regulations in Germany relating
to the nature of the components of the methylating substance are given on
p. 468 of the Appendix. A comparison between these and those here given
from Mr. Dalley's Report, pp. 342-6, will show but little difference,
the "acetone " in the wood spirit being at present estimated by a volu-
metric process in which the acetone, aldehydes, and higher ketones are
estimated by the formation of iodoform according to Messinger's method.

The details of the Government tests for the denaturing agents im-
posed in the other foreign countries permitting denatured alcohol can be
found by consulting the report of Henry Dalley, Jr., 1896-7, already
mentioned. The countries covered in the report mentioned are Great

346 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Italy,
Sweden, Norway, and Austria-Hungary.

The examination of the wood naphtha used at present for methylating
in Great Britain is given in the Appendix, on pp. 452-3, under the head
of The United Kingdom.

In France the present restrictions as to the quality of the wood spirit
used in methylating are given on p. 472 of the Appendix.

On p. 475 of the Appendix are described the present regulations
•concerning the denaturing mixture used in Switzerland.

* The Volumetric Estimation of ^^ Acetone " by the Formation o] lodojorm
according to Messinger's Original Method.

"For the analysis are used:

I. One fifth normal iodine solution.
II. One tenth normal thiosulphate of sodium.
-f 111. Hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1.025.

IV. Caustic potash (56 gm. KOH in 1 liter water) .
V. A glass flask of 250 c.c. capacity, with tightly-fitting stopper.
VI. A 1-c.c. pipette graduated in hundredths or in tenths.
VII. Starch solution."

(The correction for any nitrite present.)

"Since the caustic potash nearly always contains nitrite, it is neces-
sary, before commencing the analysis, to add to 20 c.c. of above solution
of KOH from 1-2 dg. of iodide of potassium; after adding the above
HCl acid in slight excess, the liberated iodine is, with starch solution,
titrated with the 1/10 N. hypo, above. The cubic centimeters thus
needed are deducted from the number of cubic centimeters 1/10 N. hypo,
used in the analysis."

Making the Analysis. — "Use 20 c.c. of the above KOH solution, or
if the methyl alcohol is of the highest acetone content, 30 c.c. of the
KOH solution (always exactly measured) and 1-2 c.c. of the methyl
alcohol t to be tested, which are put into the stoppered flask and well
shaken. A measured quantity of the 1/5 N. iodine solution, from 20 to 30
c.c, is run into the flask drop by drop, shaking from one to one half
minute or until the solution settles clear, then the above HCL acid is

*The Volumetric Estimation of Acetone in Methyl Alcoliol. J. Messinger,
Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXI, 2, July-December,
1888, pp. 3366-73.

t The same number of cubic centimeters of the above ECI acid are used as
oi the above KOH solution.

X In testing pure commercial methyl alcohol from 10 to 15 c.c. are used.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 347

added, an excess of 1/10 N. hypo, solution is run in, starch solution
added and titrated back with the iodine solution.

"The calculation of the analysis is made in the following way:
"One mol acetone (58) uses three mols iodine (762) to make one mol
iodoform:

762:58 = m:
m= quantity of iodine found.
y = corresponding quantity acetone.

y=m'7j^^ = 0.7Q12m.

"In order to prove the accuracy of this process I have made up
weighed quantities of c. p. acetone (from bisulphite) with c. p. methyl
alcohol (from oxalate) reduced to 100 c.c, and in such a manner that
this solution represented from 0.2-2% of acetone.

" I have further tested acetone in a water solution and also in some
of the commercial methyl alcohols."

In several such estimations Messinger obtained the following results:

Calculated,

Found.

1st Test.

2d Test.

3d Test.

4th Test

2.05

2.01

2.03

2.04

2.03.

*The above estimations are merely a few of such tests taken from quite
a number as furnished by Messinger in this article.

The following legal provisions relating to the nature of the components
of the general methylation (denaturing) substance in Germany are taken
from the First Report on Alcohol, Methylated, Unmethylated, and Un-
taxed, by Henry Dalley, Jr., 189&-7:

" Tests prescribed for the denaturing materials used in Germany,

1. Wood Spirits.

"The wood spirits should be colorless or faintly yellowish. On dis-
tilling 100 volumes of wood spirits under normal barometric condition
of 760 millimeters pressure of mercury up to a temperature of 75° C,
at least 90 volumes should pass over. The wood spirits should admit
of being mixed with water in any proportion without notable turbidity.
The content of the wood spirits in acetone should exceed 30 per cent.
The wood spirits should contain at least 1 per cent, but not more than
1.5 per cent, of constituents which discolor bromine."

348 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

2. The Pyridine Bases.

"The mixture of pyridine bases should be colorless or faintly yellow-
ish. Its water content should not exceed 10 per cent. On distilling
100 volumes of the mixture under normal barometric condition of 760
millimeters up to a temperature of 140° C. at least 90 volumes should
pass over. The mixture should admit of being mixed with water in any
proportion without notable turbidity, and should be free from ammonia.'*

*' Instmctions for Testing the Wood Spirits and the Pyridine Bases.
''I. Wood Spirits.

"1. Color. — ^The color of the wood spirits should not be darker than
that of a solution of 2 cubic centimeters of one tenth normal solution of
iodine in a liter of distilled water.

"2. Boiling-point. — One hundred cubic centimeters of wood spirits
should be placed in a metallic retort having a distiUing-tube which is fur-
nished with a bulb connected with a Liebig condenser by a lateral tube.
Through the upper opening an officially certified thermometer with centi-
grade scale is introduced, whose mercury bulb stands below the connect-
ing-tube. The retort is so moderately heated that the distillate runs off
in drops from the condenser. The distillate is caught in a graduated
glass cylinder, and if the thermometer shows 75 degrees and the barometer
is normal, at least 90 cubic centimeters should have passed over.

''When the reading of the barometer departs from the normal, there
for every 30 milimeters 1 degree should be allowed; that is to say, for
example, at 770 milimeters 90 cubic centimeters should pass over at 75.3
degrees; at 750 mi'Jmeters 90 cubic centimeters should pass over at
74.7 degrees.

'' 3. The Capacity to Mix with Water. — Twenty cubic centimeters of
wood spirits should give with 40 cubic centimeters of water a clear or
only a faintly opalescent mixture.

''4. Separation with Sodium Lye. — On shaking 20 cubic centimeters of
wood spirits with 40 cubic centimeters of sodium lye of 1.3 specific
gravity, after half an hour at least 5 cubic centimeters of the wood
spirits should have separated.

"5. Proportion of Content in Acetone. — One cubic centimeter of a mix-
ture of 10 cubic centimeters of wood spirits with 90 cubic centimeters
of water are shaken in a narrow mixing cylinder with 10 cubic centi-
meters of double normal sodium lye (80 grams of sodium hydroxide in a
liter). Thereupon 5 cubic centimeters of double normal solution of

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 349

iodine (254 grams of iodine to the liter) are added while the mixture is
again shaken. The separating iodoform is taken up in 10 cubic centi-
meters of ether of the specific gravity of 0.722 by vigorously shaking.
From the layer of ether, which separates after a short rest, 5 cubic centi-
meters are brought by means of a pipette on a watch-crystal that has
been weighed and on it slowly evaporated. Then the watch-crystal is
placed for two hours over sulphuric acid and weighed; the increase in
weight should not be less than 0.07 gram.

"6. Capacity to Take Up Bromine. — One hundred cubic centimeters of
a solution of potassium bromate and potassium bromide, prepared accord-
ing to the instructions below, are compounded with 20 cubic centimeters
of sulphuric acid diluted as explained below. To this mixture, which
represents a bromine solution of 0.703 gram of bromine, wood spirits
are added from a burette graduated to 0.1 cubic centimeter in drops with
constant stirring, piolonged until permanent discoloration takes place.
The discoloration ought not to require more than 30 cubic centimeters
and not less than 20 cubic centimeters of wood spirits.

"The test for the capacity to take up bromine must always be made
in full daylight."

''Instructions for the Preparation of the Constituents of the
Bromine Solution.

"(a) Bromine Salts. — After dr5dng for at least two hours at 100
degrees and cooling in the dryer, 2.447 grams of potassium bromate
and 8.719 grams of potassium bromide, which have previously been
tested for purity, are weighed and dissolved in water and diluted to
1 liter.

'^ (6) Diluted Sulphuric Acid. — One volume of concentrated sulphuric
acid is mixed with three volumes of water. The mixture is allowed to
cool."

II. Pyridine Bases.

"1. Color same as in wood spirits.

"2. Behavior toward Cadmium Chloride. — Ten cubic centimeters of a
solution of 1 cubic centimeter of pyridine bases in 100 cubic centimeters
of water are mixed with 5 cubic centimeters of 5 per cent water solution
of anhydrous melted cadmium chloride and are vigorously shaken ; there-
upon a distinct crystalline precipitate should at once ensue. With 5
cubic centimeters of Nessler's reagent, 10 cubic centimeters of the same
solution of pyridine bases ought to give a white precipitate.

350 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

*'3. Boiling-point. — Proceed as in wood spirits, but the distillate
should amount to at least 90 cubic centimeters only when the thermometer
has risen to 140 degrees.

"4. Capacity to Mix with Water. — As in wood spirits.

*'5. Water Content. — On shaking 20 cubic centimeters of bases and 20
cubic centimeters of sodium lye of 1.4 specific gravity and allowing to
stand for some time, at least 18.5 cubic centimeters of the bases ought
to be separated.

"6. Titration of the Bases. — One cubic centimeter of pyridine bases
dissolved in 10 cubic centimeters of water is mixed with normal sulphuric
acid until a drop of the mixture on congo paper produces a distinct blue
border, which immediately disappears again. Not less than 10 cubic
centimeters of the acid solution ought to be used in producing this reaction.

"To prepare congo paper, filter-paper is passed through a solution of
1 gram of congo red in 1 liter of water and dried."

'* Instructions for Testing Animal Oil, Oil of Turpentine, and Ether,

I. Animal Oil.

"1. Color. — ^The color of the animal oil should be blackish brown.

"2. Boiling-point. — On distilling 100 cubic centimeters in the manner
described for wood spirits, not more than 5 cubic centimeters should pass
over below 90 degrees, but at least 50 cubic centimeters should have
passed over when the temperature has risen to 180 degrees.

"3. Pyrrol Reaction. — Two and five tenth cubic centimeters of a
1 per cent alcoholic solution of animal oil are diluted with alcohol to 100
cubic centimeters. If a pine-wood shaving moistened with concentrated
hydrochloric acid is introduced in 10 cubic centimeters of that solution
containing 0.025 per cent of animal oil it should show a distinct red color
after a few minutes.

''4. Behavior toward Chloride of Mercury. — Five cubic centimeters of
the 1 per cent alcoholic solution of the animal oil, on being mixed with
5 cubic centimeters of a 2 per cent alcoholic solution of chloride of mer-
cury, should give at once a voluminous flaky precipitate. Five cubic
centimeters of the 0.025 per cent alcoholic solution of animal oil mixed
with 5 cubic centimeters of the solution of the chloride of mercury should
at once show a distinct turbidity.''

II. Turpentine-oil.

"1. Specific Gravity. — ^The specific gravity of the oil of turpentine
ought to be between 0.855 and 0.865 at 15 degrees C.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 351

"2. Boiling-point. — On distilling 100 cubic centimeters in the manner
given for wood spirits not more than 5 cubic centimeters should pass over
under 150 degrees, but at least 90 cubic centimeters should have passed
over when the temperature has risen to 160 degrees.

''3. Capacity to Mix with Water. — Twenty cubic centimeters of oil of
turpentine are vigorously shaken with 20 cubic centimeters of water. If,
after standing for some time, the two layers have separated and have
become clear, the upper layer should carry at least 19 cubic centimeters."

III. Ether.

"1. Specific Gravity. — Specific gravity of the ether should not be
more than 0.730.

"2. Capacity to Mix with Water. — ^Twenty cubic centimeters of ether
are shaken with 20 cubic centimeters of water. After settling the layer
of ether should carry at least 18 cubic centimeters."

IV. Shellac Solution.

*'Ten grams of the solution on evaporating on the water-bath and
subsequent heating of the evaporated residue in the drying-chamber for
half an hour up to a temperature of 100 to 105 degrees should have at
least 3.3 grams of shellac."

Tests Prescribed by the United States for the Denaturing Materials
Used. Completely Denatured Alcohol and Specially Denatured Alco-
hol in the United States.— ''Sec. 58" of ''Regulations No. 30, United
States Internal Revenue," provides that "alcohol denatured by the use
of methyl alcohol and benzine as provided in Section 26 of these Regula-
tions is to be classed as coinpletely denatured alcohol. Alcohol denatured
in any other manner will be classed as specially denatured alcohol.'*

' ' Denaturing A gents. "

Completely Denatured Alcohol.

"Sec. 26" pro\^des: "Unless otherwise specially provided, the
agents used for denaturing alcohol withdrawn from bond for denaturing
purposes shall consist of methyl alcohol and benzine in the following
proportions: To every one hundred parts by volume of ethyl alcohol of
the desired proof (not less than 180°) there shall be added ten parts by
volume of approved methyl alcohol and one half of one part by volume
of approved benzine; for example, to every 100 gallons of ethyl alcohol

352 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(of not less than 180 degrees proof) there shall be added 10 gallons of
approved methyl alcohol and one half gallon of approved benzine.

''Alcohol thus denatured shall be classed as completely denatured
alcohol.

" Methyl alcohol and benzine intended for use as denaturants must be
submitted for chemical test and must conform to the specifications which
shall be hereafter duly prescribed." These specifications are as follows:

CIRCULAR No. 680.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR METHYL ALCOHOL AND BENZINE, SUBMITTED
FOR APPROVAL AS DENATURING MATERIALS.

Treasury Department.

OFFICE OF THE

Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
Washington, October 30, 1906.

The second paragraph of section 1 of the act approved June 7, 1906,
for the withdrawal from bond, tax free, of domestic alcohol to be ren-
dered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal purposes by the admixture
of denaturing materials provides as follows:

The character and quantity of the said denaturing material and the
conditions upon which said alcohol may be withdrawn free of tax shall
be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who shall, with'
the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, make all necessary regula-
tions for carrying into effect the provisions of this Act.

Pursuant to this authority, and in conformity with the terms of sec-
tion 26 of regulations No. 30, the following spcifications are prescribed
for methyl alcohol and benzine submitted for approval as denaturing
materials.

METHYL ALCOHOL.

The methyl alcohol submitted must be partially purified wood alco-
hol obtained by the destructive distillation of wood. It must conform
to the following analytical requirements:

Color. — This shall not be darker than that produced by a freshly
prepared solution of 2 c.c. of N/10 iodine diluted to 1000 c.c. with dis-
tilled water.

Specific Gravity. — It must have a specific gravity of not more than
0.830 at 60° F. (15.56° C), corresponding to 91° of Tralles' scale.

Boiling-point. — One hundred c.c. slowly heated in a flask under con-
ditions as described below must give a distillate of not less than 90 c.c.
at a temperature not exceeding 75° C. at the normal pressure of the
barometer (760 m.m.).

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 353

One hundred c.c. of wood spirit are run into a short-necked copper
flask of about 180-200 c.c. capacity, and the flask placed on an asbestos
plate having a circular opening of 30 mm. diameter. In the neck of this
flask is fitted a fractionating tube 12 mm. wide and 170 mm. long, with
a bulb just 1 centimeter below the side tube, which is connected with a
Liebig's condenser having a water-jacket not less than 400 mm. long.
In the upper opening of the fractionating tube is placed a standardized
thermometer, so adjusted that its mercury bulb comes in the centre of
the bulb. The distillation is conducted in such a manner that 5 c.c.
pass over in one minute. The distillate is run into a graduated cylinder,
and when the temperature of 75° C. has been reached at the normal
barometric pressure of 760 mm., at least 90 c.c. shall have been collected.

Should the barometer vary from 760 mm. during the distillation,
1° C. shall be allowed for every variation of 30 mm. For example, at
770 mm. 90 c.c. should have distilled at 75.3°, and at 750 mm. 90 c.c.
should have distilled at 74.7° C.

Miscihility with Water. — It must give a clear or only slightly opalescent
solution when mixed with twice its volume of water.

Acetone Content. — It must contain not more than 25 or less than 15
grams per 100 c.c. of acetone and other substances estimated as acetone
when tested by the following method (Messinger) :

Determination of Acetone. — 1 c.c. of a mixture of 10 c.c. wood naphtha
with 90 c.c. of water is treated with 10 c.c. of double normal soda solu-
tion. Then 50 c.c. of N/10 iodine solution are added while shaking, and
the mixture made acid with dilute sulphuric acid three minutes after the
addition of the iodine. The excess of iodine is titrated back with N/10
sodium thiosulphate solution, using a few drops of starch solution for an
indicator. From 15.5 to 25.8 c.c. of N/10 iodine solution should be used
by the spirit.

The solution should be kept at a temperature between 15° and 20° C;

Calculation: X= grams of acetone in 100 c.c. of spirit;

y = number of c.c. of N/10 iodine solution required;

iV = volume of spirit taken for titration.

-,, ^ FX 0.096672
Then,X= ^ .

Esters. — It should contain not more than 5 grams of esters per 100
c.c. of spirit, calculated as methyl acetate and determined as follows:

Five c.c. of wood spirit are run into a flask, and 10 c.c. normal sodium
hydroxide free from carbonates are added, and the flask connected with
a return condenser and boiled for two hours. Instead of digesting at
boiling temperature the flasks may be allowed to stand overnight at

354 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

room temperature and then heated on a steam-bath for thirty minutes
with an ordinary tube condenser. The Uquid after digestion is cooled
and titrated with normal sulphuric acid, using phenolphthalein as an
indicator.

Methyl acetate, grams per 100 ) _.074Xc.c. of N/soda required X 100.
c.c. of spirit f c.c. spirit taken

Bromine Absorption. — It must contain a sufficient quantity of im-
purities derived from the wood, so that not more than 25 c.c. or less than
15 c.c. shall be required to decolorize a standard solution containing .5
gram of bromine, as follows:

The standard bromine solution is made by dissolving 12.406 grams
of potassium bromide and 3.481 grams of potassium bromate (which is
of tested purity and has been dried for two hours at 100° C.) in a liter of
water. Fifty c.c. of the standard solution containing .5 gram of bromine
are placed in a glass-stoppered flask having a capacity of about 200 c.c.
This is acidified by the addi-tion of 10 c.c. of diluted sulphuric acid (1 to 4)
and the whole shaken and allowed to stand a few minutes. The wood
alcohol is then allowed to flow slowly into the mixture, drop by drop,
from a burette until the color is entirely discharged. The temperature
of the mixture should be 20° C.

In addition to the above requirements the methyl alcohol must be
of such a character as to render the ethyl alcohol with which it is mixed
unfit for use as a beverage.

BENZINE.

The benzine submitted for approval must be a hydrocarbon product
derived either from petroleum or coal-tar. If derived from petroleum,
it must have a specific gravity of not less than .800. If derived from
coal-tar it must have a boiling-point of not less than 150° or more than
200° C.

It must be of such character as to impart a decided odor to ethyl
alcohol when mixed with it in the proportion of one half of one part by

volume. '*

John W. Yerkes, Commissioner,
Approved :

C. H. Keep, Acting Secretary of the Treasury.

An amendment to the United States Regulations permitting the
use of methyl alcohol and pyridin bases for denaturing is as follows.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 355

CIRCULAR No. 686.

AMENDMENT OF SECTION 26, REGULATIONS NO. 30, CONCERNING
DENATC/REi) ALCOHOL.

Treasury Department,
Office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
Washington, December 10, 190G.

Section 26 of the regulations and instructions concerning denatured
alcohol, issued September 29, 1906, is amended by inserting after the
words '^ approved benzine," in the ninth line of said section, the following:

*'0r methyl alcohol and approved pyridin bases, in the following
proportions : To every 100 parts by volume of ethyl alcohol of the desired
proof (not less than 180°) there shall be added two parts by volume of
approved methyl alcohol and one-half of one part by volume of approved
pyridin bases — for example, to every 100 gallons of ethyl alcohol (of
not less than 180° proof) there shall be added 2 gallons of approved
methyl alcohol and one-half gallon of approved pyridin bases."

Note. — Methyl alcohol intended for use as a denaturant must conform to the
specifications prescribed in Circular No. 680.

Pyridin bases intended for use as a denaturant must conform to the
following specifications:

Specifications for 'pyridin bases submitted for approval as a denaturing

material.

PYRIDIN BASES.

1. Color. — ^The liquid must meet the same requirements as to color
that are imposed upon wood alcohol. (See Circular No. 680.)

2. Reaction with Cadmium Chloride. — Ten c.c. of a solution of 1 c.c.
of pyridin bases in 100 c.c. of water are treated with 5 c.c. of an aqueous
solution of anhydrous fused cadmium chloride and the mixture vigorously
shaken. Within ten minutes an abundant crj^stalline separation should
take place.

3. Behavior with Nessler's Reagent. — ^With 5 c.c. of Nessler's reagent,
10 c.c. of the pyridin bases must give a white precipitate.

4. Boiling-point. — When 100 c.c. are subjected to the determination
of the boiling point in the same manner as prescribed for wood alcohol,
at least 50 c.c. must distil at 140° C. and at least 90 c.c. at 160° C.

5. Miscibility with Water. — The same requirements must be met as
are imposed upon wood alcohol. (See Circular No. 680.)

356 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

6. Content of Water. — When 20 c.c. of pyridin bases are shaken with
20 c.c. of a solution of caustic soda, with a specific gravity of 1,400, and
the mixture allowed to stand for some time, at least 18.5 c.c. of the
pyridin bases must separate from the solution.

7. Alkalinity. — One c.c. of pyridin bases dissolved in 10 c.c. of water
are titrated with normal sulphuric acid until a drop of the mixture placed
upon Congo paper shows a distinct blue border which soon disappears.
It must require not less than 9.5 c.c. of the acid solution to produce the
reaction.

The Congo paper is prepared by treating filter-paper with a solu-
tion of 1 gram of Congo red in 1 liter of water, and drying it.

John W. Yerkes, Commissioner.
Approved :

Leslie M. Shaw, Secretary of the Treasury.

The Recovery of Denatured Alcohol is Permitted by the United States
Regulations. — For small capacities to recover denatured alcohol below
the standard proof we show here, in Fig. 162, a still especially designed
for this purpose. By its use the alcohol can be raised to 190° proof.
This apparatus consists of a copper kettle, with steam-boiling scroll, rec-
tify ing-column with tubular condenser and return to top chamber of rec-
tifying-column, and also a final tubular condenser with connection to
receiving-box. These stills can be made with a kettle capacity of 250 to
1500 gallons. In Fig. 163 is shown a similar apparatus for this purpose.
In the case of those manufacturers who use denatured alcohol in such
a manner that its recovery is possible, these stills can be profitably
used, and the recovered alcohol be redenatured on the manufacturers'
premises in the denatured-alcohol store-room, which must be provided
for such purpose, in accordance with the United States Regulations.

The apparatus shown in Fig. 163 is for recovering denatured alco-
hol which has been reduced in strength by reason of the use to which
it has been put. No matter how great this reduction, it can be brought
back to its original state of high concentration by treatment in this
apparatus.

The product is charged into the still, which is the large cylindrical
vessel at the base. The same is provided with a closed coil through which
steam circulates, the heat from which vaporizes the contents. The
vapors pass into the column, which consists of a series of chambers pro-
vided with means for condensing and separating the water mixed with
the alcohol- vapors. Such a separation takes place in each of the indi-
vidual chambers, and on leaving the column at the top the vapors are

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 357

Fig. 162.— Apparatus for Re-
covering DenaturedAlcohol.
Built by Hoffman- A hie rs Co.

Fig. 163 . — Apparatus for Recovering Dena-
tured Alcohol. Built by Vulcan Copper
Works.

358 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

further treated in the separator adjoining the column. Here, by means
of water circulating through tubes and the vapor surrounding them, a
further minute and delicate condensation and separation takes place
which completes the concentrating process. The vapors then pass into
a final condenser where they are cooled and from which the finished
product is withdrawn.

The loss of alcohol by this recovering process is very slight, the appara-
tus being so designed that for all practical purposes it can be considered
as nothing. The amount of concentrated alcohol obtained from each
running will be proportionate to the strength of the initial charge.

The apparatus is assembled complete and all parts are marked. The
operation of the apparatus is easy and simple, as there are no intricate
or sensitive working parts to be looked after or to get out of order. Users
of denatured alcohol whose product can be recovered should investigate
thoroughly the recovery of their alcohol. This still is furnished in the
following sizes: Capacity of still, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, 2000
and 2500 gallons. '

Spirit Varnishes. — One of the most important technical uses of
alcohol is in the manufacture of varnishes and lacquers. Among
the gums which are so employed shellac may be mentioned as the chief.
The use of tax-free denatured alcohol should greatly lower the cost of
spirit varnishes.

Fry, in his book on Italian varnishes,"^ says: ''M. Mailand did one
great service to M. J. B. Vuillaume and his other followers in that
he taught them to use oxygenated turpentine in forming their mix-
tures."

■ It may be said that such turpentine is soluble in alcohol, whereas
the ordinary or i^noxidized spirits of turpentine is not soluble, thus
admitting of tempering the ordinary spirit varnish so it will be I more
flexible.

Sadtler t recommends "using bleached shellac dissolved in alcohol
and copal varnish to produce the finest grade of spirit varnish. In the
preparation of this copal varnish the copal must be first fused or rather
submitted to dry distillation (by direct heat) until about 15 per cent
of its weight in oily distillation products has been distilled off." It
is the same with amber. The residue is then perfectly soluble in alcohol

* The Varnishes of the Italian Violin-makers of the Sixteenth, Seventeenth^
and Eighteenth Centuries and their Influence on Tone. By George Fry, F.L.S.^
F.C.S. London, 1904.

t A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry, 1895. By Samuel P. Sadtler^
Ph.i;)., F.C.S. ,

LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR DENATURED ALCOHOL. 359

It is then allowed to cool, after which this residue is powdered and
mixed with sand and covered with 95 per cent alcohol, heated to boiling
for some time, with a return condenser, and is then filtered. Sadtler
says the addition of elemi resin imparts toughness to the copal varnish.
The various resins used are shellac, gum-lac, sandarac, mastic, and
dammar. Colored spirit varnishes are made by the addition of alcoholic
extracts of dragon's-blood, cochineal, annatto, gamboge, turmeric, and
even solutions of the aniline colors.

An ingenious method for fusing amber, copal, etc., is to prepare two
brass tubes about IJ inches in diameter, one 14 inches long, the other
3 inches, united by a screw-coupling nut, the top of this tube being
closed with a loose brass cap provided with an air- vent.

This brass tube is held in an iron ring over a gas-lamp, the nut men-
tioned providing the support for the tube. The tube dips into w^ater.
About 3 inches from the bottom of this brass tube a perforated brass
plate J inch thick sets in between the longer or upper tube and the
lower or shorter tube. The water in the dish which receives the fused
gum is kept boiling hot by an additional gas-lamp. Heat is now applied
to the tube, the gum is put into it, and the latter soon fuses and drops
into the hot water, w^hile the more volatile oily portions escape as tarry
gases and smoke from the top of the tube.

. The fused gum is removed from the hot water as it runs down from
the heated tube, after which it is dried and powdered, and when really^
dry is used in making spirit varnish.

Several methods are in use for the varnishing of violins.

One is to partly color the wood and when dry the surface is pre-
pared and varnished with a partly colored varnish.

The other method is to properly prepare the surface of the wood
and varnish with a colored varnish. It is claimed by some that the
tone of the instrument is not injured by this latter method. Another
theory is that the two-color effect (dichroic) of the Venetian violin
varnishes was caused by the property of the varnish itself, for the reason
that this valuable color effect was given it by the peculiar preparation
the varnish underwent.

Some specially prepared powdered English colors in red, brown,
and yellow are used in violin varnishes. The different violin-makers
maintain a great degree of secrecy about the ingredients, the proportions,
and the colors they use in their varnishes which, as a rule, they prepare
themselves, the varnishes made being oil or oil and turpentine varnishes.
In the finishing of factory-made violins, made abroad, spirit varnishes
are lar^celv used.

360 DEx\ATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The price of shellac has increased very largely during recent
years. Any promising substitute for it is therefore of interest.* *'Dr.
Thomas B, Osborne, New Haven, Conn., took out patents for the extrac-
tion of zein some years ago.'* Mr. Williams further states that "the zein
was extracted with 95% grain alcohol from dry gluten meal, the product
resulting after the commercial removal of starch from Indian corn, and
about 30% approximately of this gluten meal was soluble. An 18%
solution of zein and alcohol, with an equal percentage of resin, dissolved,
made a very fine transparent varnish, superior to shellac.'' From this
statement it does not appear whether ordinary resin or the better variety
— the white winter resin — was used. It would seem that with the tax-
free denatured alcohol for use as a solvent and the substitute for shellac
above mentioned as though this matter were worthy of experiment.
In the testimony given at the Free Alcohol hearings before the Committee
of Ways and Means of the House of Representatives, February-^Iarch,
1906, it appeared that grain alcohol was markedly superior to wood alco-
hol for the making of spirit varnishes, lacquers, etc., and in the finishing
of wood in the manufacture of furniture, cars, pianos, etc. There is
therefore opened up a large field for the use of tax-free denatured alcohol,
for manufacturing purposes along these lines in place of the large amounts
of wood alcohol previously used.

* Statement furnished by Mr. Henry J. Williams, Boston, Mass.

CHAPTER X.
DENATURED ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES.

The Impracticability of Purifying Denatured Alcohol. The Possibilities of
Industrial Alcohol in the United States.

The Impracticability of Purifying Denatured AlcohoL — ^The founda-
tion of the idea of an industrial alcohol rests upon the fact that the
methods at present adopted to completely denature alcohol are effective.
The experience of England and Germany in the administration of their
laws relating to the manufacture and uses of denatured alcohol shows
that such laws are administered without any considerable degree of
fraud, such frauds as have resulted being so inconsiderable as to prac-
tically render official action unnecessary.

Some frauds were formerly experienced in France, but have since
1894 been rendered more difficult by the legal addition of a quantity of
benzol and aniUne (malachite) green to the usual denatured alcohol.
At present the use of this green has even been discontinued. It may
also be stated that no nation having once enacted legislation permitting
denatured alcohol has ever repealed such laws, no matter how great their
exigencies in way of revenue may have been. On the contrary the ten-
dency is always to liberalize such legislation and to extend the use of
such alcohol in every way possible.

The testimony at the Congressional hearings held at Washington,
D. C, February-March, 1906, relative to the repeal of the internal rev-
enue tax on domestic denatured (industrial) alcohol shows that the
experience in the future of the United States under the law recently
enacted permitting industrial alcohol under these conditions will be the
same as that of the other countries mentioned in respect to frauds
upon the Government.

The points made at these hearings were that the illicit fermentation
and distillation of whiskey, or ''moonshining/' as it is called, would be
more profitable than the attempt to rectify denatured alcohol for drink-
ing purposes; that it would be practically impossible to obtain an efficient
rectifying-still for fraudulent use, and that existing laws and regulations,

361

• tl

362 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

fully as liberal as the proposed bill, are now in force without loss to the
United States Government through fraud.

The further fact was brought out that from the letters and petitions,
in favor of such legislation for industrial alcohol, received from chemical
societies, leading universities, technical schools, agricultural colleges,
scientists, and chemists in general, that they all consider alcohol as a
chemical and not as a beverage, that is, something to be used industrially.
There is no distinction, therefore, in the minds of these people and of
these authorities to be drawn between industrial alcohol and other chem-
icals simply because degenerates and those criminally inclined sometimes
drink this alcohol. Letters from such above chemists who had resided
in England and Germany proved the impracticability of purifying dena-
tured alcohol.

The author had the honor of representing the American Chemical
Society and the Society of Chemical Industry through their New England
Sections at these ''free-alcohol " hearings already mentioned. On the
topic under discussion he gave, as the result of his experiments, testi-
mony to the effect that the denaturing agents in the samples of industrial
alcohol which he exhibited could only be removed by distillation and
with the most extreme difficulty and consequent great cost, and it is
therefore far easier and cheaper to make whiskey illicitly in the first
place.

Along the same lines as this discussion at these same hearings, Dr.
H. W. Wiley, Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, testified, stating that he appeared by authority of the
Secretary of Agriculture and as a member of the Committee on the Use
of Alcohol in the Industries Free of Tax, appointed by the American
Chemical Society, which embraces a membership of 3000 of the more
prominent chemists of this country. Dr. Wiley said: ''It is not a ques-
tion whether a chemist working for days and sometimes for weeks may
be able to separate the pure product from the mixture, because that is
the function of the chemist. The question, it seems to me, is whether
such a separation could be made in such a way as to make it a commer-
cial success in the face of the penitentiary, which would confront the effort
on all occasions. I want to say further that I do not believe you can
denature alcohol in such a way as to make it so impotable that somebody
will not drink it without purification, because there are some men so
depraved that they would not hesitate to drink anything that even
looked like alcohol. You cannot be certain that some manufacturer will
not attempt to evade the law. Let us admit all of these points without
question.

DENATURED ALCOHOL IX THE UNITED STATES. 363

"I have prepared a large number of denatured samples of alcohol,
starting with pure ethyl alcohol and adding common reagents which you
have heard about — methylated spirits, pyridine, etc. I have made up
denatured alcohol and then diluted it to proof, that is, 50 per cent by
vohime of ethyl alcohol. Then I have distilled both of these bodies in a
(simple) still such as a moonshiner would use, and then I have distilled
that again to show you that the distillate is still absolutely unfit for use.
Now if these are impracticable, as we have proved them to be, I do not
think this committee need fear that anybody is going to the trouble and
expense and run the risk incident to accomplishing this purpose. I think
these samples wull demonstrate to you the impossibility and impractica-
bility of attempting to rectify denatured alcohol. I think the cost of
restoring denatured alcohol to pure alcohol w^ould be greater than to manu-
facture and pay the tax on a fresh portion of properly made alcohol."

Other and equally as strong, arguments were presented at the above-
mentioned hearings as to existing laws and regulations, fully as liberal as
the legislation proposed, which are enforced without loss to this Govern-
ment, through fraud, as follows:

"Under section 3282 of the Revised Statutes, acts of ^farch 1, 1879,
and June 14, 1879, the manufacturers of vinegar are allow^ed to distill
alcohol from grain free of tax, and to convert such alcohol into vinegar
under a nominal supervision by internal-revenue officials. . . .

''Alcohol is granted free of tax to producers of sweet wines under
sections 42 to 49, inclusive, of the tariff act of October 1, 1890, as
amended by the tariff act of August 28, 1894. . . . Under this law
8,430.829 proof gallons of alcohol in the form of grape brandy were used
free of tax in fortifying (bringing up the alcoholic strength) of sweet
wines during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1905 (see page 5 of the last
annual report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue).'^ The total
quantity of alcohol delivered free of tax to the sw^et-wine producers was
shown "to be about seven times the estimated quantity (presented) of
taxed grain alcohol now used in the industries of the United States.'*
Also that "careful inquiry shows that not once since the enactment of
this law has the Commissioner of Internal Revenue reported to Congress
that the revenue from distilled spirits is endangered by the illicit recovery
of such alcohol and its sale in competition with taxed w^hiskey."*

It was further explained that "sweet wine of domestic production

* A charge of three cents a gallon is now laid upon each taxable gaUon of brandy
used in the fortification of wines. See Annual Report of the Commissioner of Inter-
nal Revenue. 1906.

364 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

may be freely purchased in large quantities at a comparatively low price
per gallon and the alcohol recovered therefrom by a simple process of
distillation." Quoting further, we find from testimony at these hearings
that 'Hhe fact that the law is not violated to an extent demanding official
action is probably the best proof which can be obtained that untaxed
domestic denatured alcohol requiring a compHcated process of fractional
distillation to render it potable (drinkable) would not endanger the
present revenue derived from distilled spirits." Another point brought
out was: "It is quite important to note that the materials from which
whiskey may be illicitly distilled are always at hand in every household
in the country, while denatured, industrial alcohol would have to be pur-
chased in considerable quantities and removed to the place where the
illicit recovery of the alcohol is intended to be carried on." From the
mass of testimony presented at the hearings mentioned on this phase of
the subject under discussion, as well as from that quoted immediately
above, we can anticipate that if pure alcohol in the form of brandy can
be administered by this Government free of tax without appreciable frauds
being committed, then the same experience should be realized in the
administration of the law recently enacted and approved, which permits
tax-free domestic denatured alcohol for industrial uses. We can also
believe that our experience in this respect will parallel that of England^
Germany, France, and the other nations here mentioned and be equally
satisfactory.

The Possibilities of Industrial Alcohol in the United States. — In
discussing this phase of the subject there are three vital features to be
considered which may be stated as follows:

1. The selling price of denatured alcohol.

2. The variety of its uses.

3. To what extent improvements can be made to increase the effi-
ciency of alcohol motors, engines, lamps, etc., in order thus to contribute
largely to the use of such alcohol.

1. The Selling Price of Denatured Alcohol. — The probable cost of
making commercial alcohol of 95 per cent strength from either corn or
molasses at the distillery we have shown to be about 15 cents a gallon
for the materials alone. To this cost must be added the manufacturing
cost, the cost of the package or barrel, the freight charges, and the cost
of denaturing, which added charges would probably bring such cost to
about 30 cents a gallon. To this cost must be added the cost of dis-
tribution and the profits, so that it would appear that completely dena-
tured alcohol would retail for about 40 cents a gallon. Corn and cane-
molasses are the only two raw materials at the present time worthy of

DENATURED ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES. 365

serious consideration as a source of industrial alcohol. These two prod-
ucts are the most economical from which to make alcohol in the United
States, as past experience has shown; they can be readily obtained in
ample quantities for such purposes. There is no risk, therefore, of any
shortage in their supply or of irregularity in deliveries. The corn crop of
the United States for 1905 was shown to have been 2,707,993,540 bushels.
A bushel of corn will make on an average about 2.63 gallons of 95 per
cent alcohol. To supply a demand of 10,000,000 gallons per year of
alcohol about 3,802,281 bushels of corn are required. When we consider
the amount of such commercial alcohol which can be made from even
one per cent of this enormous corn crop, the number of gallons being
approximately 70,000,000, some idea is had of the practically limitless
supply of alcohol which this raw material can furnish. With regard to
molasses as a raw material for alcohol, it is probable that some 50,000,000
gallons of the low grade which can be used for this purpose are yearly
available for this country. From figures previously given this amount
would furnish approximately 22,000,000 gallons of such alcohol. In
the West corn will be largely used to make alcohol. This is because
of its abundance and for the reason that it is the cheapest raw material
in that part of the country for such purpose. For a similar reason
molasses will be used in the cities of the Atlantic seaboard for making
alcohol. The question of how largely the corn alcohol and the molasses
alcohol can compete against each other throughout the country is a diffi-
cult one to answer. Several factors enter into such a problem, among
which are the value of the residue from distilling corn as a cattle
food; how much damaged or "heated " corn can be obtained at a lower
price which will still answer for making alcohol, and the question of
freight charges and transportation. The residue from the distillation of
the molasses used for alcohol has been investigated to some extent abroad.
In this country inquiry seems to develop the fact that so far it has but
little, if any, real value. The question of transportation charges applies
equally to molasses alcohol in this matter of competition. Whether
molasses alcohol will be made in the Hawaiian Islands, denatured, and
shipped to San Francisco to compete with the corn alcohol of the West is
a question of the future.

In connection with the manufacture of alcohol from cane-molasses,
just mentioned, it will prove of interest to know that ten of the beet-sugar
factories of Michigan sent their molasses to a distillery in that State,
and, as appeared in the Philippine hearings before the Committee of Ways
and Means, produced therefrom about a million gallons of proof alcohol.
This statement is taken from ''Report No. 2888, Fifty-ninth Congress,

366 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

First Session, Tax-free Denatured Alcohol, April 4, 1906, submitted by
Mr. Payne from the Committee on Ways and Means " [to accompany
H. R. 17453].

At the present time it would seem that the selling price of denatured
alcohol would not be dependent upon any scarcity of the supply of the
raw materials for its manufacture. It has been pointed out that the
largest possible yields of alcohol can be aimed at when making it for
denatured alcohol. This fact, together with possible future improve-
ments in the methods of manufacture to help lower the cost, will help to
offset any rise in the price of raw materials, but to how complete an extent
is problematical. Efforts are being made and will continue to be made
to find a cheaper and as effective a denaturant as the wood alcohol.
Attention in this respect is called to the yearly report of the Society for
the Manufacture of Alcohol in Germany for 1906. This report also con-
tains many other facts of interest concerning the manufacture of alcohol
in Germany.

Molasses has already advanced to about 7 cents per gallon and we
may therefore look for some increase in the price of corn. Any increase
in price of molasses over 7 cents per gallon may be said to increasingly
interfere with its ability to furnish alcohol at a cost to compete with corn
at 40 cents per bushel, as shown by the calculation given.

The sugar-planters will endeavor in the future as in the past to in-
crease their yields of sugar. This will tend to decrease the amounts of
molasses made, as molasses is merely a by-product in the making of
sugar. The increasing use of molasses as an ingredient in cattle feed is
assuming a considerable degree of importance, and large amounts of it
are so used. These two facts will both tend to decrease the supply of
molasses available for alcohol in the future, but to what extent cannot,
of course, be stated.

A higher price for molasses will stimulate importations of it to this
country and make it profitable for planters to transport it from the
interior sugar plantations to the coast for shipment. This may offset
to some extent he prospect of a decreasing supply from the causes men-
tioned above.

As to low-priced and damaged corn it may be taken for granted that
the farmer, whose present prosperity in this country is a matter of satis-
faction to all, will on this account in the future be able to hold and to
properly cure his corn to a much greater degree than in the past. He
will be just as anxious to obtain a higher price by so doing as we should
under similar circumstances. The future supply of such low-grade corn
may therefore be diminished. The selling of denatured alcohol at nearly

DENATURED ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES. 367

cost will enable the distiller to run his plant practically all the time, and
the fixed charges of his plant will be partly, perhaps largely, borne by
such alcohol. His profits he can therefore make in large measure from
the tax-paid spirits or alcohol which he makes. He thus has a strong
incentive to so sell all the denatured alcohol possible. From what has
been stated it will be apparent that, under the present Government re-
strictions in this country as well as from the other reasons given, the
farmer will be unable to practically engage in the distilling of alcohol.*
He can, however, sell or barter his farm products which are suitable
for the economical production of alcohol to the distiller and have his
margin of farm profits, based on his unit of cost for the raising of such
products, to enable him to buy such alcohol in a way more cheaply than
by a strictly cash transaction. In the West the farmer will be within
reasonable transportation distance of the distillers, and if our Govern-
ment should later on permit the transportation of denatured alcohol in
tank-cars it would lessen the freight charges and reduce the cost of such
alcohol to him as well as to users in other parts of our country. The
further granting, later on, by our Government of permission to the
distillers to convey the alcohol from the distillery to their denaturing-
house by a properly secured, locked, and sealed pipe under strict
Government supervision, will help materially to lessen the cost of
denaturing, as it will avoid all costs for packages, teaming, labor, and the
extra supervision and attendance on the part of the distiller. For this
and other reasons the cost for denaturing alcohol in this country is diffi-
cult to determine. It can be said that considerable quantities of wood
alcohol will be available January 1, 1907, when the new law permitting
denatured alcohol goes into effect. Competition may therefore force
down the selling price of this approved methyl alcohol prescribed by this
Government. Probably still further improved methods of manufacture
will be sought in making wood alcohol in order to lessen its cost and by
so doing the cost of the denaturing of alcohol. If we take the cost of the
approved methyl alcohol as that of the alcohol which it is to denature,
we have the ideal condition, as there is then no increased cost due to
denaturing the alcohol. It is probably too much to expect that such
conditions will obtain, but it is hoped that such may be the case. An-
other factor in determining the selling price of denatured alcohol for
the general purposes of light, heat, and power is that of the proper
standardization of it for illuminating, heating, and power purposes.
It will be noted that the Government regulations merely state the
* Since this was written supplementary legislation has been enacted m this
country which will probably result in the removal of the hindrances and restrictions
mentioned. This legislation is given on p. 489.

368 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

lowest strength of denatured alcohol permitted, viz., 180° proof, or 90
per cent by volume. For the purposes of distribution and the con-
venience of the user it is important to have as few strengths or grades
come into use as'is possible. It is, however, of equal, if not of more,
importance for the user and the public to know that they are receiving
the grade which standardization has determined as the best for their
particular use.

* Let us also consider the selHng' price of denatured alcohol in Ger-
many, which may afford some comparison of what the maximum price in
this country should be. Denatured alcohol sells at a much lower cost in
Germany than in any of the other countries which permit its use.

It is for this reason, as well as because of the special efforts con-
stantly put forth by Germany to develop and increase to the utmost
every possible industrial use of alcohol, that that nation enjoys a posi-
tion so far in the lead with respect to this subject. It may be said that
it costs a httle over 2 cents a gallon to completely denature alcohol in
Germany. Alcohol of 90 and 95 per cent strength by volume is used in
making denatured alcohol.

The selling price at retail for denatured alcohol is, for 95 per cent
strength by volume, 33 pfennigs per liter, or 29.69 cents per gallon; 90
per cent strength by volume, 30 pfennigs per liter, or 27 cents per
gallon. At wholesale the prices range from 28 to 29 pfennigs per liter,
or from 25.2 to 26.1 cents per gallon. These figures were also given in
Chapter IX, but are repeated here on account of their great importance.
The distribution of spirit is practically controlled in Germany by a
society known as the ''Centrale fur Spiritus Verwerthung," with its
head offices in Berlin. At the end of the campaign the society adjusts
with the distillers the losses or profits, based on the fixed price, resulting
from the operations of the society in disposing of the spirit. In 1906
this price was 42 marks ($10.50) per hectolitre (26.41 gallons), or 40 cents
a gallon, as against 56 marks ($14) per hectoHtre (26.41 gallons), or 53
cents a gallon last year.

As a bonus on denatured alcohol, on the alcohol exported, and the
alcohol used in the manufacture of exported goods, a portion of the
mash-tub tax and the distillation tax is rebated. This rebate during the
last campaign year in Germany amounted to $6,140,657, so that the
cost of alcohol for drinking purposes was increased a little over $6,000,000
for the benefit of the industrial use of the spirit.

2. The Variety of its Uses. — In considering the variety of the uses
for completely denatured alcohol, or industrial alcohol, in this country,
we can first take the demand for wood alcohol for manufacturing pur-

* From Kaport U. S. Consul.

DENATURED ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES. 369

poses, which figure was shown to be about 8,000,000 gallons for the year
1905, from the testimony given at the "Free Alcohol" Congressional
hearings held at Washington, D. C, February-March, 1906. This
amount can be replaced by completely denatured alcohol. In addition,
if the price of the latter practically cuts that of the former in two,
there should be a largely increased demand for it over even the above
figures. Depending upon the selling price, it would appear from the
above facts, as well as from the natural increase in manufacturing, that
a demand for some 12,000,000 gallons during the first year of the new
law would be a fair estimate for manufacturing uses throughout this
country. When we consider the further possible uses, such as lighting,
heating, cleaning, and cooking these figures will easily reach 16,000,000
gallons if the selling price be suflSciently low. As alcohol burns twice
as long as kerosene, giving the same amount of light, it can easily com-
pete with kerosene at 15 cents a gallon for portable household illumina-
tion, and by some will be used in preference to kerosene even at a greater
disparity in cost.

Under certain conditions, as where gas or electricity is not available,
the alcohol street lights we have shown should be largely used. They
are storm and rain proof. The testimony at the hearings referred to
above showed also, according to German shop tests, that in round num-
bers alcohol compares equally well with gasoline as regards consumption
for fuel purposes in internal-combustion engines and motors, in spite of
the fact that gasoline possesses about 1.6 times the heating value of alco-
hol. This was because of the much increased compression that could
be used with safety in such tests in the case of alcohol. The much greater
safety of alcohol over gasoline is another potent factor in favor of the
former, as well as the fact that it will mix with water, and a fire once
started may be readily extinguished, while with gasoline such is not the
case, as the addition of water for such a purpose merely spreads the
fire. What this means on power-boats and fishing-craft only those who
have had such an experience can understand. Already the price of gaso-
line has dropped in the East from about 23 cents per gallon for 76° (July
1, 1906, soon after the denatured alcohol act was approved and became
a law) to about 17 cents per gallon for 70° at the present time, and no
more 76° gasoline is now said to be obtainable.

It is thus seen that, whether industrial alcohol wholly substitutes
gasoline for lighting and small power purposes or not, it will prevent
future increases of price in this fuel. It will thus protect and benefit
the owners of automobiles and power-boats who still prefer to use gaso-
line, because by replacing gasoline for agricultural power purposes alcohol
can liberate large amounts of gasoline for automobile and power-boat-use.

370 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

With regard to the competition of denatured alcohol with kerosene or
crude petroleum or fuel oil for power purposes it cannot hope to com-
pete with these fuels, on account of their low cost. In addition any dis-
parity in price is made even more emphatic, because the consumption
of the fuel increases, of course, with the size of the engine. As has been
shown in the case of the automobile, the possibilities of the consumption
of industrial alcohol for fuel for other types of internal-combustion
engines, such as stationary and portable for agricultural and individual
power purposes, are very great. Such use could easily be put at a very
large figure under proper conditions, and could easily equal, if not exceed,
that for all these other uses combined.

Turning now to the possibilities of specially denatured alcohol in
this country, it may be stated that as large uses are found for such alcohol
abroad they should also be possible here with us.

Some of the important manufacturing purposes for which completely
denatured alcohol cannot be used are in the making of sulphuric ether,
chloroform, acetic ether, smokeless powder, fulminates, photographic films,
dry plates and papers, and aniline colors and dyes made from coal-tar.
In making sulphuric ether in France undenatured alcohol is partially or
specially denatured with residue from making ether and with oil of vitriol
(sulphuric acid) . The large use of ether as an anaesthetic in surgery and
technically as a solvent for fats is well known. In France undenatured
alcohol specially denatured with chloride of lime is permitted for making
chloroform. The importance of the uses of chloroform in this country
as an anaesthetic and for technical purposes is well known. In the
United States the Government has undenatured alcohol, tax free, for
the making of smokeless powder. Such alcohol can be specially dena-
tured for this purpose with an equal volume of ether, and 6 grams of gun-
cotton for each liter of alcohol added, under government supervision
and restrictions. On account of the use of ether in smokeless powder,
and because such ether is first made from alcohol, the importance of
permitting specially denatured alcohol in this country for these purposes
can be readily understood.

It has been calculated that tax-free alcohol would cut the price of
smokeless powder more than one half. The manufacture of fulminates
would be of importance to this country, and the testimony at the hear-
ings mentioned showed that the industry had been obliged to leave the
country because tax-free alcohol was not obtainable. In Germany tax-
free alcohol is permitted for making smokeless powders, fuses, and ful-
minates, as well as for making the varnishes used in finishing these
substances. Permission has to be obtained and the same regulations as
are applicable to the buying, storage, and use of "wood naphtha de-

DENATURED ALCOHOL IX THE UNITED STATES. 371

natured " spirit (see Appendix, this book), and the lieeping of "control
books " and other accounts are enforced. In this connection it may be
stated that tank-cars are also permitted abroad for the transportation of
pure or undenatured alcohol, greatly reducing the charge for freight
and handling. Special denaturing agents are permitted in Germany only
at the factory where the alcohol is to be used tor the manufacture of
photographic paper, dry films, and emulsions therefor, of chloride, bro-
mide iodide of silver and gelatine, and similar preparations. Permission
must also be obtained from the chief office of the province to use such
specially denatured alcohol.

For the manufactiu-e of aniline colors and dyes (coal-tar colors)
Germany also permits, tax free, specially denatured alcohol. Some of
the substances used in obtaining such colors and also intermediate
products are used to denature such alcohol. About ten per cent of the
total dyes made by Germany require the use ot alcohol in their manufac-
ture, while the research work necessitated by their coal-tar color indus-
tries also calls for the use of considerable pure alcohol. It is interesting
to note that carboys of absolute alcohol are now shipped to the United
States for the use of scientific and technological schools from Germany.
These facts show not only the business enterprise of the Germans, but
their increasing technical efforts, and their great supremacy in all matters
pertaining to the chemical and allied industries. Although this is not
wholly due to tax-free alcohol for the past twenty years, still we may
safely assume it to have been one of the great contributing causes for
such success. In the United States it would appear that tax-free alcohol
should also be permitted under Government regulations for all these
purposes, and is necessary to put our country on at least an equal basis
with Germany in these respects. Concerning the use of incompletely
or partially denatured alcohol in Germany during 1904-5, w^e quote from
the report of U. S. Consul-General Alexander AI. Thackara, Berlin, Ger-
many. September 10, 1906, as follows:

Use of Incompletely Denatured Alcohol in Germany During 1904-5.

For soap-making 5,250 gallons

' * making lanohn 25,780 ' '

*•' photographic paper, dry plates, emulsions, etc 14,160 *'

" manutacture ot celluloid 684,000 ' '

*' " " varnishes and polishes 1,270,000 '*

*' " ' 'chemical preparations and other purposes. . . 1,520,000 ' '

*' *' " sulphuric or common ether 2,131,000 "

*' *• "chloroform 7,053 ''

** ** " lodotorm 10,567

** surgical dressings 11,800

5,679,610 gallons

372 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

With regard to the total quantity of alcohol used in the industries
in Germany during the past campaign year, 1904-5^ the highest ever
known, these amoilnts are as follows:

Completely denatured alcohol 26,000,000 gallons

Alcohol for the manutacture ot vinegar 4,000,000 * *

Incompletely or partially denatured alcohol 7,000,000 "

Total quantity used 37,000,000 gallons

In 1887-8 there were used only some 10,250,000 gallons for indus-
trial purposes. The completely denatured alcohol used for power, light,
and heat in 1904-5 was 26,000,000 gallons, while in 1887-8 only some
3,600,000 gallons were so used, showing the consumption of alcohol for
power, light, and heat has increased over seven times in the past seven-
teen years.

In France in 1903 (latest available statistics) the following amounts
of pure alcohol were used for similar purposes, viz.:

Ether and explosives 1,405,338 gallons

Drugs and chemical preparations 613,162

({

2,018,500 gallons

The above figures show that a substantial amount of pure alcohol under
the conditions mentioned was used in these two countries in the year
1903. Imitation silk as made abroad also calls for the use of a large
quantity of alcohol for solvent purposes.

In the United States there was withdrawn, free of tax, during the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1905, an aggregate of 2,112,830 taxable
gallons of alcohol merely for scientific purposes and for the use of the
United States Government.

From the report of U. S. Consul-General A. M. Thackara, already
quoted, we find the latest complete statistics regarding the alcohol situa-
tion in France to be as follows :

The last year for which complete statistics are available, covering
the manufacture, denaturation, importation, and various uses of alcohol
in France, presents the interesting record tabulated on page 373, giving
materials from which alcohol was manufactured.

Tax was paid on the quantity used for beverages and other purposes.

The present wholesale price of grain alcohol, in France, ranges from 50
to 55 francs ($9.65 to $10.61) per hectolitre of 26.42 gallons, according to
quality. This would be equivalent to 36 to 40 cents per gallon. Methyl
or wood alcohol is imported into France mainly from Great Britain and

DENATURED ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES 373

Materials. Hectolitres.

Grain and potatoes 352,928

Molasses 670,969

Beets 926,159

Wine 26,810

Apples and pears 2,274

Lees of wine 54,903

All other material 104,997

Imported, mainly from Germany and Holland 92,000

Total supply 2,139,040

Equal to (gallons) 56,513,436

Methods of Consumption*.

The methods of consumption are shown in the following table;

Hectolitres.

Drinking and other purposes 1,308,903

Denatured 374,598

Converted to vinegar 87,285

Consumed free at distilleries 98,070

Leakage 4,704

Losses through accident 4,503

Exported 284,207

Total 2,162,270

Equal to (gallons) 57,127,173

Germany. Its present wholesale price in Paris is about 77 francs (S14.86)
per hectolitre, or approximately 56 cents per gallon.

From the above statistics it is seen that 374,598 hectolitres, or about
9,893,133 gallons, of denatured alcohol were used in that year. There
was also used 87,285 hectolitres of alcohol, or about 2,305,196 gallons,
which was converted into vinegar.

From what has preceded it appears that there is considerable oppor-
tunity in the United States for the technical use of pure alcohol, to he
specially denatured under Government control and regulations, and that
in no case does any one of these manufactured products mentioned, on page
370, contain any alcohol in the finished article.

At present the law does not provide for the use, free of tax, of alco-
hol which is wholly undenatured, when used for domestic purposes, except
as stated. It can also be stated that exportation of methylated
spirits (denatured alcohol) is permitted under the new excise regula-
tions in the United Kingdom by the British Government, quoted in
Chapter IX. It would therefore seem as though our Government could,
under proper restrictions, permit alcohol either completely denatured by

374 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the U. S. regulations or denatured according to foreign formulse accept-
able to our Government, under the new law, to be exported.

3. To what extent improvements can be made to increase the efficiency of
alcohol motors, engines, lamps, cooking-stoves, etc., in order thus to con-
tribute largely to the uses of such alcohol. — In Chapter VllI the possibilities
of the uses of alcohol for the automobile motor have already been indi-
cated and the probable line upon which its development will proceed.
Broadly stated, it may be said that a great amount of experimenting
remains to be done in this country with regard to the development and
perfecting of all the above alcohol-using apparatus in order to adapt it
to our conditions. We are in a pioneer state with regard to this whole ^
problem. Many of our manufacturers of such apparatus are therefore at
work at the present time investigating these problems, and any close
judgment as to the possibilities of industrial alcohol is thus seen to be
impracticable. The best we can do is to consider, as we have done, the
experience of foreign countries in this respect and the amounts of indus-
trial alcohol used by them for these various purposes, and base our esti-
mates upon such data.

The employment of alcohol for stationary and marine engines has
also been shown in Chapter VllI and quite fully described and summa-
rized. Improvements can and will be made in alcohol engines and
motors by manufacturers in this country. The rate of progress in this
respect will depend directly upon the demand for such engines, and this
demand in turn rests largely upon the price of the denatured alcohol.
The same can be said of alcohol lamps and cooking- and heating-stoves.
Like the profitable manufacture of the alcohol itself, the profitable manu-
facture of apparatus to use it successfully depends upon the tenets of,
and hard-headed adherence to, strict business principles and economics.

That American genius will fully meet all the demands along these
lines from our fellow-countrymen and successfully solve the problem of
industrial alcohol is the hope and belief of the author.

APPENDIX.

UNITED STATES REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS CON-
CERNING THE DENATURATION OF ALCOHOL AND THE
HANDLING AND USE OF SA.ME UNDER THE ACT OF CON-
GRESS OF JUNE 7, 1906.

Regul.\tions No. 30, U. S. Internal Revenue.

Sec. 1. The following regulations are issued pursuant to an act of the Congress
providing for the withdrawal from bond, tax free, of domestic alcohol to be ren-
dered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by the admixture of denaturing
materials.

The act in question is as follows :

"Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That from and after January first, nineteen hundred
and seven, domestic alcohol of such degree of proof as may be prescribed by the
Ck)mmissioner of Internal Revenue and approved by the Secretary of the Treasury,
may be withdrawn from bond without the payment of internal-revenue tax, for
use in the arts and industries, and for fuel, light, and power, provided said alcohol
shall have been mixed in the presence and under the direction of an authorized
Government officer, after withdrawal from the distillery warehouse, with methyl
alcohol or other denaturing material or materials, or admixture of the same, suit-
able to the use for which the alcohol is withdrawn, but which destroys its character
as a beverage and renders it unfit for liquid medicinal purposes; such denaturing
to be done upon the application of any registered distillery in denaturing bonded
warehouses specially designated or set apart for denaturing purposes only, and
under conditions prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury.

" The character and quantity of the said denaturing material and the condi-
tions upon which said alcohol may be withdrawn free of tax shall be prescribed
by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who shall, with the approval of the Secre-
tary of the Treasury, make all necessary regulations for carrying into effect the
provisions of this Act.

" Distillers, manufacturers, dealers, and all other persons furnishing, handhng,
or using alcohol withdrawn from bond under the provisions of this Act shall keep
such books and records, execute such bonds, and render such returns as the Com-
missioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury,
may by regulation require. Such books and records shall be open at all times
to the inspection of any internal-revenue officer or agent.

" Sec. 2. That any person who withdraws alcohol free of tax under the pro-
visions of this Act and regulations made in pursuance thereof, and who removes
or conceals same, or is concerned in removing, depositing, or concealing same

375

376 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

for the purpose of preventing the same from being denatured under governmental
supervision, and any person who uses alcohol withdrawn from bond under the
provisions of section one of this Act for manufacturing any beverage or liquid
medicinal preparation, or knowingly sells any beverage or liquid medicinal prepara-
tion made in whole or in part from such alcohol, or knowingly violates any of the
provisions of this Act, or who shall recover or attempt to recover by redistillation
or by any other process or means, any alcohol rendered unfit for beverage or liquid
medicinal purposes under the provisions of this Act, or who knowingly uses, sells,
conceals, or otherwise disposes of alcohol so recovered or redistilled, shall on con-
viction of each offense be fined not more than five thousand dollars, or be im-
prisoned not more than five years, or both, and shall, in addition, forfeit to the
United States all personal property used in connection with his business, together
with the buildings and lots or parcels of ground constituting the premises on which
said unlawful acts are performed or permitted to be performed: Provided, That
manufacturers employing processes in which alcohol, used free of tax under the
provisions of this act, is expressed or evaporated from the articles manufactured,
shall be permitted to recover such alcohol and to have such alcohol restored to a
condition suitable solely for reuse in manufacturing processes under such regula-
tions as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary
of the Treasury, shall prescribe.

" Sec. 3. 1 hat for the employment of such additional force of chemists, internal
revenue agents, inspectors, deputy collectors, clerks, laborers, and other assistants
as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary
of the Treasury, may deem proper and necessary to the prompt and efficient opera-
tion and enforcement of this law, and for the purchase of locks, seals, weighing-
beams, gauging instruments, and for all necessary expenses incident to the proper
execution of this law, the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, or so
much thereof as may be required, is hereby appropriated out of any money in
the Treasury not otherwise appropriated said appropriation to be immediately
available.

" For a period of two years from and after the passage of this act the force
authorized by this section of this act shall be appointed by the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, and without
compliance with the conditions prescribed by the act entitled "An act to regulate
and improve the civil service," approved January sixteenth, eighteen hundred
and eighty-three, and amendments thereof, and with such compensation as the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue may fix, with the approval of the Secretary
of the Treasury.

" Sec. 4. Ihat the Secretary of the Treasury shall make full report to Congress
at its next session of all appointments made under the provisions of this act, and
the compensation paid thereunder, and of all regulations prescribed under the pro-
visions hereof, and shall further report what, if any, additional legislation is neces-
sary, in his opinion, to fully safeguard the revenue and to secure a proper enforce-
ment of this act."

Approved, June 7, 1906.

Part I *
DENATURING BONDED WAREHOUSES.

Sec. 2. The proprietor of any registered distillery may withdraw from his
distillery warehouse, free of tax, alcohol of not less than 180 degrees proof or
strength, to be denatured in the manner hereinafter prescribed.

A distiller desiring to withdraw alcohol from bond for denaturing purposes
under the provisions of this act shall, at his own expense, provide a denaturing
bonded warehouse, to be situated on and constituting a part of the distillery premises.
It shall be separated from the distillery and the distillery bonded warehouse and
all other buildings, and no windows or doors or other openings shall be permitted

* Persons desiring information as to distilleries will be supplied on request with the proper
regulations.

APPENDIX. 377

in the walls of the denaturing bonded warehouse leading into the distillery, the
distillery bonded warehouse or other room or building, except as hereinafter pro-
vided. It must be constructed in the same manner as distillery bonded ware-
houses are now constructed, with a view to the safe and secure storage of the
alcohol removed thereto for denaturing purposes and the denaturing agents to
be stored therein. It must be approved by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue.
It shall be provided with clos3d mixing tanks of sufficient capacity. The capacity
in wine gallons of each tank must be ascertained and marked thereon in legible
letters, and each tank must be supplied with a graduated glass guage whereon
the contents will be at all times correctly indicated. All openings must be so
arranged that they can be securely locked. Suitable office accommodation for the
officer on duty must be provided.

Sec. 3. The denaturing bonded warehouse shall be used for denaturing alcohol,
and for no other purpose, and nothing shall be stored or kept therein except the
alcohol to be denatured, the materials used as denaturents, the denatured product,
and the weighing and gauging instruments and other appliances necessary in
the work of denaturing, measuring, and gauging the alcohol and denaturing mate-
rials.

These bonded warehouses must be numbered serially in each collection district,

and the words ''Denaturing bonded warehouse No. , district of ," must

be in plain letters in a conspicuous place on the outside of the building.

In case the distiller's bond has been executed before the erection of such ware-
house the consent of the sureties to the establishment of the denaturing ware-
house must be secured and entry duly signed made on the bond.

Denaturing Material Room.

Sec. 4. There shall be provided within the denaturing bonded warehouse a
room to be designated as the denaturing material room. This room is to be used
alone for the storage of denaturing materials prior to the denaturing process.
It must be perfectly secure, and must be so constructed as to render it impossible
for any one to enter during the absence of the officer in charge without the same
being detected.

Ihe ceiling, inside walls, and floor of said room must be constructed of brick,
stone, or tongue-and-groove planks. If there are windows in the room the same
must b3 secured by gratings or iron bars, and to each window must be affixed solid
shutters of wood or iron, constructed in such manner that they may be securely
barred and fastened on the inside. The door must be substantial, and must be
so constructed that it can be securely locked and fastened.

Sec. 5, At least two sets of tanks or receptacles for storing denaturing material
must be provided, and each set of tanks must be of sufficient capacity in the aggre-
gate to hold the denaturing material which it is estimated the distiller will use
for thirty days. A set of tanks shall consist of one or more tanks for storing methyl
alcohol, and one or more tanks of smaller capacity for storing other denaturing mate-
rials. The capacity of each tank must be ascertained and marked in legible
figures on the outside.

The tanks must not be connected with each other, and must be so constructed
as to leave at least 18 inches of open space between the top of the tank and ceiling,
the bottom of the tank and the floor, and the sides of the tank and walls of the
denaturing material room. Each tank shall be given a number, and this number
must be marked upon it. There shall be no opening at the top except such as may
be necessary for dumping the denaturing material into the tank and thoroughly
plunging or mixing the same. Said opening must be covered so that it may be
locked. Likewise the faucet through which the denaturing material is drawn
must be so arranged that it can be locked. Each tank must be supplied with a
graduated glass gauge whereby the contents of the tank will always be shown.

Custody of Denaturing Bonded Warehouse.

Sec. 6. The denaturing bonded warehouse shall be under the control of the
collector of the district and shall be in the joint custody of a storekeeper, store-
keeper-gauger, or other designated official and the distiller.

378 dSnATURED or INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

No one shall be permitted to enter the warehouse except in the presence of
said officer, and the warehouse and room shall be kept closed and the doors, exterior
and interior, securely locked except when some work incidental to the process of
denaturing or storing material is being carried on. Standard Sleight locks shall
be used for locking the denaturing bonded warehouse and the denaturing material
room, and they shall be sealed in the same manner and with the same kind of
seals as distillery bonded warehouses and cistern rooms are now sealed. Miller
locks shall be used in securing the faucets and openings of the mixing tanks and
the denaturing material tanks.

The officer in charge of the denaturing bnded warehouse, material room,
and tanks shall carry the keys to same, and under no circumstances are said keys
to be intrusted to any one except another officer who is duly authorized to receive
them.

Application for Approval of Denaturing Bonded Warehouse.

Sec. 7. Whenever a distiller wishes to commence the business of denaturing
alcohol he must make written. application to the collector of the district in which
the distillery is located for the approval of a denaturing bonded warehouse.

Such application must give the name or names of the person, firm, or corporation
operating the distillery, the number of the distillery, the location of the same, the
material of which the warehouse is constructed, the size of same, width, length,
and height, the size of the denaturing material room therein, and the manner
of its construction, the capacity in gallons of each tank to be used for denaturing
alcohol or for holding the denaturing agents, and the material of which said tanks
are constructed.

Such application must be accompanied by a diagram correctly representing
the warehouse, the mixing tanks, denaturing material room, and denaturing material
tanks, with all openings and surroundings. It must show the distillery and all the
distillery bonded warehouses on the premises, with dimensions of each.

The application may be in the following form:

To collector of district of .

Sir: The undersigned doing business under the name or style

of hereby makes application for the approval of a denaturing bonded ware-
house which he has provided as required by law, situated upon and constituting a

part of the premises known as Distillery No. at , in the county of ,

and State of .

Said denaturing warehouse is constructed of

(Here describe accurately the denaturing warehouse, giving the height, width,
and depth; the mixing tank or tanks and the capacity of each in gallons; also the
size in height, width, and depth of the denaturing material room; the denaturing
material tanks, and the capacity in gallons of each; also the openings of the de-
naturing warehouse and denaturing material room.)

Distiller.

Examining Officer to Inspect Warehouse.

Sec. 8. Upon receipt of the application and accompanying diagram the collector
shall de+ail one of his deputies or some other officer who shall visit the distillery
and make a careful examination of the proposed denaturing bonded warehouse.

Such officer shall ascertain whether or not said warehouse and mixing tanks
and denaturing material room and tanks are constructed in conformity with the
regulations, the statements made in the application, and the representations on
the diagram.

APPENDIX. 379

Sec. 9. If the deputy collector finds that the statements in the application
are true and that the denaturing warehouse and material room are constructed
in conformity with the law and regulations, he shall make report and recommen-
dation in the following form :

I hereby certify that I have visited the distillery premises described in the
foregoing application for the approval of a warehouse in which to denature alcohol

by -. proprietor of distil. ery No. in the district of and have

carefully examined the proposed warehouse and mixing tanks, and the denaturing
material room and tanks; that I have measured said warehouse, room, and tanks;
that I have examined said distillery premises, and the distillery and distillery
bonded warehouses located thereon, and have found the statements and repre-
sentations made in the application and diagram hereto attached to be in every
respect true and correct.

I find that said proposed denaturing warehouse, mixing tanks, denaturing mate-
rial room, and denaturing material tanks, and everything connected with the
same are constructed in strict conformity with all requirements of the law and
regulations.

I recommend that said denaturing warehouse be approved.

Deputy Collector District of .

This report shall be affixed to the application.

Approval of Warehouse.

Sec. 10. The collector shall examine the deputy's report and if, after such
examination, he is satisfied that the warehouse and all its parts are constructed
in conformity with the law and regulations, he shall indorse his approval on the
application and shall transmit the original, together with the diagram, to this
office.

If the Commissioner of Internal Revenue is satisfied, after examining the
application and reports, that the denaturing warehouse is situated and constructed
in compliance with the law and regulations, he shall approve same and notify
the collector of said approval.

Denaturing Warehouse Bond to be Given.

Sec. 11. After receipt of notice of the approval of said warehouse the distiller
may withdraw from his distillery warehouse, free of tax, alcohol of not less than
180 degrees proof or strength, and may denature same in said denaturing ware-
house in the manner hereinafter indicated, provided he shall first execute a bond
in the form prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with at least
two sureties, unless, under the authority contained in an act approved August 13,
1894, a corporation, duly authorized by the Attorney-General of the United States
to become a surety on such bond, shall be offered as a sole surety thereon. The
bond shall be for a penal sum of not less than double the tax on the alcohol it is
estimated the distiller will denature during a period of thirty days, and in no case
is the distiller to withdraw from bond for denaturing purposes and have in his
denaturing warehouse in process of denaturation a quantity of alcohol the tax
upon which is in excess of the penal sum of the bond.

Sec. 12. If, at any time, it should develop that the denaturing warehouse
bond is insufficient the distiller must give additional bond.

Sec. 13. The bond herein provided for must be executed before the distiller
can withdraw from distillery bonded warehouse, free of tax, alcohol to be de-
natured, and if he desires to continue in the business of denaturing alcohol, said
bond must be renewed on the first day of May of each year or before any alcohol
is withdrawn from bond for denaturing purposes. It must be executed in dupli-
cate in accordance with instructions printed thereon. One copy is to be retained
by the collector and one copy is to be transmitted to the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue.

It shall be in the following form:

380 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL

DENATURING WAREHOUSE BOND.

Know all men by these presents: That we, of

principal, and of , as sureties, are held and firmly bound to

the United States of America in the full and just sum of dollars, lawful

money of the United States; to which payment, well and truly to be made, we
bind ourselves jointly and severally, our several heirs, executors, and adminis-
trators, firmly by these presents.

Sealed with our seals and dated the day of , 190 — .

The condition of the foregoing obligation is such that whereas the above bounden
principal, under the provisions of the act of June 7, 1906, has constructed a wa,re-

house for denaturing alcohol on the premises of distillery No. , situated at

, in the county of r, State of , and said warehouse has been duly

approved; and whereas said principal intends to withdraw from the distillery
bonded warehouse belonging to said distillery situated on the distillery premises,
alcohol free of tax for the purpose of denaturing same in the denaturing warehouse*

Now, therefore, if the aforesaid principal shall immediately upon the withdrawal
from the distillery bonded warehouse aforesaid of all alcohol intended for denatur-
ing purposes transfer same to the denaturing warehouse aforesaid, and in said
denaturing warehouse, denature said alcohol in accordance with the terms of the
entry for withdrawal of same and in conformity with the law and all rules and reg-
ulations duly prescribed in relation to the denaturing of alcohol; and if said princi-
pal shall in the transferring from distillery warehouse to denaturing warehouse, and
in the handling and disposing of said alcohol, comply with all the law and regula-
tions aforesaid; if he shall pay the tax of one dollar and ten cents per proof gallon on
all alcohol withdrawn by him from distillery bonded warehouse free of tax for de-
naturing purposes and disposed of in any manner, either in transit from the dis-
tillery bonded warehouse to the denaturing warehouse or after it has been deposited
in the denaturing warehouse, without first having denatured said alcohol in such
manner as may have been prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, and if he shall pay all penalties
incurred by him and all fines imposed on him for violation of any of the provisions
of the law relating to the withdrawal of, transferring of, denaturing of, and dis-
posing after denaturation of alcohol, withdrawn free of tax, then this obligation
is to be void, otherwise, to remain in full force and effect.

fSEAL.]

[seal.]

Sec. 14. The collector, upon receipt of the bond, shall examine same and in-
vestigate as to the sureties thereon.

If he finds the bond properly executed and the sureties sufficient, he shall
approve the bond, and thereafter, during the life of the bond, the distiller may
withdraw from his distillery warehouse, free of tax, alcohol to be denatured under
such regulations as may hereinafter be prescribed.

Conditions Under which Alcohol is Withdrawn.

Sec. 15. Not less than three hundred (300) wine gallons of alcohol can be
withdrawn at one time for denaturing purposes.

When a distiller who is a producer of alcohol of not less than 180 degrees proof
and who has given the denaturing warehouse bond as aforesaid desires to remove
alcohol from the distillery bonded warehouse for the purpose of denaturing, he
will himself, or by his duly authorized agent, file with the collector of internal
revenue of the district in which the distillery is located the following notice in
triplicate:

NOTICE OF intention TO WITHDRAW FOR TRANSFER TO DENATURING BONDED

WAREHOUSE.

190—.

Collector District of

Sir: The undersigned distiller and owner of packages of alcohol, the

serial numbers of which are , produced at distilleiy No. , in the

APPENDIX.

381

district of

and now stored in the distillery bonded warehouse No.

said distillery, desires to withdraw same under section 1 of the act of June 7, 1906,
for denaturing purposes, and requests that said spirits be regaged.*
Respectfully,

— , Distiller.

ciworn to before me this day of , 190 —

[seal.]

Upon the receipt of such notice the collector will at once append to each copy
the following:

, collector's order to gauger.

Office of Collector of Internal Revenue,

District, .

You will proceed to distillery warehouse No. , of , at ,

Sir:

and there inspect and gauge, according to law and regulations, the alcohol which

desires to withdraw and transfer to denaturing bonded warehouse, and

you will mark upon each package so regauged the number of wine gallons and proof
gallons therein contained, and you will make report of your gauging on the cer-
tificate hereunto appended, and sign and deliver same to applicant.

Collector.

Sec. 16. Upon the receipt of the foregoing the officer designated will at once
proceed carefully and thoroughly to inspect each package, ascertaining the actual
wantage, proof, and contents without reference to the marks on the casks. In
case the spirits are withdrawn on day of entry, regauge is not necessary, and the
entry gauge shall be accepted. He will make return on each copy of the order
for inspection in the following form:

GAUGER S REPORT OF SPIRITS GAUGED.

I hereby certify that pursuant to the above order the following-described spirits

deposited in distillery bonded warehouse No. by on the day

of 190 — have been inspected and gauged by me this day of 190 —

and found to be as follows:

Contents when deposited in warehouse.

Contents when application for with-
drawal is made.

. ^

.i<

•s

Ill

-3

3
s
g

"3
O

O
.2

D
<

And I further certify that the difference between the quantity, as shown by the
marks and stamps on the cask, and the quantity as shown by my inspection, made

in pursuance of the above order, is wine, proof, and taxable

gallons.

U. S. Gauger.

* If spirits are withdrawn same day as entered omit regage.

382

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Upon receipt of the gauger's report the distiller will indorse thereon an entry
for withdrawal for transfer to denaturing bonded warehouse, which shall be in
the following form :

entry for withdrawal for transfer to denaturing bonded warehouse.

District, State of .

190—.

The undersigned requests that the spirits described in the foregoing certificate

and report of ganger, now in distillery bonded warehouse No. • , owned by

and situated in , county of , State of , in' the district

of said State, may be transferred therefrom and delivered into the denaturing
bonded warehouse situated at my said distillery, to be denatured under the pro-
visions of the act of June 7, 1906.

Number of
Packages.

Marks and

Serial

Numbers of

Packages.

Number

of Warehouse

Stamps.

Wine
Gallons.

Degree of
Proof

Proof
Gallons.

Taxable
Gallons.

Amount
of Tax.

Distiller.

Tax Collected on Deficiency.

Sec. 17. Upon receipt of the foregoing entry for withdrawal, the collector
shall examine same, and, if it shall appear from the report of regauge, as made
by the ganger, that there is an excessive loss in any package, under the provision
of the act of August 28, 1894, as amended by act of March 3, 1899, then the col-
lector shall collect the tax on such deficiency and shall indorse upon each copy of
the order for inspection permit for the delivery of the spirits to be transferred
to denaturing bonded warehouse in the following form:

permit for transfer to denaturing bonded warehouse.

Office of Collector of Internal Revenue,
District of the State of

Sir: The tax on

gallons of the deficiency of

190—.
gallons ascertained

under section 50 of the act August 28, 1894, as amended, as shown by the accom-
panying report of gauger, having been paid to me and good and sufficient

denaturing bond, dated , 190 — , having been executed as required by law

and filed in this office, said bond covering all distilled spirits to be transferred
from distillery bonded warehouse to denaturing bonded warehouse for denaturing

purposes, you are hereby directed to deliver said spirits to to be transfererd

by him in your presence and under your supervision to the denaturing bonded
warehouse of said on his distillery premises.

The gauger will affix the proper marks and brands in your presence.

-, Storekeeper.

Collector.

Spirits Transferred to be Marked.

Upon receipt of the permit by the storekeeper the packages of distilled spirits
described in notice of intention to withdraw may be withdrawn from distillery

APPENDIX. 383

bonded warehouse without the payment of the tax, and may be transferred to
the denaturing bonded warehouse on the distillery premises; but before the re-
moval of said spirits from the distillery bonded warehouse, the ganger, in addition
to marking, cutting, and branding the marks usually required on withdrawal
of spirits from warehouse, will legibly and durably mark on the head of each package,
in letters and figures not less than one-half an mch in length, the number of proof
gallons then ascertained, the date of the collector's permit, the object for which
the spirits were withdrawn, and his name, title, and district.
Such additional marks may be as follows:

Withdrawn under permit isvsued Jan'y 10, 1907

For Denaturing Purposes

Proof gallons, 84

William Williams, U. S. Gauger,

5th Dist. Ky.

Entries in Record 18 and Reports 86 and 87.

Sec. 18. In his record 18 the storekeeper will enter said packages of spirits
in red ink and will show that they were withdrawn free of tax for denaturing pur-
poses. The storekeeper's reports on Forms 86 and 87 shall also show that the
spirits were withdrawn for denaturing purposes and without the payment of the
tax under the provisions of the act of June 7, 1906.

Immediately upon the withdrawal of the spirits, as above indicated, the store-
keeper will transmit the duplicate permit to the collector, who will note upon
the original permit in his possession the withdrawal of the spirits therein men-
tioned.

Collector's 94a.

Sec. 19. The collector will take credit for all spirits so withdrawn, on the
appropriate line of his bonded account (Form 94a), for the month during which
such withdrawals were made.

He will also make proper entry on the inside page of that account as to the
quantity covered by each permit, and will forward each of such duplicate permits
(with the distiller's entry for withdrawal) with his bonded account as a voucher
for such entry.

Spirits Transferred to Denaturing Bonded Warehouse.

Sec. 20. When the packages of spirits are marked and branded in the manner
above indicated they shall at once, in the presence and under the supervision of
the storekeeper, be transferred to the denaturing bonded warehouse.

Record of Spirits Received in Denaturing Bonded Warehouse.

Sec. 21. The officer in charge of the denaturing bonded warehouse shall keep
a record of the spirits received in said denaturing bonded warehouse from the
distillery bonded warehouse and the spirits delivered to the distiller for denaturing
purposes.

Upon the debit side of said record, in columns prepared for the purpose, there
shall be entered the date when any distilled spirits were received in denaturing
bonded warehouse, the date of the collector's permit, the date of withdrawal from
distillery bonded warehouse, the number of packages received, the serial numbers
of the packages, the serial numbers of the distillery warehouse stamps, and the
wine and proof gallons.

Upon the credit side of said record shall be entered the date when any spirits
were dehvered to the distiller for denaturing purposes, the date of the collector's
permit for withdrawal, the date of withdrawal from distillery bonded warehouse,
the number of packages so delivered, the serial numbers of the packages, the serial
numbers of the distillery warehouse stamps, and the wine and proof gallons.

384

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Immediately upon the receipt of any distilled spirits in the denaturing bonded
warehouse, and on the same day upon which they are received, the officer must
enter said spirits in said record.

Likewise, on the same date upon which any spirits are delivered to the dis-
tiller for denaturing purposes, said spirits must be entered on said record.

Sec. 22. A balance must be struck in the record described in above section
at the end of the month showing the number of packages and quantity in wine
and proof gallons of spirits on hand in packages on the first day of the month,
the number of packages and quantity in wine and proof gallons received during
the month, the number of packages and quantity in wine and proof gallons delivered
to the distiller during the month, and the balance on hand in packages and wine
and proof gallons at the close of the month.

Return on Form 86b.

Sec. 23. On all days on which any spirits are entered into the denaturing
bonded warehouse, or on which any spirits are delivered to the distiller for de-
naturing purposes, the officer must make in duplicate a return on Form 86b as
follows :

SPIRITS ENTERED IN DENATURING BONDED WAREHOUSE AND DELIVERED TO DISTILLER

FOR DENATURATION.

Return for the

day of

190 — of distilled spirits entered into and

withdrawn from denaturing bonded warehouse belonging to distillery No.
carried on by , in the collection district of the State of

Entries.

Number
Packages.

Serial Number
Packages.

Serial Number
D. W. S.

Date of
Permit.

Date of
Withdrawal,

W. G.

P. G.

Deliveries to Distiller for Denaturing Purpose.

Number
Packages.

Serial Number
Packages.

Serial Number
D. W. S.

Date of
Permit.

Date of
Withdrawal.

W. G.

P.G.

I hereby certify that the distilled spirits above reported were deposited into
said denaturing bonded warehouse or were delivered to the distiller for denaturing
purposes (as the case may be) in my presence, and that the information given
concerning the serial numbers and contents of the packages, and the serial num-
bers of the stamps, was obtained by me on actual examination of the marks, brands,
and stamps on said packages and not from any return made by the ganger.

, U. S. Officer,

Dated at this day of , 190—.

APPENDIX. 385

Monthly Return op Spirits Entered in Warehouse and Delivered to

Distiller.

Sec. 24. The officer in charge of the denaturing bonded warehouse must also
make in duplicate at the end of each month and forward to the Collector of Internal
Revenue a monthly return to be a transcript of and to be made up from the officer's
record 18b.

Said return must show in detail the spirits deposited in the denaturing bonded
warehouse, also the spirits delivered to the distiller for denaturing purposes and
the spirits remaining in the denaturing bonded warehouse at the end of the month.
Separate entries must be made of each day's work and the spirits must be de-
scribed in the same manner as they are in the return 86b and the book, Form 18b.

Office Form 15b.

Sec. 25. Collectors in whose districts alcohol is being withdrawn from bond
for denaturing purposes shall provide themselves with a record (Office Form
15b) in which shall be kept the individual account of each distiller in the district
who has qualified for the purpose of denaturing alcohol. This record is to be
made up from reports on Form 87b. It must show the date upon which any
spirits were deposited in denaturing warehouse, the serial numbers of the packages
deposited, the number of packages and the proof gallons. Said record must
likewise show in detail the deliveries to the distillers for denaturing purposes.

Denaturing Agents.

Completely Denatured Alcohol.

Sec. 26. Unless otherwise specially provided, the agents used for denaturing
alcohol withdrawn from bond for denaturing purposes shall consist of methyl
alcohol and benzine in the following proportions: To every one hundred parts by
volume of ethyl alcohol of the desired proof (not less than 180°) there shall be
added ten parts by volume of approved methyl alcohol and one-half of one part
by volume of approved benzine; for example, to every 100 gallons of ethyl alcohol
(of not less than 180 degrees proof) there shall be added 10 gallons of approved
methyl alcohol and ^ gallon of approved benzine.* Alcohol thus denatured shall
be classed as completely denatured alcohol.

* Aa ameadment to the U. S. Regulations permitting the use of methyl alcohol and pyridin
bases for denaturing is as follows:

"Section 26 of the regulations and instructions coneming denatured alcohol, issued Sep-
tember 29, 1908, is amended by inserting after the words 'approved benzine,' in the ninth line
of said section, the following:

" ' Or methyl alcohol and approved pyridin bases, in the following proportions : To every
100 parts by volume of ethyl alcohol of the desired proof (not less than 180^) there shall be added
two parts by volume of approved methyl alcohol and one-half of one part by volume of approved
pyridin bases — for example, to every 100 gallons of ethyl alcohol (of not less than 180° proof)
there shall be added 2 gallons of approved methyl alcohol and one-half gallon of approved
pyridin bases.'

"Note. — Methvl alcohol intended for use as a denaturant must conform to the specifications
prescribed in Circular No. 680 (see Chapter TX, this book).

"Pyridin bases intended for use as a denaturant must conform to the following specifications:

" Specificationa for pyridin bases submitted for approval as a denaturing material.

■' PYRIDIN BASES.

"1. Color. — The liquid must meet the same requirements as to color that are imposed upon
wood alcohol. (See Circular No. 680.)

"2. Reac ion with cadmium chloride. — Ten c.c. of a solution of 1 c.c. of pyridin bases in 100 c.c.
of water are treated with 5 c.c. of an aqueous solution of anhydrous fused cadmium chloride
and the mixture vigorously shaken. Within ten minutes an abundant crystalline separation
should take place.

"3. Behavior with Nesslers reagent. — With 5 c.c. of Nessler's reagent, 10 c.c. of the pyridin
bases must give a white precipitate.

"4. Boiling-point. — When 100 c.c are subjected to the determination of the boiling-point in

386 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Methj^l alcohol and benzine intended for use as denaturants must be submitted
for chemical test and must conform to the specifications which shall be hereafter
duly prescribed.

Denaturants Deposited in Warehouse.

Sec. 27. As the distiller's business demands, he may bring into the denaturing
bonded warehouse, in such receptacles as he may wish, any authorized denaturant.
Such denaturants shall at once be deposited in the material room; thereafter
they shall be in the custody and under the control of the officer in charge of the ware-
house. Before any denaturant is used it must be dumped into the appropriate
tank and after the contents have been thoroughly mixed, a sample of one pint
taken therefrom. This sample must be forwarded to the proper officer for analysis.
The officer will then securely close and seal the tank.

No part of the contents of the tank can be used until the sample has been
officially tested and approved, and report of such test made to the officer in charge
of the warehouse.

If the sample is approved the contents of the tank shall, upon the receipt of
the report, become an approved denaturant and the officer shall at once remove
the seals and place the tank under Government locks.

If the sample does not meet the requirements of the specifications, the officer
shall, upon the receipt of the report of nonapproval, permit the distiller, pro-
vided he desires, to treat or manipulate the proposed denaturant so as to render
it a competent denaturant. In such case another sample must be submitted
for approval. If the distiller does not desire to further treat the denaturant,
the officer shall require him immediately to remove the contents of the tank from
the premises.

Record of Denaturants Received.

Sec. 28. The officer shall keep a denaturing material room record. This record
shall show all material entered into and removed from the denaturing material
room.

There shall be proper columns on the debit side in which are to be entered the
date when any material is received, the name and residence of the person from
whom received, the kind of material, the quantity in wine gallons, and, if methyl
alcohol, in proof gallons, the date upon which the material was dumped into the
tank, the number of the tank, the date upon which sample was forwarded, and
the number of the sample, and the result of the official test.

On the credit side of said record shall be entered, in proper columns, the date
upon which any material was removed from the denaturing material room for
denaturing purposes, the kind of material, the number of the tank from which
taken, the number of the sample representing the tank and sent for official test,
the number of wine gallons, and, if methyl alcohol, the number of proof gallons.

Note. — For regulations regarding specially denatured alcohol, see page 394.

Monthly Returns of Denaturants Received.

Sec. 29. A balance shall be struck in this record at the end of each month
whereby shall be shown the quantity of material of each kind on hand in the de-

the same manner as prescribed for wood alcohol, at least 50 c.c. must distil at 140° C. and at least
90 c.c. at 160° C.

"5. Miscibility with water. — The same requirements must be met as are imposed upon wood
alcohol. (See Circular No. 680.)

"6. Content of water. — When 20 c.c. of pyridin bases are shaken with 20 c.c. of a solution of
caustic soda, with a specific gravity of 1,400, and the mixture allowed to stand for some time,
at least 18.5 c.c. of the pyridin bases must separate from the solution.

"7. Alkalinity. — One c.c. of pyridin bases dissolved in 10 c.c. of water are titrated with normal
sulphuric acid until a drop of the mixture placed upon Congo paper shows a distinct blue border
which soon disappears. It must require not less than 9.5 c.c. of the acid solution to produce
the reaction.

"The Congo paper is prepared by treating filter paper with a solution of 1 gram of Congo
red in 1 liter of water and drying it."

APPENDIX. 3S7

naturing material room on the first day of the month, the quantity received during
the month, the quantity rejected and removed from the premises during the month,
and the quantity deUvered to the distiller for denaturing purposes during the
month, and the quantity on hand at the end of the month.

The officer shall, at the end of each month, prepare in duplicate, sign, and
forward to the collector of internal revenue a report which shall be a transcript
of said record.

•

Distiller to Keep Record of Denaturants.

Sec. 30. The distiller shall also keep a record, in which he shall enter the date
upon which he deposits any material in the tanks of the denaturing material room,
the name and address of the person from whom said material was received, and
the kind and quantity of the material so deposited; also he shall enter in said
record the date upon which he receives any material from the denaturing material
room, the kind and quantity of such material so received, and the disposition
made of same.

Notice op Intention to Denature Spirits.

Sec. 31. The distiller shall, before dumping any spirits or denaturants into
the mixing tank, give notice to the officer in charge of the denaturing warehouse
in proper form in duplicate, and enter in the proper place thereon (in the case of
distilled spirits) and in the proper column the number of the packages, the serial
numbers of same, the serial number of the warehouse stamps, the contents in
wine and proof gallons and the proof as shown by the marks, the date of the with-
drawal gauge, and by whom gauged.

In case of denaturing agents he shall enter in the proper place and in the proper
columns the number of gallons, the kind of material, and the number of the de-
naturing material tank from which same is to be drawn.

The contents of the several packages of alcohol, as shown by the withdrawal
gauge, shall be accepted as the contents of said packages when dumped for de-
naturing purposes unless it should appear from a special showing made by the
distiller that there has been an accidental loss since withdrawal from distillery
bonded warehouse.

Upon receipt of this notice the officer in chaise of the denaturing warehouse
shall, in case of the packages of alcohol, inspect same carefully to ascertain whether
or not they are the packages described in the distiller's notice. He will then cut
out that portion of the warehouse stamp upon which is shown the serial number
of the stamp, the name of the distiller, the proof gallons, and the serial number
of the package. These slips must be securely fastened to the form whereon the
gauging is reported and sent by the officer with his return to the collector.

Transfer of Denaturants to Mixing Tanks.

Sec. 32. The distiller, unless pipes are used, as herein provided, shall provide
suitable gauged receptacles, metal drums being preferred, with which to transfer
the denaturing agents from the material tanks to the mixing tanks. These re-
ceptacles must be numbered serially and the number, the capacity in gallons
and fractions of a gallon, the name of the distiller, and the number of the denatur-
ing bonded warehouse marked thereon in durable letters and figures. They shall
be used for transferring denaturing material from the material tanks to the mixing
tanks and for no other purpose. The distiller must also provide suitable approved
sealed measures of smaller capacity. The gauged receptacles are to be used where
the quantity to be transferred amounts to as much as the capacity of the smallest
gauged receptacle in the warehouse. The measures are to be used only when
the quantity of material to be transferred is less than the capacity of the smallest
gauged receptacle.

Sec. 33. The distiller may provide metal pipes connecting the material tanks
and the mixing tanks and the denaturant may be transferred to the mixing tanks

38S DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

through these pipes. Such pipes must be supplied with valves, cocks, faucet^ ^»
other proper means of controlling the flow of the liquid, and such valves, covkb,
or faucets must be so arranged that they can be securely locked, and the locks
attached thereto must be kept fastened; the keys to be retained by the ofhcer
in charge, except when the denaturing material is being transferred to the mix-
ing tanks.

In the event pipes are used as above provided, the glass gauges affixed to the
material tanks must be so graduated that tenths of a gallon will be indicated.

Before any material is transferred from a material tank to a mixing tank the
officer must note the contents of the material tank as indicated by the glass gauge.
He will then permit the denaturant to flow into the mixing tank until the exact
quantity necessary to denature the alcohol, as provided by the regulations, has
been transferred. This he will ascertain by reading the gauge on the material
tank before the liquid has begun to flow and after the flow has been stopped. He
should verify the quantity transferred by reading the gauge on the mixing tank
before and after the transfer.

Sec. 34. The officer in charge of the denaturing warehouse will be held strictly
accountable for any errors in the quantities of denaturants added. It is important
that his measurements should be absolutely correct. He must know that the
measures and the gauged receptacles provided by the distiller and the graduated
gauges affixed to the tanks are correct. He must from time to time apply such
tests to these measures, gauged receptacles, or graduated gauges, as the case may
be, as will satisfy him that they are correct. If he finds the measures, gauged
receptacles, or graduated gauges to be incorrect, he shall refuse to permit the
distiller to transfer any denaturant to the mixing tanks until appliances have
been provided whereby the exact quantity of denaturants used may be ascer-
tained.

The distiller must provide all scales, weighing beams, and other appliances
necessary for transferring the denaturing materials, gauging or handling the alcohol,
or testing any of the measures, receptacles, or gauges used in the warehouse, and also
a sufficient number of competent employees for the work.

Contents of Mixing Tank to be Plunged.

Sec. 35. The exact quantity of distilled spirits contained in the packages
covered by the distiller's notice having been ascertained by the officer and the
spirits having been dumped into the mixing tank, and the quantities of the several
denaturants prescribed by the regulations having been ascertained by calculation
and added as above provided to the alcohol in the mixing tank, the officer must
cause the contents of the tank to be thoroughly and completely plunged and mixed
by the distiller or his employees.

Officer to Make Returns of Dumped Material.

Sec, 36. The officer will make return on the proper form, wherein he will show
the number of packages of distilled spirits inspected by him and dumped in his
presence by the distiller, the serial numbers of said packages, the serial numbers
of the warehouse stamps affixed to said packages, the proof gallon contents of
said packages, and the name of the ganger who made the withdrawal gauge.

He shall also report on said form the number of drums of the several kinds
of denaturants gauged by him and dumped in his presence, the serial numbers of said
drums, the quantity in wine gallons, and, in the case of wood alcohol, the quantity
in proof gallons of each kind of denaturant gauged and dumped, the serial numbers
of the tanks from which the denaturants were drawn, and the tank sample number
of said denaturant.

Drawing Off and Gauging Denatured Product.

Sec. 37. The distiller may from time to time, as he wishes, in the presence
of the officer, draw off from the tank or tanks the denatured product in quantities

APPENDIX. 389

of not less than 50 gallons at one time, and the same must at once be gauged,
stamped, and branded by the officer and removed from the premises by the dis-
tiller.

Kind and Capacity of Packages Used.

Sec. 38. He may use packages of a capacity of not less than five gallons or
not more than one hundred and thirty-five (135) gallons, and each package must
be filled to its full capacity, such wantage being allowed as may be necessary for
expansion.

All packages used to contain completely denatured alcohol must be painted
a light green, and in no case is a package of any other color to be used.

Alcohol to be Immediately Denatured.

Sec. 39. No alcohol withdrawn from distillery warehouse for denaturing pur-
poses shall be permitted to remain in the denaturing bonded warehouse until
after the close of business on the second day after the said alcohol is withdrawn,
but all alcohol so withdrawn must be transferred, dumped, and denatured before
the close of business on said second day.

Application for Gauge of Denatured Alcohol.

Sec. 40. When the process of denaturing has been completed and the distiller
desires to have the denatured alcohol drawn off into packages and gauged, he
shall prepare a request for such gauge on the proper form. The request shall
state as accurately as practicable the number of packages to be drawn off and
the number of wine and proof gallons contents thereof.

This notice shall bs directed to the collector of internal revenue, but shall
be handed to the officer on duty at the denaturing bonded warehouse.

Sec. 41. If the officer shall find upon examination of the proper record that
there should be on hand the quantity of denatured alcohol covered by said notice,
he shall proceed to gauge and stamp the several packages of denatured alcohol
in the manner herein prescribed, and shall make report thereof on the proper form.

In no case will the officer gauge and stamp denatured alcohol the total quantity
in wine gallons of which taken together with any remnant that may be left in the
denaturing tank exceeds in wine gallons the sum of the quantity of distilled
spirits and denaturants dumped on that day and any remnant brought over from
previous day.

How Denatured Alcohol shall be Gauged.

Sec. 42. The gauging of denatured alcohol shall, where it is practicable, be by
weight. The officer shall ascertain the tare by actually weighing each package
when empty. Then, after each package has been filled in his presence, he shall
ascertain the gross weight, and, by applying the tare, the net weight.

He shall then ascertain the proof in the usual manner, and by applying the proof
to the wine gallons content the proof gallons shall be ascertained.

The regulations relating to the gauging of rectified spirits, so far as they apply to
a.pparent proof and apparent proof gallons, shall apply to denatured spirits. Where
it is for any reason not practicable to gauge denatured alcohol by weight, using the
tables that apply in the case of the gauging of distilled spirits, the gauging shall be
by rod.

Return on Form 237a.

Sec. 43. Having gauged each of said packages, the officer shall make return on
Farm 237a, whereon he shall first certify that he has carefully examined the dis-
tiller's denaturing account, and that the aggregate contents of the several packages
e-nbraced in said return, added to any balance that may be on hand after they are
withdrawn, does not exceed in proof gallons the quantity shown to be in the mixing

393 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

tank by the distiller's denaturing account. Usually there will be a slight loss in
proof gallons in process of denaturation. If there is a material loss, however, the
officer should ascertain the cause and should include the explanation in his report.

The return must also show in the proper columns in detail the capacity of each
package, its gross weight, tare, net weight, if gauged by weight, indication, tempera-
ture, net wine gallons contents, proof, proof gallons contents, apparent proof,
apparent proof gallons contents, the serial number of the denatured alcohol stamp
affixed to the package, and the serial number of the package.

This return must be in duplicate, and must be forwarded to the collector of the
district.

Manner of Marking Heads of Packages.

Sec. 44. Upon each head of the package shall be stenciled in red letters, of not
less than 1^ inches in length by 1 inch in width, the words ''Denatured Alcohol."

Upon the stamp head of the package there shall be stenciled the serial number of
the package, the name of the distiller denaturing the spirits, the number of the
denaturing bonded warehouse at which the spirits were denatured, and the district
and State in which it is located, the date upon which the contents of the pacakge
were denatured, and the serial number of the denatured alcohol stamp.

Packages to be Numbered Serially.

Sec. 45. Packages of denatured alcohol must be numbered serially as they are
withdrawn and gauged. The serial number for every denaturing bonded warehouse
must begin with number 1 with the first cask denatured, and no two or more pack-
ages denatured at the same denaturing bonded warehouse shall be numbered with
the same number. A change of person or persons operating a distillery and denatur-
ing bonded warehouse will not be taken to require a new series of numbers for the
packages of spirits thereafter denatured at such warehouse.

Stamps for Denatured Alcohol.
Sec. 46. The following form of stamp for denatured alcohol is hereby prescribed :

STAMP for denatured ALCOHOL, NO. .

Issued by , collector of the district, State of , to

, denaturer of alcohol in said collection district, , , 19 — , proof

gallons, wine gallons.

, U. S. Officer.

These stamps are to be made of white paper, the lettering to be red. They are to
be bound in book form, each book containing 150 stamps, only one denomination
being contained in each book. The denominations are to be 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, and 130 gallons, respectively, with proper number
coupons attached to each, and each coupon representing one gallon.

In using the coupons on said stamps the same rule will be followed in dealing
with fractional parts of gallons as are observed in the case of rectifier's stamps; that
is to say, if the fraction is less than five-tenths of a gallon it must be dropped, and
if it is more than five-tenths it is called the next unit above. Connected with each
stamp is its corresponding stub, which the officer must fill out in accordance with
the facts in the case.

The stamp must be signed by the officer, and he will enter upon it the date upon
which he affixes it to the package, the number of wine and proof gallons, the number
of the denaturing bonded warehouse, and the name of the denaturer.

Sec. 47. Stamps for denatured alcohol will be intrusted to the oflRcer assigned
to the denaturing bonded warehouse. He mnst keen these stamps continuouplv
in his possession, and when not in actual use the book must be deposited in a safe
and secure place in the denaturing bonded warehouse under lock and key, to which,
no one shall have access at any time except himself.

APPENDIX. 391

The officer must make a daily report to the collector of all denatured alcohol
stamps used, and for whom used.

Disposition of Books, Stubs, etc.

Sec. 48. When all the stamps in any book have been used, the book with the
stubs will be returned to the collector, who shall forward it to this office. 1 he stubs
and unused coupons must remain in the book.

Officers are advised that they will be held strictly responsible for all denatured
alcohol stamps delivered to them, and they are cautioned against affixing such
stamps to packages which do not correctly represent the character of the contents.
They must know that all the statements on the heads of the packages are strictly
true.

Duties of Officer in Regard to Mixing Tank.

Sec. 49. The mixing tank is absolutely under control of the officer in charge of
the warehouse. If it becomes necessary for him to leave the denaturing bonded
warehouse during the process of denaturing, he must close and lock all openings
to said tank and must retain the key in his possession, and all other persons must
leave the building.

When the work of the day is done the officer must ascertain the quantity in
wine and proof gallons of any remnant of denatured alcohol that may be on hand,
and on each day be ore any further denaturing is done he must, before anything is
dumped into the denaturing tank, ascertain the quantity in wine and proof gallons
of any remnant that may be in the tank.

Record of Operations to be Kept by Officer.

Sec. 50. The officer assigned to duty at the denaturing bonded warehouse shall,
in a book prescribed for that purpose, keep a true and correct record of the opera-
tion at said denaturing bonded warehouse.

Said book shall show on the debit side, in the case of distilled spirits, the date
upon which the spirits were dumped, the number of packages dumped, the serial
numbers of said packages, the serial numbers of the warehouse stamps, the date of
permit, the date of withdrawal from the distillery warehouse, the name of the officer
who made the withdrawal gauge, the wine gallons and proof gallons. In the case
of denaturing agents, said record must show on said debit side the date on which
said denaturing agents were dumped, the kind of material, the number of the
denaturing tank from which taken, the tank sample number of the denaturant, the
date upon which the sample^ was inspected, the quantity in wine gallons, and, if
methyl alcohol, the quantity in proof gallons dumped.

If there is more than one dump made during the day separate entries must be
made for each dump, but the totals for the day must be carried forward and entered
in the proper columns in red ink.

On the credit side of said record must be entered the denatured product drawn
from dump. The entries must be made in the proper columns and must show the
number of packages of denatured alcohol drawn from dump, the serial numbers of
the denatured stamps, the date upon which said packages were withdrawn from
dump and gauged, the number of wine gallons and the number of proof gallons, and
to whom delivered and the hour removed from the denaturing premises.

If there is more than one lot drawn off and gauged during the dav, a senarate
entry must be made for each lot, but the total wine and proof gallons drawn off
and gauged for the day must be carried forward and entered in red ink in a column
prepared for that purpose.

There must also be columns in said book in which to enter the remnant brouo-ht
over from the previous day, the total quantity of distilled spirits and denaturants
dumped during the day, the quantity withdrawn from dump and gauged during the
day, and the quantity left in the mixing tank at the close of business.

392 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Denatured Alcohol to be Removed from Warehouse.

Sec. 51. Not later than the close of business on the day following that upon
which the work of drawing off and gauging the denatured spirits is completed, the
distiller must remove said denatured alcohol from the denaturing bonded ware-
house. He may either remove the alcohol to a building off the distillery premises,
where he can dispose of it as the demands of the trade require, or he may dispose of
it in stamped packages direct to the trade from the denaturing bonded warehouse

Record Showing Alcohol Received and Disposed of to be Kept by

Distiller.

Sec. 52. The distiller must keep a record (Form 52d and 52e) in which he shall
show, respectively, all denatured alcohol received from the officer in charge of the
warehouse and disposed of by him.

Upon the ''Received" side he shall enter the date upon which he receives any
denatured alcohol from the denaturing bonded warehouse, the number of packages
received, the serial numbers of the packages, the date upon which the alcohol was
denatured, the name of the officer, the kind and percentage of the denaturants used,
the serial number of the denatured alcohol stamp, and the aggregate wine and proof
gallons. These entries must be made on the same day the denatured alcohol is
received.

On the "disposed of" side the distiller must show the date upon which he dis-
poses of any denatured alcohol, the name and address of the person or firm to whom
sold or delivered, if a manufacturer, the kind of a manufacturer, the kind and per-
centage of the denaturing agents used, the number of packages, the serial numbers
of the packages, the serial numbers of the denatured alcohol stamps, and the aggre-
gate wine and proof gallon contents.

These entries must be made before the goods are removed from the denaturing
bonded warehouse, if sold direct from there, or from the salesroom of the dis-
tiller off the premises, if sold from there.

Sec. 53. Spaces and columns must be provided for at the bottom of said record
wherein can be shown the quantity of denatured alcohol brought over in stock
from the previous month, the quantity received during the month, the quantity
disposed of during the month, and the quantity remaining on hand at the end of
the month. In this statement must be shown the number of packages brought
over, received, disposed of, and on hand, the serial numbers of said packages,
the serial numbers of the denatured stamps, the wine gallons, and the proof gallons,

Monthly Transcript.

Sec. 54. Before the tenth day of each month the distiller must prepare a
complete transcrpit of this record, must swear to same, and must forward it to
the collector of the district.

Said affidavit shall be in the following form:

I, , do state on oath that I am of denaturing bonded

warehouse No. in the district of , and the above is a true, cor-
rect, and complete statement of the denatured alcohol received by me from said
denaturing bonded warehouse, of the denatured alcohol disposed of, to whom dis-
posed of, and of the denatured alcohol on hand at the end of the month.

Collectors to Keep Accounts with Denaturers.

Sec. 55. Collectors must keep an exact account with each denaturer of alcohol
on record (Form 39a) in such manner as to be constantly advised as to the state,
of the denaturer' s business, and they must exercise such supervision over the
issue of stamps for denatured alcohol as will prevent fraud in their use.

The entries in said record 29a mu^t be made daily. Said entries are to be
made from the officer's returns on Form 122a and 237a. Under the heading "Mate-

APPENDIX. 393

rial dumped for denaturation " must be entered in the case of distilled spirits the date
of the dumping, the number of packages, the serial numbers of the packages, the
serial numbers of the warehouse stamps, the date of the collector's permit for
withdrawal, the date of withdrawal from distillery bonded warehouse, the name
of the withdrawal ganger, and the wine and proof gallons.

In the case of denaturants there must be entered in proper columns the serial
numbers of the tanks from which the denaturants were drawn, the tank sample
number of the denaturant, the dates upon which said samples were inspected,
and the number of gallons of each of the several kinds of denaturant dumped.

Under the heading "Alcohol Denatured," in the proper columns, shall be
entered the date of denaturation, the numbers of package denatured and gauged,
the serial numbers of said packages, the serial numbers of the denatured stamps
attached to them, the name of the officer, and the quantity of alcohol in wine and
proof gallons denatured and gauged.

Proper columns and spaces shall be provided at the bottom of this record
where shall be entered at the end of each month the quantity in wine and proof
gallons of denatured alcohol remaining in denaturing tank^ brought over from
previous month, the quantity of material dumped for denaturation during the
month, the quantity drawn from the denaturing tank, gauged, and removed from
the premises during the month, and the quantity left in the mixing tank at the
end of the month.

Distiller's Return to be Compared with Collector's Record.

Sec. 56. The distiller's return on Form 52d should be compared with this
record at the end of each month. The number of packages, serial numbers of
the packages, and number of gallons received by the distiller from denaturing
bonded warehouse should agree with the 39a as made up from the officer's 237a.

M-^nner of Handling and Testing Samples of Denaturants.

Sec. 57. When the distiller at any denaturing bonded warehouse has dumped
into any material tank a quantity of a proposed denaturant as hereinbefore pro-
vided, the officer shall draw a sample from said tank. A heavy glass bottle, which
must be provided by the distiller, shall be used as a container for said sample.
The bottle must be securely closed and sealed, and a label affixed thereto, showing
the serial number of the denaturing material tank from which the sample was
taken, the date it was drawn from the tank, and the name of the officer sending it.

The sample shall be securely packed and sent by express to the most con-
venient laboratory for test. All expenses in connection with the forwarding of
samples must be borne by the distiller.

As soon as practicable the necessary tests of the sample shall be made in the
laboratory and report made of its character.

One copy of the report should be sent to the collector of internal revenue of
the district, and the other should be sent to the officer in charge of the denaturing
bonded warehouse.

Part II.

DEALERS IN DENATURED ALCOHOL AND MANUFACTURERS USING
DENATURED ALCOHOL.

Sec. 58. Alcohol denatured by use of methyl alcohol and benzine as provided
in section 26 of these regulations is to be classed as Completely denatured alcohol.
Alcohol denatured in any other manner will be classed as Specially denatured alcohol.

Denatured Alcohol Not to be Stored on Certain Premises, and Not to be
Used for Certain Purposes.

Sec. 59. Neither completely nor specially denatured alcohol shall be kept
or stored on the premises of the following classes of persons, to wit: dealers in

•

394 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

wines, fermented liquors or distilled spirits, rectifiers of spirits, manufacturers of
and dealers m beverages of any kind, manufacturers of liquid medicinal preparations
or distillers (except as to such denatured alcohol in stamped packages as is manu-
factured by themselves), manufacturers of vinegar by the vaporizing process and
the use of a still and mash, wort, or wash, and persons who, in the course of busi-
ness, have or keep distilled spirits, wines, or malt liquors, or other beverages stored
on their premises. Provided, That druggists are exempt from the above pro-
visions.

Cannot be Used in Manufacturing Beverages, etc.

Sec. 60. Any one using denatured alcohol for the manufacture of any beverage
or liquid medicinal preparation, or who knowingly sells any beverage or liquid
medicinal preparation made in whole or in part from such alcohol, becomes sub-
ject to the penalties prescribed in section 2 of the act of June 7, 1906.

Under the language of this law it is held that denatured alcohol cannot be used
in the preparation of any article to be used as a component part in the prepara-
tion of any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation.

Permits Required.

Sec. 61. Persons who wish to deal in completely denatured alcohol must secure
permits from the collector of internal revenue of the district in which the business
is to be carried on.

Every person who sells or offers for sale denatured alcohol in the original stamped
package shall be classed as a wholesale dealer in denatured alcohol, and denatured
alcohol shall not be sold in quantities of 5 gallons or more except in the original
stamped packages.

Every person who sells or offers for sale denatured alcohol in quantities of
less than 5 gallons shall be classed as a retail dealer in denatured alcohol.

The same person may be both a wholesale and a retail dealer, but the retail
and the wholesale business will be considered separate, and permits must be
secured for each.

Collectors are authorized to issue permits on the forms herein prescribed upon
application duly made.

Said permits are to be numbered serially in the same manner in which special-
tax stamps are now numbered, and are to be on the forms herein prescribed.

Application for Permit to be Filed with Collector.

Sec. 62. A person, firm, or corporation desiring to secure a permit to sell
denatured alcohol must make application on the following form:

[FORM 11a.]

The undersigned, , states on oath that he is a member of the firm

(corporation) of , doing business at , and said firm (corporation) con-
sists of and is located at , in the county of and State of

. The premises of said concern are located on street, and are de-
scribed as follows: — ^ and said premises constitute all of the premises used

by in said business; that no part of said premises is used by any one

in the business of a distiller, manufacturer of wines or malt liquors, a dealer in
wines, malt liquors, or distilled spirits (except druggists), a rectifier of spirits, a
manufacturer of or dealer in any kind of beverages, a manufacturer of any liquid
medicinal preparation, or a manufacturer of vinegar produced by any vaporizing
process from mash, wort, or wash, or by any person (except druggists) who in
the course of his business keeps or stores distilled spirits, wines, or malt liquors
thereon.

Applicant binds himself and his to comply with the law and all the regu-
lations relating to the handling and sale of denatured alcohol.

He desires to deal in denatured alcohol in the original stamped package (or in
quantities of less than five gallons), and he therefore requests that a permit be

APPENDIX. 395

issued to him to receive denatured alcohol in stamped packages upon his premises
and to sell same in original stamped packages (or in quantities of less than five
gallons).

(Signed) .

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 190 — .

In the case of individuals the application must be signed and sworn to either
by the inividual himself or by his duly authorized attorney in fact, and either
a, general power of attorney or a power specially authorizing the attorney in fact
to act must accompany the application.

In the case of corporations the application must be signed and sworn to by
the duly authorized officer or agent of the corporation, and a certified copy of
the minutes of the board of directors authorizing the party, either generally or spe-
cially, to perform the act must accompany the application.

Permits Expire June 30 Each Year.

Sec. 63. Applications to deal in denatured alcohol must be made to the collector
of internal revenue of the district in which it is proposed to do business on or before
the first day of July of each year, or before any denatured alcohol is received on
the premises, and said application will expire on the 30th of June ensuing.

In case a dealer in denatured alcohol moves his place of business before the
expiration of the fiscal year for which the permit was issued he must make applica-
tion for the transfer of his permit to the place to which he moves.

Permits to be Canceled under certain Conditions.

Sec. 64. If it should appear on proper showing made at any time that the party
to whom a permit to deal in denatured alcohol has been issued has wilfully violated
any of the provisions of the law or regulations relating to the using or handling of
denatured alcohol, it shall be the duty of the collector of internal revenue to cancel
the permit.

Appeal for rehearing may be made to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue in
any case where a permit has been canceled, and the Commissioner may, if he thinks
the facts justify it, reverse the action of the collector in canceling the permit.

Form of Permit.

Sec. 65. The collector's permit will be in the following form:
^ This is to certify that, application having been made to me in due form, per-
mission to engage in the business of wholesale (retail) dealer in denatured alcohol

is hereby given to , at , on the following-described premises

• , said permit to expire on June 30, .

Right to cancel this permit is hereby resers'ed, should it at any time appear on
proper showing made that the said party has wilfully violated any of the provisions
of law or regulations regarding denatured alcohol.

Collector District.

Collectors to Keep Record of Dealers, Denaturers, etc.

Sec. 66. Collectors shall keep a record (Book Form 10a), in which shall be
entered the names of all distillers who have qualified as denaturers of alcohol in the
district, and the names of all wholesale and retail dealers in denatured alcohol;
also manufacturers usin^ specially and those using completely denatured alcohol.
Said record shall show tlie name of the party, his residence, and the date, number,
and whether he is a dealer, distiller, or manufacturer. This record shall be open to
public inspection.

Wholesale Dealers to Keep Record.

Sec. 67. Wholesale dealers in denatured alcohol shall keep a record, in which
they shall enter all the denatured acohol received and disposed of by them.

396 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

On the received side they shall enter the date upon which the package of dena-
tured alcohol was received, the name and address of the persons from whom received^
the district and State in which the alcohol was denatured, the number of packages
received, the serial numbers of the packages, the serial numbers of the stamps, and
the wine and proof gallons.

These entries shall be made in said record upon the day on which the dealer
receives the denatured alcohol and before it is removed from his premises or any of
the packages are broken.

On the disposed-of side of said record the dealer shall enter the date upon which
he disposes of any denatured alcohol, the name and address of the person to whom
disposed of, whether the purchaser is manufacturer or dealer, the name of the dena-
turer and the district in which the alcohol was denatured, the number of packages,
the serial numbers of the packages, the serial numbers of the denatured alcohol
stamps, and the aggregate number of wine and proof gallons.

These entries must be made before the alcohol is removed from the premises.

In case the dealer is a retail dealer and the alcohol is charged off to himself as a
retail dealer, the entries must be made in said record before the package is opened
or any alcohol is drawn from it.

Columns and spaces must be arranged in said record in which at the end of the
month the dealer must enter the number of packages, the serial numbers of the
packages, and the quantity in gallons of denatured alcohol on hand on the first
day of the month, received during the month, disposed of during the month, and on
hand at the end of the month.

Wholesale Dealer to Make Monthly Transcript.

Sec. 68. The dealer must make a transcript of this record each month, must
swear to it before some officer authorized to administer oaths, and must forward it
to the collector of the district before the 10th day of the ensuing month.

Said affidavit may be in the following form:

I, , do state on oath that I am , of the business of ,

wholesale dealer in denatured alcohol, and that the above is a true, correct, and

complete transcript of the record showing the business done by , as such

wholesale dealer in denatured alcohol, and that said record is in every respect a
true and correct record of the business done by said dealer during the month of
• , 190 — , and of the balance of alcohol on hand at the end of said month.

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of — .

Record alw^ws Open to Inspection of Officers,

Sec. 69. This record must be open at all times to the inspection of all internal,
revenue officers or agents. It must be preserved by the dealer for two years-
Wholesale dealers in denatured alcohol must keep a sign in legible and durable
letters posted in a conspicuous place on the outside of their building, as follows:

''Wholesale Dealer in Denatured Alcohol."

Bills of Lading, etc., to be Preserved by Dealers.

Sec. 70. All denaturers of alcohol and wholesale dealers in denatured alcohol
must preserve for two years all bills of lading, express receipts, dray tickets, and
other similar papers showing shipment of denatured alcohol, and such papers must
be submitted to any internal-revenue officer or agent who makes request for same
for inspection.

Assistance to be Furnished Officers.

Sec. 71. Dealers in denatured alcohol shall keep the permits issued to them
posted in a conspicuous place. They must furnish internal-revenue officers or
agents the help and all the facilities necessary to handle the packages of denatured
alcohol when said officers are making inspections.

APPENDIX. 397

Retail Dealers to Keep Record.

Sec. 72. Retail dealers in denatured alcohol shall keep a record, in which
they shall enter the date upon which they receive any package or packages of
denatured alcohol, the person from whom received, the serial numbers of the pack-
ages, the serial numbers of the denatured alcohol stamps, the wine and proof
gallons, and the date upon which packages are opened for retail.

The transcript of each month's business as shown by this record must be pre-
pared, signed, and sworn to and forwarded to the collector of internal revenue
of the district in which the dealer is located before the 10th of the following
month. This transcript must be signed and sworn to by the dealer himself or by
his duly authorized agent.

Labels to be Placed on Retail Packages.

Sec. 73. Retail dealers in denatured alcohol must provide themselves with
labels upon which the words "Denatured Alcohol" have been printed in plain,
legible letters. The printing shall be red on white. A label of this character
must be affixed by the dealer to the container, whatever it may be, in the case
of each sale of denatured alcohol made by him.

Stamps to be Destroyed when Package is Empty.

Sec. 74. As soon as the stamped packages of denatured alcohol are empty
the dealer or manufacturer, as the case may be, must thoroughly obliterate and
completely destroy all marks, stamps, and brands on the packages.

The stamps shall under no circumstances be reused, and the packages shall
not be refilled until all the marks, stamps, and brands shall have been removed
and destroyed.

Manufacturers Using Completely Denatured Alcohol to Secure Permit.

Sec. 75. Manufacturers desiring to use completely denatured alcohol, such
as is put upon the market for sale generally, may use such alcohol in their business
subject to the following restrictions:

A manufacturer using less than an average of 50 gallons of denatured alcohol
per month will not be required to secure permit from the collector or to keep
records or make returns showing the alcohol received and used.

Manufacturers who use as much as 50 gallons of completely denatured alcohol
a month must procure such alcohol in stamped packages, and before beginning
business the manufacturer must make application to the collector of the proper
district for permit, in which application he will state the exact location of his
place of business, describing the lot or tract of land upon which the plant is located,
and must keep the alcohol in a locked room until used.

Sec. 76. The permit shall be in the following form:

permit to manufacturer to use completely denatured alcohol.

It appearing upon application duly made by that, under the act

of June 7, 1906, should be permitted to use completely denatured

alcohol, in quantities of more than 50 gallons per month, at , factory of

, in the county of — ; , State of , in the manufacture of ,

permission is hereby given said 1 to procure completely denatured

alcohol in stamped packages and use same in such manufacture at said place.

This permit expires , 190 — .

Collector District

398 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Every Facility for Examination to be Afforded Officers.

Sec. 77. Denaturers of alcohol, dealers in denatured alcohol, and persons who
use it must afford every facility to revenue officers and employees whose duty
it is to make investigation as regards such alcohol. The premises upon which
the alcohol is denatured or sold or in any manner handled must be open at all hours
of the day or night (if the same should be necessary) to revenue agents, inspectors,
and deputy collectors; and all books, papers, or records of every kind, character,
or description relating to the alcohol handled by such persons must be submitted
to any revenue officer for inspection and the officer must be permitted to make
transcripts or copies of such books or papers, provided in the discharge of his
duty he finds it necessary.

Officer to Take Samples.

Sec. 78. Should any revenue officer for any reason suspect that any beverage
or liquid medicinal preparation contains denatured alcohol, he must secure samples
of the suspected goods and forward them to his superior oflScer, who will forward
them to the proper chemist for analysis. Such samples should be so marked as
to identify them. Any internal-revenue officer is authorized to take samples
of denatured alcohol, wherever found, and at such times as it may be deemed
necessary, said samples to be submitted to the proper official for examination.
These samples will, under no circumstances, be more than will be needed for analysis
or examination.

Part III.

SPECIAL DENATURANTS.

Sec. 79. As the agents adapted to and adopted for use in complete denatural
tion render the alcohol denatured unfit for use in many industries in which ethy-
alcohol, withdrawn free of tax, can be profitably employed, therefore, in order to
give full scope to the operation of the law, special denaturants will be authorized
when absolutely necessary. Yet the strictest surveillance must be exercised in the
handling of alcohol incompletely or specially denatured.

Formula for Special Denaturants to be Submitted to the Commissioner.

Sec. 80. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue will consider any formula for
special denaturation that may be submitted by any manufacturer in any art or
industry and will determine (1) whether or not the manufacture in which it is pro-
posed to use the alcohol belongs to a class in which tax-free alcohol withdrawn
under the provisions of this act can be used, (2) whether or not it is practicable to
permit the use of the proposed denaturant and at the same time properly safeguard
the revenue. But one special denaturant will be authorized for the same class of
industries, unless it shall be shown that there is good reason for additional special
denaturants.

The Commissioner will announce from time to time the formulas of denaturants
that will be permitted in the several classes of industries in which tax-free alcohol
can be used.

Application for Permits to Use Special Denaturants.

Sec. 81 . Manufacturers desiring to use specially or incompletely denatured
alcohol in their business must make aDplication to the collector of internal revenue
of the district in which the business is located. In this application the following
information must be given : The location of the plant ; the name and address of each
partner or the corporate name, if a corporation; a complete description of each
building on the manufacturing premises as to dimensions, partitions, apartments,

APPENDIX. 399

or openings; a complete description of the room or place in which it is proposed to
keep the denatured alcohol stored as to dimensions, openings, and kind of materials
of which constructed; the kind of business carried on and m which it is proposed to
use tlie denatured alcohol; the special denaturants desired to be used and the rea-
sons for desiring to use such special denaturants; the quantity of denatured alcohol
it is estimated will be used until the 1st of the next July following; and if alcohol, is
recovered in the process of manufacture, the manner in which it is recovered, its
condition when recovered, and the percentage so recovered.

Storeroom to be Set Aside — How Constructed.

Sec. 82. A room or building must be prepared and set aside in which to store
the denatured alcohol after it is brought upon the premises, and such room or build-
ing shall be numbered serially in each collection district.

Said room must be on the manufacturing premises, and it must be used for
storage of denatured alcohol, alcohol recovered in the process of manufacture, for
the work of restoring and redenaturing such recovered alcohol, and for no other
purpose.

It must be securely constructed in such a manner as to render entrance impos-
sible during the absence of the person in whose charge it is placed.

The doors and windows must be so constructed that they may be securely fast-
ened. All necessary openings must be under a prescribed lock, the key to be kept
by the person designated to have charge of the storeroom.

A sign, "Denatured Alcohol Storeroom No. — ," must be placed over the main
door of the room.

Form of Application, and to Whom Made.

Sec. 83. The application made to the collector by the manufacturer must be in
duplicate and in the form prescribed below; and a diagram showing the buildings
on the manufacturing premises and their relation to each other must accompany
the notice:

notice by manufacturers.

Notice is hereby given that of the of , county of

and State of intend — , under the name or style of , to

carry on, after the day of 190 — , on the premises owned by

, situate No. street, in the of , county of and

of .

(Name of all partners interested in the business, if a firm, or name of corporation
if a corporation, with residence.)

(Particular description of the lot or tract of land on which the buildings used in
the business are located.)

(Size and description of all buildings on the manufacturing premises and material
of which constructed. Purpose for which used.)

(Statement of the title under which the premises on which the manufacturing
business is situated is held and the name or names of the owners thereof.)

Said desires to use specially denatured alcohol, at proof,

in manufacture of the said , the alcohol to be denatured by the use of the

following agents as denaturants, , and ha provided and set aside

a storeroom on said premises in which to store said denatured alcohol, said store-
room being described as follows:

It is estimated that proof gallons of denatured alcohol will be used in the

manner indicated between the day of and the day of July, 190 — .

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 190 — .

Sec, 84. This notice will be given in all cases before beginning business or before
using specially denatured alcohol in said business, and on the first day of July of
each succeeding year in cases where the business is continued.

400 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The name of every person interested in the business as a partner must be stated
in the proper space, except in the case of notices given by incorporated companies,
when the names and addresses of the officers of the corporation should be given.

The signature to the notice when given by an individual must in all cases be
made by the manufacturer in person, or in his name by his authorized agent or
attorney in fact.

In case of a firm, the signature must be made in the firm name by a member of
the firm or by some person duly authorized as above.

In case of a corporation, the signature must be made in the name and under the
seal of the corporation by the proper officer thereof.

Collector to Cause Plant to be Inspected.

Sec. 85. Upon receipt of the foregoing notice the collector will, either by him-
self or one of his deputies, proceed to the manufacturing plant described in the
application and notice and inspect same. He will ascertain whether or not the state-
ments in the notice and representations on the accompanying diagram are true and
correct, and if he finds they are, he will indorse on the notice the following:

I hereby certify that I have examined the premises of , described

in the within application and accompanying diagram, and I find the statements and
representations therein made to be true and correct.

Collector, District

Collector to Examine Appplication.

Sec. 86. One copy of the application will be retained by the collector and the
other will be forwarded to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. The collector
will examine the application and will determine —

First. Whether alcohol withdrawn from bond free of tax under the provisions
of this act can be used in the manufacture of the article or articles it is proposed to
manufacture at said place.

Second. Whether the denaturants proposed have been authorized by the Com-
missioner of Internal Revenue for the class of industry in question.

Third. Whether the premises can, under these regulations, be used for the
storage of denatured alcohol — that is to say, whether or not they come within one
of the classes of premises upon which denatured alcohol cannot be stored.

Fourth. Whether the room in which it is proposed to store the denatured
alcohol to be brought upon the premises and used for manufacturing purposes, as
indicated, is safe and secure and meets the requirements of the regulations.

If the collector finds favorably on all the above propositions he will approve the
appHcation.

Sec. 87. If the industry in which it is proposed to use the denatured alcohol
has not been held by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue to be an industry in
which alcohol withdrawn under the provisions of this act can be used, or if the pro-
posed formula of denaturants has not been duly authorized, the collector will take
no action upon the application until the Commissioner has passed upon it and
has duly advised him.

Manufacturers to Give Bond.

Sec. 88. If the appHcation is approved the manufacturer shall at once be notified,
but before the use of specially denatured alcohol is permitted on the premises, or at
the place designated in the application, the manufacturer shall file with the collec-
tor a bond in the prescribed form, said bond to be renewed annually on the first
day of July and to run until the first day of the following July.

FORM OF manufacturer's BOND.

Know all men by these presents, that , of , as principal, and

, of and of , as sureties, are held and

APPENDIX. 401

firmly bound unto the United States of America in the sum of dollars, to be

paid to the said United States; for the payment whereof we bind ourselves, our
heirs, executors, and administrators, jointly and severally, firmly by these presents.

Witness our hands and seals this day , nineteen hundred and .

The condition of this obligation is such that whereas the above-bounden principal

is engaged in the business of manufacturing at , in the county

of , State of , and intends to use in said manufacture alcohol withdrawn

from bond free of tax and denatured in the following manner: — said alcohol

so denatured to be secured from any distiller with whom the said principal can make
satisfactory arrangements and transported from denaturing bonded warehouse to
said principal's manufacturing premises above described.

Now, therefore, if the entire quantity of alcohol so secured at denaturing bonded

warehouse or warehouses is transported to the place of business of the said

, and is securely stored in the denatured alcohol storeroom designated and

set aside as such at said place and is there safely kept until it is needed for use in

the manufacture of by said and is used by said

for the purposes specified and for no other purposes, and if the said ,

or their agents or employees, shall faithfully comply with all the requirements
and regulations prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue and approved
by the Secretary of the Treasury in relation to the transporting of denatured
alcohol from denaturing bonded warehouses to manufacturing establishments, the
storing of said alcohol on manufacturing premJses, and the keeping of records and
the making of returns and reports, then this obligation to be void, otherwise to re-
main in full force and effect.

And the obligors for themselves, their heirs, executors, administrators and
assigns, do further covenant and agree with the United States, in case said de-
natured alcohol, or any part thereof, is diverted from the purpose for which it is
intended, either in transit from the denaturing bonded warehouse to the manu-
facturing establishment, or after it has been stored in said manufacturing estab-
lishment, or shall be used for any purposes other than those specified above, well
and truly to pay, or cause to be paid, to the collector aforesaid double the legal
tax on the whole amount of alcohol so wrongfully diverted and used.

The true intent of this obligation is that it will operate both as a transporting
and a warehousing bond. Liability under it is to attach as soon as any alochol
specially denatured at any denaturing bonded warehouse shall leave said ware-
house to be transported to the manufacturing premises of the principal herein.
It is to cover said alcohol while, in transit to said manufacturing establishment
and after it is stored in the designated storeroom at said establishment. It is
intended to save the United States harmless because of any neglect or wrongful
act on the part of the principal or any of agents or employees done in con-
nection with or in relation to said denatured alcohol, no matter whether said act
or acts be the independent act of the principal or his agents, or in act or acts done
pursuant to a conspiracy or an agreement with some officer or agent of the United
States.

Signed, sealed, and delivered in the presence of —

The penal sum of this bond shall be the amount of the tax on the estimated
quantity of denatured alcohol that the manufacturer will use during the year
the bond is intended to cover, and at no time shall the manufacturer have on his
premises a quantity of denatured alcohol the tax upon which is more than one-
half of the penal sum of the bond. The manufacturer may, at any time it may
appear that the bond for any year is insufficient, give an additional bond.

There must be at least two sureties to the bond and they must make the usual
affidavit on Form No. 33, unless under authority contained in the act of August 13,
1894, a corporation duly authorized in writing by the Attorney-General of the
United States to do business \mder said act shall be offered as sole surety.

The Christian names of the signers must be written in the body of the bond

402 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

and so signed to the bond. The residence of each signer must be stated in the
boy of the bond.

Each signature must be in the presence of two witnesses, who must sign their
names as such, and a seal of wax or wafer must be attached to each signature.

Collector to Approve Bond.

Sec. 89. The bond, after being duly executed, will be deposited with the col-
lector of internal revenue, who will examine it carefully. He will also investigate
as to the solvency of the sureties. If he finds the bond to be sufficient, he will
approve it and forward it to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, together
with his certificate to the effect that he has examined the bond and finds it made
in accordance with the regulations, and that the sureties are sufficient.

If upon receipt and examination of the bond the Commissioner approves it,
he will notify the collector, and thereafter, during the life of the bond, it will be
lawful for the manufacturer to receive and transport to his manufacturing premises
from any distiller who is a denaturer of alcohol, alcohol denatured in the manner
prescribed in the application and bond.

Collector to Issue Permit.

Sec. 90. Upon the approval of the bond, the collector shall issue a permit
to the manufacturer, which shall be numbered serially and shall be in the follow-
ing form:

manufacturer's permit.

This is to certify, whereas , manufacturers of , in the

county of , State of , on the day of , 190—^, made appli-
cation for permit to use alcohol denatured in special manner, to wit, by the use

of , and the said application having been approved, said manufacturers gave

bond as required by law, and the same has been approved.

Therefore the said manufacturers are hereby authorized and permission is
hereby given them to receive and have transported to their premises and stored
in their designated storeroom for denatured alcohol, alcohol denatured in the
manner above indicated.

This permit expires July 1, 190 — .

Collector District .

Manufacturer to Give Notice of Denaturer from Whom Alcohol is Secured.

Sec. 91. Manufacturers who have given bond arid received the permit and
are thereafter authorized under the restrictions herein prescribed to use alcohol
denatured with special denaturants may secure from any distiller who is a de-
naturer of alcohol the alcohol to be used in said business.

The manufacturer shall give notice to the collector of the district in which
his establishment is located in the following form in duplicate if the manufac-
turing establishment and the denaturing bonded warehouse at which the alcohol
is denatured are in the same collection district, and in triplicate if they are in differ-
ent districts.

Collector, District of

You are hereby notified that I have arranged with , proprietor

of distillery No. , located at , in the district of , to supply

from denaturing bonded warehouse No. , located at , in the

district of , with alcohol denatured in accordance with the terms

of application approved on the day of , 190—, in the following

manner, to wit: Said alcohol to be used in the manufacture of

APPENDIX. 403

establishment located at , in the district of . The alcohol

is to be transported to premises by and

(Signed)

Upon receipt of this notice the collector shall retain one copy in his office.
The other copy he shall forward to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, and,
if the manufacturing establishment and the warehouse at which the alcohol is
to be denatured are in different districts, the third copy shall be forwarded to
the collector of the district in which the denaturing bonded warehouse is located.

Notice to Officer at Denaturing Bonded Warehouse.

Sec. 92. The collector of the district in which the denaturing bonded ware-
house is located shall forward to the officer in charge of said warehouse a notice
in the following form:

You are hereby notified that , manufacturer of , located

at , in the district of , ha — been duly authorized to use in the manu-
facture of said at said estabhshment alcohol specially denatured in the

following manner, and the said ha — given notice that he

ha arranged with , proprietor of distillery No. , to

supply alcohol so denatured from denaturing bonded warehouse No. , in

the District of .

You are hereby authorized to permit said distiller to withdraw from bond,
free of tax, alcohol to be denatured in the manner indicated, the quantity to be
withdrawn during the current fiscal year not to exceed gallons.

Collector, District ,

Regulations Prescribed in Case op Completely Denatured Alcohol to

Apply.

Sec. 93. The regulations prescribing the manner in which alcohol is to be with-
drawn from warehouse, transferred to denaturing bonded warehouse and dumped,
the manner in which the denaturants are to be brought upon the premises, stored
and tested, in the case of completely denatured alcohol, apply in case of specially
denatured alcohol; likewise the regulations prescribing the manner in which com-
pletely denatured alcohol is to be drawn off, after being denatured, gauged, marked,
etc., apply in case of specially denatured alcohol. In the case of specially de-
natured alcohol the following marks, in addition to those prescribed for com-
pletely denatured alcohol, must be put upno the stamp-head.

Denatured for , proprietor of storeroom for specially denatured alcohol.

No. in the district of .

Special and Complete Denaturants Not to be Mixed.

Sec. 94. In no case is completely denatured alcohol to be mixed with specially
denatured alcohol and special denaturants are to be kept completely separate
from denaturants used in complete denaturation. The officer in chaise of the
warehouse must be careful to see that denaturing material tanks are empty before
any special or complete denaturing agents are dumped. Likewise he must be
careful to see that the mixing tanks are empty before any dumps, either for special
or complete denaturation, are made.

Specially Denatured Alcohol to be at Once Put in Transit.

Sec. 95. As soon as specially denatured alcohol is gauged and the packages
are properly marked and stamped, it must be removed from the denaturing bonded
warehouse and put in transit to the manufacturer for whom it was denatured,
and under no circumstances must any other disposition be made of any part of it.

404

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Reports at Warehouse, etc.

Sec. 96. Reports, records, etc., relating to the alcohol after it has been denatured,
and to be made and kept by the officer and the distiller, must, in the case ot specially
denaturated alcohol, contain columns and spaces for showing and must show
the name and address and number of the manufacturer to whom the alcohol was
sold, and the following additional reports must be made by the officer and the
distiller:

Collector

District of

pro-

You are hereby notified that 1 have this day delivered to

prietor of distillery No. , district of , the following packages of specially

denatured alcohol:

Number of Packages.

Serial Number,
Packages.

Serial Number,
Stamps.

Wine Gallons.

Proof Gallons.

Said alcohol was denatured at
located at , in the —

the district of
of ■

denaturing bonded warehouse No.

district of , and it was disposed of to —

proprietor of manufacturer's storeroom No. , located at

in accordance with specifications as stated in the notice
190 — , and it has this day been forwarded to , at

there to be delivered to said manufacturer.

United States Officer.
This report shall be made in triplicate, one copy to be sent to the collector of
the district in which the denaturing bonded warehouse is located, one to the collector
of the district in which the manufacturing establishment is located, and one to the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue.

Notice of Shipment of Specially Denatured Alcohol.

Sec. 97. The distiller shall prepare and forward a report in the following form:

dena-

district of

Collector;
You are hereby notified that 1 have this day received from

turing bonded warehouse No. , located at , in the

the packages of specially denatured alcohol described below and have forw^arded

them to , manufacturer of , and proprietor of manufacturer's

storeroom for specially denatured alcohol No. , located at , in the district

of .

Number of Packages.

Serial Number,
Packages.

Serial Number,
Stamps.

Wine Gallons.

Proof Gallons.

Proprietor of Distillery No. .

Alcohol to be Promptly Forwarded and Notice of Receipt Given.

Sec. 98. It shall be the duty of the officer in charge and the distiller to see that
the denatured alcohol is promptly delivered from the denaturing bonded warehouse
to the common carrier.

APPENDIX. 405

The manufacturer must immediately upon the receipt of the alcohol store it in
his designated storeroom for denatured alcohol, and must at once prepare report
in the following form:

notice of receipt of alcohol.

Office of .

Collector District

You are hereby notified that I Lave this day received from , carrier,

the packages of Denatured alcohol hereinafter described, received at on the

day of , 190 — , by , from , proprietor of

distillery No. , in the district of , and denatured at in

denaturing bonded warehouse Xo. , in the district of in accord-
ance with the formula authorized on the day of , 190 — . Said alcohol

has been stored in designated storeroom for specially denatured alcohol on

premises and will not be removed from t here except as it is needed for use in the manu-
facture of . Said storeroom is in the custody and control of .

Respectfully,

, Manufacturer.

This report shall be made in duplicate, one copy to be forwarded to the collector
of the district in which the alcohol was denatured and the other to the collector of
the district in which the manufacturing plant is located.

Manufacturer's Alcohol Record.

Sec. 99. The manufacturer must keep a record in which he shall enter on the
"Received" side the date upon which he receives any denatured alcohol on his
premises, the number of packages received and the name and address of the dis-
tiller, the district in which denatured, the name of the officer who gauged the alcohol,
the serial numbers of the packages, the serial numbers of the denatured alcohol
stamps, the number of wine gallons, and the number of proof gallons.

These entries must be made at the time the denatured alcohol is received in the
storeroom and before any of it is withdrawn from the packages or is used in manu-
facture.

On the * * Disposed-of " side of the record must be entered the denatured alcohol
used in manufacture. The entries must show the date upon which any packages
of denatured alcohol are broken for use in manufacture, the number of packages,
the name and address of the distiller who denatured the alcohol, the name of the
officer who affixed the denatured alcohol stamp, the serial numbers of the packages,
the serial numbers of the denatured alcohol stamps, the wine gallons, and the proof-
gallons contents of the packages.

'Jliis record must have spaces and columns in which can be entered the number
of packages and the quantity in wine and proof gallons of unbroken packages brought
over in stock from previous month, of broken packages brought over from previous
month, total of such packages brought over, of packages received during the month,
of packages used during the month, of unbroken packages on hand at the end of
the month, of broken packages on hand at the close of the month, and the total on
hand at the end of the month.

Transcript to be ^ade of Record.

Sec. 100. A transcript of this record must be prepared, sworn to, and forwarded
to the collector of internal revenue of the district for each month before the tenth
day of the following month.

The affidavit above referred to must be in the following form;

State of ,

County of .

On this day personally appeared before me , duly designated custo-
dian of the storeroom for specially denatured alcohol No. of the district

406 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

of , of denatured alcohol received and to be used at the manufacturing estab-
lishment of , manufacturer of , at , in the county of ,

State of , and on oath states that the above is a true and correct statement on

the debit side of the specially denatured alcohol received in said storeroom, and on
the credit side, of the specially denatured alcohol charged off for use in manufactur-
ing at said manufacturing establishment, and that all of the alcohol delivered

from said storeroom was delivered in exactly the same condition as when received at

said storeroom and was delivered for use in manufacturing and was so used.

, Cusodian -.

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 190 — .

This affidavit must be made by the person who has the custody of the store-
room, whether it be the manufacturer himself or one of his employees.

Manufacturer's Record of Alcohol Used and Articles Produced.

Sec. 101. The manufacturer must also keep a book in which shall be entered
the quantity of goods produced and finished each month and in which specially
denatured alcohol was used, and at the close of business each month and before
the 10th of the following month the manufacturer must make and forward to
the collector of internal revenue a transcript of this record and must affix an affi-
davit in the following form:

State of ,

County of .

On this day personally appeared before me , who on oath states

that the above is a true, correct, and complete statement of the goods manufac-
tured during the month last past and in the manufacture of which denatured

alcohol was used at the place of business of , located at , in the county

of , State of .

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 190 — .

This affidavit must be made by the manufacturer himself, the manager of the
business, superintendent, bookkeeper, or other person who has knowledge of the
facts.

Care should be taken to see that both of the above-prescribed records *and
the reports made therefrom are in every respect true and correct. Failure to
keep these records correctly and to make correct reports from them promptly
as prescribed by these regulations is a breach of the bond required of the manu
facturer and he incurs the liabilities growing out of such breach.

The affidavits may be made before any revenue officer authorized under the
law to administer oaths. Such officer is not permitted to make any charge for
such service. In the event it is not practicable to have these returns sworn to
before a revenue officer they may be sworn to before any officer authorized by
State or Federal law to administer oaths.

Custodian of Storeroom to be Designated.

Sec. 102. The manufacturer must either be the custodian in person of the
storeroom for specially denatured alcohol or he must designate some one of his
employees to be the custodian. The manufacturer must notify the collector
of the district of the person who has been designated as the custodian of the store-
room, and if for any reason a change is made the collector must be promptly notified.

No one must be permitted to go into the storeroom in the absence of the cus-
todian. The door of the storeroom must be provided with suitable lock for
securely fastening it, and the custodian must carry the key to the lock. It will
be his duty, together with the manufacturer (provided he is an employee and
not the manufacturer), to see that none of the denatured alcohol brought upon
the premises is diverted from the use for which it was denatured. He must keep

APPENDIX. 407

the denatured-alcohol storeroom record herein provided for and must prepare,
sign, and swear to the returns.

If the manufacturer is a corporation the custodian of the storeroom for spe-
cially denatured alcohol and the person who is to keep the record of denatured
alcohol used and articles manufactured and make the returns herein prescribed
must be named by the board of directors or other governing power and a certified
copy of the minutes of the meeting at which said persons were so designated must
be forwarded to the collector of the district.

Manager to Make Affidavit.

Sec. 103. The manufacturer or the manager of the business, provided the
manufacturer is a corporation, must, in the event some one other than himself
keeps one or both of the records and makes one or both of the returns herein pre-
scribed, make the following affidavit to such of the returns as he does not per-
sonally prepare and swear to.

State of ,

County of .

I , : , state on oath that I am of the business of

and that from my knowledge of said business gained as such , I verily be-
lieve the above stated accounts are correct and that the above affidavit of ■

is in every particular true.

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 190 — .

Collector to Keep Record of Manufacturer's Operations.

Sec. 104. The collectors of internal revenue of the several districts shall keep
in a record specially prepared for the purpose an account of each manufacturer
in the district using specially denatured alcohol.

Said record shall be made up from the reports of officer showing the shipment
of denatured alcohol to the manufacturer, and the reports of the manufacturer
on the proper forms.

Said record must show the date upon which any alcohol was shipped from the
denaturing bonded warehouse, the date it was received by the manufacturer, the
name of the distiller, the location and number of the denaturing bonded ware-
house at which it was denatured, the number of packages in the lot, the serial num-
bers of such packages, the serial numbers of the denatured alcohol stamps, the
wine gallons, and the proof gallons.

Said record must also show the number of packages, serial numbers of such
packages, serial numbers of the stamps and quantity of alcohol charged off for use
in the manufacturing business, and the quantity used in such business. It must
also show the quantity of the manufactured article in proper denominations pro-
duced each month. There must also be columns and spaces in which to enter the
quantity of alcohol on hand in unbroken packages at the beginning of the month,
the quantity in broken packages, the quantity received during the month, the
quantity used in the business during the month, the quantity on hand in broken
packages at the close of the month, the quantity on hand in unbroken packages, and
the total quantity on hand.

Alcohol to be Used as Received.

Sec. 105. Specially denatured acohol must be used in the manufacture of the
products exactly as stated in the manufacturer's apphcation and in the collector's
permit, and it cannot be used in any other manner, and manufacturers using such
alcohol must complete the work of manufacture of the products specified in their
notice and bond on the premises upon which they are authorized by their permit to
use alcohol.

408 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Manufacturer Quitting Business May Dispose of Alcohol to Other

Manufacturer.

Sec. 106. In the event any manufacturer using specially denatured alcohol for
any reason quits the business of manufacturing the commodities authorized by his
permit and there remains on hand in his storeroom a quantity of specially denatured
alcohol, he may dispose of such alcohol to another manufacturer in the same class
of business provided he gives notice to the collector of internal revenue. When
such notice is given, a deputy collector or other officer will visit the manufacturer's
place of business and check the alcohol on hand against the manufacturer's record.
If the quantity on hand is found to agree with the manufacturer's record and the
•alcohol is in the same condition as it was when denatured, the officer will report to
the collector, who will issue a permit authorizing the transfer of the denatured alcohol
to the premises of the manufacturer to whom the alcohol has been disposed of. The
purcliaser must be a regularly qualified manufacturer and must be authorized to use
alcohol specially denatured in the manner and under the formula under which the
alcohol transferred was denatured.

Provisions Applicable to Manufacturers Using Either Specially or
Generally Denatured Alcohol.

Sec. 107. Under no circumstances will denaturers, manufacturers, or dealers,
or any other persons, in any manner treat either specially or completely denatured
alcohol by adding anything to it or taking anything from it until it is ready for the
use for which it is to be employed. It must go into manufacture or consumption
in exactly the same condition that it was when it left the denaturer. Diluting
completely denatured alcohol will be held to be such manipulation as is forbidden by
law.

Sec. 108. Manufacturers using either specially or completely denatured alcohol
must store it in the storeroom set apart for that purpose, the place for deposit
named in the bond and application, and nowhere else. Likewise they must deposit
recovered alcohol in said storeroom as fast as it is recovered. It will be held to be
a breach of the bond and a violation of the law^ if any alcohol of any kind, character,
or description should be found stored at any other place on the premises.

Collector to be Notified of Change in Plant.

Sec. 109. If there are any material changes in the manufacturing establishments
at which either specially or completely denatured alcohol (where permit is required)
is used, either in the plant or in the methods of manufacture, or if there is any change
in the ownership of the establishment, new application must at once be filed, new
bond given (if bond is necessary), and new permit granted by the collector.

Sec. 110. Persons who use alcohol denatured in any manner except as is ex-
pressly authorized by the law will be held to be liable for double the amount of the
tax on all the alcohol so used, in addition to the penalties, civil and criminal, ex-
pressly provided by the act of June 7, 1906.

Part IV.
ALCOHOL RECOVERED, RESTORED, AND REDENATURED.

Sec. 111. Section 2 of the denatured alcohol law provides:

That manufacturers employing processes in which alcohol used free of tax under
the provisions of this act is expressed or evaporated from the articles manufactured
shall be permitted to recover such alcohol and to have such alcohol restored to a
condition suitable solely for reuse in manufacturing processes under such regulations
as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury, shall prescribe.

APPENDIX, 409

Alcohol to be Restored on Premises Where Used or in a Restoring Plant.

Sec. 112. The work of recovering alcohol and restoring it to conditions suita-
ble for reuse in manufacturing processes must be done on the premises on which
said alcohol was originally used or at a duly authorized restoring plant, and it
must be reused in the same manufacturing establishment in which it was originally
used (except as provided in Part V of these Regulations).

Still May be Used.

Sec. 113. If in restoring alcohol to a condition suitable for reuse a still is neces-
sary, the manufacturer may set up on his premises such still and any other apparal
tus that may be necessary for use in connection with or independent of the stil-
in the work of recovering such alcohol. Ihe still must be registered in the same
manner in which the law and regulations require that all stills set up be registered.
It cannot be used for any other purpose than to recover by redistilling alcohol
that has been withdrawn from bond free of tax for denaturing purposes, denatured,
and then used by the manufacturer.

Application to be Used.

Sec. 114. A manufacturer desiring to recover and reuse such alcohol must
in his application for permit to use denatured alcohol in his business, in addition
to the statements required to be made in said application, state fully the manner
in which he intends to recover alcohol, the condition as to proof, purity, etc., of
the alcohol when it is recovered, the percentage of alcohol used in said business
which he proposes to recover, and the estimated quantity in proof gallons of alcohol
he expects to recover during the year. If it is necessary before redenaturing
said alcohol to redistil or otherwise treat it in order to restore it to a condition
suitable as to proof and purity for use in the particular manufacture for which
it is intended, the process must be explained, and if a still is used the capacity
of the still must be set out in full and the other apparatus used in connection with
the still must be described.

The application for permit must, in addition to the form heretofore prescribed
(see Sec. 83), contain the following:

Said • desires to recover alcohol used in said business in the follow-
ing manner, : The condition of said alcohol when recovered as to purity

and proof will be ; the percentage of alcohol used in said business which.

said expects to recover is , and the total quantity — he —

expect^ to recover during the year beginning with July 1, 190 — , is proof

gallons. In the process of restoring alcohol to a condition suitable for use, the
following apparatus will be used, and the said desires to re-
denature the alcohol so recovered or restored, provided redenaturation is necessary,
in the storeroom for denatured alcohol on said premises in the following manner"

The bond prescribed in the case of manufacturers using specially denatured
alcohol (see Sec. 88) must, in addition to the provisions in the form set out, con-
tain the following additional provisions:

And whereas the said proposes to recover alcohol used in said

manufacture in the following manner , said alcohol when so recovered to

be in the following condition as to proof, etc., , and proposes to restore said

alcohol to a condition suitable for reuse in the following manner , and pro-
poses to rede nature said alcohol so recovered and restored, provided redenaturation
is necessary, before reusing same in the storeroom for denatured alcohol on said
premises.

Now therefore if the said shall remove all of said alcohol so

recovered and restored to a condition suitable for reuse to storeroom for

denatured alcohol on said premises as soon as it is so recovered and restored, shall
safely keep said alcohol in said storeroom until it shall have been redenatured,
provided redenaturation is necessary, shall pay double the tax of one dollar and ten

410 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

cents on each proof gallon of all alcohol recovered and reused in any manner with-
out having first been redenatured, and shall fully, promptly, and faithfully comply
witli all the law and regulations relating to the recovering and restoring to a con-
dition fit for reuse and the redenaturing of alcohol that has been withdrawn from
bond without the payment of the tax.

Bond to be Executed by Manufacturer Using Completely Denatured

Alcohol.

Sec. 115. No manufacturer's transportation and storage bond being required
of a manufacturer using in his business completely denatured alcohol, in case
such manufacturer desires to recover and redenature such alcohol so that it may be
reused he must execute a bond containing the provisions of the two above pre-
scribed paragraphs. The penal sum of said bond shall be double the tax on the
alcohol it is estimated the manufacturer will recover and redenature in thirty days.
Said bond must be executed in duplicate and must be approved by the collector
of the district in the same manner as manufacturer's bonds heretofore prescribed.
He must also provide storeroom for the denatured alcohol used by him and must
designate some one to act as custodian thereof, and he must keep such records
and make such returns as are required in case of manufacturers using specially
denatured alcohol.

The permit issued to the manufacturer by the collector must contain, in addi-
tion to what is contained in the form heretofore prescribed, the following :

And the said is hereby further authorized and permission is given

to recover and restore to a condition suitable for use in said manufacture

alcohol in the following manner . Said alcohol must be stored in

the denatured-alcohol storeroom on said manufacturer's premises and must be
redenatured in said storeroom before it is reused, provided redenaturation is
necessary.

Alcohol to be Stored in Storeroom as Recovered.

Sec. 116. The manufacturer must draw off the alcohol as it is recovered into
packages and must immediately store it in exactly the same condition as it is
when recovered in the storeroom for denatured alcohol, and it shall thereafter
be in charge of the custodian of said warehouse. Alcohol recovered at such estab-
lishment and placed in the warehouse for denatured alcohol will not be redis-
tilled or otherwise treated except in the presence of the proper officer.

Still Used for Recovering Alcohol Only, etc.

Sec. 117. The still employed in redistillation will not be used for any purpose
except to redistil alcohol for redenaturation, and it will not be used except in the
presence of the proper officer. When the still is not being used the furnace door or
cocks controlling the steam connections will be securely locked and the collector
will keep the keys to said locks in his possession.

Application to have Alcohol Restored and Redenatured.

Sec. 118. At such intervals as the necessities of the business may demand, and
■when the manufacturer has a sufficient quantity of recovered alcohol on hand to
justify the sending of an officer to his place of business, he may make application
to the collector of the district for an officer to be detailed to supervise the work of
redistilling or otherwise treating the recovered alcohol and the redenaturing of it.
Such application will be in the following form:

Collector District of :

You are hereby notified that there is stored in the storeroom for denatured alcohol
on the manufacturing premises of gallons of alcohol, proof, which was

APPENDIX. 411

withdrawn from bond, free of tax, and denatured, and which was used in the proc-
ess of manufacturing and recovered at said place. Request is hereby made

that an officer be sent to said place of business to supervise the ^work of restoring and
redenaturing said alcohol.

Manufacturer.

Collector to Detail Officer to Visit Manufactureinq Plant.

Sec. 119. Upon receipt of the manufacturer's notice the collector will detail an
officer to proceed to the manufacturing premises in question and supervise the
work of restoring to suitable condition and redenaturing the alcohol mentioned in
the notice. The instructions of the collector shall be in the following form:

, manufacturer of , and proprietor of storeroom for the

denatured alcohol No. — , in this district, located at , has notified me that

ha — stored in storeroom gallons of alcohol of

proof, recovered in process of manufacture, and desire to have said alco-
hol restored to a condition suitable for use in the manufacture of and rede-

natured (if necessary) in the following manner at said storeroom.

You are hereby instructed to proceed at once to said manufacturing establish-
ment and supervise the work of restoring and redenaturing said alcohol in the manner
indicated. You will gauge, mark, stamp, and brand the packages of redenatured
alcohol and will make due return of same.

Collector District of ,

Officer to Visit Manufacturing Establishment.

Sec. 120. Upon receipt of these instructions the officer will proceed at once
to the manufacturing establishment, and will supervise the work of restoring and
redenaturing the alcohol in accordance with the regulations.

The agents to be used in redenaturing must be brought into the storeroom and
must be inspected by the officer immediately upon his arrival there. He must take
samples of each denaturant and forward them, properly marked and labeled, to the
nearest laboratory. If the denaturants are in two or more packages he must secure
an equal part from each package so that the sample will be a resp resent at ive one.

The packages or tanks containing the denaturants must be sealed and must
remain sealed until the officer receives the report upon the samples sent.

Sec. 121. If the report is favorable to the samples, the officer in charge of the
storeroom may, after the receipt of the report, permit the denaturing agents to be
used in accordance with the general or special specifications, as the case may be, in
redenaturing alcohol at said storeroom.

If the report is unfavorable the proposed denaturants shall at once be removed
from the storeroom by the manufacturer.

While the officer is at the manufacturing establishment supervising the work of
restoring and redenaturing the alcohol, the storeroom will be in his custody and he
must carry the key to it.

Restoring, Redenaturing, and Gauging the Alcohol.

Sec. 122. The process of restoring the alcohol to a condition suitable for use will
be carried on in the presence and under the supervision of the officer. If in the
process of restoring the alcohol to a condition suitable for reuse it is necessary to
remove it from the storeroom, it will be returned to said storeroom as rapidly as it
is restored and drawn off into suitable packages. The officer will, in having the
packages filled with the restored alcohol, leave a wantage equal in volume to the
denaturants to be added. He will ascertain by weight the wine and proof gallons
in each package before any denaturant has been added. He will then cause the

412 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

denaturants to be added to the package and will gauge, mark, stamp, and brand
the package of redenatured alcohol.

The same kind of packages and stamps prescribed by these regulations for
alcohol denatured at denaturing bonded warehouses will be used for alcohol re-
denatured at storerooms for denatured alcohol. Packages of redenatured alcohol
shall be numbered serially, beginning with number one, at each storeroom.

Packages to be Marked, Stamped, and Branded.

Sec. 123. The officer shall put the following marks, stamps, etc., on the package
w^hen he gauges it :

On the stamp head he shall stencil the following:

The serial number of the package, the date of redenaturation and gauge, the
wine gallons, proof and proof gallons, the name of the manufacturer and the num-
ber of the storeroom, the State and the district, the name and title of the officer,
and the number of the denatured alcohol stamp affixed to the package. The
words "Redenatured alcohol" must be placed upon each head of the package.

The stamp must be affixed and signed by the officer. The stamps will be
furnished by the collector as they are needed, and the officer must take the books
of unused stamps with him when he has finished the work of restoring and re-
denaturing alcohol and return them to the collector.

Officer to Make Return and Keep Record.

Sec. 124. Having gauged and marked the several packages of redenatured
alcohol the officer will make return of such gauge, wherein he will show in proper
columns in detail the capacity of each package, its gross weight, tare, net w^eight,
indication, temperature, net wine gallons contents, proof and proof gallons con-
tents before the denaturants were added, the net wine, proof and proof gallons con-
tents after the denaturants were added, apparent proof, apparent proof gallons
contents, the serial number of the package, and the serial number of the denatured
alcohol stamp affixed to it.

Sec. 125. The officer shall keep a record in which he shall enter in proper
columns and spaces in detail on the debit side the quantity of recovered alcohol
in wine and proof gallons found in the storeroom when he arrived at the estab-
lishment, the quantity in wine and proof gallons of alcohol restored each day,
the manner in which said alcohol was restored, the quantity in wine and (if possible)
proof gallons of the several denaturants used each day, the kind of denaturants
used, and the numbers of denaturant samples sent to the laboratory.

On the credit side shall be entered in the proper columns, the date upon which
any alcohol is redenatured, the number of packages, the serial numbers of the
packages, the serial numbers of the denatured alcohol stamps on said packages,
and the wine and proof gallons.

Officer to Make Report of Operations at Storeroom.

Sec. 126. At the end of each month, or as soon as the work of restoring the
alcohol to suitable condition and the redenaturing of it is completed, the officer
must make a transcript in duplicate from this record and forward it to the col- .
lector.

Manufacturer to Keep Record.

Sec. 127. The manufacturer must keep a record in w^hich he shall enter daily
in proper spaces and columns the quantity in wine and proof gallons of alcohol
recovered by him and placed in storeroom, the quantity of denaturants placed
in said storeroom for redenaturing purposes, and the quantity of alcohol, in wine
and proof gallons, restored to a condition suitable for use, and the quantity of each
denaturant used.

He shall also enter in said record daily the quantity of alcohol redenatured in.

APPENDIX. 413

his storeroom, the serial numbers of the packages, the serial numbers of the de-
natured alcohol stamps, and the wine and proof gallons of the redenatured alcohol.

Manufacturer to Make Transcript and Report.

Sec. 128. He must prepare a transcript of this record at the end of the month,
and before the 10th day of the following month he must swear to same and forward
it to the collector of internal revenue. The affidavits to this report must be made
bj' the custodian of the storeroom and the manager of the business and must be
in the following form:
State of ,

County of

I , state on oath that I am custodian of the storeroom for de-
natured alcohol, No. , at the manufacturing establishment of ■ ,

manufacturers of at , in the county of , State of , and

that the above is a true, correct, and complete statement of the alcohol with-
drawn from bond, free of tax, and denatured at denaturing bonded warehouse,
recovered in said manufacturing establishment, restored to condition suitable
for reuse at said place and redenatured in said storeroom for denatured alcohol
(or that such redenaturation was not found necessary), and that no alcohol
which w^as recovered and restored at said place was used in any manner until
after it had been redenatured, nor was any redenatured alcohol used in any manner
except in the manufacture of at said place.

Custodian Storeroom No. .

I, , state on oath that I am , of the above-described

business, and from my knowledge of the business I believe the above report of
business done to be true, correct, and complete, and the statements contained in

the above affidavit of , custodian at said storeroom, to be in every

respect true and correct.

The above two affidavits were subscribed and sworn to before me this day

of = . 190—.

Manufacturer to Make Entry in Record of Alcohol Received and
Disposed of, etc.

Sec. 129. The manufacturer must also enter on his record of denatured alcohol
received and disposed of the packages of alcohol redenatured at said storeroom.
On the *' Received " side of said record must be shown the date upon which the alcohol
was received from redenaturation. The alcohol must be treated in the same man-
ner on said record as it was when received originally.

In the summary on said record the quantity of alcohol received from redenatura-
tion and reused must be shown in items separate from the denatured acohol coming
into the stock originally from dealers and denaturers.

Collector to Keep Account with Manufacturer of Alcohol Restored.

Sec. 130. The collector must keep an account with each manufacturer who
recovers, restores, and redenatures alcohol. This record must be made from the
reports of the chemist, officer in charge of the storeroom, and manufacturer. It
must show the quantity of alcohol recovered and deposited in storeroom each day,
the quantity restored to a condition suitable for reuse, the quantity and kind of
denaturants used in denaturing said alcohol, the name of the officer supervising the
restoring of and redenaturing of said alcohol, the number of packages and the serial
number of same, and the quantity in wine and proof gallons of alcohol redenatured,
gauged, and delivered to the manufacturer for reuse.

414 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Alcohol not to be Redenatured unless Necessary.

Sec. 131. Manufacturers who recover alcohol will not be required to have said
alcohol redenatured if it retains a sufficient quantity of the original denaturants to
prevent its use as a beverage. If necessary, this may be determined by the chemical
examination of samples taken for this purpose and forwarded to the nearest labora-
tory. In the event it is not necessary to redenature the alcohol the manufacturer
must deposit it in his storeroom in suitable packages and make application to the
collector of internal revenue to have it regauged and restamped. The collector will
detail an officer to visit the storeroom and regauge and restamp the alcohol. When
it has been regauged and restamped the alcohol will be taken up on proper records
by the officer and the manufacturer, and will appear on the monthly reports in the
same manner as though it had been redenatured. The officer making the regauge
will make a report in the same manner as is required when alcohol is redenatured
on the manufacturer's premises, except that the report will not show that the goods
are redenatured.

Part V.

RESTORING AND REDENATURING PLANTS.

Sec. 132. Centrally located plants may be established for the purpose of restor-
ing to a condition suitable for reuse and for redenaturing, if necessary, alcohol
recovered by manufacturers; these plants to be located at such places as the Com-
missioner of Internal Revenue may deem necessary.

Warehouse: How Constructed.

Sec. 133. A warehouse constructed in the manner in which distillery warehouses
are constructed must be provided. This warehouse to be used for the purpose of
storing recovered denatured alcohol received from manufacturing establishments.
Either an apartment in this warehouse or a separate warehouse may be provided in
which to redenature and store the restored alcohol. This apartment or separate
warehouse, as the case may be, must be constructed in the same manner as dena-
turing bonded warehouses heretofore described. It must be supplied with mixing
tanks, and a room to be used as a denaturing material room must be provided.
The apartment used as a denaturing bonded warehouse must be separated from the
apartment used as a storage room for the recovered alcohol received from manu-
facturers, and there must be no openings or doors between the two apartments.
t The denaturing material room must be constructed in the same manner as
similar rooms are constructed at denaturing bonded warehouses, and all of the
appliances required at denaturing bonded warehouses must be supplied.

Cistern Room to be Provided.

Sec. 134. A cistern room constructed in the same manner as are cistern rooms
at registered distilleries must be provided. In the process of restoring the recovered
alcohol by redistillation, it must be received into the cisterns direct from the worm
or condenser in the same manner as distilled spirits are received into the cisterns
at registered distilleries.

The cisterns and cistern room must be supplied with the same kind of locks as
are required for similar rooms at registered distilleries.

Sec. 135. When the restoring and redenaturing plant is in operation it must be
under the supervision and control of a storekeeper-gauger or other officer designated
by the collector of internal revenue.

This officer shall carry the key to the warehouse or warehouses used in connec-
tion with the plant and the cistern and cistern rooms. When operations at the plant
are suspended for the day he shall lock the steam valves controlling the supply of

APPENDIX. 415

steam to the several parts of the plant, and such other appliances as will prevent
the plant from being operated during his absence. Under no circumstances is he
to permit any work to go on during his absence, and he shall exercise the same kind
ot surveillance over the plant as is exercised at registered distilleries.

Application to be Made to Collector.

Sec. 136. Any person desiring to establish a plant at which denatured alcohol
recovered at a manufacturing establishment may be restored and redenatured shall
make application to the collector of internal revenue in the district in which such
plant is to be located.

In this application he shall state the exact location of said plant. He shall
describe all of the buildings located on the premises. In this description he shall
give the size of each building, the materials of which it is constructed, and their
location with reference to each other. He shall describe all of the apparatus intended
to be used in the work of restoring alcohol.

If one or more stills are used he shall describe each still accurately, giving the
capacity of each, together with all of the connections and other apparatus used
therewith. He shall describe the cisterns, cistern rooms, warehouses, or tanks con-
stituting a part of the plant, giving the capacity of each cistern or tank in gallons.

The application may be in the following form:

To Collector of Internal Revenue,

District of .

Sir: Notice is hereby given that 1 have erected for the purpose of restoring dena-
tured alcohol and redenaturing it a plant located at , State of , described

as follows ;

fHere given description of the plant, together with the cistern, cistern room, still or stills, ware-
house, etc., as required above.]

and you are hereby requested to cause such proposed restoring and redenaturing
plant to be inspected with a view of determining whether or not it is constructed in
compliance with the law and regulations.

Proprietor.

A diagram upon which is shown the entire plant with all the buildings located
on the premises must be submitted with this application.

Upon receipt of the application the collector will, either himself, or by one of his
deputies, visit and inspect the premises. He will determine whether or not the
plant is constructed in accordance with the regulations, and whether or not the
statements made in the application and the representations made on the diagram
are true.

If he finds that the statements are correct and that the plant is constructed in
accordance with the regulations, he will so indorse upon the application, and the
collector will fon\-ard same to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue.

If the Commissioner is of the opinion that the establishment of the plant is neces-
sary, and that it is constriicted in accordance with the law and regulations, he will
approve it and will so advise the collector.

Bond for Restoring and Redenaturing Plant.

Sec. 137. Upon receipt of notice from the Commissioner of Internal Revenue
that the restoring and redenaturing plant has been approved, the collector shall
notify the proprietor of the plant of such approval, and thereafter he may receive
upon his premises, restore, and redenature alcohol, provided he shall first make a
bond in the following form;

Know all men by these presents. That , of , as principal,

and , of . as sureties, are held and firmly bound unto the United

States of America, in the sum of dollars, for the payment whereof to the

416 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

United States we bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, and administrators, jointly
and severally, firmly by these presents.

The condition oi this obligation is such that whereas the above bounden principal

has established a plant tor restoring and redenaturing alcohol, located at , and

whereas said plant has been approved by the Commissioner ot Internal Revenue
and the said principal has been authorized to receive upon his premises and store in
his warehouse alcohol withdrawn from bond, free of tax, denatured, used at manu-
facturing establishments and recovered in the process of manufacture, and has been
authorized to restore such alcohol so received to a condition suitable for reuse in
manufacturing processes, and has been authorized to redenature such alcohol at his

redenaturing warehouse located at said plant. Now, if the said shall,

in the operation of his restoring and redenaturing plant, bring into the warehouse
specially set aside for that purpose, all of the recovered alcohol consigned to him
by manufacturers wherever located, shall safely store in said warehouse all of said
alcohol so received, shall restore all of said alcohol to. a condition suitable for reuse
in manufactyring processes and redenature it in his redenaturing apartment or ware-
house, in the manner prescribed by regulations; and if he shall pay the tax of one
dollar and ten cents per proof gallon upon all the alcohol that may be consigned to
him by any manufacturer and not properly stored in said warehouse, or stored in
said warehouse and not duly restored, or duly stored and restored and not duly
redenatured by him, and if he shall in all respects comply with all of the require-
ments and provisions of the law and regulations in relation to storing, restoring,
redenaturing, and disposing of said alcohol, then this obligation is to be null and
void, otherwise to remain in full force and effect.

It is the intent and purpose of this obligation that it shall operate as a transporta-
tion, warehousing, restoring, and redenaturing bond, and that liability under it shall
attach the moment any recovered alcohol is put in transit by a manufacturer to the
principal herein; while it is in transit to him; after it has been deposited in the ware-
house located on his restoring and redenaturing plant; while it is in process of being
restored; after it has been deposited in his redenaturing apartment or warehouse;
while it is in process of redenaturation, after it has been redenatured, and while it is
in transit to any manufacturer to whom it may be consigned.

. [seal.]

Signed and seaied in the presence of —

Penal Sum of Bond.

Sec. 138. The bond required of the proprietor of a restoring and redenaturing
plant shall be in the penal sum of not less than the tax on the alcohol it is estimated
will be restored and redenatured thereat in thirty days, and in no event shall it be
less than five thousand dollars or more than one hundred thousand dollars. The
sureties may be either personal sureties or a corporate surety duly authorized to
make bonds under the existing laws.

Quantity of Alcohol to be Returned to Manufacturer.

Sec. 139. Alcohol restored and redenatured at a plant established for that pur-
pose may be restored to a condition suitable for reuse in manufacturing processes
only. Alcohol recovered by any manufacturer using either specially or completely
denatured alcohol may be restored and redenatured in accordance with the regula-
tions herein prescribed, but in each case the manufacturer sending alcohol to such
plant to be restored and redenatured must receive back from such plant a quantity
of alcohol equal to that sent to the plant to be restored and redenatured, less any
reduction in quantity attending the necessary process of restoration. In no event
shall a manufacturer receive any greater quantity of alcohol from a restoring and
redenaturing plant than is sent to such plant by him, allowance being made, of
course, for the denaturants added; and in no event shall alcohol redenatured at

APPENDIX. 417

a restoring and redenaturing plant be delivered or disposed of for reuse to anyone
except a manufacturer who had delivered recovered alcohol to such plant.

No Other Business to be Carried on.

Sec. 140. No business can be carried on on the premises of a restoring and
redenaturing plant except such business as is incident to the work of receiving,
depositing, restoring, and redenaturing alcohol received there, and no tax-paid
alcohol can be received on these premises.

Sec. 141. The premises of all restoring and redenaturing plants shall at all
times be open to the inspection of duly authorized internal-revenue officers, and
they shall have the right to observ^e the process and methods employed, and take
such samples of the product of the plant as in their judgment may be necessary.

Plant to be Secured on Suspension.

Sec. 142. When the plant is suspended the officer in charge must securely lock
all valves and cocks controlling the supply of steam, and the furnace doors; like-
wise he must securely lock the cistern rooms and warehouses connected with the
plant and deliver the keys to the collector of the district; and when the plant sus-
pends operations it must be placed in such condition by the officer that it can not
be operated during his absence, or until notice has been given to the collector by
the proprietor of his intention to resume work.

When the proprietor of the restoring and redenaturing plant desires to suspend
operations, he shall give the collector of internal revenue notice of such intention;
and when he desires to resume operations he shall likewise give notice, and the
collector will thereupon assign an officer to the establishment who shall have custody
and control of it during the period of operations.

Proprietor of Restoring Plant to Own Real Estate.

Sec. 143. In his application for permit to operate a restoring and redenaturing
plant the proprietor must state the name of the person or persons holding the fee-
simple title to the real estate upon which the plant is located. In the event the
title is not in the proprietor of the plant, he must secure the consent of the owners
of such fee-simple title in the same manner as is required in the case of registered
distilleries.

M.\NUFACTURER TO KeEP ReCORD AND SeND NoTICE OF SHIPMENT.

Sec. 144. A manufacturer using denatured alcohol and recovering it in process
of manufacture, and desiring to have such alcohol restored to a condition suitable
for reuse in manufacture at a restoring and redenaturing plant, must deposit such
alcohol as it is recovered in the designated storeroom on his manufacturing premises,
in the same manner as required of manufacturers who restore alcohol on their own
premises.

He must keep a record, in which he shall enter the quantity of alcohol in wine
and proof gallons recovered each day and stored in his storeroom. At such times
as he may desire, he may ship such recovered alcohol to a restoring and redenaturin-^
plant, but before it leaves his storeroom he must put it into suitable packages, and
upon the head of each package he must place the following marks:

Denatured alcohol recovered at the manufacturing establishment of

storeroom No. , located at , in the district of .

wine gallons, proof gallons, serial No.

He must number these packages serially, beginning with No. 1.

Upon the credit side of his record he shall enter the date upon which he sends
any recovered alcohol to the restoring and redenaturing plant, the name of the
proprietor of the plant to which it is sent, the number of packages, the serial num-
bers of the packages, and the wine and proof gallons.

418 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Notice to be Sent to Collector.

Sec. 145. Upon the date upon which he places in transit any recovered alcohol
he must prepare a notice, in which he shall state the number of packages, the serial
numbers of the packages, the wine and proof gallons, and the name of the restoring
and redenaturing plant to which the recovered alcohol is sent.

This notice must be in triplicate, provided the restoring and redenaturing plant
is located in one district and the manufacturing establishment is located in another.
If they are both in the same collection district, then it may be prepared in duplicate.
One copy of the notice is to be sent to the collector of the district in which the manu-
facturing plant is located, another copy to the collector of the district in which
the restoring and redenaturing plant is located (provided it is in another district),
and the remaining copy to the officer in charge of the restoring and redenaturing
plant.

As soon as the recovered alcohol reaches the restoring and redenaturing plant
the proprietor of the establishment must deposit it in the warehouse located on
the premises, and it must remain in this warehouse until it is ready to be redistilled
and restored.

Record to be Kept by Proprietor of Restoring Plant.

Sec. 146. The proprietor of the restoring and redenaturing plant must keep a
record in which he shall enter the date upon which he receives any recovered alcohol.
In this record he must give the name and address of the manufacturer from whom
the alcohol was received, the number of packages, the serial numbers of the pack-
ages, the wine and proof gallons.

Upon the credit side he shall enter the date upon which he sends any redena-
tured alcohol to the manufacturer, the name of the manufacturer, the number of
packages, the serial numbers of the packages, the name of the officer inspecting the
packages, the serial numbers of the stamps, and the wine and proof gallons.

At the end of the month and before the 10th day of the ensuing month he
must prepare and forward to the collector of internal revenue a transcript of this
record. Said transcript will constitute his return for the month and must be duly
sworn to.

Officer to Keep Records and Make Returns.

Sec. 147. The officer in charge of the restoring and redenaturing plant must
keep a record in V7hich he shall enter the date vipon which any recovered alcohol is
deposited in the warehouse, the name and address of the persons from whom re-
ceived, the number of packages, the serial numbers of the packages, and the wine
and proof gallons.

Upon the credit side of this record he shall enter the date upon which he delivers
any alcohol to the proprietor of the plant for restoring purposes, the name and
address of the persons from whom the alcohol was received, the number of packages,
the serial numbers of the packages, and the wine and proof gallons.

From this record he shall make a report each day to the collector, in which
he shall show the number of packages of recovered alcohol entered into the ware-
house on that date, the name and address of the persons from whom it was received,
the serial numbers of the packages, and the wine and proof gallons.

This report shall also show the quantity of recovered alcohol delivered from
the warehouse to the proprietor of the plant for restoring purposes; the name and
address of the persons from whom received, the serial numbers of the packages,
and the wine and proof gallons.

The above record and report shall be designated as a warehouse record and
report. The report shall be made at the close of business on each day. At the
end of the month the officer in charge of the plant shall make a monthly report,
which shall be a transcript of this record.

APPENDIX, 419

Restored Alcohol to be Removed from Cistern Room to Denaturing

4 Room.

Sec. 148. As fast as the alcohol is restored it shall be drawn off into packages
from the cisterns in the cistern room and shall be gauged and transferred to the
denaturing warehouse and at once redenatured. These packages shall be numbered
serially, beginning with No. 1 for each restoring plant.

Redenaturing Warehouse Record.

Sec. 149. The officer in chaise of the plant shall keep a record to be known
as the denaturing warehouse record, in which he shall enter each day the number
of wine and proof gallons of restored alcohol received from the cistern room and
deposited in the denaturing warehouse, the number of packages, and the serial
numbers of the packages.

Upon the debit side of this record he shall enter the number of wine and proof
gallons of alcohol delivered to the proprietor of the plant each day for redenatura-
tion, the number of packages, and the serial number of each package.

From this record he shall make daily returns showing the quantity of alcohol
restored, gauged, and deposited in the denaturing bonded warehouse and delivered
to the proprietor of the plant for redenaturation.

He sliall likewise keep a record of the denaturants brought upon the premises
and deposited in the material room. This record shall be similar to the record
kept for the same purpose at denaturing bonded warehouses operated in connection
with distilleries.

Officer to Keep Redenaturation Record.

Sec. 150. The officer shall keep a record of alcohol redenatured, gauged, marked,
stamped, branded, and delivered to the proprietor of the restoring and redenaturing
plant. This record shall be similar to the record kept in denaturing warehouses
operated in connection with distilleries.

The packages of alcohol redenatured at a restoring and redenaturing plant
must be numbered serially, beginning with No. 1, and no two packages must have
the same number. The packages of alcohol redenatured at restoring and redenatur-
ing plants must be gauged, marked, stamped, and branded in the same manner as
such packages are gauged, marked, stamped, and branded at denaturing bonded
warehouses operated in connection with distilleries.

Upon the head of the package must be stenciled the name of the proprietor of
the restoring and redenaturing plant, the district and State in which it is located,
the serial number of the package, the serial number of the stamp, and the wine and

J)roof gallons, and the words "Redenatured alcohol" must be placed thereon in
egible letters.

Alcohol Sent Out from Redenaturing Plants.

Sec. 151. If the alcohol is redenatured by the use of special denaturants, then
the same kind of notices as are given to the several collectors in the case of especially
denatured alcohol sent out from denaturing bonded warehouses operated in con-
nection with distilleries must be prepared and forwarded to the collector. Like-
wise, the manufacturer receiving the alcohol must give a notice to the collector of
his district similar to that required in a case of specially denatured alcohol received
direct from denaturing bonded warehouse. The manufacturer must charge himself
on his record with the alcohol received in the same manner as is required in the case
of alcohol received direct from denaturing bonded warehouse.

Collectors to Keep Records.

Sec. 152. Collectors in whose districts restoring and redenaturing plants are
operated shall be provided with records in which shall be kept the accoimt of each

420 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

plant. In this record shall be entered the quantity in wine and proof gallons of
recovered alcohol daily received and deposited in the warehouse at said plant, the
number of packages, the serial numbers of the package, and the names of the manu-
facturers from whom received.

Said record shall also show the quantity of alcohol in wine and proof gallons
delivered to the propiietor of the plant each day to be restored, the names and
addresses of the persons from whom received, the number of the packages, and the
serial numbers of the packages.

Collectors shall also keep records similar to those kept in case of denaturing
bonded warehouses, showing the quantity of alc^ohol deposited in said redenatur-
ing warehouse, the quantity of denaturants deposited in the material room, the
quantity of alcohol and denaturants dumped each day, and the quantity of redena-
tured alcohol withdrawn from dump, gauged, and delivered to the denaturer.

Persons desiring information as to the operation of distilleries for the produc-
tion of alcohol will te furnished with all the laws and regulations controlling upon
application made to collectors of internal revenue or to this Office. The several
forms herein prescribed will be furnished collectors on requisition; and the Cata-
logue numbers given such forms will be furnished at an early date,

John W. Yerkes,
Commissioner of Internal RevenuSo
This September 29, 1906.
Approved :

C. H. Keep,

Acting Secretary of the Treasury.

REPORT OF THE BRITISH DEPARTMENTAL CO:\BnTTEE ON
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL, PRESENTED TO BOTH HOUSES
OF PARLIAMENT BY COMMAND OF HIS MAJESTY.

Terms of Reference. — To inquire into the existing facilities for the use,
•without payment of duty, of spirits in arts and manufactures, and in particular
into the operation of Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902, and to report whether the
powers conferred upon the Commissioners of Inland Revenue by this section per-
mit of adequate facilities being given for the use of spirits in manufactures and in
the production of motive power, or whether further facilities are required; and if
it should appear to the Committee that the present facilities are inadequate, to
advise the turther measures to be adopted, without prejudice to the safety of the
revenue derived from spirits, and with due regard to the interests of the producers
of spirits in the United Kingdom.

To The Right Honourable J. Austen Chamberlain, M.P., chancellor of the

Exchequer.
Sir,

1. We have the honour to submit to you the following Report of our proceed-
ings and conclusions in connection with the inquiry, which, in August last, you
invited us to undertake into the question of facilities for the use of Spirit in Arts
and Manufactures.

Introductory Remarks.

2. In interpreting the terms of reference, we have considered that the main
objects of our inquiry were to ascertain the extent to which alcohol is, or might
be, employed in arts and manufactures, or in the production of heat, light, or motive
power; and to determine the conditions of greatest freedom that could be accorded
to its use for those purposes, consistently with adequate safety to the revenue
derived from spirit as an article of human consumption.

3. We have, therefore, confined our attention almost exclusively to these points;
and have not attempted to deal fully with allied questions, such as possible changes
in the methods of producing spirit, or in the materials from which it may be obtained,
or such as the actual or possible sources of supply. These questions, important as
they are in themselves, seemed to us somewhat remote from the purpose immed-
iately in view; and their investigation would have unduly enlarged and prolonged
our labours.

4. We did, however, for special reasons, take some evidence on the question
of the production of spirit from potatoes; enough to satisfy us that in the present
agricultural conditions of this country it would not be possible to found a profitable
industry on the employment of potatoes as a material for distillation.

5. In order to obtain evidence, we addressed ourselves to the Association of
Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom, and to the Cliambers of Commerce
of London, Liverpool, Manchester and Birmingham; and the majority of witnesses
examined by us were gentlemen selected for us by those bodies, as representatives
competent to speak on behalf of the several industries in which alcohol is, or might
be, employed. ^ Of the rest, some came at their own request, while others came on
our direct invitation. In addition to oral evidence, much information was laid

421

422 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

before us in the form of memoranda prepared for us by the Board of Inland Revenue
in regard to the regulations in this and other countries governing the use of spirit
for industrial purposes, as to the quantities of spirit so used, and as to the Rules
and Regulations laid down by the Board of Inland Revenue under the Act of 1902.
These memoranda are printed as appendices to the evidence. Lastly, as in the
evidence of certain of the witnesses who came before us much stress was laid upon
the system and regulations established in Germany in connection with the indus-
trial use of alcohol, we felt it w^as very desirable to procure information at first
hand upon that subject; and we accordingly obtained your authority to send a
deputation to Germany for that purpose. The report of this sub-committee is
annexed in immediate continuation of this Report.

Conditions Governing the Use of Spirits for Industrial Purposes.

6. The use of methylated (denatured) spirit duty free was first authorised in
1855 by the Act 18 & 19, Vict., c. 38. The present law on the subject is contained
in the Spirits Act, 1880, as amended by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act, 1890
and Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902. '

7. The practice resulting from the law has been as follows:

Up to the year 1855, spirit could not be used duty free by the public under
any circumstances. From 1855 to 1861 it could be used duty free for manu-
facturing purposes only, if methylated according to the prescribed process.

From 1861 to 1891 spirit could be used duty free for any purpose other
than consumption directly or indirectly as a beverage, or internally as a medicine,
provided it was mixed with wood-naphtha to the extent of one-ninth of its'
volume. But, if used in large quantities, as for manufacturing purposes, it
could not be purchased from a retailer of methylated spirit, but only from a
methylator, and the user was subject to Excise supervision.

From 1891 to 1902, the use of this kind of methylated spirit (which came to
be described as "ordinary" methylated spirit) was confined to manufacturing
purposes, subject to the same conditions as before; while for general purposes
a spirit, consisting of the above spirit with an addition of .375 per cent, of min-
eral naphtha (petroleum), and known as ''mineralised" methylated spirit, was
brought into use. It is only in this spirit that retailers are permitted to deal.

Since 1902, the two kinds of methylated spirit have continued to be used
as before. But an alternative to their use has been opened to manufacturers,
under which spirits may be employed after being subjected to some special proc-
ess of denaturing, appropriate to the particular industry, or possibly even in a
pure state, should circumstances be held by the Board of Inland Revenue so to
require.

8. Advantage has been taken of the Act of 1902 by a certain number of manu-
facturers. But, in examining the witnesses who have come before us, w^e have
been surprised to find in some quarters a very inadequate acquaintance with its
provisions, and much failure to appreciate its significance; and we are disposed
to think that the beneficial effects of the Act have, on this account, been less widely
diffused than they might have been. It may reasonably be expected that, as a
result of this enquiry, enterprising traders will more largely avail themselves of the
provisions of this Act.

Hindrances to the Use op Spirit for Industrial Purposes in the United

Kingdom.

9. The "Ordinary" Methylated Spirit is open to certain objections as a material
or instrument of manufacture. In a few cases it is unsuitable by reason either of
the chemical properties or of the smell of the wood-naphtha it contains. But even
where its character is not a serious objection, it is still always open to this disadvan-
tage, that it is somewhat heavily enhanced in cost as compared with pure spirit.
For not only does the wood-naphtha, which must be present to the extent of 10
per cent., cost more than double the price of the equivalent quantity of spirit, but
now and again it tends to make the mixture less efficient for the purpose in view
than it would be without this ingredient.

APPENDIX. 423

10. It was to meet these objections that legislation was undertaken in 1902;
and, so far as they are concerned, we consider that Section 8 of the Finance Act of
that year does all that is possible in respect of the character of spirit. For it has
entirely removed all difficulty in the way of procuring a spirit suitable in character
for any industrial purpose. It has also to some extent mitigated the objection on
the score of cost, inasmuch as the special processes of denaturing authorised by
the Board of Inland Revenue are commonly less expensive to the manufacturer
than is the case with "Ordinary" Methylated Spirit. On the other hand, the cost
of these processes is enhanced by the charges for Excise supervision.

11. But the cost of denaturing touches a part only of the question of the price
of the spirit used for industrial purposes. An influence on price, even more impor-
tant, lies at an earlier stage of production of the spirit, viz., in the conditions
under which spirit can alone be manufactured in this country. The duty on spirit
used as a beverage in the United Kingdom is very heavy, and in imposing this duty
it is essential to the protection of the revenue to impose on the manufacture of
spirit such restraints as may be necessary to prevent any spirit from escaping pay-
ment of duty; and a consequence of such restraints must be to cause an appreciable
enhancement in the cost of manufacture. What the measure of this enhancement
may be is not susceptible of precise determination; and even an approximation to
it can only be reached by persons with a minute and practical knowledge of all the
details of manufacture and of trade on the one hand, and of what is required for
the protection of the revenue on the other. We have, therefore, not attempted to
investigate all the elements that enter into the calculation, but have accepted the
figures that have been established by law and practice as applicable to the present
situation. These figures will be found in Appendix No. I., together with a full
explanation of the manner in which they have been reached. For our purpose it
is sufficient to say that they may be taken as rcDresenting an enhancement of the
cost of producing plain British spirits by 3d. the proof gallon, or an increase of
about 50 per cent, on the cost that would othen\'ise prevail in the production of
industrial alcohol. It is patent that producers thus hampered could not hope to
conipete successfully, either in the home or in foreign markets, against rivals not
similarly hampered, unless some counterpoise were provided to the burdens that
fiscal restrictions impose upon them. Accordingly, the law does provide such a
counterpoise — in the case of the home market, by making the duty on imported
spirits exceed the duty on British spirits by an amount equivalent to the burdens
on the home producer — this is called the ** Surtax" — and in the case of foreign
markets, by granting to the home producer allowances calculated on the same
basis. These export allowances are at the rates of 3d. per proof gallon on plain
spirits, and 5d. per proof gallon on compounded spirits, and it is the higher of these
two allowances that is taken as determining the measure of the "Surtax" on all
imported spirits other than Rum or Brandy, on which the "Surtax" is 4d. the proof
gallon. The final result upon the price of industrial spirit of all the measures taken
to protect the revenue may be stated as follows. Spirit used in manufacture is
commonly about 64 overproof (about 93 per cent, on the continental standard of
pure alcohol), and is plain spirit. Therefore, the price of a bulk gallon of the spirit
is about 5d. more than it would have been but for excise restrictions. The cost
of methylating may be put at between 3d. and 4d. per bulk gallon, so that of the
price eventually paid by the manufacturer, which at present may be taken at from
20d. to 22d. per bulk gallon for large quantities at wholesale price, about 8^d. is
attributable to precautions on behalf of the revenue.

12. The two considerations (a) of the conditions in which spirit must be used,
and (b) of the price a^ which it can be procured, affect different industries in very
varying degrees. Either consideration maj'- be of vital importance to a particular
industry. But, speaking generally, we have no hesitation in saying, on the evi-
dence before us, that, taking the whole range of industrial enterprises employing
alcohol, the question of price is infinitely the more important of the two. The
nurnber of cases in which it has been conclusively shown that ordinary methylated
spirit is seriously detrimental by reason of its character, are remarkably few, whereas
the cases are numerous in which a difference of, say, 6d. per bulk gallon in the price
of alcohol might make all the difference between profit or loss in the carrying on of an
enterprise.

424 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

13. To illustrate this, we will briefly review the evidence laid before us in respect
of some of the more important industries employing alcohol, and in doing so will
include such general observations as occur to. us.

Coal Tar Colour Industry.

14. We take this first because it has figured very prominently in the discussions
which have led up to the present inquiry. In the course of those discussions, it
has frequently been asserted that the Coal Tar Colour Industry, which originated
in this country, and at one time flourished in this country, has been lost to us very
largely, if not mainly, by reason of the obstacles in the way of a cheap and untram-
melled supply of alcohol. In view of the prominence given to this asertion, we
thought it desirable, even at the risk of travelling somewhat beyond the immediate
purpose of our inquiry, to procure authentic evidence upon the subject. With
that object we invited to appear before us Dr. W. H. Perkin, the discoverer in 1856
of the first Coal Tar Colour, Mr. R. J. Friswell, who was engaged in the manufacture
of aniline dyes from 1874 to 1899, and Professor Meldola, who was similarly engaged
from 1870 to 1885, and to whose memorandum appended to his evidence we desired
to call special attention. We had also before us, as a witness nominated by the
London Chamber of Commerce, Professor A. G. Green, whose name is associated
with a well-known work on Organic Colouring Matters. Further, our Sub-Committee
that visited Germany had an opportunity of learning the views of many persons
connected with th*^^ colour industry in that country.

15. On a review of all the evidence, pro and con, we are satisfied that, regarded
as a statement of historical fact, the assertion that the Coal Tar Colour Industry
has been lost to this country on account of obstacles to the use of alcohol is destitute
of substantial foundation.

16. In the earlier days of the industry alcohol was used almost wholly as a
solvent, and for that purpose methylated spirit is suitable. Moreover, when alcohol
first began to be used as a constituent of dyes, and until some time after the deca-
dence of the industry in this country had become marked, the margin of profit on the
manufacture was so great that the difference in price even between duty-free and
duty-paid alcohol was a matter that could practically be left out of consideration.

17. It would take us too far afield to examine at length into the causes that did,
in fact, contribute to the decadence of the industry in this country and to its rapid
development in Germany. But much infomation on the subject will be foimd in
the evidence, and here we will confine ourselves to saying that, in our opinion, the
cause which predominated over all others was the failure of those responsible for the
management and for the finance of the industry here, during the years 1860-1880,
to realise the vital importance of its scientific side, and their consequent omission
to provide adequately for its development on that side.

18.' But while we ':ay this in the interest of historical accuracy, it by no means
follows that either we, or the authorities we have quoted, think that what was true
of the period 1860-1880 is true of the present time. On the contrary, it is vmques-
tionable that, in some branches of the colour industry, with alcohol playing a con-
siderable part as a constituent of certain dyes, and with profits cut down by com-
petition to a narrow margin, the circumstances under which, in respect of condition
and of price, alcohol can be used have become of importance. But here, too, it is
necessary to guard against exaggeration. Large classes of the Coal Tar Colours —
alizarine, indigo, and by far the greater number of the azo dyes — require no alcohol
for their manufacture either directly or indirectly, and these represent by far the
larger proportion of all the colours produced. We have had varying estimates
given to us of the proportion of the whole output that demands alcohol, and they
range from the 10 per cent, of the German authorities to the 20 per cent, to 25 per
cent, of Professor Green. Therefore, for at least 75 per cent, of the whole industry,
alcohol does not enter into account even now, and these branches could be prose-
cuted in this country, as indeed they now are, whatever the conditions in regard
to the use of alcohol might be.

19. Nevertheless, even where alcohol is not immediately required for the manu-
facture of a dyestuff, the utilisation of waste products and the development of new
methods may be hampered by a want of alcohol; while, for those dyestuff s for

APPENDIX. 425

which alcohol is essential, its price and the conditions of its use are matters of great
moment. We are of opinion, therefore, that, if the hope is to be entertained of
recovering any considerable portion of this trade, more favourable conditions must
be established in respect of the use of alcohol.

20. We may observe that in the manufacture of dyestuffs, or of the inter-
mediate products for their manufacture, the part played by met hylic alcohol is far
more important than is that of ethylic alcohol. Methylic alcohol is not produced
by fermentation and it was not until the process of its manufacutre was so far
perfected as to bring it into possible competition with ethyl alcohol that it was
thought necessary to subject it to the charge of the spirit duties. This was done by an
Act of 1865; and in 1898 its use was prohibited in the preparation of beverages or
of medicines for internal use. Its chemical character differs so much from that of
ethyl alcohol that its presence in any product can readily be detected by analysis.
In view of these facts, we think that exceptional treatment may be accorded to
methylic alcohol, in the manner described later.

Smokeless Powders.

21. On the question whether in this industry ordinary methylated spirit is
unsuitable or detrimental in character, the evidence laid before the Committee
appears to us conflicting and inconclusive. We are inclined to think that the true
position is that the question has never been thoroughly sifted. As Sir W. Crookes
put it to us, it is known that very slight chemical variations in the materials em-
ployed may produce very marked variations in the quality of the powder produced,
more especially as regards its stability; to determine whether the chemical com-
position of ordinary methylated spirit (or of methylated ether) would or would
not affect the stability or other properties of a powder, would demand costly experi-
ments extending over many years; and there has not been any sufficient induce-
ment to undertake such experiments. The act of 1902 still further diminishes the
inducement, and all the more so because there is probably no single industry in
which exceptional advantages as regards the use of spirit could be accorded with
less risk to the revenue. The workmen employed are of necessity men of steady
and trustw^orthy character; they are subject to the strictest supervision; and the
manner in which spirit enters into the process of manufacture give but little opening
for peculation.

22. But the question of the price of spirit and ether is one of vital importance to
the manufacturer of smokeless powder of whicn nitro-cellulose is a constituent.*
The quantity of alcohol used, either directly in the form of spirit or indirectly in
the form of ether, for the production of one pound of this powder is very large.
What the exact amount may be it is difficult to determine, because so much depends
upon the amount of spirit that may be recovered from any operation, and this
varies as between one operation and another, and as between one factory and
another. But one witness gave us to understand that a difference of 6d. per gallon
in the price of spirit would make a difference of 7d. per pound in the cost of the
powder produced; and it is manifest that even a much smaller difference than that
would turn the scale between profit and loss.

Pharmaceutical Products — Fine Chemicals.

23. In this branch of industry alcohol plays a very important part. In Section
4 of our Sub-Committee's report, the subject" is very fully treated, and we will not
here repeat what is there stated. We will merely observe that for a large, and
probably increasing, number of substances, such as the synthetic perfumes, anti-
pyrine, phenacetin, sulphonal, and so on, alcohol at a price not in excess of that at
which it stands in competing countries, and usable under conditions not inimical to
the quality and character of the compounds produced, is essential to the existence
of the industry. The industry presents certain features of difficulty because, in
the first place, there are large numbers of pharmaceutical preparations in which the

* It is an open question amongst the authorities whether the powder of the future will be one
requiring alcohol for its preparation.

426 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

alcohol remains as free spirit, and which must continue to be made from duty-paid
spirit; and because, in the second place, the preparations are so numerous and so
various in character that there are difficulties in making a single process of dena-
turing applicable to them all. But these difficulties have been satisfactorily over-
come in Germany, and we see no reason why they should not be overcome here.
We are, however, of opinion that the manufacture of synthetical chemical products
with duty-free alcohol would have to be completely and effectually separated from
the manufacture of preparations (as, for example, tinctures) in which the alcohol
remains as such, and which, therefore, must be made with duty-paid spirit.

Ether.

24. The production of ether has become a most important industry, large quan-
tities being required for manufacturing purposes {e.g., smokeless powder, artificial
silk, etc.) and for refrigerating purposes. For most, if not for all, of these purposes,
ether made from ordinary methylated spirit is quite suitable. But, inasmuch as
it requires much more than a gallon of strong spirit to produce a gallon of ether,
the price of spirit is manifestly a consideration of primary moment to this industrj\
Incidentally we may mention that, in the course of the evidence, the question was
raised whether the present rates of import duty on ethers are the correct equiva-
lents of the duty payable on the spirit necessary to produce them.

Artificial Silk.

25. This industry is not at present prosecuted in this country, although it em-
ploys many thousands of workpeople on the Continent. Some five or six years
ago an attempt was made to introduce it, and a factory was established at Wolston,
near Coventry, but after working for nearly two years (1899-1900) it was closed.
At that time the excise authorities had no power to allow the use of spirit in any
other form than that of ordinary methylated spirit, and in the opinion of Mr. Cash,
who was Chairman of the company from its formation until some six months before
it was wound up, and who attended as a witness before us, the obligation to use
methylated spirit was one of the causes of the failure of the enterprise. The evi-
dence on this point is far from conclusive. But it is unquestionable that the opera-
tions of manufacture in this industry are extremely delicate, and that the difficulties
to be overcome are in any case great and numerous. To add to the difficulties that
are inevitable one that can be avoided would manifestly be most undesirable; and,
therefore, if using methylated spirit creates a fresh difficulty, it should by all means
be avoided. For the manufacture of artificial silk, the price of alcohol is a con-
sideration of vital importance, as the combined ether and spirit required to produce
one pound of the finished article represents nearly a gallon of strong spirit.

Lacquers, Varnishes, etc.

26. These are usually made with the ordinary methylated spirit, where spirit
enters into the manufacture. (Spirit is not required for lacquers that are applied
cold.) In a few rare cases pure duty-paid spirit is employed for the finest kinds
of lacquer. On the question whether methj'^lated spirit is detrimental to the char-
acter of the product, the evidence submitted to us was conflicting — some witnesses
insisting that it is detrimental, another, representing a considerable section of the
trade, maintaining that it is not. Specimens of goods treated with lacquer made
with pure spirit, with ordinary methylated spirit, and with wood-naphtha, respec-
tively, were submitted to us; and we are bound to say that any distinction between
them was scarcely perceptible to the unprofessional eye.

27. However this may be, we consider that for this trade neither the character
nor the price of spirit under existing conditions creates any serious hindrance,
except, perhaps, for goods exported. For in the home market the trade enjoys a
considerable measure of practical protection, owing to .the fact that imported
lacquers and varnishes containing spirit are charged full spirit duty on the
quantity of spirit contained.

APPENDIX. 427

Motor Vehicles.

28. Spirit is not used at present in this country as a fuel for motor vehicles.
Nor is it so used to any great extent either in Germany or in France, in spite of
the fact that both these countries are most desirous of encouraging the use of a
material that is indigenous, in preference to a material like petrol that has to be
imported. Where spirit is used for motor or other engines in those countries, it
is almost entirely for agricultural engines. For motor cars, spirit presents cert am
special difficulties, which require to be overcome, the principal being the behaviour
of alcohol in very cold weather, and the tendency of the acids generated by its com-
bustion to cause corrosion of the metal surfaces with which they come in contact.

20, For the moment, therefore, the question of the use of spirit for motor cars
is not ripe for consideration from the point of view of our inquiry. Should it here-
after become so, it is manifest that alcohol used for this purpose must be denatured
in the most effectual and most permanent manner. Happily this will not present
any difficulty, as there is no evidence to suggest that the mineralised methylated
fipirit in common use in this country is in any way unsuitable or detrimental for this
purpose.

30. Any question, therefore, of the use of spirit for motor vehicles will be one of
price, and as at present the price of petrol is about half the price of methylated
spirit, we think that close investigation of the matter may be delayed until such
time as there may be an approximation between the prices of petrol and spirit
sufficient to create a practical alternative of choice between the two.

General Conclusions.

31. On all the facts before us we have arrived at the following general con-
clusions:

(i) That where spirit is used for general and universal purposes, such as
heating or lighting, the present ''mineralised" methylated spirit is perfectly
satisfactory, both to the revenue and to the public, in respect of character, and
that at present no better method of denaturing is available. In respect of
price, the cost of mineralised methylated spirit is enhanced by some 40 per
cent, by reason of measures necessary for the protection of the revenue. But
to countervail such enhancement would be merely to relieve the whole com-
munity of a burden in one direction by putting upon it an equivalent burden
in another, seeing that the cost of relief would necessarily have to be made up
to the Exchequer from some other source of taxation. Thus there would be no
real balance of gain to the community as a whole from arrangements that would
of necessity be somewhat complex, and would entail a certain cost in their
application. We think, however, that, having regard to the practical security
that is provided for the revenue by the process of denaturing adopted in the
case of this spirit, the regulations in regard to distribution might be appreciably
relaxed in respect of the quantities that retailers may keep in stock, or may
«ell at any one time to a customer. We recommend that the regulations should
be left to be prescribed from time to time by the Board of Inland Revenue,
instead of being stereotyped in the Statutes.

(ii) That where spirit is used for industrial purposes, the Finance Act of
1902 provides adequate and entirely satisfactory machinery for securing that
the spirit may be used in a condition that is suitable and appropriate to each
particular purpose of manufacture. The machinery is elastic — much more so
than is the corresponding machinery in Germany — and it permits of every reason-
able process of denaturing, or even, in the last resort, of the use of spirit in a pure
state. For more t-^an this it would be impossible to ask.

(iii) That something more h required in order to place spirit used as an
instrument or a material of manufacture on a footing satisfactory in the matter
of cost. Anything in the nature of a bounty is undesirable. But seeing that
on the price of spirit the very existence of cetain industries may depend, and
that for all industries using alcohol the price of spirit is an important factor for
"that portion of trade that lies outside the home market, we are stronglv of

428 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

opinion that it is desirable to make such arrangements as will free the price of
industrial spirit from the enhancement due to the indirect influence of the
spirit duties. It would surely be disastrous if, to the mischief that the drinking
of alcohol causes by diminution in the efficiency of labour, the taxation of alcohol
should be allowed to add the further mischief of narrowing the openings for the
employment of labour.

32. In our opinion, there is only one way in which the influence of the spirit
duties can be satisfactorily counteracted in favour of industrial alcohol. To
diminish the Excise restrictions on the manufacture of alcohol might mitigate the
influence, but probably not to any great extent. For with a duty of over 1000 per
cent, on the prime cost of an article, revenue control must of necessity be strict.
Moreover, the gain to industry would be made at the risk of the revenue, and a
duty that yields over £20,000,b00 per annum to the Exchequer is a public interest
that cannot be trifled with. To relieve imported spirit from the surtax which is
needed to counterbalance the burden imposed on production in this country by
the Excise regulations would be manifestly unfair; and its effect would be to give
to the State-aided spirits from Germany or Russia a practical monopoly of the
market in this country for industrial spirit. The only adequate course, it seems
to us, is to neutralise, for industrial spirit, the enhanced cost of production due to
Excise control, in the same way as the enhanced cost is neutralised for exports,
viz: by granting an allowance on such spirit at such rate as may from time to
time be taken as the equivalent of the increase in cost of production due to revenue
restrictions. At the present time, the rate is taken at 3d. per proof gallon for
plain spirits, and the allowance would accordingly be at this rate, and should be
paid equally on all industrial spirit whether it be of British or of foreign origin.

33. We do not suggest that the cost of methylation should be borne by the
State, although a strictly logical application of the principle of attempting to put
industrial alcohol on the footing that it would occupy, if there were no duties on
spirit, might seem to require this further concession. For we hold that the manu-
facturer using a!cohol has so strong an interest in rendering it unpotable for his
own protection that he may fairly be asked to accept denaturing as a necessary
incident of use, the cost of which he should bear.

34. At the same time we think that the chsrge on the manufacturer might
reasonably be limited to paying the cost of the denaturing agents and of the mixing
of them with the spirits; and that he should not be required to pay the cost of regu-
lar attendance of the Excise officers which is given wholly in the interests of the
revenue. Attendances at irregular times, at the special request and for the special
convenience of the manufacturer, might, if necessary, continue to be charged against
him.

35. We think that for ordinary methylated spirit (which will continue to be used
for many industrial purposes for which it is not, in the words of the Act of 1902,
''unsuitable or detrimental'') the formula of methylation may safely be modified,
and the proportion of wood-naphtha reduced, so that the mixture may consist of
ninety-five volumes of spirit to five of wood-naphtha. This will at once some-
what cheapen the methylated spirit, and will also diminish any prejudicial effect
that the chemical properties of wood-naphtha may have for certain manufactures;
while it will continue to "earmark" the spirit sufficiently to allow of detection by
analysis, should the methylated spirit be used for any improper purpose. It must
be remembered that this kind of methylated spirit can only be used by persons
holding an authority from, and under heavy bond to, the Commissioners of Inland
Revenue (whereby its employment is subject to control and supervision, which can
be graduated according to circumstances), and that consequently the risk oi fraud
is limited.

36. We have mentioned that we think that methylic alcohol used for industrial
purposes might be accorded special treatment. We understand that the Board
of Inland Revenue do not consider that it would be safe to revert to the position
obtaining before 1865, when methylic alcohol was regarded as wholly outside the
scope of the spirit duties: and their opinion receives support from the fact that in
France the law has recently been altered so as to define more precisely the degree
of purity which shall render methylic alcohol liable to duty. The object we have in
view can, however, be sufficiently met without taking methyhc alcohol out of the

APPENDIX. 429

charge for duty. It would meet all requirements in respect of methylic alcohol, if
it were exempted from the condition of the proviso to Section 8 of the Act of 1902",
which requires payment of the surtax on all imported spirit used for manufacture,
and if tlie Board of Inland Revenue should exercise their discretion under the section
in the matter of denaturing in such a way as to permit the use of methylic alcohol
practically pure. Tliis, we understand, they would be willing to do; and exemp-
tion from the surtax would be fully justified, inasmuch as the manufacture of methy-
lic alcohol in the United Kingdom is not, in fact, subjected to any restrictions that
enhance the cost of its production.

87. While making tlie concessions above described, we think it would be right,,
in the interests of the revenue, that special denaturing agents authorized for use in
particular industries, should be subject to official test; and further that manufactur-
ers who are authorised to employ specially denatured alcohol should be required
to keep such books as may be prescribed, showing the receipts and issues of spirit,
the manner in which it has been distributed to the several branches or departments
of the factory, and the quantities produced of the articles manufactured with it.

38. We believe that the recommendations we have made, if adopted, will place
the manufacturers of this country in respect of the use of alcohol in industry on a
footing of equality, in some respects of advantage, as compared with their com-
petitors abroad. Amongst the witnesses who appeared before us, we found a very-
general impression that, in Germany at any rate — and Germany is our most formid-
able competitor in this field — spirit could be used in manufacture duty-free and pure,
with scarcely any restraint. This is very far from being the case, as the Report
of our Sub-Committee shows. As regards price, the grant of the export allowance
would, we believe, make the average price of industrial spirit in the United King-
dom even lower than the average price in Germany. The price, exclusive of the
cost of any denaturing, would, under present conditions, be about 7d. the proof
gallon, or about ll^d. the bulk gallon at 64 over proof — the strength common in
indiistrial spirit. That is as low as the minimum price paid by users in Germany
in the year 1902, when spirit was abnormally low, and is much below the figures of
Is. 3§d. per proof gallon, and of 2s. IJd. per bulk gallon prevailing in Germany at
the present time. Further, the price of spirit in this country, where all materials
may be freely used, and where none of general use are subject to taxation, is a stable
price. In Germany the conditions of production tend to wide and rapid fluctuations
in price.

39. At the same time, it would be a mistake to suppose that any facilities given
for the use of spirit in this country are likely to create such an increased demand
for spirit as to produce any shortage of supply, and so to lead to a rise in price.
This point is fully discussed in Section 9 of our Sub-Committee's Report, and we see
no reason to dissent from the conclusion that any increase in the demand for indus-
trial spirit must for a long time to come lie well within the limit of 3^ millions of
proof gallons. This estimate serves also to assign a limit within which the charge
to the Exchequer, resulting from the proposed allowance of 3d. per proof gallon on
industrial spirit, will be confined. The present consumption of such spirit is about
3 J million proof gallons, on which the allowance would aggregate £40,000. The
utmost expansion that can be regarded as attainable within a measurable distance of
time would double that sum, and it may safely be assumed that any immediate
expansion will be moderate and gradual.

40. For convenience of reference we summarise our several recommendations,
(i) That an allowance be granted to all industrial spirit, whether of British

or foreign origin, at the rate from time to time prevailing for the allowance to
British plain spirits on export:

(ii) That imported methylic alcohol be relieved from the obligation to pay
the surtax imposed by the proviso to Section 8 of the Finance Act. 1902; and
that methylic alcohol be accorded favourable treatment in the matter of dena-
turing::

(iii) That "ordinary" methylated spirit should contain only 5 per cent,
wood-naphtha, instead of 10 per cent.

(iv) That no charge should be made on manufacturers for the regular atten-
dance of Excise officers to supervise denaturing operations or the use of dena-
tured spirit, in factories taking the benefit of Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902*

430 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(v) That where spirit is allowed to be denatured with special agents such
agents should be subject to official test and approval; and that accounts should
be kept by the user showing receipts of spirit into store, the issues thereof from
store in detail, and the quantities of goods produced.

(vi) That in the manufacture of fine chemicals and pharmaceutical products,
spirit specially denatured should be allowed only where the manufacture is kept
entirely separate from the manufacture of tinctures and other preparations in
which spirit remains as spirit in the finished product.

(vii) That the regulations governing the sale by retail of mineralised methy-
lated spirit should be made less stringent and more elastic.

Any special cases, such as that of smokeless powder, not touched by the above
recommendations, can always be met under the powers conferred by Section 8 of
the Act of 1902.

41. In concluding our Report, we desire to express our indebtedness to our
Secretary, Mr. E. C. Cunningham, whose service in that capacity has been of the
greatest value to the Committee.

We have the honour to be, Sir,

Your obedient Servants.
H. W. Primrose,
William Crookes,
W. H. Holland,
John Scott Montagu,
Lothian D. Nicholson,
Wm. Somerville,
T. E. Thorpe,
Thomas Tyrer.
E. C. Cunningham (Secretary).
23rd March, 1905.

Dear Mr. Chancellor of the Exchequer,

After carefully re-perusing the above report in its final form, we shall esteem
it a favour if you will kindly allow us to modify our assent to the somewhat emphatic
opinion expressed in paragraph 15, and to say that whilst obstacles to the use of
Alcohol have not been shown to be the sole, nor even the main, cause of the loss of
the Coal Tar Colour Industry to this country, we are nevertheless of opinion that
they have been shown to be one of the contributing causes of that unfortunate result.

Yours sincerely,

W. H. Holland,
John S. Montagu.
31st March, 1905.

REPORT OF SUB-COMMITTEE ON THEIR VISIT TO GERMANY.

We have the honour to report that we left London on the morning of January
14th, returning on the 26th.

We spent six days in Berlin, and while there we received the most cordial and
unremitting attention from Privy Counsellors Koreuber and Dr. von Buchka, to
whom, through our Ambassador, we had been referred by his Excellency the Secre-
tary to the Imperial Treasury. We desire to record our sense of the very great
obligation under which we feel to those gentlemen.

From Berlin we went on to Heidelberg and Darmstadt, returning through
Cologne.

We give the result of our inquiries in full detail in separate sections relating to
the several heads. The outcome of them may be briefly summarised as follows:

(1) That the German system, in regard to the use of spirit for industrial pur-
poses, is correctly stated in Appendix No. III., as laid before the Committee:

(2) That this system, while designed on liberal and comprehensive lines, is
rigidly enforced, and allows of no exceptions in practice to the rules as laid down.
Consequently, with the exception of smokeless powder, no article can be manu-

APPENDIX. 431

factured in Germany with duty-free spirit, unless it be subjected before use to
some process of denaturing:

(4) That the price of spirit in Germany for industrial purposes fluctuates very
widely; that at the present time it is considerably higher than the price of similar
spirit of British manufacture in this country-; and that even in normal years its
price is not as much below the price in this country as the Committee have been
led to suppose:

(5) 'J hat the consumption of spirit in Germany for domestic and industrial pur-
poses affords no standard by which to measure the possible consumption for silnilar
purposes in the United Kingdom.

Section 1.
Official Regulations.

The whole of our first day in Berlin we spent in going carefully through the
published oflBcial regulations as to use of spirit duty-free for industrial and other
purposes with Privy Counsellor Koreuber, of the Imperial Treasury, and Dr. von
Buchka, the Head of the Chemical Branch of that Department.

As a result we are enabled to state that the abstract of the regulations as given in
Appendix No. III. is perfectly accurate, and that practice conforms exactly to the
regulations.

Accordingly the rules and practice of the German Empire may be briefly described
as follows:

(1) Spirit may be used duty-free in a pure, undenatured state, only in a very
limited number of cases, viz:

(a) In pubhc, i.e., State, or municipal, hospitals:

(b) In similar scientific institutions:

(2) For all other purposes, without exception, duty-paid spirit must be used.
unless the spirit be subjected to some authorised process of denaturing prior to use.

(3) The authorised processes of denaturing fall into two main classes, according
as they result in:

A. Complete Denaturing.

B. Incomplete Denaturing.

(4) The processes authorised for "Complete Denaturing" are two, viz:

(a) An admixture with every 100 Utres of spirit of 2| litres of a mixture con-
taining 4 parts of wood-naphtha and 1 part of pyridine bases. (To this mixture
50 grams of lavender or rosemary oil may be added optionally, to counteract
the smell of the pyridine bases. But the addition is seldom made.) Spirit thus
denatured is what is used for domestic purposes — heating, lighting and cooking.
It is seldom used for industrial purposes. The only purpose of that kind for
which its employment is considerable is the manufacture of cheap varnish.

(b) An admixture with the spirit of half the quantity (viz., l| htres per 100
litres of spirit) of the above denaturing mixture, together with an addition of
I litre of a solution of methyl violet dye and of benzol in quantities that may
range from 2 to 20 litres to every 100 htres of spirit.

Although spirit thus treated is classed as completely denatured, its use is limited
to agricultural and motor engines, and the process would seem to fall more properly
into Class B.

The spirit thus denatured is used in practice almost entirely for agricultural
engines, as no satisfactory solution has yet been found of certain difficulties which
beset the use of spirit for motor cars.

(5) The processes authorised for "Incomplete Denatuiing" are numerous.
They consist:

(a) Of two alternative processes of general application, viz.:

The addition to every 100 litres of spirit of either 5 htres of wood-naphtha,

or ^ litre of pyridine bases.

(b) Of numerous processes of special application.

These are fully set out in Appendix No. III. But the processes applicable to the

432 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

most numerous and most important industries, including coal tar colours and chemi-
cal preparations, are the four alternatives of

An addition to every 100 litres of spirit of 10 litres of sulphuric ether,

or 1 litre of benzol,
or ^ litre of turpentine,
or .025 litre of animal oil.

(6) We may observe that the above regulations are applicable only to ethyl
alcohol. Methylic alcohol does not fall within the charge to spirit duty in Germany,
and may be used freely for industrial purposes, without control by the Revenue
authorities.

(7) The schedule of authorised denaturing agents cannot be varied by the Exec-
utive. Any amendment ot it, or addition to it, must be sanctioned by the Bundes-
rath, or Federal Council of the Empire; and the procedure for obtaining such sanc-
tion occupies many months, probably never less than six.

We add from our notes a few general observations and others bearing upon points
referred to by witnesses who have given evidence before Ihe Committee.

(i) The rules are strictly enforced and no exceptions to them are allowed.

(ii) The Revenue authorities regard them as being as little stringent as is com-
patible with the safety of the spirit revenue, even with the present low duty on
spirit. They considered that, if the duties were ever to be raised, it would be neces-
sary to revise the regulations, and to make them less lenient in certain directions.

(iii) The revenue authorities regard as a valuable safeguard to the revenue the
obligation on manufacturers to keep "stock accounts" and ''control books." They
do not consider that it causes to manufacturers any serious difficulty or inconvenience.

(iv) For lacquer-making a considerable quantity of wood-naphtha denatured
spirit is used in Nuremberg, Baden and Bavaria. Elsewhere turpentine is almost
universally employed as the denaturing agent. No lacquers, poHshes or varnishes
can be made in Germany with pure duty-free spirit, or with admixture only of
shellac.

(v) Photographic Collodion. — It is the common opinion in Germany that the
British-made collodion is better than the German.

(vi) Edible Oils. — No special process of denaturing is prescribed for these.
Therefore the general incomplete denaturing agents must be used, i.e., wood-naphtha
or pyridine bases — see above 5 (a).

(vii) All alcohol-containing medicines must now be made with duty-paid spirit,
even veterinary medicines. The privilege of using pure undenatured duty-free
alcohol for such purpose was taken away in October, 1903.

(viii) Tinctures are not allowed drawback on exportation, unless manufactured
under Excise supervision (in bond).

No drawback, or allowance in the nature of drawback, is given under any cir-
cumstances in respect of articles manufactured with denatured spirit.

Section 2.

It was our desire to see the working of the system in factories typical of as many
of the principal industries using alcohol as it might be possible for us to visit without
unduly extending the period or the circuit of our tour. We failed, however, to
accomplish this object in respect to factories for the production of synthetic per-
fumes, of varnish, and of coal tar colours, for the following reasons:

Synthetic Perfumes.

Dr. von Buchka very kindly addressed, on our behalf, the firm of Messrs. Schimmel
of Leipsic, the principal manufacturers in Germany of synthetic perfumes. But
those gentlemen informed him that it was against the rule of their estabhshment to
admit visitors, and that they regretted that to this rule they could make no excep-
tion.

Varnish.

This industry is not carried on to any great extent in Berlin. But Dr. Wittel-
shofer, managing director of the Centrale fiir Spiritus Verwerthung, kindly made-

APPENDIX. 433

efforts, on our behalf, to obtain admission to the one important estabh'shment of
the kind in the city. Owing, however, to the absence oi the principal partners,
there was no one who possessed the requisite authority to give permission for our
visit during the days we were in Berlin, and we did not think it worth while to pro-
long our stay for the purpose of obtaining an opportunity, as the facts and position
in regard to lacquer and varnish are so clear as not to demand any further special
•elucidation.

Coal Tar Colours.

Before leaving England, Dr. Thorpe had addressed to Dr. Glaser — a personal
friend of his, and a former director (now a member of the Advisory Committee) of
the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik of Ludwigshafen — a request that we might
be permitted to visit that establishment. The directors felt some difficulty in acced-
ing to this request. They, however, deputed Dr. Ehrhardt, one of their chemists,
to wait upon us at Heidelberg with Dr. Glaser, in order to explain their position,
And to give us such information as he properly could in regard to the special sub-
ject of our inquiry. We, accordingly, had the advantage of a conversation of some
two hours duration with him and Dr. Glaser together, and from our notes of it we
abstract the following items.

Dr. Ehrhardt felt great difficulty in offering an opinion as to the proportion of coal
tar dyes, whether by way of value or of quantity, which require the use of alcohol
in their manufacture, but was inclined to accept as probably correct an estimate
which had been given to us in Berlin by a very competent authority, and which
placed the proportion at 10 per cent, of the whole. He observed that indigo and
alizarine, neither of which requires the use of alcohol, would account for at least
one half of the production of the Badische Fabrik. In addition there was a large
class of azo colours which made up a large proportion of the rest of the colouring
matters made by the company, and of which only a very few individuals require
alcohol.

Asked whether, in these circumstances, it might not be possible to engage profit-
ably in the manufacture of the 90 per cent, of dyestuffs that need no alcohol, while
neglecting those that required alcohol. Dr. Ehrliardt remarked that such an enter-
prise would be at a disadvantage as regards the by-products for the profitable
utilisation of which research, demanding alcohol, was necessary.

On the question of the proportion that the cost of alcohol bore to the total cost
of production of coal tar colours, Dr. Ehrhardt felt unable to offer an opinion: but
he regarded as quite possible an estimate of \ per cent, which had been given to us in
Berhn by the authority previously mentioned.

Duty-free alcohol in a pure state is not allowed under any circumstances, not even
in the laboratory.

The denaturants employed by the Badische Fabrik are animal oil, pyridine, and
sometimes the colour to be manufactured.

The importation into Germany of English-made colours or intermediate prod-
ucts is small and is confined to a few specialities.

The total number of persons employed in the Fabrik is between 7,000 and 8.000,
of whom a large number are boys; no women. Of these only a very few could ever
have access to the spirit used, at a stage at which it might conceivably be drunk,
and those few would always be under supervision.

There is no particular tendency at the Fabrik to avoid the use of alcohol, the
restrictions not being found seriously burdensome.

On the general question of the causes which have led to the great development of
the coal tar industry in Germany, and its decline, or at any rate, its stagnation in
Great Britain, we had much interesting talk with Dr. Glaser and Dr. Ehrhardt, and
also on the following day at Mannheim with Dr. Caro, who may be regarded as one
of the principal founders of the industry in Germany. They all agreed that, as an
historical fact, the question of alcohol had little or nothing to do with the matter.
Dr. Caro pointed out that the movement had begun, and had reached a point of
considerable advancement before the time at which the use of alcohol otherwise
than as a solvent — a purpose for which methylated spirit is perfectlv suitable — had
been appreciably developed, and before the time at which reduction in the selling

434 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

price of dyestufifs through competition had rendered economy in production of
serious importance.

'Ihey were unanimously of opinion that the real cause of the failure of the dye
industry to develop in the United Kingdom was the lack of appreciation by British
manufacturers of the importance of the scientific side of the industry. Thirty and
forty years ago the whole business was conducted by the manufacturer, without
much thought of its scientific aspects, and without any adequate recognition of the
place of the trained chemist in connection with it.

In Germany the case was different. There the rise of the industry coincided
with an immense development of activity in the study of organic chemistry and in
its application to industry, stimulated largely by the influence of Kekule, his coad-
jutors and immediate followers. Dr. Glaser gave it as his opinion that Kekule's
conception of the chemical structure of benzol was the germ out of which has grown
the modern colour industry. The output of chemists by the German Universities
was relatively enormous, and has continued to be so for the past forty years, and
the services of competent chemists became obtainable at salaries of no more than
£100 per annum. Consequently, they are engaged by hundreds to act practically
as foremen in the works, and the whole of the subordinate supervision was in the
hands of scientifically trained men. This was of immense advantage to the business
of manufacture, and at the same time it provided a large field from which to select
the more competent men for the work of research and invention; and those thus
advanced were given a leading part in the management and in the profits of the
business.

Nothing of the kind was possible in England at that time. Perhaps it is not so,
even now.

At the same time these gentlemen all recognised that as things are at the present
day, when alcohol enters so largely into the composition of colouring matters, and
when the profits on the manufacture of coal tar dyes and intermediate products
have been cut down by competition to a narrow margin, the question of alcohol,
of the price at which it can be procured, and of the facilities given for its employ-
ment, has become a matter of great, if not of cardinal, importance.

Section 3.
Operation of Complete Denaturing.

By the courtesy of the Brennspiritus Gesellschaft we were given an opportunity
of visiting their methylating premises in Warschauer Strasse, in the eastern quarter
of Berhn, and there witnessing the operation of preparing the "completely" dena-
tured spirit which is used in Germany for household purposes — heating, lighting,
cooking, etc., and which thus corresponds to the minerahsed methylated spirit
we are familiar with in this country.

On the occasion of our visit, the spirit for denaturing was contained in twenty-
eight casks, holding some 600 litres (132 gallons) apiece. These had been con-
veyed to the methylating premises direct from a distillery, under Revenue seal, and
accompanied by an oflficial despatch giving particulars of the distinctive number,
tare, seals, content, etc., of each cask. The operation of denaturing was superin-
tended by two Revenue officials, whose attendance has, as usual, to be paid for by
the methylator. The first duty of these officers is to see the casks weighed. The
weighing machine was situated just outside the room provided for the officers, who,
after testing the weights, watched the weighing operation from inside. As each
cask was rolled on to the machine, an employe of the methylator called out its dis-
tinctive number, tare, and gross weight to the nearest half kilogram. The casks
were not gauged on the methylating premises, the quantity of spirit being ascer-
tained from its weight and strength alone.

The operation of weighing was performed in a remarkably expeditious manner,
the whole of the twenty-eight casks being weighed in about twenty-five minutes.

For the subsequent operations, the casks are arranged in rows — bungs upwards.
The Revenue officers first proceed to verify the seals, passing one on each side along
the rows, and assuring themselves that the seals of each cask are intact and corre-

APPENDIX. 435

spond in number and position with the entries on the despatch. An employ^ of the
methylator follows them, and, as each set of seals is checked, knocks ofif the seal
and Revenue fastening over the bung-hole and withdraws the bung in readiness
for sampling.

The spirit in each cask is next roused by a wooden rod inserted through the
bung-hole, to ensure that the spirit shall be of uniform strength throughout. A
sample is then taken from each cask, and its temperature and apparent strength
ascertained by the alcoholometer. The standard strength is then deduced by the
help of tables. The alcoholometer is provided by the methylator at his own ex-
pense; an J each instrument must be officially tested before it is brought into use.

The Revenue officers having completed their check, and determined the content
of each cask in terms of 100 per cent, alcohol, the quantity of denaturing mixture
requisite for each cask is calculated.

The denaturing mixture, consisting of four parts of wood-naphtha to one part of
pyridine bases, is received in iron drums, ready mixed, from the factory where it is
prepared, in this case the factory at Fiirstenwalde, which we subsequently visited.
The drums are kept under Revenue seal, and may only be opened in the presence
of a Revenue officer. The quantity of denaturant required for each cask is drawn
off in a graduated can and emptied into the cask through the bung-hole. The
Revenue officers keep a running account of the quantity drawn off from the store
drum, from time to time, on a label attached to the drum.

After the addition of the denaturant, the Revenue officers must satisfy them-
selves that a thorough mixture of the spirit and denaturant is effected by stirring
with a wooden rod, or by roUing the cask about; and the denatured spirit is then
free from further Revenue control.

As the time at our disposal was limited, we did not wait to see the whole of the
twenty-eight casks denatured; but we were informed that the whole operation
would probably be completed in some three to four hours from its commencement.
We have already remarked on the expeditious manner in which the casks were
weighed; and we were also struck by the methodical and systematic way in which
the casks were arranged in rows, after weighing, for the subsequent operations.
A considerable saving of time is, of course, effected by not gauging the contents of
the casks; but in regard to the salient feature in which the operation we have
described differs from a methylation in this country, viz., the fact that the spirit
is denatured in the casks themselves, instead of being emptied into a vat and there
mixed with the denaturant, we were given to understand that this is not regarded
as saving an appreciable amount of time in the operation of denaturing. The
method has obvious advantages when it is intended to send out the denatured
spirit in cask; but we were not surprised to hear that, when the spirit is intended
for bottling, and especially when very large quantities are denatured at one time,
the methylator prefers to pump the spirit from the casks into a vat or tank and add
the denaturing mixture there.

Before leaving the premises, we paid a short visit to the bott ling-room, where a
staff of some twenty or thirty men and women, assisted by the latestlabour-saving
machinery, were engaged in washing, filling, labelling, and stoppering the bottles
in which the spirit is sent out for sale by retail. Each bottle contains one litre,
and the price at which it is sold is indicated on the label. This price is fixed from
time to time by the Centrale, and is at present forty pfennigs per htre. The present
price is, however, abnormally high. In ordinary times, we gathered that it ranges
from twenty to twenty-five pfennigs.

Section 4.

Pharmaceutical Products — Fine Chemicals,

As is well known, Germany has long enjoyed a pre-eminence in the manufacture
of the products classed generically as "fine" chemicals, in contradistinction tor
"heavy" chemicals such as the mineral acids, alkalis, bleaching powder, alum, etc.,
mainly inorganic substances, which hitherto have been the chief staple chemical
products of this country. Germany too has made almost exclusively the now

436 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

numerous pharmaceutical products, which are definite organic compounds, often
of complicated chemical constitution, largely obtained by synthetic processes and
which may be said to depend upon the industrial application of the laboratory
processes and methods of modern organic research.

As it is frequently alleged in this country that this pre-eminence is largely, if not
entirely, due to the facility and comparative cheapness with which ordinary alcohol,
both pure and suitably denatured, is obtained by chemical manufactures in Germany^
it was of great importance to our inquiry to obtain trustworthy first-hand informa-
tion on the subject.

We accordingly sohcited permission to visit the establishments of E. Mer. k in
Darmstadt, and of the Chemische Fabrik Auf Actien (Vorm, E. Schering) at Berlin,
selecting these as among the most representative and most comprehensive manu-
factories of these particular classes of products, and to have the opportunity of
conferring with those responsible for their direction and management. Both
factories have a world-wide reputation and have branch houses or agencies in
almost every country in both hemispheres.

Permission was readily granted in each case, and every facility was afforded to
us to acquire information on the special subject of our inquiry and to see operations
involving the use of alcohol, its custody and control, methods of denaturing, proc-
esses of recovery, Revenue checks, etc. We cannot too gratefully acknowledge
the courtesy with which we were received, the readiness with which such informa-
tion as we could reasonably ask for was given, and the freedom with which illustra-
tive or typical processes, some of them unique, were exhibited and explained.

Whilst at Berlin we were invited by Dr. Bottinger of the well-known Bayer
Company to visit the newly-erected factory at Leverkusen, but as we were at the
same time informed that they do not use or denature any spirit in Leverkusen, we
were reluctantly obliged, on account of the short time at our disposal, to decline
the opportunity of seeing what Professor Witt described as the best appointed works
of the kind in Germany.

At the Charlottenburg branch of the Chemische Fabrik Auf Actien (Vorm, E.
Schering), which we visited first, we were received by Dr. O. Antrick. By arrange-
ment with the company, we so timed our visit as to be able to witness a denaturing
operation on the large scale, having learned from Dr. Antrick that such an opera-
tion had been arranged for prior to our application.

The denaturant mainly in use in this factory is animal oil, which is mixed under
the direction of the Revenue officers, in the proportion required by the regulations.
The sample of the bone-oil used must be of the character officially prescribed. It is
received at the works under revenue seal, accompanied by a certificate of its validity
from a sworn chemist, recognised by the revenue authorities. The only other dena-
turant employed in this works is ether, which is admixed under the direction of the
Revenue officers to the extnet of 10 per cent. The ether employed must be certified
to be of the official character before addition.

All expenses of methylation, not only the cost of the denaturants themselves but
the fee for the chemists' analyses and certificates, as well as the charges for the
attendance of the officer, the cost of handling, mixing, pumping, etc., are borne by
the manufacturers, who are required to furnish the gauge glasses, standardised
hydrometers, weighing machines, mixing machines, mixing rods, office furniture,
in fact everything needed to carry out the process as prescribed, without charge to
the State.

12,000 hectolitres of alcohol are employed in the course of a year. The propor-
tion of ether alcohol to bone-oil alcohol used is roughly as 2 to 7. No duty-free
pure alcohol is allowed.

The denaturing operation we actually witnessed was with ether. The alcohol
as received was contained in sealed iron puncheons or drums, each of which, after
inspection of the validity of the seal, was weighed, the weighing machine being so
placed that the Revenue officers seated at a table, within the building in which
the alcohol was to be subsequently stored, could readily check the weights and
compare them with the particulars on the despatches. The strength of the alcohol
was then ascertained by the alcoholometer, the temperature noted, and the neces-
sary corrections made, as indicated in the official tables. After the officers had
verified the particulars, the alcohol was pumped or forced by compressed air into

APPENDIX. 437

the store-receivers, iron tanks of known capacity secured with locks and provided
with gauges; the calculated quantity of ether was then added and the mixture
thoroughly stirred by mechanical means. Formerly the admixture was made by a
stream of compressed air, but this led to so large a loss of ether by volatilisation
that mechanical stirring is now preferred. The room in which the various tanks
of denatured alcohol are contained is a specially constructed and well-arranged
building, and all precautions are taken to avoid any illicit use of the spirit. The
users of the alcohol are required to keep an account of successive withdrawals, and
each department and branch factory must also keep an account of receipt and
expenditure on a prescribed form. These accounts are from time to time examined
and verified by the Revenue officers, who record the dates of their visits and affix
their signatures.

The amount of clerical work needed, and the system of verification and control
in force, struck us as greater and more detailed than English users of alcohol under
the 1902 regulations have hitherto been subjected to. Dr. Antrick considered,
however, that in a works of the magnitude and character of Schering s, the system
was not too irksome, and they had little difficulty in complying with the official
requirements, although he admitted that in smaller works there were occasional
complaints of the rigour of the system. We had further an opportunity of witness-
ing operations in which the denatured spirit was employed and partially recovered,
and we saw the method of recovery and rectification of the alcohol in actual use.
We were also shown how the recovered alcohol was stored, brought to account, and
how the necessary re-denaturing was effected.

The factory of E. Merck, of Darmstadt, is now situated in new premises in the
Frankfurter Strasse, some distance outside the town. It is an old-established busi-
ness, and is under the direction of four grandsons of the original founder. It may
be said to have developed out of the old pharmacy of the same name in Darmstadt,
which has existed for nearly two centuries and which is still maintained by the firm.

The new works, which are still in process of being finished as regards approaches
and certain internal arrangements, are among the most complete and best appointed
o: their kind in the world. They consist of a number of detached and specially
planned factories, under individual control and with special staffs of caemists and
workmen, together occupying a very large area of ground, with convenient rail-
way access from Arheilgen on the Main-Neckar line. 1,200 workmen are employed
and 290 clerks and chemists. The firm deals in upwards of 6,000 products, 3,000
of which are made upon these premises. There are branch manufacturing estab-
lishments in Moscow and in New York. In the latter no preparation involving
the use of alcohol is made.

All the denaturants allowed by the regulations, including the special ones used
in the manufacture of iodoform, chloroform and ethyl bromide, are employed. The
official completely denatured alcohol, containing wood-naphtha and pyridine bases,
is used, but not for many purposes and only in small quantities. In all about 100,-
000 kilos of alcohol are denatured annually, in addition to which large quantities of
duty-paid spirit are used, over which there is no official control. The use of pure
alcohol without duty is not allowed. No precise estimate could be given, at the
time, of the number of the 3,000 products which needed alcohol, but two of the
partners, including the head of the actual factory management, agreed that it could
not exceed 20 per cent. The value of the alcohol used, as compared with the value
of the finished products, could not at once be ascertained; it, of course, varies largely
with the different products, but was probably not more than from 15 to 20 per cent.
Special methods are employed for removing the last traces of the denaturants from
the finished products, some of which were described to us. Owing to the number of
denaturants allowed no particular difficulty seems to occur in this respect, although
in sorne cases duty-paid alcohol must be employed. It may here be stated that the
princi-^le of ad hoc denaturation is not regarded with favour by the German Revenue
officials, and in many cases the privilege of employing it has been withdrawn.

We inspected the spirit stores and inquired into the methods of custody, control
and distribution of the duty-free alcohol, and we had also the opportunity of witness-
ing a denaturing operation. The method, in principle, was precisely similar to that
we had seen at Charlottenburg, although the arrangements for the convenience of
the Revenue officials were slightly different. These officers are required to attend

438 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

for denaturing about twice a week. The cost of attendance is about 6 marks per
officer per day — say 24 marks a week. Sometimes, however, a third officer is re-
quired. The cost of this attendance is considered of less consequence than the
trouble it involves. We were informed that the present price of Prima spirit is
•67 marks per 100 kilos ( = 2s. 2d. per bulk gallon), which does not include the vat
tax, but includes the distillery tax, which amounts to 7.16 marks per 100 kilos.
For purposes of rebate, a running account is kept and the payments are made about
every three months. No export business involving drawbacks on exportation is
done at Darmstadt.

We inspected some of the control books relating to alcohol in the separate fac-
tories. The superintending chemist in charge of each department is personally
responsible for the accuracy of the control book, and for the proper use of the spirit
served out to him.

As regards ether, we were informed that this article may not be retailed, except
when made from duty-paid spirit. A pharmacist may only receive it under permit,
and may not sell it for medicinal purposes, unless prescribed by a physician. This
procedure is adopted with a view of stopping the practice of drinking ether as an
intoxicant.

In hospitals, ether may, by special permission, be used duty free for ansRsthetical
purposes, and its use is also permitted, duty free, in the laboratories of those educa-
tional institutions which ar6 allowed to use duty-free alcohol.

After having had the advantage of discussing this aspect of the general question
with many persons well qualified to express an opinion, we have little doubt that the
pre-eminence of Germany, in these particular branches of applied chemistry, is due
to the same causes which have contributed to her success in the so-called coal tar
colour industry. Alcohol in that industry has played at most a very subordinate
part in its development, and although it is true that it rlays a relatively much
more important part in the manufacture of "fine" chemicals and of pharmaceutical
products, the extraordinary development in Germany, which has occurred during
the last fifteen or twenty years, in the discovery and utilisation in medicine of syn-
thetic organic substances, is primarily due to the influence of the schools of chem-
istry, to the ardour and success with which organic chemistry in its highest develop-
ments is cultivated, and to the skill, energy and resourcefulness with which it is
sought to turn the results of investigation to immediate practical account. The
same conditions which have led to tne synthesis and manufacture of alizarin and
indigo — two of the most important vegetable dyestuffs, but which, like the great
group of the azo colouring matters, require little or no alcohol for their production
■ — have equally led to the discovery and commercial production of the long list
of organic products of definite composition, but of complicated constitution, which
under a variety of names, more or less fanciful, find an application, more or less:
permanent, in therapeutics. It is easy to trace how the growth of such a business,
as that of Merck is the direct outcome of the extraordinary development of chem-
istry, due to the genius and influence of Liebig,W6hler,and Bunsen, and their con-
temporaries and immediate successors.

These men made Germany the nursery of chemists; their influence led to a great
extension of laboratories and of laboratory training, not only among the German
universities, but gradually in every academic centre throughout the world. The
elder Merck was quick to take advantage of his opportunity. A pharmacist of the
old school, who made the greater number of the products in which he dealt, and an
experienced operative chemist, well versed in all the chemical methods of his time,
he was ready to undertake the manufacture of the various reagents — the so-called
fine chemicals and the materials for research — which the rapidly multiplying labora-
tories in Germany needed.

Section 5.

Agricultural Distilleries; Marienfelde.

Finding that there was in the neighbourhood of Berlin an example of an agricul-
tural distillery, we took advantage of the opportunity and paid a visit to it.

It was situated at Marienfelde, some ten miles to the south of Berlin, on a large

APPENDIX. - 439

and apparently very flourishing farm. The distillery was at work, and we were
enabled therefore to study the system in operation.

The procedure is as follows:

The potatoes (which must be produced on the land of the proprietor) are first
washed by machinery. They are then steamed and pulped, and driven through a
strainer into the masn-tun where they are mixed with a small percentage of malt.
The wort is then passed into the fermenting vats. Each vat is gauged, and its con-
tent marked on the outside, together with the number of the vat. The wash is
left to ferment for thirty hours, and is then conveyed to the still, which is of the
patent-still type. On issuing from the condenser the spirit passes first through a
domed glass case in which is a cup. In this cup, into which the spirit flows and
from which it overflows, there float a thermometer and a hydrometer, to indicate
the strength of the spirit passing. From this apparatus the spirit flows into a
(Siemens) meter, fltted with an indicator which records the quantity, reduced to
the standard of pure alcohol, of spirit transmitted, and from the meter the spirit
passes on to the receiver.

The system of control does not require the continuous attendance of Excise
officers, but is compounded of —

(1) Mechanical contrivances,

(2) Book entries,

(3) Liability to visitation at any time.

(1) Mechanical Contrivances.

Up to the point at which the wash passes into the still, these are limited to the
gauging of the vats and to the plumbing under Revenue seal of all joints of the
pipes leading from the vats to the still. From that point onwards to the receiver
every vessel is locked and sealed, and no access to the spirit can be obtained by
the distiller. As the manager expressed it to us, "Up to this point I am treated as
an honest man. Afterwards I am no longer trusted."

In the smaller distilleries the meter, which no doubt is an exnensive apparatus,
is dispensed with, and the quantity of spirit distilled is ascertained by the Excise
officer from the receiver. Whether there be a meter or not, the receiver is of course
under lock, and is not accessible to the distiller.

(2) Book Entries.

The regulations require entry of the quantity of materials used. But we under-
stood that this was regarded as of little practical value, and that little attention was
paid to such records. It is manifest that they cannot be susceptible of any real
check.

The important entries are those of the times of chaining and discharging the
several fermenting vats, and of the quantities of wash in each. These entries can
of course be checked against the spirit found in the receiver, and on them is com-
puted the vat -tax and thcdistillery tax, which have to be paid by the distiller.

(3) Liability to Visitation.

It will be seen that the control under (1) and (2) provides no security against
abstraction of wash from the fermenting vats. Visitation at frequent and uncertain
intervals would seem to be an essential feature of the system, and we gathered that
at Marie nfelde the visits of Excise officers were even unpleasantly frequent. Whether
they are so in more remote distilleries may be open to doubt.

In any case we are of opinion that the system of control rests so heavily upon
confidence that, while it may be satisfactory with a low duty on spirits and with a
system of rebates of duty that makes the Excise a source of profit to the smaller
distiller, it could not safely be adopted where the duty is as high as it is in the United
Kingdom and invariable in its incidence.

The distillery at Marienfelde is one of the best and largest type of argicultural
distilleries. Its "contingent" is 600 hectolitres per annum, or about 23,000 proof

440 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

gallons of spirit. Out of the total number of agricultural distilleries in the German
Empire there are not more than some 2,000 or 3,000 of similar size and character.

The vast majority of the agricultural distilleries are to be found in the eastern
provinces of Prussia and Saxony, where the soil is poor, and the cost of conveying
agricultural produce to a remunerative market is high; and it is not quite clear to
us how it can be commercially profitable on a fertile farm close to Berlin to convert
potatoes into spirit. The manager informed us that in the present year, even with
the abnormally high price of spirit, he would realise on his potatoes used for distilla-
tion no more than from £2 to £2 5s. per ton, whereas if sold for consumption as
potatoes, they would realise some £4 per ton. He was, however, compelled to use
them in the distillery, in order to maintain his "contingent," which might be reduced
if he should fail in any season to reach his prescribed production of 600 hectolitres.
Moreover we doubt whether the above figure of return on the potatoes included the
bonus of 20 marks (£1) per hectolitre on the amount of the contingent. This would
be equal to more than another £1 per ton for the potatoes used.

We think the explanation of the maintenance of this distillery is that it is kept
up to some extent as a convenient object lesson in the neighbourhood of Berlin, for
the instruction of Excise officers, and to illustrate the teaching at the Institut fiir
Gahrungsgewerbe und Starke-fabrikation in Berlin, an institution established by
the trades, with assistance from the Government, for the purpose of giving instruc-
tion in brewing, distilling, and other processes in which fermentation is employed.

We were informed that in normal years the return from potatoes used in the
agricultural distilleries does not exceed some 25s. per ton (exclusive presumably of
bonuses), and in many cases is less. The average is about 20s. per ton.

The yield of alcohol from a ton of potatoes may be taken at about 25 gallons of
pure alcohol, or about 44 proof gallons.

Section 6.
Vinegar Factory.

We visited a large establishment in Berlin for the manufacture of vinegar from
alcohol, one of several worked by the same proprietors (Messrs. Kiihne) in different
parts of the Empire.

The process is exceedingly simple. The spirit, after the account has been taken
in the usual way by the Excise officers, is poured, together with the prescribed
quantities of vinegar and water, through a scupper in the pavement of the receiving
floor into tanks in the basement. From these the mixture is pumped up to the top-
most floor of a high building, whence it percolates down through a series of vats,
floor by floor, filled with wood shavings and containing the food for the organisms
which effect the conversion, and arranged so as to secure the maximum of exposure
of the liquid to the air. The liquid finally returns to the basement in the form of
the finished product (vinegar), the whole circuit occupying not more than three or
four hours.

The quantity of vinegar produced of the strength of 7 per cent, of acetic acid
is about 10 times the quantity of alcohol used.

There is a loss of some 30 per cent, of the alcohol by evaporation.

In this industry the control over the spirit employed is less exacting than in the
case of any other industry in Germany. From the time when the spirit is denatured
no further control is exercised over it. No books have to be kept to show how it
has been disposed of, or what the yield of vinegar has been; nor is there any regular
visitation of the manufacturing premises by the Excise officers. The one and only
regulation imposed for the protection of the Revenue is a prohibition against keej)-
ing a still on the premises. It is true that the condition of the denatured spirit is
such that there need be no apprehension of its being drunk on the premises or with-
out purification. But even so, the system of control seems dangerously confiding,
and the authorities of the Treasury frankly admitted that it could not be justified
in principle.

The Government, however, have been reluctant to disturb it; partly because it
is of long standing, and is not believed to lead to abuse in practice, but principally

APPENDIX. 441

because this process of vinegar making can even now with difficulty hold its own
against the process of manufacture from pyroHgneous acid, and because it is feared
that any curtailment of the present privileges of the industry would seriously en-
danger its very existence.

It is, however, felt that if at any time the duty on spirits should be raised in
Germany it would be hardly possible to maintain the present system of control
without modification.

In these circumstances it seems highly improbable that the process, which is at
present not practised in the United Kingdom, could with advantage be introduced
into this country.

The quantity of spirit used for the manufacture of vinegar in the German Empire
was, for the year 1903, over 6,000,000 proof gallons.

The quantity used in the factory we visited is about 150,000 proof gallons.

Section 7.
A German Methylating Factory: Fiirstenwalde.

Much, if not the greater portion, of the partially denatured spirit used by German
manufacturers is denatured in the works in which it is actually employed, and this
is invariably the case where the volume of spirit handled is large. Owing, how-
ever, to the fact that the freight -charges on pure alcohol are higher than on the
denatured spirit — a difference which the German chemical manufacturers are strug-
gling to remove — and to other circumstances, arrangements are made whereby
manufacturers requiring only a relatively small quantity of denatured spirit, either
complete or partial, may obtain it from professed methylators, working under
Revenue supervision.

At the suggestion of Dr. Koreuber and Dr. von Buchka, who were kind enough
to accompany us, we visited such an establishment at Fiirstenwalde, a town on the
Spree, about thirty miles south-east of Berlin, and within easy railway communica-
tion of the district of Posen where much of the agricultural spirit is made.

We were received by the proprietors of the establishment, Drs. B. Hecker and
W. Zeidler, one of whom made up for us, in turn, every form of denatured alcohol
which the regulations permitted the firm to prepare. The origin, character and
sources of supply of each denaturant were described to us, and samples of the various
articles, officially certified to be in conformity with the prescribed nature, were shown
to us.

The wood-naphtha used for denaturing contains much less methyl alcohol than
is customary in this country; as a nile, the quantity does not exceed 55 per cent.
On the other hand, the regulations prescribed that it must contain at least 25 per
cent, of acetone — a relatively expensive substance, probably not so useful as an
indicative or ''earmarking" material as methyl alcohol, and, as we are given to
understand, somewhat prejudicial to the use of wood-naphtha and of methylated
spirit in certain manufacturing operations.

The "pyridine bases" employed come lai^ely from England, although other
sources of supply are available. The price, owing to the increasing demand for
these substances as the raw material for the manufacture of a number of special
products, has risen considerably of late, and although used in only relatively small
quantity, and for the most part in connection with the completely denatured spirit
intended for heating, lighting and power, this increase in price is beginning to be
felt. Considering the comparatively high prices of spirit in Germany at the present
time, and the consequent restriction in the demand for general or household purposes,
which is by far the largest outlet for industrial spirit in that country, any cheapen-
ing of the cost of denaturing becomes a matter for serious consideration.

The addition of lavender or rosemary oil, which is optional, and to the extent of
0.125 per cent., to the completely denatured spirit is seldom made, except for special
purposes, as in soap-making. This addition was originally suggested to meet a
possible popular prejudice against the use of denatured spirit in households, owing
to the pungent smell of the pyridine bases. The prejudice, if it ever existed, appar-
ently no longer obtains, although it must be stated that the German methylated
spirit is far more disagreeable, as regards smell, than that in common use in England.

442 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The Fiirstenwalde Works mix considerable quantities of the general denaturant
— that is the mixture of four parts of wood-naphtlia and one part of pyridine bases
— and which as already stated is added to the spirit in the proportion of 2 J litres
to every 100 litres of alcohol. The volume of the mixed denaturant made per
annum is at present 800,000 litres — which is about one-third of the whole made in
Germany.

We saw the operation of preparing the mixture. The wood-naphtha was received
in iron drums, the tare of which is known. It is examined and certified as to cliar-
acter. The weight of the wood spirit having been ascertained, by the arrange-
ments and in the manner already described, the requisite proportion of authenti-
cated pyridme base contained in carboys is calculated, and that amount is weighed
out. The wood-naphtha is then poured into a tank, and forced by air pressure
into the receiver, after which the "pyridine base" is added.

The denaturing solutiop is distributed in drums, sealed by the Revenue author-
ities and bearing labels certifying that the mixture is in accordance with law. The
drums when received by the consignee can only be unsealed by a Revenue Officer. A
running account is then kept on an attached label on each drum of the successive
quantities withdrawn for denaturing purposes.

Section 8.
Artificial Silk Factory.

By the courtesy of Dr. Bottler, whom we met in Berlin, and who is managing
director of an artificial silk factory at Jiilich, near Cologne, we were enabled to pay
a visit to that establishment.

In the process followed in this case alcohol plays a very important part, seeing
that something like a gallon and a half of proof spirit is required, either in the form
of ether or of spirit, to produce 1 lb. of the finished product.

The process is as follows:

Nitro-cellulose is dissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol, consisting of sixty
parts of ether and forty of alcohol, and the solution thus obtained, which is in effect
collodion, is after filtration driven under pressure, until it finally emerges, through
a number of fine glass tubes. On contact with the air the solution solidifies and
the threads thus formed are picked up on bobbins, sixteen of the primary threads
being immediately twisted into a single thread which becomes the unit for further
operations.

The ether used in the factory is purchased from outside, not manufactured on
the spot.

The alcohol comes in under Excise seal in the usual way, and is denatured in
accordance with the regulations by being mixed with 10 per cent, of ether. The
denaturing is carried out in the presence of the Revenue officers and under their
supervision. The denatured spirit is stored in a metal tank, under Revenue lock
and fitted with an indicator outside showing the quantity present in it.

Copper-zinc vessels are used, in preference to iron, to avoid injury to the ethered
alcohol from corrosion.

From the tank the denatured spirit, when required for use, passes through closed
pipes to the vessel in which the nitro-cellulose is dissolved — the additional ether
required being added at this point. While in the dissolving chamber the spirit is
not accessible to the workmen employed in the factory; and speaking generally
we should say that the conditions of this manufacture lend themselves to the estab-
hshment, without much cost or difficulty, of an effective control over the spirit
employed.

We may mention that Dr. Bottler informed us that very great difficulties had
been met with in perfecting the process of manufacture, and that although the
factory had been in operation for over two years, it was only within the ten days
preceding our visit that he was able to feel confident that all the difficulties had been
overcome. Into those difficulties the obligations in respect of denaturing did not
enter, and the experience of this factory is sufficient to show that the embarrass-
ments which attended a similar experiment made some years ago at Coventry,

APPENDIX. 443

and which were there attributed to the character of the methylated spirit that the
promoters were compelled to use, may arise from more causes than one.

Section 9.
Production and Price of Spirit in Germany.

The production of spirit in Germany is a State-aided enterprise, of which the
primary purpose is not so much the production of spirit on economic lines as the
encouragement of agriculture in the less fertile provinces of the Empire, which lie
on its Eastern frontiers, and in which the conditions of soil and climate are so unfa-
vorable that without some such encouragement the country would be in serious dan-
ger of depopulation.

To enter into the history and details of the system, interesting though they be,
would be to go beyond the province of our inquiry. We shall, therefore, confine
our attention as closely as we can to the two points which are of interest^ to our
Committee, viz.: the effect of the system on the price of spirit for industrial pur-
poses and its effect upon the price of spirit for export.

The system is essentially communistic in character, and its effects can be better
seen by studying its results broadly and as a whole, rather than by attempting to
trace its influence upon the interests of individuals.

Looking at it from this point of view, it may be said that the fundamental prin-
ciple of the scheme is to make those interested in the production of alcohol sharers
with the State in the revenue collected on spirit used for potable purposes.

Thus in the year ended on 30th September, 1903, there was collected from the
taxes on spirit a total sum of £10,000,000, out of which a sum of £3,100,000 was
given back to persons interested in the trade. But of this sum of £3,100,000 appar-
ently some £700,000 had been already levied as tax on the producers, so that their
net subvention would be £2,400,000. In the same year the total production of
spirit in Grermany was in round figures £132,000,000 proof gallons, and accordingly
the State subvention in that year represented a bonus of nearly 4id. per proof gallon
on all the spirit produced. The figures must, of course, vary from year to year,
according to the circumstances of production and consumption; but probably not
very widely.

The question for us is whether this bounty, be it A^d. per gallon or more or less,
is retained by the producers or distributors, or whether it goes, in whole or in part,
to cheapen spirit to the consumers.

Our conclusion is that as a rule it is retained by the producers in respect of all
• spirit consumed in Germany, and that only under certain circumstances do the
German users of spirit secure share in it.

We will endeavour shortly to give the grounds on which we form this conclusion.

The system of subvention, as established in Germany, stimulates production, but
at the same time it provides within itself an arrest of the stimulus after a certain
measure of production has been reached. For the maximum bounty that can be
secured in respect of any spirit, and which may be put at about lid. per proof gallon,
is obtainable only in respect of a certain limited output, called the Contingent. The
total of such output is the equivalent of the amount of spirit estimated to be required
for consumption as drink; — and therefore of the amount of spirit on which alone
tax will be ultimately levied ; and the Contingent of each distiller is the share annually
alloted to him of such amount. On that share it is possible, in favourable circum-
stances, for a distiller to obtain the maximum bounty of lid. the proof gallon.
But as soon as his production exceeds this allotted Contingent, one portion of the
bounty, representing about 6d. per proof gallon, automatically ceases, and on the
excess production the distiller can at most obtain 5d. per proof gallon.' Only the
smallest distilleries can obtain the maximum bounty of this Icind; and as a distillery
increases in size and output the bounty diminishes until with the lai^er distilleries
it becomes non-existent. Thus the system of subvention gradually ceases to oper-
ate as a stimulant to production, and it may perhaps be said that the system gives
no encouragement to produce more than such an amount of spirit as is sufficient to
satisfy the demand for consumption for all purposes within the protected German
market, and to provide a moderate margin for stock.

444 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

The distribution of spirit produced in the German Empire is practically a mon : poly
of an association called the Centrale fiir Spiritus Verwerthung, which is representa-
tive of the producers of spirit, and which acts as intermediary between them and
the consumers for 90 per cent, of all the spirit produced. The policy of this Asso-
ciation coincides with the Governmental policy in tending to restriction of produc-
tion within the limits above indicated, and in so far as this policy is successful it is
clear that, with practically prohibitive duties on the importation of spirit, the user
of spirit in Germany is not likely to be able to secure for himself any portion of the
benefit of the State bounties. He may only do so to a limited extent, when the
general policy of the State and of the Association is defeated by unforeseen varia-
tions either in the supply or in the demand of any period.

With the spirit exported the case is somewhat different. For this must fre-
quently represent a surplus, of which the Association desires to relieve the home
market; and it may be assumed with some confidence that, in order to get rid of
such surplus, a price is in the circumstances usually accepted which represents a
transfer to the purchaser of a part, or even of the whole, of the State bounty.

Another feature of the system in its bearing upon the price of spirit to German
users is this, that it tends to great fluctuations of price. For the general principle
of the system being to limit production relatively to home consumption, no safe-
guard is provided against the contingency that has arisen this year of a shortage
in production due to a failure of that which provides four-fifths of the material
used in distilling, viz.: the potato crop.

Thus our conclusion is that the German user of spirit is not generally benefitted
by the State aid given to the production of spirit, and at times is injured by it.

The evidence of facts seems to support these theoretical deductions. At the
present moment, as we were informed by a large user of spirit, the price charged
for spirit of the first quality, such as is necessary for the finer purposes for which
spirit is used, is, free of all duty, 50 marks per hectolitre — at the German standard
of pure alcohol. At the British standard of proof spirit this is approximately equal
to 50s. per 38 proof gallons, or a little over Is. 3Jd. per proof gallon. The price of
similar spirit of British manufacture in the United Kingdom is about lOd. per proof
gallon. Three years ago the minimum price for such spirit was in Germany 7d.
per proof gallon, and the average price for the year 1902 was 8^d. In the United
Kingdom the price of British spirit was the same as now. The year 1902 was,
however, altogether an exceptional year in Germany, and manufacturers have
little expectation of seeing similar prices recur, unless, as one gentleman put it to us,
the Centrale Association should be dissolved and competition between producers
introduced.

Moreover, in 1902 the Centrale was pursuing the policy of endeavouring to
cheapen spirit for industrial purposes by charging higher prices for spirit used for
consumption as drink, and lower for industrial spirit. This policy has, however,
broken down, in consequence, we surmise, of a tendency noticeable in Germany^
as it is in this country, to a decrease in consumption of spirituous liquors. In conse-
quence of contracts made for long terms of years, the policy is still in operation in
respect of spirit used for industrial locomotives and other engines. But as the
contracts expire, it is anticipated that the pohcy will be modified, if not abandoned,
even in this category of consumption.

It will be seen from the above figures that at the present time the price of indus-
trial spirit in Germany is substantially higher than it is in the United Kingdom;
that the price is subject to violent fluctuations; and that although at times it has
been, and probably will again be, appreciably below the British price, it is doubtful
whether its normal level in future will show any very material advantage to the
German user.

As regards the cost of denaturing by special agents, it is hardly possible to name
an average figure. In all cases the cost of manipulation, of attendance of Excise
officers, of vessels and instruments, has to be borne by the manufacturer, and one
manufacturer estimated these for us as at least 2 marks per hectolitre, or about
Id. per bulk gallon of strong spirit. In addition the"e is the cost of the denaturing
agent, which varies very much according to the substance used. Our informant
estimated that in his case the average of the w^hole cost of denaturing might be taken
at 7 marks per hectolitre of strong spirit, or almost 4d. per bulk gallon. We are

APPENDIX. 445

inclined to think this too high an estimate, seeing that the cost of "complete"
denaturing is definitely known to be only a little more than Id. the bulk gallon.
In that case, however, there is all the economy that results from simplicity, regu-
larity and magnitude in the operations.

A question that pressed itself strongly upon our attention, during our visit to
Germany, was how far the consumption of spirit for domestic and industrial pur-
poses in that country could be taken as a measure of the possible consumption for
similar purposes in the United Kingdom, and we think it may be useful that we should
offer to the Committee some observations upon it.

In the year to 30th September, 1903, the consumption in Germany was —

Proof gallons.

For domestic use (about) 33,900,000

For motor and other engines 1,100,000

For industrial purposes 14,000,000

Total 49,000,000

In the year to 31st March, 1903, the consumption in the United Kingdom for
similar purposes was — ^

Proof gallons.

For domestic use (about) 2,200,000

For industrial use 3,300,000

Total 5,500,000

At first sight these figures suggest somewhat startling possibilities. But, if the
facts be examined, it will be found that the possibilities of extended use of spirit
in England shrink to very moderate dimensions.

In the first place the large consumption of spirit in Germany for domestic pur-
poses, for heating, cooking and lighting, is due not to the absolute cheapness of
spirit, or to any special advantage that it possesses as an agent for producing heat
and light, but is due solely to its cheapness as compared with other agents, coal,
gas or oil.

Of these oil is the agent that most directly competes with spirit, and in Germany
oil, in the interests of alcohol, is subjected to a duty of 3 marks per cwt., or near.y
2Jd. per gallon. In the United Kingdom its importation is free — consequently the
comparison stands thus:

Price of Methylated Petroleum.

Spirit per bulk gallon. per gallon.

In Germany Is. Od. ( normal) lOJd.

Is, 9id. (present)

In the United Kingdom 2s. to 2s. 6d. 5d. to 7d.

The price given above for petroleum in Germany is the price in Berlin, and there
it is cheaper than spirit. Consequently in Berlin spirit, which has to compete with
gas as well as with oil, is very Httle used for domestic purposes; probably not more
so than in this country. In the rural districts oil is probably dearer than in BerUn,
and more difficult to procure, whereas methylated spirit is of universal distribution
— (it enjoys preferential railway rates) — and of uniform price, and it is therefore
in these rural regions that the main consumption takes place. In the United King-
dom with cheap gas and cheap oil, no conceivable reduction in the price of methy-
lated spirit would make spirit able to compete with them in price, and price must
always be the determining motive of choice for the mass of the people. For though
spirit has certain advantages in directions other than price, they are not of any
marked significance in themselves, nor are they of a character to appeal very power-
fully to the masses.

Accordingly we may dismiss almost entirely the use of spirit for domestic purposes
as offering an opening for expansion in the demand for spirit in the United Kingdom.

With spirit for industrial purposes the case is different. But even here a large
abatement must be made from the German figures before they can be taken as a

446 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

possible measure of British consumption. Of the 14,000,000 proof gallons used
in 1902-3, 6,350,000 gal'ons were employed for a purpose, vinegar-making, which,
as we show elsewhere, is not present, or likely to be present in the United Kingdom.
Another 2,650,000 gallons is used for polishes, varnishes, etc., an industry which in
this country enjoys somewhat special advantages and which may be supposed to
have reached a pretty full measure of development, under which it employs some
1,800,000 gallons of spirit.

This leaves some 5,000,000 proof gallons used in Germany for miscellaneous
industrial purposes, for which in this country we use some 1,500,000 proof gallons.

On these figures one may say that the increased demand that might arise for
spirit in this country, in consequence of an extension in its use for industrial pur-
poses, may safely be placed at less than 3,500,000 proof gallons.

H. W. Primrose,
T. E. Thorpe.
E. C. Cunningham, Secretary.
27th February, 1905.

APPENDICES FROM MINUTES OF EVIDENCE TAKEN BEFORE
THE BRITISH DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON INDUS-
TRIAL ALCOHOL, PRESENTED TO BOTH HOUSES OF PAR-
LIAMENT BY COMMAND OF HIS MAJESTY.

Appendix No. I.

DUTIES AND ALLOWANCES ON BRITISH SPIRITS AND DUTIES
ON FOREIGN SPIRITS.

The duty (Excise) on British spirits is at present lis. per gallon at proof.

When British spirits are exported (or used for certain operations in bond),
not only is the duty of lis. remitted, but an allowance also is paid by the Inland
Revenue at the rate of 3d. per proof gallon on plain spirits and of 5d. per ptoof
gallon on compounded spirits.

These allowances are commonly spoken of as the "allowances on British
cpirits."

The duty (Customs) on Foreign Spirit is at present —

On Brandy and Rum lis. 4d. per proof gallon,
On other sorts lis. 5d. per proof gallon,

(with certain special rates for liqueurs and performed spirits and for
spirits imported in bottle).

The difference (4d. or 5d. as the case may be) between the duty on British
spirits and that on Foreign spirits is commonly spoken of as "the Surtax on Foreign
spirits," or more briefly as "the Surtax."

Both the Allowances and the Surtax which date from 1860 (when the old pro-
tective duties were done away with) aim at the same purpose, which is, not to
put the British producer of spirits in a position of advantage as compared with
his foreign or colonial competitor, but to save him from being placed in a position
of disadvantage.

In imposing a heavy duty on British spirits, it is necessary at the same time
to impose on their manufacture restraints designed to prevent any spirit from
escaping the duty. These restraints have the effect of appreciably increasing
the cost of manufacture; and in consequence the burden of the duty on the British
producer of spirit is not adequately measured by the figure of the duty alone,
but must be measured by that figure plus the figure by which the cost of manu-
facture is increased by the Excise restrictions.

Accordingly if we take x pence per proof gallon for this latter figure, and lis.
per proof gallon as the duty on British spirit, the full burden of the tax on the
producer of British spirit per proof gallon is represented by the expression
(Us. + xd.).

It follows that, when the producer of British spirits sends out his goods to
compete in neutral markets, he is entitled to relief to the extent of lls. + x d. and
not of lis. only per proof gallon; and conversely that foreign goods should not
\)Q admitted to the home market at a less charge than lls. + x d. per proof gallon.

The values of z have varied from time to time according to the following table.

447

448

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Surtax.

Allowances.

Rum.

Brandy.

Other Sorts.

Plain Spirits.

Compounded

Spirits.

From 1860

2d.
4d.
4d.

5d.
4d.
4d.

5d.
4d.
5d.

2d.
2d.
3d.

3d.
4d.
5d.

** 1881

*' 1902

The determination of values for x is a matter of extreme difficulty. To arrive
at it, it is necessary to take into account —

(a) The tax, if any, on materials of manufacture;

(6) The effect of Excise restrictions on the cost of manufacture.

At the present time (a) is a negligible quantity. For, although there is a tax
on sugar and glucose, these materials enter into distillation of spirits to so small
an extent that the tax may be left out of acconut. Molasses used for distilling
is duty free.

As regards (b), the Excise restrictions that do, or may, affect the cost of manu-
facture are numerous, but the principal among them are the following:

(1) The prohibition against brewing or distilling simultaneously;

(2) The prohibition against mixing worts during fermentation;

(3) Compulsory stoppage of work between Saturday and Monday;

(4) Restrictions on the manufacture of yeast;

(5) Separation of distillery and rectifying premises and loss of duty on

spirits rectified.
(No. 5 hardly affects the cost of manufacture of "plain spirits.")

From this enumeration of the factors which have to be taken into account,
it will be obvious that anything like precise accuracy in fixing values for x is un-
attainable.

The manner in which the rates of Surtax were originally computed in 1860
is shown in the table on page 445, which was first published in the Board of Inland
Revenue's Thirteenth Report (1870), and which in the literature of the subject
has since been frequently reproduced.

In the period that has elapsed since 1860 appreciable changes have taken
place in the conditions of manufacture of spirit and in the rate of duty on spirit,
and a computation to-day of the figures at which the rates of Surtax should stand
would be based on items and on values that would dift'er materially from those
shown in the original table. Of the composition of the rates as they now stand
there is no accepted or authoritative analysis, and all that can be said of them
is that they represent the outcome, by way of compromise, of prolonged con-
troversy renewed at frequent intervals, as occasion for question presented itself,
during a period extending over more than forty years.

It may, however, be convenient to say a few words as regards the increase
by Id. of the Allowances and of the Surtax on Spirits other than Rum and Brandy,
which was made in 1902 at the time when the duty on corn was re-imposed. For
the retention of the increase, notwithstanding the repeal of the corn duties in
1903, has been a frequent subject of criticism.

The imposition of the corn duties was the occasion rather than the cause of
the addition to the Allowances and the Surtax.

For, taken by themselves, it was calculated that the duties, as first proposed,
would not have warranted a larger addition than j% of a penny, nor, as finally
passed, with a reduced duty on maize, a larger addition than y^^ of a penny.

APPENDIX.

449

1886.

Amount Claimed

Amount

Allowed

1860.

1866.
Considered Admissi-
ble by this
Department.

Scotch
Distillers.

English
Distillers.

For Un-
coloured
Spirits.

For
Coloured
Spirits.

1st. — Compensation for duty on
Foreign grain

2nd. — Prohibition against brewing
and distilling at same time

3rd. — Against distillers mixing wort
in separate vessels while
in process of fermentation

4th. — Loss of duty on rectification
and flavouring spirits in
separate premises

5th. — Colouring matter in Foreign
spirits

01
H

OiJ

d.
01

3
2

oi
1

2
Nil

Nil

2i
Nil

Nil
Nil

d.
01

6th. — ^Increased expense in making
malt consequent on Ex-
cise restrictions

7th. — Difference in mode of charg-
ing duty in favour of For-
eign spirits

8th. — Duty evaded upon Foreign
spirits, and by samples
drawn in bond

Nil

But for some years prior to 1902 the distillers had been urging on the Treasury
and the Board of Inland Revenue that the old rates of Allowance and of Surtax
were insufficient (notably on the occasion when in March, 1898, a deputation
representing the whole trade waited on the then Chancellor of the Exchequer)
and the expert officers of the Excise had admitted that they could not dispute
the arguments in favour of some increase in the rates.

What the amount of increase should be was a matter more difficult to deter-
mine, and it was still in question when the revival of the corn duties took place.

That event made action imperative, and an additional penny was agreed to
— the addition, however, not to extend to Brandy or Rum, which are not made
from grain.

When the duties were repealed in 1903 the question arose as to an adjustment
of the rates of Allowance and Surtax. But as the adjustment could not have
exceeded -^^ of a penny, and as the composition of the remainder of the rates
was far from precise, it was decided that no change should be made.

450 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Appendix No. II.

A. REGULATIONS AS REGARDS USE OF SPIRIT FOR INDUS-
TRIAL, ETC., PURPOSES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

The Customs and Excise Taxes on Spirits are:

Customs — lis. 4d. per proof gallon on Rum and Brandy.

lis. 5d. '' " " ^' other Spirits.
Excise — lis. per proof gallon.

DUTY-FREE SPIRIT.

I. Methylated Spirit.

There are two kinds of methylated spirit.

A. "Ordinary'^ Methylated Spirit for use in manufacturing operations.

This consists of a mixture of 90 parts of ordinary ethylic alcohol of a strength
of 60 to 66 o.p. {i.e. containing from 91 to 95 percent, of real alcohol) and 10 parts
of wood-naphtha of an approved type.

The official regulations do not require the British or Foreign spirit used to be
of a greater strength than 50 o.p. (86 per cent, alcohol), and Colonial rum of a
strength of only 20 o.p. (69 percent, alcohol) may be used; but in practice rum is
now never naethylated, and the spirit is always over 60 o.p. (91 per cent, alcohol).

No duty is paid on British spirits used for making methylated spirit, and Foreign
and Colonial spirits are exempt from the ordinary spirit tax of lis. per proof
gallon; but Foreign spirits have to pay a Customs surtax of 5d. per proof gallon,
equivalent to about 8d. per gallon on the spirit as actually methylated. Ihe
surtax on Colonial rum is 4d. per proof gallon, equivalent to about 6^d. per gallon
at 60 o.p., or less than 5d. per gallon, if rum of 20 o.p. were used for methylating.

Methylated spirit can only be made by —

1. Distillers.

2. Rectifiers, i.e., persons who redistil duty-paid spirit.

3. Licensed methylators.

In practice methylated spirit is, as a rule, made by methylators, who pay an
annual license of £10 10s.

All methylators have to provide suitable mixing rooms, vats, locks, fastenings,
and appliances for weighing, measuring, and mixing the spirits and wood-naphtha'
and the necessary desks for the convenience of the Revenue oflScials who supervise
the operations. Mixing vats must be of a capacity of 550 gallons, and wood-
naphtha vats of 100 gallons.

Spirits for methylation come from Customs or Excise duty-free warehouse
accompanied by official permits, and are received by a Supervisor and Officer of
Inland Revenue, who examine and check the strength and quantity, and see the
sDirits run into the mixing vats. To the spirit in each vat is then added one-
ninth of its bulk of approved wood-naphtha. The contents of the vat have to
be thoroughly mixed, and the total quantity and strength again measured by
the officials. An official entry of these particulars is made, and the vat and its
contents are then handed over to the methylator for disposal in accordance with
prescribed regulations. Not less than 500 gallons of methylated spirit must be
made at each mixing.

The wood-naphtha used for mixing with the spirit must be approved by the
Board of Inland Revenue before it is used. For this purpose a sample is drawn
from the naphtha vat and sent to the Government Laboratory for examina-
tion, the vat itself being locked up by the Revenue officer until the Prin-
cipal of the Government Laboratory has certified that the naphtha is fit for
methylatinq; purposes. The nature of the examination to which the naphtha is
submitted is described below, page 452, and from this the character of the wood-
naphtha used for methylating purposes in this country can be gathered.

APPENDIX. 451

"Ordinary" or manufacturing methylated spirit can be sold by methylators:
only to persons authorised by the Board of Inland Revenue to receive this kind
of spirit.

A user of this spirit must send to the methylator an official requisition signed
by himself, and on which there is a certificate signed by the local Supervisor of
Inland Revenue that the applicant is authorised to receive such spirit. Less
quantities than five gallons cannot be supplied. The methylator has to enter
the particulars of every consignment in an official permit taken from a book sup-
plied to him by the Supervisor, and this permit must accompany the spirit to
the premises of the user, and be delivered to the Officer of Inland Revenue when
he visits the premises.

When any person wishes to use methylated spirit in any manufacturing process,
or for making embrocations, lotions, medicaments or other preparations, written
application has to be made to the Board of Inland Revenue. The particular purpose
for which the spirit is intended to be used, with some general description of any
manufacturing process involved, has to be given, and also a statement of the
situation of the premises and of the quantity of spirit likely to be used annually.

After inquiry by the local officials the Board issue their authority for the use
of the spirit, and instruct their officers to supply the applicant with a book of
Requisition Forms, in order to enable him to obtain a supply of the spirit from
a methylator.

Where the quantity of methylated spirit used exceeds 50 gallons per annum
a bond, with one or more sureties in sums of £200 to £1,000, for the due observ-
ance of any conditions that may be imposed and the proper use of the spirit, is
required. Hospitals, infirmaries, colleges, and other public institutions are not
usually required to give a bond.

Methylated spirit is not allowed to be used for manufacturing purposes on
any premises where ordinary alcoholic beverages are made or sold, nor for the
preparation of any article of food or drink, or to be mixed with any medicine
capable of being taken internally. With these exceptions methylated spirit may
be used in almost any art or manufacture, and is, as a fact, used for a very great
variety of manufacturing and technical purposes. For medicinal and pharma-
ceutical purposes, for instance, the use of methylated spirit has been sanctioned
for the extraction, crystallisation and purification of nearly 500 resins, oils, alka-
loids, synthetical perfumes and other substances where the finished products con-
tain none of the spirit ; for making several hundred embrocations, lotions, liniments,
and other medicines for outward application; for most veterinary medicines; and
for making collodion, flexible collodion, surgical bandages, iodoform, chloroform,
ethyl and methyl chloride and bromide, and other articles used in surgery and
medicine.

As a rule the conditions imposed on the users of methylated spirit are very
simple, and interfere very little, if at all, with the manufacturing operations. It
must not be removed from the premises where its use has been allowed, and the
manufacturing operations have to be carried on substantially in the method de-
scribed in the application. Any material alteration of the process, or those por-
tions of it where the spirit is used, has to be notified to the Revenue officials, and
the Board's sanction obtained for the change, but this is merely for the infor-
mation of the inspecting officers, and permission for any desired alteration is.
rarely or never refused.

In a great many cases the methylated spirit used in the manufacturing opera-
tions is wholly or partially recovered and used over and over again. Where this
recovery includes redistillation the Revenue permission has first to be obtained,
and in some cases, where the manufacturing operation and the redistillation might
so purify portions of the spirit as to render it capable of being used for potable
purposes, special conditions are imposed, such as the collection of the whole of
the distillate in one receiver and not in fractions, or the immediate mixture of the-
recovered spirit with fresh methylated spirit , or with some other substance.

As a whole, however, there is very little interference by the Revenue officers.
Except for periodical inspections, and the occasional sampling of the recovered
spirits and of the intermediate and finished products of the operations, manu-
facturers are left to carry out their operations in any way they please, provided

452 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

they supply the Revenue authorities with sufficient information to enable the
officers to see where and how the spirit is used.

Neither the methylators nor the manufacturers have to pay anything towards
the cost incurred by the Revenue authorities in supervising the making, or the
use of the methylated spirit.

B, ''Mineralised'^ Methylated Spirit.

This is the methylated spirit which is sold by retail to the general public for
use for burning in spirit lamps, for cleansing and domestic purposes generally,
and also to some extent for mixing with paints, stains, varinshes, etc. and for
polishing purposes by cabinetmakers, etc.

In making "minerahsed" methylated spirit the alcohol is first mixed with the
wood-naphtha as in making "ordinary" methylated spirit. After mixing with
the wood-naphtha, the whole contents of the vat of "ordinary" methylated spirit,
or a portion of the spirit, not less than 100 gallons, removed to another vat, is
further mixed with three-eighths of one per cent. (.375 per cent.) of an approved
"mineral naphtha." This mineral naphtha is an ordinary light mineral oil having
a specific gravity of from 0.800 to 0.830. The addition of this mineral oil does
not interfere with the purposes for which this kind of spirit is mainly used, viz.,
burning in spirit lamps, etc. Its use was introduced some fifteen years ago in
order to prevent the drinking of the "ordinary" methylated spirit which was
found to be going on to a limited extent among certain classes in the poorer dis-
tricts of Glasgow and other large cities.

Persons who wish to retail "mineralised" methylated spirit must obtain a
licence costing 10s. annually. Anybody except distillers and publicans may
obtain this licence. Retailers of "mineralised" methylated spirit are furnished
with a book of Requisition Forms to enable them to obtain their supplies of such
spirit from the methylators.

Methylators are not allowed to sell the spirit to retailers in greater quantities
than fifty gallons, or in less quantities than five gallons, but the smaller retailers
are allowed to purchase it in quantities not exceeding a gallon at a time from
any other retailer. The stock of "mineralised" methylated spirit which a re-
tailer may keep is limited to fifty gallons, and he is not allowed to sell to any person
a greater quantity of such spirit than one gallon at a time.

Retailers are also prohibited from selling the spirit between ten o'clock on
Saturday evening and eight o'clock on the following Monday morning; and, in
exceptional cases, they have to keep a stock account of all spirit received and
sold, and the names of the persons to whom it is sold. These regulations are for
the purpose of preventing the illicit drinking of the spirit which still occasionally
occurs in some localities, and are required more for police than Revenue purposes.

Anyone may buy "mineralised" methylated spirit from a retailer, and may
use it for any purpose except in the preparation of beverages or of medicines
capable of being taken internally. All attempts to purify or prepare the spirit
for use for these purposes are also prohibited; and any one who sells, for use as a
beverage or as medicine, or has in his possession any methylated spirit, or any
■derivative thereof, prepared or purified for such use, incurs a penalty of £100.

THE EXAMINATION OF WOOD-NAPHTHAS.

The wood-naphtha must be sufficiently impure to impart to the methylated
spirits, prepared by mixing one part of the wood-naphtha with nine parts of spirits
of wine, such an amount of nauseousness as will, in the opinion of the Principal
of the Government Laboratory, render such mixture incapable of being used as
a beverage, or of being mixed with potable spirits of any kind without rendering
them unfit for human consumption.

Wood-naphtha submitted for approval should conform to the following tests:
(a) Not more than 30 c.c. of the naphtha should be required to decolourise
a solution containing 0.5 gram of bromine.

APPENDIX. 453

(6) The naphtha, which must be neutral or only slightly alkaline to litmus,
should require at least 5 c.c. of decinormal acid to neutralise 25 c.c^
of the spirit when methyl orange is used as the indicator.
It should contain:

(o) Not less than 72 per cent, by volume of methyl alcohol.
(6) Not more than 12 grams per 100 c.c. of acetone, aldehydes, and higher
ketones, estimated as "acetone" by the formation of iodoform ac-
cording to Messinger's method,
(c) Not more than 3 grams per 100 c.c. of esters, estimated as methyl
acetate by hydrolysis.
The following details of the manner in which the above tests are conducted
in the Goverimient Laboratory have been published for the information of the
Trade:

Bromine Decolourisation.

A standard bromine solution is made by dissolving 12.406 grams of potassium
bromide and 3.481 grams of potassium bromate in a litre of recently boiled dis-
tilled water.

50 c.c. of this standard solution (=0.5 gram bromine) are placed in a flask
of about 200 c.c. capacity, having a well-ground stopper. To this is added 10 c.c.
of dilute sulphuric acid (1 in 4) and the whole shaken gently. After standing
for a few minutes the wood-naphtha is slowly run from a burette into the clear
brown solution of bromine until the latter is completely decolourised. Not more
than 30 c.c. of the wood-naphtha should be required for this purpose.

Methyl Orange Alkalinity Test.

The naphtha should be faintly acid to phenolphthalein, slightly alkaline or
neutral, rarely acid to litmus, and always alkaline to methyl orange. 25 c.c. of
the wood-naphtha are placed in each of two beakers and titrated with decinormal
acid, using in the one case a few drops of litmus solution, and in the otherof a solu-
tion of methyl oragne, as indicator. With litmus usually 0.1 to 0.2 c.c. of deci-
normal acid is required to neutralise. With methyl orange the total alkalinity
should be greater — at least 5 or 6 c.c. of decinormal acid being required for neu-
tralisation.

The total alkalinity, less that given with litmus, is the "methyl orange alka-
linity," and, for the 25 c.c. of wood spirit, should not be less than is required to
neutralise 5 c.c. of decinormal acid.

Estimation of Methyl Alcohol.

22 grams of coarsely powdered iodine and 5 c.c. of distilled water are placed
in a small flask and cooled by immersion in ice-cold water. Then 5 c.c, of the
wood spirit (60.0 o.p.) are added, the flask corked, the contents gently shaken,
and allowed to remain in the ice-cold bath for 10-15 minutes.

When well cooled, 2 grams of red phosphorus are added to the mixture of
spirit and iodine in the flask, and the latter is immediately attached to a reflux
condenser.

The reaction soon commences, and must be moderated by dipping the flask
into a cold-water bath. (Spirit may be lost if the reaction is too violent.) After
about 15-20 minutes, when all action appears to have ceased, the water bath
under the flask is gradually heated to a temperature of about 75° C. (167° F.),
and the fl:isk being occasionally shaken is allowed to remain at this temperature
for 15-20 minutes. The source of heat is then removed, and the apparatus left
for an hour till it has cooled, when the condenser is reversed and the methyl iodide
slowly distilled off — first at a low temperature — the bath being allowed to boil
towards the end of the operation only. Tlie end of the condenser dips into water
in a measuring tube, and the iodide is collected under water and measured at a
temperature of 15.5° C. (60° F.).

The percentage (by volume) is lound from the formula:

454 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

c.c. methyl iodide found X .647 X 100 Percentage by (volume) of methyl
c.c. wood spirit taken alcohol.

Or when 5 c.c. of spirit are taken:

c.c. methyl iodide X 12.94 =percentage (by volume).

Esters, acetals, etc., also yield methyl iodide by this process, and from the
percentage of methyl alcohol calculated as above an amount equivalent to the
percentage of these substances present must be deducted. Practically, how-
ever, methyl acetate is the only compound usually found in quantity sufficient
to materially affect the result. The grams of methyl acetate per 100 c.c. of spirit
multiplied by .5405 give the equivalent of methyl alcohol to be deducted from
the total percentage by volume calculated from the methyl iodide found.

The Acetone Reaction.

25 c.c. of normal soda are placed in a flask similar to those used in the bromine
reaction. To this is added 0.5 c.c. of the naphtha. The mixture is well shaken,
and allowed to stand 5-10 minutes. Into it from a burette n/5 iodine solution
is run slowly, drop by drop, vigorously shaking all the time till the upper portion
of the solution, on standing a minute, becomes quite clear. A few c.c. more of
n/5 iodine solution are added, as to get concordant results an excess of at least
25 per cent, of the iodine required must be added. After shaking, the mixture
is allowed to stand for 10-15 minutes, and then 25 c.c. normal sulphuric are added.
The excess of iodine is liberated, titrated with n/10 sodium thiosulphate solution
and starch, and half the number of c.c. of thiosulphate soUition used are deducted
from the total number of c.c. of iodine solution used. The difference gives the
amount of acetone by weight in the naphtha by the formula:

c.c. n/5 iodine solution required X. 3876= grams of acetone per 100 c.c. of
wood naphtha.

This includes as acetone any aldehydes, etc., capable of yielding iodoform
by this reaction.

If the quantity of "acetone" is excessive, a less quantity of the spirit is taken,
or 10 c.c. are diluted with 10 c.c. of methyl alcohol free from acetone, and 0.5 c.c.
of the mixture is used.

Estimation of Esters.

5 c.c. of the wood-naphtha are run into a silver pressure flask of about 150 c.c.
capacity, together with 20 c.c. of recently boiled distilled water. 10 c.c. of normal
soda solution are added, the flask securely closed and digested for at least two
hours in a water bath at 100° C. (212° F.). The contents are then washed into
a beaker, and titrated with normal acid and phenolphthalein. The difference
between the number of c.c. of soda taken and of the acid required for neutralisation
may be calculated as methyl acetate (weight in volume) from the formula:

.074 X c.c. soda required X 100 ^__

, ^, ^ , =grams per 100 c.c.

c.c. naphtha taken

Or if 5 c.c. of spirit are taken as above:
1.48 X c.c. soda required = grams of methyl acetate per 100 c.c. of spirit.

II. Spirits Denatured with Other Substances than Wood-naphtha.

Under the powers conferred on them by the Spirits Acts, 1880, and Section 8
of the Finance Act of 1902, the Commissioners oi Inland Revenue have authorised
the use of Ethyl and Methyl alcohol denatured with substances other than wood-
naphtha to be used in certain manufacturing operations.

The denaturing substance is, as a rule, one used in the manufacturing opera-
tions involved, and there are special conditions as to the mode of working and

APPENDIX. 455

supervision by the Revenue officials, including in some cases the constant presence
ot one or more Excise officers on the premises whilst open for work. Traders using
these specially denatured spirits have to pay the cost of the Revenue supervision.

Copies of (a) the Commissioners' Minutes on Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902,
and (6) a memorandum indicating the procedure to be observed in connection with
the use of Spirits under that section, are subjoined.

(a) Minute of the Board of Inland Revenue on Section 8 of the Finance

Act, 1902.

The Board take into consideration Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902, which
runs as follo\vs:

1. Where, in the case of any art or manufacture carried on by any person
in which the use of spirits is required, it shall be proved to the satisfaction of
the Commissioners of Inland Revenue that the use of methylated spirits is
unsuitable or detrimental, they may, if they think fit, authorise that person to
receive spirits without payment of duty for use in the art or manufacture upon
giving security to their satisfaction that he will use the spirits in the art or
manufacture, and for no other purpose, and the spirits so used shall be exempt
from duty:

Provided that foreign spirits may not be so received or used until the dif-
ference between the duty of customs chargeable thereon and the duty of Excise
chargeable on British spirits has been paid.

2. The authority shall only be granted subject to a compliance with such
regulations as the Commissioners may require the applicant to observe for the
security of the revenue, and upon condition that he will, to the satisfaction of
the Commissioners if so required by them, render the spirits unpotable before
and during use, and will from time to time y»ay any expenses that may be incurred
in placing an officer in charge of his premises.

3. If any person so authorised shall not comply with any regulation which
he is required to observe, he shall, in addition to any other fine or liability, incur
a fine of fifty por.nds.

It is in the first place to be observed that the privilege of using spirit duty free,
as contemplated by the section, is to be a personal privilege, entailing personal
obligations on the persons or person to whom it is granted; and it follows from this
that there can be no question of the Board's granting any general authority under
the section to classes of persons, but that each person or body of persons who desires
to obtain the benefit of the section must make separate application to the Board,
who will consider all the circumstances of each separate application and form their
judgment upon them.

At the same time, in laying down some general principles by which they will
be governed in dealing with applications submitted to them, it may be possible for
the Board to indicate certain classes of cases to which tne benefit of the section
could not, under any circumstances, be conceded, and so to prevent the multiplica-
tion of applications which cannot possibly be entertained favourably.

With this view, and also for the purpose of affording guidance generally to the
public and to their own officers with respect to their policy in administering the
law, as laid down in the section, the Board proceed to embody in this Minute the
following observations on the subject.

The section requires that before the Commissioners can authorise the use of
spirits in any ''art or manufacture" — terms which they interpret as including the
application of spirit to scientific purposes — tw^o main conditions must be fulfilled,
viz.:

(a) It must be proved, to the satisfaction of the Commissioners, that the use

of methylated spirits is unsuitable or detrimental for the particular purpose; and
(6) The security of the revenue must be guaranteed by such means as the

Commissioners may require.

These conditions are cumulative, not alternative — Unless both can be fulfilled
there can be no question of a grant of the authority contemplated by the section.
In every case therefore it will be necessary to scrutinise in the first instance the
objections that may be alleged to the use of methylated spirits, and it is only after

458 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

the validity of such objections has been admitted, that it will be necessary to pro-
ceed to consider whether or by what means the security of the revenue can be
guaranteed.

It was explicitly stated in the House of Commons, both by those who promoted
legislation in the sense of the section, and by the Chancellor of the Exchequer who
assented to it on behalf of H. M. Government, that it was to be understood that
the Commissioners should exercise the discretion conferred upon them with great
caution, and with a very strict regard to the security of the revenue; and the Board
themselves feel strongly that no other attitude would be possible for them.

They intend therefore to insist on a strict observance of the prescribed condi-
tions in every case in which they may grant an authority under the section, and
they will not hesitate to reject any application in respect of which it appears to
them that the conditions are not, or cannot be, adequately complied with.

Further, as the duty on Spirits is so heavy and of so much importance to the
revenue, they consider that they may properly require that the advantage to be
obtained by the use of duty-free spirit should be substantial both in character and
in weight, and that the benefit of the section should not be accorded in cases of
trivial importance or in the purely personal interest of individuals.

In accordance with these principles, the Board will refuse to entertain applica-
tions under the section, as follows:

In Respect of Condition (a).

Where in an Art or Manufacture the use of methylated spirit is attended by
only slight and immaterial disadvantage.

In Respect of Condition (6).

Where the security of the revenue cannot be guaranteed with reasonable cer-
tainty, and at reasonable cost of convenience to the department.

('the cost in money will be a matter always affecting the applicant.)

It is manifest that there must be many cases in which the protection of the
revenue would be impossible, if the use of duty-free spirit were permitted, and of
these there may be mentioned the following:

(^) The manufacture of articles intended for human consumption, such as

Medicines, Essences and Tinctures.

(n) The manufacture of articles not intended for human consumption, but

capable of being so used, if made with pure spirit or with spirit only temporarily

rendered unpotable, such as perfumes or spirituous mixtures for purposes of

illumination or of generation of heat or motive power.

As regards cases to which the benefit of the section may be extended, the Board
may say generally that they will be disposed to entertain favourably applications:

(1) From recognised bodies formed for the advancement of science, or of
scientific education, and requiring to use pure spirit in processes of research or of
illustration. Applications of this kind from isolated individuals will not com-
monly be entertained; but might be so on the recommendation and guarantee
of a recognised scientific body.

(2) From persons engaged in an industrial enterprise of such magnitude
and importance as to give to it a character of public interest in it s bearing upon
national trade. In any such case the concession will commonly be made sub-
ject to an obligation to render the spirit unpotable before and during use, by
such means as may be found to be most appropriate to the particular circrm-
stances of the manufacture. Only in very rare instances can the Board con-
template the use of pure spirit in manufacture, and then only subject to close
and constant Excise supervision.

In every case of concession, of whatever kind, the persons authorised will
be subject to Excise visitation, and to the observance of such regulations as
regards receipt, storage, use, or recovery of spirits, and the keeping of accounts
of the same, as the Board may prescribe.

H. W. P.

July, 1902. •

APPENDIX. 457

(6) Procedure to be Observed in Connection with the Use in Manufactures
OF Spirits on which Duty has not been Paid (Sec. 8 of the Finance Act,
1902). ^

1. Any person desiring to use spirits without payment of duty in any manu-
facture carried on by him must make application in writing to the Commissioners
of Inland Revenue for authority to receive and use such spirits, and must prove
to the satisfaction of the Commissioners that the use of Methylated Spirits
would be unsuitable or detrimental.

2. The applicant must give full particulars of the situation of the premises
upon which and the purpose for which the spirits are to be used, together with
a description of the process of manufacture. He must also state the means by
which it is proposed to make the spirits unpotable before and during use, and
the quantity likely to be required in the course of a year.

3. Spirits on which duty has not been paid may not be delivered for re-
moval to the premises of any person for use in any manufacture except from a
Duty Free Warehouse, and upon production to the Officer of that Warehouse of
a Requisition signed by the person authorised to receive the spirits, on which
there is a certificate, signed by the Supervisor of the District, that the Appli-
cant is authorised by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue to receive such
spirits.

4. The quantity of spirits to be received at one time must not be less than
one hundred bulk gallons, and the spirits must be conveyed direct to the
premises of the person authorised to receive them, and must there remain
without alteration or change in the cask or package in which they were deliv-
ered, until an account thereof has been taken by the proper Officer, and they
have been rendered unpotable in his presence.

5. Any person authorised to receive spirits on which duty has not been
paid must, if so required by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, provide
upon his premises a warehouse, structurally secure to their satisfaction, and all
such spirits received must be deposited and retained therein until deliverei
on proper notice to, and in the i>rescnce of, the Officer. He must also, if so
required, provide a room approved by the Commissioners in which must be
fixed a vat or other vessel of sufficient size to admit of at least one hundred
bulk gallons of spirits being rendered unpotable at one time, and must also pro-
vide satisfactory accomm.odation for the Officer of Inland Revenue in attend-
ance at his premises.

6. Security to the satisfaction of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue
must be given for the due removal, safe custody, and proper use of the spirits,
and the due observance of all regulations and conditions made by the Commis-
sioners.

7- The substance or material to be used for the purpose of rendering spirits
unpotable, and the mode :n which the spirits are to be rendered unpotable,
must be ai)proved by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, and the person
authorised to receive spirits upon which duty has not been paid must, if so
required by the Commissioners, provide a store to be app>roved by them, and
used solely for storing and keeping the substance or material so approved.

8. No warehouse, room or store provided in conformity with these Regula-
tions shall be open before 8 o'clock in the morning or after 5 o'clock in the after-
noon, but Officers of Inland Revenue shall have access at all times to the
premises of any person authorised to use spirits under these Regulations.

9. Notice of the intention to remove spirits from the warehouse on the
premises of the person authorised to use them for the purpose of being ren-
dered unpotable or for use under these Regulations must be given to the
proper Officer of Inland Revenue on a form of Warrant, on which must be
specified the particulars of the spirits as warehoused together with the distinc-
tive marks and numbers of the casks and the date of deposit in the Warehouse,
and the spirits must be rendered unpotable in the presence of the proper Officer,
who may take an account of such spirits before and on completion of the opera-
tion, and may, without payment, take samples at any time of the spirits and
of any article in the manufacture of which they are used or which may be on
the premises of the user.

458 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

10. Spirits which have been rendered unpotable under these regulations
shall not thereafter be purified in any manner or be recovered by distillation or
any other means, except with the express sanction of the Commissioners of
Inland Revenue.

11. A person to whom authority is granted by the Commissioners of Inland
Revenue to receive for use in any part or manufacture spirits on which duty
has not been paid shall pay to the proper Collector of Inland Revenue, from
time to time, such sum or sums as the Commissoners shall determine for the
expense incurred for the attendance of an Officer at his premises, and shall
also pay duty on any deficiency in the spirits received upon his premises]
which may arise from abstraction or from any cause which may in the opinion"
of the Commissioners not be due to natural waste.

Dated this 1st October, 1902.

By Order of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue.

J. B. Meers, Secretary.

III. Undenatured Alcohol is allowed to be used by universities, colleges,
and other j^ublic institutions for research and teaching under certain conditions,
a copy of which is subjoined:

1. An Application must be made by the Governing body or their representa-
tive, stating the situation of the particular University, College, or PubHc Institu-
tion for Research or Teaching, the number of the Laboratories therein, the pur-
pose or purposes to which the Spirits are to be applied, the bulk quantity likely
to be required in the course of a year, and, if it amounts to 50 gallons or upwards,
the name or names of one or more Sureties, or a Guarantee Society, to join in a
bond that the Spirits will be used solely for the purpose requested and at the
place specified.

2. The Spirits received at any one Institution must only be used in the
Laboratories of that Institution, and must not be distributed for use in the
Laboratories of any other Institution, or used for any other purpose than those
authorised.

3. Only plain British Spirits or unsweetened Foreign Spirits of not less
strength than 50 degrees overproof {i.e. containing not less than 80 per cent,
by weight of absolute alcohol) may bo received duty free, and the differential
duty must be paid on the Foreign Spirits.

4. The Spirits must be received under Bond either from a distillery or from
an Excise or Customs general warehouse and (except with special permission)
in quantities of not less than 9 bulk gallons at a time. They will be obtainable
only on presentation of a requisition signed by the proper Supervisor.

5. On the arrival of the Spirits at the Institution, the proper Revenue Officer
should be informed, and the vessels, casks, or packages containing them are
not to be opened until he has taken account of the Spirits.

. 6. The sto^k of Spirits in each Institution must be kept under lock in a special
compartment under the control of a professor or some responsible Officer of the
University, College, or Institution.

7. The Spirits received by the responsible Officer of the Institution may be
distributed by him undiluted to any of the Laboratories on the same premises.

8. No distribution of Spirits may be made from the Receiving Laboratory
to other Laboratories which are not within the same premises.

9. A Stock Book must be provided and kept at the Receiving Laboratory
in which is to be entered on the debit side an account of the bulk and proof
gallons of Spirits received with the date of receipt, and on the credit side an
account of the bulk and proof gallons distributed to the other Laboratories.
A Stock Book must also be kept at each other Laboratory in which must be
entered on the day of receipt an account of the bulk and proof gallons of Spirits
received from the Receiving Laboratory.

These books must be open at all times to the inspection of the Revenue
Officer, and he will be at liberty to make any abstract from them which he
may consider necessary.

10. The quantity of Spirits in Stock at any one time must not exceed half
the estimated quantity required in a year where that quantity amounts to
20 gallons or upwards.

APPENDIX.

459

11. Any contravention of the regulations may involve the withdrawal of the
Board's authority to use duty-free Spirits.

12. It must be understood that the Board of Inland Revenue reserve to
themselves full discretion to withhold permission for the use of duty-free Spirit
in any case in which the circumstances may not seem to them to be such as to
warrant the grant of it. They have already decided that the use of duty-free
Spirit for the preservation of Natural History or other specimens cannot be
allowed.

J. B. Meers, Secretaiy.
Inland Revenue, Somerset House, W. C, December, 1902.

Note. — "Proof Spirit" is defined by law to be such spirit as at the tempera-
ture of 51° Fahrenheit shall weigh || of an equal measure of distilled water.

Taking water at 5P Fahrenheit as unity, the specific gravity of "proof spirit"
at 51° Fahrenheit is .92308. When such spirit is raised to the more usual tempera-
ture of 60° Fahrenheit, its specific gravity compared with water at 60° Fahrenheit
is .91984.

To calculate the quantity of spirits at proof in a given quantity of spirit over or
under proof strength: Multiply the quantity of spirit by the number of degrees of
strength of the spirit and divide the product by 100. The number of degrees of
strength of any spirit is 100 plus the number of degrees overproof, or minus the
number of degrees underproof.

Example: 19.8 gallons of spirits at 64.5 overproof.
100+64.5-164.5 proof strength.
164.5X 19.8-^ 100 =32.571,
taken as 32.5 gallons at proof.

Appendix No. II.

^. ABSTRACT OF THE APPROXIMATE QUANTITIES OF UNMNERAL-
"^ ISED METHYLATED SPIRITS USED IN MANUFACTURING OPERA-
TIONS AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
DURING THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1901.

{Prepared from information supplied by Supervisors of Inland Revenue to the Govern^
ment Laboratory in May, 1901.)

Nature of Manufacturing Operations or Other Purposes for which the
Spirit was Used.

Number of
Gallons Used.

9
10
11

Making ' ' finish," varnishes, lacquers, stains, paints, enamels, etc

Soap manufacture

Hat-making

Celluloid, Xylonite, etc

Ether, Chloroform, and Iodoform

Fulminates, smokeless powder, and other explosives (including
War Office and Admiralty)

Preparation of solid medicinal extracts, medicaments, fine
chemicals, etc

Dissolving dyes and colours, and for dyeing and cleaning opera-
tions, etc

Making photographic plates, emulsions, films, etc

Making linoleum, pegamoid, lincrusta walton, and similar goods

Making embrocations, lotions, liniments, cattle and other medi-
cines

Making filaments, etc., in the incandescent electric-lamp manu-
facture

In piano-making

1,221,013

144,384

121,104

106,589

97,906

48,052

39,637

28.943
24,667
21,128

15,410

14,964
7,510

460

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Approximate Quantities of Unminbralised Methylated Spirits Used in
Manufacturing Operations — Continued.

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

27
28
29
30

Nature of Manufacturing Operations or Other Purposes for which the
Spirit was Used.

In silk, crape, and embroidery manufactures, mainly for stiff-
ening

In the manufacture of aniline and other dyes and colours

In making fireworks ,

Plant washes, insecticides, etc

In the manufacture of rubber

For cleaning paint

In the manufacture of steel pens

Making blacking and leather dressings

In ''silvering " mirrors, etc

In corset-making

Making sheep dips

Preparing surgical dressings

Adjusting hydrometers, and in making compasses, thermome-
ters, and other instruments

In oil-refining

Electrotyping

Making inks

Various miscellaneous manufactures, etc., engraving, brass-
founding, watch-making, china-making, printers' rollers,
black lead, candle-making, artificial silk, artificial flowers,
calico-printing, cotton yarn, ropes, oil gas generators, etc

Preserving specimens in museums, hospitals, infirmaries, etc.,
for burning in lamps, washes, lotions, and other purposes in
hospitals, infirmaries, and similar institutions, and also for
laboratories and educational purposes

For the War Office and Admiralty requirements, chiefly at
Woolwich and Dockyards

Total

Number of
Gallons Used.

8,434

5,657

2,720

1,564

1,600

1,150

1,669

4,180

477

590

450

1,040

403
205
128
197

1,487

33,7^
30,624

1,987,695

Observations.

The returns from which the Abstract has been prepared are in a very condensed
form, and do not give in detail the various purposes for which the spirit is used
nor the quantities used for each purpose when there are several. In some cases,
therefore, it has been necessary to estimate the probable quantities assigned to
each head, and the figures must therefore be taken as approximate only. In the
case of the largest users, however, there is no difficulty. The ''Ether," "Solid
Medicinal Extracts," and "Lotions" are the most doubtful, as most makers use
the spirit for all three purposes.

On the whole, however, the figures given are probably very nearly correct.

The "quantities" are the quantities received during the year by the users.

The total, 1,987,665 gallons, compares with 2,075,514 gallons, the estimated
quantity of unmineralised methylated spirit made during the year, showing a
deficiency of 87,849, or a little over 4 per cent., due partly to waste and partly
probably to the imperfections in the returns.

It is not possible to make any separation between "Finish" and "Varnishes,"
etc., properly so-called, but as "Finish" is itself almost entirely used for making
varnishes, or for thinning or manipulating those already made and for polishing
purposes, any distinction would not be of much value.

The Mineralised or Retail Methylated Spirit is used mainly for burning in spirit
lamps, for cleansing and domestic purposes generally, and also to some extent for
mixing with paints, stains, varnishes, etc., and for polishing purposes by cabinet-
makers, etc.

APPENDIX.

461

Appendix No. II.

C— COMPARISON OF THE QUANTITY OF SPIRITS, ETC., USED IN MAKING
METHYLATED SPIRITS, AND OF THE METHYLATED SPIRITS PRO-
DUCED, FOR THE FIVE YEARS ENDING 31st MARCH, 1904.

Year

Ending

31st March.

Proof Gallons of Spirits
Delivered for Methylation.

Total.

Average
Strength.

Quantity in

Bulk of Spirits

Methylated.

British.

Foreign.

Gallons.

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904

4,978,027
5,070,713
4,640,770
4,239,688
5,054,586

6,245

120,332

627,410

1,210,001

334,140

4,984,272
5,191,045
5,268,180
5,451,689
5,388,726 f

o. p.
63.7
64.3
64.3
64.9
63.5

3,043,485
3,158,442
3,206.214
3,305,502
3,295,485

Year

Ending

31st March.

Wood-
Naphtha Used.

Ordinary

(Unmineralised)

Methylated

Spirits for
Manufacturing

Purposes.

Mineral
Naphtha.

Mineralised
Methylated

Spirit for
Retail Sale.

Total.

Gallons.

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904

338,165
350,938
356,246
367,278
366,165

2,058,450
2.075,514
2,157,127
2,213,580
2,139.784*

4,962
5,377
5,270
5,472
5,707

1,328,162
1,439,243
1,410,603
1,464,672
1,527,573

3,386,612
3,514,757
3,567,730
3,678,252
3,667,357

Appendix No. III.

REGULATIONS AS REGARDS USE OF SPIRIT FOR INDUSTRIAL,
ETC., PURPOSES IN GERMANY.

Taxes on Spirit.

The spirit taxes in Germany are levied in so many different ways that it is
difficult to arrive at any very accurate estimate of the average rate.
Customs.

On imported spirits of all kinds, including Arrack, Rum, French Brandy, and
mixed spirits:

* The decrease in 1903-4 is mainly due to the fact that certain firms, e.g., the British Xylonite
Company, Nobels, and Leitch & Company,, have been allowed the use of duty-free alcohol de-
natured by other substances than wood-naphtha.

The total quantity so allowed in 190.3-4 was 206,452 proof gallons, which would be 125.885
bulk gallons at 64° o.p. (93.5 per cent, real alcohol).

462 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Liqueurs 240 marks

All other Spirits —

(a) In casks 160 "

(6) In bottles, flasks, and other vessels, 240 marks for every 100
kilograms (220 lbs.), i-e., from about T^d. to Is. Id. per lb.
But the tax lias apparently to be paid on the gross weight of vessel and con-
tents, and no satisfactory comparison with the British system can, therefore, be
made. From 5s. to 10s. per proof gallon may be taken as an approximate estimate,
according to the character of the spiiit and the vessels containing it.

Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven, and Gestemiinde, and some other places,
are not included in the Spirit Tax Union, and spirits coming from these "free cities"
into other parts of the German Empire have to pay the customs taxes.
Excise.

Each distillery is allowed to produce a certain fixed quantity of spirit annually,
called "The Contingent," on which is paid a "Consumption Tax" ("Verbrauch-
sabgabe") of 50 marks per hectolitre of pure alcohol. On any excess production
over the "Contingent" 70 marks per hectolitre is charged.

The "Contingent" may be increased or decreased for various reasons at any
time, and there is a general revision once every five years.

Various other taxes are also levied. For these, German distilleries are divided
into three classes:

1. "Industrial Distilleries" (Gewerbliche Brennereien) carried on by indi-
viduals! or companies solely for manufacturing purposes. These Distilleries have
to pay per hectolitre of pure alcohol in addition to the " Consumption Tax "

(a) an "addition" (Zuschlag) of from 16 to 20 marks.

(b) a "distilling tax" (Brennsteuer) of from 2 to 6^ marks.
Distilleries producing not more than 200 hectolitres of pure alcohol annually

(7,700 proof gallons) are exempt from the "Distilling Tax," and the smaller dis-
tilleries pay the lower rates according to fixed scales.

2. "Agricultural Distilleries" (Landwirthschaftliche Brennereien) are those
using as raw materials potatoes or grain grown on the owners' farms, or on the
farms of one or more of the owners, if the Distillery belongs to a society or com-
pany. These pay modified "additions" of from 10 to 20 marks per hectolitre of
pure alcohol, and are exempt from the "Distilling Tax," or pay only from 1 to 3
marks per hectolitre; or instead of these taxes they may elect to pay a "Fer-
menting vat tax" (Maischbottichsteuer) of from 0.786 mark to 1.31 mark per
hectolitre on the fermenting vat capacity for each fermentation.

3. "Material Distilleries" (Materialbrennereien) are those using berries,
fruits, wine lees, grape pressings, etc.

These appear to be all very small, many of them making no more than 11 to
22 gallons of alcohol annually. In addition to the "Consumption tax" of 50
marks, they pay from 0.10 to 0.85 mark per hectolitre of material used.

The total average tax on spirits produced in "Industrial Distilleries" is esti-
mated at not more than 70 marks per hectolitre of pure alcohol, equivalent to
about Is. 9d. per proof gallon, and in the "Agricultural Distilleries" at somewhat
less — 60 to 65 marks per hectolitre — or about Is. 7d. to Is. 8d. per proof gallon.
By far the greater proportion of the spirit made in Germany is produced by the
"Agricultural Distilleries."

DUTY-FREE ALCOHOL.
Abstract of the German Regulations.

Spirit for employment in Industrial operations, vinegar making, cleaning,
heating, cooking, or lighting, as well as for educational or scientific purposes,
may, after having been denatured according to the regulations, or in special cases
without denaturing, on proof of the spirit having been so used, be granted freedom
from the spirit taxes on the following conditions:

The freedom from duty includes —

(a) The release from the "consumption" tax and its "additions."

(b) The refunding of the "fermenting vat" tax at the rate of 0.16 mark

per litre of pure alcohol so far as the spirit has been subjected to it.

APPENDIX. 463

(c) The return of the "distilling" tax at the rate of 0.06 mark per litre of
pure alcohol.
Duty-paici spirit and spirit containing more than 1 per cent, of fusel oil are
not admitted for denaturing.

The denaturing is either complete, i.e., such as is deemed sufficient to make
the spirit undrmkable, or incomplete, i.e., such as requires the employment ot
other means for the prevention of the improper employment of such spirit.
General denaturing agent for complete denaturing:
4 parts of wood-naphtha, and
1 part pyridine bases,
to each litre of which may be added 50 grams of lavender oil or rosemary oil.
Of this mixture 2^ litres are added to each hectolitre of alcohol.
(German Methylated Spirit therefore contains 2 per cent, wood-naphtha and
0.5 per cent, pyridine bases, with optionally .125 per cent, of a lavender or rose-
mary oil.)

The mixing of the general denaturing substance can only be carried out by
persons who have obtained special authority for the purpose from the chief
Inland Revenue Office of the district where the mixing establishments are situated.
Authorised methylators have to provide rooms and vessels for storing and mixing
the denaturing agents, all materials and implements necessary, and to give the
officials the requisite assistance in sampling the denaturing substances and in the
mixing them with the spirit. They have also to provide books of an official
pattern for entering the particulars of the' mixings and of the sale and transport
of the denatured spirit.

The denaturing may take place in special vats erected for the purpose, or in
the casks or other vessels used to transport the alcohol. Not less than a hecto-
litre (22 gallons) of alcohol can be denatured at a time. Before denaturing the
alcoholic strength and quantity of spirit in each vessel is checked by the Excise
Officer, unless such spirit has been sent in vessels under special revenue seals,
and which are found intact on examination. The wood-naphtha and pyridine
bases used for denaturing must first be examined and approved by official chemists,
samples being taken for this purpose from the vessels used for storing these mate-
rials, which remain under revenue control from the time the sample is taken until
mixed with the spirit. The store vessels must contain not less than 100 litres
(22 gallons) of the denaturing agents when sampled. The Excise Officers are
directed to see that the denaturing materials are thoroughly mixed with the spirit.
The nature of the official examination of the wood-naphtha is described in
the official directions printed on page 256, from which the character of the sub-
stance used can be gathered. As compared with the British type of denaturing
wood-naphtha the German wood-naphtha is of a more impure character, i.e., it
contains a much larger proportion of acetone, and other substances, and less
methyl alcohol.

The pyridine bases are used mainly to increase the nauseous character of the
methylated spirit, and serve practically the same purpose as the mineral naphtha
used in the United Kingdom and in France.

For use in motor-cars and other internal combustion engines, etc., alcohol
may also be completely denatured by the addition of IJ litres of the "general"
denaturing agent and \ litre ot a solution of methyl violet dye, together with from
2 to 20 litres of benzol to every 100 litres of alcohol.

The ordinary completely denatured spirit and the motor-car spirit may be
sold by persons who are authorised to do so by the Administration. Written
application for a hcence has to be made to the superior Excise official, who may
exercise his discretion as to whether a licence should be given, and the licence
may be withdrawn at any time if it appears advisable to disallow the sale in any
particular shop. Before obtaining a licence notification must be given to the
police.

The ordinary completely denatured spirit is intended for sale by retail, and
may be used for any industrial purpose; for cleansing, heating, lighting and cook-
ing, as well as for educational and medicinal purposes; but must not be present
in any substance intended for human consumption, and no attempt must be made
to purify such spirit, or to add anything to it to disguise its taste or smell, nor

464 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

must it be. diluted under 85° (49 o.p.). Heavy penalties are imposed for any
contravention of the regulations.

The general control over the retail sale of the denatured spirit is very similar
to that imposed in this country, but the police appear to be more directly con-
cerned in preventing irregularities than with us.

For general use on a large scale tor industrial and manufacturing processes
of all kinds, what is called "Wood Spirit denatured" alcohol is allowed to be made
and sold under special conditions. This denatured spirit consists of a mixture
of 100 litres of alcohol of not less than 90° (58 o.p.) with 5 litres of wood-naphtha.

The denaturing of this spirit may take place either at the works where it is
to be used or on the premises of authorised methylators. In the latter case the
regulations as to mixing, storing, etc., are the same as in the case of the completely
denatured spirit. Permission to sell this "wood spirit denatured" alcohol can only
be granted by the Chief Office, and makers who sell this "wood spirit denatured"
alcohol have to keep an official "Control Book" in which has to be entered par-
ticulars of all spirit denatured, and of every sale of such spirit. A balance is
struck annually and duty is charged on any material loss or deficiency that may
be shown unless satisfactory explanations can be given. Such spirit can only
be sold to factories which can show a licence to buy "wood-spirit denatured"
alcohol. Any person wishing to obtain a "buying licence" must apply to the chief
office of the province in which the factory where such spirit is to be used is situated.
Full particulars of the purposes for which the spirit is required must be given.
No person engaged in the spirit trade, or who sells denatured or undenatured
spirit, can obtain a licence, and a licence may be refused if any facts are known
which render the use of denatured spirit in any factory undesirable. A licence is
only given for one year, and the maximum quantity allowed cannot be exceeded
without special authority. The "buying licence" must be produced each time
any methylated spirit is purchased. The seller must enter on the licence the
quantity sold, adding his name and the date, and must also enter each sale in
an official "Control Book." Not less than 2 litres {\ gallon) may be sold at a
time, and the seller must see that the maximum annual quantity shown on the
"buying licence" has not already been supplied to the buyer.

The buyer must enter every purchase in a "Control Book" kept at the works.
From these entries in the "Control Books" the buying and selling accounts are
checked and the annual quantities allowed at each factory are fixed.

The denatured spirit must be stored in a special compartment at the factory,
and on each occasion that any of it is removed for use in the works an entry of
the quantity and particular purpose for which it is to be used must be made in
the "Control Book," and a note must also be entered of the pages of the factory
work books and the official business books in which particulars are to be found
on the production, storage, and sale of the articles or substances in the manu-
facture of which the methylated spirit has been used.

On the demand of the superior Officers of the Administration these books and
business books must be produced for their inspection.

Where this "wood-naphtha denatured" alcohol, or the "completely denatured"
alcohol is unsuitable for any particular manufacture special denaturing agents
may be allowed. Denaturing with special reagents can only be made at the fac-
tories where the alcohol is to be used, and permission must first be obtained from
the Chief Office of the Province for the use of such spirit.

All the special substances sanctioned for denaturing purposes have to be tested
by an official chemist according to officially described methods, and the users
of the denatured spirit have to pay for the anlayses as well as to provide the de-
naturing substances, and proper stores, vessels, etc., for keeping and mixing the
approved reagents with the alcohol.

The mixing takes place in the presence of officials, and the quantities ot each
kind of specially denatured alcohol have to be entered in a separate opening of
the "Control Book," kept in separate vessels or compartments at the factory,
and used under conditions applicable to the "wood-naphtha denatured" alcohol
already described.

A stock account of the amount of all denatured spirit on the premises of users
of such spirit is to be taken at least once a year. The entries in the "Control

APPENDIX. 465

Book" of the spirit received and used are to be checked, and the result of the
comparison submitted to the Chief Office. Payment ot duty on any loss ot spirit
shown by tlie account may be imposed, but only when there is reason to believe
that the spirit has been used in illegal ways.

Denatured spirit may be recovered in any manufacturing operation, but per-
mission must first be obtained. The recovered spirit may be used again for the
same purpose as that for which it was previously used. If used for other pur-
poses, or if it is purified, it has to be again denatured and treated as fresh de-
natured spirit. If exempted from repeated denaturing samples are to be taken
and examined, at the cost of the user, by an official chemist in order to determine
whether it remains unfit for consumption. Recovered spirit may have to be
stored in officially sealed vessels till again denatured. Incompletely denatured
spirit must not be removed from the user s premises.

For incomplete denaturing the following substances (special denaturing agents)
may be used. They are to be added for denaturing purposes in the undernoted
quantities per 100 litres of the spirit.

(a) For industrial uses of all kinds:
5 litres of wood spirit,
or 0.5 " " pyridine bases.
(6) For the production of brewers' varnish and similar substances:

20 litres of a shellac solution, which is made by adding 1 part by
weight of shellac in 2 parts by weight of spirit of at least 90° (58
o.p.), are added to the spirit.
In this case the alcohol in the shellac solution if made under official super-
vision is also allowed exemption from duty.

1 kilogram of camphor,
or 2 litres of turpentine,
or J litre " benzol.

(d) For the production of the following substances:

1. Ether, ordinary (with certain limitations and regulations as to

sale and use);

2. Ethyl sulphuric salts;

3. Agaricin, podophyllin, scammony, guiacum, and jalap resins, as

well as other resins and gum resins;

4. Aldehyde and paraldehyde;

5. White lead and acetate of lead;

6. Ethyl chloride, bromide, and iodide;

7. Photographic paper and dry plates, and emulsions of chloride,

bromide and iodide of silver and gelatin, and similar prepara-
tions;

8. Chloral hydrate;

9. Electrodes for electric storage batteries;

10. Acetic ether (with certain limitations as to sale and use);

11. Glucosides;

12. Rubber preparations;

13. Collodion, and bromine, chloride and iodide of silver emulsions of

collodion;

14. Pancreatin, alkaloids, santonin, tannin, and salicylic acid and its

salts;

15. Coal-tar colours, including substances used in obtaining them, and

intermediate products;

16. Chemical preparations (not otherwise named) which do not retain

any spirit when finished (except formic ether, valerianic ether
and butyric ether);
10 litres of sulphuric ether,
or 1 litre of benzol,
or i " " turpentine,

or 0.025 litre of animal oil. *

Collodion for sale must contain at least 1/lOOth of its weight of guncotton.

466 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(e) For the preparation of chloroform: • , •

300 grams of chloroform.
(/) For the production ot vinegar:

200 litres vinegar contaming 3 per cent, acetic acid,
or 150 " " " 4 " " " •'

or 100 " " " 6 " " '' "

and 100 litres of water,
and BO on,

or 50 litres vinegar containing 12 per cent, acetic acid

and 100 litres of water,
or 30 " '* containing 6 per cent, acetic acid

and 70 litres of water,
and 100 " " "
Any excess of the quantity of acetic acid in the vinegar mixture or of the spirit
are to be allowed for, and the water may be replaced entirely or in part by an
equal quantity of beer, glattwasser, or natural wine.

(g) For making inks, sealing wax, and stamping inks:
0.5 litre of turpentine,
or 0.025 litre of animal oil.
(h) For making bedstead enamels, and brewers varnish, as well as for use
in incandescent lamps, for finishing silk ribbons, and for cleansing
jewellery, etc.:
0.5 litre of turpentine.
(i) For making iodoform:
200 grams iodoform.
The iodoform may be dissolved in part of the spirit, and the solution then
added to the remainder of the spirit.

(k) For varnishes and polishes of all kinds:

2 litres of wood spirit and 2 litres petroleum benzin,
or 0.5 litre of turpentine.
Polishes and varnishes not for use in the works of the makers, but for sale,
must contain at least 1/lOth part of their weight of shellac or other resin.

(/) For preparing medical, botanical and zoological preparations for educa-
tional purposes:

1 litre (commercially pure) methyl alcohol,
and 1 " petroleum benzin.
(m) Soap-making:

1 kilogram of castor oil and 400 c.c. of soda solution.
The denaturing materials may be dissolved by heating in part of the spirit,
and the solution then added to the remanider of the spirit,
(n) For the production of wool fat (lanoline):
5 litres of petroleum benzin.
Spirit is only allowed duty free for the production of ether and acetic ether
under the proviso that they are (under official control) either exported; or else
used at home for industrial uses; or for the purpose of testing in scientific and
technical trades or professions; or for the production of materials for surgical
bandages, but not for ether-containing medicines; or for making fulminates,
smokeless powders, and other munitions of war; or for use in certain Public Insti-
tutions. So far as the ether and acetic ether are not used by the maker, but are
sent to other workshops, or to the named institutions and factories, the regula-
tions as to obtaining a licence for buying, selling and using, as well as to the keeping
of a control book by the sellers, are the same as in the case of "wood-naphtha
denatured" spirit.

It will be required also that the buyers, by means of their business and manu-
facturing books, or by special books, shall enter the particulars of the use of the
ether and acetic ether.

A buyer's licence for ether made from duty-free spirit can also be given if
the ether is to be exported by the buyer, or is to be sent to an authorised indus-
trial user, institution or factory. The intermediate merchant in these cases is
under the same control as the maker of ether for sale. The Superintending Officers
can permit ethei-makers to change ether which has been made from duty-free

APPENDIX. 467

spirit into taxed ether so that it may be used or sold for the uses excepted in para-
graph 1.

In this ease the ether is to be notified for taxing, its weight officially taken,
and the proper duty, on the basis of 1.6 fit re of alcohol for each kilogram of ether,
is to be assessed. If the spirit used is subject to any other charges the highest
charge is to be taken.

More particular regulations are made by the Chief Office.

The denaturing of spirit with 0.5 litre of turpentine for cleaning bijouterie^
and for making polishes and lacquer varnishes which are to be used for lead pencils,
toys, and clock-making can also be permitted in the existing districts of the Chief
Imperial Finance Ministry even when the spirit is not to be used in the factory
of the applicant, but is to be sent to other factories. The regulations as to the
sale and use of "turpentine denatured spirit" are the same as for ** wood-naphtha
denatured" spirit.

PURE DUTY-FREE ALCOHOL.

Pure alcohol without denaturing may be delievered duty free —

(a) To certain Hospitals, Lying-in Hospitals, and Lunatic Asylums, as well as
to Public Scientific Institutions.

Permission has first to be obtained from the Chief Office of the Province, and
an application must be made in writing stating the purposes for which the spirit
is to be used, and the extreme annual quantity required. The quantities allowed
are fixed by the Chief Office and revised every three years. Not less than 25 litres
(oh gallons) can be received at a time. A stock book has to be kept by some specially
desii^nated official of the Institution, in which is to be entered particulars of the
receipt and use of the spirit. The spirit may be used only inside these Institutions
for general scientific and heating purposes and it makes no difference whether the
spirit is directly used for the specified purposes or only indirectly so used, e.g., to
clean instruments, to disinfect the operators or operating tables, or for heating
inhalation apparatus, etc.

Otherwise, the spirit can only be used for the purposes stated. It is specially
forbidden to give the spirit to other persons, or to take it outside the Institutions
except by special permission of the Chief Office. Duty-free ether and acetic ether
are allowed in the Institutions under similar regulations.

(6) For making smokeless powders, fuses, and fulminates, as well as for making
the varnishes used in finishing these substances.

Permission has to be obtained and the same regulations as are applicable to the
buying, storage, and use of "wood-naphtha denatured" spirit, and the keeping
of "control books" and other accounts, are enforced. At large works stock is taken
at frequent intervals, and there is generally a somewhat more stringent super-,
vision by the Excise Officers. Permission may be granted for recovery of any
spirit used in the manufacturing operations. The spirit must only be used inside
the factories and must not under any circumstances be removed from the works.
Duty may be charged on any unexplained loss or deficiency shown at the stock
takings. Duty-free ether and acetic ether are allowed in these factories under
similar regulations.

Pure undenatured alcohol was formerly allowed to be used by apothecaries,
medicine-makers, druggists, doctors, and veterinary surgeons for the preparation of
some 80 tinctures, spirits and hquors according to the formulae of the German
pharmacopoeia and other authorised formulae, and also for doctors' prescriptions
and for making bandages, etc. This privilege was withdrawal in October, 1902,
and all medicines have now to be prepared with duty-paid spirit.

No foreign spirit of any kind, nor any mixtures containing spirit, or substances
made from spirit, appear to be allowed to be used duty free in Germany. All
imported alcohol, alcoholic mixtures and derivatives have to pay the Customs duties
before being delivered for use.

468 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR TESTING WOOD-NAPHTHA.

1. Colour. This shall not be darker than that of a solution made by dissolving
2 c.c. of n/10 iodine in 1,000 c.c. of distilled water.

2. Boiling Point. 100 c.c. placed in a short-necked copper flask of about
180-200 c.c. capacity is placed on an asbestos plate having a circular hole of 30 mm.
diameter. Into the neck of this flask is placed a fractionating tube 12 mm. wide
and 170 mm. long, with its side tube connected to a Liebig's condenser at least
400 mm. long. In the fractionating tube, which is provided with a bulb about
a centimetre below the side tube, is placed an officially tested thermometer with a
scale ranging from 0° C. to 200° C., so that its mercury bulb is in the middle of the
bulb. The flask is heated so that the distillation proceeds at about the rate of 5 c.c.
per minute. The distillate is collected in a cyhnder graduated in c.c, and at
75^ C. with a normal barometric pressure of 760 mm. at least 90 c.c. shall be col-
lected. If the barometer is not at 760 mm. during the distillation 1° C. shall be
allowed for every variation of 30 mm., e.g. at 770 mm. 90 c.c. shall distil at 75^.3 C.
and at 750 mm. 90 c.c. at 74°.7 C.

3. Miscibility with water. 20 c.c. wood spirit mixed with 40 c.c. water shall
give a clear or only slightly opalescent solution.

4. Acetone Content.

(a) Separation on mixing with soda solution.

20 c.c. of wood spirit are shaken with 40 c.c. of soda solution of S.G. 1.300.
At least 5 c.c. of wood spirit must separate after standing for half an hour.

(b) Titration.

1 c.c. of a mixture of 10 c.c. of wood spirit with 90 c.c. of water is mixed with
10 c.c. of double normal soda solution. Then 50 c.c. of n/10 iodine solution are
added with continual shaking and the mixture allowed to remain at least for three
minutes. Then excess of dilute sulphuric acid is added, and the excess of iodine
titrated with n/10 hypo and starch solution. At least 22 c.c. of n/10 iodine solu-
tion shall be required for the acetone.

5. Bromine Absorption. 100 c.c. of a solution of KBrO, and KBr (made up
as under) are acidified by the addition of 20 c.c. of dilute H.SO^ (S.G. 1.290). To
this mixture the spirit is added drop by drop from a burette so long as any colour
remains on shaking. The addition shall be so arranged that in one minute 10 c.c.
of spirit shall be added. Not more than 30 c.c. shall be required for decolouration,
and not less than 20 c.c. This test must be done in full daylight, and the tempera-
ture should not exceed 20° C.

Bromine Solution. — After at least two hours' drying at 100° C. and cooling
in an exsiccator, 2.447 grams of KBrO, and 8.719 grams of KBr of tested purity
are dissolved in water, and the solution made up to 1 litre.

The following tables [(a) (6) (r)] show, for the three years ended 30th September,
1903, (a) the quantities of duty-free spirits issued for use in Germany, (b) the quan-
tities denatured of the several methods allowed, and (c) the quantities used for
particular manufactures, etc.

APPENDIX.

469

(a) Quantities op Duty-free Spirit issued during 1901, 1902, 1903.

Year Ending

Completely
Denatured.

Incompletely
Denatured.

Undenatured.

Total.

30th September.

Hectolitres of Pure Alcohol.

1901

1902

782,295
704,729
900,190

339,754
345,894
360,730

33320
59,427
17,792

1,155,869
1,110,050
1,278,712

1903

Year Ending

Completely
Denatured.

Incompletely
Denatured.

Undenatured.

Total.

30th September.

Equivalent Bulk Gallons of Pure Alcohol.

1901

17,210,490
15,504,038
19,804,180

7,474,588
7,609,669
7,936,060

744,040
1,307,394*
391,424*

25,429,118
24,421,100
28 131 664

1902

1903

* The use of undenatured duty-free spirit in the preparation of medicinal tinctures and pre-
scriptions was formerly allowed in Germany. This privilege was withdrawn after the 30th Sep-
tember, 1902.

The undenatured alcohol is now only allowed to be used duty free in certain hospital.<5. asylums,
and public scientific institutions, and for making smokeless powders, etc., mainly in government
factories

The sudden increase from 33,820 hectolitres in 1901 to 59,427 hectolitres in 1902 was probably
connected with the publication of the intention of the government to disallow the use of pure
duty-free spirits for medicinal purposes, this intention being published a year in advance of
the time that it was to take effect.

470

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(b) Methods of Denaturing and Quantities of Alcohol Denatured in the
Years Ending 30th September, 1901, 1902, and 1903.

Denaturing Substance Used
per 100 Litres of Alcohol.

■ Completely denatured."
Official Mixture —
4 parts Wood Naph-
tha.
1 part Pyridin bases.
For general use —
2i litres of Official

Mixture

Formitor engines, etc. —
1^ litres of Official
Mixture, and 2 to
20 litres of Benzol,
coloured with
Methyl Violet. . . .

Total ''Completely de-
natured"

"Incompletely denatured.''^
For sale —

5 litres Wood Naph-
tha

\ litre Turpentine . . .

For use only in the fac-
tories, etc., where
denatured —

Vinegar (various pro-
portions)

.025 litre Animal Oil

^ litre Turpentine . . .

5Htres Wood N'tha.

10 " Ether

1 kilogram Camphor.

2 htres Turpentine . .

1 li^re Benzol

i " Benzol

1 kg. Castor Oil. . \
0.4'' SodaSolut. S
20 litres Shellac Sol. .
5 litres Petroleum

Benzin

300 gms. Chloroform
\ litre Pyridin bases .
200 gms. Iodoform . .
300 " Ethyl

Bromide

1 litre Commercially

pure Methyl Alco'l

1 litre Petr. Benzin

2 litres Wood N'tha.
2 " Petr. Benzin.

Total Incom. denatured. .

Hectolitres of Pure Alcohol.

1901.

782.295

782,295

18,689
607

166,329

66,748

50,334

2,803

11,495

9,396

5,001

1,879

1,144

1,737

1,684

993
296
210
356

1902.

704,729

339,754

18,164
607

160,287

75,831

51,733

2,240

11,210

9,604

4,935

3,051

2,356

1,710

1,586

1,052
671
509
324

1903.

870,735

29,455

900,190

345,894

20,338
. 639

155,838

79,836

54,460

2,379

14,473

11,510

7,403

4,105

3,525

1 ,808

1,795

992
586
539
322

132

Equivalent Bulk Gallons of Pure
Alcohol.

1901.

17,210,490

360,730

411,158
13,354

3,659,238

1,468,456

1,107,348

61,666

252,890

206,712

110,022

41 ,338

25,168

38,214

37,048

21,846
6,512
4,620
7,832

1902.

15,504,038

1903.

19,156,170

648,010

132

1,034

7,474,588

399,608
13,354

3,526,314

1,668,282

1,138,126

49,280

246,620

211,288

108,570

67,122

51,832

37,620

34,892

23,144

14,762

11,198

7,128

528

7,609,668

19,804.180

447,436.
14,05&

3,428,436

1,756,392

1,198,120

52,338

318,406

253,220

162,866

90,310

77,550

39,776

39,409

21,824

12,892

11,858

7,084

2,904

945

154

7,936,060

APPENDIX.

471

(c) Manufactures, etc., in which "Incompletely Denatured" Alcohol was
USED IN the Years Ending 30th September, 1901, 1902, and 1903 .

Manufacture, etc.

Vinegar

Polishes, Lacquers and
Varnishes

Ether

Medicinal Extracts, Alka-
loids, Coal Tar Colours,
etc

Celluloid.*. ..!!!!!!..!.

Lake Paints and Colours .

Soap

Fulminates, Percussion

Caps, etc

Brewers' Glazes

Lanoline Extraction. . . .

Chloroform

Iodoform

Acetic Ether

Ethyl Bromide

Surgical Dressings

Pharmaceutical Remedies

and Preparations ....
Photographic Emulsions,

Papers, Plates, etc. . . .
Finishing Rubber Goods.

Inks

Miscellaneous

Hectolitres of Pure Alcohol.

1901.

171,264

66,672
48,265

28,070

15,797

2,741

1,737

700
1,447
1,143
296
369
245

425

235
112
236

339,754

1902.

164,062

65,1 16
55,747

32,610

16,684

3,460

1,710

1,650

1,328

1,052

760

324

415

425

258

263

345,894

1903.

164,754

68,095
51,609

38,637

22,438

5,397

1,808

1,651
1,421
992
586
322
464
132
345

435

631
374
217
422

360,730

Equivalent Bulk Gallons of Pure
Alcohol.

1901.

1902.

3,767,808

3,609,364

1,466,784
1,061,830

1,432,552
1,226,434

617,540

347,534

60,302

38,214

717,420

367,048

76,120

37,620

15,400

31,834

25,146

6,512

8,118

5,390

36,300
29,216
23,144
16,720
7,128
9,130

9,350

5,170
2,464
5,192

5,676

660

5,786

7,474,588

7,609,668

1903.

3,624,588

1,498,090
1,135,398

8.50,014

493,636

118,734

39,776

36,322

31,262

21,824

12,892

7,084

10,208

2,904

7,590

9,570

13,882
8,228
4,774
9,284

7,936,060

Appendix No. IV.

REGULATIONS AS REGARDS USE OF SPIRIT FOR INDUSTRIAL,
ETC., PURPOSES IN FRANCE.

The Customs and Excise Taxes on Alcohol in France are:
Customs (Importation),

70 francs per hectolitre (equivalent to about Is. 5d. per proof gallon) and
80 centimes per hectolitre (equivalent to about Is. 7d. per 100 proof gallons)

for control, etc.
These duties are in addition to the Excise duty.
Excise (Internal).

220 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol (equivalent to about 4s. 6d. per
proof gallon).

DUTY-FREE SPIRIT.

Abstract of French Regulations.

Spirits for industrial and domestic use are freed from all taxes on condition that
they are denatured, but all medicaments which contain any spirit after their manu-
facture pay the ordinary spirit duty. Denatured alcohol pays a statistical tax of
0.25 franc per hectolitre of pure alcohol (about 7d. per 100 proof gallons) and also

472 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

O.SO franc per hectolitre (about Is. lOd. per 100 proof gallons) to cover the expense
of the examination of the samples and the supervision of the denaturing operations.

Any person who desires to denature spirit must submit a plan of his premises
and supply details as to the vats, vessels, etc., and the materials to be used for
denaturing.

Denaturing takes place in presence of the Excise officials. The alcohol must
be of at least 90^ (58 o.p.) and contain not more than 1 per cent, of "fusel oil."

Samples of both the alcohol and of the denaturing substances to be used have to
be submitted to analysis as directed by the Ministry of Finance, and all operations
are supervised by tlie Excise officers.

Spirits may be denatured by the ''general process" or by "special processes."

Denaturing by the "special" processes is usually carried out at the factories
where the spirit is to be used.

General Denaturing Process.

Ten litres of wood spirit of at least 90° (58 o.p.) and containing 25 per cent,
acetone and 2.5 per cent of "impurites pyrogenees" for 100 litres of spirit.

Spirit denatured by this reagent is divided into two classes:

1. For lighting and heating and for making "finish." — This spirit must con-
tain, in addition to the general denaturing agent, 0.5 per cent, of heavy
benzine, distilling between 150^ and 200° C, when used for heating and
lighting, and 4 per cent, gum resin for "finish."

These spirits are allowed to be sold, under strict regulations and police and
excise supervision, both wholesale and by retail to the general public,
and correspond to our mineralised methylated spirit and "finish." Since
1st January, 1902, there is allotted to the makers of denatured alcohol
for heating, lighting, and motive power a sum of 9 francs per hectolitre
of pure alcohol (about 2id. per proof gallon). This is to reduce the cost
of denaturing for the various uses to which this alcohol is applied in com-
petition with petrol.

2. For manufacturing purposes, such as varnishes, solid extracts, solidified

spirits, plastic substances, alkaloids, fulminate of mercury, transparent

soap, insecticides, etc.
Manufacturers wishing to use this spirit must obtain permission. They

have to keep an account of spirits received and used, and of the nature

and quantity of the products manufactured by its aid.
Excise officers frequently visit the works in order to assure themselves that

the products made correspond to the spirit produced.
If the products contain any alcohol they come under the same regulations

as to sale, etc., as methylated spirits.
This spirit corresponds to our " Ordinary unminerahsed methylated spirit," and

the regulations in France are not less but more stringent than in this country,

3. Certain industries cannot use methylated spirit mixed with wood spirit,
and the Ministry have authorised the employment of other processes of
denaturing specially adapted to the particular necessities of each manu-
facturer. These are either special for each product, and have to be
approved by the Minister, or general for products or classes of products
already approved on the advice of the Consultative Committee.

Of the latter are:

1. Ethers, simple and compound.

Alcohol is mixed with 10 per cent, of the residue (of a fixed type) of a
previous operation, and 10 per cent, sulphuric acid at 66° B., or 20
per cent, at 54° B. The mixture is heated to a temperature of 80° C.
for some time (prolong^) in presence of the Excise Officer.

2. Ethyl Bromide.

Seven litres of spirit at 93° with 8^ litres sulphuric acid at 66° and
15 grams bromine.

3. Ethyl Iodide.

6 litres of alcohol at 96°, 4 kilograms iodine, and 800 grams amorphous
phosphorus.

4. Ethylate of Soda.

8 litres absolute alcohol and 500 grams soda.

APPENDIX

473

5. Nitric Ether.

1 part nitric acid at 36° and 4 parts alcohol at 96°.

6. FAhyl Chloride.

1 part hydrochloric acid at 21° and 1 part alcohol at 96°.

7. Aldehyde.

Mix alcohol with 10 per cent, sulphuric acid at 66° B. or 20 per cent,
at 54° B., and heat the mixture to a temperature of 80° C. Cool
and then pour the mixture on to bichromate of potash.

8. Chloroform.

Mix the alcohol with 5 or 6 kilograms of chloride of lime in solution.

9. Collodion.

Equal volumes of ether and alcohol, and add guncotton. The mix-
ture should represent 2 litres for each litre of alochol, and should
contain 6 grams pyroxylin.
10. Chloral and Chloral Hydrate.

A current of chlorine gas is passed through alcohol. Each litre of

alcohol of 95° ought to produce 780 grams of chloral hydrate.

In all these cases, as well as those in which the manufacturers are permitted

to employ other special formulie, the denaturing has to be done in presence of

an Excise Officer (Agent d' Administration), and the manufacturer has to keep

registers of the alcohol used, and of the products made, and to submit to visits

from the officials as in the case of those who use the common methylated spirits.

The Administration furnishes the denaturing wood spirit, etc., at the expense

of the makers.

The minimum quantity of spirit that can be denatured by the general formula
is 20 hectolitres (440 gallons) and by any special formulae 10 hectolitres (220 gallons).
In all the " special cases" the French regulations appear to involve the presence
of an official during at least the initial stages of every manufacturing operation,
and in addition a detailed return from the manufacturer of the quantity of the
products he obtains and of the spirit used, and the officials have to be satisfied
that the correspondence between the spirit used and the products obtained is satis-
factory. Manufacturers are charged with duty on any deficiency of spirit show'n
by the returns or inspections.

There appears to be no provision in France for any remission of the Import
(Customs) duty on spirits, and no foreign spirit is denatured.

Table Showing the Quantities of Denatured Spirit used in France for
VARIOUS Manufacturing Purposes during the Years 1900-1-2-3.

Manufacture, etc., for which Used.

Gallons of Pure Alcohol.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

Lighting, heating, motor engines,etc.
Varnishes, lacquers, and poHshes . .
Dyeing

2,764,256

385,264

3,432

158,356

100,408

1,427,206

8,492

19,294

3,366,110

360,426

16,346

111,518

60,852

1,530,848

9,4.38

78,892

4,999,.566

312,136

902

87,186

149,886

1,539,912

8,932

88,000

5,764,792*
317,834^
11,704*
101,090*
613,162
1,405,338
11,418
15,818

Celluloid, etc

Drugs and chemical preparations . .
Ether and explosives.

Scientific purposes

Various

Total

4,866,708

5 534 430 1 7 1 Sfi R9C\

8,241,156

■ J^^'-'," — v^

* These spirits, as well as a large proportion of that classed under '"chemical preparations'*
and "explosives," contain 10 per cent of wood-naphtha.

Since January 1, 1902, a drawback of 9 francs per hectolitre (about 2hd. per proof gallon)
has been allowed on alcohol used for lighting and heating to compensate for cost of methylating,
and to enable this spirit to compete with petrol in motor cars, etc.

There was some alteration of the classification of "drugs," "ether," etc., in 1903.

474 DENATUflED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Appendix No. V.

REGULATIONS AS REGARDS USE OF SPIRIT FOR INDUSTRIAL,
ETC., PURPOSES IN SWITZERLAND.

Customs and Excise Duties.

In Switzerland, the manufacture, importation, and tiie primary sale of alcohol
is a monopoly of the Federal Government.

Farmers are permitted to distil small quantities of spirit from grapes, wine,
wine lees, wine yeast, fruits, berries, etc., grown on their own lands; but, with this
exception, all kinds of distilleries have to work under the supervision of the officials
of the Federal Alcohol Department, and all the spirit produced is taken over by
this department at prices fixed by agreement made between the distillers and the
Federal Finance Minister.

Customs Import Taxes. Brandy, liqueurs, essences, vermouth, tinctures and
other special alcoholic liquors may be imported by private persons on payment of
an import duty of 80 francs per 100 kilograms gross weight of spirit and vessels,
where the strength does not exceed 75° (31 o.p.), and SO centimes lor each degree
over that strength (equivalent to about 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per proof gallon).

But all ordinary alcohol, and substances containing alcohol, come ulnder the
monopoly, and can only be imported into Switzerland by the Federal Alcohol
Department.

Excise {Monopoly) Taxes. All imported alcohol, and all Swiss manufactured
alcohol, has to be sent to the warehouses of the Alcohol Department of the Federal
Government.

Any one who wishes to buy spirit must order it from the department in quantities
of not less than 150 litres. The prices charged are fixed by law at not less than
120 francs or more than 150 francs per hectohtre of pure alcohol.

At present the ordinary "monopoly" prices are as follows:

(a) Wein Sprit, mark A.V.W., or Kahlbaum Sprit (Fein Sprit from Kahl-
baum, Berlin).

142.60 francs per hectohtre at 95° (5s. 2d. per gallon at 66 o.p., 3s. l^d.
per proof gallon).

(b) Prima Sprit, mark A.V.P.

140.97 francs per hectolitre at 95° (5s. Id. per gallon at 66 o.p., 3s. Id.
per proof gallon).

138.53 francs per hectolitre at 95° (5s. per gallon at 66 o.p., 3s. per proof
gallon).

(d) Raw Potato Spirit, mark A. V. R.

131.24 francs per hectohtre at 90° (4s. 9d. per gallon at 58 o.p., 3s. per
proof gallon).
From these prices the Government profit or tax is equivalent to about 2s. to
2s. 3d. per proof gallon.

Wholesale dealing in spirit or spirituous liquors is not subject to any further
licences or taxes, but the retail sale and the regulation of public houses, etc., is
under the control of the Cantonal Authorities, who may impose further taxes or
licences.

Duty-free Spirit.

abstract of the swiss regulations.

The Alcohol Department are authorised to sell denatured spirits in quantities
of not less than 150 litres (33 gallons) at cost price for the following purposes:

(a) For cleansing, heating, cooking, fighting, as well as for use in motor

engines.
(6) For industrial purposes generally, except the preparation of beverages
or of liquid perfumes and cosmetics.

APPENDIX. 475

(d) For scientific purposes.

(e) For preparing pharmaceutical products which do not contain any alcohol

in their finished condition, and are not mixed with alcohol when used.

The denaturing is either "absolute," i.e., such as is considered sufficient of itself
to render the spirit unfit for consumption as a beverage; or it is "relative," i.e.,
such as requires official supervision in order to prevent such relatively denatured
spirit being used for other purposes than those for which it is allowed.

''Absolutely" Denatured Spirit. The preparation of "absolutely" denatured
spirit is exclusively reserved for the Alcohol Department, who prepare it and sell
it to users and retailers in quantities of not less than 150 htres at a time, at a price
of 50 francs per 100 kilograms at 93° (about Is. 6d. per gallon at 63 o.p.). On
quantities of 10,000 kilograms sent out at one time in boiler tanks a discount of 2
per cent, is allowed off this price, and from 1§ to ^ per cent, when quantities of
10,000 kilograms and 5,000 kilograms are so sent out in large and small casks.

' The methods of denaturing and the substances used are regulated by the Alcohol
Department.

The "absolutely" denatured spirit is used for cleansing, heating, cooking, light-
ing, and motor engines, and is for sale by retail. The retail sale is under the con-
trol of the Cantonal Authorities.

For "absolutely" denatured spirit the composition of the denaturing mixture
is not kept constant, but for various reasons it is changed two or three times per
annum. At present (November, 1904) the Department employ a mixture having
the following composition:

Acetone Oil 700 parts

Pyridine Bases 100 "

Solvent Naphtha 90 "

Crude Wood Naphtha 110 "

1,000 parts.

2.7 kilograms of this mixture are added to any 100 kilograms of alcohol at 95°
(about 2.7 gallons to 100 gallons of alcohol at 66 o.p.).

This proportion has been kept constant for some time, but cannot be considered
as unalterable.

** Relatively" denatured spirit. For all manufacturing purposes "relatively"
denatured spirit is allowed to be used.

Whoever wishes to use this kind of spirit in his business must make application
to the Alcohol Department on a special form.

Persons whose names are not registered in the "Trade List" have to obtain an
official certificate as to the character of their establishments, and the kind of busi-
ness carried on by them. The discretion as to the granting of permission is vested
in the Director of the Alcohol Department, who also determines what bonds or
guarantees are sufficient to prevent the improper use of such spirit.

Persons who have been allowed to use this spirit must commence operations
within three months of the date of their obtaining the permission, otherwise a fresh
apphcation has to be made.

Denaturing may take place either in the warehouses of the Alcohol Department
or at the premises of the users of such spirit. In the latter case the users of "rela-
tively" denatured spirit have to obtain the pure spirit from the Alcohol Depart-
ment, and have then to provide the denaturing materials at their own cost, and
also premises for mixing the denaturing substances with the spirit in the presence
of the officials of the Department.

The officials decide whether the denaturing substances provided comply with
the regulations, and if they are not satisfied samples are taken and sent for exam-
ination by the technical chemists of the Department at Berne. Traders have also
to provide the denaturing substances used at a warehouse.

The following substances have been sanctioned for "relative" denaturing in the
undernoted proportions for every 100 htres of alcohol for use for the purposes
specified:

476 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(a) For making Vinegar.

Five litres of absolute acetic acid dissolved in at least 200 litres of water.
The water may be replaced by an equal quantity of beer, wine, yeast^
yeast pressings, or similar liquids.
(6) For preparing Lacquers, Varnishes, and Polishes.

2 litres of wood spirit and 2 litres of petroleum benzin,
or ^ litre of turpentine,
or 5 litres of wood spirit,
or 2 kilograms of shellac,
or 2 " of copal or resin,

or ^ kilogram of camphor.
The denaturing with camphor will only be allowed to authorised users, who mix
varnishes or polishes exclusively for use in their own workshops,
(c) For preparing Dye Substances.
10 litres sulphuric ether,
or 1 litre benzol,
or 1 " coal-tar oil,
or i " turpentine,
or 25 grams animal oil, and

or 25 " aniline blue or eosin, violet, or fluorescein
or 100 " naphthalene,

or 2 kilograms commercially pure methyl alcohol,
or ^ kilogram camphor.
For the use of other denaturing substances for other purposes special permis-
sion has to be obtained from the Federal Council.

In the case of (b) varnishes, etc., and (c) dyes, the Alcohol Department deter-
mines, in each case in which permission is granted for the use of ''relatively" dena-
tured spirit, which of the different denaturing substances given in the list shall be
used.

The authorised users of ''relatively" denatured spirit are required (so far as
may not be in whole or part dispensed with) to keep prescribed books in which
are to be entered the receipt and use of the spirit; the preparation and disposal
of the products made with it; and particulars of any sale of the spirit which may
be allowed.

They have also to send to the Alcohol Department, immediately after the close
of every quarter, certified extracts of these books, giving full particulars of the busi-
ness done during the preceding quarter, and vouching by signature for the accuracy
of these reports.

Officials of the Department may at any time inspect the works, the stock of dena-
tured spirit, and the quantities used, and of the products made with it; and may
take samples and inspect any of the business books belonging to the factory.

The trader and his servants must assist the officials of the Department and of
the Customs in carrying out the denaturing, and generally in the exercise of their
official supervision.

Information must also be immediately given to the officials when there has been
any unusual disturbance in the manufacturing operations, or any occurrence which
has caused an unusual loss of "relatively" denatured spirit, or of the products
made from it.

If more than 10,000 kilograms of relatively denatured spirit are used annually
at any factory, iron or other vats with gauge glasses and scales or floats, and means
for official locking, must be provided for storing the spirit.

Manufacturers who use both "relatively" and "absolutely" denatured spirit
and also undenatured spirit, in their works have to keep separate the processes
in which each kind of spirit is used.

No distilling or rectifying apparatus must be used without the special permis-
sion of the Department either in the rooms in which "relatively" denatured spirit
is being used, or in any adjoining room belonging to the authorised user.

If permission has been given to recover tlie spirit it must be used again for the
same purpose, and the quantities recovered must be entered in the stock books.
The permission for the use of the spirit may be withdrawn at any time, and the
withdrawal gives no person any clain for compensation. If by death or any other

APPENDIX. 477

cause a change in the firm occurs, a renewal of the permission must be obtained
from the Department by the successors.

When for more than a year no "relatively" denatured spirit has been used, the
authorised user must resign his permission, and sell or give over to some other
authorised user any unused spirit, or return it to the Alcohol Department, who will
pay the market price for it.

The owner of the "relatively" denatured spirit must not sell it, or allow it to
leave his manufacturing premises. Permission is given to sell such spirit denatured
with —

(a) 5 litres of Wood Naphtha,
or (6) 3 " of Acetone Oils,
or (c) 2 kilograms of Shellac, per hectolitre.
Such spirit cannot, however, be sold or given to any person who means to sell
it again, but only to users of it in their own workshops. Not less than 5 kilograms
of such spirit can be sold at a time, and if the person to whom it is sold does not hold
a special permission for its use the total quantity he can receive annually must not
exceed 150 litres (33 gallons).

Denatured spirit must not be used for any other purposes than those for which
permission is given, and more particularly it must not be used in any way for mak-
ing beverages, and no attempt must be made to remove wholly or partially from
such spirit any of the denaturing substances, or to add other substances which
would hide either the taste or smell of the denaturing substances. Nor must users
of "relatively" denatured spirit in preparing with it articles for sale make so slight
a change in the spirit that it practically remains only denatured spirit. In particu-
lar all varnishes, etc., must contain at least 6 per cent, of their weight of shellac or
similar resin.

The sale of lacquers, varnishes, and polishes containing 6 per cent, of shellac is
free. Dealers in all other products containing denatured spirit must obtain per-
mission from the Alcohol Department.

Heavy penalties may be imposed for any breach of the laws or regulations.
The prices at which authorised users of "relatively" denatured alcohol can obtain
their spirit from the Alcohol Department are fixed for periods of five years, accord-
ing to the average prices paid by the Department for spirit during the preceding
five years.

The present prices per 100 kilograms net at 95° are as follows:

(a) Sekunda-Sprit 47.0 francs.

(about Is. 44d. per gallon at 66o.p.)

(6) Fein-Sprit or Rohspiritus 48.5 "

(about Is od. per gallon at 66 o.p.)

(about 1 s, 6d , per gallon at 66 o.p. )

(d)^vahlbaum-Sprit or Wein-Sprit 53.5 "

(about Is. 7d. per gallon at 66 o.p.)
The same discounts are given for large orders as in the case of "absolutely"
denatured spirit.

The authorised user has to bear the cost of the carriage, and of the denaturing
substances in addition. Until recently authorised users were permitted to buy
their own alcohol from abroad and to import it through the Department on pay-
ment of an import duty of 8 francs per 100 kilograms (about 2id. per gallon). In
future all alcohol must be bought from the Federal Alcohol Department, and the
prices for the year 1905 have been fixed as follows:

(a) Sekunda-Sprit at 41.0 francs per 100 kilograms at 95°.

(Is. 2Jd. per gallon at 66 o.p. =8id. per proof gal.)
(6) Fein-Sprit or Rohspiritus at 42.50 francs per 100 kilograms at 95°.
(Is. 3d. per gallon at 66 o.p. =9d. re^ proof gal.)

(Is. 4d. per gallon at 66 o.p. =9fd. per proof gal.)

(d) Wein-Sprit at 47.50 francs per 100 kilograms at 95°.

(Is. 5d. per gallon at 66 o.p. = lO^d. per proof gal.)
Authorised users who order at one time one or more tanks of about 10.000 kilo-
grams net content (2,700 gallons) enjoy a discount of 5 per cent, ofif these prices if

478

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

they give the Alcohol Department a period of 30 days for the execution of their
order when foreign kinds of spirit are required.

For all other large orders of over 5,000 kilograms gross weight the usual official
discount will be given.

The annexed tables give the quantities of the "absolutely" denatured spirit,
and of the different kinds of "relatively" denatured spirit used in 1903, and also
the principal purposes for which the latter spirit was used.

Quantity of Denatured Spirit of all Kinds Sold in 1903.

Kilograms at
93° to 95°.

Equivalent

Gallons at

63 to 66 o.p.

*' Absolutely" Denatured

4,758,003

110,980
1,567,602

1,284,660

^*Relatively" Denatured:

From Monopoly

*' Importations

1,678,582

453,217

Total

6,436,585

1,737,877

Quantity of "Relatively" Denatured Spirit Used in Switzerland in 1903.

Nature of the Manufacture, etc.
is Used.

in which the Spirit

Vinegar-making

For lacquers and varnishes

Manufacture of dyes

For dissolving dyes for cotton factories

For soaps and perfumery

For scientific purposes

Chemical products

Surgical dressings

Gummed tissues

Tobacco manufacture

Artificial silk

Celluiold

Smokeless powder

Fulminate of mercury

Acetic ether

Grafting wax

Elect retyping

Preparing cotton goods

Making mixture to prevent freezing of gas-pipes

Preserving natural-history specimens

" botanical specimens

In photo-chemical works

Number of
Factories
or Users.

19
154
8
6
11
18
27
3
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2

Quantities of Alcohol Used.

Kilograms
at 95°.

225,849

169,767

311,581

9,150

8,376

4,048

133,231

782

6,049

603,730

8.758

2,952

10,932

91 ,759

258

280

16,069

2.536

252

438

. 850

1,607,665

Equivalent

Gallons at

66 o.p.

60,980

45.837

84,127

2,470

2,262

1,093

35,972

211

1,633

163,007

2,365

797

2,952

24,775

4,339

685

118

230

434.072

APPENDIX.

479

Denaturing Substances Used for "Relative" Denaturing, and Quantitt
OF Alcohol Denatured with Each.

ID^enaturing Substances.

Quantity of Alcohol Denatured.

Kilograms
at
95°.

Equivalent

Gallons at

66 o.p.

1. Shellac, with or without the addition of camphor

terpentine, wood-naphtha, etc

2. Colophony resin

3. Copal resin

4. Camphor

5. Turpentine

6. Acetic acid ;

7. Nitric acid

8. Acetic ether

9. Ethylic ether

10. Wood-naphtha

11. Pure methyl alcohol

12. Wood-naphtha and pyridine

13. Acetone oil ,

14. Methyl violet (dye) . . .

15. Methylene blue (dye)

16. Aniline blue (dye)

17. Eosin (dye)

18. Fluorescein (dye)

19. Naphthalein

20. Soap and castor-oil solution

21. Coal-tar oil

22. Benzol

23. Nitrobenzol

24. Phenol

25. Pyjidin

26. Caustic soda

27. Piperonal

28. Musk

29. Animal oil

30. Ethyl chloride -.

31 . Chloroform

32. Formalin

33. Undenatured (for manufacture of munitions of war)

52,340

3,974

2,455

22,551

98,210

257,186

1,241

3,532

628,566

15,751

11,419

352

1,748

132,350

524

10,711

133,552

87,038

9,463

4,367

12,670

3,100

513

739

87,817

15,244

2,423

8,275

54,780

1,243

128

220

13,609

14,132

1,073

663

6,089

26,517

69,440

335

953

169,713

4,253

3,083

472

35,734

141

2,892

36,059

23,500

2,555

1,179

3,421

837

138

200

23,710

4,116

654

2,2.34

14,790

336

3,674

1,678,091 453,081

480 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Appendix No. VI.

REGULATIONS AS REGARDS USE OF SPIRIT FOR INDUSTRIAL,
ETC., PURPOSES IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, RUSSIA, HOLLAND,
UNITED STATES, BELGIUM.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

The Spirit taxes in Austria and Hungary are:
Customs (Import).

On Liqueurs, Punch Essence, Sweetened Spirits, Arrack, Rum, French
Brandy and Cognac: 150 kronen (£6) per 100 kilograms, equivalent
to about 4s. per bulk gallon.
On all other spirits: 110 kronen (£4 8s.) per 100 kilograms, equivalent to

about 3s. 3d. per bulk gallon.
These duties are in addition to the highest Excise Duty payable in the
country on spirits of the same description.
Excise.

Austria. — 90 kronen (75s.) per 100 litres pure alcohol, equivalent to Is.

lid. per proof gallon.
Hungary. — 100 kronen (83s. 4d.) per 100 litres of pure alcohol, equivalent
to 2s. 2d. per proof gallon.

Duty-free Spirit.

Ordinary Methylated Spirit is made by mixing with alcohol of at least 90° (58 o.p.):

2 per cent. Wood Naphtha,

J per cent. Pyridine Bases, and a

Trace of Phenolphthalein.
A Tax equivalent to about one-third of a penny per gallon is charged for dena-
turing.

For Varnishes, fulminate of mercury, hat-making, etc.:

^ per cent, of turpentine is the denaturing agent.
For Vinegar the spirit is mixed with "Anhydride."

Very small quantities of pure alcohol are used for scientific purposes under
certain conditions free of duty.

RUSSIA.

Customs and Excise Duties on Alcohol.

Customs (Import).

16 roubles 20 copecks per poud, equivalent to 34s. 6d. per 36 lbs. As
in Germany, probably the weight of the vessels is included, and no
very exact comparison can be made with the British standard. Ap-
proximately, the tax may be taken at 10s. to 12s. per proof gallon.
Excise.

The sale of alcohol is a monopoly in Russia, and distillers have to hand
over their produce at fixed rates.

Duty-free Spirit.

abstract of RUSSIAN REGULATIONS.

Persons wishing to vise spirit duty free must apply to the Minister of Finance.
Permission is generally limited to one year. Security for the duty (bond) must be
given.

The quantity of spirit allowed is determined each year, and "depends on the
productive power of the manufactory, conditions for disposal of manufactured

APPENDIX. 481

article, scale of annual consumption of spirit," etc. The spirit is issued from dis-
tilleries, rectifying works, etc., on production of the order of the Finance Minister.
It is received and examined at the factories by Excise Officers, and after having
been denatured, is placed under revenue seal in a special store and is only issued as
required by an Excise Officer. Accounts of receipt and issue are strictly kept,
and sent to auditing authorities at the end of each year.

As a general rule a special Excise Controller is attached to each works for con-
stant supervision of the proper use of the duty-free spirit, and the proprietor of the
works is bound to provide him with proper dwelling accommodation and with
furniture and fuel.

Foreign spirits cannot be imported duty free.

Denaturing Processes employed:

1. For Varnishes and Polishes.

100 parts spirit are mixed with 5 parts wood-naphtha, and 1 part of turpentine,
or instead of turpentine resin, shellac, tar, etc., may be used in the pro-
portion of i lb. to one vedro (2.7 gallons of spirit).

2. For the preparation of Wine Vinegar.

The spirit is diluted with water and vinegar, so that it shall be of a strength
of 12° Tralles (79 u.p.), and contain 1 per cent, of acetic acid.

3. For the preparation of Ether, Chloroform, Chloral Hydrate and Iodine.

20 "lots" of animal oil to 100 vedros (270 gallons) of spirit.

4. For the preparation of Tannin and Collodion.

To 100 parts of spirit 10 parts of sulphuric ether are added.

5. For the preparation of Santonine.

Fresh spirit is >ruxed with spirit that has already been used in the proportion
oi 4 parts of fresh spirit to one part of used spirit, or 36 lbs. (1 poud) of crude
santonine is mixed with (10 vedros) 27 gallons of spirit.

6. For the prevaration of Phenacetin, Salol, Salii^urine and Salicitine-Nitro Salts.

5 per cent, of benzol is added to the spirit.

7. For the preparation of Aniline Dyes.

5 parts of wood-naphtha to 100 parts of spirit, or the spirit is mixed with animal
oil in the proportion of 20 lots of oil to one vedro of spirit (2.7 gallons).

8. For the preparation of Artificial Silk.

10 per cent, of sulphuric ether is added to the spirit.

9. For the preparation of Resimte or Ksylite.

7 per cent, of ether or acetone.

10. For Smokeless Pmvder Manufacture.

Spirit is not denatured, but there is strict registration and personal supervision
of the Excise Officer.

11. For Fulminate of Mercury.

l/40th of 1 per cent, of animal oil (.025 per cent.), and 5 per cent, of the crude
recovered spirit used in the process.

12. For the Emulsic process, i.e., Extraction of Sugar from Treacle.

Fresh spirit is mixed with the spirit that has already been used in the propor-
tion of 1 part of fresh spirit to 1 part of used spirit.

13. For Preventing Freezing of Gas Pipes.

5 parts of wood-naphtha and 1 part of pyridin bases to 100 of spirits.

14. For Street Lighting in Towns.

20 parts of turpentine to 100 parts of spirit; only issued to contractors to town
councils, etc.

HOLLAND.

The Spirit Taxes in Holland are:
Excise.

63 florins per hectolitre of alcohol at 50°, equivalent to about 5s. 6d.
per proof gallon.
Customs (Import).

A Surtax of 350 florins per hectolitre of alcohol at 50°, and in addition
the Excise Tax of 63 florins = total 66.50 florins, equivalent to about
5s. 9d. per proof gallon.

482 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Duty-free Alcohol,
abstract of the dutch regulations.
Ordinary Methylated Spirits.

1 litre wood spirit.

8 litres alcohol of at least 85° (49 o.p.).

This spirit is free to all who like to use it, on condition that it is not used in
articles of human consumption, and that no attempt is made to purify it from
methyl alcohol.
Vinegar-making.

1 hectolitre of alcohol at 50° is denatured with

1 hectolitre vinegar of 4 per cent, strength,

2 hectolitres water,
or

20 litres vinegar of 4 per cent.,
20 " dried raisin juice,
or

20 litres vinegar alone if Excise Officers see the mixture added to acidifying
vessels.
Permission to receive methylated spirits must be renewed every year.
Wood spirit provided by Government at a fixed price to cover cost of methy-
lating.

Excise keep accounts of quantity used. Vinegar-makers furnish returns of
vinegar made.

Specimens in spirit for teaching natural history may be imported duty free,
and no Excise duty is charged.

Foreign-made varnishes containing wood naphtha equal to home-made may
be imported duty free.
Duties on —

Chloral hydrate fi 1 . 30 per kilogram.

(1) Ether, sulphuric "2.20"

(2) " acetic " 1 . 20 " "

(3) Collodion " 1 . 90 " "

Chloroform " 1 . 50 " "

Nitrous ether " 1 . 30 " "

Wood spirit "1.15" litre.

(1) Exempt when required for use in making smokeless powders and

glazing porcelain.

(2) Exempt when required for use in making smokeless powders and

glazing porcelain.

(3) Exempt when required for incandescent mantles.

Other similar products pay the same Surtax and Excise as 24 litres of alcohol at
50°.

UNITED STATES.

The Customs and Excise duties on Alcohol in the United States are:
Customs.

SI. 75 (Minimum Reciprocity Tariff),
$2.25 (General Tariff),

Per American Proof Gallon; equivalent to 10s. to 12s. lOd. per British
Proof Gallon.
Excise.

$1.10 per American Proof Gallon; equivalent to 6s. 3d. per British Proof
Gallon.

Duty-free Alcohol.

There appears to be nothing equivalent to British methylated spirit or dena-
tured spirit of any kind in the United States.*

The only duty-free alcohol of any kind is that which is supplied in very small
quantities to certain schools and colleges for use in Education and research.

♦Since this report was published, legislation permitting denatured alcohol in the United States

has been enacted.

APPENDIX. 483

BELGIUM.

The Customs and Excise Taxes on Alcohol in Belgium are:
Customs (Importation).

175 francs per hectolitre at 50°, and 3.50 francs for each degree over 50

for ordinary spirits in bulk (equivalent to 7s. per proof gallon).
In bottles 350 francs per hectolitre. Other alcoholic liqueurs at 350

francs per hectolitre.
Food preparations preserved in alcohol, 175 francs per 100 kilograms.
Wood spirit, methyl and amylic alcohol, and all homologues pay Customs

duty.
Excise (Internal).

Excise on home-made spirits is 150 francs per hectolitre at 50° (equivalent

to 6s. per proof gallon).
Agricultural Distilleries obtain a rebate of the Excise Duty, equal to 8

to 10 francs per hectolitre at 50° (equivalent to 4d. to 5d. per Proof

Gallon).

Duty-free Alcohol.

abstract of the belgian regulations.

Since 1896 alcohol has been allowed duty free in a few manufactures and in a
number of others a proportion of the duty is returned after the alcohol has been
mixed with certain denaturing agents. [See table on page 484.]

Duty-free alcohol for heating and lighting has not yet been allowed. In a note
to our Ambassador (February, 1902) the Belgian officials say:

"The point is under consideration and the Government are following atten-
tively what is being done in foreign countries, notably in Germany and France.
The question, however, has not the same interest in Belgium as in those coun-
tries. In France and Germany petrol pays a hea^^ import duty, while in
Belgium it is free from any tax. From an economic point of view it seems
probable that it will be always more advantageous to use petrol than alcohol
even free of all duty for those purposes in Belgium."

Apparently the only products containing methylated spirits that can be sold
are varnishes.

All the other denatured spirits are for use in the factories only, and the dena-
turing is done under the supervision of officers at the works. Accounts have to
be kept at the works of the quantity of methylated spirits used daily. Excise officers
frequently take stock of the methylated spirit, and may verify quantities of prod-
ucts made. No stills allowed on works, except when specially authorised under
exceptional circumstances.

Two hectolitres at 50° (44 gallons) is the minimum quantity that can be dena-
tured.

Quantity of spirits on which duty remitted in 1901, 21,292 hectolitres (468,424
gallons). Of this

150.000 gallons were used in making common ether,

121,000 '' " " " " vinegar,

105,000 " " " " " varnishes,

58,000 " " " " " artificial silk,

434,000

leaving 14,000 gallons for the other trades.

The conditions under which denatured spirit is allow^ed in Belgium are evidently
less favourable than in this country, as, exclusive of the cost of the denaturing
agents, a duty of about 5d. per proof gallon, or 8d. at 60 overproof is charged.

By a law^ passed in 1902 the Belgian Government is authorised to grant total
or partial exemption from the import tax on alcohols intended to be used exclu-
sively for industrial purposes. The alcohol must first be denatured.

The table on page 485 shows the quantity of denatured alcohol used in the vari-
ous kinds of industry in Belgium since the beginning of 1902.

484

DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

Duty Remitted on Denatured Alcohol Used in Manufactures in Belgium.

Manufacture, etc.

Denaturing Agent Used per Hectolitre of Alcohol at 94° or
over (64 o.p.).

Duty Re-
mitted per
Hectolitre
at 50^
(Excise Duty
150 Francs.)

Vinegar

300 litres of water, and 100 litres of vinegar containing
8 per cent, acetic acid

Francs.
120

Varnish

For use in workshojs where made: 8 litres methyl
alcohol (wood spirit) containing 5 per cent, acetone
and 25 litres of varnish containing 30 per cent, gum
resin

114

Aniline colours. .
Hats

For sale: 10 litres wood spirit containing 5 per cent,
acetone, and 25 litres varnish containing 30 per
cent, gum resin

10 htres wood spirit containing 5 per cent, acetone,
and 25 grams fuchsine or other aniline colour

10 litres wood spirit containing 5 per cent, acetone,
and 25 litres varnish containing 30 per cent, gum
resin

140

Artificial flowers.

10 litres wood spirit containing 5 per cent, acetone,
and 15 grams aniline colours

140

Frame gilding. . .

20 litres wood spirit containing 5 per cent, acetone, or
3 litres ethyl methyl ketone

114

Fireworks mate-
rials

10 litres wood spirit and 5 kilog. gum accroide

10 litres sulphuric acid at 66° B.

140

Refining and
washing raw
oils

140

Transparent soap
Mercury fulmi-
nate

5 litres ess. of lavender, aspic of citronella

140

10 litres of crude ethers, recovered in process

50 litres common ether

140

Collodion for use
in workshop
where made. . .

140

Tannin

50 litres common ether

140

Pegamoids, etc. .

5 litres acetone, or 2 litres ethyl-methyl-ketone, or 25
litres ether

140

Smokeless powd.
Peptones from

brewing yeasts
Tineacidine, a

disinfectant . .

3 litres ethyl-methyl-ketone

140

3 It (t t( t(

140

2 (( (( ti tt

150

Antiseptics and
medicaments .

Q (C (( tl It

140

Quinoline yellow
Gazage de "ficelles
Artificial silk

3 litres acetone oil

150

^ 11 11 tl

140

150 litres common ether

150

Soldering metals

3 litres of mixture of equal parts of ethyl methyl
ketone and acetone oil

140

Acetic ether

15 litres of acetic ether residues

150

Sulphuric or
common ether

10 litres of sulphuric ether residues

150

Anatomical, etc.,
preparations in
superior
schools

500 grams nitrobenzol, 500 grams camphor, or IJ
litres methvl ethvl ketone

140

APPENDIX.

485

Table Showing, for Each Class op Industry, the Quantities op Denatured
Alcohol Used in Belgium during the Years 1902, 1903, and the First
Nine Months of 1904.

Class of Industry.

Quantity of Denatured Alcohol Used.

1902.

1903.

Nine Months
of 1904.

Vinegar

Varnish

Aniline Colours

Hats

Fulminate of Mercury

Collodion

Artificial Flowers

Frame Gilding

Transparent Soap

Refining and Washing Raw Oils

Tannin

Anatomical or Scientific Preparations.

Antiseptics and Medicaments

Pharmaceutical or Chemical Products

Simili Leather

Smokeless Powder

Peptones

Acetic Ether

Sulphuric Ether

Artificial Silk

Alcohol for dissolving Resin used for

soldering Metal Boxes

Quinoline Yellow

Tineacidine (disinfectant)

Fireworks Materials

Gazage des ficelles

Gallons at 50°.

174,218

117,194

1,628

3,212

176

1,122

308
264
198

638
3,762
2,508
6,842

4,268
308,748
144,496

Total.

286
88

769,956

Gallons at 50°.
276,760
123,244
2,508
2,354
3,146
3,058

352

528

1,100

5,962

3,366

462

4,004
568,194
325,248

660
440
154

Gallons at 50°.

240,548

88,462

2,178

6,160

10,230

2,838

308
792
198

550
8,426
3,366

1,408

514,228
376,816

264

330

1,321,584

1,257,146

ABSTRACT FROM BRITISH REVENUE ACT, 1906, AS TO SPIRITS
USED IN ART, MANUFACTURE, ETC., AND SUPPLEMENTAL
AMENDMENTS OF THE SPIRITS ACT, GRANTING NEW
AND MORE LIBERAL PROVISIONS.

Attention has already been called to these provisions as given in
detail in Chapter IX, and the increased benefits that will thereby accrue
have been explained. We give below a copy of such parts of the British
Revenue Act, 1906, as relate to such new legislation. The author is
indebted to Sir William Crookes, member of the Departmental Com-
mittee on Industrial Alcohol, for a copy of their report made to both
Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty, and also for a copy
of this Revenue Act, 1906, in which the recommendation of this com-
mittee, that for industrial methylated spirit the proportion of wood-
naphtha (wood-alcohol) be reduced from 10 to 5 per cent, was em-
bodied and enacted.

The author also expresses his appreciation of the kindness of the
General Secretary, Charles G. Cresswell, of the Society of Chemical
Industry, for copies of the Statutory Rules and Orders, 1906, No. 622
Excise: Spirits — Regulations, dated August 11, 1906, made by the
Commissoners of Inland Revenue, relating to the Manufacture and Sale
of Spirits and to Spirits received for use in the Arts and Manufactures.
These regulations are given in Chapter IX.

AN ACT to amend the Law relating to Customs and Inland Revenue, and for other
purposes connected with Finance. [4th August, 1906.]

Be it enacted by the King's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice
and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:

PART 1. SPIRITS.

1. (1) Where any spirits are used by an authorised methylator for making^
industrial methylated spirits, or are received by any person for use in any art
or manufacture under section eight of the Finance Act, 1902, the like allowance
shall be paid to the authorised methylator or to the person by whom the spirits
are received, as the case may be, in respect of those spirits as is payable on the
exportation of plain British spirits, and the Commissioners may by regulations
prescribe the time and manner of the payment of the allowance and the proof
to be given that the spirits have been or are to be used as aforesaid.

(2) No allowance shall be payable under this section on methylic alcohol,
but foreign methylic alcohol may be received and used under section eight of
the Finance Act, 1902, without payment of the difference of duty mentioned in
that section.

486

APPENDIX. 487

(3) One-nineteenth shall, as respects methylated spirits other than mineralised
nietiiylated spirits, be substituted for one-ninth as the minimum proportion of
the substance or combination of substances to be mixed with spirits under sub-
section (3) of section one hundred and twenty-three of the Spirits Act, 1880.

(4) Nothwitstanding anything in subsection (2) of section eight of the Finance
Act, 1902, an applicant under that section shall not be required to pay any expenses
incurred in placing an officer in charge of his premises, except such expenses as,
in the opinion of the Commissioners, are incurred for special attendances of the
officer, made to meet the convenience of the applicant.

(5) Such quantity as the Commissioners may authorise by regulations in each
case shall be substituted for fifty gallons in subsection (c) of section one hundred
and twenty-six of the Spirits Act, 1880, as the maximum quantity of methylated
spirits that may be received or be in the possession of a retailer at any one time;
and for one gallon in subsections (e) and (/) of that section as the maximum quan-
tity of methylated spirit which a retailer may receive from another retailer at
a time, and as the maximum quantity which a retailer may sell to or for the use of
any one person at a time respectively.

3. (1) Section one hundred and twenty-one of the Spirits Act, 1880 (which
forbids the supply of methylated spirits except to the persons mentioned in the
section), shall be construed as if, as regards the supply of industrial methylated
spirits, a retailer of methylated spirits was not a person excepted under that section,

(2) A retailer of methylated spirits shall not receive or have in his possession
any methylated spirits except such as may be authorised by regulations, and
if any such retailer contravenes this provision, he shall, for each offence, incur a
fine of fifty pounds, and the spirits in respect of which the offence is committed
shall be forfeited.

(3) Every vessel in which an authorised methylator stores, keeps, or supplies
industrial methylated spirits, or mineralised methylated spirits, must be labelled
in such a manner as to show that the methylated spirits are industrial or mineralised,
as the case may be, and if an authorised methylator fails to comply with this pro-
vision he shall, for each offense, incur a fine of fifty pounds, and the spirits with
respect to which the offense is committed shall be forfeited.

(4) In addition to the account required to be kept by the proper officer under
subsection (1) of section one hundred and twenty-five of the Spirits Act, 1880,
an authorised methylator shall keep distinct accounts in the prescribed forms of
any industrial methylated spirits and of any mineralised methylated spirits prepared
or received by him and of the sale, use, and delivery thereof, and that section shall
apply with reference to each of those accounts and the spirits to which the account
relates as it applies with reference to the stock account therein mentioned and to
methylated spirits generally.

(5) Section one hundred and thirty of the Spirits Act, 1880, shall apply as
if it were an offence under that section without the consent in writing of the Com-
missioners, or otherwise than in accordance with regulations, to purify or attempt
to purify methylated spirits or methylic alcohol, or, after methylated spirits or
metyhlic alcohol have once been used, to recover or attempt to recover the spirit
or alcohol by distillation or condensation, or in any other manner.

(6) Subsection (2) of section one hundred and thirty of the Spirits Act, 1880,
shall apply as respects any article specified in an order of the Commissioners as
it applies with respect to sulphuric ether or chloroform.

3. (1) The Commissioners may permit the exportation on drawback of tinc-
tures or of spirits of wine, subject to regulations, direct from the premises of a
person licensed to rectify or compound spirits, and the like drawbacks and allow-
ances shall be payable in repsect of tinctures or spirits of wine so exported as
would be payable if the tinctures or spirits of wine were exported from an excise
or customs warehouse.

(2) In ascertaining the amount of drawback on any tinctures so exported,
the Commissioners may make such addition as they think just in respect of waste.

(3) If any rerson fails to comply with any regulation made under this section,
he shall, in addition to any other liability, incur in respect of each offence a fine
of fifty pounds and the article in respect of which the offence is committed shall
be forfeited.

488 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

(4) This section shall apply as respects the shipment of tinctures as stores
as it applies with respect to the exportation of tinctures.
4. (1) In this Part of this Act—

The expression ''industrial methylated spirits" means any methylated
spirits (other than mineralised methylated spirits) which are intended
for use in any art or manufacture within the United Kingdom ; and
The expression "mineralised methylated spirits" means methylated spiiits
which, in addition to being methylated as provided by subsection (3) ot
section one hundred and twenty-three of the Spirits Act, 1880, as amended
by this or any other Act, have mixed with or dissolved in them such
quantity of such kind of mineral naphtha as may for the time being be
prescribed by regulations of the Commissioners . . .
The expression "regulations" means regulations made under section one
hundred and fifty-nine of the Spirits Act, 1880.
(2) This Part of this Act shall be construed with the Spirits Act, 1880.

13. (1) This Act shall come into operation, save as otherwise expressly pro-
vided, on the first day of October, nineteen hundred and six.
(2) This Act may be cited as the Revenue Act, 1906.

AMENDMENTS TO THE ACT OF CONGRESS OF JUNE 7, 1906.*

This supplementary legislation was designed to amend and perfect
the original denatured alcohol act which was enacted June 7, 1906, and
took effect January 1, 1907.

Amendments were enacted in accordance with the Act, a copy of
which follows, the purposes of such amendments being to cheapen the
cost of the manufacture and transportation of denatured alcohol, and
to admit of general competition in its manufacture and sale, thus lessen-
ing the cost of the product to the consumer.

This Act will further benefit the American public by permitting the
manufacture of ether, chloroform, and other definite chemical substances
from tax-free, suitably (specially) denatured alcohol where the alcohol
is changed into some other chemical substance and does not appear in the
finished product as alcohol.

Among such substances may be mentioned aniline dyes, smokeless
powder, ethers, chloroform, chloral hydrate, etc.

This legislation will permit small stills to be operated for producing
alcohol from any substance whatever for denaturation only. Such stills
to have a daily spirit-producing capacity of not exceeding one hundred
proof gallons (about 53 gallons of high-proof alcohol of 95% strength or
190° U. S. proof).

From the Report of the Committee on Ways and Means, submitted
by Mr. Hill of Connecticut, accompanying H. R. 24816, the Act con-
taining the legislation to which we refer, it appears that farmers and
other small producers can engage in the practical distillation of alcohol,
and also that the different sections of the country can be supplied from
central points of distribution with alcohol as a cheap source of supply
for fuel, light, and power. According to this same report another im-
portant benefit which this amending legislation will admit of is the
establishment of denaturing plants located in our large manufacturing

* Since this book was written supplementary legislation, amending the original
denatured alcohol law, has been enacted by our Congress, a copy of which and
discussion thereof is here given.

489

490 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

centers, where the demand for the product exists and where public con-
venience and commercial necessities justify their location. This report
further states that in England, France, and Germany the denaturing
of ethyl alcohol is largely an independent business, like any other manu-
facturing process, the owner of the plant buying his raw material wherever
he pleases and shipping it in bond to the denaturing plant, there to be
prepared in accordance with the regulations, released from bond and
offered for sale.

Continuing, this report mentions that '' judging from the ejcperience of
other countries where the right to use denatured alcohol freely has been
conceded for twenty-five to fifty years, probably two-thirds of the entire
consumption will be of what is known as 'completely denatured' spirit.
This is what is used for heating, cooking, lighting, and for all kinds of
internal explosion engines and for many manufacturing uses.

" It is purchased and consumed at the will of the buyer, as freely as oil
or coal can be, and no records are required to be kept by him and no
license needed, except in the case of the manufacturer using an average
of more than 50 gallons per month.

''The effect of the denatured alcohol law of last year has been prompt
and far reaching. It went into effect on January 1, 1907. Wood alcohol,
which the day before was selling at 70 cents per gallon, was at once re-
duced to 40 cents. Since the law was approved, June 7, 1906, seven new
wood-alcohol refineries have been started, and the proprietors announce
their intention to enter into a straightfon\^ard, uncoddled competition
with denatured spirits.

''Denatured alcohol began its new career at 36 cents per gallon at
Peoria, Illinois, on January 1, and before January closed was offered at
31 to 32 cents, with the demand far in excess of the supply."

Other interesting statements made by this report are that "in April,
1906, denatured alcohol was selling at wholesale in Berlin at 25.21 cents
per gallon" and that " one of the largest locomobile and motor works of
Germany has been issuing a trade circular which states that the Central
Syndicate of the Alcohol Manufacturer's Interests in Germany with letter
dated Berlin, July 23, 1906, have announced that commencing October 1,
1906, the price of 90 per cent motor alcohol (completely denatured) will
be reduced to 20 marks per hectolitre. . . . This is equivalent to 18 cents
per gallon." From all of these causes mentioned and the data given here,
it will be readily appreciated that the field for denatured alcohol in the
United States will be very much enlarged by this supplementary legisla-
tion to which we have referred and which, together with the U. S. Govern-
ment Regulations thereon, will go into effect September 1, 1907, in

APPENDIX. 491

addition to the present law. The use of specially denatured alcohol is
increasing and its use will be largely increased by this legislation which
we have mentioned. Such special denaturing is done by addition of one
or more of the ingredients used in the process of manufacturing the
product in question, as the use of castor-oil and caustic soda or lye for
specially denaturing alcohol for the manufacture of transparent soap;
also the addition of camphor and wood alcohol for specially denaturing
alcohol for the manufacture of celluloid and pyralin.

Specially denatured alcohol and the prospect of its greatly extended
uses in this country is fully discussed in Chapter X of this book.

The cost of ether should be largely reduced when made from tax-
free suitably denatured alcohol (specially denatured), and is only one
instance in point.

The field for the manufacture of denatured alcohol, and for the
various products mentioned, is thus opened by this Act to general com-
petition, with results that should not only see a low-priced denatured
alcohol, but many products that can be made either from it or by its use,
either correspondingly cheapened in cost or greatly improved in quality.
One great advantage will be the substitution of denatured alcohol for the
objectionable and poisonous wood alcohol.

We give here a copy of this Act and the text of the amendments it
contains.

AN ACT to amend an Act entitled "An Act for the withdrawal from bond tax
free of domestic alcohol when rendered unfit for beverage or hquid medicinal
uses by mixture with suitable denaturing materials," approved June seventh,
nineteen hundred and six.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America
in Congress assembled, That notwithstanding anything contained in the Act entitled
** An Act for the withdrawal from bond tax free of domestic alcohol when rendered
unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by mixture with suitable denaturing
materials," approved June seventh, nineteen hundred and six, domestic alcohol
when suitably denatured may be withdrawn from bond without the payment of
internal-revenue tax and used in the manufacture of ether and chloroform and
other definite chemical substances where said alcohol is changed into some other
chemical substance and does not appear in the finished product as alcohol: Provided,
That rum of not less than one hundred and fifty degrees proof may be withdrawn,
for denaturation only, in accordance with the provisions of said Act of June seventh,
nineteen hundred and six, and in accordance with the provisions of this Act.

Sec. 2. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the
Secretary of the Treasury, may authorize the estabhshment of central denaturing
bonded warehouses, other than those at distilleries, to which alcohol of the required
proof may be transferred from distilleries or distillery bonded warehouses without
the payment of internal-revenue tax, and in which such alcohol may be stored
and denatured. The establishment, operation, and custody of such warehouses
shall be imder such regulations and upon the execution of such bonds as the Com-
missioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury,
may prescribe.

Sec. 3. That alcohol of the required proof may be drawn off, for denaturation
only, from receiving cisterns in the cistern room of any distillery for transfer by

492 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

pipes direct to any denaturing bonded warehouse on the distillery premises or to
closed metal storage tanks situated in the distillery bonded warehouse, or from
fcuch storage tanks to any denaturing bonded warehouse on the distillery
premises, and denatured alcohol may also be transported from the denatur-
ing bonded warehouse, in such manner and by means of such packages, tanks or
tank cars, and on the execution of such bonds, and imder such legulations as the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treas-
ury, may prescribe. And further, alcohol to be denatured may be withdrawn with-
out the payment of internal-revenue tax from the distillery bonded warehouse
for shipment to central denaturing plants in such packages, tanks and tank cars,
under such regulations, ""and on the execution of such bends as may be prescribed
by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of
the Treasury.

Sec. 4. That at distilleries producing alcohol from any substance whatever,
for denaturation only, and having a daily Epirit-producing capacity of not exceed-
ing one hundred proof gallons, the use of cisterns or tanks of such size and con-
struction as may be deemed expedient may be permitted in lieu of distillery bonded
warehouses, and the production, storage, the manner and process of denaturing on
the distillery premises the alcohol produced, and transportation of such alcohol,
and the operation of such distilleries shall be upon the execution of such bonds
and under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe, and such distilleries rnay
by such regulations be exempted from such provisions of the existing laws relating
to distilleries, as may be deemed expedient by said officials.

Sec. 5. That the provisions of this Act shall take effect on September first, nine-
teen hundred and seven.

Approved March 2, 1907.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DENATURED ALCOHOL AND BOOKS OF

REFERENCE.

Maercker's Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation. Maercker-Delbruch.

La Rectification de TAlcool, par Ernest Sorel.

Nouveau Manuel Complet de la Distillation de la Betterave, Pomme

de Terre, par E. Hourier.
The Technology of Sugar. John Geddes MTntosh. London: Scott,

Greenwood & Co.
Food Inspection and Analysis. Albert E. Leach.
Etudes et Recherches sur le Grain de Ble, byEmile Frichot.
A Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds, by Samuel

Parsons Mulliken, Ph.D.
Acetylene, by Vivian B. Lewes, F.LC.

Cellulose, Cellulose Products, and Artificial Rubber, by Dr. Joseph Bersch.
Schweizerisches Alkoholmonopol. Bern, Buchdruckerei Stampfli et

Cie.,1901.
Jahrbuch des Vereins der Spiritus-Fabrikanten in Deutschland, 1906.
Branntweinsteur-Ausfiihrungsbestimmung, 8. Theil, betreffend Brannt-

weinsteur-Befreiungsordnung. R. von Decker, Berlin.
Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis. Wiley.
Fractional Distillation. Young.
Provisional ^Methods for the Analysis of Foods. Adopted by the

A. O. A. C, Nov. 14-16, 1901.
U. S. Department of Agriculture (Composition of Cereals). See Bulletins

9, 45, 58.
I'. S. Internal Revenue Gaugers' Manual, 1900.
Gas-engine Design. Lucke.
Ministere de 1' Agriculture, Concours International de Moteurs et Appa-

reils Utilisant I'Alcool Denature Ayant en Lieu a Paris en mai,

1902. Rapports des Jurys. Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1902.
The Thermodynamics of Heat Engines. Reeve, 1903.
The Gas and Oil Engine. Dugald Clerk.
The Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book. Kent.
Combustion Engines, by Guldner; translated by Prof. Diederichs.
Journal of Societv of German Engineers. Tests by Prof. Eugene Meyer,

April, May, 1903.
Moteurs k Alcool, par E. Sorel.
Oil Analysis, by Augustus H. Gill.

493

LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO THE MANUFACTURE OF
ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOL-DISTILLING APPARATUS.

The following list of patents relating to the manufacture of alcohol,
improvements in distillation apparatus, by-products of distillation, etc.,
is added for convenience of reference.

* PROCESSES AND APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL.

This List Comprises the Important Patents in this Line for the Last Twenty Years.

Patent No. 334222— Horace A. Fitch, New York, Jan. 12, 1886, apparatus for
aging spirituous liquors, wines, etc.

370549 — John W. Lochner and Nicholas Oester, Aurora, Ind., Sept. 27, 1887,
device for aging and purifying hquors.

482018 — T. Mason, Jr., Manchester, Eng., Sept. 6, 1892, apparatus for purifying
and refining alcoholic liquors and other liquids.

482843— C. Heintz, Buffalo, N. Y., Sept. 20, 1892, apparatus for purifying and
aging liquors.

488104 — A. L. Wood, Boston, Mass., Dec. 13, 1892, apparatus for aging and
purifying liquors.

489363 — A. Bornholdt, Brooklyn, N. Y., assignor to The National Vacuum
Drying Air Distilling Co., of the same place, Jan. 3, 1893, separating the constituents
of liquid bodies.

492542— C. Heintz, Buffalo, N. Y., Feb., 28, 1893, method of and apparatus for
purifying and softening liquors.

497033 — W. Saint Martin, Paris, France, May 9, 1893, apparatus for maturing
and improving fermented alcoholic liquids.

497857— C. Bullock, North Cambridge, Mass., May 23, 1893, method of and
apparatus for treating alcoholic liquors.

531718— J. S. Detwiler, Philadelphia, Pa., and M. G. Stevens, Merchant ville,
N. J., Jan. 1, 1895, apparatus for aging liquors.

582608 — M. Whitson, Salina, Kan., May 15, 1897, apparatus for purifying and
charging liquids.

748331 — J. B. Roche, Louisville, Ky., Dec. 29, 1903, apparatus for heating liquor.

811966 — R. A. Stewart, San Francisco, Cal., one-half interest to A. J. Knoblock,
of San Francisco, Cal., Feb. 6, 1906, means for aging and purifying liquors.

818478 — s. Swayder, Denver, Colo., April 24, 1906, receptacle for storing alco-
holic liquors.

608652 — A. M. Villon, Lyons, France, Aug. 9, 1898, processes of manufacturing
ethvlic alcohol.

38562.5 — Wm. L. Home, Meriden, Conn., to the Home Vacuum Co., Hartford,
Conn., July 3, 1888, alcoholic distillation.

* From Patent Review, New York City.

494

PATENT REFERENCES. 495

411231 — Jokichi Takamine, of Tokio, Japan, processes of manufacture of alco-
holic liquids, Sept. 17, 1889.

618207 — Johannes Edward Lang, of Berne, Switzerland, Jan. 24, 1899, material
for distilling alcohol.

615376 — H. W. Wiley, of the District of Columbia, one-half to the Marsden
Company, of Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 6, 1898, manufacture of alcohol.

667359— Geo. Hillard Benjamin, New York, N. Y., Feb. 5, 1901, process of
producing alcohol for use in the arts alone.

347441 — C. W. Ramsay, of Brooklyn, to the Ramsay Purifying Co., of New
York, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1886, process of treating fermented, fermentable and dis-
tilled liquids in vacuo.

386748 — W. L. Home, Meriden, Conn., to the Home Vacuum Co., of Hartford,
Conn., July 24, 1888, process of aging Hquors.

418792 — J. A. H. Hasbrouck, Plainfield, N. J., to the New York and New Jersey
Liquor Maturing Co., of the same place, Jan. 7, 1890, process of aging liquors.

471707 — J. McKinless, of Manchester, Eng., to the Mechanical Spirit Maturing
Syndicate Ltd., of London, Eng., March 29, 1892, apparatus for maturing spirits
and other liquors.

485341 — 1. B. Cushing, Brookline, Mass., Nov. 1, 1892, process of and apparatus
for purifying and maturing liquors or distilled spirits.

698184— J. F. Duffy, Chicago, 111., April 22, 1902, method of refining, mellowing
and purifying alcoholic liquors.

489337 — E. A. Spink, Chicago, 111., Jan. 3, process of aging liquors.

508882— Chas. Hornbostel, New York, N. Y., Nov. 14, 1893, preparing fer-
mented and distilled liquids, extracts and solutions.

532399 — R. C. Scott, Liverpool, Eng., Jan. 8, 1895, art of aging or treating
spirits.

540279 — C. A. Oteen, Allegheny, Pa., June 4, 1895, process of aging liquors.

590306 — D. J. Etly, Louisville, Ky., Sept. 21, 1897, process of an apparatus for
aging liquors artificially.

666242 — J. E. Carroll, London, Eng., Jan. 15, 1901, method distillation.

532399 — R. C. Scott, Liverpool, Eng., Jan. 8, 1902, art of aging or treating
spirits. 9

390243 — J. U. Lloyd, Cincinnati, Ohio, Oct. 2, 1888, condensing apparatus.

407114— L. E. A. Prangey, Paris, France, July 16,1889, apparatus for separating
liquids at different boiling points.

667522 — N. H. Hiller, Carbondale, Pa., Feb. 5, 1901, distilling apparatus.

12092— N. H. Hiller, Cardonbale, Pa., March 3, 1903, distilling apparatus.

742697 — T. B. Martin, McKee, Ky., to Ad. W. Creekmore and Horatio G. Creek-
more, of Lexington, Kv., Oct. 27, 1903.

774824— H. S. Blackmore, Mt. Vernon, N. Y., to Robert C. Mitchell, same place,
Nov. 15, 1904, process of making alcohol and aldehyde.

822574 — J. J. Brennan, of Louisville, Ky., one-half to Thos. J. Hines, same place,
June 5, 1906, apparatus for distillation.

349449 — J. C. Peden, Lawrenceburg, Ky., to himself and the Bourbon Copper
and Brass Works of Cincinnati, Ohio, Sept 21, 1886, process of and apparatus for
distilling.

412407— P. Napoles, Nata, Cal., Oct. 8, 1889. distilling apparatus.

436684— E. A. Barbet, Paris, France, Sept. 16, 1890, apparatus for and process
of continuous rectification of spirits, alcohol, etc.

436735 — G. Gugnard and A. Hedouin, Paris, France, September 16, 1890, pro-
cess of and apparatus for manufacturing alcohol.

436764— E. A. Barbet , Paris, France, Sept. 16, 1890, process of and apparatus for
rectifying and distilling alcohol.

451679 — G. Descamps, Havana, Cuba, one-half to George S. Descamps, of New
Orleans, La., May 5, 1891, apparatus for manufacturing alcohol from sugar cane.

504074 — Edson Bradley and Edw. N. Dickerson, Jr., New York, N. Y., Aug.
29, 1893, process of making alcoholic distilled liquor.

639979 — M. Hickey, Boston, Mass., December 26, 1899, apparatus for recover^
ing waste alcohol for liquor casks.

496 DENATURED OR INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

314340 — B. Schumm, New York, N. Y., Feb. 6, 1894, apparatus for preparing
and manipulating fermenting mixtures.

733189 — W. Griesser, New York, N. Y., July 7, 1903, brewing apparatus.

765549 — F. Brogniez, Detroit, Mich., to Pfandler, Vacuum Fermentation Co.,
of Rochester, N. Y., July 19, 1904, mechanism for regulating the admission of air
to liquids.

358615 — G. Jordan, New York, March 1, 1887, apparatus for distilling alcohol
and other volatile substances.

414936 — C. J. T. Burcey, Syracuse, N. Y., apparatus for purifying wood alcohol,
Nov. 12, 1889.

484963 — M. Hickey, Boston, Mass., apparatus for and method of recovering
waste alcohol from liquor casks, Oct. 25, 1892.

639980 — M. Hickey, Boston, Mass., apparatus for recovering waste alcohol
from casks, Dec. 26, 1899.

636772 — C. J. Seltzer, Philadelphia, Pa., process of recovering absorbed alcohol
from empty barrels, Nov. 19, 1901.

765148 — P. P. Peace, Philadelphia, Pa., process of removing alcoholic liquors
from empty casks, July 12, 1904.

815463 — T. H. Naughton, Boston, Mass., apparatus for recovering waste alcohol
from liquor casks and barrels, March 20, 1906.

815464 — T. H. Naughton, Boston, Mass., process for recovering waste alcohol
from liquor casks and barrels, March 20, 1906.

285029 — A. Deininger, Berlin, Germany, apparatus for manufacture of alcohol,
May, 16, 1882.

266925 — K. Trobach and A. Cords, process of and apparatus for distilling alcohol,
Oct. 31, 1882.

333721 — J. Bendix, Berlin, Prussia, Germany, process of filtering alcohol, Jan.
5, 1886.

393057 — T. G. Bowick, Harpenden, Eng., apparatus for purifying alcohol, Nov.
20, 1888.

391015 — T. G. Bowick, Harpenden, Eng., process of purifying alcohol, Oct.
16, 1888.

* 408583 — Andre Theodore Christoph, Paris, France, rectification of alcohol, Aug.
^, 1889.

412931 — Carl Maria Pielsticker, London, Eng., process of purifying alcohol,
Oct. 15, 1889.

419332 — William L. Home, of Meriden, assignor to the Home Vacuum Co., of
Hartford, Conn., alcoholic distillation, Jan. 14, 1890.

432198 — Gaston Guignard, of Paris, France, process of purifying crude alcohol,
July 15, 1890.

457799 — Alfred Springer, of Cincinnati, Ohio, method of producing alcohol, Aug.
18, 1891.

470447 — Paul Clement Rosseau and Marie Jean De Chauterac, of Paris, and
Marie Joseph Denis Alexandre De La Baume, of Tourtour, France, method for the
purification of alcoholic liquids, March 8, 1892.

574111 — M. Pridham, Philadelphia, Pa., process of and apparatus for purifying^
rectifyins:, and deodorizing alcoholic or other liquids, Dec. 29, 1896.

617400 — C. Killing, Diisseldorf, Germany, process of purifying raw alcohol
from aldehyde, Jan. 10, 1899.

625650 — W. G. Day and T. A. Byran, Baltimore, Md., process of improving
alcoholic liquids, May 23, 1899.

645940 — Marie Jean De Chauterac, of Paris, and Marie Joseph Denis Alexandre
De La Baume, of Tourtour, France, assignors to La Societte Civille Pour L'Exploita-
tion De Brevets D'Invention Concemant L'Industrie De L'Alcool, of Paris, France,
purification of alcoholic liquids, March 27, 1900.

736098 — Lallah S. Highton, of San Francisco, Cal., administratrix of James
Howden, deceased, art of purifying alcoholic Hquors, Aug. 11, 1903.

657698 — J. A. H. Hasbrouck, Brooklyn, N. Y., process of aging alcoholic liquors,
Sept. 11, 1900.

824906 — Harry O. Chute, of Cleveland, Ohio, process of making wood alcohol,
July 3, 1906.

PATENT REFERENCES.

497

Fusel oils. Manufacture of E. A. Mirlin, Prague, and L. Lewin, Vienna. Eng.
Pat. 10435, May 18, 1905. See Fr. Pat. 354807 of 1905; Jour. S. C. T., 1905,

Distilling apparatus (alcohol, etc.), impts. in. J. H. Covell, Montague, Cape
Colony. Eng. Pat. 15371, July 26, 1905.

Distillery "tlop" desiccated, and process of making same. G. F. Ahlers.
Covington, Ky. U. S. Pat. 821326, May 22, 1906. A diy fodder is prepared
from distillery slop by separating the latter into solid and liquid portions. The
soHd portions are dried to a granular and absorbent condition, while the liquid
portions are concentrated to a syrup, which is then incorporated with the absorbent
granular portion, and the whole is dried. The product may be mixed with starchy
materials to form a properly balanced foodstufif.

DistiUing apparatus, new improvements in. No. 731799, patented June 23, 1903.
Walter E. Lummus, Lynn, Massachusetts, U. S. A.

Manufacture of alcohol from peat. English Patent applied for, No. 20936. West.

Process of fermentation. EngUsh Patent No. 5135 (1906). Vloebergh.

Mash-tuns and infusion decoction and digester vessels. EngUsh Patent No.
18837 (1905). House.

Fermenting vats. Enghsh Patent 18836 (1905), September 26. House.

Treatment of malt. English Patent 26041 (1905), Oct. 3. Covell.

Conversion of diastatic malt extracts into solid form for rendering same durable.
English Patent No. 9886 (1906), Sept. 26. Pollak.

SteriHzing, softening and heating water and o.her liquids and apparatus there-
for. EngUsh Patent No. 26527 (1905), Sept. 26. Westrope and Cooper.

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Abb^ refractometer 148

Absolute alcohol 47, 74, 75

Acetone, detection of 163, 164

according to British regulations 454, 468

according to German regulations 468

according to United States regulations 353

volumetric estimation of, according to Messinger 346, 347

Acetylene arc lamp 233

as an illuminant 232

gas generator 234

lamp 235, 236

Adaptation of kerosene burner for use with alcohol for steamer automo-
biles 274

Agricultural or farmers' alcohol still 92, 94

Air, calculations of , for the complete combustion of alcohol, gasoHne, kero-
sene, and crude petroleum 248-256

Alcohol according to Hehner 158-164

American periodic distilling apparatus 117-119

aniline dyes made from 371, 424, 476

apparatus, patents relating to 490-493

as a source of power 277-307

as an illuminant 207-229

as fuel for steamer automobiles . . j*. 274

chafing-dish set 271

coffee-machine set 270

commercial apparatus for the distillation of 80-121

compared to kerosene for illuminating purposes 210-213

composition of denatured • 2

consumption of, in engines 286, 287, 298, 303, 327, 328

consumption of, in motors 286, 287, 298, 303, 327, 328

cooking-stoves 260, 262, 266-269

definition of denatured 1

determination of 122-127

499

oOO GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Alcohol distilling apparatus, American 104-122

distilling plants, cost of 200, 201

estimation of, in the fermented mash liquor or wash 17-50

ethyl, detection and determination of, by the immersion refmctometer 145, 146

ethyl, detection of 166, 167

extraction of, from the wash 76-80

for automobiles 302-308

from potatoes in Germany 18-20, 438-440

from sawdust 2, 181

from United States Gangers' Manual, 1900 143-146

heater and travelling companion 269

heating apparatus 259-265

lamp, the incandescent 210-231

manufacture of 17-50

meter, the Siemens 103

methyl, aniline dyes made from 3

methyl, detection and determination of, bythe immersion refractometer 145, 146

methyl, detection of 165, 166

methyl or wood 2

motor, the Deutz 286-290

production of, in France 372, 373

production of, in Germany 172, 173, 371, 372

raw materials used for 17

recovery of denatured, apparatus for 356-358

rectification of 78, 79

still, as designed by ^douard Adam 80-82

by Barbet 94, 95

by Coffey 87-89

by Derosne 82-85

by Dorn 82

by Ilges 89, 90, 100-103

by Pistorius 85-87

by Saint-Marc 87

by Stade 96-100

stills, as designed by Americans 104-1 19

street lamps 215, 225-230

tables adopted by the A. O. A. C 127-141

teakettle set ^ 273

U. S. Government definition of 2

use of, industrially in the United States 15,16

yields of, from different materials 35-40

Alcohol-engine, the Deutz 277-286

the Foos gasoline-engine adapted to alcohol 315-319

the Mietz & Weiss 290-295

the Weber 294-298

Alcoholometry 122-146

Automatic barrel fillers, American 121

Automobiles, the alcohol motor for 302-308

GENERAL INDEX. 501

PACK

Barbet continuous still 94

Bibliography of denatured alcohol 489

Boiling-point, theory of 64

Boiling-points of ethyl alcohol and water 66, 67

of mixtures of ethyl and methyl alcohol 65, 66

Bomb calorimeter, the Williams 239-245

Books of reference 489

British Departmental Committee on Industrial Alcohol, Report of, to both

Houses of Parliament by command of His Majesty 421-486

British Revenue Act of 1906, new and more Uberal provisions of, as to

spirits used in art, manufacture, etc 484-489

Buildings for alcohol-distilling plants, cost of 186-200

By-products from the distillation of alcohol 175-181

Calorific value of the usual liquid fuels, table of 258

Calorimeter, the Williams bomb 239-245

Cane-molasses, the fermentation of 51-64

Chafing-dish set 271

Clearance, per cent of, in Deutz alcohol-engine 325

in Diesel engine 326

in Foos gasoline-engine 319

in Otto engine 326

in Weber alcohol-engine 208

in Weber gas-engine 298

Coal-tar colors, alcohol used for 371, 424, 476

Coffee-machine set, alcohol 270

Cologne spirit apparatus, American 106, 111 , 112

Comparison of the steam-engine with other types of engines 319-323

of gas-engine with other types of engines 323, 324

Composition of raw materials used for alcohol . . 27, 28

Compound distillation, theory of , 70, 71, 77, 78

Consumption of alcohol in engines and motors 286, 287, 298, 303, 327, 328

Continuous beer-still, American 105, 109, 110

Continuous-distilling apparatus, the American 104-117

the E. Barbet 94, 95

the Braunschweigische 92

the Ilges improved 100-103

the Ilges original 89, 90

the George Stade 96-100

Control of distillery operations 44-51

of the fermentation operations: (a) control of the yeast 44

(b) estimation of the fermentable matter in the sweet mash 45-48

Cooking-stoves, alcohol 260, 262, 266-269

502 GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Cooking-thermometer and pressure scale 25

Corn crop of 1905 in the United States, statistics of 171

Cost of alcohol from corn Ig^

from different raw materials 169-176

from molasses 16^

from potatoes 171-174

from sugar-beets 174-176

from sweet potatoes I74

in the United States 344

alcohol-distilling plants 200-201

buildings for alcohol-distilling plants 186-200

denaturing alcohol in foreign countries 340-344, 368, 423, 435 444

lighting by kerosene 229

wood alcohol, commercial 201-207

Demand for denatured alcohol in the United States, how to increase 369, 370

Denatured alcohol, history of, in foreign countries 3-7

bibliography of 495

consumption of, in engines and motors 286, 287, 298, 303, 327, 328

for spirit varnishes 358-360

fuel value of 245-24&

impracticability of purifying 361-364

laws and regulations for, in foreign countries 329-338, 447-486

motor for the automobile 302-308^

original law for, in the United States 338-340

possibilities of, in the United States 361-374

possibilities of specially denatured alcohol in the United States 370-374

power uses of 301 , 302

probable price of, in the United States 364-36&

quantities used in the United Kingdom 8, 445, 446

in Belgium 12

in Cuba 13-15

in France 9, 372, 373

in Germany 9, 371, 372

in Italy 10

in Spain 12, 13

in Switzerland 10

recovery of, in the United States 356-35S

supplementary legislation for, in the United States 489

variety of its uses in the United States 368-374

Denaturing, special methods in foreign countries 345, 370-374, 458-467

Denaturing alcohol, cost of, in foreign countries 340-344, 368, 423, 435, 444

cost of, in the United States 344

Denaturing substances, properties of 344, 345

tests prescribed for, by the United States 351-356

GENERAL INDEX. 503

Denatured substances used 2, 335-338, 370, 463-465, 472

used in foreign countries, government tests prescribed for. .345-351, 452, 453,

468, 472, 475

Dephlegmation 70-73

Dephlegmators, the Wurz, Le Bel Henninger, Hempel, Glinsky, Linnemann,

Young and Thomas 71-73

Detection and determination of ethyl and methyl alcohols by the inmiersion

refractometer 145-156

Detection of acetone 163, 164

of ethyl alcohol 166, 167

of methyl alcohol 165, 166

Determination of alcohol by the alcoholometer 122

by distillation 123-127

by the ebuUioscope 122

in the wash 47-50

of methyl alcohol in denatured alcohol by the Zeiss immersion refrac-
tometer 155-158

of specific gravity 45-50, 124-127

Deutz alcohol-engine 277-286

alcohol-motor 286-290

Diesel engine, the American 307-310

Difference in refraction between ethyl and methyl alcohols 149

Distillation, compound 70, 71, 77, 78

simple 67-69

theory of 67-69

Distillation of alcohol, by-products from 175-181

Distillery operations, control of 44-51

plan of 183-187

Distilling apparatus, foreign 80-104

American 104-122

Efficiency of a fuel, the thermal 244, 245

Electric incandescent and arc lights compared to alcohol 237

Engine, the plowing or traction, and its adaptation to alcohol 298-301

steam-, compared with other types of engines 319-323

the American Diesel 307-310

the Deutz alcohol 277-286

the Foos gasoline-, adapted to alcohol 315-319

the Mietz & Weiss alcohol 290-295

the Weber alcohol 294-298

Ethyl alcohol from sawdust 181, 182

detection of 166, 167

chloride as a refrigerant 182, 183

Evaporator, triple-effect, for drying slop 179

Extract, per cent of, in sweet mashes, by Balling, table of 47

Extraction of the alcohol by distillation 76-80

504 GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Farmers' still, the 92-94

how operated in Germany 438-440

Fermentable matter, the estimation of 45^8

Fermentation * 30-33

of cane-molasses 51-64

period, the 43, 44

Fermenting-house, modem German 30

modern American 31

Fermenting- vats 32-34

Fillers, automatic barrel 121

Flashing-points of various liquid fuels 258

Flasks for fractional distillation • 70

Floating thermometer 27

Foos gasoline-engine and its adaptation to alcohol 315-319

Foreign alcohol heating-stoves 275, 276

Formaldehyde from methyl alcohol 3

Fractional distillation, theory of 68, 69

efficiency of 73

Fuel, thermal efficiency of a 244, 245

Fuel value of alcohol compared to the other usual liquid fuels 239-248

of denatured alcohol 245-248

Fusel-oil 175-177

recovery of 183-185

removal of 79

Gallon, the British proof 142

the United States proof 140

the United States taxable 141

the United States wine 141

Gas-engine compared to other types of engines 323, 324

Gasoline-engine and its adaptation to alcohol 315-319

Gangers' cup, the United States 142

Generator for acetylene-gas 234

Grain-sorter or power sieve 22

Heating apparatus, alcohol 259-265

the Zeiss, for all forms of refractometer 148

stoves, foreign alcohol 275, 276

History of denatured alcohol in Austria-Hungary 6

in Belgium ; 5

in France 4

in Germany 4

in Great Britain 3

GENERAL INDEX. 505

PAGE

History of denatured alcohol in Italy 5

in the Netherlands 5

in Norway 6

in Sweden 5

in Switzerland 4

History of tax-free alcohol in the United States 7

Household alcohol illuminating-lamps 210-225

Hydrometer-jar 259

the Balling 46

the Beaum6 259

the U. S. spirit 142

Ilges still, the original automatic continuous 89, 90

the improved automatic continuous 100-103

Immersion refractometer, the Zeiss 146

Improvements needed in motors, cooking-stoves, lamps, etc., to increase the

demand for denatured alcohol in the United States 374

Incandescent alcohol-lamps 210-231

mantle for alcohol-lamps 209, 210

Welsbach gaslight 229-232

Increase in use of denatured alcohol in the United States, how to efifect . . . 369, 370

Index of refraction of ethyl alcohol 151

of methyl alcohol 150, 1$1

Kerosene-oil engine, the Mietz & Weiss 310-312

Laboratory apparatus, German, for estimating the alcohol in the fermented

mash liquor or wash 49

distilling apparatus 68

steam distilling apparatus 76

vacuum distilling apparatus 75, 76

Law, original, for denatured alcohol in the United States 338-340

Laws and regulations for denatured alcohol in foreign countries . . 329-338, 447-486
Legislation amending and liberalizing the original denatured-alcohol law

in the United States 489

Malt-crushing machine 29

Malting 28-30

Manufacture of alcohol 17-50

of alcohol, patents relating to 490-494

of alcohol apparatus, patents relating to 490-494

506 GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Mash-cooker thermometer 25

Mash-cookers, American vacuum 24

Mash-tubs, American 23

Mashing apparatus, American 25, 26

German high-pressure 18-20

Methods used in testing internal-combustion engines 324-328

Methyl alcohol, aniline dyes made from 3

as found in lemon extract 154

detection of 165, 166

formaldehyde made from 3

in orange extract 154

in tincture of iodine 155

Micro-organisms, the 39-42

Mietz & Weiss alcohol-engine 290-295

kerosene-oil engine 310-312

Mill, American, for grinding corn-meal 21

Mixtures of ethyl and methyl alcohol, boiling-points of 65, 66

of ethyl alcohol and water, boiling-points of 66, 67

Motor for laboratory purposes, using denatured alcohol 167, 168

Motor-cars, alcohol for, in Germany 336

Motor-vehicles in England, spirit for 427

Moulds, use of, in saccharification 42, 43

Origin of simple distillation 80

Patents, for the manufacture of alcohol, and alcohol apparatus, refer-
ences of 490-494

Per cent extract by the Balling hydrometer, table of 47

Periodic distilling apparatus, American 117-119

Plan of distillery 183-187

Plowing- or traction-engine, the Hart-Parr Company's, and its adaptation

to alcohol 298-301

Possibilities of denatured alcohol in the United States 361-374

specially denatured alcohol in the United States 370-374

Potato-washing machine and elevator, German 18, 19

Potatoes, making alcohol from, in Germany 18-20, 438-440

Power uses of alcohol 301 , 302

Preparation of the raw materials used for making alcohol 17-27

Price of denatured alcohol in the United States 361-368

prospects for lowering same 364, 368, 489

Prices of usual liquid fuels, ratio of 255

Production of alcohol 17-51

in France 372, 373

in Germany 172-174, 371, 372

Proof gallon, the British 142

GENERAL INDEX. 507

PAGB

Proof gallon, the U. S 1^^

Properties of denaturing materials 344, 345

Purifying denatured alcohol, the impracticability of 361-364

Pycnometer, use of the 48, 49

Quantities of denatured alcohol used in Belgium 12

in Cuba 13-15

in England 8

in France 9

in Germany 9

in Italy . / 10

in Spain 12, 13

in Switzerland 10

Hatio of prices of various fuels 255

of vitiation of the atmosphere by various liquid fuels 256-258

Raw materials used for making alcohol 17

composition of 27, 28

Recovery of denatured alcohol in the United States 356-358

fusel-oil 183-185

Rectification of alcohol 78, 79

Rectifying apparatus, American 114-117

German 93

Redistilling apparatus, American 104-107

Reference, books of 493

Refined wood alcohol 206

Refractometer, the Zeiss immersion 146

the Abb6 148

Regulations and instructions of the United States Government for the

denaturation, handling, and use of denatured alcohol 375-420

Report of British Departmental Committee on Industrial Alcohol presented

to both Houses of Parliament by command of His Majesty . . . 421-486

Committee on Ways and Means on legislation amending the original

denatured-alcohol law in the United States, abstracts from. . . . 489

Revenue Act of 1906, British, with new and more liberal provisions as to

spirits used in art, manufactures, etc 484-489

" Rod-and-disc" still-heads 71

Rotary slop-drier and press 180, 181

Saccharometer, the 45, 46

Separating boxes, American , 119, 120

Separation of fusel-oil in the purification of alcohol 96, 97

508 GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Separation of methyl and ethyl alcohols by fractional distillation 73, 74

of ethyl alcohol and water by fractional distillation 73, 74

Siemens alcohol-meter 103

Simple distillation 67-69

origin of 80

Simple or common still, the .69

Slop-drier and press, the rotary 180, 181

Special denaturing methods in foreign countries 345, 370-374

Specially denatured alcohol in France, use of 372-374

in Germany 370-372

in the United States, possibihties of 370-374

Specific gravity, determination of 45-50, 124-127

of ethyl and methyl alcohols, comparison of 150, 258

of various liquid fuels 258

Spent wash or slop, the value of 177-181

Spirit apparatus, American 106, 111-117

varnishes 358-360

Stade's continuous automatic still 96-100

Steamer automobiles, alcohol as a fuel for 274

Still, the compound 70, 77

Still-heads, "rod-and-disc " 71

Stoves, alcohol cooking 260-269

Superheating steam, laboratory copper coil for 77

Supplementary legislation in the United States amending and liberalizing

the original denatured-alcohol law 489

Table of per cent extract, by Balling ; 47

Tax-free alcohol in the United States, history of 7

Teakettle set, alcohol 273

Technical distillation of alcohol, the 76-80

Testing of internal-combustion engines 324-328

Tests prescribed for denaturing materials used in foreign countries 345-351,

452, 453, 468, 472, 475

in the United States 351-356

Theory of distillation 67-69

of compound distillation 70, 71, 77, 78

of fractional distillation 68, 69

of simple distillation 67-69

Thermal efficiency of a fuel 244, 245

Travelling companion, alcohol heater 269

United States alcohol tables from Gangers' Manual, 1900 143-146

Regulations and Instructions for denatured alcohol 375-420

Use of denatured alcohol in foreign countries 8-15

GENERAL INDEX. 609

PAOB

Use of moulds in saccharification 42, 43

of specially denatured alcohol in France 372-374

in Germany 370-372

in the United States, the possibilities of 370-374

of tax-free alcohol in the United States for illuminating purposes 207-210

of tax-free industrial alcohol in the United States 15, 16

Uses of denatured alcohol in the United States, probable variety of 368-374

Vacuum mash-cooker, American 24

mash-cooking apparatus, American 26

Vacuum-slop evaporator, triple-effect 179

Value of alcohol as an illuminant compared to other sources 237, 238

as a fuel 239-248

of slop or spent wash 177-181

Vapor pressure, theory of 64

Varnishes, spirit 358-360

Vitiation of the atmosphere by the combustion of the usual liquid fuels,

ratio of 256-258

Volume of air, by theory, required for complete combustion of given

amounts of the usual liquid fuels, table of 256

necessary for complete combustion of alcohol, gasoline, kerosene, and

crude petroleum, theoretical calculations of 248-256

Volumetric estimation of acetone, according to British regulations 454, 468

according to German regulations 468

according to Messinger 346, 347

according to United States regulations 353

Weber alcohol engine, the 294-298

Weight per U. S. gallon and cubic foot of the usual liquid fuels 258

Williams bomb calorimeter 239-245

Wintergreen, oil of, from methyl alcohol 3

Wood or methyl alcohol, properties of 2, 3

refined 206

Yeast, the control of 44 45

Yeasts, wild and "disease " 43 44

Yield of alcohol from cane-sugar, the theoretical 36

from cane-molasses, theoretical versus practical 37 33

from corn, theoretical versus practical 37

from potatoes, theoretical versus practical 33

from rye, theoretical versus practical 37

from starch, the theoretical 35

from sweet potatoes, theoretical versus practical 38 39

510 INDEX TO U. S. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS.

PAGE

Yield of alcohol, theoretical, from dextrose, levulose, glucose, and grape-
sugar 36

Yields of alcohol, theoretical versus practical 33-39

Zeiss heating apparatus for all forms of refractometer 148

immersion refractometer 146

INDEX TO UNITED STATES REGULATIONS AND
INSTRUCTIONS.

PART I.

SECTION PAGE

Act relating to denatured alcohol 1 375

Denaturing bonded warehouses:

Alcohol which may be removed to, from distillery ware-
houses 15 380

Alcohol to be immediately removed to, after inspection,

etc 20 383

Alcohol to be immediately denatured when received in . . 39 389

Application for establishment of 7 378

Approval of 10 379

Bond to be given by proprietor of 11, 12 379

Bond, form of 13 379, 380

Collector's order to ganger to gauge alcohol to be re-
moved to 15 380

Collector's record of alcohol removed to denaturing ware-
house 25 385

Consent of sureties to distiller's bond 3 377

Construction of 2 376

Custody of 6 377

Deficiencies, tax to be collected on 17 382

Entry for withdrawal to, to be filed by distiller 16 381

How and by whom to be established 2 376

Locks and seals 6 377, 378

Notice of intention to remove alcohol to 15 380, 381

Packages to be marked and branded before removal to. 17 382

Permit for removal to, to be issued by collector 17 382

Record of alcohol received, etc., at denaturing warehouse. 21, 22 383, 384

Record and report of removal to 18, 19 383

Report of ganger 16 381, 382

Report of officer assigned to denaturing warehouse .... 23, 24 384, 385

Same to be inspected before approved 8 378

Sureties, qualification of 11 379

To be numbered serially 3 377

INDEX TO U. S. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS. 51X

SECTION PAGB

Denaturing material room:

Construction of 4 377

To be provided at each denaturing bonded warehouse. . 4 377

To be provided with suitable tanks, etc 5 377

Denaturing materials:

Kinds and quantities to be used 26 385, 386

Monthly returns of, to be rendered by officer 29 386, 387

Record of material to be kept by officer 28 386

Record of, to be kept by distiller 30 387

Rejected samples 27 386

Samples of, to be submitted for analysis 27, 57 386, 393

To be deposited in denaturing material room 27 386

To be under control of officer, and to be mixed in suitable

tanks 27 386

Use of denaturants, etc.:

Alcohol to be inspected before removal from packages . . 31 387

Alcohol to be dumped in mixing-tanks 35 388

Alcohol, when denatured, to be removed from premises . 51 392

Application for gauge of denatured alcohol 40 389

Contents of tanks to be plunged 35 388

Denatured product to be drawn off and gauged 37 388, 389

Distiller to provide necessary appliances, etc 34 388

Distiller's return to be compared with collector's record . 56 393

Gauge to be made by officer 41 389

Kind and capacity of packages to be used 38 389

Method of gauging denatured alcohol 42 389

Mixing-tanks to be under sole custody of officer 49 391

Monthly transcript of record to be furnished 54 392

Notice of intention to denature alcohol, to be filed 31 387

Packages containing denatured alcohol, how marked, etc. 44, 45 390

Record of operations, to be kept by officer 50 391

Record of alcohol received, etc., to be kept by distiller. . 52, 53 392

Record of denatured alcohol to be kept by collector ... 55 392, 393

Report of gauge to be made on Form 237a 43 389, 390

Return of materials, etc., dumped, to be made by officer . 36 388

Samples of denaturants to be submitted for analysis ... 57 393

Stamp book and stubs, disposition of 48 391

Stamps on packages to be removed 31 387

Stamps for denatured alcohol, form and denomination of . 46 390

Stamps, daily report of officer of 47 390, 391

Transfer of denaturants to mixing-tanks 32-34 387, 388

PART II.

Denatured alcohol (dealers in, and manufacturers using same) :

Appeal to Commissioner in case of canceled permit .... 64 395

Application of manufacturers for permit 75 397

AppHcation, when signed by agent or attorney 62 394, 395

Assistance to be furnished officers in their inspection. . . 71 396

512 INDEX TO U. S. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS.

SECTION PAQB

Denatured alcohol (dealers in, and manufacturers using same) :
Bills of lading, receipts, etc., to be submitted for inspec-
tion 70 396

Classification of denatured alcohol 58 393

Dealers in "completely denatured alcohol" to obtain

permit 61 394

Dealers, wholesale, definition of 61 394

Dealers, retail, definition of 61 394

Labels to be placed on retail packages 73 397

Manufacturers to afford facilities for examination by

officers 77 398

Permit issued to dealers, form of 65 953

Permit for manufacturers using "completely denatured

alcohol " in certain cases 75 397

Permit to manufacturers using, etc., form of 76 397

Permits, application for, by dealers 62 394

Permits to expire June 30, each year 63 395

Permits to be canceled by collector in certain cases .... 64 395

Record of dealers, to be kept by collector 66 395

Record to be kept by wholesale dealers 67 395, 396

Record to be kept by retail dealers 72 397

Record kept by dealers to be open for inspection of

officers 69 396

Record to be preserved for two years 69 396

Samples of suspected articles, etc . , to be taken by officer . 78 398

Sign to be placed on building of wholesale dealers 69 396

Stamps on empty packages to be destroyed 74 397

Storage of, on certain premises prohibited 59 393

Transcript of records to be furnished by wholesale

dealers 68 396

Transcript to be sworn to (form of oath) 68 396

Transcript of record, under oath, to be furnished by

retailer 72 397

Use of, for certain purposes prohibited 69, 60 393, 394

PART III.
Special denaturants:

Additional sworn statement of manufacturer in certain

cases 103 407

Alcohol (specially or generally denatured), condition of,

not to be changed before used 107 408

Alcohol (specially or generally denatured) must be de-
posited in storeroom 108 408

Alcohol to be used as received 105 407

Alcohol, how disposed of on discontinuance of business . . 106 408

Application for estabHshment of storeroom, etc 83, 84 399, 400

Appfication of manufacturer, approval of 86, 87 400

INDEX TO U. S. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS.

513

Special denaturants:

Applications for permit to use special denaturants

Bond to be given by manufacturer, form of

Bond, approval of, by collector

Certificate of inspection of premises

Change in construction of plant or method of manu-
facture

Custodian of storeroom, how designated, duties, etc

Denatured alcohol to be promptly delivered for shipment.
Distiller's notice of shipment of specially denatured

alcohol

Formula of special denaturants to be submitted

Location and construction of storeroom

Misuse of denatured alcohol, penalties, etc

Notice of manufacturer of intended purchase of alcohol . .
Notice of manufacturer, copies of, how disposed of ... .

Notice of receipt of alcohol by manufacturer

Notice to officer in charge of denaturing bonded ware-
house

Permit to be issued by collector, form of, etc

Premises of manufacturers to be inspected

Record of denatured alcohol to be kept by manufacturer .
Record of alcohol used and articles produced, form of . .
Record to be kept by collector of manufacturer's opera-
tions

Report of officer at denaturing bonded warehouse of de-
livery of spirits

"Special " and "complete " denaturants not to be mixed .

Special denaturants, use of

Specially denatured alcohol, regulations concerning same.
Specially denatured alcohol, additional marks on pack-
ages

Specially denatured alcohol, to be at once forwarded to

manufacturer

Storeroom for denatured alcohol to be provided

Storeroom, sign to be placed over door of

Sureties, qualification of, etc

Transcript of record to be furnished monthly, form of. .

SECTION

PAGE

398, 399

400,401

402

400

109

408

102

406, 407

404, 405

404

398

399

110

408

91 .

402

404, 405

403

402

400

405

101

406

104

407

404

403

398

403

399

400-402

LOO

405

PART IV.

Alcohol recovered, restored, and redenatured:

Account to be kept by collector of alcohol restored, etc. ,

Alcohol not to be redenatured unless necessary

Alcohol, as recovered, to be deposited in storeroom . . .

Appliances, kind to be used, etc

Application of manufacturer, form of

130

413

131

414

116

410

114

409, 410

114

409, 410

.514

INDEX TO U. S. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS.

SECTION

Alcohol recovered, restored, and redenatured:

Application for permit to recover and restore alcohol ... 118

Bond of manufacturer, form of 114, 115

Collector's order to officer to supervise recovery, etc. .. . 119

Duties of officer supervising recovery, etc 120, 121

Manufacturer's record to show alcohol received and dis-
posed of , 129

Officer to make return and keep record 124, 125

Packages to be marked, stamped, and branded 123

Permit to be issued by collector 115

Premises on which alcohol may be restored and rede-
natured 112

Record to be kept by manufacturer 127

Report of operations at storeroom to be made by officer. . 126

Restoring, redenaturing, and gauging alcohol 122

Restoring and redenaturing, to be under supervision of

officer 119

Samples of denaturants to be used, etc 120, 121

Stills, if used, to be registered, etc 113, 117

Transcript of record , under oath, to be furnished monthly 128

410, 411

409, 410

411

413
412
412
410

409
412, 413

412
411,412

411

409, 410

413

PART V.

Restoring and redenaturing plants:

Alcohol to be restored and redenatured for manufacturing
purposes only

Alcohol to be redenatured as soon as restored

Alcohol restored, etc., to be returned to manufacturer
from whom received

Application for approval of plant

Bond of proprietor of plant, form of

Bond, penal sum of, and qualification of sureties

Cistern room to be provided

Denaturing material room, how constructed * .

Diagram of plant to be furnished

Duties of officer

Locks to be placed on furnace doors, etc., during sus-
pension

Manufacturer's record and notice of shipment

. No other business to be carried on at redenaturing plant .

Notice of shipment, to whom sent

Notice of suspension of business

Officer to keep record and make return

Operations at plant, to be under supervision of officer . .

Plant to be inspected before being approved

Plants, where to be located

139

416, 417

148

419

139

416

136

415

137

415, 416

138

416

134

414

133

414

136

415

135

414, 415

142

417

144

417

140

417

145

418

142

417

147

418

135

414, 415

136

415

132

414

INDEX TO PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE REPORT. 515

SECTION PAGB

Restoring and redenaturing plants:

Premises to be owned by proprietor, or consent of owner

to be obtained 143 417

Premises to be open to inspection of officers 141 417

Record to be kept by proprietor of storing-plant 146 418

Records to be kept by collectors 152 419, 420

Redenaturing warehouse records 149, 150 419

Removal from premises of specially redenatured alcohol . 151 419

Warehouse to be provided, how constructed, etc 133 414

INDEX TO REPORT OF THE BRITISH DEPARTMENTAL

COMMITTEE.

Conditions governing the use of spirits for industrial purposes in the

United Kingdom 422

Hindrances to the use of spirit for industrial purposes in the United King-
dom 422

Use of alcohol for the manufacture of coal-tar colors, smokeless powder,
pharmaceutical products, fine chemicals, ether, artificial silk, lacquers,
varnishes, etc., in the United Kingdom 424-427

Use of alcohol for motor vehicles in the United Kingdom 427

General conclusions 427-430

Report of Sub-Committee on their visit to Germany:

Official regulations for denatured alcohol 431, 432

Synthetic perfumes 432

Varnish 432

Coal-tar colors 433, 434

Operation for complete denaturing 434, 435

Pharmaceutical products: fine chemicals 435-439

Agricultural distilleries: Marienfelde 438-440

Agricultural distillery operations: Marienfelde 438-440

Vinegar factory 440, 441

A German methylating factory (denaturing plant) at Fiirstenwalde . . 441, 442

Artificial-silk factory 442, 443

Production and price of spirit in Germany 443-446

Possibifities of the use of methylated spirit or denatured alcohol in the

United Kingdom 445, 446

516 INDEX TO PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE REPORT

INDEX TO APPENDICES FROM MINUTES OF EVIDENCE
TAKEN .BEFORE THE BRITISH DEPARTMENTAL COM-
MITTEE ON INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.

PAGE

I. Duties and allowances on British spirits and duties on foreign spirits . . 447

II. A. Regulations as regards use of spirit for industrial, etc., purposes
in the United Kingdom:

(1) Methylated spirit (denatured alcohol) 450

(2) Spirit denatured with other substances than wood naphtha

(wood alcohol) 454

(3) Undenatured alcohol in universities, colleges, etc 458

B. Quantities of spirits, etc., used in making methylated spirits, and

of methylated spirits produced, for five years ending 31st

March, 1904 461

Quantities of unmineralized methylated spirits used in manufac-
turing operations and for other purposes in the United King-
dom during the year ending 31st March, 1901 459, 460

III. Regulations as regards use of spirit for industrial, etc., purposes in

Germany 461

IV. Regulations as regards use of spirit for industrial, etc., purposes in

France 471

V. Regulations as regards use of spirit for industrial, etc., purposes in

Switzerland 474

VI. Regulations as regards use of spirit for industrial, etc., purposes in

Austria-Hungary, Russia, Holland, United States, and Belgium . . 480

British Revenue Act granting new and more liberal provisions as to spirits
used in the arts, manufactures, etc., by the British Government in
1906.. 486

o
a

tSl

>
o

»— (

r
r

^ ^ rJ_ pj 70^

S ^ S,

?^ -"■ K

^ ^ I

p ►< ra

p. <^

G>
-« p

■* c^ S. 5 o g-

- i_^ '^ o' o' :^ p

•-«
3

c p

"5 frj I— I

en O

3 « E.

S- 2

o "^

o W

OCR!

cr;

►<1

< :^

W >
>

ft)
3

o
o

1 2 PP

2 ^ <d

= M

So'

^ >

<. >

^ We manufacture and furnish all of the Apparatus,

Machinery and Appliances for equipping

^ A distillery to make Alcohol from Grain, Potatoes,

Sugar Cane, Rice or Molasses,

^ And contract to erect complete plants under

guarantee in all parts of the world

Our apparatus represents the most perfect types of distillery appliances which
a long and varied practice alone can produce, and wherever used, is looked
upon as a standard of excellence in construction and operation, unsurpassed

by any other make.

WRITE FOR CATALOGUE

University off Toron
Library

Acme Library Card Pocket
LOWE-MARTIN CO. Limited

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Denatured or industrial alcohol; a treatise on the history, manufacture, composition, uses, and possibilities of industrial alcohol in the various countries permitting its use and the laws and regulations governing the same, including the United States .."

See other formats