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CIHM 
Microfiche 
Series 
(■Monographs) 


ICIMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographies) 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microroproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquas 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best  original 
copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this  copy  which 
may  be  bibliographically  unique,  which  may  alter  any  of 
the  images  in  the  reproduction,  or  which  may 
significantly  change  the  usual  method  of  filming  are 
checked  below. 


D 


Coloured  covers  / 
Couverture  de  couleur 


□  Covers  damaged  / 
Couverture  endommag^ 

□  Covers  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Couverture  restaur^  et/ou  pelliculde 

Cover  title  missing  /  Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps  /  Cartes  g^ographiques  en  couleur 

□   Coloured  Ink  (I.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)  / 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bieue  ou  noire) 

0 


D 
D 
□ 


n 


n 


Cotoured  plates  and/or  illustrations  / 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material  / 
Relid  avec  d'autres  documents 

Only  editton  available  / 
Seule  6ditk>n  disponible 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion  along 
interior  margin  /  La  reliure  serr^e  peut  causer  de 
I'ombre  ou  de  la  distorsion  le  long  de  la  marge 
int^rieure. 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restorations  may  appear 
within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these  have  been 
omitted  from  filming  /  II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages 
blanches  ajout^es  iors  d'une  restauration 
apparaissent  dans  le  texte,  mais.  torsque  cela  ^talt 
possible,  ces  pages  n'ont  pas  6\6  f  ilm^es. 

Additional  comments  / 
Commentaires  suppl^mentaires: 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  nteilleur  exemplaire  qu'il  lui  a 
«t6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details  de  cet  exem- 
plaire qui  sont  peut-6tre  unk^ues  du  point  de  vue  bibii- 
ographique,  qui  peuvent  nrtodifler  une  image  reprodutte, 
ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  una  modificatkm  dans  la  mAtho- 
de  nomiale  de  fllmage  sont  indk)u6s  ci-dessous. 

I     I  Cokxired  pages/ Pages  de  couleur 

I I  Pages  damaged/ Pages  endommag6es 


D 


Pages  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Pages  restaurtes  et/ou  pelliculdes 


0  Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed  / 
Pages  dteoiordes.  tachetdes  ou  pk^utes 

I     I  Pages  detached  /  Pages  d^tach^es 

j</|  Showthrough/ Transparence 

I     I  Quality  of  print  varies  / 


D 
D 


D 


Quality  indgale  de  I'lmpresston 

Includes  supplementary  material  / 
Comprend  du  materiel  suppi^mentaire 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata  slips, 
tissues,  etc..  have  been  refilmed  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  totalement  ou 
partieilement  obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata.  une 
pelure.  etc.,  ont  6\6  film^es  k  nouveau  de  fa^on  k 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 

Opposing  pages  with  varying  colouration  or 
discolourations  are  filmed  twice  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  s'opposant  ayant  des 
colorations  variables  ou  des  decolorations  sont 
film^es  deux  fois  afin  d'obtenir  la  meilleure  iniage 
possible. 


Thic  item  it  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below  / 

Ce  document  eat  iWmi  au  taux  de  r*duetion  indiqu<  ci-deaaous. 


lOx 


14x 


18x 


12x 


16x 


20x 


22x 


26x 


30x 


24x 


28x 


□ 

32x 


Th«  copy  filmed  htn  hM  baan  raproduMd  thaniu 
to  tiM  9«n«ro«itv  of: 

National  Library  of  Canada 


L'aKamplaira  filmd  f ut  raproduit  grica  i  la 
94n4roait*  da: 

Blbllothiqua  natlonala  du  Canada 


Tha  imagaa  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  bast  quality 
poaaibia  eonsidaring  tha  condition  and  lagibility 
of  tha  original  eopy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  apacif icationa. 


Original  eopiaa  in  printed  papar  eovara  ara  fUmad 
beginning  with  tha  front  cover  end  ending  on 
the  laat  page  with  e  printed  or  illuatreted  imprea* 
•ion.  or  tha  bach  cover  when  eppropriata.  All 
other  original  copiee  are  filmed  beginning  on  tha 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impree- 
sion.  and  ending  on  the  lest  pege  with  a  printed 
or  illuetrated  impression. 


Las  images  tuivantas  ent  At*  raproduites  avac  la 
plus  grand  soin.  compta  tenu  do  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattet*  da  raaemplaire  film*,  et  en 
conf  ormM  avac  lea  conditiona  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 

Lee  esemplalree  originaua  dont  la  couvonure  en 
pepier  eet  imprimOe  sent  filmOs  en  commencant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
demMre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impreaaion  ov  d'illuatration.  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  salon  la  caa.  Teua  lea  autras  aaemplairaa 
orlginaua  sent  fllmdo  en  commencent  par  la 
premiere  pege  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impreaaion  ou  d'illuatration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  damiAre  page  qui  comporte  una  taila 
amprainta. 


The  laat  recorded  frame  on  eech  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  — »>  (meaning  "CON> 
TINU£0").  or  the  symbol  ▼  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  appliaa. 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc..  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  ere  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  comer,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bonom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Un  daa  symbolea  suivanu  apparaitra  sur  la 
darniire  image  da  cheque  microfiche,  seion  le 
cas:  la  symbole  -*>signifie  "A  SUIVRE".  le 
symbola  ▼  signlfia  "FIN". 

Las  cartas,  planchea.  ublaaua.  etc..  peuvent  itre 
filmis  A  dee  taua  da  rMuction  diffirants. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grsnd  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  soul  clichO.  il  est  filmO  a  partir 
da  I'angle  supdrieur  gauche,  do  gauche  *  droite. 
et  do  haut  en  baa.  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'imegea  naeaaaaira.  Lea  diagrammas  suivanu 
iUustrent  la  mdthodo. 


1  2  3 


1 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

MICROCOPY  MSOWTION  TBT  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


tarn 

■  23 

IS 

■^ 

iiA 

■  3^ 

|3^ 

us 

121 

U£ 

u 

|25 
■  2.2 

12.0 


I 


1.8 


.^^sIS 


/APPLIED  IM/1GE    I 

16S3  East  Main  Stmt 

Roch«»t«r.   N<w  York        14609       USA 

(716)  482  -  0300  -  Phon« 

(7t6)  288-  5989 -fax 


an=.4S!-iKi'£,„^f=:ia"|^,^«»^^^^^^ 


xssa  -K  ■rsia'iS'ar'k  syss  ■ 


COMPLETE 


AUTHORITATIVE 


IPRACriCAL 


THE  UNIVERSAL 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A  COMPREHENSIVE 
REFERENCE  BOOK 


Edited  by 
CHARLES  ANNANDALE,  MA.,  LL.D. 

ABBKDBBN  UNIVBKSITY,  SCOTLAND 

R.  J.  JOHNSTON,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

ILLINOIS  WBSLBYAN  UNIVERSITY 

A.  R.  SPOFFORD 

EX-LIBRASIAN  OF  CONGRESS 

FRANCIS  T.  FUREY,  M.A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  HISTORY  AND  LirBRATURE,  CAHILL  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Assist*dby 

A  CORPS  OF  CONTRIBUTORS 

AUTHounas  on  sracui,  ttwacTS 


In  Six  Volumes 

lUUSTRHTBD  WITH  COLORED  PLilTES 
HUPS.  PHOTOGRAPHS  IkHD  DRUWIRGS 


TORONTO 

THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  COMPANY,  Limited 


I  920 


•mm 


>    ^     I'  1.  IT        il 


ftE5 


OOPYKIOHT  ifoa 

Tra  John  C.  Winaron  Co. 

twnmi  i»n-i«-u.n.i«.i,.it,» 


I  »ni3i 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


Three  methods  are  used  to  indicate  the  pronunciation  of  the 
{irords  forming  the  headings  of  the  separate  articles: 

(1)  By  dividing  the  word  into  syllables,  and  indicating  tho 
/liable  or  syllables  to  be  accented.    This  method  is  followed  where 

Jie  pronunciation  is  entirely  obvious.  Where  accent  marks  are 
Imitted,  the  omission  indicates  that  all  syllables  are  given  sub- 
wtially  the  same  value. 

(2)  Where  the  pronunciation  differs  from  the  spelling,  the 
irord  is  re-spelled  phonetically,  in  addition  to  the  accentuation. 

(3)  Where  the  sound  values  of  the  vowels  are  not  sufficiently 
idicated  merely  by  an  attempt  at  phonetic  spelling,  the  following 
'Stem  of  diacritical  marks  is  additionally  employed  to  approximate 
le  proper  sounds  as  closely  as  may  be  done : 


fi,  as  in  fate,  or  in  bare. 
[H,  as  ia  olms,  Fr.  dme,  Ger.  Bahn=4 

of  Indian  names. 
I  A,  the  same  Hound  short  or  medium,  aa 

in  Fr.  bal,  Ger.  Maun, 
[a,  as  in  fat 
1 0,  as  in  fall. 

«,  obscure,  as  in  rural,  similar  to  w  in 
hut,  i  in  her:  common  in  Indian 
names. 

[^,  as  in  me=:»  in  machine, 
e,  as  in  met. 
^,  as  in  her. 

I,  as  in  pine,  or  as  ei  in  Ger.  Mein. 
i,   as  in   pin,    also  used   for   the  short 
sound    corresponding    to   ^,    as    in 
French  and  Italian  words. 


eu,  a  lonf  sound  as  in  Fr.  J«Ane,  =: 
Ger.  l(»if  a,  as  in  Sdhn^  G«thfl 
(Goethe). 

eu,  correspondinc  sound  short  or  medi- 
um, as  in   Fr.  peu=Qer.  6  short 

6,  an  in  note,  moan. 

o,  as  in  not  froff — that  is^  short  or 
medium, 

0,  as  in  move,  two. 

tl,  as  in  tube. 

u,  as  in  tub :  similar  to  «  and  also  to  a. 

n,  as  in  bull. 

tl,  as  in  So  ab«ne=:Fr.  4  ss  <n  dA, 
Ger.  &  long  as  in  grtin,  Bihne. 

A,  the  corresponding  uort  or  medium 
sound,  as  in  Fr.  but,  Ger.  M«ller. 

oi,  as  in  oil. 

ou,  as  in  pound ;  or  as  a«  in  G«r.  Haus. 


The  consonants,  b,  d,  f,  h,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  ng,  p,  sh,  t,  v,  and  z,  when 
.printed  in  Roman  type,  are  always  given  their  common  English 
(ralues  in  the  transliteration  of  foreign  words.  The  letter  c  is  indi- 
Mited  by  s  or  k,  as  the  case  may  be.  For  the  remaining  consonant 
Bounds  the  following  symbols  are  employed : 


ch  is  always  as  in  rick. 

i,    nearly    as    th    in    this  =  Sp.    d    in 

Madrid,  etc. 
g  is  always  hard,  as  in  90. 
n    represents    the    guttural    in    Scotch 

lock,  Ger.  nacn,  also  other  similar 

gutturals. 
9.  Fr.  nasal  n  as  in  bon. 
r  represents  both  English  r,  and  r  in 

foreign  woi^,  in  which  it  is  gen- 


erally much  more  strongly  trilled, 
s,  always  as  in  so. 
th,  as  th  in  thia. 
tk,  as  th  in  thia. 
w  always  consonantal,  aj<  in  toe. 
z  =  ks,  which  are  us^  instead, 
y  always  consonantal,  as  in  »ea    (Pr. 

Uffne  would  be  )»-written  Itay>. 
sh.  as  •  ifk  pienu^  le  Er.  /.; 


VOLUME  V 

wUchwUhordc5irei™xi?rU«l.exUtiu«  anitl.'  c,f  refraction  U  lew  than  tbc  angle 

tnai  ne,   ««.     .     .                    branch    of  In  icrcater  thnn  the  ancle  of  Inddenw.    If 
OptlCl     XSS   which    treat,    of    the  one  m«llnro  in  n  liqnhl  and  the  other  air. 
trannniMion  of  light,  and  lu  action  In   n-  in  the  ow-^^lfnyinK  flKu™   <»•'«:/ '• 
o^mn^ion  with  the  liw.  of  reflation  and  the   ray   Hi   in   *ho   llQuW   w\n   make   a 
refraction,  including  aluo  the  phenomena  amaller  angle  with  the  """"»>'"''*'"'" 
of  Sn     A  row  of  light  ia  the  •malleat  the  rny  siln  the  air.  and  viee  verta. 
MnT^vable  TOrtfon  of  Tight,  and  i»  repre-      The  law  of  reflection  U  iUuitrat^  efr 
S^StS  by  th^iiraight  line  along  whicH  it  pecinlly  by  the  action  of  mirrora.    When 
i.  pSpagatcd.    A  JSicJJ  of  light  in  a  col-   a  pencil  of  raya  from  a  lumlnoua  yolnt 
lection  of  auch  rava;    it  is  paro//cJ  when      «^^_|,^i^,^i.i^BH™™iBMii^ 
all  the  componcni   rays  are  pnrullel   to 
each   other;     converging   when    they    nil 
proceed  to  a  single  point;    and  dtvcrgmo 
when  tliey  all  proceed  from  a  single  point. 
The  focus  of  tlie  pencil  is  the  point  to 
or  from  whicl    the   rn;H   proeee«l.     Any 
space  or  substance  whieh  light  can  tra- 
verse   is    in    optics    called    'a    medium. 
When  light  falls  on  any  surface  a  certuin 
portion  of  it  is  reflected  or  sent  back, 
and  it  is  owing  to  this  refleeted  liKlit  that 
objects  pre  visible.    When  light  falls  upon 
the  surface  of  a  solid  substance  or  me- 
dium that  it  can  traverse  (a  transpai-ent 

substance),   one  portion  greater  or  1<»8  pig.  i.— Refnotioa. 

^^'l'n..'?!K  mrff  rf  InddeitTSa  point.  1»  at  right  .nul™  to  .nd  f.  bl- 

Hite  side  o'  the  perpendicular.     A  ne  law  ^^^.^^  ^^^  ^.^^^  ^^^  ^ 

^"ii''''JTaT,^npJ  or   the   origin   of   the  a  luminmia  object  sends  rays  to  a  plane 
roflecting   Burfnce   «'   *"«   orwm   oj    i  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^  reflection  seem  to  have 

light  which  falk  «P«°  "•  H-n  when  a  iirocewled  from  a  luminous  object  behind 
rr/rochort  coines  into  opera^^^^  i       ^.^^j.      ^^  receiving  a  ray   (or 

?^  ''iL"«5?„rtwf  medfanot  homweneous,  a  small  pencil  of  rays)  gets  the  impres- 
face  bounding  two  media  not  nomogeneou^  that  the  luminous  point  from  which 

such  as  aij"  "Pl,Xe  iensit^of  which  it  was  sent  is  somewhere  in  the  line  of 
traverse  «  "^"™h.  ntmSere  When  the  ray  just  before  reaching  the  eye.  and 
lirl^n^l^ht  nlsses  f"^a  wrer  into  hence  an  eye  in  such  a  position  as  to  re- 
?ynYer  m^StoTfs  Ct  or"re/rac««l  ceive   after   reflection   a   few   rays  from 


iMtii 


itmrn 


Opiiot 


Optioi 


'Tcry  point  of  th«  object  i»n   the  im- 
ag*  of  tlio  objMt.     (8c«  Am.  Z)     B«>aidt>s 
piano  mtrron  co^^carw  and  cunvpx  mir- 
r<n  arc  often  ua«d  in  optitM.     WIh-u  a 
mirror  la  nut  plane  tbo  iniitieut  raya  fmiu 
a  luminoua  point  in  general  neither  oon- 
rerge  to  a  lingle  point  after  refleotion 
nor  diverge  aa  if  they  had  i(tnie  from  a 
virtual  image.    But  when  a  cuucave  mir- 
ror forming  a  buinII  iH>rtion  vl  ■  euherk'al 
Hurface  ia  need  we  find  that  ali  the  raya 
falling  upon  It  from  a  luminuu*  point  con- 
verge ao  nearly  to  a  luminotia  point  after 
reflection  that  their  'aberratlun'  (aa  the 
non-convergence  of   the   raya  ia  calle<l» 
may  be  neglected  in   practice.     The  line 
Joining  the  center  of  the  apherical   aiir- 
face  with  the  'pole*  of  the  mirror  (thiit 
ia,  the  middle  point  of  the  retlecting  aiir- 
facet    ii.  called  the  principal  asit.     Any 
bundle  of  ray*  parallel  to  the  princibul 
azia  convergea  after  reflection  to  a  pfiiiit 
In   the  axia   called    the  principal  focui; 
lei  raya  coi 


of  them  plain,  It  U  mljed  a  p/ate  If  ther 
are  uarallel.  and  a  prism  If  they  are  nut 
imralleL  When  the  facea  are  curved,  or 
one  of  them  curved  and  the  >ther  plain, 
it  ia  called  a  hn:  Priama  are  the  eaaen- 
tial  parta  of  the  amantna  uaad  for  de- 


Fig^  g.—Itefl«eUoa  (Concave  Mirror). 


and  any  bondla  of  parallel  raya  convergea 


Fig.  3.— Sefleetlaa  (Plane  Minor). 


after  reflection  to  a  focna  which  ia  at 
the  aame  diatance  from  the  mirror  aa  the 
principal  focal  diatance.  When  the  ob- 
ject from  which  the  raya  proceed  is  at  a 
conaiderable  diatance,  an  inverted  image 
of  it  "ill  be  formed  midway  between  the 
center  of  curvature  and  the  mirror.  When 
the  object  l«  only  nt  a  moderate  diatance, 
but  exceeding  half  the  radlua  of  cnrva- 
ture,  an  inverted  image  la  still  formed 
in  front  of  the  mirror,  being  dimlniahed 
when  nearer  the  mirror  than  the  objwt 
Im.  and  magnified  when  farther  away 
than  the  object.  The  image  of  an  object 
plnced  nearer  a  concave  mirror  than  the 
principal  focua  ia  erect  and  lartrer  than 
the  object,  and  la  'virtual'  as  in  fig.  .3. 
where  a  b  ia  the  object,  la  its  image 
(inverted),  F  the  focua,  0  the  center  of 
curvature.  The  image  of  any  object  in 
a  convex  mirror  ia  alao  virtual  and  erect ; 
It  ia.  however,  smaller  than  the  object. 
When  the  two  facea  of  a  piece  of  glasa 
through  which  light  ia  refracted  are  both 


composing  light  and  examining  the  prop- 
ertiea  of  Ita  component  parts,  aa  In  apec- 
truiu  annlyMla.  (Hee  Lioht.)  A  lens  may 
be  regarded  as  conalating  of  an  unlint* 
ited  number  of  nrisma,  the  anglea  between 
their  faces  gradually  diminishing  the  far- 
ther away  from  the  uxIn  uf  the  lena.  It 
ia  the  property  of  convex  lenses  t':  di- 
miniah  the  divergency  of  the  pendla  of 
light,  of  concave  len^ea  to  increase  that 
divergency.  It  ia  the  duty  of  a  convei 
lena  to  make  rays  parallel  to  the  axia 
falling  on  one  face  of  it  converge  accu< 
rately  to  one  point  after  emerging  from 
the  other  face.  This  point  la  called  the 
principal  focua,  and  ia  the  point  where 
a  '  real '  image  would  be  formed.  When 
raya  parallel  to  the  axia  paas  through  a 
concave  lena  they  diverge,  and  if  pro- 
duced backwarda  in  the  direction  from 
which  they  come  they  would  meet  at  one 
point,  which  in  this  case  alao  ia  called 


Fig.  4.— Magnification  of  near  Object  by 
Convex  Lena. 

the  principal  focua :  but  It  is  only  a  vir- 
tual focus,  because  the  raya  tbemaelvea 
do  not  pass  through  it,  but  only  their 
backward  produetiona.  Thus  concave 
lensea  bend  rays  from  the  axia.  and  con- 
vex ones  l>end   them  towarda  it.     Wliea 


OptuDinB 


Onuif 


w*  look  tbroath  a  coseaT*  kiia  It  makM 
ot^t<  Mtn  «uall«r  wb«teTer  thrit  dim- 
Ubcm  »re.  >vlieii  Wf>  luok  through  a 
convex  lena  at  an  object  between  the  lena 
and  the  principal  focus  it  appeam  latfer 
than  It  realiy  la,  and  hence  the  nae  of 
■neh  lenaea  In  magnUylntKlarwce,  mioro- 
•copea  and  teleacopee.  The  rule  ai  to 
the  relative  aiae  of  object  and  image  wilt 
be  nniieretood  from  flg.  4,  where  the  amall 
arrow  ▲  a  is  the  object,  and  the  large 
arrow  its  ii  .age,  o  being  the  center  of  tha 
lens,  w  /  its  focL  Rajrs  from  ▲■  are  re- 
fracted towards  the  ails  br  the  lens,  and 
aa  the  vUuml  angle,  or  angle  made  by  the 
rajrs  at  the  eyea,  is  larger  than  if  there 
were  no  lens,  the  obj^t  appeara  magni- 
fled.  The  length  of  the  object  and  the 
image  will  be  directly  as  tneir  distance 
from  o;  so  that  if  the  image  is  three 
timeH  as  far  from  the  lens  as  the  object, 
it  will  bf  three  times  as  long  and  three 
times  as  broad.  Oonvtm  lenses  are  used 
in  spectacles  for  longsighted  (or  old- 
sighted  )  persons,  because  the  lens  of  their 
eye  is  too  much  flattened,  and  does  not 
of  itMelf  cauRe  a  sufficient  eonvergency  of 
the  rays  to  malie  an  image  on  the  retina, 
but  one  that  would  fall  behind  it  Con- 
vav0  lenses,  again,  are  used  by  near- 
sighted persons,- because  the  rays  in  their 
case  converge  so  much  as  to  make  aa 
image  in  front  of  their  retina  instead  of 
on  it.  See  Eye,  Light,  Uioroeeopet  Tele- 
»vope.  Spectroscope,  etc. 
fWifimiam  (op'tim-izm).  that  philo- 
UpXimiSm  gophical  doctrine  which 
maintains  that  this  world,  in  spite  of  its 
apparent  imperfections,  is  the  best  pos- 
sible. It  is  an  ancient  doctrine:  among 
modem  philosophers  Leibnits  is  its  prin- 
cipal advocate. 

Optometer  t^ri^^^2iJ^^^^; 

extent  of  the  limits  of  distinct  vision  in 
different  IndiTiduals,  and  consequently  for 
determining  the  focal  lengths  of  lenses 
necessary  to  correct  imperfections  of  the 
eye. 

Optometry  X^'^i'^-T-^^'^^ 

other  than  the  use  of  drugs  for  the  meas- 
uremeut  of  the  powers  of  human  vision 
and  the  adaptation  of  lenses  for  the  aid 
thereof.  The  practice  consists  in  examin- 
ing and  mea.surini;  the  focal  conditions  of 
each  eye  separately  to  determine  the  pres- 
ence or  laclc  of  binocular  equipoise,  and 
supplying  such  lenses  as  will  put  the  eyes 
in  correct  optical  adjustment  The  prin- 
cipal optical  defects  are  due  to:  a.,  dis- 
crepancy between  the  linear  and  focal 
measurements  of  an  eye ;  6.,  assymetrical 
curvatures    of     its    refractive    surfaces 


(Wtigmatism)  :  e.,  inability  to  (ocua  for 
aaar  points,  due  to  hardeBing  of  tha  cry- 
talliaa  lens  of  the  eie. 

opuntu  <ptt!S!S"tl;  ^act-S"^: 

baviof  atemi  consisting  of  flat  Joiati 
ttroadcr  alwve  than  beiow,  but  in  procaca 
of  arowth  losing  thia  appearance.  Tliair 
native  country  la  South  America.  Maay 
havt  handsome  flowers,  and  some  yield  a 
pleasant  sub-acid  fruit  O.  raaa  ia  cnl- 
Uvated  in  Mexico  for  the  cochineal  inaset 
Bee  indiun-fig.  Prickly-pear. 
Alt  in  hcraldrT,  th"  tincture  that  rep- 
^**  resents  gold.  See  Beraliry. 
Onoh.  P»*cn»  (or'ach),  is  tlie  popu- 
"•  ">  lar  name  of  several  planta  of 
the  genua  Atriplem,  order  Chenopodiacan. 
A  cultivated  species  (A.  kortenti*)  ia 
known  as  garden  ur  mountain  spinadi« 
being  used  aa  a  substitute  for  spinach. 
Ara.n1«a  (or'a-kls),  the  answers  which 
Vrsoiei     ^^  ^^  ^i  ^t,^  Greeks,   Ro- 

mana,  Egyptians,  etc.,  wer«  supposed  to 

Sive,  by  words  uttered  or  otherwise,  to 
It-Me  who  consulted  them  upon  any  occa- 
sion; also  tha  plaosa  or  sources  whence 
these  answers  were  received.  The  Qreek 
oracles  are  the  moiit  ccleltrated,  the  earil- 
est  being  that  of  Zena  (Jupiter)  at  Do- 
dona  Of  the  other  goda  Apollo  had 
many  oracles,  but  that  at  Delphi  held 
the  first  place,  and  it  waa  often  applied 
to  for  explaining  obscure  answers  ob- 
tained at  Dodona.  Another  famoua  or- 
acle of  Apollo  was  in  the  island  of  Delos. 
The  Romana  had  no  important  oradea  of 
their  own,  but  had  recourse  to  those  cf 
Greece  and  Egypt  The  early  Christians 
ascribed  the  oracles  in  general  to  the 
operation  of  the  devil  and  his  agents. 
Gran  (8-»*n'),  a  seaport, of  Algeria, 
capital  of  province  of  same  name. 
The  town  rises  in  tne  form  of  an  amphi- 
theater, has  now  largelv  a  European  char- 
acter, and  ia  strongly  fortified.  The  har- 
bor waa  formerly  at  Mersel-Kebir.  about 
S  milea  northwest  of  the  town,  but  re- 
cently excellent  accommodation  for  ship- 
ping has  been  provided  at  Oran  itself. 
Oran  has  a  large  trade.  Oran  came  into 
the  possession  of  France  in  1831.    Chief 


exports:  cereals,  esparto  and  alfa  grass, 
wine,  olives,  f  ^  Pop.  123.<j»6,  of  whom 
nearly  half  are  B'reurh. — Tha  provnicf, 
forming  a  long  belt  along  the  3fediter^ 
ranean,  has  an  area  of  4i,616  sq,  milea 
and  a  population  of  1,122,538. 
Oramp  iO-ra°S'),  or  OBAifo-ouTANQ,  a 
B  qnadrumanouB  mammal,  the 
PUhieut  aatgrut  or  Simia  eatyrua,  one 
of  the  anthropoid  or  man-like  apes  or 
monkeys.  This  enimal  seems  to  be  con- 
flued  to  Bomea,  Sumatra  and  Malacca. 


Orange 


Orangeburg 


I 


M 


la  this 


SI^*"*'^*  "i**/'?  *o  ™an,  being  «  imi 

Md  gorilla.  It  is  utterly  incapable  of 
walking  in  a  perfectly  erect  postire.  Its 
hS^i^K^!;*'*?   ^^F  coawe  hair  of  a 

Wh-i'  ^6  inchea  long,  and  on  its  arms  6 
!♦  *t^  ??*  'H«  *■  destitute  of  bair  save 
JlJ^S  *'**^I'V  J*  attains  tbe  height  of 
&#  *°  ?u'^^*'  measured  in  a  straiRht 
line  from   the  vertex   to  the   heel.     The 

fI^'J'"'''\  \  *•'*  anltle-joint.  The  hind- 
iegs  are  short  and  stunted,  the  nails  of 


Oranc-outang  (Pilh«eu*  latunu) 


the  fingers  and  toes  flattened.  They 
swing  themselves  along  from  tree  to  tree 
Dy  the  aid  of  their  long  arms,  but  their 
*f»t  on  the  ground  is  awkward  and  un- 
stea.'y      At  Birth  the  head  of  the  orang 

resembles  that  of  the  younir  child     Thn«n   i\ *" ^"^  ^'■y-.     i^uy.  o.«w. 

apes  are  remarkable  for  streneth  and  in     Orange,    «_  township    (town)    in  New 
telligence.    and   capable   of  befng*h.>hly"   «  ^v.t  L  S^^fiLCoi^Connecticut.  with 
domesticated    if   captured    young.      They 
feed  chiefly  on  fruits  and  sleep  on  trees. 
See  also  Man,  Apea,  Monkeys 


mulUpla  of  them,  and  along  with  th«  pet- 
«  Jjflfff*^!  *"*  a.  hypogynous  disc,   tbe 
hiaments  being  united  in  several  bundles. 
The  fruit  is  globose,  bright  yellow.  Md 
contains  a  pulp  which  consists  of  a  col- 
Jection  of   oblong  vesicles   tilled  with  a 
f^f^'T  K?**  'e^feshlng  juice;  it  is  divided 
into  eight  or  ten  compartments,  each  usu- 
ally containing  several  seeds.    Tbe  prin- 
cipal  varieties  are  the  common  sweet  or 
China  orange,  the  bitter  or  Seville,  the 
Maltese  or  red  pulped,  the  Tangerine,  tho 
Mandann  or  clove,  and  the  St.  MichAeFs. 
1  he  leaves,  flowers  and  rind  yield  fra- 
grant oils  much  used  in  perfumery  and 
for  flavoring  essences.     The  wood  is  fine- 
grained, compact,   susceptible  of  a  biph 
polish,  and  is  employed  m  tbe  arts.    The 
citron  and  lemon  are  allied  fruits. 
Oran&re.   *  ,^™all  and   ancient  princi- 
1,         **     ..P?^t^    *°    the    southeast    of 
France,  which  from  the  eleventh  to  the 
sixteenth  century  had  its  own  princes. 
^A  9^.  ^??*^^  of  Utrecht   (1713)   it  was 
n?   tL*  M^.u*°f^-  ^  ^^«  reigning  dynasty 
of    the   Netherlands   is  of   the   house   of 
Orange,  and  the  b  ir-apparent  bears  the 
title  of  I'nnce  of  Orange. 
Oran&re    I'^e   ancient   Arauaio),   a 
,  ,r      ,       town   of  B^ance,   department 
of  Vaucluse,  18  miles  north  of  Avignon. 
«  was  for  a  long  time  the  capital  of  the 
principality  of  tho  same  name,  and  is  now 
chiefly  celebrated  l.r  its  architectural  re- 
mains.    Pop.  6470. 

Oranee,  ?;r^"'"^u®  °^  FranWln  County, 
B.  o-T  Massachusetts,  on  Miller^s 
Kiver,  37  miles  w.  of  Fitchburg.  It  pro- 
duces sewmg  machines,  automobiles,  ma- 
chinery, cereals,  etc.    Pop.  5282. 


.  ^ii«r  «  naven  uo„  Connecticut,  with 
a  village  of  the  same  name,  6  miles  s.  w. 
of  New  Haven.     Pop.  of  town  11,272 


Oranee  ^'^'^'^i)^  the  fruit  of  the  Cit- 
nr  f,.:  t*^V*  ^«'"««*««!».  and  the  shrub 
T^onrL**^f''-  ?.'^*-  '"■*^^/  Aurantiacese. 
^e  orange  is  indigenous  in  China,  India, 
and  other  Asiatic  countries,  and  was 
first  introduced  in  Portuiral  about  1520. 
It  IS  now  extensively  cultivated  in  South- 
tZ^t^S^'  ^"J  Portugal  and  Spain  the 
fruit  forms  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce.   Large  quantities  are  produced  in 

California,  also  in  the  West  Indios. 
Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands.  The 
I  LJl'  t  "'"dle-slzed  evergrcon.  with 
J.i^f*'"'^'':^'"''^?  hark.  The  leaves  are 
?hf  niff ?*^'  pointed  and  at  the  base  of 
the  petiole  are  winged.  The  whitp  flower 
^«!ll«  »urt*  wi.h  five  divisions,  a 
ri^l  «„  't''-  *^*'  imbricate  petals,  sta- 
mens, equal  in  number  to  the  petals  or  a 


Orange,  %  c'*y  o/«®88f»  County.  New 
v^-t  T*  .  ^^P^y'  12  miles  west  of  New 
lork.  It  IS  picturesquely  situated  on  el", 
vated  gronnd,  and  contains  many  fine  resi- 
dence^ being  a  favorite  dwelling  place  for 
New  York  city  men.  It  is  connected  by 
electric  cars  with  Newark,  3  miles  dis- 
tant, and  has  manufactures  of  elec- 
Kr  29^  phonographs,  hats,    etc. 

Orange,  ?;  <=**y  a°d  the  county  8«at  of 
SnWno  p-  ^'^^f^^  County,  Texas,  on  the 
Sabine  River,  32  miles  from  tbe  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
Jti-foot  deep  water  channel.  The  leadine 
products  are  paper,  sugar,  rice,  fruits, 
com,  cotton  and  vegetables.    Pop    8500 

Orangebure.  «,  •^'ty,  capital  of 

r.       I-  r     Orangeburg  Co.,   South 

Carolina,  on  the  North  Edisto  Rlveri  61 
miles  8.  of  Columbia.  It  has  rice,  cot- 
ton and  lumber  Interests,  and  poanesaes 


Orangemen 


Oratory 


collegiate  institatlons  for  colored  ita* 
denti.    Pop.  6»06. 

nrftncrprnpn  the  members  of  a  secret 
vnuiKcmeu,  gocjety    founded   in    the 

north  of  Ireland  in  1795,  to  uphold  the 
Protestant  religion  and  political  ascend- 
ency,  and  to  oppose  the  Catholic  religion 
and  influence  and  their  secret  societies. 
The  title  of  the  association  was  adopted 
in  honor  of  William  III  of  England, 
prince  of  Orange.  The  head  of  the  asso- 
ciation is  the  Imperial  Grand  Lodge  with 
its  imperial  grand-master ;  then  there  are 
grand  lodges,  grand  county  lodges,  district 
and  subordinate  lodges,  spread  over  Ire- 
kind,  Great  Britain,  United  States,  and 
some  of  the  British  colonies,  especially 
Canada.  In  1835  the  society  was  dis- 
solved in  consequence  of  intrigues  in  the 
army,  but  revived  in  1845.  Great  demon- 
strations take  place  annually  on  the  let 
and  12th  of  July,  the  anniversaries  of  the 
battles  of  the  Boyne  and  Aughrim,  and 
encounters  of  processions  of  the  opposite 

Sarties  are  apt  to  be  the  cause  of  serious 
isturbances.  The  Loyal  Orange  Institu- 
tion in  the  United  States  numbers 
150.000. 

Oranere  Biver   **'"  Gabiep,  a  river  in 

viau^CAXVcr,  g^^^j^  ^f^ioa,  form- 
ing part  of  the  north  boundarv  of  Cape 
Colony,  and  falling  after  a  total  course  of 
about  1300  miles  into  the  Atlantic.  It 
has  its  source  in  the  Kathlamba  or  Dra- 
kensburg  range.  Its  course  is  winding, 
and  it  has  no  value  as  a  navigable  stream. 
The  area  of  its  basin  is  325,000  sq.  miles. 
Its  chief  tributary  is  the  Vaal. 

Orange  River  Colony,  '^"fa^^^ 

Free  State,  of  South  Africa.  It  has  Cape 
Colony  on  8.  and  B.  w.,  Bechuanaland  on 
W.  w.,  Vaal  Colony  on  n..  Natal  on  E., 
Basutoland  on  b.  E. ;  area  estimated  at 
about  50,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1911) 
626,006,  of  whom  175.435  are  whites.  It 
was  founded  in  1835-36  by  Dutch  settlers 
from  Cape  Colony,  annexed  by  Britain  in 
1848  in  order  to  put  a  stop  to  the  Boer 
outrages  upon  natives;  then  in  1854  it 
was  recognized  as  an  independent  state. 
In  1809  it  joined  the  South  African  Re- 
public in  declaring  war  against  Britain. 
The  year  following  it  was  proclaimed  a 
British  colony  by  General  Roberts.  Lying 
about  oOOO  feet  above  the  sea-level,  the 
country,  chiefly  vast,  undulating  plains, 
is  cold  in  winter,  with  violent  thunder- 
storms and  long  droughts  in  summer.  It 
Is,  however,  very  healthy  and  favorable  to 
European  constitutions.  Pasturing  is  the 
chief  occupation,  and  wool,  hides  and 
ostrich  feathers  the  principal  exports. 
Diamonds  and  other  precioai  stonea  are 


found  in  paying  quantities,  valnable  coal 
mines  exist,  and  the  colony  is  said  to 
abound  in  mineral  wealth.  Gold  was  first 
discovered  here  in  1887.  The  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  is  the  dominant  religion, 
and  a  Dutch  dialect  the  present  language 
of  the  colony.  The  capital  is  Bloemfon- 
tein,  a  pretty,  well-built  city,  containing 
a  population  of  33,883.  In  1900  it  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  under  its  original  name  of  Orange 
Free  State. 
nrflfnrin  (or-a-t5'ri-0 ;  Italian  orafoHo, 

where  these  compositions  were  first  per- 
formed), a  sacred  musical  composition 
consisting  of  airs,  recitatives,  duets,  trios, 
quartettes,  choruses,  etc.,  with  full  orches- 
tral and  sometimes  organ  accompaniment, 
*he  subjects  being  generally  taken  from 
tL>cripture.  Its  origin  has  been  usually 
ascribed  to  St.  Filippo  de  Neri,  who,  in 
1570,  founded  the  congregation  of  the  Or- 
atory in  Rome,  one  of  the  objects  of  which 
was  to  render  religious  services  as  attrac- 
tive as  possible.  Its  increasing  popularity 
induced  poets  of  eminence  to  supply  texts 
for  these  works.  From  the  rude  begin- 
nings of  oratorio,  which  might  be  held 
to  exist  in  Emilio  del  Cavaliere's  Bappre- 
sentazione  di  amina  e  di  corpo,  in  1000, 
the  art  progressed  until  it  reached  its  high 
expression  in  the  German  Paaaion  mumc, 
notably  that  written  by  J.  S.  Bach.  In 
England  Handel  brought  the  oratorio  into 
popularity  by  the  sheer  excellence  of  his 
productions,  and  he  has  been  the 
inspiration  to  writers  in  this  form 
of  music  to  the  present  day.  Among 
the  most  notable  examples  of  oratorio 
are  the  Passion  According  to  8t.  Mat- 
thew, by  Bach ;  the  Messiah  and  Israel  in 
Egypt,  by  Handel;  the  Creation,  by 
Haydn;  the  Mount  of  Olives,  by  Beetho- 
ven ;  the  Last  Judgment,  by  Spobr ;  Saint 
Paul  and  Elijah,  bv  Mendelssohn.  Schu- 
bert left  a  remarkable  fragment  of  an 
oratorio  called  Lazarus,  Among  the  ora- 
torios by  living  composers  may  be  men- 
tioned The  Light  of  the  World  and  The 
Prodigal  Son,  by  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan; 
The  Rose  of  Sharon,  by  A.  C.  Mackenzie; 
The  Deluge  and  Ruth,  by  F.  H.  Cowen. 
The  dramatic  oratorio  should  be  distin- 
guished from  its  less  secular  form  as  ex- 
emplified in  the  earlier  German  produc- 
tions. The  19th  century  tendency  toward 
dramatic  cantata  is  shown  in  Dvorak's 
St.  LudtnUla  and  Liszt's  St.  Elizabeth 
and  Christus. 

Oratory.  P^sts  op  the,  a  religious 
„.„"  order  founded  in  Borne  br  St 
Fillppo  de  Neri  in  1570,  for  the  study  of 
theology,  and  for  superintending  the  re- 
ligloiu  ezerdMf  of  the  deront,  viaitia;; 


Orbiculiua 


Orohidaoett 


the  sick,  etc    The  memben  live  in  cmb- 
moBity,  but  are  not  bound  by  monastic 
vow.:  they  are  at  Uberty  to  ^draw  at 
any  time,  and  pay  a  hxed  iinn  towarda 
the  common  expenses. 
/v.VJ««1{«ia    tor-bi-kfl-Wna),  a  genus 
OrDlCTUina    \f    minute    foramimters, 
found  aUve  in  tropical  seas,  as  al»o  fos- 
■11  in  the  tertiaries.     They  derive  their 
name  from  their  flattened  globular  shape. 
nvVtit  (or'bit),  in  astronomy,  the  path 
UTDIT  ^i  a  planet  or  comet;  the  curve- 
line  which  a  planet  describes  in  it"  peri- 
odical revolution  round  its  central  b^y. 
The  orbits  of  the  planets  *"  e"iP?^' 
having  the  sun  in  one  of  the  foci :  and  the 
planete  all  move  in  these  ellipses  by  this 
law.  that  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the 
center  of  the  sun  to  the  center  of  any 
one  of  them,  termed  the  rad%ua  vector,  al- 
ways describes  equal  areas  m  equal  times. 
Also   the   squares   of   the   tunes   of   the 
planetary   revolutions  are  as  the  cubes 
oi   their   mean   distances   from   the    sun. 
The  satellites  also  move  in  elliptical  or- 
bits   having  their  respective  pnmanes  m 
one 'of  the  foci.    The  elemenU  of  an  or- 
bit are  those  quantities  by  which  its  po- 
sition and  magnitude,  for  the  time,  are 
determined;  such  as  the  major  axw  and 
eccentricity,    the   longitude  of  the   node, 
and  inclination  of  the  plane  to  the  eclip- 
tic, and  the  longitude  of  the  perihelion. 

Or'cades.  »•'«  ^''''''"'  ^•'""**'- 

n.>.«»i.a    (or-k&n'yA),  Andbba  di  Ci- 
Orcagna  ;«^j.^  bom  about  laOS;  died 
about  1386 ;  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
early    Florentine    artists    after    Giotto. 
Painting,  sculpture,  architecture  and  mo- 
884c  work  were  all   Arithin  the  sphere  ol 
his  artistic  genius;  and  his  P'ofuctions 
compare   favorably    with    the    best   of   a 
period  so  rich  and  distinguished  in  the 
art  of  Italy.     As  a  painter  he  execut^ 
the  beautiful  frescoes  in  the  church   S. 
Maria   Norella   at   Florence;    the   chapel 
San   Michele  and   its  magnificent  taber- 
nacle  in   the   same   city   are   grand   me- 
morials  of   his   architectural   and   sculn- 
tural    talent      His    style    is    remarkable 
for  exquisite  design,   graceful   pose,   ana 
delicate    execution.      Boccaccio   has    per- 
petuated his  name  in  ^-is  Decamerone. 
l\Tf>\\arH    (er'chard),  an  enclosure  de- 
Urcnara    ^^^^e^  ^o  the  culture  of  fruit 
trees,  especially  the  apple,  the  Pear,  the 
plum,   the   peach    and   the   cherry.     The 
most  suitable  position  for  an  orchard  " 
a  declivity  lyintc  well  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  sheltf red  from  the  colder  'W'.na''-^^"^ 
yet  not  too  much  shut  in.  The  soil  should 
vary  according  to  the  kind  otJ^^lAt^ 
tivated,   and  it  is  generally   ajjo^^** 
produce  only  grass  besides  the  fruit  trees. 


Fruit  cultivation  is  carried  on  moat  ex- 
tensively   on    the    continent    of    Europe 


and  tiie  United  States,,  tiie  ,^vl«  va<^ 
peach  being  very  largely  cultfjated  in 
some  of  the  States,  and  yield^g  the  finest 


and   most  delicious   fruit.    Canada  also 
yields  an  abundance  of  fine  apples. 

Orcliard-house,  Sestt'^/le'cuf- 

tiyation  of  fruits  to  greater  advantage 
than  in  the  open  air.  The  fruit  trees 
in  it  are  not  allowed  to  attain  any  great 
size.  They  are  planted  in  pote  which 
have  a  large  hole  in  the  bottom,  and 
through  this  the  smaller  roots  pass  to 
take  nourishment  from  a  specially  pre- 
pared soil  below.  These  roots  are  cut 
o«E  after  the  fruit  is  gathered,  and  the 
trees  then  rest  during  the  winter. 
A.<.t.a«Jai\«t  (Or^hard-sun) ,  SiB  wn.- 
OrCnardSOn    ^^^^  Quhxeb.  painter, 

bom    in    Etiinburgh     (1835-1910).      He 
painted  portraits  and  exhibited  in  the  K. 
S.  A.  till  1863,  when  he  removed  to  Lon- 
don. He  became  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1868,  and  full  academician 
in  1879.     He  is  among  the  first  of  Brit- 
ish incident  painters,  a  fine  colorist,  ana 
most  of  his  works  are  skilfully  dramatic 
and  picturesque-  Among  his  more  notable 
pictures  are  The  Challenge,   Chnatopher 
8lv,  The  Queen  of  the  Stoorda,  Napoleon 
on  Board  the  Bellerophon,  Vn  Marxagede 
Convenance.    Salon    of   Mtne.    Becamt^, 
The  Firtt  Cloud  and  The  Young  Duke. 
nrfihpWtL  (Or-kerft),  the  name  of  sev- 
Urcaeua    p^^i   species   of  Roccella,   a 
genus  of  lichens,  originally  brought  from 
the    Levant,    and    employed    from    very 
early  times  as  a  dye  agent.    Large  quan- 
tities are  gathered  in  the  maritime  rocks 
of  the  Canary  and  Cape  Verde  Islands. 
A  purple  and  a  red  dye,  known  as  orchil 
or  archil,  are  prepared  from  them. 
nvftTiAsfra  (Or'kes-tra),    the    space    in 
UrCUeSira.  theaters  between  the  seats 
occupied  by  the  spectators  and  the  stage, 
appropriated  by  the  Greeks  to  the  chorus 
and  the  musicians,  by  the  Romans  to  the 
senators,    and    in    our    modern    theaters 
to    the    musicians.      Tm    name    is    also 
used  for  the  part  of  concert  rooms  as- 
signed to  the  vocal  and  instrumental  per- 
formers ;  and,  lastiy.  is  applied  to  the  in- 
stm-nental  performers,  collectively  taken. 
A    modem    orchestra    in    the   last   sense 
consists  of  stringed,  wind  and  percussion 
instruments,    in    varied    proportions,    ac- 
cording   to    the    number    of    instrumen- 
talists.   The  stringed  instruments  should 
greatly  outnuniber  the  wind  instruments, 
and  _  those  latter  the  instraments  of  per- 
cussion. -. 
OrnliiflnrPfP   «^r-ki-dft'8e-e> ,    or    Or- 
urcuiaui^eu;    chids,  an  extensive  or- 


Orohidaoea 


OrdMl 


der  of  endogens  (nearly  2000  roedei  be- 
inK    known),    coniisting    of    herbaceon* 
planto  or  Bhrab«,  with  flbroua  or  tuberoua 
rootB ;  a  ahort  stam  or  a  paeudo-bulb ;  en- 
tire, often  abeathinK  leaves;  and  showy 
flowers,  with  a  perianth  of  six  segments 
in  two  rows,  mostly  colored,  one,  the  low- 
est, generally  differing  in  form  from  tlie 
rest,    and    often    spiraL      The    «Mential 
form  of  these  flowers  is  determined  oy 
the  presence  of  this  six-segmented   peri- 
anth, the  three  outer  segments  of  whicn 
are  a  kind  of  calyx,  the  three  inner  form- 
ing a  kind  of  corolla.     By  adheeuon  or 
abortion   the   parts   of   the   perianth   are 
sometimes  reduced  to  five  or  three,  ana 
springing  from  its  sides  are  the  six  sta- 
mens whose  anthers  contain  pollen-grains. 
They   are    natives   of   all   countries,   but 
very  cold  and  dry  climates  produce  but 
few  species ;  some  of  them  grow  in  tne 
ground,  -but  a  largo  number  are  epiphytes, 
growing  upon  trees ;  and  it  is  above  all 
in  the  great  virgin  forests  of  South  Amer- 
ica and  of  the  East  Indies  that  the  or- 
chids abound.    The  orchids  attract  much 
attention,   and   are   cultivated   with   zeal 
on    account    of    the    beauty    or    cunous 
shapes   of  the   flowers    (which  often  as- 
sume the  forms  of  reptiles,  insects,  and 
other  denizens  of  the  animal  kingdom), 
or   for    their    not    unfrequently  ^Tf^^t 
smells.     The   cultivation   of   orchids   has 
of  recent  years  become  a  sort  of  mania, 
large  sums  being  often  paid  for  new  or 
rare  varieties.     The   nutritive  substance 


Orollil    ^*'^^)'    ***  Archil 


n-rrthin.  (Or-kis>,  ttie  typical  genus  of 
UrCIUB  ^jjg  j^jjgp  OrchidaceaB,  compris- 
ing hardy  perenniala  with  tuberoua  fleahy 
roots,  containing  much  starch ;  natives  of 
Europe,  temperate  Aaia,  and  a  few  oi 
North  America.    0.  ipeotahtht,  a  pretty 


Butterfly  Orchid  {Oncidium  Papilio). 


called  salep  is  prepared  from  the  roots 
and  tubers  of  several  species;  the  frag- 
rant vanilla  is  obtained  from  two  spwiea 
of  a  genus  of  that  name.  The  figure  gives 
an  iUustration  of  one  interestiiw  species, 
for  others  see  OrrV\»  and   vontHo. 


The  Sslep  Oiohta  (Orcfci*  mMtila). 

little  plant,  is  found  In  shady  woods  and 
among  rocks.  O.  matcula  yields  salep. 
See  Orcfttdrtccw.  nvt.f\.\    „ 

Cir-ni-n     «r  Obcine  (Sr'sln ;  CtHA)i),  a 
vrciu,   peculiar     coloring     matter     ob- 
tained from  orchella.     When  exposed  to 
air  charged   with  vapors  of  ammonia  u 
assumes  by   degrees  a  fine  violet  color; 
when  dissolved  in  ammonia  it  acquires  a 
deep  blood-red   color. 
ri'rnTia  (or'kus),  a  name  among  the  it«>- 
urcUB  nj^Qg    £op    Tartarus   or    the    in- 
fernal regions.  .         .  , 
Orfl^al  (Or'deal),   an   ancient  form  of 
UJTUCIU  jrial  to  determine  guilt  or  inno- 
cence, practiced  by  the  rude  nations  of 
Europe,  in  the  Bast,  and  by  the  savage 
tribes  of  Africa.    In  England  there  were 
two  principal  kinds  of  ordeal,  flre-orgeai 
and  water-ordeal;  the  former  being  con- 
fined to  persons  of  higher  rank,  the  lat- 
ter to  the  common  people.     Both  might 
be  performed  by  deputy,  but  the  princi- 
pal was  to  answer  for  the  success  of  the 
"trial.     Fire-ordeal  was  performed  either 
by  taking  in  the  hand  a  piece  of  red-hot 
iron,  or  by  walking  barefoot  and  blind- 
fold over  glowing  coals  or  over  nine  red- 
hot  ploughshares  laid  lengthwise  at  un- 
equal distances;    and   if  the  person   es- 
caped unhurt,  he  was  adjudged  innocent, 
otherwise  he  was  condemned  as  guilty. 
Water-ordeal    was    performed    either   by 
plunging  the  bare  arm  to  the  elbow  in 
boiling  water,  escape  from  injury  being 
considered    proof    of    innocence ;    or    by 
casting  the  person  suspected  into  a  river 
or  pond,   and   if  he  floated  without  an 
effort   to   swim    it   was   an   evidence   of 


Ordeal-bean 


Orden 


I 


fuilt,  bnt  if  he  aunk  h«  wu  acquitted. 
It  was  at  last  condemned  aa  unlawful 
by  the  canon  law,  and  in  England  it 
was  abolished  by  an  order  in  council  of 
Henry  III.  As  scccess  or  failure,  except 
in  a  few  cases,  depended  on  those  who 
made  the  requisite  preparations,  a  wide 
field  was  opened  to  deceit  and  malice. 
Besides  these  ordeals  there  were  a  variety 
of  others  practiced  in  many  countries, 
such  as  the  corsned  or  hallowed  morsel 
trial,  the  trial  by  touching  the  dead  body 
of  a  person  murdered,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  bleed  if  touched  by  the  murderer, 
the  ordeal  by  swallowing  certain  herbs 
and  roots,  etc.  After  th^i  fourteenth  cen- 
tury ordeals  became  more  and  more  un- 
common. In  the  sixteenth  century  only 
the  trial  of  the  bier  was  used,  and  this 
continued  even  into  the  first  part  of  the 
eighteenth.  In  consequence  of  the  prev- 
alent belief  in  sorcery  or  witchcraft  the 
ordeal  by  cold  water  was  long  retained  in 
the  trials  of  witches.  These  foolish  cus- 
toms were  generally  done  away,  but  iso- 
lated cases  in  some  of  the  benighted 
countries  of  Europe  happened  until  a 
comparatively  recent  period.  Ordeals  are 
still  found  in  many  nations  out  of  Eu- 
rope, as  in  West  Africa,  and  other  parts 
of  that  continent.  In  Madagascar  till 
lately  trial  by  ordeal  (swallowing  the 
poison  of  the  tree  Tanghinia  venendsa) 
was  in  regular  use.  The  Chinese  still 
retain  the  ordeal  of  fire  and  water,  and 
various  ordeals  are  practiced  among  the 
Hindus. 

nrdefll-llPATI  Obdeal-nttt,  the  .  seed 
Uraeai-oean,  ^^    ^^^    Calabar    bean. 

See  Calahar  Bean. 

t\•1•iltka^mr•nni■    the  root  of  a  species  of 

Uraeai  rooi,  p  j  ^  n  t     of     the     genus 

Strychnoa,  used  as  an  ordeal  in  Western 

Africa. 

ni><lAo1   TrftA    a  name  of  two  poison- 

Uraeai   Xree,  ^.^^  ^j.ees;  Erythro- 

fhlteum  guineenae  of  Guinea  and  Tang- 
ninia    venenosa    of     Madagascar.       See 
ErythrophliBiitn,  TantfMn. 
tirApT  (or'd^r'*    .     -zoology  and  botany.. 
viuGX    jj  gjij^  jjf  ^  pi^gg  ^r  large 

division  of  animu-  or  plants,  which,  al- 
though agreeing  in  the  characters  com- 
mon to  the  whole  class,  yet  are  more 
closely  allied  by  some  very  special  fea- 
tures in  their  economy.  It  is  based  upon 
broad  criteria  of  structure.  Thus  in  the 
olass  Mammalia  we  have  the  order  of  the 
Quadrumana  or  Monkeys ;  in  the  class  of 
Birds  we  have  the  order  of  Natatores  or 
8wimming  Birds,  in  the  class  of  Mono- 
cotyledonous  Plants  the  order  LiliaceBP, 
etc.  The  order  itself  ip  divided  into 
subordinate  groups  namprf  genera.  See 
Qenut. 


Orderions  VitaUs  {2?g^^!;X.S' 

Norman  historian,  bom  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Shrewsbury,  in  1078,  his  mother 
being  English,  his  father  Norman.  He 
received  his  education  in  the  Abbey  of  St 
Evroul  (Normandy),  where  the  name 
Vitalis  was  conferred  on  him,  and  in  due 
time  became  a  priest.  Ue  wrote  in 
Latin  an  ecclesiastical  history  in  13 
books,  from  the  birth  of  Christ  down  to 
his  own  time.  The  later  books  are  valua- 
ble to  the  historical  student,  as  they  offer 
a  ^ood  description  of  the  life  and  times  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  of  William  II, 
and  of  the  first  of  the  Crusades.  He  died 
after  114a 

Orderlies  L?'l*:"^frl;v '''««•  ,,h^^« 

states  army,  are  privates 
and  non-commissioned  officers  selected  to 
attend  upon  general  and  other  officers, 
for  the  purpose  of  bearing  their  orders 
and  rendering  other  services.  The  orderly 
officer,  or  officer  of  the  day,  is  the  officei 
of  a  corps  or  regiment,  whose  duty  it; 
is  to  superintend  its  iuterior  economy,  as 
cleanliness,  quality  of  the  food,  etc.  An 
orderly  hook  is  provided  by  the  captain 
of  each  company  or  troop,  in  which  the 
general  or  regimental  orders  are  entered. 
Orders     holy,  a  term  applied  to  tiie 

'  different  ranks  of  ecclesiastics. 
The  Anglican  and  other  Reformed  Epis- 
copal churches  recognize  only  the  three 
orders  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons. 
The  Boman  Catholic  Church  admits  of 
seven  orders:  four  minor  or  secular — 
doorkeeper,  exorcist,  reader  and  acolyte; 
and  three  major — subdeacon,  deacon, 
priest.  The  Greek  Church  has  also  the 
distinction  of  major  and  minor  orders, 
but  the  functions  of  the  four  minor  or* 
ders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  are 
united  by  the  Greeks  in  the  single  order 
of  reader.  The  term  holy  orden,  or 
simply  orders,  is  also  used  as  equivalent 
to  the  clerical  character  or  position,  as 
'  to  take  orders,*  *  to  be  in  orders.' 
Orders     ^bi'i''-^T>  fraternities  or  so- 

'  cieties  of  men  banded  together 
in  former  times  for  military  and  partly 
for  patriotic  or  Christian  purposes.  Free 
birth  and  an  irreproachable  life  were 
the  conditions  of  admission.  The  chief 
were  the  Templars,  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
and  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 
Orflpra  Rbuoious,  are  associations, 
VXUCX9,  ^j,p  mpmbera  of  which  bind 
themselves  to  lead  strict  and  devotional 
lives,  and  to  live  separate  from  the  world. 
Prior  to  tUeir  formation  there  were  only 
the  Hermits  or  Anchorites.  (See  Mon- 
ngtery.)  The  entry  into  religious  orders, 
from  their  foundation  to  the  present 
time,  Is  preceded  by  the  taking  of  the 


Ordtn 


Orders  of  Aroliiteoture 


momiBtic   tow,   which   enjoma   residaiice 
£   a    monaitery,    ceUbaey,    renunciation 

S  worldly  V»»"«'  ^^  ^"*y  °l  P"y^n' 
ftutinf.  aM  othei  austerities,  and  uncon- 

ditionai   obedience    to   superiors.     These 
conditions  form  the  basis  of  the  majority 
o«  orders,   some  being  more  austere  in 
Seir  observances  than  others.    The  hrst 
properly  constituted  religious  order  was 
founded   in   the   fourth   century   by    St. 
Basil.     The   Basilians   are    now    chiefly 
Sued  to  the  Greek  Church  in  the  Bast 
In  the  time  of  Justinian  (530)  St.  Bene- 
dict established  a  new  order,  the  Bene- 
dictines, under  a  set  of  rules  based  prin- 
cinaUy  on  those   of  St.   Basil,  and   for 
some%00  years  after  the  greates    num- 
ber of  European  monks  followed  his  stat- 
utes?   According  to  some  authorities  as 
many  as  23  orders  sprung  fn.m  this  one. 
About  1220  the   Dominicans  and    Uran- 
dscans    originated    by    taking    amended 
rules   from    their   leaders.     These   rules, 
esnecially  those  of  the  Dominicans,  were 
m^  austere,  including  Perpetual  sdence 
total    abstinence    from    Afsh,     and    the 
wearing  of  woolen  only,  and  they  r  ere 
not  allowed   to  receive   money,  and   had 
?o  subs?sT  on  alms,  being  thus  mcr.d.c««* 
orders.     The   orders   mentioned    are    tne 

f^ntain  heads  of  """Jf^JMl^^^L^S  S 
arose  to  accommodate  the  changing 
times,  the  altered  conditions  of  countries, 
Md  the  particular  policies  of  the  church. 
M^i&Wers  of  >e  Benedictines  are 
for  instance,  the  Caraalduhans  or  Ca- 
maldolites.  the  Carthusians,  the  Celes- 
K?  thl  Cistercians,  the  Bemard.nes 
Feniilants.  Recollets,  the  niins  of  PmJ 
Royal,  and  the  Trappists.  The  reputed 
rules  of  St.  Augustine  were  accepted  by 
a  large  number  of  religious  orders,  but 

I^X'^in^Je^TvTnth-Sy.Tof 

z  sva^rthreTgh^th-c-e^^^^^^^^ 

&  by  rIceivTng  permission  to  assume 
Iha  t^nanre  thev  were  formally  declared 
dergymen'  »ed.  public  opinion  and 
several  papal  bulls  placed  them,  as  su- 
perior in  sanctity,  above  the  secular 
Pl/rev  who  for  this  reason  often  be- 
^L.J^1     monks       The     Prtemonstra  tenses, 

Ohservantines.   t  '^'^  V       *«  Vt,o  coclnded 

*  ««nflVteries   had  given  rise  to  similar 
S'ss^dSffi'^of  pious  females,   -o  nun. 


commonly  banded  together  as  new  ordeni 
of  monks  arose,  and  tormed  societies  un- 
der similar  names  and  regulations.     Ibus 
there  were  Benedictine,  Camaldulian,  Car- 
thusian, Cistercian,   Augustine,  Prenion- 
stratensian,   Carmelite,   Trimtaruin,   Do- 
minican, i^anciscan  nuns,  and  many  or- 
ders of  regular  canonesses.     There  were 
also   congregations   of   nuns   who   united 
with    certain    orders    of    monks    wltdout 
adopting  their  names.    The  Ursuline  and 
Hospitaller  nuns,  or  Sisters  of  Mercy,  are 
female   orders   existing   independently   ol 
any  male  orders,  and  living  according  to 
the   rules  of  St.   Augustine.     Almost,  all 
the    important    religious    orders    received 
new  accessions  in  the  lay  brethren  and  ia> 
Bisters,   who  were  taken  to  P«'orm  the 
necessary  labors  of  the  monasteries,  and  to 
manage  their  intercourse  with  the  world. 
The   orders  first  established   governed 
themselves    in    an    aristocratic-republican 
manner.      The    Benedictine    monasteries, 
were  long  independent  of  one  another,    ino 
Cistercians  obe^yed  a  high  council  made  up 
of    the   superior,    and    other    abbots    and 
counselors,    and    these    were    again    re- 
sponsible  to  the  general   chapters.  _   ine 
four   mendicant  orders,   the   Dominicans, 
Franciscans.   Augustines  and  Carmelites, 
at  their  very  commencement  placed  tnem- 
selves  In  a  much  more  intimate  connec- 
tion  with    the  popes.     Dependent  solely 
and    immediately    on    Rome,    they    pre- 
served the  strictness  of  their  organization 
with  a  success  which  could  be  maintained 
only   by  the   unity   of  the   ruling  power 
and  the  blind  oh^dience  of  the  subjects. 
Most  of   the  other   orders   soon   adopted 
the    same    constitution.      Accordingly   at 
the  head  of  every  religious  order  stands 
a    general    or    governor,    who    is    chosen 
every  three  years  from  the  officers  of  the 
institution,   resides  at  Rome,  and   is  re- 
sponsible only  to  the  pope.     The  coun- 
selors of  the  general  are  the  officers  to 
whom  the  supervision  and  government  of 
monasteries   is   committed.      See    Monat- 
tcrv,    and    the    articles    on    the    various 
orders.  ..      , ,  , 

Orders  of  ArcWtecture,  ^echief 

varieties  exhibited  in  the  arc'^'tecture  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Tc  cally  the 
chief  feature  of  the  order  is  rolunjn— 

including  base,  shaft  and  cap  .—and  Us 
superincumbent  entaWnture  (consisting 
of  architrave,  frieze  and  cornice).  The 
character  of  the  order,  however,  is  dis- 
played not  only  in  its  column,  but  in  its 
peneral  forms  and  detail,  of  which  the 
column  la,  as  It  were,  the  regulator. 
There  are  five  cinssio  orders,  namely  Gre- 
cian: Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian;  Ro- 
man: Tuscan  and  Romeo  or  Composite. 


L.JJJlll»."'llll'JI'>* 


Orden  of  Knighthood 


See  Arokitwtmre,  Column,  and  the  arti- 
cle* OB  the  Tarious  orders. 

Orders  of  Knighthood. 

See  Knighthood, 

Ordinal  («r'di-nal),  the  preMribed 

«~u-  *i         «  "S  °'  •ervlce  uaed  at  the 

'?fc™*°jP'J^®i^<=v*n<'  Baatern  churches. 
S-J„**«nl'"i  *»'  ***  *i°«"f'>  Church  wu 
™iS  vl^  *l?'"'  "P,  *°  »•»•  **"«  o'  Ed- 
ward Vr.  It  was  altered  to  some  extent 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliiabeth,  and 
again  revised  in  1661.  ' 

Ordinary  (<>r'di-nAr-i),  in  common 
,  ^,*'  law.  one  who  has  ordinary 
ni'?!^^/'*^  jur/sdiction.  in  matter.  eS- 
clesiastical,  in  any  place.  The  term  is 
more  frequently  applied  to  tne  bishop  of 
a  diocese,  who,  of  course,  has  the  ordi- 
nary ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  An  arch- 
ni'nv'iL"!,*^?  ordinary  of  the  whole 
province,  having  power  to  visit  and  re- 
ceive appeals  from  inferior  jurisdictions. 
As  a  nautical  term  an  ordinary  seaman 

«jw».°°l/''"'"^S^.*°  t»ke  the  helm  or 
sail  the  ship,  and  is  thus  distinguished 
irom  an  able  seaman. 
Ordinate  «>r'di-n4t),  in  analytical 
n-  -i-»,.  *  /eometry,  one  of  the  lines 
or  elements  of  reference  which  determine 
the  position  of  a  point.  See  Codrdinates. 
Ordination  (^r-di-na'shun),  the  ini- 
.  .  ^  Mating    of    a    Christian 

iiingUsh  Church  considers  ordination  as  a 
real  consecration ;  the  high  church  party 
raaintaining  the  dogma  of  the  regular 
transmission  of  the  episcopal  office  from 
the  apostles  down  to  the  bishops  of  the 
.resent  day.  For  ordination  in  the  Eng- 
nf^«  Church,  subscription  to  the  thirty- 
of  nrlfn'*-^^  'f  fe<11""e.  The  ceremony 
of  ordination  is  performed  by  the  bishop 
f^K  ®  imposition  of  hands  on  the  person 
fHp«  winf'"^;  /°  most  Protestant  coun- 
iJn^Ji*K^  State  church,  ordination  is  a 
renmsite  to  preaching;  but  in  some  sects 
iiJ!-  °*  J  y  necessary.  In  the  Presby- 
terian and  Congreg  tional  churches  ordi- 
nation  means   the   act   of  settling   a  li- 

IinS$fr,iSL^**'^*f •  *'''^''  *  congregation,  or 
conferring  on  Lira  general  powers  to  of- 
ficiate wherever  he  may  be  called. 
Ol'unance  W,?*°*5'tx  ^ee    cannon, 
far  etc  ^rttllery.    Howitzer,    Mcr- 


Oregon 


Ordnance  Department,  *  ^ «  ^  e- 

of  the  British  government  whicE^or"v?5 
400  years  provided  the  army  and  navy 
with  arms,  guns  and  ammunition,  admin- 
1      red    the   affairs   of   the  artillery   and 

«n;i'ntho/t!"°if°*^:  «ec»ted  fortifications 
aud  other  works  at  borne  and  abroad,  and 


supplied  all  troops  at  home  with  fonce. 

^.uiU  ul  ^»«»>t  *nd  Its  funcUons  di- 
vided   between    the   war   office   and    Sn 

lJ*partment  of  Ordnance  is  attached  to 
*5«.War  Department,  and  has  a  Chief 

^IP-fT*^*'.''**''  *  ^'V  foiSS  of  offiOBM 

OrdonnanoeS  (or'du-nan-ses),  waa 
Pi..n<u..   *     J  *"*     name     given     In 

feffiioni  tfo"*?'  'l*'=l»'  decTaraUon; 
refenl  ^  '  *^  ^^  **"»  "°«  «» 
Ore  l^')'  the  compound  of  a  metal  and 
■ninf,.."""*  ''"'?'•  eubstance,  as  Mygei! 
sulphur,  or  carbon  (forming  oxides,  su!- 

KtSl**''''*"'*.*."''  «t<^->'  by  which  iti  dis- 

«nH  JMkH?**  'ree  from  such  combination 

?aUed  S/««*  *^*^f  ?**"'»^  character  a^ 
♦osi^  na«»»e.  MeUls  are  commonly  ob- 
tained from  their  ores  by  smeltina  the 
roa'.««*/*°»0^*°  previously  «a*Sj 
rooafinp.  Ores  are  commonly  found  In 
veins  or  lodes.  See  Mining,  and  the  arti- 
cles  on  the  different  metals! 
Oreads  ^^''J'f^^^'.  nymph?  of  the 
man  mytbSop'''''"'  "^  ^"'^  "«*  ^ 
OrebrO  (ettre-bru)    a  town  of  Sweden, 

same  namp^^-V^ii.^'  ^^"^  J^""  ""^  '''^»"«n  oi 
;??  iT^*i™*'  »*  the  western  extremity  of 
the   Hjelmar   Lake,   110   miles   weat   of 

?„*™^°'?.-  I*  *»  ''«»  buift  has  In  ofd 
wUh'a?^*il'  ?**'-l»°t  a  considerable  t«?de 
with  Stockholm  by  the  Hjelmar  and  Mae- 
lar  lakes  and  the  Arboga  Canal.  It  wa^ 
once  the  residence  of  (fnstavus  Vaw  Tnd 
of  Charles  IX.  Pop.  22,(>ia 
Oregon  L^/^f^o^i'  one  of  the  Pacific 
!>«„«?  J  ''t***5J"'  the  American  Union, 
bounded  N  by  Washington,  k.  by  IdahS 
thJ'l  California  and  jfevada,  and  w.  by 

The  coastal  strip  of  Oregon,  m  miSa 

&  iL'T'^^^  '"»?«J  aid  'pwdpitous! 
r  no-^^'^i  •'"^'"■s,  and  passes  Inland  into 
L.P^V*"'^  Pi**?*"  .^'•ich  is  densely  tim- 
bered except  in   the   south,    which   is  a 

ffiTraJ^-'r°  ^'^K^^'^b'^  of  timber" 
TTmnmf-  f  ^^  bounded  by  the  Coast  and 
Umpqua  ranges  of  mountains.  Between 
t«^"ln*''^,  ^^^  ,«'■«»*  Cascade  range.  100 
mo?f^A?'»^  *^!?°<^'  "«»  the  fertile  WilhL. 
?ni*r..^  tV^^'  ^  ""«s  ^ide  and  140  long, 

Alt.  Hood,  the  loftiest  peak  in  the  Caa- 
cades,  is  11.225  feet  high  East  of  the 
Cascades  lies  two-thirds  of  the  State  a 
'""'nf  country,  open  and  dry!  and  ad* 
mirably  adapted  to  pastoral  pu«ulS  In 
a  valley  with   275,000  acres  of  fertile 


Oreide 

land,  surroanded  by  forest-covered  moun- 
tains.  Southward  is  a  series  of  similar 
Talleys.  The  principal  river  is  the  Co- 
lumbia, which  for  800  miles  forms  the 
northern  border  of  the  State,  and  afforts 
steam  navigation.  It  has  numerous  trib- 
utaries, many  of  them  navigable.  Oregon 
has  a  variety  of  minerals,  but  none  of 
Breat  importance.  They  include  gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  coal,  granite,  iron,  lead,  qulcK- 
silver,  platinum,  nickel,  cobalt,  lime- 
stone, sandstone,  borax,  itypsum,  garnet, 
opal,  chalcedony,  etc.  Western  Oregon 
has  an  abundant  rainfall  and  is  well 
adapted  to  agriculture,  yielding  the  best 

grades  of  winter  wheat,  barley  and  oats, 
ut  corn  does  not  thrive,  the  summer  be- 
ing   too   cooL      Hay   is   produced   abun- 
dantly and  wool-growing  and  cattle-rais- 
ing are  important.  Hops  are  a  very  large 
crop,  being  grown  chiefly  in  the  Willa- 
mette Valley.     Fruit  is  a  large  product, 
especially    apples,     plums    and    prunes, 
which   grow   in   the   region   between   tne 
Cascade  and  Coast  mountains.     Peaches 
and  figs  grow  in  the  southwest     Flax  is 
cultivated  for  seed  and  fiber,  and  yields 
largely.     In  the  Willamette  Valley  bye- 
stock  of  every  kiud  thrives.     The  chief 
crops  are   wheat,  oats,   barley,   potatoes 
and  hav.  while   the  wool  yield  is  very 
large.     Salmon  and  trout  are  common  in 
the  strpnms  and  the  annual  salmon  catch 
in  the  Columbia  is  very  large.    The  prin- 
cipal mountain  ranges  are  densely  wooded 
with   a  great  variety  of  trees,   some  of 
gigantic  size.  The  great  Douglas  fir  yields 
the  best  masts  and  spars  in   the  world. 
This   abundance   of   forest   trees   renders 
lumbering  one  of  the  most  important  in- 
dustries, while  the  tanning  of  leather  and 
making  of  boots  and  shoes,  saddlery  and 
harness  are  also  of  much  value.    Of  ani- 
mal products,  those  of  the  fisheries  stand 
first,  the  salmon-canning  yielding  a  large 
annual  product.    The  Upijersity  of  Ore- 
gon,   at    Eugene    (founded    1872)  ;     the 
Oregon  Agricultural  College,  at  Corvallis 
(founded  1885)  ;    Pacific   University,  at 
Forest   Grove;    Pacific  College  at  New- 
berg;    Albany  CoUege,  at  Albany;    Mc- 
Minnville  CoUege,  at  McMinnvUle;    Reed 
Institute  at   Portland;     Philomath   Uni- 
versity,  at   Philomath;    Willamette  Col- 
lege, at  Salem,  are  among  the  many  edu- 
cational   institutions.       Capital,     Salem. 
Pop.   818,866,   including   about  50(X)   In- 
dians, 7000  Chinese  and  4000  Japanese. 
ArAl      (Russian  pron.  ar-yol),  a  central 
*'*^''      government   of  Russia,  south  of 
the  Tula  and  Kaluga;    area,  18,042  m. 
miles.     Its   surface,   though   flat,   is   ele- 
vated, and  the  soU  raises  grain  and  hemp 
In  abundance,  and  some  good  hops  and 
tobacco.     Live-stock,  particularly  horsea. 


OMnbarg 

are  extensively  reared  from  improved 
breeds.  Manufactures  are  chieflv  confined 
to  the  distillation  of  spirits.  The  princi- 
pal riven  .we  the  Oka,  the  Desna,  and 
the  Soana.  Orel,  or  Orlov,  the  capital, 
on  the  Oka,  is  an  importaut  business  cen- 
ter, the  river  and  canals  giving  it  water 
communication  with  the  Black  Sea,  the 


* 


Caspian,  and  the  Baltic.  Its  trade  in 
grain,  dairy  produce,  and  cattle  with 
Moscow  and  St  Petersburg  is  very  exten- 
sive. Manufactures  are  also  increasing, 
and  the  town  is  making  rapid  progress. 
I'op.  70,076. 

O'P^ilW  John  Botuc,  poet  bom  in 
Aeiuy,  County  Meath,  Ireland,  in 
3844:  died  in  1890.  Enlisting  in  the 
army  for  the  purpose  of  spreading  revo- 
lutionary doctrines  among  the  soldiers,  he 
was  arrested,  tried  for  treason,  and  ex- 
iled for  20  years  to  Australia.  He 
escaped  the  following  year  (1868),  sought 
the  United  States  and  became  editor  and 
chief  owner  of  the  Boston  Pilot. 
nrallana  (p-rel-y&'n&),  Fbanciboo,  a 
vrcunun  Spanish  companion  of  Pizar- 
ro,  the  first  of  navigators  to  sail  down 
the  greet  Amazon  River,  which  some- 
times rcc(>ived  his  name. 
(Vr^lli  (o-rel'i),  John  Caspab,  a  dis- 
vricAAx  tinjuished  Swiss  philologist  anrf 
critic,  born  at  Zttrich  in  1787;  died  in 
1849.  In  1806  he  was  ordained  to  the 
pastorate  of  the  Reformed  Church  at 
Bergamo  in  Italy.  From  1813  to  1819  he 
held  a  professorship  at  the  college  of 
Coire,  when  he  took  the  chair  of  elo- 
quence and  hermeneutics  at  the  Caro- 
Hnum,  in  ZQrieh.  His  reputation  rests 
principally  on  his  editions  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  classics  (especially  Horace), 
which  have  attained  a  well-merited 
celebrity. 

Or^nhnr?  (A-ren-b8rg'),  a  government 
vrcuuui^  of  Eastern  Russia,  partly 
in  Europe  and  partly  in  Asia,  with  an 
area  of  73,816  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,8364^00. 
A  very  large  part  of  the  surface  consists 
of  steppes,  but  the  agricultural  districts 
in  the  northwest  supply  large  quantities 
of  grain  for  export.  The  drainage  is 
partly  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  partly  to  the 
Caspian,  the  chief  rivers  being  the  Tobol 
and  the  ITral.  Gold  abounds  along  the 
whole  Ural  chain,  and  there  are  also 
copper,  iron  and  salt  mines.  The  popu- 
lation consists  chiefly  of  the  Finnish  Vo- 
tiaks  and  Tepyaks,  and  the  Tartar  Bash- 
kirs, a  large  section  being  Mohammedans. 
The  capital,  Orenburg,  on  a  slope  above 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ural,  has,  besides 
vast  tallow  mcltins  establishments,  woolen, 
soap  and  leather  factories,  and  a  large 
caravan  trade  with  Khiva  and  Bokhara. 
Poo.  (1910)  93,000. 


Orenie 


Organ 


Otatiia  (d-ren's«),    a   city    of   N.    W. 
vrciuo  jjjpj^j^^  ualicia,  capiul  of  the 

grorince  ot  tame  name,  and  see  of  a 
ishop,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Minho, 
here  crossed  by  an  old  and  remarkable 
bridge,  built  in  1230.  It  is  a  very  ancient 
place,  and  has  an  interesting  old  Uutbic 
cathedral  and  three  warm  springs  (154° 
B'ahr.).  It  has  no  commercial  impor- 
tance. Pop.  15,194 — The  province  has  an 
area  of  2T3U  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of 
4U4,311.  It  raises  a  good  deal  oi  maize, 
and  has  mines  of  tin,  copper  and  iron. 
Orestes  (^r^s'tcz),  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  son  of  Agamemnon  and  of 
Clytemnestra,  the  avenger  of  his  father, 
by  becoming  the  murderer  of  his  mother. 
For  this  murder  he  is  relentlessly  pur- 
sued by  the  Eumenides  or  Furies,  and 
only  succeeds  in  appeasing  these  terrible 
goddesses  by  carrying  out  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  Delphian  oracle  to  bring  back 
the  statue  of  Diana  from  Tauris  to  Ar- 
gos.  Married  to  Hermione,  daughter  of 
MenelauB,  Orestes  ruled  over  his  paternal 
kingdom  of  Mycenae,  and  over  Argos, 
upon  the  death  of  its  king.  Orestes  is  an 
important  figure  in  the  Choephori  and 
the  Eumenidea  of  ^schylus.  the  Electra 
of  Sophocles,  and  the  Orestes  and  Iphi- 
genia  in  Tauris  of  Euripides. 
Orfila  (or-fi'la ) ,  Matthew  JosEpn 
viuxo.  BONAVENTUBE,  a  Parisian  phy- 
sician and  chemist,  Iwrn  in  1787,  at 
Mahon,  in  the  island  of  Minorca ;  died  at 
Paris  in  185.3.  After  taking  his  degree 
of  M.D.  in  Paris,  he  delivered  lectures 
on  botany,  chemistry  and  anatomy, 
which,  alonr  with  his  medical  practice, 
soon  gave  him  a  high  reputation  and  a 
prominent  position.  Having  been  natur- 
alized in  France  in  1818,  he  was  next 
year  aprtointtu  professor  of  medicine  and 
toxicology  at  Paris,  and  in  1823  became 
professor  of  medical  chemistry  and  medi- 
cal jurisprudence.  Louis  aVIII  ap- 
Eointed  him  his  body  physician,  and 
lOuis  Philippe  bestowed  further  honors 
on  him.  He  wrote  several  important 
works  on  toxicology  and  medical  jurispru- 
dence;  his  Lecona  de  Midecine  Legale 
and  his  Traits  de  Toxicologic  were  trans- 
lated into  most  of  the  languages  of 
Europe. 
Orford     ^^rl  of.     See  WalpoJe. 

Or&r&n  ^^r'gan ;  Greek  orriUvnn.  an  in- 
^  strument^.    a    wind    instrument 

of  music,  the  grandest  of  musical  instru- 
ments, the  introduction  of  whif'h  into  the 
church  service  has  undoubtedly  exercised 
a  powerful  influence  on  the  development 
of  musical  art.  It  is  stated  to  be  of  very 
ancient  oriein,  but  is  most  probably  the 
offspnug  of  the  hyiraulicon  or  vsater  or- 


Bin  of  the  Oreaka.  The  ea*'jr  organa 
wer<t  very  imperfect  inatrumenta,  but  im- 
pruvementa  were  natarally  maide  from 
time  to  time,  the  moat  notable  being  thoae 
of  the  sixteenth  centnry,  when  the  bel- 
lows were  much  improved  and  the  di- 
vision of  alt  the  pipes  into  different  atops 
invented,  and  the  tone  of  the  instrument 
adapted  to  the  choir.  The  invention  of 
the  uiindchest  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
by  which  an  equal  pressure  of  wind  can 
be  obtained  from  all  the  bellows,  led 
chiefly  to  the  present  perfect  state  of  the 
organ.  The  three  essentials  of  an  organ 
are:  (1)  a  chest  of  compressed  air;  (2) 
a  set  of  pipes  producing  musical  aoands 
in  communication  with  this  chest;  and 
(3)  a  keyboard  or  clavier,  by  means  of 
which  this  communication  may  be  opened 
or  closed  at  pleasure.  The  air  is  forred 
into  the  windchest  by  means  of  bellows. 
To  the  upper  part  of  each  wlndcheat  is 


wimi 

■  eOHaiCTIOK  WITH 
UT-MMilll. 


Organ — Internal  Arrangement*. 

attached  a  sound-hoard,  a  contrivance  for 
conveying  the  wind  to  any  particular  pipe 
or  pipes  at  pleasure,  and  divided  into  as 
many  grooves  as  there  are  keys.  Air  is 
admitted  into  these  grooves  by  means  of 
valves  or  pallets,  which  are  connected 
with  the  keys;  the  transmission  of  air 
being  regulated  by  the  register  or  slide. 
The  series  of  pipes  above  each  slider  is 
called  a  stop.  The  princioal  stops  of  an 
organ  are  the  open,  stopped  and  double 
diapasons ;  the  principal,  dulciana, 
twelfth,  fifteenth,  flute,  trumpet,  clarion, 
bassoon,  cremona,  oboe  and  vow  humana. 
An  organ  may  have  several  windchests 
filled  by  the  same  bellows,  and  several 
keybnards.  each  keyboard  and  windchest 
representing  a  distinct  organ.  In  tiie 
largest  instruments  the  number  of  these 
organs  generally  amounts  to  five ;  viz.  the 
great  organ,  the  choir  organ,  the  swell 
organ,  the  folo  organ  and  the  pedal  or- 


Organ 


Orientation 


../>«      Th«  keyboards  £or  the  hand  are 
fimed  «.»«/jrSat  for  the  feet  the 


to   a    num|KT    of    S«^po°°2»„°hev*iSS 
which  act  in  many  bodies  as  If  tney  were 

termed   mannow,   mav   «»r    ^""   '"^j  :ri  ^.„iy  elementary  Bubatancee. 

ottiaL     The  moat  uaual  compass  of  tue  ""'' ^•*"*i''~  '  __   (Or-gan-<y-ther'a-pi). 

tate  as  closely   as  possible  the  internal 
secretions  of  the  human  glands,  so  that 
^e  organ  may  be  naturally  restored. 
aI^SI.  (Or'j*«;  Greek,  orgia),  andent- 
OrgieS  Y/\^e'  cystic    ntes    and    wild 

revels   celirate^^  'l.^^^Z.^J^Xi 


S^vTanS  "^  ;\'hat Vth^peda  from 
?^  to  E  or  F,  two  and  a  quarter  to 
ifo  and  a  half  bctaves.    There  are  two 
k?nds    of    organ    pipes— /lute    pipes  or 
«^th  Dioes,  and  reed  pipes,  of  each  of 
whfch  tWrfare  several  species,  the  char- 
rcter  and  quality  of  their  """"d  depend- 
ing mainly  «o  the  material  employed  in 
their  manufacture  (wood  or  ™etal),  their 
Sapc.  and  dimensions.     A  hydraulic  en- 
tlnp  has  been  adapted,  with  success,  vo 
fhe  purjoses  ofVo^king  the  bellows,  and 
u  i«  now  pretty  generally  adopted.     In 
fs^    aynVan'ce    was    patented^or 

^^°htnuS^oXVma?netisr  A^or- 
o?  thS  d^ription  of  organ  are  that  it 

sjSisno^BuWW^^^^ 

tence  from  the  instrument.    A  f'/a  reea 

?Itter  instrument  in  variety  of^t^f^imes 
,11  the  deBnite  P«tt  VOfK/SSotnre  5 

are  usually  of  a.'""),'"-^'"*  distinction 

terms  organic  an*  0'^»«"Tbeing8 ;  while 
i^%SYifKtart"oVSSnthe'oppos- 
Sg  term  &rJc  is  applied.;  Orpan^^; 
&  thus  means  «»«  P08«es8lon  «f  ^^^^^^^^^ 

poBsessin.  «"eh   "'^X    ,„   chemistry. 
Organic  BaOlCaW,   ^^^  name  given 


revels  celebratea  >n  nouot  «.---"- r-- 
also  the  festivals  and  mysteries  of  ^her 
I'agan  deities.     See   Baccfc««   and  Mv 

i^'''f%  ■nr-  J«,«  (5'rl-el),  a  window 
Oriel  Window  \froi-ctiiig  from  the 
outer  face  of  a  wall,  in  plan  seminex- 
Sal.  "eniioctagonal.  or  rectangular, 
thus  having  three  or  more  "i«ieB.  divided 
by  muulonl  and  transoms  into  different 


Oiiei  Window,  Balliol  College,  Oiford. 


bays  and  )ther  projections,  and  auPPorted 
by  brackets  or  corbels.  A  pr<)Jecting  win- 
dow rising  from  the  ground  «  «ometmies 
called  an  oriel,  but  is  more  properly  a 

}J5:ir£t-(6-ri-en'tal).  eastern.  The 
UnenXai  -^^^^  jg  often  applied  to  cer- 
tain gems  or  precious  stones  as  a  mark 
of  excellence,  or  to  distinguish  them  from 
an  inferior  variety,  in  opposition  to  occi- 
dental. . ,      »„„-,-«i 

Oriental  Langnages,  *dVsiSatton 

at  the  present  day  for  the  languages  of 
the  nations  of  Asia,  as  also  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan countries     f  Europe  and  Al- 

n^ATi4-a4^An  (fi-ri-en-tR'«hnn>,  atnrn- 
OnentatlOn  ^^^  towards  t  h  e  e  a  ■  t ; 
the  direction  o£  aomethinf  towards  »• 


Oriilaiiiine 


OriglBaliiA 


direction  east  and  weat,  though  oftea  a  ^ —    '  •""'■'  ^  «■•  'ouna  eta 

deviation  from  the  true  east  haa  beta  ob- 
■erved  to  exiat  in  churchea  which  had  been 
auppoaed  to  atand  fur  exactly  eaat  and 


turjr,  ao  called  becauae  the/  pretoidcd  to 
drkw  their  opiniona  from  the  platoiiie  iKh 
dona  in  the  writinga  of  Orif en.  Tbay 
nrat  made  their  appearance  in  Italy  in 
897.  with  Bufinua  of  Aquileia  aatiieir 
teacher. 

.t^dard^of  Pranc-e^or^naD^^^  ???^_?j^.  oJ^J^'ht' WiViri 


(MA»^t  ^ii:!Te\',Ttii?i^'n 


o(  the  abbeT  of  St  Denia  and  Ita  lord  pro* 
tector.  When  the  French  kinfa  cheat  St 
Denia  aa  their  patron  aaint  they  made 
the  oriflamme  the  principal  banner  of 
their  armies.  It  waa  a  piece  of  red  taf- 
feta fixed  on  a  (olden  apear,  in  the  form 
of  a  banner,  and  cut  into  three  pointa, 
each  of  which  waa  adorned  with  a  taaaei 
of  green  ailk. 

Orifiren  <oi''l-J«n),  Obigines,  aurnamed 
B  ^  Adamanttot.  one  of  the  greateat 
and  moat  influential  of  the  Greek  fathera, 
born  at  Alexandria  jLD.  185 ;  died  at  Tyre 
254.    His  father  auffered  martyrdom  at 
Alexandria  in  202  under  the  Emperor  Sev- 
erus,  when  Origen  undertook  the  aupport 
of  his  mother  and  aix  children.    He  lec> 
tured  with  much  aucceaa  in  Alexandria, 
and  f^ained  the  patronage  of  Bishop  De- 
metrius.   Hia  own  atudiea  were  puraued 
with  extraordinary  seal;  he  lived  an  as- 
cet'3  life,  and  in  order  to  be  free  from  the 
lusts  of  the  flesh  he  mutilated  himself.    A 
journey   to  Rome    (211-212)    greatly  in- 
creased his  reputation,  and  Christian  com- 
munities in  various  countries  vied  with 
each  other  in  securing  his  services.     In 
228  he  went  to  Palestine ;  he  was  so  well 
received,  and   so  many  favors  were  be- 
stowed on  him  that  his  patron  became 
jealdiis,  recalled  him  to  Alexandria,  and 
finuiiy  deprived  him  of  his  priestly  office, 
charged  him  with  heresy,  ana  expelled  him 
from  the  city.    These  jiersecutions  never 
ceased  until  the  death  of  Demetrius  in  231. 
In  a  new  persecution,  under  the  Emperor 
Decins,  Origen,  who  w^as  viewed  aa  a  pil- 
lar of  the  church,  was  thrown  into  prison, 
and  subjected  to  the  most  cruel  eufferings, 
ultimately  resultlne  in  his  death.     He  has 
been  reproached  with  having  attempted  to 
blend  the  Christian  doctrines  with  the  no- 
tions of  Plato,  and,  without  reason,  of  fa- 
voring materialism.     He  is  credited  with 
some  6000  works,  inclrding  smaller  tracts, 
but  only  a  few  have  been  transmitted  to 
us,  and  some  of  these  only  in  a  distorted 
form.     His  work  against  Celsus  is  consid- 
ered as  the  most  complete  and  convincing 
defense  of  Christianity  of  which  antiquity 
can   boast.     One   df  nis   works   was   the 
Hexavla  (which  see),  but  of  it  we  have 
only  irafrments.     A  translation  of  liis  ex- 
tant works  into   Enelish   has  been  pub- 
Usher'  (Edinburgh.  1868-72). 


Adam,  namely,  the  eating  of  the  forbidden 
fruit;   hoice,   either    the   impuUtioa   of 
Adam  a  ain  to  hia  posterity,  or  that  cor- 
ruption of  nature  and  tendency  to  ain  in- 
herited from  him.    The  Greek  fathera  held 
that  a  perverted  will  and  ain  are  coSrdi- 
nate  with  the  human  race,  and  that  death 
haa  dominion  over  it  by  reason  of  ita  orig- 
ina  tion  from  Adam  after  the  faU.    In  tba 
Latin  Church  the  doctrine  waa  more  fully 
developed  than  in  the  Greek  Church.   Ter. 
tuUian,  in  accordance  with  hia  doctrine  of 
Traducianiam,  which  holda  that  the  aoul 
as  well  aa  the  body  ia  generated  by  the 
parents,  asserted  that  ain  and  death  were 
alike  propagated  from  Adam;  he  accord- 
ingly held  an  originit  vitium,  but  without 
regarding  it  as  actual  sin  or  denying  to 
man  the  poasibility  of  goodness.     Pelagiua 
held  that  no  change  whatever  had  been 
brought  about  by  the  fall,  that  death  waa 
a  part  of  man's  original  constitution,  and 
that  all  men  could  render  faultless 
obedience    to    the    law    of   God,    if   they 
wished.     Augustine  succeeded   in  getting 
this  doctrine  condemned  in  favor  of  his 
own,  which  inculcated  that  '  Death  was 
brought  into  the  world  by  Adam's  sin ; 
mans  free-will,  the  reflex  of  the  divine 
wilh  was  lost  to  him  by  the  fall  as  regards 
good  ;  there  remained  only  spontaneitv,  the 
negation  of  outward  constraint  and  free- 
will aa  regards  evil.'    Pelagianism,  how- 
ever, sprung  up  again  in  a  modified  form, 
called  semi-Pelagianism,  and  according  to 
this  view  death  and  a  taint  of  corruption 
were  inherited  from   Adam  as  a  disease 
might  be,  but  man  still  retained  a  power 
for  good  without  the  aid  of  divine  grace; 
a  doctrine  which  obtained  much  support 
at  the  time.     The  reformers  of  the  six- 
teenth century  upheld  the  strictest  view  of 
original  sin,  though  by  no  means  unani- 
mously, in  opposition  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, who  at  the  Council  of  Trent  gave 
their  adhesion  to  the  more  liberal  view  of 
the  doctrine.     In   recent  times  orthodox 
theologians, 'such  as  Olshausen,  Hengsten- 
berg  and   others,  have  stood   up  for  the 
Angustinian  dnctrinp.  while  those  of  the 
more  liberal   school  have   modified   it  in 
various  ways.     Philosophers  as  well   as 
theologians  have  taken  oart  in  this  contro- 
versy about  orieinal  sin.  it  being  a  sub- 
ject open  to  diverse  opinions. 


Origin  of  Species 


Orkney  Iilandt 


Origin  of  Speoiei.  »"  ^'•'^ 

UrULaeiB  \^^n  of  8.  B.  Spain,  pror- 
Heture.  30  mUei  •outhwett  of  AUcante. 

nla.  oil  nnd  win*.    Pop.  (1910)  88,07A 
rWilliA  (6-rini.A  ,   a   town   and   .ura- 
W^"**   mer    resort    on    Lake    Blmcoe, 
Ontario.  Canada,  80  mile.  K.  of  Toronto. 
Ua>  various  manufacturea.     Pop.  OaM. 
n«i«.AAA    (0-ri-n6'ko),  a  river  of  Soutn 
Orinoco    ^America,  one  of  the  laraeat  in 
the  worid,  rising  in  tlie  Sierra  del  Par- 
Ima,  near  lat  3^40'  N.,  Ion.  04*  w..  and 
after  a  circuitous  course  falling  into  the 
Atlantic  opposite  Trinidad:    U  Principal 
mouUi  being  6  league,  wide;  length  aiJjout 
IWO   mUeJ:    The*  Orinoco   is    connected 
with  the  Bio  Negro,  a,  tiibuUry  of  tta 
AmLon,  by  the  Caw^qularl,  »  nat«"],^«L 
nal  Join  ng  the  two  rivers,  and  It  wfelvea 
the  water!  of  many  large  rivers.    During 
the  rainy  season  It  inundates  the  immense 
Plains  through  -hlch  It  flows,  presenting 
to  the  eye  a  boundless  expanse  of  waters 
The  sceiery  on  lU  bank-  Is  magmfacent 
beyond  descripUon.    Two  rapids  occur  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  river ;.  thence  It  1. 
navigable  to  Its  mouths,  which  wfe  de- 
clared  ooen   to  international   navigation 

ft^nl*  Vr?S).  a  "ame  popularly  ap- 
UnOie  \,iied  to  two  groups  of  birds,  the 
one  group  Included  In  the  Conlrostral  sec- 
tion of  the  Insessores  or  perching  birds, 
the  other  classifier  with  the  Denfiroatral 
sectio^  The  American  Oriole,  bejonjl^ 
to  STformer  group  are  nearly  allied  to 
he  .Urllngs.  The  Baltimore  Wrd  (which 
see),  oriole,  or  jjolden  '<>"»,  ('^|<^",°'^ 
Hvphantet  Balttmore),  Is  a  familiar  spe- 
de'^^of  this  group.     Another,  the  «^jj»'4 

oriole  (lotirju  »P«'^"»>»TTnU^  Statot 
very  generally  over  the  United  Btatafc 
The  o'kole.  proper,  or  those  of  the  Old 
Worid  are  nearly  related  to  the  thrusnes. 
They  are  found  in  Asia,  Africa,  the  islands 
S^tL  Indian  Archipelaj^,  and  Southern 

and  Eastern  Europe.  The  golden  oriole 
(Oridlut  Galbula)  Is  the  typical  form, 
«ml  the  only  European  memTwr  of  the 
;Soup.  The  ^ngs  a^d  tail  of  the  males  are 
f,lack  and  contrast  Powerfully  with   the 


^Sen"S,rofVhTlK>Sv."li-aJ^^^^^^ 

ku  xrs  a£rS>^"|:tut'J 

^Sfonall?  found  In  BriUin.  The  fong  Ui 
loud!  and  resembles  the  sound  of  theflute. 
louu,  «""/.  rt»__\  J  hero  of  Greek  myth- 
OnOn,  \,ioVy°  'iccording  to  Homer  he 
was  a  beaufifal  youth,  of  whose  charms 
TOs  (Aurora)  became  enamored.  The 
JSs  Were  jea  ous  of  her  love,  and  Arte- 


mia  daw  him  with  her  arrows    Ac«<«d- 
"i  to  oth.r  writer,  he  wa.  a  !'••«  hunter 
of  coloMal  aUture,  and  died  ol  the  aUng 
of  a  Kwrplon.    The  hsro  after  hi.  death 
was  placed  with  hi.  hounds  In  the  heaven. 
ME  constellation,  which  bear,  hla  name. 
Ar?A«      •  coMtiUation  tttnated  In  Uie 
Unon,    .outhern   hemlaphere   with   re- 
spect to  the  ecUptic  but  the  equinoctial 
passe,   neariy   across   Ita^naddle.     This 
constellation  U  represented  by  the  flguro 
of  a  man  with  a  sword  by  his  side.     It 
containa  seven  .Urs,  which  are  very  con- 
spicuous to  the  naked  eye :  four  of  tbt«.' 
form  a  square,  and  the  three  others  are 
situated  In  the  middle  of  It  In  a  ■tralght 
line,  forming  what  Is  called  the  lielt  of 
Orion,   and   popularly    the    Ellwand   or 
Yard-ioand.     Orion  also  ccntalns  •  a   re- 
markable nebula,  and  eighty  stars  accord- 
ing to   the  British   catalogue,   but   there 
are  thcunnds  of  others  which  arc  visible 
only  through  powerful  telescope.. 
f\r{«1rfi.nv     Battle    or,    one    of   the 
UnSKauy,     bloodiest     battie.    of    the 
American  Revolution,  fought  about  two 
mile,  west  of  Oriskanv:  N.  Y..  August  6, 
1T77,  between  about  800  American  militia 
under   General   Herkimer    (q.  v.)    and   a 
like  number  of  Indian,  and  Tories  under 
Sir    John   Johnson    (q.v.)    and    Joseph 
Brant  (q.v.V     The  Americans  started  to 
relieve  For  Jwlx  which  wus  besieKeU 

by  St.  Leg  (q.v.),  Brnnt  and  his 
Indians;  the^  were  halted  in  a  ravine 
near  Oriskany  and  a  dcRpcrate  battle  en- 
sued, lasting  for  several  hours.  Each  side 
lost  a  third  of  its  number,  but  the 
American,  remained  masters  of  the^  field 
though  badly  crippled.  General  nerklmer 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  fi^lit. 
A-tafann  (or-es-ti'nd),  a  city  of  the 
UrUianO  \^^^^^   „,   Sardinia,   on    the 

west  coa.t,  the  see  of  an  archbishop.  Pop. 
T107.  ,  ,     ,  ,,,    , 

tUn  valio  («-rS-sa'vaj ,  a  town  of  Mexico, 
Unzaoa  \^^^^  ^j  yera  Cruz,  65  mile. 
w.  8.  w.  of  Vera  Cruz.  It  lies  In  a  fer- 
tile Talley,  3975  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
is  a  rapldly-lmprovlng  trade  center.  To- 
bacco, grown  nearby.  Is  laegely  manu- 
facturecL  also  leather  and  woolen  cloths. 
In  its  vicinity  is  the  extinct  volcano,  the 
Pico  de  Orizaba,  17,065  feet  high.  Pop. 
(1910)  35,263. 

Orkney  Islands  [^^T^ o^r'aht.^;. 

group  lying  oflf  the  northern  coast  of  Scot- 
>nd,  and  separated  from  It  by  a  channel 
called  the  Pentland  Firth,  about  6  to  8 


mllea  broad;  aggregate  area,  376  square 
mile..  There  are  07  islands  and  islets,  28 
of  which  are  inhabited.  Pomona  or  Main- 
land is  the  largest  of  the  eroup :  others  of 
conaiderable  sue  are:   Hoy,  South  and 


5 


Orlando  fnriofo 


North    RoaaWilMijr,     T««tniy,    8ao<Uv 

JUnti,  manufncturt'*  beinc  reatrlcted   tn 


ii-h„.r'  ^""="y  uauu-mado  by  worn 

«« I  fk  •*  "V*  '*>  "  Uourliiliing  condition 


clu.led  in  the  Crofter«'  Act  of  18»L    TiT^ 

Hnarfager  attached  thtm  to  Norway  and 
for  Beveral  centuries  they  were  rulwlhv 

5S/iP  ^^"""^ay.  sometimes  to  Scotland 

th^v"*J''*  '?**^'"^. "'  *»"  thirteenth  century 
they  were  transferred  to  Alexander,  kina 

IIT  r.f  H^  *^  *  j"®^"^ . S' 'vereign ty.  James 
doirv  wf»'h"ii?''  received  the  islands  as  a 
dowry  with  Mnrear  t  of  Norway  in  14(J!) 

Wi*''T"',''"r7 ,*'«'>■  »'"^«  belong^  to  Scot- 
land. The  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands 
^.rm  together  one  county      r/.p^lNoys 

Unando  Furioso.   ^^«  ^rio»to, 
Orlando  Innamorato.  ^y  ^o*- 

OrUanaiS    ( or-la-A-na ) ,  a  former  prov. 
♦t,-.   7        ^         '°'l^  o*  *  ranee,  now  lorms 
the  departments  Loir-et-Cher  and  Loiret 
an  1  imrtH  of  Eure-et-Loir  Ni&vre.  Sdne- 
n^T'  *'"'■?"•  I"^e-et-Loire  and  Che?. 
Orleans     •"'•-la-4<j).  a  city  of  France, 
nnw  „f  *».     .^"^f^'y  capital  of  Orl<ianai8, 
now  of  the  der)nrtment  of  the  Loiret  sitn 
ated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire    &" 
miles  southwest  of   Paris.     It   has   some 
^""dsome    public   squares    a    Gofhic   c™! 

justice,  and  other  notab  e  buildines  Tlie 
™«'?"f«^t"'-^and  trade  of  the  pllce  havl 
much  declined  ;  confectionery,  pottery  and 
woolen  goods  are  the  staple  articles  of 
manufacture    Philip  of  Valois  erected  O?- 

hiS  son  anVS  """J  P^"?'^^  in  favor  of 
nis  son,  and  Origans  has  s  nee  continued 
I''  «Z^  the  title  of  duke  to  a  pr°nce  of 
the  blood-royal.  In  1428  the  city  sus- 
tained a  si«ge  against  the  EmuZ  and 

Jmn  of  Arc),  whose  statue  in  bronze 
stands  lu  one  of  the  public  squares.  It 
was  taken  and  retaken  more  than  once 


Pled  th,  thrS"'  ^iaJS*"  (ft'^i^* 
death  of  ClMiriM  Vlil  »i»i.  !.Vi""  *?" 

•on  of  their  common  Vnceitor'chLif!?*^" 
•nd  grandson  of  the  tiAt  Dike  If  OrW.^' 

1<^«!  w.^reiin't""of  P«n?'. ''h"" V^ 
minority  of "Ku is  XV  in  '''"'''*.  *''• 
I^ui«-i4ilipne  Joseph;  whi.«l!S^^''"?H"' 

fr.i  kV.        .  *  ranee  and  other  countHpa 
wmtP%r^P  ?™il°"?  ■"'J  discoverie"     hI 

Orleans,  Jf^w  daptiste  gabton 

of Thi'T  K^""   niiserttble.  Zi  the  caul 
of  the   feebleness   of  character  wl.inh   fcl 
displayed   through   life.   alth„n..h    i.r"i. ''^ 
recciv«l   from  n\ture  muih  Se ''of  wi 

XIII    Th?rA  '*"'°    ?»*"    br«thc?    LoS 
AUi,  The  latter  was  jealous  of  the  XiJ„ 
and  opposed  him  in  many  ways  while  fh„' 
ki'ng ■  "a?/e  f^:  *»!t/n"g^aVaini  tt 

heires^  o? ThTlT'  ""^^^^^V^  "^  BourbSi* 
neiress  of  the  house  of  Montpensier  he 
hml  a  dnuKhter,  the  author  of  some  inter- 
esting memoirs  During  the  disturbanS 
nJ  *u  ^^""H  '•'^  joined  r>e  Retz.  the  son! 
of  the  Fronde,  who,  however,  sooi  law 


OrMani 


Ormola 


thKOfh  tiM  eoitncttr  of  bis  flekto  and 
fMUt  eoBftdtr«t«(.  After  the  ttrmiuUoa 
of  *^*  ^R*""^  (1648)  tut  duk«  w«<  iMta. 
Itli«d  to  Blola. 

Orl^ani.  ff v  i* » i  l  i  p  p  i  johcpu, 

*  ',l>rK«  ^^  UVa/iM),  freat- 
graiuuon  of  the  regent,  I'bilippe,  duke  uf 
OrltaM,  was  born  in  1«4< :  luurried  in 
17(10  tb«  daughter  of  tlie  Duke  uf  I'en- 
tbi^re.  Ha  was  notorious  for  Mn  dimfi- 
lutcncM  of  mannen,  and  the  extreme, 
tboutb  ravillating  political  conduct  by 
wbicb  be  caurted  popularity.  Uia  oppoai- 
tion  to  tbe  court  uegan  in  1T71,  and  be 
became  tlie  rallyiuK  pojnt  of  ita  enemies.  __  „.^  .„  ^..^ 

f«  .k'    A  •  *^  "  .•?i'?'"Jl'"' P?'■^'l•J"?''  brloff    ^T-'"'').  a  KuH-iai.' noble  fkm- 
in  tbe  Aaaembly  of  Notablee;  in  1780  he  V«Wtt    ],     ^^  ^^^^^  ^^  following  mem- 

waa  one  of   the  noblea  who  Joiued   the  ' ' "  -•  - 

Tiers  Etat   (Third  Estate)  ;  in  17U2  be 

went  over  to  the  revolutionary  party  with. 

out  reaerre,  took  tbe  name  of  I^hilippe 

Kguliti    (•  Philip  Equality'),  and  voted 

for  the  death  of  Louie  Xvl.     It  did  not 

Mve  bim  from  beiua  arrested  as  a  Buur> 

bon,  condemned  and  beheaded,  November 

Orleans,    ^'^i"©'.     8e«  i/o«rt  0/ Arc. 


was  appointed  to  succeed  tbe  Duke  of 
Berwick  in  Hpaia,  and  cumplvted  the  8ub> 
Jugation  of  ttiat  country,  tie  was  re* 
caU<^,  bowevt-r,  boing  suitp(>cted  of  intri- 
Kuing  for  tbe  crown  uf  8paiu,  and  aguiu 
forced  into  retircuieut.  On  the  dcutb  of 
tbe  king  (^k•ptelub.;r  1,  1715)  be  yian 
appointed  rtfgeut.  On  acceding  to  iniwur 
tbe  regent  found  the  huuuces  In  extreuiu 
disorder,  and  euUeavoreU  to  impi-uve  mut- 
ters by  retrenchment  and  pcucu;  but  hi* 
reckless  introduction  of  a  vast  paper  cur- 
rency brought  the  nation  to  the  verge  of 
bankruptcy,  lie  rcMigm-u  the  government 
to  lA>uis  XV  on  Fehnmry  ly,  172a. 


Orleans  ^"   "'■»   Dukb   of,   only 

„'*"*»  bro.uer    of     Louis     xiv     of 
France,  and  founder  of  tb3  bouse  of  Bour- 
bon-OrI«ana,  which  for  a  abort  time  held 
tbe  throne  of  France,  waa  burn  in  1U4U ; 
died  in  1701.     In  bis  twenty-first  year  he 
married  Henrietta  of  England,  afater  of 
Charlea  II.     The  great  esteem  which  rhe 
king  showed  for  thia  princess  excited  the 
Jealousy  of  bis  brother,  and  her  sudden 
death  was  attributed  to  poison,  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  which  the  duke  waa  sus- 
pected of  being  accessory.     His  jealousy 
seems  not  to  have  been  unfounded.     The 
second   marriage  of   tbe  duke,    with    the 
Princess     Elixabeth     of    tbe     Palatinate 
(1671),  was  arran«!ed  by  Ix>uis  to  secur' 
tbe  nentralit;ir  of  the  Elector  Palatine  in 
the  approflrhmg  war  aeninnt  Holland.     In 
this  war  the  duke  distinguished  himself 
in  spite  of  bis  eft'eminacy. 
Orleans     PniMppe.  Duke  op.  Re- 
v«Aca.u9,    jjp^^  ^^  France,  son  of  Phil- 
ippe, duke  of  Orleans  (see  preoedinc  ar- 
ticle), and   the  Princess  Palatine  Eliza- 
beth,  born   in   1674 ;   died   in   1723,     He 
fell  early  under  the  influence  of  tbe  clever 
and  unacrupulops  Ahb«  (afterwards  Car- 
dinal) Dubois,  who  continued  bis  confidant 
and  adviser  throuirh  life.     He  made  bis 
military    d^bnt    at    the    sfcge    of    Mors 
(1601),  and  in  160.3  distinguished  himself 
at  Neerwinden.   but   only   to  arouse   ihe 
Jealonsv  of  lionis  XIV.  his  uncle,  who 
oomnelled  him  to  ret're  from  tbe  army.  In 
1602  be  married  Mdlle.  de  Bio's,  the  legit- 
imated danrbter  of  Louis.     In  1707  b* 

Si— U-« 


••*,  "•  n  "wiu  iiic  luiiuwiuB  mem- 
bers may  be  monticned :— Ureuoht  Oa- 
wrr,  born  in  :  fa4 ;  dit-d  in  17.SJ,  assisted 
the  Grand-princesB  Catharine  in  tie  revo- 
lution, by  which  she  was  (Iwlarwl  empress 
(Catharine  11),  and  her  husband,  tbe  Em- 
peror I'eter  III,  dcpniviMi  of  life.  Orioff 
soon  attained  the  highest  dignities  and 
became  enormously  rich. — Alexis,  bis 
brother,  born  in  17:{7 ;  di.**!  in  I8()«.  Is  fa- 
mous  for  bis  devotion  to  the  empress,  as 
one  of  the  murderers  of  I'eter  III,  ano 
as  the  admiral  who  defeatid  the  Turkish 
neet  off  Tschesme. — Ai.exia  Fedorq- 
yiTcii,  prince,  a  descendant  of  the  same 
family,  born  in  1787:  died  in  IWJl.  In 
1825  he  gained  the  favor  of  Nicholas  I 
by  nsHistinff  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  the 
guards  on  bis  acceHsion.  He  held  a  cav- 
?L^So '■"'"""'"♦'  *"  *^^  Turkish  campaign  of 
18JS,  and  assisted  in  bnppressin);  the  Pol- 
ish insiirmtion  in  1831 ;  he  also  rendered 
Bucceaaful  dinlomatic  aervice,  eapec'ally  ai 
ConstantinoDle.  In  J  844  he  waa  op- 
pointed  chief  of  tbe  gendarmes  and  secret 
police.  He  was  tbe  confidential  friend  ol 
the   emperor. 

OrloV  Deck    (0"^0P>.  the  lowest  deck 
*^  in  a  ship  of  several 

decks,  consisting  of  a  platform  laid  over 
the  beams  in  the  bold  whereon  the  cables 
are  usnaliy  coiled.  In  trading,  vessels  it 
is  often  a  temporarv  deck. 
Onner  (or'n>*r:  Fren^^h  oreine  de  mer. 
'aea-ear'),.  the  ear-shell,  a 
large  marine  un'valve  shell-fish  belong- 
ing to  the  eenus  HaH6ii».  common  on 
the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands,  where 
It  is  cooked  after  being  we'  beaten  to 
make  it  tender.  The  pearl;  interior  of 
the  shell  has  made  it  a  fa  orite  orna- 
ment. 

Orme's  Head,  ^^^^y^-  »  b"M  pr^xiect-  • 

TO-  1  "**"**>  ins  headland  in  North 

Wales,  at  the  month  of  tbe  river  Conway, 
surrounded  on  nonrlv  all  aides  by  tbe  sea. 
Ormolu  ^,?'"''"'J;'''i  French,  or  moulu. 
^«!h  V.  #.  "^♦•"Vy  'ground  gold')  is  in 
Bnglisli   frequently  applied   to   a   metal 


Ormonde 


Ornithology 


compounded  of  copper  and  sine  (aoaaic 
gold),  nearly  resembling  brass,  bat  faav 
ing  a  color  more  like  that  of  gold.  In 
French  or  moulu  signifies  a  paste  of  gold 
and  mercury  used  for  gilding,  and  the 
color  imparted  to  a  surface  by  that  paste. 

Ormonde,  yj^j;'/."''  ^  ^•***"^' 
Ormskirk  IS^rll^'^ilnSi^e?"!^ 

miles  N.  IT.  B.  of  Liverpool.  Its  chief  oc- 
cupations  are  brewing  and  rope-making. 
There  are  large  collieries  in  the  neighbor- 
hood.   Pop.  7409. 

OrmilZ  (<^i''i°>^)>  01^  HoBMUZ,  an  isl- 
and  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  on 
'  the  north  side,  near  its  entrance,  about  15 
miles  in  circumference.  It  is  entirely  des- 
titute of  vegetation  and  is  only  notice- 
able as  having  once  been  a  neat  trade 
center.  It  was  held  by  the  Portuguese 
from  1515  to  1622.  A  few  ruins  are  all 
that  is  left  of  its  fci  mer  wealth  and  splen- 
dor. 

Ormnzd  (^>^'inuzd;  Ahuramazia,  the 
Oromasdes  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans),  the  name  of  the  supreme  deity 
of  the  ancient  Persians.  According  to  the 
doctrine  of  Zoroaster  he  was  the  lord  of 
the  universe  and  the  creator  of  earthly 
and  spiritual  life,  the  source  of  light,  wis- 
dom, and  intellect,  and  the  giver  of  all 
good.  He  re\.  .rds  the  good  and  punishes 
the  wicked.  See  Zoroaster. 
Ome  (<^i*n),  a  department  in  Xor- 
mandy,  France;  area,  2354 
square  miles.  It  receives  its  name  from 
the  river  Orne,  which  rises  in  this  depart- 
ment, and  passing  through  that  of  Cal- 
vados falls  into  the  English  Channel 
(length,  95  miles).  The  surface  is  tra- 
versed by  a  lofty  ridge,  mostly  covered 
with  forests.  The  soil  is  various;  oats, 
flax,  hemp,  beet,  fruits  and  cheese  are 
the  chief  produce,  and  a  good  breed  of 
Norman  horses  is  reared.  It  manufactures 
needles,  pins,  wire,  porcelain,  cotton  and 
linen  cloths,  and  has  valuable  granite 
(luarries.  Alcngon  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
315,998. 

Omithodelphia  (J/ n^i'rif  S'^Jo 

the  subclass  of  mammals  represented  by 

the  single  order  Monotremata,  including 

only  two  species,  the  ornithorhynchus  and 

echidna. 

OniitllolO&rV   (o  r.-ni-thol'fl-ji ;   Greek, 

vxAUbiiuxugjr    Q^„,.,    orn\iho».  a  bird. 

logo*,  discourse),  that  branch  of  zoftlogy 
wL'-h  treats  of  birds.  Birds  (Aves)  form 
the  second  class  of  the  frreat  division  of 
vertebrate  animals,  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  Mammalia  and  Reptilia,  but 
tre  more  closely  allied  to  the  latter.  In 
common  with  the  Mammiilia  they  Have 


warm  blood,  though  of  a  hightr  and  nni* 
form  temperature  (S'-l^"  higher),  aheurt 
with  two  auricles  and  two  ventrtclea,  aiid 
breathe  by  lungs:  but  differ  from  them  in 
haring  feathers  for  a  covering,  two  feet, 
wings,  by  which  most  of  them  are  enabled 
to  fly,  a  horny  bill,  and  reproduction  by 
eggs.  The  feathers,  the  development  of 
which  resembles  essentially  that  of  hair, 
constitute  appendages  of  a  unique  kind,  as 
being  developed  only  in  connection  with 
the  bird-class.  The  under  plumage  of 
most  birds  is  formed  by  a  thick  coating  of 
small  shaftless  feathers,  embedded  in  the 
skin  and  called  ioxon.  Various  names  are 
given  to  feathers  according  to  tneir  \xm\- 
tion ;  thus  the  long  quills  on  the  part  of 
the  wing  corresponding  to  the  hand  are 
called  primariet,  those  on  the  lower  fore- 
arm «eoondane«,  and  those  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  forearm  ierXiariet,  those  on 


Pluuaos  of  Bibo 

Bohemian  Chatterer    (BombyetUa  iKirruZa). 
a,  primariM;    6,   aecondaries;    e,    coverts;    d, 
acapulara;    e,  tail  featheia;   /,  forehead;    g,  sinci- 
put; A,  occiput. 

the  shoulder-blade  and  humerus  scapulars. 
The  feathers  covering  the  bases  of  the 
wing  quills  are  called  ictn^-cjverts,  and 
those  covering  the  rectricea,  or  great  feath- 
ers of  the  tall,  tail^overts.  Birds  moult 
or  renew  their  feathers  periodically,  anr* 
in  many  cases  the  winter  plumage  dis- 
plays a  different  coloring  from  the  sum- 
mer plumage.  The  plumage  in  most  cases 
is  changed  frequently  before  it  attains  its 
characteristic  and  full-grown  state. 

The  mouth  of  birds  takes  the  form  of  a 
beak  or  bill ;  the  jaws  or  mandihlcB  are 
hard  and  horny,  and  more  or  less  pro- 
longed into  a  point,  while  there  are  no 
fleshy  lips  and  no  teeth  (except  in  certain 
fossil  birds)  ;  a  horn>  sheathing,  generally 
smooth,  but  sometim«>fi  serrated,  takes  the 
place  of  the  latter.  The  beak  is  variously 
modified  in  accordance  with  the  habits  of 
the  bird  and  the  nature  of  the  food  on 
wk'ch  it  sabsists.    The  seose  of  taste  U 


Ornitliology 


not  ke«n,  their  tongae  being  generally 
■lender,  pointed,  and  more  or  leas  horny, 
though  lome  birds,  as  the  parrots,  have  it 
fleshy.  The  nostrils  open  npon  the  side, 
or  at  the  base  of  the  beak.  'Hieir  ranse 
of  smell  is  often  very  delica  A  circle 
of  naked  skin  called  the  cere  in  many 
birds  surrounds  the  base  of  the  maidible^ 
The  sight  of  birds  is  extremely  keen,  and 
equally  adapted  for  near  and  for  distant 
objects.  A  peculiar  feature  in  the  eye  is 
the  nictitating  membrane,  a  sort  of  third 
translucent  eyelid  which  rests  in  the  xnner 
angle  of  the  eye,  but  can  be  drawn  over 
it  so  as  to  protect  it  from  too  strong  a 


Skblxton  of  Eqtptian  Vui/tubb 
xJftophron  percnoptenu),  to  show  bones  (A  Wrd. 
M  Dost-orbital  process;  6,  lower  jaw;  c,  cervical 
Ttftebne;  co,  coracoid  bone;  d,  humerus;  «.  radius: 
f  ulna;  a.  metacarpus;  h,  second  phalanx  of  chief 
'jxgA  Of  wing;  h.  phaUnges  of  lower  dipt;  V'.  first 
^anx  of  chief  dipt;  t,  cla^^'e:  Av?*T"Si;i 
Mlvis;  m,  coccyx;  n,  femur;  o.  Ubia,  p,  tMno- 
metatarsus;  q,  phalanges  of  foot. 


lieht.  Birds  have  no  external  ear,  with 
the  exception  of  the  nocturnal  tribes ; 
these  have  a  large  exterior  cone*  in  the 
form  of  a  thin  leathery  piece  of  flesh,  a  he 
internal  ear  is  very  large,  and  the  sense 
of  hearinir  acute.  ,  . ,  .  ,  „  . ,.  .„j 
The  bone  tissue  of  birds  Is  light  and 
compact.  The  bones  are  whiter  and  con- 
tain a  larger  proportion  of  phosphate  or 
lime  than  those  of  the  Mammalia  and 
lower  vertebrates.  The  bones  of  most 
birds  are  pneumatic,  that  is,  contain  air 


Ornithology 

instead   of   marrow,   to  adapt  them   for 
flight;  the  air  being  admitted  by  means 
of  special  apertures  which  are  connected 
with  certain  sacs,  termed  air  cells,  filled 
with  air  from  the  lungs.     In  many  birds, 
however,   the  long  bones  are  filled   with 
hiarrow,  as  are  also  all  the  bones  of  young 
birds.     The   humeri,    cranial    bones   and 
sternum  are  most  generally  pneumatic,  the 
femora  more  rarely  so.  The  vertebra  vary 
considerably  in  number  in  different  spe- 
cies.   The  neck  is  always  more  or  less 
elongated    and    flexible,    and   consists    of 
from  9  to  23  vertebrae.  The  dorsal  rerion, 
or  region  of  the  back,  is  composed  of  from 
4  to  9  vertebrae,  and   is  generally  firm, 
forming  a  support  for  the  movements  of 
the  wings.     In  all  birds  the  neck  is  of 
sufficient  length  to  reach  the  oil-gland  sit- 
uated at  the  tail,  the  secretion  of  which 
is  used   for  'preening'   or   dressing   the 
feathers.     The    vertebrse    interposed    be- 
tween the  dorsal  vertebrae  and  those  of 
the  tail  are  united  to  form  the  sacrum, 
the  number  of  vertebrae  which  may  coa- 
lesce varying  from  9  to  20.    The  caudal  or 
tail  vertebrae  may  number  ten»   the  last 
two  or  more  of  which  unite  to  form  a 
bone,  called  from  its  shape,  '  ploughshare 
bone.     In  some  species  this  bone  is  ab- 
sent, undeveloped,  or  modified.  The  bones 
of  the  skull  become  firmly  united  at  an 
early  period,  so  as  to  leave  few  or  no 
sutures  or  lines  of  union,  as  in  mammals, 
a  complete  bony  case  being  thus  formed. 
The  skull  is  joined,  as  in  reptiles,  to  the 
spinal  column  and  by  a  single  process,  or 
condyle,  of  the  occipital  bone,  or  hinder- 
most   bone   of   the   skull.     The   chest  or 
thorax  is  enclosed  posteriorly  by  the  dor- 
sal  vertebrae,  laterally  by  the  ribs,  and  in 
front  by  the  sternum  or  breastbone  and 
the  sternal  ribs.     The  ribs  correspond  in 
number  with   the  dorsal  vertebrae,   from 
fi  to  9  pairs  of  ribs  being  thui  found  in 
birds,  the  first  two  being  generally  unat- 
tached,  that   is,    they   do  not   reach   the 
sternum  in  front.     The  sternum  is  large 
and  strong,  and  serves  as  the  point  of  at- 
tachment for  the  most  powerful   of  the 
muscles  by  which  the  wings  are  set  in 
motion.  It  is  provided  with  a  medial  crest 
or  keet  which  is  most  prominent  in  the 
birds  of  most  powerful  flight,  and  is  alto- 
gether absent  in   the   ostrich  and  casso- 
wary, birds  which  do  not  fly.     Upon  the 
upper  or  anterior  portion  of  the  sternum 
the  coracoid  bonea  are  borne,  which  form 
the  chief  supports  of  the  fore  limbs.    At 
its  upper  portion  each  coracoid  bone  ar- 
ticulates  with   the   scapula   or  shoulder- 
hlade,  and  with  one  of  the  clavicles.    The 
clavicles   or  collar   bones   are   united   in 
most  birds  to  form  the  furculum  or  merry- 
thought   The  bird  exhibits  tb«  essential 


Ornithology 

skeletal  elements  found  in  the  fore  limb 
of  all  other  vertebrates.  The  humerns,  or 
bone  of  the  upper  arm,  is  generally  short : 
the  forearm,  composed  of  the  radius  and 
ulna,  being  the  longest  segment  of  the 
fore  limb.  The  ulna  is  larger  and  better 
developed  than  the  radius,  which  is  slen- 
der and  attenuated.  In  the  bones  which 
form  the  extremity  of  the  wing  we  recog- 
nize the  rudiments  of  a  thumb  and  two 
fingers,  one  of  which  has  two  phalangos 
and  the  other  only  one.  The  femur  or 
thigh  is  short,  the  tibia  or  shin-bone  form- 
ing the  chief  element,  in  the  leg;  while 
the  fibula  is  attenuated  and  generally  ossi- 
fied to  the  tibia.  The  toes  generally  num- 
ber four;  the  hallux  or  great  toe,  when 
present,  being  composed  of  two  phalanges, 
and  the  other  toes  of  three,  four  and  five 
phalanges  respectively.  The  muscles  of 
birds  are  firm  and  dense,  and  are  gener- 
ally colored  deep  red.  The  chief  body 
muscles  are  the  pectorals,  or  those  of  the 
breast,  which  are  devoted  to  the  move- 
ments of  the  wings. 

There  are  three  stomachs  or  stomachic 
dilatations  in  birds ;  the  first  is  the  crop, 
a  considerable  pouch  attached  to  the  oeso- 
phagus  or  gullet ;  then  the  ventriculua  sue- 
centuritttua,  a  slight  dilatation  of  the  oeso- 
phagus, with  thick  and  glandular  walls; 
then  immediately  after  this  is  the  gizzard, 
a  strong  and  muscular  cavity.    In  graniv- 
orous  birds  the  crop  is  large,  and  serves 
as  a  reservoir  for  the  seeds  swallowed  by 
them,  which  are  here  moistened  by  a  se- 
cretion  before   passing  into   the  gizzard. 
In  these   birds  the  gizzard   is  extremely 
strong,    having    to    perform    the   task    of 
grinding  down   the   hard  substances  sub- 
jected to  its  action,  a  process  which   is 
facilitated    by    the    small    stones    which 
these  birds  generally  swallow.     The  ven- 
triculus  secretes  the  gastric  juice,  and  so 
far  represents  a  real  stomach.     In  birds 
which  live  on  flesh  or  fish  the  gizzard  is 
weaker   and   less   distinct   from   the   ven- 
tnculus ;  while  the  crop  becomes  smaller, 
and    in    some    specips    completely    disap- 
pears.    The  intestinal  cnnal  is  relatively 
smaller  than  in  Mammiilia  and  presents 
fewer  circumvolutions.     It  terminates  in 
an   opening   called    the   cloara.   which   is 
also    the    common     termination    of    the 
ureters   and   oviduct.     The  liver  is  gen- 
erally    laree,     and     colored     a     distinct 
hroVnish  hue.  which  is  deenest  in  aquatic 
birds.     A  gall  bladder  is  absent  in  a  few 
cases    only,    as    in    the   ostrich,    pigeons, 
and  some  parrots.     The  kidneys  are  two 
in   number,   of  larsre   size   and   elongated 
shape.      The    urine    consists    in    greater 
part    of    earth V    matters,    and    contains 
but  a   small  proportion  of  water,  hence 
Jt«  whitish   appearance.     The   spleen   is 


Ornithology 

usually  of  small  size,  rounded  or  oval, 
but  may  also  be  elongated  or  broad  and 
flattened.  The  heart  is  highly  muscular, 
four-chambered;  the  blood,  deep-red  in 
color,  circulates  rapidly  and  vigorously. 
The  lungs  are  confined  to  the  back  por- 
tion of  the  body,  and  are  attached  to 
the  ribs,  instead  of  being  free,  as  in 
Mammalia.  They  are  mt  divided  into 
lobes,  and  are  usually  of  a  bright-red 
color.  They  are  enveloped  in  a  membrane 
pierced  with  large  holes,  which  permit  the 
air  to  pass  into  the  cavities  in  the  breast 
and  in  the  abdomen,  and,  in  some  species, 
even  into  the  interior  of  tha  bones.     The 


A,  Pelvis  and  bones  of  the  leg  of  the  Lron  or 
Diver  (ufter  Owen);  i.  Innominate  bone;  /,  'Xhish- 
bone  (femur);  r.  Tibia;  r.  Fibula, together  formug 
the  shank;  m,  Tarao-metatanus;  p  Phalanges  of  the 
toes.  B,  Tail  of  the  Golden  Eagle;  <,  Ploughshare- 
shaped  bone,  carrying  the  great  tail-feathers. 


trachea  or  windpipe  is  of  great  relative 
length   in   birds,   and   is  adapted   to   the 
length  of  the  neck.     The  nervous  system 
evinces  a  marked  superiority  over  that  of 
reptiles.    The  cerebrum,  or  true  brain,  is 
larger  than  in  the  latter,  but  its  surface 
is  not  convoluted,  as  in  most  Mammalia. 
The  generative  organs  consist  of  the  es- 
sential organs  or  testes  of  the  male,  ac- 
companied in  some  cases  by  an  intromit- 
tent   organ.     The   female   organs  consist 
of   an   ovarium    and    oviduct.    The   eggs 
are  hatched  by  the  process  of  incubation. 
Very  great  ■  'ifferences  exist  in  the  size, 
form  and  number  of  eggs  which  may  be 
produced   by   birds,  and   in  the  time  re- 
quired for  their  hatching.     The  varieties 
of  nests  in  which  they  are  deposited,  as 
to  mode  and  materials  used  in  construc- 
tion, are  endless. 


Oniithology 


Ornithology' 


Many  birds  migrate  at  certain  seasons 
from  one  countiy  to  anotber,  and  a  re- 
cent report  on  migration  sbows,  that  witb 
very  few  exceptions  tbere  is  scarcely  a 
bird  of  either  the  palsarctic  or  nearctic 
regions  that  is  not,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  migratory  in  some  part  or  other 
of  its  range.     See  Migration. 

As  for  the  classification  of  birds,  many 
systems  have  been  proposed.  The  chief 
older  division  is  into  seven  orders,  to 
which  an  eighth,  the  Saururw  of  Huxley, 
is  often  added,  to  include  the  extinct 
archseopteryx.     These  orders  are: — 

Order  I. — RAP  TO  re  8  or  Accipitrea. 
Birds  of  Prey,  as  eagles,  vultures,  hawks 
and  owls.  Beak  strong  and  curved,  sharp 
at  the  edges.  Feet  adapted  for  seizing 
and  destroying  other  animals.  Claws 
sharp,  much  hooked  and  retractile.  Hind 
toe  on  the  same  level  with  the  others. 
Wings  well  developed. 

Order  II. — Insessobes,  Passeret,  or 
Perching  Birds,  by  far  the  most  numer- 


Digestive  •ystem  of  the  common  Fowl  (after 
Owen),  o.  Gullet;  c.  Crop-  p.  Proventricuius;  g. 
Giiiard;  «n,  Small  intestine;  *,  Intestinal  c«ca; 
I,  Latge intestine;  d.  Cloaca. 

ous  order.  It  includes  all  the  singing 
birds,  and  indeed,  excluding  the  birds  of 
prey,  most  birds  which  live  habitually 
among  trcpa.  Ff>pt  formed  for  grasping 
and  perching,  claws  moderately  curved 
and  not  retractile.  Hind  toe  on  the*  same 
level  as  the  rest.  This  order  is  nsually 
divided   into    four   ttibet   or   suborders: 


Coniroatrea  (cone-billed)  ;  Dentiroatnt 
( tooth- billed )  ;  Tenuiroatrea  (Slender- 
billed)  ;  Fiaairoatna  (cleft-billed). 

Order  III.— Scansores  or  Zygodaotytt. 
Climbing  Birds,  as  the  parrots,  wood- 
peckers, cuckoos,  toucans,  etc.  Feet 
formed  for  climbing,  two  of  the  toes  di- 
rected forward  and  two  backward;  pow- 
ers of  flight  not  in  general  great ;  bill  va. 
riously  shaped. 

Order  IV. — RaSORES  or  OalUnig.  Do- 
mestic Fowls,  Pheasants,  Pigeons,  etc. 
Legs  large  and  strong.  Feet  with  the  bind 
toe  situated  above  the  heel,  suited  for 
scratching.  Bill  short,  thick  and  arched 
above. 

Order  V. — Ctjrsores  or  Struthionidm. 
Running  Birds,  as  the  ostrich,  emu,  cas- 
sowary, etc.  Wings  rudimentary  and 
quite  useless  for  flight ;  legs  long  and 
strong;  hind  toe  wanting  or  merely  rudi- 
mentary ;  breastbone  without  a  ridge  or 
keel. 

Order  VI. — Gbaixatobes  or  Ctralla. 
Waders,  as  the  cranes,  herons,  snipes, 
sandpipers,  etc.  Legs  long,  bare  of  feath- 
ers from  above  the  knee ;  toes  often  half- 
webbed.    Bill  in  general  long  and  slender. 

Order  VII. — Natatores  or  Palmipedea. 
Swj  "  (rs :  web-footed  birds,  as  ducks, 
seese,  gulls,  etc.  Feet  formed  for  swim- 
min  in  general  webbed,  that  is,  the  toes 
com.  ted  by  a  membrane.  Hind  toe  ele- 
vated above  the  plane  of  the  others.  Bill 
various,  mostly  flattened. 

Mr.  Sclater  (partly  following  Huxley 
and  others)  has  proposed  a  system  of 
classification  which  has  met  with  iquch 
acceptance,  and  is  bared  partly  on  exter- 
nal, partly  on  internal  features.  Regard-, 
ing  the  class  Aves  as  divided  into  two 
subclasses,  Carinatw  and  Ratttte,  the  for- 
mer containing  all  birds  that  have  a 
prominent  keel  on  the  sternum  (Lat. 
carCfio),  the  latter  having  the  sternum 
flat  and  raft-like  (Lat.  ratis,  a  raft), 
he  divides  the  former  into  twenty-three 
and  the  'after  into  three  orders,  thus: 

Cabtnat.*:. — I.  Passeres,  with  four 
suborders  (including  more  than  half  of 
all  known  birds,  and  substantially  cor- 
responding with  the  older  order  Passeres 
or  Insessores).  II.  PicAsije,  with  six 
suborders  (woodpeckers,  swifts,  goat- 
suckers, trogons.  tnnrans,  cuckoos,  etc.). 
III.  PsiTACCi  (parrots).  IV.  Stbiges 
(owls).  V.  Acctpitres  (eagles,  hawks, 
vultures,  and  other  diurnal  birds  of 
prey).  VI.  Steganopodes  (pelican,  cor- 
morant, gannet.  etc).  VII.  Hebodiowes 
(herons,  storkn.  bittprn.  etc),  VIII. 
ODONTOOLOSSi«:  (flamingoes).  IX.  Pai> 
AMBDEJB  (screamers).  X.  Anseres 
(eeese,  ducks,  swans).  XI.  Coi-ttmb* 
(pigeons).     XII.     Ptebocletes     (sand- 


Ornithorliynohiu 


Oroiiiit 


frouse).  XIII.  Qalutxm  (fowUi,  part- 
ndsea,  pheaaanto,  grouae,  etc.).  XIV. 
Opisthocoui  (includes  only  one  bird, 
the  HoaUin).  XV.  Hiiupoon  (Hemi- 
podes,  a  small  group).  XVI.  Fuu- 
CABi^  (rails,  coots,  etc.).  XVII.  Alec- 
IPiSi?¥' ,  <"*°®*'  bustards,  trumpeter). 
XVIII.  LiMicoL^  (snipe,  woodcock,  cur. 
lew,  plover,  etc.).  XIX.  Gavim  (gulls). 
XX.  TuBiNABES  (petrels).  XXI.  Py- 
OOPODES  (divers,  auks,  grebes).  XXII. 
IMPENNES  (penguins).  XXIII.  Cbtp- 
TXJBi  (tinamous).  Subclass  Ratit^b. — 
XXIV.  Aptebyoes  (apteryx).  XXV. 
Casuabu  (cassowary  and  emeu).  XXVI. 
Stbuthiones  (ostrich,  rhea). 

Birds  are  not  numerous  as  fossil  or- 
ganisms. Among  the  most  important  and 
interesting  bird  fossils  we  at  present  pes. 
sess  are  the  two  specimens  of  archseop- 
teryx  found  in  the  slate  quarries  of  Sol- 
enhofen  (Bavaria).  This  bird  differed 
from  all  existing  birds  in  the  elongated 
rtptilian  nature  of  its  tail,  which  was 
composed  of  simple  vertebrae,  each  bear- 
ing a  single  pair  of  quill  feathers.  It  had 
also  teeth.  Thoy  certainly  tend  to  prove 
the  evolution  of  birds  from  reptiles.  Other 
two  most  interesting  fossil  birds  are  the 
ichthyornis  and  the  hesperornis,  both 
found  in  the  cretaceous  formations  of 
North  America  and  both  provided  with 
teeth ;  but  while  the  former  must  have 
had  powerful  wings  the  latter  was  quite 
wingless. 

Ornithorhynchus   teCVomV 

ihorhynchut  paradoxus),  the  duck-billed 
water-mole  of  Australia.  With  the  echid- 
na or  porcupine  ant-eater  of  Australia  it 


OmjthorhynctiUiorT. .  ter-mole  {QrniOu}- 

'  rhynehut  paradoxut) . 

forms  the  order  Monotremata — the  low- 
est division  of  the  mammalian  class.  This 
curious  animal  was  fii'st  described  hy 
Shaw  in  1792,  and  caused  no  little  excite, 
ment  among  zoologists.  It  presents  a 
Quadruped,  of  the  shape  and  size  of  a 


amall  otter,  covered  wiiJi  short  brows 
fur ;  a  horny  flat  bill  like  a  duck ;  a  abort 
flat  tail:  abort  lega  with  five-toed  and 
webbed  feet,  terminated  by  claws.  The 
eyes  are  amall ;  external  ear  wholly  want- 
ing. The  skull  is  bird-like  in  conforma- 
tion ;  brain  without  convolutions ;  cora- 
coid  bones  as  in  birda  well  developed.  Its 
young  are  produced  from  eggs,  are  born 
blind  and  hairle::a,  and  suckled  from  milk- 
glanda  destitute  of  nipples.  It  forms 
large  burrows  in  river  and  lake  banks, 
rising  from  near  the  surface  of  the  water 
to  a  iieight  of  perhana  twenty  feet  above 
it,  the  nest  being  at  the  higher  end.  It 
swimi)  for  its  food,  which  conaiata  of  in- 
sects, worms,  larva;,  etc. 

Orobanchaceae  (or-o-ban-ta'si-s),  the 

,     ,  _  broom-rape    family 

of  plan'.s.  Their  general  properties  are 
astringency  and  bitterness.  The  calyx  is 
divided,  persistent,  inferior;  the  corolla 
hypogynous,  irregular,  persistent,  estiva- 
tion imbricated ;  stamens,  four ;  ovary 
free,  one-celled,  with  two  carpels;  style, 
one;  stigma,  two-lobed,  divided  trans- 
versely to  the  carpels ;  fruit .  sular.  The 
Orobanchaceae  are  h<»rbaceon'<  parasites, 
with  scales  in  place  of  leave?,  and  attach 
themselves  to  the  roots  of  different  plants, 
as  the  Orobanche  major  to  broom  and 
furze,  O.  ratnOaa  to  hemp,  O.  rubra  to 
thyme,  O.  hederne  to  ivy. 
OrobnS  (of'o-bns).   a  subgenus  of  the 

**"  genua  Lathvrus  (which  see). 
OrOfiTanhv  (o^-og  ra-fi ;  Greek  orot, 
»  *^  J^  a  mountain),  the  de- 
scription of  mountains,  their  chains, 
branches,  etc,  or  the  mountain  systems 
of  a  country  collectively. 
OronokO.     ^®«  Orinoco. 

nr'ATisotr  (?'ron-8ft),  small  island  ot 
uronsay.     Scotland,  on  Loch  Sunart. 

Orontes  (O-ron'tez),  a  river  of  Syria, 
rising  on  the  east  of  the 
Anti-Libanus,  and  entering  the  Mediter- 
ranean; entire  course  about  200  miles. 
It  is  not  naviKable. 

Ornsh  11.711.  (l^rOsh-ha'.TO),  a  town  of 
Urosnaza  ^nng^ry,  about  30  miles 
northeast  of  Szegedin,  in  a  caitle-raising 
and  wine-growing  district.  Pop.  21,385. 
Ornsins  (o-rO'sl-us),  a  Latin  historia:., 

became  a  Christian  presbyter,  resided  a 
considerable  time  with  St.  Augustine  at 
Hippo,  and  wrote  at  his  suggestion  o 
general  history  of  the  world  (Bi$toria 
rum  Lihri  vti,  adveraut  Paganot),  tc 
prove  that  the  rhristians  were  not  to 
blame  for  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
empire  m  the  heathen  alleged.  It  is  a 
worthless  compilation,  but  for  long  en- 
joyed a  groat  popularity,  and  was  trans 


Orotava 


Oniiii 


lated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by  King  Alfred 
with  modificatlona  and  additions. 
nrntairft.    (*-rt-«l'va),    a    town    and 
VrotaVH     p^fj  Qf  ji,g  Canary  lalandt, 

in  the  northwest  of  the  island  of  Ten- 
erilfe.  The  town  is  about  3  miles  from 
the  port,  and  is  a  favorite  summer  resi- 
dence  of  the  rich  Canarians.  The  port 
has  a  CO  isiderable '  trade.     Fop.  WKXi. 

Orphan  AsylTun,  r.^U^-m.'ll 

establishment  in  which  orphans  are  pro- 
Tided  for  and  educrted.  In  all  well- 
regulated  states  the  duty  of  taking  care 
of  destitute  orphans  was  recognized  at 
an  early  age,  and  it  appears  that  the 
cities  of  Thebes,  Athens,  and  Rome  had 
establishments  in  which  orphaned,  de- 
serted and  illegitimate  children  were  sup- 
ported and  educated  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. In  the  laws  rt  Emperor  Justinian 
there  is  frequent  mention  of  such  institu- 
tions. In  tne  middle  ages  such  asylums 
were  numerous  and  generally  under  the 
direction  of  the  clergy.  In  recent  times 
public  orphanages  have  been  substituted 
or  supplemented  by  the  farming-oat  sys- 
tem, that  is.  the  children  are  brought  up 
in  private  families  willing  to  undertake 
Iheir  charge.  This  system,  with  due  care 
in  the  selection  of  guardians  and  ju- 
dicious supervision,  has  proved  satisfac- 
tory wherever  it  has  been  tried.  It  is 
more  economical,  and  the  example  of  re- 
spectable family  life  cannot  fail  to  have 
a  beneficial  moral  influence.  Orphan 
asylums,  as  conducted  in  the  United 
States,  are  supported  as  private  institu- 
tions, assisted  by  legislative  appropria- 
tion. They  are  fostered  also  by  the  re- 
ligious denominations.  The  most  im- 
portant among  them  is  Girard  College, 
Philadelphia,  which  is  an  orphan  asylum 
on  a  grand  scale  and  a  power  for  good. 
OmhenS  (or 'fas),  a  personage  of 
urpucuB  gj^^  Importance  in  the 
mythology  of  Greece,  surrounded  by  a 
multitude  of  legends,  which  invariably 
associate  him  witli  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 
To  him  is  attributed  the  application  of 
music  '.o  the  worship  of  the  gods.    Apollo 

S resented  him  with  hi^  lyre,  and  the 
luses  instructed  him  to  use  it,  so  that 
he  moved  not  the  beasts  )n1y,  but  the 
woods  and  rocks  with  its  melody.  Hav- 
ing lost  his  wife  Enrydice  by  the  bite  of 
a  serpent  he  descended  to  Hades  to  try 
and  get  h<;r  back.  His  music  so  moved 
the  infernal  deities  Pluto  and  Proserpine 
that  they  consented  to  her  return  to 
earth,  only  her  husband,  whom  she  was 
to  follow,  must  not  look  back  till  they 
had  reached  the  upper  world.  Thia  con- 
dition the  impatient  Orpheus  Tlolated 
•ad  Inrt  Ut  irife  f ortrer.    Be  la  said  to 


have  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of  a 
t>and  of  furious  women  encaged  in  the 
mystic  rites  of  Bacchus.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  to 
him  is  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  so-called 
Orphic  luysteries  connected  with  the  wor- 
ship of  Bacchus.  A  considerable  litera- 
ture was  connected  with  the  name  of 
Orpheus,  the  oldest  portions  of  which 
were  not  earlier  than  630  B.C.  In  part  it 
yet  exists,  there  being  still  extaut  a 
mythological  poem  cafled  ArgotMutieo, 
certain  hymns,  etc. 

Omiment  (or'pi-ment),  a  minerd 
Urpuaeai  consisting  of  arsenic  and 
sulphur,  of  a  brignt  yellow  color,  pass- 
ing into  golden;  specific  gravity,  3.3-3.5. 
It  occurs  in  laminated  or  lamellar 
masses,  in  concretions,  and  more  rarely 
in  minute  crystals.  It  is  also  manu- 
factured artificially. 

Orrerv  (or'e-ri),  an  instrument  for 
\fxi.%it.j  representing  the  motions  of 
the  planets,  etc.,  a  useful  assistant  to  the 
teacher  of  elementary  astronomy.  It  was 
so-called  after  the  Earl  of  Orrery. 
ArrArv    Chables    Boyle,    Kasl    op. 

He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  in  the  earldom  (an 
Irish  title)  in  1708.  For  his  services  in 
connection  with  the  Treaty  t»f  Utrecht  he 
was  created  a  British  peer,  as  Lord 
Boyle.  He  published  an  edition  of  Pha- 
lans,  which  gave  rise  to  the  controversy 
with  Dr.  Bentley.  See  Bentley,  Richard. 
Orris  Root  (or'is),  or  Ibis  IIoot,  the 
^***"  **vvw  PPQj  q£  several  species  of 
Irit,  especially  of  the  /.  florentina,  which 
on  account  of  its  violet-like  smell  is  em- 
ployed in  perfumery  and  in  the  mano- 
factare  of  tooth-powder.  It  is  also  used 
in  pharmacy  as  a  pectoral. 
Orsini  (or-eS'n?),  one  of  the  most  II- 
*'*'**  lustrious  and  powerful  families 
of  Italy.  It  became  known  about  the 
eleventh  century,  and  had  already  ac- 
quired high  rank  and  extensive  posses- 
sions in  the  Papal  States  when  one  of  its 
members,  Giovanni  Gaetano,  was  raised 
to  the  pontificate  under  the  title  of  Nich- 
olas III  (1277-80).  The  feud  between 
the  Orsini  and  Colonna  families  is  cele- 
brated in  history ;  it  commenced  towards 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
is  distinguished  for  bitterness,  unscmpn- 
lousness  and  violence,  assassination  oe- 
ing  not  infrequently  resorted  to.  Many 
of  the  Orsini  became  famous  military 
chiefs.  Vincenzo  Marco  Orsini  (Bene* 
diet  XIII)  succeeded  Innocent  XiII  as 
pope  in  1724.  (See  Benedict.)  The  Or> 
sini  family  is  now  divided  into  two 
branches,  the  Orsini-Gravina  at  Boom 
*jxd  the  Oraini  who  reeid*  ftt  gtodi— t 


Omni 


Orthopsedia 


Onmi,    Ff^S'^  *.°  Italian  rwolatfon-  24  mUet  nortbweit  of  Pau,   on  a  hill 

defeated  by  Wellington,  i'ebruary  21, 
1814.  Pop.  (1906)  418&. 
Orthite  «»^^t),  a  alUcate  of  aluml- 
nium  containing  the  rare 
nietala  cerium,  lanthanum,  didymium, 
and  yttrium,  occurring  In  granite  and 
other  rocks  in  Sweden,  Greenland,  the 
Ural,  etc. 


was  sent  to  study  law  at  the  University 
of  BolMna,  and  joined  the  Society  of 
Yonng  Italy,  formed  in  1831  by  MazsinL 
In  1843  he  took  an  active  part  in  an  in- 
surrection, and  being  apprehended  along 
with  his  fatiier,  alao  an  ardent  patriot, 
was  sentenced  to  the  galleys  tor  life.  By 
the  amnesty  of  July  10,  184(J,  he 
obtained  his  freedom,  but  suon  after  he 
a^ain  engaged  iu  intrigues  auder  Max- 
xini,  and  took  prominent  part  in  the  stir- 
ring events  of  the  following  years.  In 
1856  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  the 
sentence  was  not  carried  out,  and  in  1856 
he  escar  d  to  London.  Here  he  wrote 
his  work,  Auntrian  Dungcona  in  Italy 
(1850),  and  lived  by  giving  lectures  on 
his  adventures.  lie  now  planned  the 
assassination  of  Napoleon  III,  as  the 
main  prop  of  reactionary  tendencies  in 
Europe,  m  concert  with  three  Italian 
refugees,  Rudio,  Gomez  and  I'ieri.  The 
attempt  was  made  on  January  14.  1858, 
but  was  unsuccessful,  and  I'ieri  and  Or- 
sini  were  executed  March  13,  1858, 
Gomez  and  Rudio  being  sentenced  to  im- 
prisonment for  life. 

Orsk   (^"'')»  *  town  of  Russia,  govern- 
ment .  of     Orenburg,     near     the 
mouth   of   the   Or,   in   the   Ural.     Pop. 
14,036. 

OrSOVa  ("f'sho-vA),  new  Obsova,  the 
name  of  two  places  near  the 
Iron  Gates  of  the  Danube,  the  former  a 
small  town  in  Hungary,  the  latter  a 
fortress  in  Servia,  occupied  by  the  Aus- 
trians 


brsted     *""  Oersted  (eur'sted),  Hans 
.  '    CnRiSTiAN,    a    Danish    physi- 

cist, born  in  1777 ;  died  at  Copenhagen  in 
1851.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  spent  several  years  at  the 
expense  of  government  in  Holland,  Ger- 
many and  Paris;  was  in  1800  appointed 
extraordinary  professor  of  physics  at 
Copenhagen ;  and  in  1812-13,  while  on  a 
second  tour  in  Germany,  he  drew  up  his 
views  of  the  chemical  laws  of  nature, 
which  he  afterwards  published  in  Paris 
under  the  title  of  Rccherches  sur  Vlden- 
iiU  dea  Forcea  Electnqites  et  Chimiquea. 
His  fame  first  became  diffused  over  the 
scientific  world  in  1819  by  the  discovery 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  electro- 
magnetism.  In  1820  he  became  director 
of  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Copenhagen, 
and  on  the  occasion  of  his  jubilee  fes- 
tival in  1850  he  was  created  a  privy- 
councilor. 
Ortee'al   (or-ta-gai').  Cape,  the  nortb- 

^^     western  point  of  Spain. 
OrtheZ  (<"^tfts),  a  town  of  France,  de- 
7  nartment    of    Basses-Pyrto^es, 


OrthoCeraS    ^Or-tlio»'6r-a»),    a    genus 
,     ,  ,     of  fossil   cephalopods, 

having  straight  or  slightly  curved  cham- 
bered shells,  allied  to  the  nautilus,  and 
occurring  from  the  Silurian  to  the  Trias. 
OrthoClase  (orth'o-klaz),  called  also 
w  «»vw«»av  j^g  common  or  potash 
felspar,  a  silicate  of  alumininm  and  po- 
tassium found  in  fine  monoclinic  crystals 
disseminated  in  straight  layers  through- 
out the  older  rocks  of  many  countries. 
The  color  varies  from  white  to  green ;  i»; 
is  transparent  or  translucent;  specifii- 
gi  avity,  2.4  to  2.6 ;  hardness,  6. 
Orthodox  <^r'thu-doks;  Greek,  or^ 
thoa,  right,  and  doxa,  opin- 
ion), the  opposite  of  heterodox  (which 
see),  generally  applied  to  what  is  re- 
garded as  the  established  opinion,  or  that 
which  is  commonly  considered  as  right. 
The  term  is  chiefly  used  in  religious  con- 
troversies to  designate  certain  religious 
faiths  or  doctrines. 

OrthoeDV   (<ir-th6'e-pi),    that    branch 

'^^    of   grammatical    knowledge 

which  deals  witn  correct  pronunciation. 

Orthographic  Projection,  »*q«™ 

specially  applied  to  that  spherical  projec- 
tion used  by  geographers  in  the  construc- 
tion of  maps  in  which  the  eye  is  supposed 
to  be  at  an  infinite  distance  from  the 
sphere,  so  that  the  rays  of  light  coming 
from  every  point  of  the  hemisphere  may 
bo  considered  as  parallel  to  one  another. 
This  method  of  projection  is  best  adapted 
for  representing  countries  at  a  moderate 
distance  from  the  center  of  projection. 
See  Projection. 

Orthography  ( ^  r  - 1  h  o  g'ra-fi ) ,  that 
o  r  J  part  of  grammar  which 
treats  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  let- 
ters, and  their  proper  application  in  writ- 
")?.  words,  making  one  of  the  four  main 
divisions  or  branches  of  grammar.  The 
word  is  also  used  in  architecture. 
Orthopsdia  (Or-thu-pS'di-a;  Greek, 
*  orthoa,  straieht.  patdeta, 

training),  a  branch  of  medical  science 
relating  to  the  cure  of  natural  deformi- 
ties. Hippocrates  already  occupied  him- 
self with  the  correction  of  deformed 
bones,  but  it  was  not  until  a  compara- 
tively recent  epoch  that  this  important 
subject  met  with  the  serious  attention  it 


Orthoptera 


Oryx 


dewnres.  SeTenil  inititationa  for  the 
cure  of  bodilj'  malfurmationa  were 
founded  in  Is'ran'^e  and  Uermany  in  tlie 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Ur- 
thopndia  is  divided  into  prophylactic  or 
preventive,  and  therapeutic  or  curative. 
The  object  of  the  former  is  to  prevent 
deformities  in  infants,  and  is  obtained 
by  hygienic  means,  suth  as  puro  air,  care- 
ful pursing,  and  suitable  lood,  clothing 
and  exercise ;  that  of  the  latter  to  cor- 
rect deformities  already  existing  by  me- 
chanical treatment,  wuich  is  most  suc- 
cessful when  resorted  to  as  soon  as  any 
deviation  from  natural  shape  manifests 
itself.  In  our  time  the  manufacture  of 
urthoptedic  apparatus  has  become  highly 
developed,  and  forms  an  important 
branch  of  trade. 

OrtViOTltpra  ("'■■t'loP'te-rA:  Greek,  or- 
Unuopiera  ^y^^,     straight,   pteron,   a 

wing),  an  order  of  insects  of  the  sub- 
class Hemimetabola,  or  insects  in  which 
the  metamorphosis  is  incoiuplete.  They 
have  four  wings,  the  anterior  pair  being 
semiooriaceous  or  leathery,  usually  with 
numerous  nervures,  the  wings  sometimes 
overlapping  and  sometimes  meeting  like 
the  roof  of  a  house.  The  feelers  are 
generally  straight,  filiform  organs.  The 
limbs  vary  in  conformation  according  to 
their  methods  of  movement.  In  tneir 
metamorphosis  the  larvje  and  pupse  are 
both  active,  and  the  pupa  generally  re- 
sembles the  perfect  insect,  the  wings 
being  undeveloped.  These  insects  are  di- 
vided into  Running  (Cursorial)  and 
Leaping  ( Saltatorial )  Orthoptera.  Of 
the  former  division  the  Cockroaches,  Ear- 
wigs, Mantis  Insects,  Walking-stick  In- 
sects, and  Walking  Leaves  form  the 
chief  families.  The  Saltatoria  are  rep- 
resented by  the  Locusts,  some  of  which 
want  wings  entirely,  Crickets  and  Grass- 
hoppers. See  also  Entomology. 
Or+lpr-S-nifye  ^^  Ortleb  (ortl^r),  a 
Uruer-OpilZe,  mountain  of  the  Alps, 
in  Tyrol,  near  the  borders  of  Switzer- 
land and  Italy,  the  highest  of  the  Aus- 
tr'.&a  and  German  Alps ;  heipht,  12,814 
feet.  The  group  to  which  this  moun- 
tn'n  belongs  is  known  as  the  Ortler 
Alps. 

ArfnlaTi  ("r'tu-lan;  Emher^za  hortu- 
urwxuu  i,-.„a),  a  bird  of  the  bunting 
family,  a  native  of  Northsrn  Africa  and 
Southern  Europe.  The  colors  are  yellow 
on  the  throat  and  around  the  eves,  the 
breast  and  belly  being  of  reddish  hue, 
wi  -le  the  unper  part  of  the  body  is  brown 
varied  w'th  bbek.  Its  delicate  flesh  is 
mnch  esteemed  bv  epicures,  and  large 
quantities  are  annually  caught  and  fat- 
tened for  tbe  table  in  the  south  of  France, 
Italy  and  Cyproi. 


Artnn  (Sr'ton),  EowiiBD,  teologiat,  bom 
vAwu  j^j  Delhi,  New  i'orit,  m  ltua\ 
died  in  189U.  He  was  professor  of 
natural  science  in  the  New  lork  Normal 
School  at  iilbany  185U-69.  at  AutiocU 
College  1866-tii),  president  of  Antioch  Col- 
lege 1872-'<^,  president  of  the  Ohio  State 
Lniversity  18 1 3-81,  and  in  1881  became 
state  geologist  of  Ohio  and  professor  of 
geology  in  the  university.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral volumes  on  the  Geology  of  Ohio.  He 
was  president  of  the  Geological  Society 
of  America  in  1807  and  of  the  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
18y8-99. 
fkrf nil     James,  scientist,  born  at  Sen- 

He  made  two  exploring  expeditions  to 
South  America  and  in  18UD  was  made 
professor  of  natural  history  in  Vassar 
College.  He  wrote  The  Andes  and  the 
Amazon,  Underground  Treasure*,  Com- 
parative Zoology,  The  Liberal  E'iucation 
of  It'omen,  Froverbialist  and  Poet,  etc. 
nrinno  (or-td'na),  a  town  and  seaport 
Viwun  ^f  Southern  Italy,  province 
Chieti,  on  the  Adriatic,  11  miles  east  of 
Chieti.  It  has  a  cathedral  and  several 
other  churches  and  convents.  I'op.  8007. 
Ortvx  (^r'tiks),  an  American  genus  of 
vxiijTA  gallinaceous  birds  allied  to  the 
quails  and  partridges.     Se«;  Quail. 

Om'ba.  ^*^  ^'''*''*- 

Omro  (o-r8'ro),  a  town  of  Bolivia,  cap- 
vx  uiw  i^j^j  pf  ^  department  of  the  same 
name,  on  a  bleak  hill  in  a  metalliferous 
district,  at  an  absolute  height  of  13,000 
feet.  It  has  lost  its  former  importance, 
and  the  population,  once  exceeding  40,000 
is  now  1(5,070.  The  department  has  an 
area  of  19,000  square  miles  and  a  pop. 

of  sn.osi. 

n-rwiA+A  (or-ve-a't6),  an  old  town  of 
vrvieiQ  jj^jy  province  of  Perugia, 
picturesquely  situated  on  an  isolated  hill 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Paglia  and 
the  Chiana.  GO  miles  N.  N.  w.  of  Rome. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  cathedral,  built 
of  blar-k  and  white  marble,  and  adorned 
with  fine  sculptures,  mosaics  and  paint- 
ings, a  beautiful  specimen  of  thirteenth 
century  Italian  Gothic.     Pop.  8820. 

OrVCterODHS  ^  or-lk-t^rVpus  ),  the 
wxjvvvAwyu,a    generic     name    of    the 

aardvark.  Cape  pig,  or  ground-hog  (O. 
Capemia)  of  South  Africa,  an  edentati, 
insectiv  .ons  animal.  See  Aardrark. 
Qrvx  (or'iks).  the  nan'e  of  the  genua 
J^  of  antelopes  represented  by  the 
addax  {Oryr  nnDomrtculatft)  and  by  other 
species,  found  in  large  herds  chiefly  in 
the  northern  portions  of  the  African  con- 
tinent. The  norns  are  very  long,  spiral, 
.and    curved    backwards.      The    gemsbok 


(htigt 


iOrya   Gfella)    of   Sonthern   Atrle^   <> 

Siotler  .pecie.  included  in  StalSSi. 

The  river  gave  name  to  an  Indian  tribJ' 
li^dlar^eVri^Jri."'''^'*  """  *°''"^^'  ^« 

Osage  Oranire  f^«?c*«ro  a«ra»». 

nat    nr^«,    iL»  •»«fo).  a  tree  of  the 

nat.  order  MoraceaB  (mulberry)  Indli 
euous  to  North  Amerira?  where  t  is  fri 
queutJjr  used  as  a  hedKP-Dlant  U  n«!l 
d««.8  a  larjce  yellowTurof' a  wo^c^r 
ff  "not  "^i^'"'  "-»''""»  --o7^n1l 

Osaka  <£5*-|'f  >  •  "f  ohosa'ka,  the ««. 

Japan.  in"?he"iL*lan"d"1,f'^HSflo  ^oTth".' 

Zhi?i  '°***-  ^*  ^»  intersected  by  canals 
^1*"^^"^  by  numerous"^  wSS 
SnL«  '  *  Ik^  ?_or  3  miles  with  the  resi- 


?srv%i*-.^'u5  ?K^ 


oitVA^j     A      .Y""'«^"»  "DO  It  na«  a  strt 
do     Thpl'^'''^*y  counects  it  with  Yed"- 
«o.     1  he  greater  part  of  its  foreign  trad? 
18  carried  on  at  lliogo.     It  hajTaraenSs 
machine  shops,  steel  f  nd  glass  worS  cot- 
ton and  woolen  mills,  boot  and  shoe  and 

cXI  th'^ntnlcetf' JaXn^h"?^^^^^ 

over  ifcwl^^***"  the  water.  It  fias 
Wdinl^P^^frfJ;^  .worship,  and  takes  a 

OsCanS  (<».'kanz;  L.  0«o«;  Greek,  Opt- 

^  *?»)»    an    Italian    peoole    wno 
appear  to   have   been    the  ocbupants    at 

SaVThp*0^^*'^°  P"'*^'  o'  Central 
Italy,  ihe  Oscrns  were  subdued  bv  the 
Sabines  or  Sabellians.  Their  laMii«Sp 
was   closely  allied   to   the   lltin      Of 

;.xcfrr:;oi^''i;«,Yn\c"rUrnr'  °'  ** 

Oscar  I  t'^Jl^rik^^^iK^   fbaxcois 

S.  da\h\^:^f%rrn%"|?„,/rC^^^ 

1833)  viceroy  of  Norway,  where  hfrn^dr 
himself  popular  by  his  go^  adminiTtrl 
It-    "e  a'^^eded  to  the  throne  in  llS?" 
r^!2["^<^  ^llf  ">n  and  military  adrnffil 

^^Jjf^"^^'^^^  complete  liberty  of  toq- 
^te  •'"Ponraifed  education  and  a^ri' 
cnlmre;   promoted   railways.   teCaX 


Oshkosb 

He.    Be  took  little  part  in  foreign  noil- 
Oscar  n,  ^i"*  0'  Sweden  and  Nor- 

rVeSe^'kte  ^"^S  "^  "SSiiSr^- 

•t.^  ».  *  ■ingdom.  He  died  in  1907 
and  wa.  succeeded  by  hi,  ion  GusiVus 

Osceola  (.^.IT^^).  a  Semlnole  Indian 
1813  n«.  ^«  A  ^™  ,*»  Florida  about 
off  a.  ?5aTf  iJTs^^H'"^^  «?<»  *^"ri^ 
«gain,t^hT;Vtes\^^^o^'gh^"^;Yth^hZ 

OschatZ  itollf  *Q^'  *.,*°''°  °'  Saxony, 

Oschersleben  (^sji-^rs-ift'ber),  a  town 
the  Bode.  19  miles^'s^T'o?  Alfg^^b^^^^ 

w^t"  e?r ^"^i3"ir '^"~'  "?a^^^^^^^^ 
Oscillation  (os-i-la'shun),  the  act  of 
term  in  nft««  «„'J^°*."*?  *°  a°d  fro.  The 
atf ^nrfo  1*  °*  indiscriminately  applied  to 

Osel  fe'fel),    ap    island    in    the    Baltic 
government  STiv*^  .Part  of  the  Russian 

h^Pe-b°rU%^n"3- firhlL;^re^r  ^^^^^^^^ 

Oshawa  <"sh'4-w&),  a  town  of  Ontario 
Canada,  on  rT}^r\Ji:"Ji''K^^  of  .Ontario, 


Pota.^'''  '^  ^  «tee«?roVS?/r! 
Oshkosh    <9sli'ko8h).  a  dty  of  Wiscon- 

bagoCounty^^^^'JotLX  ^inSa^g!: 
at  the  mouth  of  Fox  itiver,  49  mi?e8  s  s' 
mJii  ^^r^"  ?ay-    By  me^s  of  X  Fox 

£  witfTJ'  ^'^^^  steamboat  ^'nJS 
T<-    K^    1  ^^^  ^Jichigan  at  Green  Bav 

iL^f"  l"?{^  manufactories  of  Mshel' 
doors  and  blinds,  a  match  factorv  nnS 
a   considerable   variety   of   othe^'^^W^,? 


Ouander 


Osier 


tries.  It  ia  a  favorite  fiahing  and  snia* 
iner  resort,  and  lias  a  State  uormal  scbooL 
It  is  connected  witli  sarroundinc  cities  by 
interarban  lines.  Pop.  83,062. 
Osiander  '?  «i-an'd«r),  Anouus,  a 
(iemian  theologian,  sealous 
reformer,  and  follower  of  Luther,  born  in 
14U8;  died  in  1552.  lie  was  present 
at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530,  and 
his  refusal  to  '.-uDHeut  to  the  Augsburg 
interim  in  1548  cost  him  bis  situation  as 
preacher  at  NUrnberg,  but  soon  after  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  in 
the  newly-erected  University  of  KOnigs- 
berg.  Afterwards  be  was  appointed  vice- 
president  of  the  bishopric  of  Samltlnd.  In 
1549  he  became  involved  in  a  theological 
dispute,  in  which  he  maintained  that 
justification  is  not  a  judicial  or  forensic 
act  in  God,  but  contained  something  of  a 
subjective  nature,  aa  the  imparting  of  an 
internal  righteousness,  brought  about  in 
a  mystical  manner  by  the  union  of  Christ 
with  men.  One  of  his  principal  oppo- 
nents was  Martin  Chemnitz.  Although 
his  views  were  condemned  by  several 
authoriti's  he  maintained  them  until  his 
death.  In  1550  all  the  Osiandrists  were 
deposed,  and  Osiandrism  forever  ban- 
ished out  of  Prussia. 

Osier.  ^^®  wuiow. 

Osiris  (o-sl'ris).  one  of  the  great  Egyp- 
tian divinities.  He  was  ihe 
brother  and  husband  of  Isis,  and  the 
father  of  Horus.  He  is  styled  the  Mani- 
fcstor  of  Good,  Lord 
of  Lords,  King  of  the 
Gods,  etc.  In  the 
lyptian  theogony  he 
represented  the  sum 
of  beneficent  agen- 
cies, as  Set  of  evil 
agencies.  Osiris,  af- 
ter having  e  s  t  a  b- 
lished  good  laws  and 
institutions  through- 
out Egypt,  fell  a 
prey  to  the  intrigues 
of  his  brother  Set, 
the  Typhon  of  the 
Greeks.  He  became 
afterwards  the  judge 
of  tho  dead.  There 
are  a  multitude  of 
traditions,  both 
Greek  and  Egyptiaa.  Osiria. 

about  Osiris.  He 
is  represented  under  many  different 
forms,  and  compared  sometimes  to  the 
sua  and  sometimes  to  the  Nile.  Hia 
soul  was  supposed  to  animate  the  sacred 
bull  Apis,  and  thus  to  be  continually 
present  among  men.  His  worship  ex- 
tended   over    Asia    Minor,    Greece    and 


Ilom«.  According  to  Herodotus  the  fes* 
tival  of  Osiris  was  celebrated  in  almost 
the  same  manner  as  that  of  Dionysus. 
Tiie  worship  of  Osiris  was  probabw  in* 
tmduced  into  Egypt,  in  common  with  the 
arts  and  sciences,  from  the  Ethiopian 
Meroe.  He  is  said  by  some  authorities  to 
have  led  a  colony  from  Ethiopia  into  Egypt 
Osiris  was  venerated  under  the  form  of 
tho  sacred  bulls  /Vuis  and  Mnevis ;  and  aa 
it  is  usval  in  the  Egyptian  symbolical  lan- 
guage to  represent  their  deities  with  hu- 
man forms  and  with  the  heads  of  animals 
which  were  their  representatives,  we  find 
Htutucs  of  Osiris  represented  with  the 
horns  of  a  bull.  Osiris,  being  with  Isis 
the  master  of  the  world  below,  is  often 
represented  on  rolls  of  papyrus  as  sitting 
in  judgment  on  departed  spirits.  His 
usual  attributes  are  a  flowing  cap,  a  flail 
or  whip  and  a  cro^er.  The  nse  of  Chris- 
tianity put  an  eni  to  the  worship  of  Osiris. 
OskaloOSa  ("s-kA-lo'sft),  a  ci'T  and 
"^^  tho  capital  of  Mu'ia^ka 
county,  Iowa,  in  one  of  the  best  -  ' 
regions  of  the  West.  It  lies  on  the  v  ater- 
slied  between  the  Des  Moines  nnd  South 
Pkunk  rivers,  62  miles  s.  e.  of  Des  Moines. 
It  contains  Penn  College,  Central  Holiness 
University.  Oskaloosa  College,  and  has 
bridge  works  and  foundries,  steam  heater, 
brick  and  tile,  clothing,  and  other  facto- 
ries.   Pop.  9466. 

namanipli  (os-man'i-e),  a  Turkish  or- 
USmamen  ^^^  established  by  Abdul 
Aziz  in  1861  for  the  reward  of  services 
rendered  to  the  state.  The  chief  decora- 
tion is  a  golden  slx-iwinted  star  enacieled 
in  green. 

Osier  (Cs'Ier)«  Sib  Edmund  Botd,  a 
Canadian  legislator  and  finan- 
cier (1845-  ),  bom  in  Simcoo  county, 
Ontario ;  educated  at  the  grammar  school, 
Dundas,  Ontario.  He  began  business  in 
the  Bank  of  Upper  Canada,  Toronto,  and 
later  became  head  of  the  financial  firm  of 
Osier  &  Hnmmond,  of  Toronto.  He  was 
president  of  the  Toronto  Bond  Trade  in 
1896,  nnd  was  appointed  as  repsesenta- 
tive  of  Canada  at  the  Congress  of  Cham- 
bers of  Commerce  held  in  London  in  1S)6. 
Recognized  as  an  authorfty  in  finance,  he 
became  president  of  the  Dominion  Bank 
of  Canada,  and  member  of  the  Executive 
Committee  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way Company,  as  well  as  a  director  of 
that  company.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Dominion  House  of  Commons  for 
West  Toronto  in  1896. 
Osier  ^™  WnxiAic,  brother  of  Sir 
vsAcx,  Ertmnnd,  a  Canadian  physician 
and  author  (1846-1919).  bom  at  Bond 
Head,  Ontario,  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Toronto:  Toronto  University:  Mc- 
(3111    University,    Montreal;     University 


Ounan  Digna 

SSir'nnii^Vi*"*-        ^«.   '^     '""lied     •« 

Jsemn  and  \  kuna,  and  was  awarded  on 
honorary  D.Hc  from  OxfjJil  and  CnS^ 
bridjfe  uuivti-HtleH;     YaJo.   Harvard  and 

aegreo  or  l^ui).     From  1874  lo  18K4  ii« 

cine  at  WcOill  Univeruity.     In  the  latter 

ciuo  at  the  Uuivemuy  of  I'ennNvlvania 
remaining  there  till  l8«),  when  ho  wont 
to  JohuH  Hopkins  Unive.-8ity  a"p^,f.*sSr 

^•coming  ehief  phyHician  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins  noK,.ital.  He  went  toEnXud 
w>  KgiuB  prot^eHHor  of  me<licine  at  oL& 
clovoting  liimadf  Hubseoueutly  to  w! 
tming  and  writing.  In  one  of  ids 
.•Jv.Vr'^f'"^'''*'*""*    ''S   declared    that   men 

iy^/"u^^ler"an,?^Sf.^Ta??.n^^T''E 


Oimoiii 


iavin^^Th^t  ^,^™'   «"'"«  9uoti"Ji"liim 'a« 
Maying    inat    men    over   sixtv    Hhnnlfl    Kn 

chloroformed  What  he  8«i(f  vfa«  •  •  \V^ 
liave  to  a<lrait  the  comparative  usel^sness 
of  men  over  forty  years  „f  a^"  . 
hJrJS*  'na"  neither  wax  nor  honey  can 
brinp  home,  he  shouhl.  in  the  intorcsf«  of 
he  institution  be  dissolved  from  tliT  hive 
to  give  m.  re  laborers  rwm.     .  Ti.f 

men  who  are  doing  the  work  of  the  world 

anrfTrtJr*^'""'  ^''^S  "/  tCntrfi';' 
hnman  . J.ievement.  i? ttioi'ln  Terence' 
L  m'^  i'^'''"*"/^'  subtract  the  work  c^ 
2nJ\^J^''''  forty— we  should  pineti- 
caUy  be  where  we  are  to-dny.'  Among  his 
Publications  are  Cerebral  AhiTofChl. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Mrdieinr' 
Science  and  Immortalitv,  Counsels  md 
{<ie«Jh  Thomas  Lanacre,  AnAabama 
feaf workf*^  other  scientific  and  bioSt 
leai  works.     IJo  Ji,.,]  iJecember  20   19in 

USman   Dlgna     ("''-m»<n'   dig'na).   a 

Mahdi's  army  in  the  loucIan'asaMOOO)* 
born   at   Suakin.     II,.  was   L   the  S 

fa'^vT^h^^*''^  '*''^'.''*  «f  Arabi  Pasha 
(q.  V.)  broke  out  in  1881  Suffering 
severe  financial  losses  when  the  Sish 
put  a  ston  to  his  traffic  in  slafes  he 
joined  Aral)i  in  the  attempt  to  drive  fh^ 

there.    He  was  said  to  have  been  \nr^JZ 
responsible  for  the  fate  of  oSal  g£ 


«jon  (q.  r.)  at  Ehartoum  ia  1888  In 
January.  IttOO,  he  was  defeated  atTokar 
and  dledTsooo  afterward.  J-war, 

Osman  Nuri  Pasha  (n^repMh-D'), 

•the  Victorious'  (1832-10(kI]I  "i  TSki-h 

fo.i/htnlh«nf  "'"•'*'"*•  ""ny  in  1803  and 
loiignt  in  the  Russian  war  of  180a-5«  in 

»i\£*."''H*  ^"^  'he  Crimea.  VVintdngdi^ 
,M««fi«n  in  the  Syrian  rebcUion,  andTpa^ 

He  itJ^mo'^^ Ti*^'  f"  ii^'Utenant-colonel. 
lie  oeeamc  a  brigadier-general  in  1S74 
i"n ''liTfi^T  ''•^•'"'•ation  o?  war  by  ServU 
i^l'®'  ''®.^a\^»«'*'n  command  of  an 
army  cortw  at  VVi.ldin,  where  he  won  fame 

(maSir^Hr"  *"  *^«  """^  of  «ffi 
was  hfi  l„ii„«i^*"  greatest  acUevement 
Plevna  dnHn°i  ?k''  Protmctwl  defense  of 
(18771  o?.?^*'"'  Russo-Turkish  war 
^,^JJ'\.  .  three  occasnms  he  repulsed 
•^h'  „"  h"^^,.*'^  ^he  Russians,  on  July 
2pth  and  30th  and  September  11th  in- 
a^^'Xl  ^n"™.  "'  "»'^«"i«  «f  30.000  'men 

flSie,  o^"n'""\""i  .*'l«i'"  RoumanJaS 
allies.  On  December  9th  he  was  caDturwl 
by  the  Russians,  but  returned  to  Turkey 
after  the  treaty  of  San  Stefan  (see  0«o^ 
man  Empire)  m  1878.  Ho  waritrnn.l 
marshal  of  the  palaee  till  his  deatj  which 
occurred  on  Ai)ril  14,  1000 
Osmelite     («s'me-llt  > .  called  also  peeto- 

white    mineral    'which  ""i^^"  .^^'J^Jit 
hH^alities  in  acicular  mo^i^  nic  cryS^ 

Osmium  %t"i^d)7o'S^<!fVSr 

mim  metals,   forming  a  bliiishVwte  lus" 
tnnis  mass,  having  ^k  specific  gravftyoj 
22.48.  being  thus  the  heaviest  of  all  bodiw 
It  may  also  be  obtained  in  crystaiTr  as 
a  black  amorphous  powder,  which  is  vorv 

or^iT'^'^-  ^Ti""  *«  the  most  iufuS 
"/,  «.ii  the  metals.  It  combines  with 
chlonne  in  different  proportions,  also  idth 
met'jA"'  ""Iforms  alloys  with  some  oThe? 
""^tai"-  O"""*'  a*""!  acts  as  a  powerful 
oxidizer,  decarbonizing  indigo,  seKminff 
i^^^i  w™  potassium  iodide  converting 
alcohol  into  acetic  nci<l,  etc.  ""crung 

Osmosis  (os-|n<Vsis),  Os'mose,  the 
*»...       1  tendency    of    fluids    to    pass 

through  twrous  partitions  and  mix  or 
become  diffused  through  each  other  It 
includes  endosmose  or  the  tendencv  of  a 
fluid  to  pass  inwards  into  another  through 
^uch  a  partition,  and  exo„»o,o,  or  the 
tendeney  of  a  fluid  ont^nrd.  WhCT? 
two  sahne  solutions,  differing  in  strength 
and  composition,  are  separated  by  a  blad- 
Sf,*^- P*Th"ient  paper,  or  porous  earthen- 
wat«,   they  mutually  pass  through  and 


'On&ULdA 


Oiiiaii 


mix  with  Mch  other;  but  they  ptu  with 
nnequal  npiditiea,  lo  that,  after  a  time, 
the  oeight  of  the  liquid  on  each  side  ia 
different.  Of  all  vegetable  aubetancei 
■ugar  haa  the  greatest  power  of  endua- 
moae,  and  of  animal  eubstancea  albumen 
haa  the  greatest.  Graham  showed  that 
osmose  waa  due  to  the  chemical  action  of 
the  fluida  on  the  septum.  In  fact,  the 
corrosion  of  the  septum  seems  necessary 
for  the  existence  of  osmose.  See  alito 
Diffution. 
Oimnndfl.  (o«-inun'da),     a     genus     of 

dBcea>,  with  free  capMules  opening  by  a 
longitudinal  slit  into  two  valves,  no  elas- 
tic ring,  or  instead  of  one  a  striated  cup. 
The  0$munda  regQlit,  the  tiowering  or 
royi  1  fern,  which  grows  to  the  height 
sometimes  of  10  feet,  ia  a  native  of  vari- 
ous parts  uf  the  Old  VVurld  as  well  as  of 
North  America.  It  is  often  cultivated 
as  an  ornamental  plant  on  account  of  its 
elegant  appearance,  the  fructification 
forming  a  tine  panicle  somewhat  reitem- 
bling  that  of  a  fluwerinK  plant. 

OllTin.liriiek  (Os-na-brUlc'),  or  OSNA. 
vsuauAuwjk   gujjQ^  gQ  ancient  town  of 

Prussia,  in  Hanover,  on  the  Hase,  and 
71  miles  west  of  Hanover.  In  the  old 
town  it  possesses  many  interesting  build- 
ings in  Uothic  and  RennaisHance  style.  It 
was  formerly  an  important  seat  of  linen 
manufacture,  and  gave  the  name  to  the 
liind  of  coarse  linen  linown  as  osnaI)ure. 
Its  chief  manufactures  are  now  clienii- 
cals,  iron  and  steel,  paper,  cotton  and 
tobacco.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and 
tlip  seat  of  several  courts  and  public  of- 
tices.  Pop.  (1910)  66,957. 
nsnrpxr  (osprfl;  Pandfon  Haliaetus),  a 
vr9|ixcjr  well-ltnown  raptorial  bird, 
called  also  fishing-hawk,  fishing-eagle  and 
sea-eagle.  It  occurs  lx>th  in  the  Old  and 
New  WoVld,  near  the  shores  of  the  sea, 
or  great  rivers  and  lakes,  and  builds  its 
nest  in  high  trees  and  cliffs.  It  lives 
on  fish,  and  pounces  with  great  rapidity 
on  its  prey,  as  it  happens  to  come  near 
the  surf;-  '^  of  the  water,  the  toes  being 
armed  wuii  strong  curved  nails.  The  gen- 
eral body-color  is  a  rich  brown,  the  tail 
being  banded  with  light  and  darlt  (in 
the  old  birds  the  tail  is  pure  white), 
head  and  neclt  whitish  on  their  upper  por- 
tions, and  a  brown  stripe  extends  from 
the  bill  down  each  side  of  the  neck;  un- 
der parts  of  the  bodv  whitish,  legs  of  a 
bluish  tint.  In  lenjrth  the  osprey  aver- 
ages about  2  feet,  the  wings  measuring 
over  4  feet  from  tip  to  tip.  The  female 
lavs  three  or  four  eggs.  The  American 
bald-eagle  (Haliaetus  leucocephHlus)  pnr- 
Buefi  the  osprey,  who  drops  his  prey  with 
the  view  of  escaping,  when  the  eagle  im- 


mediately pounces  after  the  deaceadlnc 
fish,  and  seises  it  beiore  it  haa  time 
to  touch  the  water. 
Aaga  (os'sa),  a  mountain  of  Northern 
vssa  Greece,  in  Thessaiv,  s4-parated  by 
the  Vale  of  Tempe  from  Mount  Olympus; 
height,  Ua^S  feet 


Oaprey  {Pandlon  IIaliaetu$). 

OsseteS  (os-sets'),  one  of  the  uumeruns 
VBDVbCB  j,.ij,pg  or  peoples  inhabiting 
the  Caucasus,  belonging  to  the  Indo-Ku- 
ropean  ur  Aryan  family,  and  to  the 
Iranic  bran<h  of  it.  They  are  at  a 
Idwer  stage  of  civilization  than  some  of 
the  neighboring  peoples.  Their  religion 
consists  of  a  strange  mixture  of  Cliris- 
tianity,  Mohammedanism  and  Paganism. 
They  number  about  110,000. 
Aaaaff  (os'sot;  with  Gawthorpe),  a 
USSeil    ^,,^.n  ,,£  England,  W.  Riding  of 

Yorkshire,  3  miles  from  WaVefield,  with 
woolen  mills,  etc.  Pop.  14,U81. 
n«sinTi  (osn'i-an),  a  personage  of  an- 
vsaiuu  pj^m  Scottish  or  rather  Irish 
history,  to  whom  are  attributed  certain 
poems,  the  subject  of  :i  great  literary 
controversy  of  the  lat'ier  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  nineteenth.  It  originated 
bv  the  publication  of  two  epics,  Fingal 
(17G2)  and  rcmoro  (1763)  by  James 
Macpherson.  (See  Macpherson,  Jamei.) 
Botli  are  a  record  of  the  deeds  of  a  great 
Celtic  hero,  Fingal.  In  the  first  of  these 
poems  he  is  assumes!  to  war  with  the 
Danes,  leading  to  their  ultimate  expul- 
sion ;  but  in  Temora  he  is  placed  farther 
back,  and  his  struggles  are  with  the  Ro- 
mans. These  and  some  minor  poems 
Macpherson  attributed  to  OMsian,  the  son 
of  Fingal,  and  alleged  that  his  version 
was  a  literal  translation  of  works  which 
had  been  transmitted  orally  in  the  Gaelic 
language  from  bard  to  bard  until  the  in- 
troduction of  writing  permitted  them  to 


I 


OniAii 

bt  corainittcd  ta  nwaiucript  ImoMdUtaly 
ea  th«  pubikation  of  Fingml  it  •ttaio^ 

ttJ""?fff*  P«l»oJ«rity-     It  WM  tniw 
utwl  within  •  /Mr  into  all  tiM  principal 
lanimafea    of    Europ*.    and     numbered 
amonc  ita  admiren  the  ripeat  adiuUra 
and  the  moat  diatinriiahed  men  of  geniua 
of  JM  «fe.    The  qneation  of  authenticity 
which    waa    raiaed    immediately   on    the 
publication  of  Finaul  waa  noticed  with 
aomewhat  lofty  diadain  by  Macpheraon  in 
hla  preface  to  reaiora,  and  although  he 
then  profeaaed  to  be  able  to  meet  it  by 
the  production  of  the  origlnala,  he  gen- 
erally maintained  throughout  the  contro- 
yeray  an  angry  alienee.    At  flrat  tbe  au- 
thority of  Dr.  Blair,  who  wrote  an  elab- 
orate critical  diaaertation  in  favor  of  the 
authenticity  of  the  poema,  waa  regarded 
aa    of   paramount   authority    throughout 
hurope;    and    notwithatanding    the    em- 
phatic denunciation  of  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
objection*  of  other  critlca,   the  beUevera 
[n  the  genuineneaa  of  0«iMn  continued  to 
hold  their  ground  until  Malcolm  I^ing'a 
un«t»arinif  criticlBm,  flrat  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  hi<<  Hittory  of  Scotland   (1800), 
and  Hft.rwnrds  in   an  annotated  edition 
of  the  poems   themselves  18()5),  gave  a 
death  Mow  to  the  position  of  those  -.vho 
niamtnined  the  integrity  of  the  Ossianic 
epics.     In  1797  the  Highland  Society  Is- 
Hued    a    committee    to    inquire    into    the 
authenticity  of  the   poems.     The   report 
puhlished  in  1805  states  that  the  commit- 
tee had  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  one 
?K)em   the  same   in  title  and   tenor   with 
the  poems  published  by  Macpheraon ;  that 
it   was  inclined   to   believe   that   he   fre- 
quently supplied  chasms,   and  gave  con- 
npction   by  Inserting   passagea   which   he 
lid    not   find,    and    added    what   he   con- 
opived  to  he  dijtnity  and  delicacy  to  the 
original,    by    striking    out    passages,    by 
softening  inridentM,  by   refining  the  lan- 
guage, etc.,  but  that  it  was  impossible  to 
determine    to   what   degree   he   exercised 
these  liberties.     In  1807,  after  the  death 
of  Macpherson   and   in   accordance   with 
his  will,  appeared  the  Oaelic  originals  of 
his  poems,  with  a  Latin  translation,  and 
accompanied    by   a    new   dissertation    on 
their  authenHdty  by  Sir  .Tohn   Sinclair. 
Hence  arose  a  new  and  singular  contro- 
versy.    It  was  asserted  that  these  orig- 
inals, the  MSS.  of  which  were  all  in  the 
handwriting  of  Macpherson,  were  trans- 
lated by  himself  from   the  Enslish,  and 
this   charge   seems   to  be  about  as  well 
substantiated    as    that    of    the    original 
fabrication.    What  appears  really  to  hare 
been  decided,  is  that  Osslan  was  a  real 
or  mythical  Irish  bard  of  the  second  or 
third  centnrv.  of  whom  there  are  probably 
no    authentic    remains,    although    sonir* 


Oitade 


5k!!,' J?^i."ft.  *^*?''  cannot  be  traced  fur- 
attributed  to  him.     There  are  numaroua 

M"**"^  'V*««»»F  *i"  both  in^" 
Undnnd  freland.  That  Macpheraon 
poaaeaaed  conalderable,  and  often  cMfllct- 
tfuK*!*'*'''  collectetf  in  the  Uightanda. 
*^»'«»»  *!•  *°.'''":^  op  *«»to  »  contlauouB 
111*  ^.J°  !S*»u ''"■"•  "^  ^J"**  »»•  Wm- 
KyoKubt""  '"""•"""'  ""*"'  '~'" 
Ollifioation  <  oa-al-A-kft'ehun  ) ,  the 
♦i«-  u.  u  .  Proctm  of  bone  forma- 
jL.^LiTI'''*^''  **°  "'I  '^•■*»  conalsta  of  the 
depoaltlon  of  earthr  or  calcareous  mat- 
ter.   It  may  ti'-j  olace  by  the  deposition 

«H°^"'»?'  "»('»  «*"■»"'•  meribranea, 
and  thuB  the  .  .t  bones  of  the  skull  are 
developed;  or  by  deposition  in  vartilaae, 
tt  1*  ^^^  mL*®  "'  *•'«  'o°K  »«">t»  "f  the 
!:!ln'"**  w  .*  process  of  ossifiration  in 
cartilage  begins  at  various  well-marked 
*^  iiV  ™i'"*  centen  of  otiification,  where 
pro  Iferation  of  cartl^^e  celk  and  a  de^ 

^1\  if"**  ■■'*■  o*^?"-  (See  also 
Uone.)  Most  organa  of  the  body  may 
become  the  aenv  of  abnormal  ossification. 
Ueposlts  of  limy  matter  take  place  fre- 
quently within  the  coats  of  arteries,  mak- 
ing them  easily  laptured;  but  thla  proc- 
eMs  is  rather  one  of  calcificaticn. 
OsSininfl:  t?"'M"»>;  »  c*ty  of  New 
♦„  .u     J^"7^'  In  \Vestche8ter  Coun- 

ty, on  the  Hudson,  32  miles  N.  of  New 
Xork  city.  It  has  large  stove  foundries, 
a  large  shoe  factory,  metal  ware  worka. 
underwear  factory,  Hnd  various  other  inl 
dustrieh.      li    \  „j   f..rau'rl/   calle«l    Sing 

Prifon"Vo?!''&l5,.*''^  ^^""^  «""^  «^*« 
OSSOU  f"«"o-l?).  Ma  BO  A  RET  Sabah 
DULLER,    an    American    au- 
thoress,   born    in   1810;    remarkable   for 

mi«*-''"£'Jf'°!?"  ""''  llnpuisUc  attain- 
ments. She  became  associated  with  Em- 
??!S?  V^^  *'*'"*'■  eminent  literary  men.  In 
1840  she  started  and  tdlted  the  Dial  (a 
52r<,'?V  P""o»ophical  magazine),  and  in 
1844  became  a  writer  to  the  New  York 
dribune.  She  visited  Europe  in  184«. 
married  in  1847  the  Marchese  Ossoli: 
?■  >°.  Kome  during  the  siege  of  1849. 
wnen  she  acted  as  snperiutendent  of  a 
hospital  for  the  wounded,  and  embarked 
with  her  husband  for  New  York,  but 
they  were  wrecked,  and  both  perished  off 
Long  Island.  .July  Ifl.  mW.  She  wrote 
several  works  (besides  translations),  in- 
cluding Women  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tnrv, etc, 

Ostade  <"«-ta%),  Adrian  van.  a  palnt- 
,1  .  ^^  of  the  Flemish  school,  and  a 
?2?n  ''1.^™°.*''?  Hals- born  at  Lflbeck  in 
1610;  died  at  Amsterdam  In  168B,  The 
coarse    enjormf-nts    of    Dut<h    peasants 


Ottoihkov 


OfUnd  lUnif Mto 


ius.  and  the  truth  and  aniiiiation   ht  had  ililppod  ■ubmariiiM  by  i«il  to  Zm- 

■ttce««d«d  In  tbrowins  into  hia  flcar«a,af-  brana  («.  v.)  ud  Oatend,  and  wtUi  thaaa 

eured  him  a  weU-aMiitad  reputation.    Ula  barboia,  aa  a  baaa  bagau  tha  work  of  da- 

brotber.    Imaao    van    OaTAiMC,    bom    In  noraliainc  British  ■hippiu.    Oatand  waa 

lOSl :  died  in  1&4U ;  flnit  imiutad  him,  bonbardad  by  the  AUiea  fnm  Um  aea  and 

but  waa  more  aucceaaful  in  a  atvla  of  Ua  air;  but  it  waa  oot  tiU  1018^ that  the 

own.    He  waa  often  ■••'idted  by  landaeapa  Brltiah   navy    undertook   tba    haaardoua 

naintera  to  add  flgurea  to  th^r  pietunw.  taak  of  bottling  up  tba  aubmarinea  in  the 

Aa^oalilrnv     (<ui-tish'kOf),  a  town  of  harbor,  a  feat  that  recnUed  Lieutenant 


OitaUlkOV     Jtmijg,     mVernment    of 
Tver,  on  Lake  Seliger,  195  milea  M.  w.  of 


MoMK>w.     It   ia   a  boat-buiidlng  center,  in  1888. 


Uobaon'a  sinking  of  the  Merrimae  in  San- 
tiago Harbor  during  the  war  with  Spain 


Among  the  oth4>r  industrica  are  the  man 
ufacture  of  ajtricultiiral  implementa  and 


Two  expeditions  were  undertaken.    The 
firat  took  place  on  April  23  and  waa  a 


boota  and  n\unm.  There  waa  great  demand  combin<)d  raid  or.  Ostend  an'l  Zeebrugge. 
for  the  lutter  iluring  the  wur  and  the  Tha  Zeebrugge  effort  waa  a  complete  su  - 
proapcrity  of  the  town  was  greatly  in-  ceaa,  but  at  Ostend  the  British  biockad- 
crease<l.  The  Uerman  advance  of  1917-18  ing  ships  grounded  when  near  their  ob- 
did  not  reach  UHtUHhkov.  The  climate  ia  Jective  and  Mew  up.  Undaunted,  a  second 
damp  and  fur  from  healthy.  The  Smolen-  aVtempt  waa  made  on  the  night  of  May  0, 
sky  monastety.  a  pilgrim  resort,  and  the  under  Commodore  Hubert  Lynea,  directed 
seventeenth-century  cathedral  and  several  bv  Vice-Admiral  Sir  Robert  Kevea.  The 
other  ancient  churches  are  among  the  in-  snip  selected  aa  tha  victim  waa  the  erainer 
teresting  features  of  the  vicinity.  Pop.  VindioHv0,  which  had  taken  part  in  the 
10  457.  successful  raid  on  Zeebrugge  and  bore  the 

l\m*»rtA  (Os-tend'),  a  seaport  of  Bel-  scan  of  battle.  It  was  at  Dover  that  she 
USbCUU  gium,  province  of  West  Plan-  waa  filled  with  concrete  and  aet  out  on 
ders,  on  the  North  8ca.  67  miles  north-  her  laat  taak.  Convov'jd  by  monitors  and 
west  of  Bru88cl8.  It  is  situar.ed  on  a  motor  boata  and  hidden  by  smoke  screens, 
sandy  plain,  and  is  protected  afcainst  the  the  Vindictive  was  steered  into  the  pier 
sea  by  a  solid  wull  of  granite-  which  ex-  at  Ostend  and  sunk  by  an  internal  charge, 
tenda  for  over  two  miles  along  the  ahore  effectively  blocking  the  harbor.  The 
from  the  long  Jetty  which  protects  the  en-  work  waa  carried  out  in  the  foce  of  u 


trance  to  the  "port.     It  is  a  favorite  sea 
side  resort,  the  bathing  being  unsurpassed. 


heavy  fire  from  the  German  guns  on  the 
coast,  which  registerefl  from  six  inches  to 


In  IIMM)  thn  work  of  widening  the  narhor  monsters  of  fifteen-inch  naval  pieces  in 
and  carrying  it  back  several  miles  was  land  turrets.  It  waa  one  of  the  most 
begun.  A  scries  of  large  docks  and  exten-  daring  and  most  successful  naval  exploits 
nire  quays  wore  constrjcte^l,  which  proved    of  the  war,  and  the  casualties  were  sur- 

of  great  odvnntajjo  to  the  Germnr.-,  who   prisingly  few.  

took  possession  of  the  town  during  the  Ostend  was  founded  in  the  ninth  cen- 
great  war  and  used  it  as  a  submarine  tury,  and  waa  fortified  in  1585  by  the 
hase.  Prince  of  Orange.    It  endured  a  memor- 

Tbe  Belgian  government  was  removed  able  siege  from  lOOl  to  1604  in  its  strug- 
to  Ostend,  October  8,  1014,  and  it  was  to  gle  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain.  The 
this  town  that  King  Albert  and  most  of  population  in  1912  waa  43,000. 
the  Belgian  nrmy  eHcaped  foUowing  the  OstClld  ComDailV.  *  trading  corn- 
surrender  of  Antwerp  on  October  9.  On  vbi.w**»  wwu«ya.uj)  ^^  formed  by 
October  14  the  scat  of  the  Belrian  gov-  the  people  of  Ostend  in  1717  in  rivalry  to 
crnment  was  again  move<l,  from  Ostend  to  the  Dutch,  English  and  French  East 
Havre,  France.  On  October  16  German  India  Companies.  Settlements  were 
troops  entered  Ostond.  It  was  the  inten-  founded  in  the  East  Indies  and  for  a  time 
tion  of  the  invading  hosts  to  press  on  the  company  was  successful;  but  the 
along  the  coast  to  Calais,  but  their  pro-  jealousy  of  the  other  nations  culminated 
gress  was  brought  to  a  halt  a  few  milea  in  the  aeixnre  of  Ostend  merchantmen  by 
beyond  Omtend  with  the  help  of  the  small  the  Dutch  and  the  English,  and  in  1727 
but  efficient  and  superbly  gallant  British  the  emperor,  Charles  VI,  who  had  en- 
Regular  Armv.  Both  sides  dug  them-  couraged  the  enterprise,  was  compelled  to 
selves  in  at  this  flank  of  the  long  bfittle  suspend  the  charter  of  the  company  for 
line  that  stretched  for  350  milea  from  the  seven  yrira.  I"  1731  the  company  was 
North  Sea  to  the  borders  of  Switwrland.   abolished. 

The  tide  of  battle  ebbed  and  flowed  over  AatAviil  Van  i>fttA  ■  term  nsed  in 
other  sections  of  the  line,  but  here  at  the  "■«'«*»«  mau-xC»Ml,  j^meriean  diplo- 
coast  the  opposing  armiea  ronained  locked  matic    hiatory    referring   to    a    dispstrh 


Osteologfy 

drawn  _^  _ 
the    United 


Ostrcea 


up  at  Ostend,  October  9,  1854,  by  "f?  °*  ^ruga.    At  the  present  time  otteop- 

luo    united    States    ministers    to    Great  *5"7    ",  recoKnized    in    nearly    all    toe 

Britain,  France  and  Spain,  who,  at  the  "i^l'^*  JJ'  *^«  V"*""  ^  «  separate  system 

request  of  President  Pierce,  had  met  to  H  ,'^^^\^8  and  protected  by  special  acta 

diseuss  the  Cuban  question.    The  dispatch  of  lep«lature.    Many  weU-equipped  osteo- 

declared  that  the  sale  of  Cuba  by  Spain  Patluc  schools  have  been  established  and 

to    the   United    States    would   be   advan-  f"Vdern    osteopathic   hospitals   are   main- 

tncnnns  tn   Krvt-h  nmm<'..:~.     ~_j i   ^i. .^     tainecl  Itl  eonni>oHnn    urif-h   t-hotn        11«_:j 


nuea  mat  tne  United  States  take  the  V  V^-  ?i  ti  '  .?^™  a'"®  ^"^  Massa- 
i  by  force.  The  ministers  suRgested  ?? "**"^ny.9"f«®  St  t>steopathy  at  Boston, 
a  fair  price  would  be  $120,000,000.  *i**S-. 'i  5",adelphia  College  of  Osteopathy 
xne  suggestion  was  not  approved  in  the  ff  4'hiladelDhia,  Pa. ;  Des  Moines  Still 
Unitwl  States,  and  was  strongly  con-  X^'^^^e  of  Osteopathy,  Des  Moines,  la. : 
demned  in  Europe.  ^?°*'?i  CoUege   of   Osteopathy,    Kansas 

OsteoloeV  ("s-te-ol'e-ji),  the  depart-  ^"J^Mo.;  Chicago  CoUege  of  Osteopathy^ 
,  oJ^  ment  of  anatomical  science  '-''"^«0f,  J11- 5 .  and  the  College  of  Osteo- 
specially  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  Patnic  Ihysicians  and  Surgeons  at  Los 
bony  parts  or  skeleton  of  the  body.  See  ^geles.  In  addition  to  tiiese  schools. 
Anatomy,  SkcMon,  Hone,  etc.  i,^?„P^"8sion  has  established  the  A.  T. 

Osteomalacia    (os'teo-ma-ia'shi-d).a  riVilLV.'''^?^'^'^^!^**'''"*^**  ^?«'"''*SJi* 

woKwriuaxauxn       disease  of  adult  life,   '-'"t'«g'J'  .UJ-       There     are    about    7000 
characterized  by  softening  of  the  bones,    osteopathic  physicians  in  the  U.  S.  and 
often  resultinj?  in  deformities.    In  tho  ma-    X*°*^*-  ,       ,      ^     ,,^,,      ,, 
jority  of  eases  it  affects  women,  phieflv    OSterOaC    (os-te-r6'dS),    the    name    of 
during  pregnancy  or  after  child-bearing.    ♦  ,,\    two  1  russian  manufacturing 

Surgery  has  proved  more  effective  than  74«7^ ' /APa  <  ®^'M?  Hanover.  Pop. 
medicai  treatment  in  this  disease.  It  is  ilor-  ^^'  -^ '•own  of  East  Prussia.  Pop. 
prevalent  in  Austria  and  South  Germany,    ir'^.'*  /„„,*.„, 

Osf  pnnnf  Titr  (oa-te-op'a-thi ;  Greek  Ostia  1°'  *}■*  > '  an  ancient  port  of  Italy, 
USieopatny  osteon,  a  bone-  and'  -  r  ^"^  ^^  '".""^'^  of  the  Tiber,  14 
pathoa,  suffering),  a  system  of  heaHng  "^^^^X™"  Rome  by  the  Via  Ostiensis.  It 
discovered  by  Dr.'  Andrew  T  Stflf,  of  Tff.^'ll./^n ''*']''??  *S""'^«^  ^^  Rome. 
Kirksville,  Mo.,  an  old-school  practitioner  iH.  "^  ^^^  ^:'"  ^  *ne  Roman  Empire  it 
He  contended  that  health  meant  p<-rfect  ^"'"^  «  "•»»"•  Excavations  have  revealed 
adjustment  of  aU  the  tissues  of  the  body.  «  x""?'  ®  t^'^"*'^-  ^aths,  etc. 
tOMther  with  normal  flow  of  the  vitaf  Ostiaks  or  Osttaxs  (os  ti-aki),  a  race 
fluids— namely,    biood    lyn-ph    and    nerve  •        Finnish    origin,    formerly 

force— and  that  disease  had  its  begin-  ""™""0"«  m  several  parts  of  Siberia,  but 
ning  in  an  obstruction  of  some  kind  to  ^""^"  according  to  latest  official  returns 
the  free  flow  of  vital  fluids.  Obstruc-  2°*!,  l*^'■<P»!''yr^i''.^«^^  ^<^'<^>  and  are  con- 
tions  m  many  cases  are  of  a  physical  ?h  ,  *?♦  the  Obi  and  Irtish  districts.  In 
nature.  They  may  be  in  the  form  of  ??*  latter  they  have,  become  settled  and 
tiuckened  connective  tissues,  suhluxated  ""asianized,  while,  in  the  former  they 
bones,  especially  of  the  ribs  or  spine,  con-  "r*'^  *^^"},«  ^P  ^^T  """"^^  "^e.  They 
tracted  muscles,  etc.  These  abnormalities  Zl  ^^T^^  l°T  "•*  stature,  spare  of  fig- 
the  osteopath  through  his  careful  study  !i  '*i?^'*  jl^^K  V^*"'  n"«>w  eyes,  large 
in  anatomy  is  able  to  recognize  when  °*°"'^  *°^  **"**  V^  •  ,  . 
present,  and  by  manipulation  correct.  In  OstraClOn  <08-tra  si-on),  the  scientific 
♦i,« _«  XL-  ,        ,  .  w»vxuuAwu    ■r.^r^^  „»  jjjg  fishes  known 


the  case  of  thickened,  congested  or*  con-  *  i  ^'T  "ame  oi  tne  nsbes  known 
tracted  tissues,  he  stretches  and  loosens  ^^  tfunk-fishes,  included  in  the  division 
them  and  stimulates  the  circulation  ri'^''J2S,°athi  which  forms  a  suborder  of 
""the  Teleostei  or  bony  fishes.     The  body 


.. —     --r     stimulates     the     vin;uiaiiou 

tnrough  them,  thereby  absorbing  the  ex-  •'"''  ^^"="=":i  ui  uuujr  uuuea.  xne  ooay 
cess  tissue  and  re-establishing  a  normal  "i  f^^'osed  in  a  casing  of  strong  bony 
condition  of  the  tissues.  In  the  case  of  .P'atPs  or  scales  of  the  ganoid  variety, 
suhluxated   bones,  he  reduces  the  luxa-  ''a^ovably  united. 

tions  through  a  series  of  mechanical  Ostracism  ^os  tra-sizm;  Greek,  o«*ro. 
manipulations  adapted  to  the  particular  '''"'****'*'"*  kon,  a  shell),  a  measure 
bones  in  question,  frequently  using  adia-  P"^ticed  among  the  ancient  Athenians 
cent  bones  or  muscles  and  ligaments  aB  r^  ^^S]^^  persons  considered  dangerous  to 
levers  to  aid  in  the  correction  The  ,  ^^*®  ^^J^  banished  by  public  vote 
manipulations  are  specific  for  the  sole  «  *  Tv"""  of  years.  It  take  i  this  name 
purpose  of  correcting  lesions  and  re-  -S"  "'^  "ho.l  or  tablet  on  which  each 
Mta])ligbteg  a  normal  circulation  of  the  Si*^^^  recor.'ed  his  vote. 
vital  fluids.     This  ia  don«  without  th«  OstlSB'a.      gee  Oyter. 


Ofeteftv 


Oswald 


Ostran  (""trft)'  <>'  moraviaw  ostrau, 

a  town  of  Austria,  Id  Moravia, 
close  to  the  frontier  of  Austrian  Silesia, 
with  coal  mines,  ironworks,  etc.  Pop. 
30,125. — Pousu  OsTBAU,  which  adjoins 
this  town,  in  Austrian  Silesia,  is  engaged 
in  the  same  industries,  and  is  in  one  of 
the  richest  coal  fields  of  the  empire.  Pop. 
18,761. 

VBi,iii.u  ,i„s,„iii'  j.ird  of  the  family 
Struthion'  ia>,  of  whivh  it;  •  i  the  type.  It 
inhabits  1  ?  '.'.ndy  plait  of  Africa  and 
Arabia,  a.  *)  '  the  iBigt  .-.  bird  existing, 
attaining  i  L'^igh':  of  fi  om  6  to  8  feet. 
The  head  and  ueci  pre  nearly  naked ; 
the  general  body  plumage  is  black,  the 
wing  and  tail  feathers  white,  occasionally 
with  black  markings ;  the  quill-feathers 
of  the  wings  and  tail  have  their  barbs 
wholly  disconnected,  hence  their  graceful 
appearance.  The  legs  are  extremely 
strong,  the  thighs  naked.  There  are  only 
two  toes.    The  pubic  bones  are  united,  a 


African  Ostrich  (Strulhio  eamSui). 

conformation  occurring  in  no  other  bird. 
The  wings  are  of  small  size  and  are 
incapable  of  being  used  as  organs  of 
flight,  but  the  birds  can  run  with  extraor- 
dinary speed,  outdistancing  the  fleetest 
horse.  The  bill  is  broad  and  of  a  tri- 
angular depressed  shape.  The  food  con- 
sists of  grass,  grain,  etc.,  and  substances 
of  a  vefretable  nature,  and  to  aid  in  the 
trituration  of  this  food  thp  ostrich  swal- 
lows large  stones,  bits  of  iron  and  glass, 
or  other  hard  materials  that  come  in  the 
way.  Ostriches  are  polygamous,  each 
male  consorting  with  seTeral  females,  and 
they  generally  keen  together  in  flocks. 
The  ens  average  3  lbs.  in  weight,  and 
sereral  hens  often  lay  from  ten  to  twelve 
Mch  in  the  same  nest,  which  is  merdj 
»— U— 6 


a  hole  scraped  in  the  sand.  The  eggs 
appear  to  be  hatched  mainly  by  the  ex- 
ertions of  both  parents  relieving  each 
other  in  the  task  of  incubation,  but  also 
partly  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  South 
African  ostrich  is  often  considered  as  a 
distinct  species  under  the  name  of  >S'. 
Australia.  Three  South  American  birds 
of  the  same  family  (Struthionidm),  but 
of  the  genus  Rhea,  are  popularly  known 
as  the  American  ostrich,  and  are  very 
closely  allied  to  the  true  ostrich,  differing 
chiefly  in  having  the  head  feathered  and 
three-toed  feet,  each  toe  armed  with  a 
claw.  (See  Rhea.)  The  feathers  of  the 
back  are  those  most  valued,  the  vring 
and  tail  feathers  rank  next.  Great  Brit- 
ain imports  most  of  its  ostrich  feathers 
from  Cape  Colony.  Ostriches  having  be- 
come scarce  in  that  country,  an  attempt 
was  made  about  1865  to  domesticate  them, 
and  with  great  success.  They  have  been 
domesticated  in  California,  Arizona, 
Texas,  Florida,  Mexico,  and  some  other 
regions.  The  market  value  of  the  feathers 
naturally  varies  with  their  quality,  the 
I>revailing  fashion,  and  the  supply. 
OstrOfiT  (*"'trok),  an  old  town  in  Rus- 
o  sia,  government  of  Volhynia. 
It  is  the  place  where  the  Bible  was  first 
printed  in  Slavonic.    Pop.  16,000. 

Ostrogoths.  swGotht. 

OsfrrvoJA  (6s-tr0'v0),  a  town  of  Prus- 
vatiuwu  gi^^  district  Posen.  It  has 
manufactures  of  woolen  cloths.  Pop. 
(1910)  14,757. 

Ostuni  C'^s-tO'nS),  a  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  province  Lecce;  olives 
and  almonds  are  cultivated.  Pop.  7800. 
Ostwald  (Ost'vait),  Wilhelm,  a  Gep- 
man  chemist  bom  \r^  Tviga, 
Russia,  in  1853,  was  ai>pointed  in  1887 
professor  of  general  chemistrv  and  director 
of  the  Physico-chemical  Institute  of  Leip- 
sig  University.  His  investigations,  par- 
ticularly in  connection  with  solution,  are 
remarkable  for  their  originality,  skill,  and 
far-reaching  conclusions.  His  published 
works  include,  Outlines  of  General  Chem- 
utry,  Solutioni,  Foundations  of  Analyl- 
wal  Chemistry,  Principles  of  Inorganic 
vh«m%9try,  etc. 

Osnna  (O-s&'na),  a  town  of  Southern 
vauua  gpaiiij  in  the  province  of  and 
41  miles  east  of  Seville.  It  consists  ot 
spacious  and  well-paved  streets,  and  has 
a  magnificent  church ;  manufactures  of 
iron,  linen,  soap,  articles  in  esparto,  etc., 
and  has  a  large  trade  in  oil,  grain,  etc., 
with  Seville  and  Malam.  Pop.  18.500. 
nsnralil  (os'woldt.  King  of  Northam* 
VBWKia  ^^^  6.^'>-«42.  He  ruled  over 
an  extensive  territory,  including  Angles, 
Britonai  Picti  and  Scots.    He  labored  t0 


Ofwald 


Othol 


I   I         Otago 


eat&blish  ChriBtianity  on  a  firm  footing, 
being  in  this  assisted  by  St.  Aidan.  Ue 
died  in  battle  against  Penda  of  Mercia, 
and  was  reverenced  as  a  saint. 
Oswald  (oo'wold),  Fsux  Leopold, 
naturalist,  born  at  Namur, 
Belgium,  in  1846;  vent  to  Mexico  with 
the  Belgium  volunteers  in  IStK),  after- 
wards resided  in  the  United  States  as 
correspondent  of  French  and  English 
journals.  Ue  wrote  Summerland  8ketche», 
Days  and  Nights  in  the  Tropica,  and 
other  works  of  travel  and  natural  his- 
tory.    He  died  in  1906. 

OsxtrfLldtwistl^  (os' wald-twisl),  a 
USWaittlWlSlie    ^^^^  ^^  England  in 

Lancashire,  3  miles  from  Blackburn, 
with  cotton  factories,  print-works,  etc. 
Pop.  15.720. 

OsweS'O  (os-we'go),  a  city  and  port  of 
o  New  York,  capital  of  Oswego 
County,  situated  on  the  s.  e.  shore  of 
Lake  Ontario,  at  the  mouth  of  Oswego 
River.  It  has  a  ^ood  harbor  and  large 
shipments  of  grain,  lumber  and  coal, 
though  the  commerce  as  a  whole  is  com- 
paratively unimportant.  It  is  beautifully 
situated,  regularly  and  handsomely  built, 
and  is  famous  for  its  vast  starch  factory, 
said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world.  It 
has  also  extensive  mills,  tanneries,  foun- 
dries, machine  shops  and  shipvards.  The 
river  supplies  ample  water  power.  The 
entrance  to  the  port  is  guarded  by  Fort 
Ontario.  There  is  hero  a  folate  Normal 
School.  It  was  founded  as  a  trading 
post  and  military  station  in  1720  and 
became  virtually  a  lake  port  of  Albany. 
Being  a  place  of  great  strategic  impor- 
tance its  possession  was  contested  in  King 
George's  war  and  the  French  and  Indian 
wars.  In  1757  Montcalm  captured  and 
destroyed  two  forts  built  hero  by  Colonel 
Mercer.  It  was  the  center  of  military 
operations  along  the  lake,  and  from  here 
Amherst  started  for  Quebec  with  a  force 
of  10,000  men  to  meet  Wolfe.  In  1766 
at  Oswego  occurrwl  the  famous  meeting 
between  Sir  William  Johnson  (q.  v.)  and 
Pontiac,  chief  of  the  Ottawa  Indians  and 
leader  of  the  confederate  tribes  of  the 
Ohio  valley  and  Lake  region  against  the 
English;    at   this  meeting  the  treaty  of 

Eeace   which    Pontiac   had   agreed   to   in 
Detroit  was   formally   submitted   to  the 
British.     Pop.  25,434. 

Osymandyas    iSdinrSJ^-ofilgyp*? 

OtB.70  (^>-ta'g6),  one  of  the  provincial 


districts  of  New  Zpaland,  in- 
cluding the  whole  of  the  southern  part 
•f  the  South  Island,  south  of  the  dis- 
tricts of  Canterbury  and  Westland,  being 
mrrounded  on  the  other  three  sides  by 
tht  sea :  area  about  23,400  sg.  miles.  The 


Interior  is  mountainous;  many  peaks  at- 
tain the  height  of  from  3000  to  80U0  feet, 
but  there  is  much  pastoral  land ;  the  N.  E. 
consists  of  extensive  plains.  Otago,  al- 
though it  possesses  valuable  gold  lields,  is 
chiefly  a  pastoral  and  agricultural  dis- 
trict, second  only  to  Canterbury  in  wheat 
production.  The  climate  is  similar  to 
that  of  Britain,  but  warmer  and  more 
equable.  The  largest  riv  ■•  is  the  Clutba 
or  Clyde,  the  largest  of  New  Zealand. 
There  are  also  extensive  lakes,  as  the 
Te  Anau,  132  sq.  miles;  the  Wakatipu, 
112  sq.  miles  in  area.  Coal  has  been 
found  in  abundance.  Otago  was  founded 
in  1848  by  the  Scotch  Free  Church  As- 
sociation ;  it  is  now  the  most  populous 
division  of  the  colony.  Otago  Bay,  or 
Harbor,  on  the  s.  E.  side  of  the  island,  is 
important  from  having  the  towns  of 
Dunedin  and  Port  Chalmers  on  its  shores. 
The  capital  is  Dunedin ;  the  next  town  in 
importance  is  Oamaru.  Pon.  173,111. 
Otaheite     (o-ta-hl'te).     See  Tahiti. 

flfalona  (o-tal'ji-a),  a  painful  affection 

to  inflammation  of  the  ear;  it  may  be 
a  symptom  of  other  diseases;  or,  it  may 
be  a  species  of  neuralgia.  It  is  often 
associated  with  other  nervous  ailments 
such  as  toothache,  and  neuralgic  pains  in 
the  face;  and  as  its  intensity  and  dura- 
tion generally  depend  up)n  the  condition 
of  the  latter,  otalgia  is  probably  only  a 
local  symptom  of  the  other  troubles. 
Children,  especially  during  their  fast- 
growing  period,  are  frecjuently  subject  to 
otalgic  pains.  The  treatment  adopted  in 
neuralgic  affections  is  usually  and  with 
success  also  applied  to  this  complaint. 
Otaria  (o-ta'ri-a>,  a  genus  of  seals. 
^  See  Seal. 

Otfrid  (ot'-'^et)>  or  Otfbied,  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  philosopher, 
orator  and  poet,  who  liv!  in  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century.  He  wrote  a  rhymed 
version  or  paraphrase  of  the  Gospels,  in 
old  High  Gferman,  still  extant,  in  which 
there  are  some  passages  of  lyrical  poetry. 
He  completed  it  about  868. 

Othman.   «««  ^^''"p*- 

Othol  (^'tb^)>  tbc  Great,  Bmperor 
of  Germany,  son  of  Henry  I, 
born  in  912;  died  in  973.  He  was 
crowned  king  of  Germany  at  Alx-la- 
Chapelle  in  936.  His  reign  of  thirty-six 
years  was  an  almost  uninterrupted  suc- 
cession of  wars,  Aftpr  a  fourteen  years' 
struggle  he  subdued  Boleslas,  duke  nf 
Bohemia ;  he  wrested  the  duchies  of  Sua* 
bia.  Bavaria  and  liorraine  from  the 
Dukes  of  Bavaria  and  Franconla,  and 
gave  them   (in  Q49)  to  his  loiu  Lndolf 


othon 


Ottarof  EoMt 


aad  Henry,  and  to  his  aon-in-Iaw  Ooo- 
md,  count  of  Worms,  respectively.  He 
delivered  the  Italians  from  tlve  uppres- 
sions  of  Berengar  II,  married  the  widow 
of  beir  last  king,  and  was  crowned  king 
of  Lombardy  (U51).  In  901  he  was 
crowned  king  of  Italy,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  emperor  by  Pope  John  XII, 
who  took  the  oath  of  allegiance,  but  soon 
repented  and  took  to  arms.  Otho  de- 
posed him  and  placed  I^o  VIII  in  the 
papal  chair ;  he  also  punished  the  Romans 
for  replacing  John  after  his  departure. 
The  Byzantine  court  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge Otho's  claim  to  the  imperial  dig- 
nity; but  he  defeated  the  Greek  forces 
in  Lower  Italy,  and  the  eastern  emperor, 
John  Zimisces,  gave  the  Greek  Princess 
Theophania  to  his  son  Otho  in  marriage. 
Afkn  TT  youngest  son  of  Otho  I,  was 
UlUO  XX,    jjpjn  in  955.  jied  at  Itome 

in  983.  His  elder  brothers  had  all  died 
before  their  father,  who  caused  him  to  be 
crowned  king  of  Rome — the  iirst  instance 
of  the  kind  in  German  history.  He  sub- 
dued the  revolt  of  several  powerful  vas- 
sals, including  his  cousin.  Henry  II,  duke 
of  Bavaria.  In  Italy  he  suppressed  a 
rising  under  Crescentius,  and  then  at- 
tempted to  drive  the  Greeks  from  Lower 
Italy;  but  they  called  in  the  aid  of  the 
Saracens  from  Sicily  (S)81),  and  Otho 
suffered  a  total  defeat  (982).  He 
escaped    by    leaping    into    the    sea,    was 

Sicked  up  by  a  Greek  ship,  from  which 
e  afterwards  escaped  by  a  ruse,  and  died 
soon  after  at  Rome. 

A4-ViA  TTT  son  of  the  preceding,  ana 
UlUO  XXX,    jjjg  ]agt  of  the  male  branch 

of  the  Saxon  imperial  house,  was  born  in 
980 :  died  in  1002. 

n4-1in  T  King  of  Greece,  second  son 
UlUO  X,  q£  jj^yjg  of  Bavaria,  born  in 
1815;  died  in  1807.  In  1832  he  was 
elected  King  of  Greece;  but  his  der- 
manic  tendencies  caused  continual  inc- 
tion,  which  ended  in  a  rebellion  and  his 
abdication  (1862).  He  spent  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  in  Munich. 
M\\f\  Mabctjs  Salvius.  a  Roman  em- 
VbUU,  pgror.  was  born  in  32  a.d.  ;  di»d 
by  his  own  hand  in  69  a.d.  He  joined 
Galba  when  he  rebelled  against  Nero,  and 
on  his  accession  in  67  Otho  became  his  fa- 
vorite and  was  made  consul;  but  when 
Galba  appointed  Piso  as  his  successor 
Otho  bribed  the  army,  had  Galba  and 
Pis©  murdered,  and  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror in  69.  He  was  acknowledged  by 
the  eastern  provinces,  but  in  Germany 
Vitellius  was  procU-'imed  by  his  legions. 
The  latter  having  led  his  army  into  Italy 


nfiHi<1i»  (o-tidl-dS),  a  family  of  oui- 
UHaiOK  nnjg    birds    compruing    the 

bustards.  ^       

l\*im  (O'tis),  Elwell  Stkphkr,  was 
""'  bom  in  Frederick,  Maryland,  in 
1838.  He  became  a  captain  in  the  Civil 
war,  serving  from  September,  1862,  acd 
was  severely  wounded  in  1864.  After  the 
war  he  remained  in  the  army  as  lienten- 
ant-colanel,  fought  in  the  Indian  wars, 
and  was  sent  to  the  Philippines  as  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  was  military 
governor  of  Manila  till  May,  19(X).  He 
retired  in  1902,  and  died  ir.  xd09. 
Afia  James,  patriot,  was  born  at 
^*-"f  West  Barnstable,  Massachusetts, 
in  1725;  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
1743 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  moved 
to  Boston  in  1750.  In  1760  he  inaugu- 
rated the  American  patriotic  movement 
with  a  famous  speech  on  trade  relations. 
E.jcted  to  the  legislature  in  1762,  he  be- 
came a  leader  of  the  popular  party  and 
was  sent  to  the  '  Stamp  Act '  Congress, 
convened  at  New  York  in  1765.  In  print 
also  he  defended  the  cause  of  the  co'.onies. 
Severely  wounded  by  royalist  ruffians  in 
1769,  he  became  partly  deranged,  but 
lived  until  1783. 

n^-lAxr  (ot'li),  a  town  of  England,  West 
uticjr  liidjng  of  Yorkshire,  10  miles 
north  from  Bradford.  Worsted,  spin- 
ning and  weaving,  tanning  and  currying, 
etc.,  are  ca'"'ed  on.  Pop.  9843. 
ntnlifhs  'o'tu-lethz).  small  vibrating 
Vbuui>u9  calcareous  bodies  contained 
in  the  membranous  cavities  or  labyrinths 
of  the  ears  of  some  animals,  especially  of 
fishes  and  fish-like  amphibia. 
nfATnia  'o-tom'i*).  a  tribe  of  Mexican 
UtUllun  Indians,  and.  one  of  the  oldest 
in  the  l.  >untainous  region  of  the  plateao. 
They  were  agriculturists  and  had  orna- 
ments of  gold  and  copper  and  some 
knowledge  of  cloth-making.  They  came 
to  the  assistance  of  Corte*  when  be- 
sieging Mexico  in  1521.  Since  then  they 
have  been  nominally  in  subjection  to  the 
whites,  but  have  made  little  progress  in 
civilization.  Their  descendants,  scat- 
tered through  Central  Mexico,  number 
about  200,000. 

AfroTitA  (5-tr&n't0;  ancient,  Hydrun- 
VUltuvu  j^^)^  ^  ^own  of  Southern 
Italy,  province  of  I.«cce,  or  Terra  di 
Otranto,  on  the  strait  of  same  name,  42 
miles  s.  8.  e.  of  Brindisi.  It  was  onc« 
an  important  city,  and  its  favorable  posi- 
tion and  harbor  still  secnre  it  a  certain 
amount  of  trade.  The  region  of  Otranto  is 
fertile  and  thickly  populated.  Pop.  2295. 
Otranto,    Ddkeof.    see  FwoW. 


overthrew  the  forces  of  Otho  at  Bebria- 

cam,  who  kffled  himself  aft»r  reignlHg  for  Qttar  Of  BOBCS.    °**  ^**^' 

t^tee  Bonfhf  and  a  few  days. 


OttayaBima 


Otter 


i 


Ottava  BJma  i*  *  *  *  >  ,*•'•?• '  ^J^' 

wvM»*MMH«M»  jjjjj^  ootumtt  rAym«),  • 
form  of  yenification  consiBong  of  •tanias 
of  two  alternate  triplets,  and  concluding 
with  a  couplet  It  seems  to  have  been 
a  favorite  form  with  Italian  poets  even 
before  the  time  of  Boccaccio.  The  regu- 
lar ottava  rima  is  composed  of  eight 
eleven-sjUable  lines  with  dissyllabic 
rhyme. 

Ottawa.  (ot'tA-w4),  a  river  in  the  Do- 
minion  of  Canada,  forming 
for  a  considerable  part  of  its  length  the 
boundary  between  the  provinces  of  Que- 
bec and  Ontario.  It  rises  in  the  high 
land  which  separates  the  basin  of  Hud- 
son Bay  from  that  of  the  St  Lawrence, 
about  lat  48"  SC  n.,  and  after  a  course 
of  some  750  miles  discharges  into  the  St 
Lawrence  above  the  island  of  Montreal. 
Six  miles  above  the  city  of  Ottawa  rapids 
begin  which  terminate  in  the  Chaudi^re 
Falls,  where  the  river,  here  200  feet  wide, 
takes  a  leap  of  40  feet.  Its  banks,  mostly 
elevated,  offer  magnificent  scenery.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  valuable  timber  are 
floated  down  the  Ottawa  from  the  wooded 
regions  of  the  interior  to  Ottawa  city, 
where  it  is  manufactured  into  lumber. 

Ottawa.  ?  ^}^^  *°  the  province  of  On- 
w  van  ay  ^^^^^^  capital  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ottawa,  about  90  miles  above  its  conflu- 
ence with  St.  Lawrence,  100  miles  west 
of  Montreal,  and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway.  The  city,  divided  into  the 
Upper  and  Lower  town  by  the  Rideau 
Canal,  has  wide  streets  crossing  at  right 
angles,  and  some  of  the  finest  buildings 
in  the  Dominion.  The  chief  are  the  gov- 
ernment buildings  cons^ucted  of  light- 
colored  sandstone  in  the  Italian-Gothic 
style.  They  stand  on  elevated  ground 
commanding  a  fine  view,  and  form  three 
sides  of  a  quadrangle,  the  south  front 
being  formed  by  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment buildin^r.  which  is  500  feet  long,  and 
containing  the  halls  for  the  meetings  of 
the  Dominion  Senate  and  House  of  Com- 
mons. There  is  a  library  forming  a  de- 
tached circular  building  with  a  dome  90 
feet  high.  The  buildings  cover  about  4 
acres,  and  are  said  to  have  cost  $4,000,- 
000.  The  educational  institutions  include 
a  Roman  Catholic  CoHpro,  the  Canadian 
Institute,  the  Mechanics'  Institute  and 
Athena>um,  etc.  Ottawa  lias  important 
and  increasing  manufactures,  and  is  the 
great  center  of  the  lumber  trade.  It  is 
connected  with  Hull,  on  the  Qnehec  gide 
of  the  Ottawa,  by  a  suspension  bridge. 
Ottawa  was  founded  in  1827  by  Colonel 
By,  and  until  1854  was  known  as  By- 
town.  On  April  26.  1900,  it  with  Hull 
suffered   from  a  fire,   resembling  in  de- 


Btmction  those  of  Chicago  and  Boston. 
Pop.    (1911)  87,062. 

ntf  A1Z7A     >^  ^>f  Illinois,  county  seat 

Ubbawa,    p.        ^jj^    County,    at    the 

junction  of  th  tiinois  and  £^x  rivers,  82 
miles  w.  B.  w.  of  Chicago,  on  the  C.  R.  I. 
P.  and  Fox  Branch  of  the  C.  B.  &  Q  rail- 
roads. The  mineral  deposits  in  the  vic- 
inity consist  of  fire  brick,  silica,  sand 
and  coal ;  and  manufactures  flourish.  Ot- 
tawa is  the  eastern  outlet  to  the  famous 
State  Park  of  Illinois,  Starved  Rock,  and 
is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Illinois 
River.     Pop.  11,121, 

Off  a  urn  ^  city  of  Kansas,  county  seat 
U  I.  tit  wo,,  ^j  Franklin  County,  on  the 
Marais  des  Cygnes  River,  28  miles  8.  of 
Lawrence.  There  are  large  railroad  and 
machine  shops,  and  manufactures  of  flour, 
fences,  windmills,  gasoline  engines,  etc. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Otter  (ot'^i*)'  a  carnivorous  mammal, 
family  Mustelidse  or  weasels, 
genus  Lutra.  There  are  several  species, 
differing  chiefly  in  size  and  fur.  They 
all  have  large  flattish  heads,  short  ears, 
webbed  toes,  crooked  nails,  and  tails 
slightly  flattened  horizontally.  The  com- 
mon river-otter,  the  Lutra  vulgaris  of 
Europe,  inhabits  the  banks  of  rivers, 
feeds   principally   on   fish,    and    is    often 


\ 


American  Otter  (XMra  Canandemis) 

very  destructive,  particularly  to  salmon. 
The  under  fur  is  short  and  woolly,  the 
outer  is  composed  of  longer  and  coarser 
hairs  of  dark-brown  hue.  They  burrow 
near  the  water's  edge,  line  their  nest  with 
grass  and  leaves,  and  produce  from  four 
to    five   young.      The   weight    of   a    full- 

frown  male  is  from  20  to  24  lbs. ;  length 
rom  nose  to  tail  2  feet ;  tail  15  to  16 
inches.  A  species  of  otter  (Lutra  nair) 
is  tamed  in  India  by  fishermen,  and  used 
for  hunting  fish ;  and  in  Europe  tame  ot- 
ters have  occasionally  been  kept  for  a 
similar  purpose.  The  American  or  Cana- 
dian otter  (Lutra  Canadennis)  averages 
about  4  feet  in  leneth  inclusive  of  the 
tail.  It  is  plentiful  in  Canada,  and  fur- 
nishes a  valuable  fur,  which  is  a  deep 
reddish-brown  in  winter,  and  blackish  in 
summer.  The  sea-otters  (Enhydra),  rep- 
resented typically  by  the  great  sea-otter 


Ottfrbein 


Ottoman  Empire 


(B.  marina).  Inhabit  the  coasts  of  the 
North  Parinc  Owan,  but  are  very  rare. 
Otterbein  (ot'6r-bIn)  Pniup  Wil- 
Ubveiuciu  LiAM.  an  American  evan- 
gelist, born  at  DiUenbursr,  Germany, 
June  4,  1726;  died  at  Baltimore,  M«1.. 
November  17,  1813.  He  was  a  rfergy- 
raan  of  the  German  Reformed  Church 
and  came  to  Pennsylvania  in  1752.  In 
1789  he  organ ijsed  the  s-Kit  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ   (which  see). 

Ottoman  Empire  ^tSe'em^pfrV  ?f 

Turkey,  the  territories  in  Europe,  Asia 
and  Africa  more  or  less  under  the  sway 
of    the   Turkish   sultan.      In   Europe,    it 
formerly  covered  a  large  area,   but   has 
been  reduced  by  wars  to  a  small  sectioa 
of  the  Balkan  peninsula  east  of  Bulgaria, 
la   Asia  it   includes   Asia  Minor,    Syria 
(with  Palestine),   Mesopotamia,   part  of 
Arabia,  Candia,  and  others  of  the  islands 
of  the  Archipelago ;  in  Africa,  Egypt,  over 
which    there    is    a    nominal    suzerainty. 
Formerly  the  empire  was  much  more  ex- 
tensive, even  in  recent  times  comprising 
Greece,  Bulgaria,  Roumania,  Servia,  Bes- 
sarabia,    Bosnia,     Herzegovina,    Tripoli, 
Tunis,  etc.     We  shall  here  give  a  bnef 
sketch  of  the  history  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, referring  to  the  article  Turkey  for 
information  regarding  the  geography,  con- 
stitution,   etc.,    of    both    European    and 
Asiatic  Turkey.    ^    ,  ,  .„„,,„ 

The   Ottoman    Turks    came    originally 
from  the  region  of  the  Altai  Mountains, 
in  Central  Asia,  and  in  the  sixth  century 
A.D.  pushed  onward  to  the  vvest  m  con- 
nection with  other  Turkish  tribes.    Early 
in  the  eighth  century  they  came  in  con- 
tact with  the  Saracens,  from  whom  they 
took   their   religion,   and   of   whom   they 
were  first  the  slaves  and  mercenaries,  and 
finally   the    successors    in    the   caliphate. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  they  appeared 
as  allies  of  the  Seljukian  Turks  against 
the  Mongols,  and  for  their  fid  received  a 
grant  of  lands  from  the  Seljuk  sultan  of 
Iconium   in   Asia   Minor.     Their  leader, 
Othman  or  Osman,  of  the  race  of  Oghu- 
zian  Turkomans,  became  the  most  pow- 
erful emir  of  Western  Asia,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  Seljuk  sultan  "«  Icon!"™  in 
the  year  1300  he  proclaimed  himself  sul- 
tan.   He  died  in  1326.  Thus  was  founded 
upon  the   ruins  of  the  Saracen,  Seljnlf 
and   Mongol    power  the   Empire  of   the 
Osman  or  Ottoman  Turks  in  Asia;  and 
after  Osman.  the  courajre.  policy  and  en- 
ternrise  of  eieht  great  nrinces,  whom  the 
dignity  of  ralinh  placed  »\ Possession  of 
the  standard   of  the  Pron^et'-^f^-T^^ 
were    animpted   by    relieiona   fanaticism 
and  a  passton  for  military  florr,  raised 
this  powerful  empire  to  tie  nak  of  the 


first  military  power  in  both  Europe  and 
Asia   (1300-1600). 

The   first   after   Osman  was   Ma   son 
Orkham.     He  subdued  all  Asia  Minor  to 
the  Hellespont,  took  the  title  otPad%$hah, 
and  became  son-in-law  to  the  Greek  Em- 
peror CantacuJtenus.     Orkhans  son.  Soli- 
man,  first  invaded  Eur,ope  in  1355.     lie 
fortified  Gallipoli  and  Sestos,  and  thereby 
held  possession  of  the  straits  which  sepa- 
rate the  two  continents.     In  1360  Ork- 
han's  second  son  and  successor,  Amurath 
I,    took    Adrianople,    which .  became    the 
seat  of  the  empire  in  Europe,  conquered 
Macedonia,  Albania  and  Servia,  and  de- 
feated a  great  Slav  confederation  under 
the  Bosnian  King  Stephen  at  Kossova  in 
1389.       After     him     Bajazet,     surnamed 
Ilderim    {Lightning^,    invaded   Thessaly, 
and  also  advanced  towards  Constantino- 
ple.    In  1396  he  defeated   the   Western 
Christians    under    Sigismund.     King    of 
Hungary,  at  Nicopolis,  in  Bulgaria;  but 
at  Angora  in  1402  he  was  himself  con- 
quered  and    taken    prisoner   by   Timour, 
who  divided   the   provinces   between   the 
sons   of  Bajaret.     Finally,   in   1413  the 
fourth    son    of    Bajazet,    Mohammed    1, 
seated  himself  upon  the  undivided  throne 
of  Osman.    In  1415  his  victorious  troops 
reached   Salzburg   and   invaded    Bavaria. 
He  conquered   the  Venetians  at  Thessa- 
lonica  in  1420 ;  and  his  celebrated  grand- 
vizier  Ibrahim   created   a  Turkish   navy. 
Mohammed    was    succeeded    by    his    son, 
Amurath    II,    who    defeated    Ladislaus, 
King  of  Hungary  and  I'oland,  at  Varna 
in  1444.    Mohammed  II,  the  son  of  Amu- 
rath,   completed    the    work    of    conquest 
(1451-81).     He  attacked  Constantinople, 
which  was  taken  May  29,  1453,  and  the 
Byzantine  Empire  came  finally  to  an  end. 
Since  that  time  the  city  has  been  the  seat 
of  the  Sublime  Porte  or  Turkish  govern- 
ment.    Mohammed  added  Servia,  Bosnia, 
Albania  and  Greece  to  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, and   threatened   Italy,  which,  how- 
ever, was  freed  from  danger  by  his  death 
at  Otranto  in  1480.     His  grandson.  Selim 
I,  who  had  dethroned  and  murdered  his 
father    in    1517,    conquered    Egypt    and 
Syria.     Under  Soliman  II.  the  Magntfi- 
cent,  who  reigned  between  1519  and  1568, 
the  Ottoman  Empire  reached  the  hirtwt 
pitch  of  power  and  splendor.    In  1522  he 
took    Rhodes    from    the    Knights    of    Rt. 
John,  and  by  the  victory  of  Mohacr,  in 
1526.  subdued  half  of  Hnnrary.     He  ex- 
acted   a    tribute    from    Moldavia,    made 
Bagdad,  Mesopotamia   and   Georgia  sub- 
ject to  him,   and   threatened   to  overran 
Germany,    but   was   checked    before    the 
walls  of  Vienna  (1529^.    SoUman  had  as 
an  opponent  Charles  V  of  Germany;  as 
an  ally  Francia  II  of  France.  From  bis 


Ottoman  Empire 


Ottoman  Empire 


tfm«  th«  nee  of  Osman  deceneimted  and 
th«  power  of  the  Porte  declined. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  moat  of  the  wrenteenth  cen- 
tury, the  chief  wars  were  with  Venice 
and  with  Austria.    The  battle  of  Lepanto 
(1671),  in  which  the  Ottoman  fleet  was 
overthrown    by   the   combined    fleets    of 
Venice   and   Spain,  was   the   first  great 
Ottoman  reverse  at  sea;  and  the  battle 
of  St  Qpthard   (1664),  near  Vienna,  in 
which    MoDtecucuIl    defeated    the    Vizier 
KiuDrili,  the  first  great  Ottoman  reverse 
on  land.     In  1683  Vienna  was  besieged 
by  the  Turks,  but  was  relieved  by  John 
Sobieski   and    Charles   of    Lorraine;    in 
1687  the  Turks  were  again  defeated  at 
Mobacs,  and  in  1697  (by  Prince  Eugene) 
at  Szenta.    Then  followed  the  Treaty  of 
Carlowitz  in  1699,  by  which  Mustapha 
II  agreed  to  renounce  his  claims  uoon 
Transylvania  and  a  large  part  of  Hun- 
gary, to  give  up  the  Moi-ea  to  the  Vene- 
tians, to  restore  Podolia  and  the  Ukraine 
to  Poland,  and  to  leave  Azov  to  the  Rus- 
sians.    Eugene's  subsequent  victories  at 
Peterwardein  and    Belgrade   obliged   the 
Porte  to  give  up,  by  the  Treaty  of  Passa- 
rowitz  in  1718,  Temeswar,  Belgrade,  with 
a  part  of  Servia  and  Walachia;  but  the 
Turks  on  the  other  hand  took  the  Morea 
from  Venice,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Bel- 
grade in  1739  regained  Belgrade,  Servia 
and   Little  Walachia,  while  for  a  time 
they  also  rerained  Azov. 

Russia,  which  had  been  making  steady 
advances  under  Peter  the  Great  and  sub- 
sequently, now  became  the  great  oppo- 
nent of  Turkey.  In  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Ottoman  Empire 
still  embraced  a  large  part  of  Southern 
Russia.     The  victories  of  Cutharine  II's 

feneral  Romanzoff  in  the  war  between 
768  and  1774  determined  the  political 
Euperiority  of  Russia,  and  at  the  Peace 
of  Kntchuk-Kainargi,  in  1774,  Abdnl- 
Hamid  was  obliged  to  renounce  his  sov- 
ereignty over  the  Crimea,  to  yield  to 
Russia  the  country  between  the  Bog  and 
the  Dnieper,  with  Kinburn  and  Azov,  and 
to  open  his  seas  to  the  Russian  merchant 
shins.  By  the  Peace  of  Jassy,  1792, 
which  closed  the  war  of  1787-91,  Russia 
retained  Tanrida  and  the  country  be- 
tween the  Bog  and  the  Dniester,  together 
with  Otchak  v,  and  gained  some  acces- 
sions in  the  Caucasus.  In  the  lonar  series 
of  wars  which  followed  the  French  revo- 
Intion  the  Ottoman  Empire  first  found 
herself  onposed  to  BVance,  In  consequence 
of  Ronanartp's  camnaini  in  Eevpt,  and 
finally  to  Russia,  who  demanded  a  more 
distinct  recoenition  of  her  protectorate 
o^er  the  Orfstians,  and  to  whom,  hy  the 
Peace  of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812,  she 


ceded  that  part  of  Moldavia  and  Bessara- 
bta  which  lies  beyond  the  Pruth.    In  1817 
Mabmud  II  was  obliged  to  give  up  the 
principal  mouth  of  the  Danube  to  Rus- 
"*••-,  *^'>rther  disputes  ended  in  the  Porte 
making  other  concessions,  which   tended 
towards  loosening  the  connection  of  Ser- 
via, Moldavia  and   Walachia  with  Tur- 
key.   In  1821  broke  out  the  war  of  Greek 
independence.       The     remonstrances     of 
Britain,  France  and  Russia  against  the 
cruelties  with  which  the  war  against  the 
Greeks    was   carried    on   proving   of   no 
avail,    those    powers    attacked    and    de- 
?VSJ?^  *H  ^^?L«*  Mahmud  at  Navarino 
(1827).     In   1826  the  massacre  of  the 
Janizaries  took  place  at  Constantinople, 
after  a  revolt.    In  1828-29  the  Russians 
crossed  the  Balkans  and  took  Adrianople, 
the  war  being  terminated  by  the  Peace 
of  Adrianople  (1829).    In  that  year  Tur- 
key had  to  recognize  the  independence  of 
Greece.     In  1831-33  Mehemet  Ali.  nomi- 
nally Pasha  of  Egypt,  but  real  ruler  both 
of  that  and  Syria,  levied  war  against  his 
sovereign   in  1833,   and   threatened   Con- 
stantinople ;  when  the  Russians,  who  had 
been  called  on  for  their  aid  by  the  sultan, 
forced   the  invaders   to  desist.     In  1840 
Alehemet  Ali  again  rose  against  his  sov- 
ereign:  but  through  the  active  interven- 
tion of  Great  Britain,  Austria  and  Rus- 
sia   was    compelled    to    evacuate    Syria, 
though    be    was,    in    recompense,    recog- 
DiMd  as  hereditary  viceroy  of  Egypt 

The  next  important  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  the  war 
with  Russia  in  which  Turkey  became  in- 
volved in  1853,  and  in  which  she  was 
joined  by  England  and  France  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  This  war,  known  as  the 
Crimean  war  (which  see),  terminated 
with  the  deteat  of  Russia,  and  the  con- 

Sn '^",^sS'  S-  *'^*J?  .**  Pa'^s  oo  March 
»).  18^,  by  which  the  influence  of 
Rnssia  in  Turkey  was  greatly  reduced. 
Ihe  principal  articles  were  the  aboli- 
tjo°  of  the  Russian  protectorate  over 
the  Danubian  principalities  (Moldavia 
and  Walachia,  united  in  1861  as  the 
principality  of  Roumania),  the  rectifica- 
tion of  the  frontier  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  and  the  cession  of  part  of 
Bessarabia  to  the  latter  power 

In  1875  the  people  of  Herzegovina- 
unable  to  endure  any  longer  the  wIe- 
povernment  of  the  Turks,  broke  into  re- 
bellion. A  year  later  the  Servians  and 
Montenejtnnn  likewise  took  up  arms,  anu 
though  the  former  were  unsuccessful  and 
obliged  to  abandon  the  war,  itie  Mon- 
tenegrins still  held  out  Meantime  the 
great  powers  of  Europe  were  pressinr  re- 
forms on  Turkey,  and  at  the  end  of  1876 
a  conference  met  at  Constantiooplii  with 


Ottoman  Empire 


Ondh 


the  view  of  maUnf  a  fresh  settlement  of  eeeded  as  Sfohammed  V.  In  the  aotuno 
the  reUtions  between  her  and  her  Chris-  of  1911  Italy  invaded  Tripoli,  and  by  the 
tian  provinces.  All  the  recommendations  war  that  ensued  Turkey  loet  l»th  TripoU 
of  the  conference  were,  however,  rejected  and  Cyrenaica.  By  the  ensuing  B-aiuui 
by  Turkey;  and  in  April  following,  Rus-  war  («.  v.)  Turkey  lost  all  of  her 
sia,  which  had  been  coming  more  and  European  territory  except  a  narrow  stnp 
more  prominently  forward  as  the  cham-  west  of  CJonstantinople.  In  the  Buropew 
plon  of  the  oppressed  provinces  and  had  war  (q.  v.),  1914-18,  she  lost  a^f^Bt  Mrt 
for  months  been  massing  troops  on  both  of  her  Asiatic  territory  to  the  Allies.  Her 
the  Asiatic  and  the  European  frontier  of  casualties  were  TSO.OOD. 
Turkey,  issued  a  warlike  manifesto  and  nttnmwfl.  (ot-tnm  wa) .  a  city  of  lowa, 
commenced  hostile  operations  in  both  Wlvumwa  «ipital  of  Wapello  county, 
parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  It  was  on  the  Des  iioines  River,  280  miles  west 
immediately  joined  by  Roumania,  who  on  of  Chicago,  a  jiannfacturing  rtty  and  dls- 
the  :2d  of  May  (1877)  declared  its  in-  tributing  center.  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the 
dependence.     The  progress  of   the   Rus-  great  coal  field  of  Iowa  andln  a  rich  agri- 


dependence.     The  progress 
sians  was  at  first  rapid;  but  the  Turks 
offered  an  obstinate  resistance.    After  the 
fall  of  Kars,  however,  November  18,  and 


cultural  region.    Pop.  24,687. 
ntizrair  (ot'w&),   Tuomab,  an   English 
Vbwajr  dramatist,  was  born  in  1651; 

the   fall   of    Plevna,    December    10,    the  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  and 

Turkish   resistance   completely   collapsed,  produced  his  first  tragedy  in  1675.    As  a 

and    on    March    3,    1878,    Turkey    was  tragic  writer  he  excelled  in  pathos,  his 

compelled    to    agree    to    the    Treaty    of  fame  chiefly  resting  upon  his  Orphan  ^nd 

San  Stefano,  in  which  she  accepted  the  Venice  Preterved.    The  latter  is  still  oc- 

terms  of  Russia.    The  provisions  of  this  casionally  played.     He  died  in  1685. 

treaty  were,  however,  it)nsiderably  modi-  Oubliette   (^^^h"**)'  *  dungeon  exist- 

fied  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  concluded  *'**"***""'»'    mg  in  gome  old  castles  and 

on  July  13th  following,  by  which  Ron-  other  buildings,  with  an  opening  only  at 

mania,    Servia    and     Montenegro    were  the  top  for  the  admission  of  air.    It  was 

declared  independent ;  Roumanian  Bessa-  used  for  persons  condemned  to  perpetual 

rabia  was  ceded  to  Russia ;  Austria  was  imprisonment  or  to  perish  secretly, 

empowered  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  Herze-  Ondenarde   (O-ao-tt™),  a  town  of  Bel- 

go^a:  and  Bulgaria  was  erected  into  a  Zr   :  \fi^'    province    of    East 

principality.     It  became  an  independent  Flanders,  on  the  Scheldt,  15  miles  south 

monarchy  in  1908,  and  in  the  same  year  of  Ghent.    It  has  sustained  several  sieges, 

Bosnia    and    Herzegovina  ,were    annexed  but    is    best    known    in    history    by    the 

to  the  Austrian  Empire.      (See  Berlin,  memorable     victory     gained     over     the 

Treatv  of)  *-  ^  French    on    July    11,    1708,    by    Prince 

The  main  events  in  the  history  of  the  Eugene  and   the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Ottoman  Empire  since  the  conclusion  of  Pop.  6572.     _  ,      ,.  ,  . 

the  Treaty  of  Berlin  are  the  French  in-  Qudh.  «  .P^^x  (i?"^^:   *  province  of 

*-  ..  _  vM.»»*»j   British    India.    honnd(>d    on    tha 


vasion  of  Tunis  in  1881.  which  soon  after 
was  formally  placed  under  the  protecto- 
rate   of    the    French ;    the    treaty    with 
Greece,   executed   under  pressor'  of  the      .     - 
Great  Powers  in  1881.  by  wu=-u  Turkey  Plain,    watered    by 
ceded  to  Greece  almost  the  whole  of  Thes-  Kapti  and  Ganges, 
saly  and  a  strip  of  Epirus;  the  occupa-         " 


British   India,    bounded   on  the 
north  by  NepauL  and  on  other  sides  by 
the   Northwest   Provinces;    area,   24,21? 
square  miles.     Ondh  is  a  vast  alluvial 
the    Gogra,    Gomti, 
It  is  for  the  most 
^  _  _  part   highly   fertile,    and    wheat,   barley, 

tion  of  Egypt  by  Great  Britain  in  1882 ;  rice,  sugar,  indigo,  and  others  of  the  rich- 
and  the  revolution  at  Philippopolis  in  est  products  of  India  are  raised  in  large 
1885,  when  the  government  of  Eastern  quantities.  Oudh,  formerly  a  Mogul 
Roumelia  was  overthrown,  and  the  union  province  (subsequently  kin^om,  1819), 
of  that  province  with  Bulgaria  pro-  .became  subordinate  to  the  British  after 
claimed.  A  constitution  granted  in  1876  the  battle  of  Kalpe,  in  1766.  In  1866 
was  quickly  revoked  by  the  reigning  sul-  complaints  of  the  misgovernment  of  the 
tan,  Abdul'  Hamid  II,  who  reigned  as  an  king  of  Oudh  led  to  the  annexation  of 
autocrat  until  1908,  when  he  was  obliged  the  country  to  the  British  dominions,  an 
to  yield  to  the  demands  of  the  Young  annual  pension  of  £120.000  being  settled 
Turk  reform  party  and  restore  the  con-  on  the  king.  This  measnre,  howerer, 
stitution  and  legislature.  In  April,  1909,  produced  much  dissatisfaction,  and  when, 
a  reactionary  military  outbr-^k,  supposed  in  1857.  the  mutiny  broke  oat,  moat  or 
to  be  fomented  by  the  sultan,  led  to  the  the  Oudh  sepoys  joined  It,  and  the  riege 
capture  of  the  city  by  a  revolutionary  of  Lncknpw  resulted.  (See  Indian  tf«- 
army  and  his  deposition.  On  April  27,  tinv.)  Since  the  pacification  of  1888, 
bis    brother,    Mohammed    Bechad,    sue-  schoels  and  courts  of  Justice  bare  faeec 


Ondh 

ratabllihed,  and  nilways  hvn  bMO 
opened.  Lucknow  in  th«  capital,  and  tbt 
inain  center  of  t'opulation  and  manu- 
facturei..  Pop.  12,833,077  (moatljr  Hin- 
dua),  giving  the  large  average  of  022 
to  the  aquare  mile. 

Ondh  ('ormerly  Ayodhjra),  an  ancient 
"^T*  town  in  Faimbad  Diatrict.  Oudh, 
of  wtiich  province  it  waa  anciently  the 
capital.     In  remote  antiquity  it  waa  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  of  In- 
dian  cities,  and  is  famous  as  the  early 
home  of  Buddhism  and  of  its  modern  rep- 
resentative, Jainism.    It  is  now  a  suburb 
01  Faiiabad,  cr  Fyzabad   (which  see). 
Oudlnot  CH*'°''>i  Chables  Nicolas, 
~"  ,    \  Duke    of   Reggio,    peer   and 
marshal  of  France,   born   in   1767.     In 
1791  he  was  elected  commandant  of  a  vol- 
unteer battalion,  and  gave  many  striking 
proofs  of  valor,  which  gained  him  speedy 
promotion.     In  1792  he  waa  colonel  of 
the  regiment  of  Picardy,  in  1703  briga- 
dier general,  and  in  17w  general  of  di- 
vision.    Mass4na  made  him  chief  of  the 
General  stalf,  and  under  his  command  he 
ecided  the  battle  of  the  Mincio.    In  1804 
Napoleon  gave  him   the  command  of  a 
grenadier  corps  of  10,000  men,  which  was 
to  form  the  advance  guard  of  the  main 
army.     At  the  head  of  these  troops  he 

Performed    many    exploits,    winning    the 
Bttle  especially  of  Ostrolenka,  and  de- 
ciding the  fate  of  three  great  battles — 
Austerhtz,  Friedland  and  Wagram.     Af- 
ter the  last  named  battle  Napoleon  made 
him  a  marshal  and  Duke  of  Reggio,  and 
aave  him  an  estate  worth  $20,000  a  year. 
He    rendered    valuable   service   and    was 
severely   wounded    in    the   Russian   cam- 
paign of  1812.    In  the  campaign  of  1813 
he    WES    defeated    at    Orossbeeren    and 
Dennevatz.    In  the  campaign  of  1814  he 
took  an  active  part  and  was  wounded  for 
the  twenty-third  time.     After  Napoleou'a 
abdication  he  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the 
Bourbons,  to  whom  he  ever  afterwards  re- 
mained  faithful,  and  who  heaped  upon 
him  every  honor.     He  died  in  1847.— His 
eldest    son,    Nicolas    Chables    Victob 
(born   in   1<91),   commanded   the   troops 
which  effected  the  capture  of  Rome  from 
Garibaldi  in  1849.     He  died  in  1863, 
Onida  (^e'da).    See  Ramie,  LouUa  de 
la. 

OnleSS  t;?"!?".*'  Walteb  William,  an 
«,.  ,?"«'"''.  P*'°*''r,  born  at  St. 
Heher's,  Jersey,  in  1848.  He  studied  at 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  began  as  a 
painter  of  genre,  but  has  distinguished 
himself  chiefly  in  portraiture.  He  waa 
elected  R.A.  in  1881.  Darwin.  Newman, 
Lord  Selborne,  Sir  Fred  Roberts,  Car- 
dinal Mannina,  Samuel  Morlev,  and  other 
celebrities  have  been  among  his  sitters. 


Onieley 

dymtm  (onaa;  Latin,  naote,  a  twelfth 
jMirt  of  any  magnitude),  in 
Troy  weight,  is  the  twelftE  paft  of  a 
pound,  and  weigha  480  grains ;  in  avoir- 
dupoia  weight  is  the  sixteenth  part  t.*  a 
pound,  and  weighs  437%  gra/bs  TrJ)y. 
Onnoe  <'^"»«  VndQ).  one  of  the  digiti- 
T»  *!.  'w??  c*fnivora,  found  in 
Northern  Africa,   Arabia,  P  rsia,    India 

*£?  f^o'iz*-*  ^''•..  '*°«'*»  o'  -*>•'  5)oJy  is 
about  3%  feet,  the  tail  measuring  about 
^  feet.  It  is  a  large  cat,  resembling  the 
leopard  and  panther,  but  with  a  longer 
and  more  hairy  tail  and  a  thicker  fur, 
somewhat  less  in  sise,  and  not  so  fierce 
and  dangerous.  In  some  places  it  is 
trained  to  hunt,  like  the  cheetah. 
Onrebi  (ou're-bi),  Hcopophdrut  oure.bi, 
an  antelope  of  South  Africa, 
round  in  great  numbers  in  the  open 
plains,  and  much  hunted  for  its  flesh.  It 
is  from  2  to  3  feet  high,  of  a  pale  dun 
color,  and  the  male  has  sharp,  strong  and 
deeply-ringed  horns. 

OurO-PretO  iV''"H..Prft'tM).  a  town  of 
.  .„  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Minas-Oeraes,  190  miles  n.  n. 
w,  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  was  formerly 
one  of  the  great  mining  centers  of  Brazil, 
but  its  gold  mines  are  now  nearly  ex- 
hausted. Pop.  about  13.000. 
Onse  ^^^i  *  "^^  o*  Yorkshire,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Swale  with 
the  Ure  near  Borough bridjfe ;  it  flows  tor- 
tuously southeast  past  lork.  Selby  and 
Gpole,  8  miles  east  of  which  it  unites 
with  the  Trent  to  form  the  estuary  of  the 
Humber.  Its  total  course  is  60  miles, 
for  the  last  45  of  which  (or  to  York)  it 
IS  navigable. 

Ouse  ^?^''  Gbeat,  a  river  of  England, 
-  XT  iT"^  °^*''  Brackley  in  the  county 
or  Northampton,  flows  in  a  general  north- 
•astwly  direction,  traverses  the  counties 
of  Buckingham,  Bedford,  Huntingdon, 
Cambridge  and  Norfolk,  and  falls  into 
the  Wash  at  King's  Lynn,  after  a  course 
of  about  160  miles,  two-thirds  of  it  being 
npvigable. 

Ousel.   ^^^  ^'*^«^- 

OnseleV  (»"=5ne).  Sib  Frederick  Ab- 
■*'**' J  THUR  Gore,  Bart.;  English 
composer,  born  in  1825;  only  son  of  Sir 
Gore  Ouseley,  at  one  time  British  ambas- 
sador to  Persia  and  Russia.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  baronetcy  in 
1844,  and  subsequently  took  orders.  He 
exhibited  from  childhood  hi-'h  musical 
ability,  took  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Mnaie  at  Oxford  in  1850,  and  of  Doctor 
in  1855,  and  the  same  year  was  ap- 
^inted  precentor  of  Hereford  Cathedral. 
His  works  include  treatises  on  Harmony, 
on  Counterpoint  on4  Fugue,  and  on  Mih 


Outorop 


tkal  Form  and  genenl  compoaition,  and 
he  wrote  much  church  niubic.  lie  died 
in  188». 

OntnrAll   (oufkrop),    in    geology,    the 
UUlOrop    expoeure      of      an      Inclined 
■tratum  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
nntlftwrv   (out'ltt-ri),  the  putting  one 
UUUHwrjr    out    of    the    protection    of 
the  law,  a  process  resorted  to  against  an 
absconding  defendant  in  a  civil  or  crimi- 
nal proceeding.     It  involved  the  dciiriva- 
tion  of  all  civil  rights,  and  a  forfeiture 
of  goods  and  chattels  to  the  crown.    Out- 
lawry  in   civil   prweoding   was   formally 
abolished  in  England  in  187U.     In  Scot- 
land outlawry  is  a  sentence  pronounced 
in  the  supreme  criminal  court,  where  one 
accused  of  a  crime  di>e8  not  appear  to  an- 
swer the  charge.    Tlie  effect  is  that  he  ia 
deprived  of  all  personal  privilege  or  bene- 
fit by  law,  and  his  movable  property  is 
forfeited   to   the  crown.     In   the   United 
States  the  practice  is  unknown. 
nnfrom    (ou'tram),  Sir  James,  diplo- 
vuviiuu    j^^j  j,„j  soldier,  was  born  at 
Butterley  Hall,  Derbyshire,  in  1803.     He 
was  brought  up  in  Scotland,  studied  at 
Marischal  Collojte,  Aberdeen,  and  in  181!) 
went  out  as  a  cadet  to  India.    In  1828  he 
was  selected   to  undertake  a  mission  to 
the  wild  hill  tribes  of  the  Bombay  presi- 
dency, a  task  in  wb'ch  he  acquitted  him- 
self with   credit.     As  adjutant   to   Lord 
Keane  he  took  part  in  the  Afghan  war 
of  1839,  and  distinguishod  himself  at  the 
capture  of  Khelat,  and  by  his  dangerous 
ride  disguised  as  a  native  devotee  through 
the     enemy's     country      to      Kurrachee 
(1840).     After  the  capture  of  Ghuznee, 
lie  performed  the  duties  of  British  resi- 
dent at   Hyderabad,    Sattara   and    Luck- 
now.      In    1842   he   was   appointed   com- 
missioner  to  negotiate  with   the  Ameers 
of   Sind,    in    which    position   he    adopted 
views    at    variance    with    the    aggressive 
policy    of    Gonernl    Sir    Charles    James 
Napier.    In  1850  he  was  nominated  chief 
commissioner    of    Oiidh.      He    was    com- 
mander-in-chief of  the   British   forces  m 
the   Persian   war   of   1850-57.    and   from 
Persia  was  summoned  to  India  to  aid  in 
Buppressing    the    mutiny.      Although    of 
higher    rank    than    Havelock.    whom    he 
joined  with  reinforcements  at  Cawnpore 
in  September.  1857.  he  foueht  under  him 
until  Lncknow  was  relieved  by  Sir  Colin 
Campbell.     In    the   following   March    he 
commanded  the  first  division  of  infantry 
when   Sir  Colin  finally   regained   poaaea- 
nion  of  Lncknow.     F'a  services  were  re- 
warded   with   a   baronetcy,    the   rank    of 
lieutenant-general,     the     order     of     the 
rrand-croBB  of  the  B<»th.  and  the  thanka 
of  parliament;  and  atatnes  were  erected 
fai  bif  honor  in  Londoa  mi  Oueatta. 


(hrar 


Th«  ahattered  aUte  of  Jhla  h«*lth  jWB- 
pelled  him  to  return  to  England  in  1800. 
He  died  at  Pau  in  1808,  and  waa  buried 
in  Weatminater  Abbey. 


t\niriwf>r  (out'rig-6r),  an  iron  brack- 

boat,  with  a  rowlock  at  iU  extremity, 
ao  aa  to  give  an  increased  leverage  to 
the  oar  without  widening  the  boat :  hence, 
a  light  bi»at  for  "iver  matchea  provided 
with  such  apparatua.  The  name  ia  alao 
applied  to  a  contrivance  in  certain  for- 
eign boats  and  canoes,  conalating  of  a 
projecting  framework  or  arrangement  of 
timbera  n>r  counterbalancing  the  heeling- 
over  effect  of  the  sails,  which  are  large 
in  proportion  to  the  breadth  of  the  vea- 

Si'l.  . 

OnfarnrlrR  (out'wurkz),  all  works  of 
UUIT^OrKB  )^  fortress  which  are  situa- 
ted without  the  principal  line  of  fortifi- 
cation, for  the  purpoae  of  covering  the 
place  and  keeping  the  besiegers  at  a 
distance. 

rkniri  ran  lira  (6-vi-ran'dra),  a  genoa 
UuVXranora   of  plants,     see  Lattice- 

Jcaf.  .   .  ,  , 

n-n9»1  (ou'zl),  a  genus  of  insessorial 
UUZei  or  perching  birds,  included  in 
the  family  of  the  thrushes.  The  com- 
mon or  ring  ouzel  {Turdu»  torquitua) 
is  a  summer  visitant  of  Britain,  and  its 
specific  name  is  derived  from  the  presence 
of  a  broad  semilunar  patch  or  stripe  of 
white  extending  across  its  breast.  The 
water  ouzel  (Cinclua  aquaticut)  belongs 
to  a  different  family.  (See  Dipper.) 
Ouzel  is  also  an  old  or  poetical  name 
for  the  blackbird. 

(hrtH  (O'val),  an  egg-shaped  curve  ir 
"***  curve  resembling  the  longitudinal 
section  of  an  egg.  The  oval  has  a  gen- 
eral resemblance  to  the  ellipse,  but,  un- 
like the  latter,  it  is  not  symmetrical,  be- 
ing broader  at  one  end  than  at  the  other. 
S»e  EUipte 

Ovamnns  (a-vam'pos),  a  collection  of 
vvampos  y^^^  ^^j^es  of  Southwest 
Africa,  occupying  the  exceedingly  fertile 
country  which  lies  south  of  the  Cunene 
River,  between  14*  and  18°  E.  longitude, 
and  nortti  of  Damara-land.  These  black 
tribes  resemble  the  Kaffirs  and  Damaras 
in  feature,  and  by  many  are  supposed  to 
be  a  connecting  link  between  Negroes  and 
Kaffirs.  Cattle  forms  the  wealth  of  the 
Ovampo  tribes,  each  of  which  has  its 
own  hereditary  chief.  They  are  also  good 
agriculturists,  and  have  made  consider- 
able provress  in  various  arts. 
thrar  (ft-vRr'),  a  town  of  Portngal.  dls- 
"***  trict  of  Belra.  near  the  Atlantic, 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  Bav  of  Avelro, 
2?  miles  south  of  Onorto.  Tt  U  In  a  low- 
lying  tad  unhealthy  region,  but  hM  valna* 


Orarian  Tumor  ,  Overbury 

bit  llaberiM  and  coniiderable  tnul«  in  tin-  used  for  baking,  beating,  or  drying  an* 
ber.    Pop.  10,4fl2.  .,      . ,    ,       ,         aubaUnce.     In  lEngliah  t^e  term  iX  uau- 

Ovanan  Tumor  («•▼*  »l-»n).  •  *Hy  reatricted  to  a  cloae  chamber  for 
w «»..»«  ^»»w«  morbid  growth  in  baking  bread  and  other  food  subatancea. 
the  ovary  of  a  woman,  aomatlmaa  weigh-  but  ovena  are  aim  used  for  coking  coaL 
ing  aa  much  aa  8U,  SO,  or  npwarda  of  in  the  arts  uf  metallurgy,  in  gUaa  makin/ 
100  Iba.,  or  more,  conaiating  of  a  cyat  pottery,  etc.  Tliere  ia  now  a  great  diver- 
coatalning  a  thin  or  thick  ropy  fluid,  aity  In  the  shape  and  materials  of  con- 
cauaing  the  diseaae  known  as  ovaWaM  struction,  and  modes  of  heating  ovena. 
drop«y,  which  ia  now  generaUy  cured  by  Ovcn  Birdl.  '>'«l8  belonging  to  the 
the  operation  of  ovariotomy.  ww»4»*»»4u»,    fimjjiy    Certnld«    or 

Ovariotomy  (0-v»-rl-otO-mi),  theop-  Creepera,  found  in  South  America;  typl- 
^  eration  of  removing  the  cal  aenus,  Vurnarxut.  They  are  all  of 
ovary,  or  a  tumor  in  the  ovary  (  >e  small  size,  and  feed  upon  seeds,  fruits 
above)  ;  a  aurgical  operation  flrat  per-  and  insects.  Their  popular  name  ia  de. 
formed  in  1800,  and  long  considered  ex-  rived  from  the  form  of  their  nest,  which 
ceedingly  dangerous,  but  latterly  per-  ia  dome-shaped,  and  built  of  tough  clay 
formed  with  great  and  increasing  succen,  or  mud  with  a  winding  entrance. 

'     "         '  ""^         "'     '  a   river   in   the  north- 


eapecially  since  the  adoption  of  the  anti-  QyAiia  Pjver 

aeptic  treatment  inaugurated  by  Lister.  *'»«**•  ***vci,  ^^^^  ^j  ^^^  Australian 
Ovarv  (0''a-ri).  or  Ovakium,  the  es-  colony  of  Victoria,  a  tributary  of  the 
*"****  aential  part  of  the  female  gen-  Murray.  The  district  is  an  important 
erative  apparatus,  in  which  the  ova  or  gold  mining  and  agricultural  one. 
egga  are  formed  and  developed.  The  QyA*  (o'v6r),  an  ancient  town  of  Che- 
ovary  in  the  female  corresponds  to  the  *»»«*  ghire,  4  miles  w.  of  Middlewieh, 
tettU  of  the  male.  In  adult  women  the  has  boat  building  and  manufactures  of 
ovaries  exist  as  two  bodies  of  somewhat  salt.  Pop.  u^Hj  13,778. 
oval  shape,  and  compressed  from  side  to  Overbeck  (Over-bek),  Fbiedrich,  a 
aide,  of  whitish  color  and  uneven  surface.  ^ » »»*  w******.  (}„n,a„  painter,  born  at 
They  are  situated  one  on  each  aide  of  Ltlbeck  in  1789;  died  in  18(i9.  He  com- 
the  womb,  ar.J  are  attached  to  the  hinder  menced  his  artistic  studies  in  Vienna  in 
portion  of  th.-  b>^y  of  the  womb  by  two  1806,  and  in  1810  went  to  Rome,  where 
thin  cord-like-  bands — the  ovarian  Uga-  he,  with  Cornelius,  Schadow,  Veit  and 
ment$,  and  by  a  lessee  fibrous  cord  to  Schnorr,  founded  a  new  school  of  art, 
the  fringed  edge  of  the  fallopian  tube,  which  subordinated  beauty  to  piety,  and 
Each  ovary  is  about  1%  inchs  in  length,  attempted  to  revive  the  devotioual  art  of 
and  about  1^  drachms  in  weight,  and  the  pre-Raphaelite  period.  In  1814,  in 
contains  a  number  of  vesicles  known  aa  company  with  several  of  his  artistic 
ovisacs  or  GraaLan  follicles,  in  which  the  brethren,  he  abjured  Lutheranlsm,  em- 
ova  are  developed.  The  fiinctions  of  the  braced  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and 
ovary,  which  are  only  assumed  and  be-  made  Rome  almost  exclusively  the  place 
come  active  on  the  approach  of  puberty,  of  hia  abode.  Among  his  chief  works  are : 
are  the  formation  of  ova,  their  matura-  The  Entrance  of  Chritt  into  Jerusalem; 
tion,  and  their  final  discharge  at  periodic  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives;  The  En- 
menstrual  epochs  into  the  uterus  or  tombment;  The  Triumph  of  Religion: 
womb.  There  the  ovum  may  be  impreg-  The  Vision  of  8t.  Francis;  two  series  of 
nated  and  detained,  or  pass  from  the  frescoes,  one  on  the  History  of  Joseph 
body  with  the  menstrual  flow.  The  ovar-  for  the  Casa  Bartholdi.  and  one  on 
ies  are  subject  to  diseased  conditions,  Tasso's  Oerusalemme  Liherata  for  the 
chief  among  which  are  cancer  and  the  oc-  Villa  Massimi  at  Rome,  etc. 
currence  of  tumors  and  cysta.  See  Ova-  Overblirv  (6'ver-be-ri),  Sib  Thomas, 
rian  Tumor,  Ovariotomp.  w.».*wi»*j     known  as  a  miscellaneous 

O'varv  *°'  botany,  is  a  hollow  case  writer,  but  more  especially  for  his  tragi- 
w  »»*j,  enclosing  ovules  or  youna  cal  death  at  the  instance  of  the  Earl 
seeds,  containing  one  or  more  cells,  and  of  Rochester  and  the  Countess  of  Essex, 
ultimately  becoming  the  fruit.  Together  was  born  in  Warwickshire  in  15i31,  and 
with  the  style  and  stifrma  it  constitntea  studied  at  Oxford.  He  contracted  an 
the  female  system  of  the  vegetable  king-  intimacy  with  Rochester,  then  Robert 
dom.  When  nnited  to  the  calyx  it  u  Carr,  at  the  court  of  James  I.  and  pro- 
called  inferior;  when  separated,  superior,  voked  the  anger  of  the  countess  by  en- 
Ovation     ®^*  Triumph.  deavoring    to   dissuade   his    friend    from 

,   .  marrying   her,     Rochester   procured    the 

Oven  '"^°'»  »  close  chamber  of  any  imprisonment  of  his  late  friend  In  the 
w«>u  description  in  which  a  consider-  ToWer  of  London,  by  creating  a  causa 
able  degree   of  heat  may  be  generated,  of   offense   between   him   and    the   king, 


(hrer  Darwea 


Oriedo 


•ad,  loint  montbi  later,  caused  him  to 
b«  poisoned  there,  September  15,  1613. 
"niough  auapiciona  were  entertained  at 
the  time,  it  was  not  till  lUlti  that  tbia 
deed  of  darkneu  was  discovered,  when 
the  inferior  agents  were  all  apprehended, 
tried,  and  executed.  Rochester,  now  earl 
of  Somerset,  and  the  countess  were  also 
tried  and  condemnod,  but  they  were  both 
pardoned  by  the  king  for  private  reasons. 
Overbury's  Charactiri,  and  The  Wife,  a 
didactic  pootii,  publiiihed  in  1U14,  nave 
still  a  reputation. 
OverDarwen.    see  Donoen. 

AvAriiasp1(u-v^r-Is's«l),  or  Overtbbix, 
UVenjSSei^^  province  of  the  Nether- 
lands; area,  12s:i  square  miles.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Ijssel,  which  separates 
it  from  Oflderlnnd,  and  by  the  Vecht  and 
its  affluents.  Except  a  strip  along  the 
Ijssel,  uresenting  goijd  arable  and  meadow 
land,  toe  surface  is  mostly  a  sandy  flat 
relieved  by  hillocks,  and  the  principal  in- 
dustry is  stock  raising,  and  dairy  farm- 
ing. Cliief  towns,  Zwolle,  Deventer,  Al- 
melo  and  Kampen.     Pop.  359,443. 

Overshot  Wheel  <j;jefd?i^veV^bJ 

water  shot  over  from  the  top.  The  buck- 
ets of  the  wheel  receive  the  water  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  the  top,  and  retain 
it  until  they  approach  the  lowest  point 


Overshot  Water-wbeeL 

of  the  descent.  The  water  acts  princi- 
pally by  its  gravity,  though  some  effect 
is  of  course  due  to  the  velocity  with 
which  it  arrives. 

Overtnre  (over-tOr),  m  music,  an  in- 
vvcxitUAi;  troductory  symphony,  chiefly 
used  to  precede  great  musical  composi- 
tions, as  oratorios  and  operas,  and  in- 
tended to  prepare  the  hearer  for  the 
following  compositions,  properly  by  con- 
centrating its  chief  musical  ideas  so  as 
to  give  a  sort  of  outline  of  it  in  instru- 
mental music.  This  mode  of  composing 
overtures    was    first    conceived    by    the 


French.  Orerlnrea  are,  however,  fr** 
Qoentljr  written  aa  independent  piecea  for 
the  concert  room. 

Oviboi.  *•••  ^•'•*-*'- 

Ovid  0>v'id).  in  full,  PuBUUS  OTimiTB 
wv««4  "jij^go^  ^  celebrated  Roman  poet, 
bom  in  43  b.0.  He  enjoyed  a  careful  edu- 
cation, which  waa  completed  at  Athena, 
wht  re  he  gained  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  Oreek  language.  He  afterwarda  trav- 
eled in  Asia  and  Sicily.  He  never  entered 
the  senate,  althoufh  by  birth  entitled  to 
that  dignity,  but  filled  one  or  two  unim- 
porUnt   public  offices.     Till   his  fiftieth 

J  ear  he  continued  to  reside  at  Rome,  en- 
oying  (he  friendship  of  a  large  circle  of 
distinguished  men.  By  an  edict  of  Au- 
gustus, however  J(a.d.  8),  he  was  com- 
manded to  leave  Rome  for  TomI,  a  town 
on  the  inhospitable  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea,  near  the  moutha  of  the  Danube,  It 
is  impossible  now  to  come  to  any  certain 
conclubion  as  to  the  cause  of  this  banish- 
ment, that  given  in  the  edict — the  publi- 
cation of  the  Art  of  Love — being  merely 
a  pretext,  the  roem  having  been  In  cir- 
culation ten  years  previously.  The  real 
cause  may  have  been  his  intrigue  with 
Julia,  the  clever  but  dissolute  daughter 
of  Augustus,  whom  he  is  supposed  to 
have  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Cor- 
inna ;  or  it  may  have  been  his  complicity 
in  the  intrigue  of  Julia,  the  granddaugh- 
ter of  Augustus,  with  Silanus.  The  change 
from  the  luxurious  life  of  a  Roman  gal- 
lant to  that  of  an  exile  among  barbariana 
whose  very  language  was  unknown  to 
him  must  have  been  far  from  agreeable, 
and  we  find  him  addrcssin  humble  en- 
treaties to  the  imperial  court  to  shorten 
the  term  or  change  the  place  of  banish- 
ment: but  these  entreaties,  backed  up  by 
those  of  his  friends  in  Rome,  were  of  no 
avail ;  and  Ovid  died  at  Tomi  in  the  year 
18  A.D.  He  had  been  three  times  mar- 
ried. His  works  include  Amorum  Libri 
III,  love  elegies;  Epiatolw  Heroldum, 
letters  of  heroines  to  their  lovers  or  hus- 
bands; Art  Amatoria,  ('Art  of  Love'); 
Remedia  Amorit,  i'lAjve  Remedies'): 
the  Metamorphotes,  in  fifteen  books; 
Faati,a.  sort  of  poetical  calendar;  Tria- 
tia;  Epittolw  ex  Ponto,  ('Epistles  from 
Pontiis'),  etc. 
Hvifliipt    (ov'i-dukt).   the   name  given 

mala,  the  ova  or  eggs  are  conveyed  from 
the  ovary  to  the  uterus  or  into  the  ex- 
ternal world.  In  mammals  the  oviducta 
are  termed  Fallopian  tube».  being  ao 
named  after  the  anatomist  who  first  de- 
scribed them. 

Oviedo  (^^-A'dO),  a  town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  a  province  of  same 


Ofltdo7  Vaid«* 


Owti^ 


name,  230  bUm  nortbWMt  of  MftdrM. 
It  WM  fouodnl  in  "(tt^,  bai  «  fourteenth 
craturj  cathedral  and  a  unWeraitjr,  and 
manufacture  of  hata,  arme,  naperjTt  etc. 
I'op.  48.10S.— The  nrovlnce.  area  4<*S0 
Miuare  nilee.  pop.  (t27.0nO,  ii  situated  on 
the  Bay  of  Enac-ay,  aud  bounded  bl  the 
provincMi  of  Bantander,  l^on  and  Lugo. 
It  haa  a  wild  aud  aturmj  coaat,  ano  a 
mnuntainoua  interior  lietter  adapted  for 
l«8tur«>   than  africulture. 

UYieaoy  vaiaez  J^^^.,    oowzaix) 

Fbsiianucz  de,  a  Spaninb  hlatoriau,  boru 
in  1478,  aud  brouglit  up  aa  a  page  at  the 
court  of  Ferdinand  aud  Imibt^lla.  In 
1M4  he  received  a  government  appoint- 
ment in  the  newly-uiwuvond  island  of 
Iliapaniola,  and  with  few  interv<.U  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  there.  Named  by 
Charles  V  historiographer  uf  the  Indies, 
he  wrote  his  Hiitoria  General  y  Natural 
de  laa  India*  Oceidentaki.  This  and  hia 
Quinquaaenaa  are  two  works  of  great 
hiatnr'cal  value.  He  died  at  Valladolid 
in  1667. 

Oviparous  <!ii::rtr'>|..,L  ''IZmVTn 

which  produce  ova  or  eggs  from  wlirh 
the  young  are  afterwards  hatched.  W  re 
the  eggs — as  in  some  lisnrus,  some  snakes, 
or  aa  in  the  land  snhiraanderH — are  re- 
tained within  the  body  of  the  parent 
until  auch  time  as  the  young  escape  from 
them,  the  animals  are  said  to  be  oro- 
viviporoua. 

Ovinoutor  (ft-vi-pos'i-tur),  an  appen- 
UVipoui.or  ^j,^gp  attached  to  the  ab- 
dominal segments  of  certain  insects,  and 
n8.>d  for  placing  the  eggs  in  situations 
favorable  to  their  due  development,  tliia 
being  sometimes  in  bark  or  leaves,  or 
even  in  the  bodies  of  other  animals.  The 
sting  of  bees,  wasps,  etc.,  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  an  ovipositor  or  analogous  struc- 
ture. 

Ovolo  (^'^o-lft),  in  architecture,  a  cou- 
''  vex  moulding,  generally  a  quar- 
ter of  a  circle ;  but  in  classic  architecture 
there  is  usually  a  dennrture  from  the  ex- 
act circular  form  to  that  of  an  egg ;  hence 
the  name  (Ii.  ovum,  an  eg«>. 
OvO-ViviparOUS.  ^*^^  Oviparou$. 

nyrn\^  (5'vDl>,  in  bntany,  a  rudimen- 
vviuc    j^jy  gppij  ^hjci,   requires   to  be 

fertilized  by  pollen  before  it  develops.  It 
is  composed  of  two  sacs,  one  within 
another,  which  are  called  primine  and 
secnndine  saes,  and  nf  a  nncleua  within 
the  sacs.  At  one  point,  the  chalaza,  the 
nucleus,  and  the  two  coats  cnme  Into 
contact,  and  here  there  is  a  minute  orifice 
cried  the  foramen  or  micropi/le.  Bee 
B  iany. 


Omm  (O'vum),  the  'ttf'  or  MMratlal 
w » !»*»»  product  of  the  feiaala  rtpnidHe- 
tive  ayatem,  which,  after  impragnauoB  by 
contact  with  the  aemen  or  easential  fluid 
of  the  male,  ia  capable  of  developing  into 
a  new  and  independent  being.  The  ea- 
sential parte  to  be  recogniied  in  the 
atructure  of  every  true  ovum  or  egg  con- 
aist,  lirstly.  of  an  outer  membrane  known 
as  the  i'<(r{/tMe  mem6rane.  Within  thia 
is  contained  the  vUellua  or  wolk,  and  im- 
bedded in  the  yolk-maas  the  germinal 
veuMe  and  smaller  germinal  »pot  are 
seen.     See  Ovarv.  Heproduction, 

w**«»vuuM  county  aeat  of  Steele 
Countv,  Minnesota,  on  Straight  Hiver, 
70  milea  a.  of  Minneapolia.  It  haa  nun- 
eriea,  flour  mills,  and  various  manufac- 
tures and  ia  an  important  agricultural 
trade  center.  Here  ia  a  valuable  mineral 
apring.    Pop.  tuibti. 

(Ua^tyn  (0-wfi'g6),  a  town,  capital  of 
UWC^O  Tioga  County,  New  York,  ait- 
uated  on  the  Susquebanne  River  at  the 
mouth  of  Owego  Creek,  d7  miles  E.  of 
Klmira.  It  has  lumbering  interests,  and 
flour,  leather,  wugon,  harness,  Iron- 
bridges,  and  other  manufactures.  Pop. 
4G33. 

nwAn  (<^'en),  John,  English  Noncon- 
vwcu  J„rn,igt  divine,  born  at  Stadham, 
Oxfordshire,  in  KSKl.  studied  at  Oxford, 
and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war 
took  part  with  the  Parliament.  He 
adopted  the  Independent  mo<le  of  church 
government.  He  was  appointed  to  preach 
at  Whitehall  the  day  after  the  execution 
of  Charles  I ;  accompanied  Cromwell  in 
his  expeditions  butb  to  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land ;  in  l(>ni  was  made  dean  of  Christ 
Church  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1052  was 
nominated  by  Cromwell,  then  chancellor 
of  the  university,  his  vice-chancellor,  offi- 
ces of  which  he  was  deprived  in  1657. 
He  died  in  1(>83.     Owen  was  a  man  of 

?;reat  learning  and  piety,  of  high  Calvin- 
sfic  views,  and  the  author  of  numerous 
works. 

Owen  ^"^  RicnARD,  comparative  anat- 
**  "'  onist  ond  paleontologist,  was 
born  at  Lancaster,  England,  in  1804.  and 
educa'ed  in  the  Lancaster  schools  and  the 
medical  schools  of  Edinburgh,  Paris  and 
Tjondon.  Having  settled  in  the  metropolis, 
he  became  assistant  curator  of  the  Hun- 
terian  Museum.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  comparative  anatomy  at  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital:  in  1836  profes- 
sor in  anatomy  and  phyainlngy  at  tha 
Royal  College  of  Sui-geons,  and  in  1868 
superintendent  of  the  natural  history  de- 
partment in  the  British  Museum,  from 
which  last  post  he  retired  in  1883.  Owea 
waa  regarded  as  having  been  the  greateat 


OwtA 


MlaontologUt  after  Cuvier,  and  ••  • 
comp»nitlv«  anfttomiat  ft  worthy  in*^ 
c«Mwr  to  Hunter.  He  wa*  a  vulumlnc 
writer  on  bia  apecial  aubjecta,  and  aa 
honorary  fellow  of  nearly  every  learned 
aoflety  uf  Kiiroiie  anil  Aiperica.  Amunf 
u  .  worka  are  Ltcturca  on  the  Compara' 
Uv0  Anatomy   of  the  Jnvertebntt  Ant" 


Sir  lUoluud  Owen. 


malt;  Lectureit  on  the  Comparative  Anat' 
omtt  of  the  Vertebrate  AniinaU;  Huttory 
of  Hrtthh    FommU   Mamnia!i>   and   tttrda ; 
nUtory  of  Ifritinh  Foii»il  Reptiles;  I'rtn- 
eiplea  of  Comparative  Onteolugu;  On  the 
Anatomy  of  Vertcbrat.B:The  Fo»»tl  Rep- 
tilet  of  South  Afriea;  The  Foxittl  .l/aw- 
maU  of  Australia,  etc.     lit-  died  in  IMK.'. 
nxxTAvi     KoBEHT,   philanthropist  and  8<>- 
UWen,   pjgi  theorist,  born  at  Newtown, 
Montgomeryshire,  North  WhIpr,  in  ImIj 
died  there  in  18.W.     Early  distinguiahed 
by   his   business   talents,    at    tht    age   ol 
eighteen  he  became  nmua-  r  of  a  spinning 
mTll  at  Chorlton,   nonr   Munchesier,  and 
subsequently  of  the  New   Lanark  cotton 
mills,  belonging  to  Mr.   Dale,  «  wealthy 
Glasgow    manufncturer,    whose   daughter 
he  married.    Here  Owen  intr<iduced  many 
important   reforms,   having  for   their  ob- 
ject the  improvement  of  the  condition  ot 
the  laborers  in  his  employ.     In  1812  he 
published  New  Vietrn  of  Soeiety,  or  En- 
tayt  upon  the  Formation  of  Human  Char- 
acter; and   Bubspouently   a   Book  of  the 
yew    Moral    World,    in    ■which    he    com- 
pletely developed  h's  socialistic  views,  in- 
aiating  upon  an  absolute  e<iiiality  among 
men.     He  had  three  opportunities  of  set- 
ting up  social  communities  on   his  own 
plan — one  at  New  Harmony  in  America, 
another  at  Orb'ston  in  Tianarkshire,  and 
the   last  in   1844.  at   Harmony   Hall   in 
Hampahi'-e.   all  ot  wbicit   proTM  sisiuil 


^  Owl-Parrot 

faUarM.  In  hla  later  yeara  Mr.  Owan  be- 
came •  firm  believer  la  Bpirttuallam.  IIU 
eldeat  aon,  Robert  Dale  Owen  (18UI- 
77).  for  a  time  reaident  minlater  of  tbe 
United  Statea  at  Naplea,  la  chiefly  known 
aa  an  exponent  of  apiritualiam,  on  which 
aubiect  he  wrote  aeveral  works.  Another 
aon.  David  Dale  Owen  (1«U7-<M)).  ac- 
quired reputation  aa  a  geologiat. 

OwexuboroiighX'-rjuV  dVJS 

County,  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio  Kiver,  UK) 
ullea  from  Ixiulaville,  la  extenalvely  on- 
gaged  in  the  curing  ef  tobacco  end  the 
manufacture  of  whiaky.  Coal  and  Iron 
are  n.lned  and  there  are  varioua  other 
Induatriea.    Pop.  10,011.     ,     „       .     , 

Oweni  CoUege  ^ii^Ute'S 

der  the  will  of  J<ihn  Owens,  a  Mancheater 
merchant,  who  died  in  1840,  and  left 
about  £100.000  for  the  purpoae  of  found- 
ing an  Institution  for  providing  a  univer- 
altv  education,  in  whu-h  theological  ind 
ri'l'lgious  aubiecta  should  form  no  part  of 
the  inatruction  given.  Teaching  com- 
menced in  1851.  and  the  present  hand- 
B)me  Gothic  building  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  college  waa  completed  In 
1873.  The  increasing  success  of  the 
college  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
new  university,  Vl<-torln  Tnlversity.  to 
tonsist  of  Owens  (.?<.lleire  and  several 
towns,  but  having  its  head<i"arters  in 
Manchester.  The  Victoria  University  waa 
instituted  by  royal  charter  in  1880,  with 
power  to  grant  degrees  lu  arts,  science 
and  law,  a  supplemental  charter,  granted 
May,  1883,  aivlng  power  to  grant  de- 
greea  in  medicine.  University  College, 
y.lverpool,  waa  incorporated  with  Victoria 
University  In  1884,  and  the  Yorkshire 
College.  Leeds,  in  1888.  There  la  a 
womena  department  In  connection  with 
Owena  College,  the  classes  being  held  in 
g-^arate  buildings.  The  charter  of  Vic- 
toria University  gives  power  to  grant  de- 
grees to  women,  and  the  examlnationa 
arc  1*'  rown  open  to  them. 
Aizrct  Sound     formerly  Sydenham,  a 

try  of  Ontario,  Canada,  on  Georgian  Bay, 
91  miles  N.  w.  of  Toronto.  The  harbor 
in  one  of  the  best  on  T^ake  Huron,  and 
there  is  a  good  grain  and  lumber  trade, 
also  varied  manufactures.  The  scenery 
ia  fine  and  it  is  a  nonular  aummer 
naort.  Pop.  (1911)  12.558. 
OnrliirliAA  (ft-wT'hP>.  the  same  aa 
UWnyueO  Hawaii.  See  Sandwich  I$l- 
andt. 


OwIsIeSS     °^  HOWLBOLASS.  See  Eulen- 
UWi-rarrOT   ^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^nly  known 


Owls 


OWOMO 


nprewntatlye  of  a  pcenOar  groap  of  fhe  or  the  hollowi  of  trees ;  and  in  these  situ- 
Pf!?*  L^^M^'t."  a  K'V  •>W»  •  native  atlons  the  nests  are  constructed.  They 
of  the  South  Pacific  Islands,  and  espec-  vary  greatly  in  siie.  the  smallest  not  be- 
{ally  of  New  Zealand.  In  aspect  and  ina  larger  than  a  thrush.  In  their  dlf»- 
in  nocturnal  habits  it  resembles  the  owL  tribution,  the  owls  occur  very  generally 

fv  '^^°^ES^  T^^S^J^  ^J«*  2°t  °'  o^er  *•>«  habitable  globe,  both  worlds 
tbe  earth  ^Ui  its  hooked  beak.  It  sel-  possessing  typical  representatives  of  the 
dom  flies ;  it  is  generally  to  be  seen  rest-  *^ 

inff  in  hollow  stumps  and  logs,  and  is 
said  to  hibernate  in  caves. 
Owla  (<)"1*)>  A  group  of  birds  forming 
*"**■  a  well  defined  family  (Strigidss), 
which  in  itself  represents  the  Nocturnal 
Section  of  the  order  of  Raptores  or  Birds 
of  Prey.  The  head  is  large  and  well 
covered  with  feathers,  part  of  which  are 
generally  arranged  around  the  eyes  in 
circular  discs,  and  in  some  species  form 
horn-like  tufts  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  head.  The  beak  is  short,  strongly 
curved  and  hooked.  The  ears  are  gen- 
eraUy  of  large  size,  prominent,  and  in 
many  cases  provided  with  a  kind  of  fleshy 
valve  or  lid,  and  their  sense  of  hearing 

is  exceedingly  acute.     The  eyes  are  very  Loag-osred  Owl  lA*io  otu,). 

prominent  and  full,  and  project  forwards,  x«nB-«wwi  wwi  \Ano  onu;. 

the  pupils  being  especially  well  developed  Rroup.  The  common  white  or  barn  owl 
— a  structure  enabling  the  owls  to  see  (^Mx  ftammea)  is  the  owl  which  has 
well  at  dusk  or  in  the  dark.  The  plumage  P^  greatest  geographical  range,  inhabit- 
is  of  soft  downy  character,  rendering  J°8  almost  every  country  in  the  world, 
their  flight  almost  noiseless.  The  tarsi  "^^^  genus  Aaio  contains  the  so-called 
are  feathered,  generally  to  the  very  base  horned  owls,  distinguished  by  elongated 
of  the  claws,  but  some  forms,  especially  horn-like  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  bead, 
those  of  fish-catching  habits,  have  the  toes  ^he  long-eared  owl  {Aaio  otus  or  Utvt 
and  even  the  tarsi  bare.  The  toes  are  vulffarit)  appears  to  be  common  to  both 
arranged  three  forwards  and  one  back-  Europe  and  America.  It  inhabits  woods, 
wards ;  but  the  outer  toe  can  be  turned  The  short-eared  owl  (Asia  accipitrinut  or 

Otut  brachyotut)  frequents  heaths,  moors, 
and  the  open  country  generally  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  woods.  It  has  an  enormous 
geographical  range.  The  eagle  owl 
\,Bubo  igtUlvug)  occurs  in  Norway,  Swe- 
den and  Lapland,  and  over  the  continent 
of  Europe  to  the  Mediterranean.  A  sim- 
ilar species  {B.  Virginiinua)  extends 
over  the  whole  of  North  America.  Owls 
of  diurnal  habits  are  the  hawk  owl  {8ur- 
mo)  and  the  snowy  owl  (Nyctea).  The 
hawk  owl  mostly  inhabits  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, but  migrates  southwards  in  winter, 
as  does  the  snowy  owl,  which  is  remark- 
able for  its  large  size  and  snowy  plumage. 
The  little  owl  (Carine  noctua).  the  bird 
of  Pallas  Athena,  is  spread  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  Eurone.  One  of  the 
backwards  at  will,  and  the  feet  thus  con-  most  remarkable  of  owls  is  the  burrowing 
verted  into  hand-like  or  prehensile  or-  owl  (Athdno  cunicularia)  of  the  United 
gans.  In  habits  most  species  of  owls  are  States  and  the  West  Indies,  which  in- 
nocturnal,  flying  about  during  the  night,  habits  the  burrows  of  the  marmots 
and  preying  upon  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  (which  see),  or  prairie-doirs. 
nocturnal  insects,  and  upon  the  smaller  Owamo  (O-wos'bo),  a  city  of  Shiawas- 
birds.     Mire  in  particular  form  a  large  see  County,  Michigan,  on  Shl- 

part  of  their  food.  During  the  day  they  awassee  River,  which  affords  good  water 
inhabit  the  crevices  of  rocks,  the  nooks  power.  It  is  28  miles  N.  E.  of  Lansing, 
and  crannies  of  old  or  ruined  buildings.  It  is  the  trade  center  of  a  wide  fam)* 


Bamrowl  (.dtrix  flammla). 


te 


Oxford 


iiiC  recion,  and  luu  varied  mannfaetana, 
induduif  furnitare,  caakets,  acreen  doom, 
etc.    Pop.  9638. 

/w    (oka),  tbe  general  name  ot  certain 
^^    well-known    ruminant    qoadrupedit 
subfamily    Bovids    (CaTicomia).      The 
charactera   are:    the   horna   are   hollow, 
Bupported  on   a  bony  core,  and  cur?ed 
outward  in  the  form  of  creacenta;  there 
are  eight  incisor  teeth  in  the  under  Jaw, 
but  none  in  the  upper;  there  are  no  ca- 
ninea  or  dog-teeth;  the  naked  muffle  is 
broad.     The  species  are  Boi  Taurut,  or 
common  ox ;  B.  Vrua,  aurochs,  or  biaon  of 
Europe;  B.  Biton,  or  buffalo  of  North 
America;  B.  Bubalu;  or  proper  buffalo 
of  the  eastern  continent;  B.  caffer,  or 
Cape  buffalo ;   B.  grunnieni,  or  yak  of 
Thibet,  etc      (See  BUon,  Buffalo,  Yak, 
etc.)     The  common  ox  is  one  of  the  moat 
valuable  of  our  domestic  animala.     Ita 
flesh  is  the  principal  article  of  animal 
food ;  and  there  is  scarcely  any  part  pt 
the  animal  that  is  not  useful  to  manUnd ; 
the  skin,  the  horns,  the  bones,  the  blood, 
the  hair,  and  the  very  refuse  of  all  these, 
have  their  separate  uses.     Having  been 
specially   domesticated   by   man    from   a 
stock  which  it  is  probably  impossible  to 
trace,  the  result  has  been  the  formation 
of  very  many  breeds,  races,  or  permanent 
varieties,  some  of  which  are  valued  for 
their  flesh  and  hides,  some  for  the  ricn- 
ness  and  abundance  of  their  milk,  while 
others  are  in  great  repute  both  for  beet 
and  milk.     The  name  ox  is  used  also  in 
a  more  restricted  sense   to  signify   the 
male  of  the  bovine  genus   (.Boa  Taurua) 
castrated,  and  full-grown,  or  nearly  so. 
The   young   castrated   male   is   called   a 
ateer.    He  is  called  an  ox-calf  or  bull-calf 
until  he  is  a  year  old,  and  a  ateer  until 
he  is  four  years  old.     The  same  animal 
not  castrated  is  called  a  hull.     Besides 
the  European  ox  there  are  several  ottier 
varieties,  as  the  Indian  or  zebu,  with  a 
hump  on  its  back,  the  Abyasinian,  Mada- 
gascar and  South  African. 

OxaUcAcid  <4lch'oJcurV'coSb2?^ 
sometimes  with  potassium  or  sodium,  at 
other  times  with  calcium,  in  wood-sorrel 
iOsdlia  Aoetoaella)  and  other  plants; 
and  also  in  the  animal  body,  eaiwcially  in 
urine,  in  urinary  deposits,  and  in  cal- 
culi. Manv  processes  of  oxidation  or 
organic  bodies  produce  this  substance. 
Thus  sugar,  starch,  cellulose,  etc„  yield 
oxaUc  acid  when  fused  with  caustic  pot- 
wh,  or  when  treated  with  strong  nlWc 
add.  Saw-dnat  is  very  much  used  for 
producing  the  acid.  Oxalic  acid  has  the 
formnU  OiHiO*;  it  is  a  solid  aubsUnce, 
which  cryatalliaMi  In  four-sided  prisma 
tba  sides  of  which  are  alternately  broad 


and  narrow,  and  the  aommits  dUiednL 
They  are  efflorescent  in  dry  air,  but  at- 
tract a  Uttk  humidity  U  it  be  damn. 
They  are  soluble  in  water,  and  tbcdr  acW- 
Ity  is  so  great  that,  when^diasolvad  to 
SdOO  times  their  weight  of  water,  tbe 
solution  reddens  litmua  paper,  and  ia  per- 
ceptibly acid  to  the  taste.  Oxalic  acid  u 
used  chiefly  as  a  diacharginf  agent  in 
cerUin  atylea  of  calico  printing,  for 
whitening  leather,  aa  in  boot-toM,  and 
for  removing  ink  and  iron  mould  from 
wood  and  linen.  It  is  a  violent  poisoik 
Oxalatea  are  compounds  of  oxalic  acid 
with  bases;  one  of  them,  binoxalate  ot 
potash,  is  well  known  aa  aalts  of  sorrel, 
or  salta  of  lemon. 

fVraliflar^flk  (oks-al-i-d&'s«<e),  a  nat 
UZauaace»  )j^^^  ^t  polypetalous  ex- 

ogenoua  plantsL  of  which  the  genus  OfilU 
or  wood-sorrel  is  the  type,  comprising 
herbs,  shrubs,  and  treea,  remarkable, 
some  of  them,  for  the  quantity  of  oxalic 
acid  they  contain.  Some  Ameri^  spe- 
cies have  tuberous  edible  roots.  For  two 
species  see  Blimbina  and  Caramhola. 
OYalnriii.  (oks-al-fk'ri-a),  a  morbid  con- 
UXaiUna  ^j^jo^  ^^  ^^^  system,  in 
which  a  prominent  symptom  is  the  pres- 
ence of  crystallized  oxalate  of  lime  in 
the  urine. 


lUC     UIIUC  ...  V  . 

Oxenstjeraa  ^Si^^-;Y^l\f^ 

statesman,  bom  in  1583,  studied  theology 
at  Rostock,   Wittenberg  and  Jena;  and 
in  1602,  after  visiting  most  of  the  Ger- 
man   courts,    returned    to    Sweden    and 
entered  the  service  of  Charles  IX.     In 
1608  he  was  admitted  into  the  senate; 
and  on  the  accession  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  in  1611,  he  was  made  chancellor. 
He  accompanied  Gustavus  Adolphus  dur- 
ing his  campaigna  in  Germany,   taking 
charge  of  all  diplomatic  affairs:  and  on 
the  fall  of  his  master  at  Lfltsen  (1632) 
he  was  recognized,  at  a  congress  assem- 
bled at  Heilbronn,  as  the  head  of  the 
Protestant  I^eague.    This  league  was  held 
together  and  supported  solely  by  his  in- 
fluence and  wisdom,  and  in  1636  he  re- 
turned to  Sweden  after  an  absence  of  ten 
years,     laid     down     hia     extraordinary 
powers,  and  took  his  seat  in  the  senate 
as  chancellor  of  tbe  kingdom  and  one  of 
the  five  gnardia.  i  of  the  queen.    In  1645 
be  assisted  in  the  negotiations  with  Den- 
mark at  Bromesbro.  and  on  hia  retnm 
waa  created  count  by  Queen  Christina, 
whose    determination    to    abdicate    the 
crown  he  strongly  bnt  nnsncceasfnlly  op- 
posed.   He  died  in  1654. 
OX-OTd.    ^*  Chryaanthemnm, 

(WfnrA  foka'fftrd).  a  city  and  county 
vxioru  bopoufh  in  England,  capital  of 


OjiwH 


Oxford  Vurtrttty 


Oxford  eoanty,  and  seat  of  one  of  tb« 
moat  celebrated  unireraitiet  in  tbe  world, 
is  situated  about  6U  miles  w.  s.  w.  of 
London,  on  a  gentle  acclivity  between  tbe 
Gherwell  and  tbe  Thames,  here  called  tbe 
Isis.     Oxford,  as  a  city  of  towers  and 
spires,  of  fine  culleKiate  buildings  old  and 
new,  of  gardens,  groves  and  avenues  of 
trees,  is  unique  in  England.    The  oldest 
building  is  tne  castle  Keep,  built  in  tbe 
time  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  still 
all  but  entire.    Of  tbe  numerous  churches, 
the  first  plare  is  due  to  tbe  cathedral,  be- 
gun about  1160,  and  chiefly  in  tbe  late 
Norman  style.     Of  the  university  build- 
ings   the   most   remarkable   are   Christ's 
Church,  tbe  largest  and  grandest  of  all 
the  colleges,  witli  a  fine  quadrangle  and 
other  buildings,  a  noble  avenue  of  trees 
(the  Broad  Walk),  the  cathedral  serving 
as  its  chapel ;  Magdalen  College,  consid- 
ered to  be  the  most  beautiful  and  com- 
plete of  all ;  Balliol  College,  with  a  mod- 
ern front  (1867-69)  and  a  modern  Gothic 
chapel ;  Brasenose  College ;  and  New  Col- 
lege (more  than  600  years  old),  largely 
consisting  of  the  original  buildings,  and 
especially  noted  f(.r  its  gardens  and  clois- 
ters ;   besides  tbe  Sheldonian  Theater,  a 
public  hail  of  the  university;  the  new  ex- 
amination schools,  new  museum,  Bodleian 
Library,    Radcliffe    Library,    and    other 
buildinn  .  belonging    to    the    university. 
(See    Oxford    Univeraity.)      Oxford    de- 
pends   mostly    on    tbe    university,    and 
on    its    attractions    as    a    place    of   resi- 
dence.      Pop.     53,049. — ^The     county    is 
bounded      by     Northampton,     Warwick, 
Gloucester,     Berks     and     Buckingham ; 
area,  750  sq.  miles,  of  which  more  than 
five-sixths  are  under  crops  or  in  grass. 
The  south  part  of  the  county  presents  al- 
ternations of  hill  and   dale,  the  former, 
particularly    the    Chiltern    Hills,    being 
beautifully  varied  with  fine  woods,  tracts 
of  arable  land,   and   open  sheep   downs. 
The  central  parts  are  more  level,  and  are 
also  adorned  by  numerous  woods.     Much 
of  the  soil  is  well  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  green  crops  and  barley.     The  grass- 
lands are  also  rich  and  extensive,  dairy 
husbandry  is  largely  practiced,  and  great 
quantities   of  butter  are   made.     Manu- 
factures  are   of  little   imnortance.     The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Thames  or  Isis, 
Thame,    Evenlode,    Cherwell    and    Wind- 
rnsh.     Pop.  109.277. 
Oxford,    ^™'-    ^^«  Barley. 

Oxford-ClaV  •"  geology,  a  bed  of 
vuuiu  vmy,  ^ark-blue  or  blackish 
clav,  internosed  between  the  Lower  and 
Middle  Oitlites,  so  called  from  its  being 
well  developed  in  Oxfordshire.  It  some- 
times attains  a  thickness  of  from  200  to 


BOO  feet,  and  aboonda  In  beautlfolly  pn> 
■erred  fuaaii  abells  of  belemnitesi  ammo* 
nitea,  etc. 

Oxford  TJnivenity,  J°«.?'Bi2h 

universities,  established  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  situated  in  the  citv  of  Chcford 
(which  see).  Like  Cambridge  it  em- 
braces a  number  of  colleges  forming  dis- 
tinct corporations,  of  which  the  oldest  is 
believed  to  be  University  College,  dating 
from  1253,  though  Merton  College  was 
the  first  to  adopt  the  collegiate  system 
proper.  The  following  list  contains  the 
name  of  the  colleges,  with  the  time  when 
each  was  founded : — 

1.  ITnlverstty  College    1253 

2.  Balliol   College    1:^08 

8.  Merton  College   1274 

4.  Exeter  College 1314 

6.  Oriel  College   1326 

6.  Queen's  College 1340 

7.  New   College    1379 

8.  Lincoln  College 1427 

9.  All  Souls'  College 1437 

10.  Magdalen   ColIe;;e   1458 

11.  Brasenose  College  1509 

12.  Corpus  Chrlstl  College 1516 

13.  Christ  Church  College 1548 

14.  Trinity  College   1554 

15.  St   John's  College    1555 

16.  Jesus  College 1571 

17.  Wadham  College 1612 

18.  Pembroke  Colle'^e   1624 

19.  WorcCBtor   College    1714 

20.  Keble   Col'ce    1870 

21.  Hertford  College 1874 

There  are  also  two  '  Halls,'  St.  Mary 
Hall  and  St.  Edmund  Hall,  which  are 
similar  institutions,  but  differ  from  the 
colleges  in  not  being  corporate  bodies. 

Oxford  University  is  an  institution  of 
quite  the  same  character  as  that  of  Cam- 
bridge. (See  Cambridge,  Vniveraity  of.) 
Most  of  the  students  belong  to  and  re- 
side in  some  college  (or  hall),  but  since 
1869  a  certain  number  have  been  ad- 
mitted without  belonging  to  any  of  these 
institutions.  The  students  receive  most 
of  their  instruction  from  tutors  attached 
to  the  individual  colleges,  and  those  of 
each  college  dine  together  in  the  college 
hall  and  attend  the  college  chapel.  The 
ordinary  students  are  called  '  commoners.' 
There  are  four  terms  or  periods  of  study, 
known  as  Michaelmas,  Hilary  or  Lent, 
Easter  and  Trinity  or  Act.  The  two  lat- 
ter have  no  interval  between  them,  so 
that  tbe  terms  of  residence  are  three  of 
about  eight  weeks  each.  The  degrees  con- 
ferred are  those  of  Bachelor  and  Master 
in  Arts,  and  Bachelor  and  Dnptor  in  Mu- 
sic, Medicine.  Civil  I-«w  and  Divinity. 
Twelve  terms  of  residence  are  required 
for  the  ordinary  degree  of  B.A.  No  ftir- 
ther  residence  is  necessary  for  any  degree, 
and  no  residence  whatever  is  requirod  fer 


a 


§• 


o 

I 


o 


si 


o. 


§ 

a. 

I 

a 


3 
M 


a* 
I 


g 


QiidM 


Oxjfgn 


degnei  in  mnaic.  Any  B.A.  may  proceed 
to  the  degree  of  M.A.  without  further 
exunimtion  or  exercise,  ia  the  twenty- 
aevttith  term  from  his  matricolatlMi.  pro- 
vided he  1>M  kept  his  name  on  the  books 
of  some  college  or  hall,  or  apon  the  reg- 
ister of  onattached  stadents  for  a  period 
of  twenty-six  tnrms.  In  the  case  of  all 
other  dsgrurs  (except  hoaonunr  ones) 
some  examinatkm  or  exwcise  w  neces- 
sary. Wwnen  were  admitted  to  the  ex> 
aminations  in  1884,  but  do  not  receive  de- 
grees. Three  colleges  for  women  have 
been  established;  Bomerrille  Hall,  Ladr 
Margaret  Hall  and  St  Hoik's  HalL 
Mansfield  College,  for  the  education  of 
men  for  the  nonconformist  ministry,  was 
established  in  1888.  The  total  number  of 
students  is  about  8000.  The  total  num- 
ber of  professorships,  etc.,  in  tiie  univer- 
sity is  about  fifty.  The  total  annual 
revenues  are  between  $2,000^000  and  $2,- 
600,000.  The  institutions  connected  with 
the  university  include:  the  Bodldan  Li- 
brary (the  second  in  the  kingdom),  the' 
Ashmolean  Museum,  Botanic  Gardens, 
Taylor  Instituticm  for  modem  languages. 
University  Museum,  Badcliffe  library. 
Observatory  and  Indian  Institute.  Affil- 
iated Colleges  are:  St  David's  College, 
I^mpeter  (1880)  :  University  College, 
Nottingham  (1882)  ;  and  Firth  College, 
Sheffi^  (1886). 

Oridea  (oks'Ids),  the  compounds  of 
vAAuv*  oxygen  with  one  other  element ; 
thus  hydrogen  and  oxygen  form  owide  of 
hitdrogen  or  hydrogen  owiie,  oxygen  and 
chlorine  form  a  series  of  emde$  of  chlo- 
ritw,  oxygen  and  copper  form  oSide  of 
coppor  or  copper  oxide,  and  so  on.  When 
two  oxides  of  the  same  element  exist  the 
name  of  that  which  contains  the  greater 
proportion  of  oxygen  ends  in  to,  while  the 
name  of  the  oxide  containing  less  oxygen 
ends  in  wu:  thus  we  have  NiO,  l  d 
nitroua  owide,  and  NfOt,  called  m.  o 
omtde.  If  there  be  several  oxides  they 
may  be  distinguished  by  such  prefixes  as 
hypo,  per,  etc,  or  by  the  more  exact  pre- 
fixes mono,  di,  tri,  tetra,  etc.  For  the 
different  oxides  see  the  articles  on  the 
{ndividnal  chemical  elements. 
OtHh  (okslip:  Primila  eUitiwr),  a 
VAU|P  'jjjnj  q{  primrose,  so  called  from 
some  resemblance  in  the  fiowers  to  the 
lips  ot  an  ox,  and  intermediate  between 
the  primrose  and  cowslip. 
A._n*AV*ra  (oks'pek-«rs>,  •  name  for 
UZ-peOKen  ^^^aln  African  birds, 
also  known  as  Beef-emUira  (which  see). 
fWtia  Amoo.  Amoo-Daua.  or  Jihoon, 
v&tts,  ^  j^,^  ^^„  in  Central  Asia, 
which  has  its  sources  between  the  Thian 
Shan  and  Hindu  Rush  ranges  in  the  els- 
vatad  region  kaown  as  the  Pamir,  flowt 
3A— U— 6 


W.  throtuh  a  broad  valley  and  K.W. 
through  the  dcasrta  of  westsm  l^ofkeslaa 
to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  flaa  <3 
AraL  The  Oxns  for  a  cMi^erable  dis- 
tance foms  the  bonndary  between  Af- 
akanistan  and  Bokhara.  Total  eoorK, 
laOOmika. 

Oxy-aoetylene  Flame  fe'gJ'SSSJ 

tnre  of  osygcn  and  acetylene  gas.  The 
highest  fumaoe  teinperatare,  with  solid 
fnel,  is  about  8000*  F.  1%e  oxy-hydrocen 
flamsgivsa  a  maximum  of  neariy  4000* 
F.  The  oxy-acetyl«ne  blowpipe  yields  a 
temporatare  of  6800  *  F.  An  envelope  of 
hydrog«i,  whidi  at  the  great  temperature 
generated  doea  not  eomUne  with  the  oxy- 
rai,  surrounds  the  flame  of  the  tons. 
The  oxy-acetylene  llame  is  smidoyed  for 
various  purposes  wh««  a  great  heat  ia 
required,  such  as  welding,  caulking,  leaks, 
eta  It  is  also  exter^vely  used  for  cut- 
ting metaL  It  has  been  found  useful  in 
Rearing  up  metallie  wreckage,  as  sted 
building  stmetures,  bridges,  etc.  It  nmkm 
•  dean  eat  of  little  width.  See  Aoetylena. 

fcycoconi  i^^?/-^.'  Sa!S3'«£ 

der  Vaocinaee*^  commonly  known  as  the 
cranberry  (whidt  see). 
Otvimiti  (oks'i-Jen),  a  caa  which  is  tiie 
VXy^U  m,^  ,^ijj  Jlrtributed  of  aU 
tiie  elements.  ESght-ninths  by  weigbt  of 
water,  one-fourth  of  air,  and  about  ^w- 
half  of  silica,  dialk  and  alumina  consist 
of  oxygen.  It  enters  into  the  constitution 
of  nearly  all  the  important  rocks  and 
minerals;  it  existo  in  the  tissues  and 
Uood  of  animals ;  without  it  we  could  not 
live,  and  by  ita  agency  disintegratioa  <^ 
the  animal  frame  is  carried  <m  after 
death.  All  processes  of  reqdration  we 
carried  on  through  the  agency  of  oxygen, 
all  ordinary  processes  of^  burning  and  of 
produdng  li^t  are  possible  <mly  in  the 
presence  of  this  gas.  Oxygen  was  first 
isdated  in  1774  by  Joseph  Priertley. 
Lavosier,  the  year  following  Priestley  s 
discovery,  put  forward  the  opinion  that 
the  new  gas  was  identical  with  the  sub- 
stance wnidi  existo  in  common  air,  and 
gave  the  name  oxygen — ^from  the  Greek 
o»y$,  add,  and  root  gen  to  produce—be- 
cause he  supposed  that  it  was  present  as 
the  active  constituent  in  all  adds;  mod- 
em experiments,  however,  prove  that  it 
is  not  necessary  in  all  cases  to  addity  or 
combustion.  Oxygen  is  invisible,  inodor- 
ous, and  tasteless;  it  is  the  least  refrac- 
tive, but  the  most  magnetic  of  all  the 
gases ;  it  is  ratiier  heavier  than  air.  hav- 
mg  a  spedflc  gravity  of  1.1006,  referred 
to  air  as  LOO ;  it  is  sdnhle  in  water  to 
tlw  eztHit  of  about  three  volamea  in  100 
▼•luBM  ct  watw  at  ordiBaiy  t«ap«n- 


(hqrhjdrosea  Blowpipe 


Ojiter. 


S^    ^9^  ^f*  liqB«fi«d  for  th*  fint 
tiin*  in  1877  bjr  tlit  applieatioo  of  iatenw 

chemicai  aetiTity,  UTinc  •  powerful  at- 
traction for  most  of  the  lOmpU  mib- 
•tancM,  the  act  of  combiniiiff  with  which 
is  called  ozidaUon.  Some  eobftaacea 
when  brought  into  contact  with  this  gae 
unite  with  it  eo  Wolently  a*  to  produce 
light  and  heat;  in  other  caaea  oxidation 
is  much  more  gradual,  aa  in  the  ruatiqg 
of  metala.  The  preaence  of  oxygen  ia,  ao 
far  aa  we  linow,  one  of  the  phyiical  con- 
ditiona  of  life.  In  inapiring  we  receive 
into  the  lunga  a  anpply  of  oxygen;  tUa 
caygen  ia  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  Ta- 
riona  parta  of  the  body,  and  there  de- 
poaited  to  aid  in  the  functiona  of  the  or* 
nna;  the  deoxygenated  blood  retuma  to 
the  lungs,  and  again  receivea  a  freah  aup- 


ply  of  the  neceaaary  oxjgen.  Tteea  and 
planta  eTolve  oxygen,  which  ia  formed  hr 
the  decompoaition  of  the  carbonic  acid 
absorbed  hj  the  leavea  from  the  atmos- 
phere. Thia  ia  due  to  the  action  of  the 
sun's  rays  and  the  chlorophyll  or  green 
coloring  matter  of  the  leaves.  When 
oxygen  unites  with  another  element  the 
product  is  called  an  omide.  The  oxides 
form  a  most  important  series  of  chemical 
compounds  (see  Omidet  and  the  articles 
on  the  various  chemical  elements).  I%e 
power  of  supporting  combustion  is  one  of 
the  leading  features  of  oxygen,  and  until: 
the  discovery  of  oxycen  no  well-founded 
explanation  of  the  nets  of  combustion 
wsa  known.  Oxygen  exiats  in  another 
form  different  from  that  of  the  ordinary 
gas ;  in  this  form  it  exhibits  many  marked 
peculiarities.    See  Oton«. 

Oxyhydrogen  Blowpipe. 

See  Blowpipe. 

Oxyhydrogen  Light  je«„^JrSS: 

UGHT.  a  brilliant  light  produced  when  a 

Jet  of  mixed  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gas 
I  ignited  and  directed  on  a  solid  piece  of 
lime.  It  is  commonly  used  in  magic  lan- 
tern exhibitions;  and  the  two  gases  are 
kept  in  separate  air-ti(tht  bags,  or  iron 
cylinders  into  which  the  jas  Is  forced 
under  very  higfa  pressure.  From  these  re- 
ceptacles tubes  conduct  the  gases  to  meet 
in  a  common  jet 

Oxyhydrogen   Hicroscope, 

one  in  which  the  object  is  illuminated  by 
means  of  the  oxyhydrogen  light,  and  a 
magnified  image  of  it  thrown  on  a  screen. 

O^ynioron  {.Scr^rte^'in^^whfcS \S 

eMtfaet  of  quite  contrary  aigniiication  is 
added  to  a  word ;  as,  crow  kudncsa 


ajqrrhynehni  U43'l;,lil.S  SS 

sacred  to  the  goddess  Athor,  and  repr? 
seated  ia  sculptures  and  on  coins.  It  was 
anciently  eaOKtlmed. 

Ozrria  (^l!^^*)'  *  c^p*  «f  plants 

YAIf*^  ^  tta  aa*.  ordsrPalMottieMS. 
O.  rmH/sfwir  itmountaia  sarask  Is-  fraud 
on  the  summits  of  the  Whits  lihinntaina. 
and  north  to  the  Arctic  Sea. 
OxVialtl  (oka'i-aftlts),  ia  cbetniatiT, 
^  "f  those  salts  whidi  contein 
oxygen.  The  oxysalts  form  a  very  im- 
portant series  of  subsUnces ;  among  them 
are  included  all  the  sulphates,  nitiates, 
oxides,  hydrates,  chlorates,  carbonates, 
boratea,  allicatea,  etc. 

Oxyralnhide  (oks-i^i^'«id),  a  com- 

fr  ,  .  pound  formed  by  the 
combination  of  aulphur  and  oxygen  with 
a  metal  or  other  element  Tlie  oxysul- 
phides  are  not  very  numerous  ^ov  im- 
portant 

Oyama,  Xaronis  <o'yA-n>*)^«Japa- 

V         ^J^r^\^  nese general,  b  rn 

about  1842.  Aa  chief-of-staff  an<j  field 
marahal,  he  was  commander-in-chief  in 
the  war  with  Russia  in  1904,  and  com- 
manded in  person  in  the  latter  part  of 
JP**L^*;*9'*2°»  campaign.  He  received 
the  British  Order  of  Merit  in  1906w 

Oyer  and  Terminer  ^/^^*.'  ^^' 

The  name  of  courts  of  criminal  Jurisdic^ 
tion  in  the  United  States,  generally  held 
at  the  same  time  witii  the  Court  of 
Quarter  Seaaiona,  and  by  the  aame  judgea, 
and  which  have  power,  as  the  terma  im- 
ply, to  hear  and  determine  all  treasons, 
felonies,  and  miademeanors  committed 
within  their  Jurisdiction.  The  terma 
x7^^J^^^  Terminer  are  derived  from  the 
Old  French. 

Oyster  (ot>'t*r).  •»  edlUe  molluac, 
»/„  <""*   o'  *•>«   LameUibranchiate 

MpUuaca,  and  a  near  ally  of  the  mus- 
■el".  etc.  It  belongs  to  the  genus  0$trwa, 
famfly  Oetrerida,  the  members  of  which 
are  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  an 
Inequivalve  shell,  the  one  half  or  valve 
being  larger  than  the  other.  The  Bhell 
may  be  free,  or  attached  to  fixed  objecta, 
or  may  be  simply  imbedded  in  the  mud. 
The  foot  is  small  and  rudhnentary,  or 
""*y  ,*»e, '^ting.  A  aingle  (adductor) 
mnacle  for  cloaing  the  shell  is  developed, 
rhe  most  common  American  species  is 
Ottnta  virginUnm,  which  is  found  on  the 
Atlantic  coast^from  the  Gulf  of  St  Law- 
f^^h?.^J*""  "i  Mexico.*^''n,e  m<;it 

beda  appear  to  be  those  situated  in  parta 
wBere  the  cnrrente  are  not  too  strong. 

covarea    by    mud   and    gnrvel    deposits. 


Oyiter 


OjiIm 


m«B  moBber  of  tte  genu..  The  fry  or  ^S^^^it^L^'iiS^SrS' J^t^JST^I^ 
fertUlBed-oTa  of  the  oystera  are  termed  iSg,^  ^M^^TmSi^SmSjS^**^ 
'  ipat,'  and  enormooa  numbera  of  era  are  oatad.) 

produced  by  each  individual  from  May  *  p.  Tte  torn  bnaobiat  pons  wkieh  «p«i  tnm 
or    June    to    September— the    ip*wninff  the  ■ub^rfcUJ  •avhtoe  c<  the  pomhMM  ga»  « 

body  inclowjd  within  a  minute  but  per-  ^JJ^ST  ""^  "*  ***  ****  i«>«  «-  tHli  to  «he 
fecuy  formed  ahdl,  and  poaaeaaing  ribra-     «,  gji^%  pMioanUM  membiaBe,  which  baa  ben 

thro«m  beok  over  U  in  oidw  to  eqwee  the  heeit 


cL  GloMal  epaoe.  thraach  whieh  the  wetw  \ 

oa  nepiratioa  pewiM  mxt.  mad  into  which  the  eiera* 
Beat  of  the  animal  ia  diaelwrMd  froin  the  vent  t. 

d.  Narvooa  oemmiiire  ot  tha  right  iide,  whidi 
•ooMeto  tha  pariato-epinMhnia  wlA  tha 


0.  OiDa,  which  estaad  aa  four  gnttenad  tnu»- 
vanaljr,  aubdiiridad  aaolca  from  tlia  pelpa  y  to  tha 
point  if.  at  tha  adge  ol  tlia  mantle. 

t «.  Superfioial  natwock  ot  tha  aanentive  doetp 
ae  thav  appear  whan  tha  oyatar  ia  yawnitw. 

h.  Qroovein  tha  Idnaa  end  ol  the  left  valve,  wliieh 
raecivca  tha  lidas  developed  in  ttie  umeapuiMHm 
■ituatioa  on  tha  light  one. 

1.  Dark  teowa  ebirtia  bodj  or  HgMBcnt  by  wkteh 
the  valvaa  are  held  together  at  the  hin«e. 

M.  Qreat  abdaetor  muacte,  which  ia  liere  viewed 
from  the  and,  and  whieh  ia  attaehed  to  the  inner 
(aoaa  of  tha  viitvea  over  the  daric  purple  acaia.  It 
oppoaea  the  elaatie  Hanment  and  ooaea  tlia  valvaa, 
and  eorreaponda  to  the  poeterior  abductor  moaala 
of  dimyary  mnliiiaha 

•».  Mouth. 

a»  I.  Maude  ot  tha  left  iide  feinged  with  two  rowa 
of  tentaelaa;  m  t,  portion  of  tha  mantle  of  tha  rii^ 
■da. 

»  to  •  mailm  the  aattcBt  to  whieh  the  li^t  and 
left  leavar  ot  the  mantle  are  joined  together;  the 
hood  thai  formed  above  and  at  the  adea  of  tlia 
palpa  ia  called  tha  eaeuUua. 

P.  Fa^  aspoeed,  a  part  «f  the  eoeulhaa  on  tha 
light  being  cat  away. 

p  d.  Mat  mnade  of  li^t  ride,  whieh  hi  ake 
inaerted  upon  the  ahell  of  the  aaSM  ride. 

Pff.  Pyiet»i|>landinie  garni 

t.  Cienitai  opening  of  the  right  ■ 

a  g.  Smrawitophagcai  gan 


v«.  VentrUde  of  Uie  heart,  which  ia  dibtad,  or  to 
the  eondition  of  itiaetoln 

\c  X  X.  Areaa  at  the  edge  of  the  inner  mrfaee  c< 

tha  ahell.  where  intruded  mud  haa  been  ineloead 

by  a  thin  lamina  of  ahaUy  matter  depoaited  by  the 

mantle. 

y.  Point  at  the  poeterior  eztrmity  of  tlie  gOli, 

Ahatomt  of  TBI  OTarm.  where  the  right  and  left  leavea  oftibe  mantle  are 

A    Hinge  M  anterior  umbonal  end  ot  the  left  joined  together  by  the  membrane  iriiich  aupporti 

valve  of  an  adult  oyater,  upon  which  the  ioft  parte  toe  gUia. 

of  the  animal  are  repreeented  ae  they  lie  »n«iji,  but  v.  v     *v 

iiriththe9<|M«partaf  the^nande  of  the  right  ade  tile    filamenta    or    dlia,    by    which    the 
removed.  .    ^ ......    ^  young  animal  at  firat  awima  freely  about, 

a«.  T^  auriefe  of  the  right  aide  of  the  heart  ^j^A  then  attadiea  itaelf  to  aome  object 
omtrMted.  _j^»k-,i-ftw»i«i  wMoh  In  about  three  yeara  it  attaina  ita  fuB 

inli.^2rsss55^i^'S^««^i^  r^  ??%°A".  T«r«**?  ***^f 

£i^  t^aet  offiMling  ud  napiration  ia  aepa-  in  tilieir  attached- state  to  form  large  aub 
nkteddishtlv  from  the  marsiB  of  ita  f^ow  ot  the  marine  tracts  or   '  oyster-beds,'  as  th^ 
opporiteVda  to  admit  the  water  for  r^imtioB^  »re  termed. 
^aSStiao  eoataine  the  animal'a  food  m  aoapen-      ^^  United  States  and  France  are  th» 

t»v«.Ml  eapertdally  by  the  ?W?Ln^£*Il«  "^JSLfi^^l^^^I-vi?  !^ 


BWaUve 


t*> 


United  States  the  utaral  oyat«r>beda  ai» 


0jit*rBk7 


0mm 


fields   in   tlM   ojrwter   iaOmtrr^atSi 
?v.^«.lf'«*    qnwitltte.    of    AmSoS 


in  tbe  United  State*.    The  most  eUbont« 
■J»t«a  o'  oyster  cultnrt  is  tlut  p«^23 

?;  ?if'K;*L.?*»'  Portsmouth,  in  Bnfknd^ 
la  the  breeding  seuoa  the  yomw  orsten 

f.?d  &'t  '"^L.*H*«  o'  hSSicsg 

law  down  in  artificial  ponds  or  trnamt»^ 

to  mrk^er  "'  '•»'*  O'iSltt^ri^'SS 

Oyster  Bay.  *  residence  place  and 
Mn  n«    »T      »  rommer  resort  in  Naa- 

Wand  Sonnu,  about  »)  miles  eastward 
te/r„Y«'-''  City.  Pop.  400O.  £- 
^^ent  Roowvelt  resides  ^ere. 

uyster-oatoher  (^«f »»»■<»?««  o«<r«> 

lon^n,  to  the  order'^S'^raliatoSs  ^r 
7cAi&  "*!5'  •'"•^  to  the  ff^e™ 
the  ■^^^il^^'T*"?'  S?P«>«rly  knowb  as 


teins.  intsrsecUnc  in  a  mm&ZJtd^ 
■■8 ;  height  abont  1400  fast 
""i^ri  it!!Sl?^Ji  ^  ^"''i  *"  Sardinia, 
..'*?ol"^."-^"^'«*^ 


•  bishop.    *  „p.  „«,„. 

Ozokerite  (t^'ke-m),  a  fossU  resin 

sf n';.  •  W->'^'S.orsss 

!i«2*"i./*(.  *•!•  5f^'  measures,  and  occur- 
mSS.H«!?^  i^.P^''^***.'"  AnstrS:  Small 

rJriiiJS,  ^'»"t'"»ow8hii2,  "*  "t  Urpeft 
Colliery,  Newcastle-on-l^ne,  and  TUloaa 
H™*^**It  It  «»t»iM  <«Son  and  h? 
nJT-"**"  f"«J?«J>Portton  of  86  pSTcent 

?fhen  S.'SflLiVii*'  **»*v»'  tfclatter. 
fr«!  «W!l°^  ft  forms  a  hard  paraflln. 

factured.  It  is  used  to  some  sstent  as 
an  adulterant  of  bees'-waz. 

Ozone  <*"*n}'^?«*?«*— *«5»>nicaUy 

an  aao^H)pio— form  of  oxygeiL 

*yo    »oJo?e«    of   wwne    contain    SSee 

volumes    of    oxygen    condensed    to  ^o 

in^n^  Oione  exists  in  small  quantitiM 
lUp"-^Sr*'^l''  ??<»  ,«■.  PrSdaced.in' 


a"u^  ^'^^ -"-^^^^^^^ 

«Mjfc     *'   ^'  *^«°   «   severe   cold,   but 

^S'.rx.'x^r'"""'  "^  "^  " 

Ozaka  '^  om**; 


[«M  w-M    Nirt  •  ■"•  ,*■  produced  in 
i«  .-^1-  *'■•  ir'*"  »"  electric  machine 

Sf-f^S?**^*^ '  ■**"-•  discharge  of  light- 
ShftiJX.''^1  r*"  If,  Pew^ttble.  ^e 
S?!r^''''A**'   ™««e8t8  this  odor  is 

SSfn.  .J*"**  •**«  <*««  *■  produced 
^tlM^«\:7^  powerful  oxidiaeTl 
lor  mis  reason  it  Is  of  great  service  in 

ful    a5i«.r-fc  compawtivefy  SK 

MS:  v"^-^  :^v^eSb,?'Ki! 

sivcjfcr^:^^^^^^ 


p  the  sixtMnth  letter  and  twelfth  e<ni> 
"'  Bunant  in  the  English  alphabet  It 
is  one  of  the  mutea  and  lahiulB,  and  rei>- 
rsMents  a  sound  produced  by  doaely  com- 
ItressiDK  tlie  lips  till  the  breath  is  coUected, 
and  then  letting  it  iasae.  See  B. 
Pabna  (pub'ni),  chief  town  of  district 
of  same  name,  Bengal,  on  the 
river  Ichamati;  contains  the  usual  pub- 
lic buildings  and  a  large  indigo  fac- 
tory. Pop.  18.424.— The  district  forma 
the  southeast  corner  of  the  Rajshabi  Di- 
vision, and  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the 
Brahmaputra,  and  on  its  southwest 
frontier  by  the  Ganges.  Area,  1847 
nquare  miles.  Pop.  1,^0,461. 
pa  no  (pA'ka;  Calogeny*'),  a  genus  of 
rodents  allied  to  the  capybaras, 
ravies,  and  agoutis.  The  common  paca 
(C  poca)  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
rodents,  b<>ing  about  2  feet  long  and 
about  I  foot  high.  In  form  it  is  thick 
and  clumsy,  and  the  tail  is  rudimentary. 


Oommon  Paca  (Ctelogtnjft  psea). 

In  habits  the  pacas  are  chiefly  nocturnal 
and  herbivorous.  They  excavate  bur- 
rows, run  swiftly,  and  swim  and  dive 
with  facilit:^.  They  are  found  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  South  America,  from 
Paraguay  to  Surinam.  The  flesh  is  said 
to  be  savory. 

Pacav  (P*-k*'),  a  Peruvian  tree  (Pro- 
w  tCpia  dulcia),  nat.  order  Le- 
guminosK,  suborder  MimosK.  The  pure 
white,  flaky  matter  in  which  the  seeds 
are  embedded  is  used  as  food,  and  the 
pods,  which  are  nearly  two  feet  long, 
serve  for  feeding  cattle.  The  mesquite 
(which  see)  belongs  to  the  same  genus. 
Pftce  (pA')*  '^  measure  of  length,  used 
as  a  unit  for  long  distances.  It 
Im  derived  from  the  Latin  pa««««.  which 
was,   l.owever,   a  different   measure,  the 


Latin  pMtut  being  meaaared  from  tbt 
mark  of  the  heel  of  one  foot  to  the  heel 
of  the  same  foot  when  it  next  touched 
the  ground,  thus  stretching  over  two 
steps;  while  the  English  pace  is  meas- 
ured from  heel  to  heel  in  a  single  step. 
The  Latin  pace  was  somewhat  less  than 
6  feet:  the  English  and  American  mil- 
itary pace  at  the  ordinary  marching  rata 
ia  2M  feet,  and  It  double  quick  time  8 
feet 

Paoha.   8ee^"»». 

Pafiheeo  (pA-ch§iio),  Fbancisco,  a 
xaoueco  ^p„nigh  painter,  born  at  Se- 
Tille  in  1571 ;  died  in  1(154.  He  was  the 
pupil  of  Luis  Femandea,  and  the  instruc- 
tor of  Velasquea,  who  became  his  son- 
in-law.  In  his  own  time  he  attained 
great  popularity.  Of  his  numerous  por- 
traits those  of  bis  wife  and  of  Cervantes 
were  the  most  admired.  Pacheco  waa 
tb<;  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  Art  of 
Painting, 

PAfihina.  (pa-kl'ra),  a  genus  of  trop- 
x^agmra  ^^,  ^^merican  trees  allied  to 
the  baobab-tree.  The  hirgest  flowered 
species,  P.  tnacrantha,  found  in  Brazil, 
attains  a  height  of  100  feet,  and  has 
flowers  15  inches  long.  The  plants  are 
familiar  in  our  hothouses  under  the  nam* 
of  Carolinea. 

Pachomius  iPsf  ia>,'wS'**Sl 

first  who  Introduced,  instead  of  the  free 
hermit  life,  the  regular  association  of 
monks  living  in  cloisters,  having  founded 
one  of  them  on  Tabenna,  an  island  of 
the  Nile,  about  340  a.d.  He  was  also 
the  founder  of  the  first  nunnery,  and  at 
his  death  is  said  to  have  had  the  over* 
sight  of  above  7000  monks  and  nuna. 
Pachnca  (l»A-ch3'k*).  a  town  of  Mex- 

dalgo,  in  a  rich  silver-mining  rerion, 
about  8200  feet  above  the  sea.  Fop. 
37,487. 

Pachydermata  i,f^'J;^t't^,]^ 

applied  to  the  division  or  order  of  Mam- 
malia, including  the  elephants,  tapirsL 
hippopotamus,  rhinocetoa,  swine,  and 
byrax  —  all  of   which   foma  were  dia> 


HehyfloiMi 


tiagaiibcd  b7  their  thick  skiii.  by  tbtir 


TuHdoBg 


Boa-mioiunt  habit*,  ud  by  th.lr  JSi. 
WMioff  more  than  ont  hoof  oo  Mchlct. 
Tha  group  ii  now  divided  amoDc  th«  va- 
SSSla'l  **'   ^^   Unfulita.    Sea 

PaohVfflotSflB  <P«k-i-||loa'rt).   ■   mc. 

-  i.°f  .*  ^^'S"*'  ^^^y  tongue,  convex,  with 
•  ilifbt  nicli  at  the  end.  It  inciudea  th* 
Iffuanaa  and  agamaa. 

PaohyrhlzOl  (F>k-l-'r«»)f  a  genua 

.,   ..«.«•  ^j  tropical   leguminouB 

planta  common  to  both  hemispherea.    P. 

f!!S*!!!fV  •""  *?',•'?  ">"»•  o'  «««»  ''ngth 
and  thicltnesa.  which  are  used  in  timea  of 
acarcltv  as  an  article  of  diet. 

Paoino  Ocean  Ip^*'''''^:  originaiiv 

a*n\     ♦!.-*   I  ^w'gnated  the  South 

Z.ut'i.  *"■'  jniinense  expanse  of  water 
which  extends  betwaen  the  North  and 
South  American  c<Ainents  and  Asia 
and  Australia  It  is  the  iargwt  of  the 
oceans,  exceeding  in  compan  the  whole 
of  the  four  continents  taken  together,  and 
occupying  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the 
earths   area,  and   fully   one-half   of  its 

Z^^thJV^A^-  ^°  *•*«  '•«"*  *t  extends 
to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  has  several 
more  or  less  distinct  seas  connected  with 
It  — the  China  Sea.  Yellow  Sea,  Sea  of 
Japan,  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  etc.,  on  the  north 
It  communicates  with  the  Arctic  Ocean 
by  Behring  Straits,  on  the  south  it  is 
bounded  bv  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  and  on 

Ho«f"*wV,J°'°1uJ*'«  Atlantic  at  Cne 
Horn.  Within  this  enormous  circum- 
ference it  includes  the  numerous  islands 
TOinposIng  the  groups  of  Australaaia  and 
Polynesia,  and  those  adjoining  America 
and  Asia.    The  average  depth  of  the  Pa- 

fi.«  a"J?''*?"  *°  J^,  greater  than  that  of 
the  Atlantic,  and  its  bed  more  uniform. 

fSi^'??'*"','^  J°  the  south  of  the 
Friendly    Islands  give   a   depth   of  from 

ffii^  ^°'n*^  ^^'''"°"'  ^»'«"t  five 
?i^  iiT^^'/.u^'^P^^*  soundings  known 
are  4475  fathoms  s.  of  the  Ladrone 
Islands,  and  4655  fathoms  n.  e.  of  Ja^ 
pan.     (See  Ocean.)     In  the  Pacific  the 

#£^  ?i*u*'  ""^'^  ^^^  maximum  heights 
for  which  some  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Indian  oceans  are  celebrated.  On  all 
the  west  coast  of  America  the  rise  of  the 

Intbl'^nLTA^^''''  ^^  ^^»'  "d  <,nlj 
•n  the  Bay  of  Panama  does    t  vary  from 

?h/^*  t°  1«  feet-  The  trad^w'nds  of 
the  Pacific  are  not  so  regular  in  their 
L^s  as  those  of  the  Atlantic.  aSd  tbta 
Irregularity  extends  over  a  mich  wioet 
-HS^^J.'^  *^®  ^^^e  of  the  sootheast  irade- 
wmd  than  in  the  case  of  the  northeast 
Jha  cause  of  this  is  the  greater  nuXr 
«f  islands  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean, 
which,  aapecialiy  in  the  hot  season.  dS 


turn  tbt  naiformlty  of  atnioapharie  prta* 
ZU.7  JlJ**  «»«»««tlona.  *Th;  iiSrX 
cast  tradfwiiui  mnaina  tba  whola  yaar 
throagh  within  tha  nortban  htSSpS^ 
S^H  ■*!!*''•"*  »w»da.wiBd.  on  tha  other 
hand,  advancea  beyond  tha  aqoator.  boS 
in  summer  and  winter,  still  pJeaenrfnTlU 
original  direction.  In  the  rMion  atntc" 
i°f, '«>»  New  Guinea  and  tka  Sblomn 
i?.."*!  T2I"''SJ;**«'^  there  are  no  m? 
«tV^*'°*-  The  aonea  of  the  two  tradT 
*'2'*'-»f?."*P*'»ted  by  regiona  of  ^ma 
and  of  light  winda,  the  ^it*  of  whSh 
HtlL  "'  """ev^'th  tha  varying  nJi  of 

J?^ku■*i'•^   ^"    *•»•   Chinie   aew    tha 
terrible  typhoon  occasionally  ragea.  and 

current$,aiari$te.    The  Portuguese  were 
cmn*^^i^"i;?'^iH.Y"«'  enterld  the  pI! 

-  •  .?  /"l^'  discovered  it  from  tha 
fhf?.K°'  the  mpuntaina  which  traveiaa 
the  lathmus  of  Darien.  MagelUn  sailed 
«»••  It  from  west  to  east  Ui  1520-21 
Drake.  Taaman.  Behring.  Anson,  Byroi* 
Bougainville,  iook.  V^ncouve?^  O 
In?"!l."^<  *"•'•"?'  traversed  it  in  diflSrI 
efg'htS'rtuSe..*'"'    ■*^'°'«"»''    "«> 

Faoinian  Corpuscles  (p«->in'i- 

?£"J'xtSSl'tiL'''V  ^}*?  -PP^ndSd'to 
"e    extremities    of    certain    nerves,    ea- 

prolwbly  connected  with  the  sense  of 
^uch :  named  after  an  Italian  anitoiist 
Packer  (P*lt'er),  Asa,  philanthropist* 
I.,.,*  I  -,€^"^.^'9  "t  Oroton,  Connect- 
icut In  1806:  died  In  1879.  He  was  the 
projector  of  the  Lehigh  VillS  R^Md 
and  served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Leri^. 
'"■••"f JnConpe-a^  l/e  iJ^t  kSlt, 
ttS?^  **  ?  "'^'JL'  endowment  of  LeUgh 
University,  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.        *^'"»" 

Packard  <p«"^«rd),  alpbeus  spmwo, 

«i„t  nf-i  *^°'9fhh  was  bom  at  Bruns- 
wick, Maine,  in  1839;  died  in  19(».  He 
became  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the  army, 
ffljecturer  on  natural  history,  and  (i 
iota  professor  of  loology  and  iceolosv  in 
?™kL°  University,  ife^  was*X*'at° 
tached  to  state  and  national  scientific 
surveys  and  to  the  United  States  En- 
tomological Commission.  He  wrote  Ouide 
to  the  Study  of  Inteett,  Outlinet  of 
/nS^eta    ^'"'^""V'    ti'^iHourt    Witk 

Packfon&r  ^^''^'^ong),  a  Chinese  al- 
^    '^       Til.  '°y.  °'  "  ailver-white  color. 

given  of  Ite  composition)  of  copper,  li^ 

«^«.*'"'**i?™***'^    mathematical    inatm- 
ment  maker*,  and  otbeta.  for  a  variety^ 


faok-iM 


Ftditow 


pvrpoMM  for  whIA  Blektl  alloya  art  mw 
•Bplojrad. 

PAAV.iM.  in  tb«  AKtk  atwi,  ao  ia- 
•™^  *  HMDM  MMoblaft  of  Uigt 
flMtiof  picoM  of  ie*.  When  tbo  phcM 
•ro  in  contact  the  pack  ia  Mid  to  bt 
afoMil;  whan  thay  do  not  toach,  tboo^ 
rmef  naar  aacb  otbar,  it  la  aald  t*  ba 

^»«toi«  SsS;Tb."i;.£  avUi! 

rlTcr  of  I^ia,  celebrated  for  ita  ffaUn 
aand.    It  to  now  called  Aarabat. 

bom  at  Bmndoaiam  In  219  ba*  puaed 
tba  freater  part  of  bto  Ufa  at  Bona, 
wbera  ba  becana  famoua  both  for  bla 
poetnr  and  bto  palntinga,  retired  to  Tap 
lentem  darint  bto  laatyean,  and  died  at 
tba  age  of  ninety  la  129  &0.  Only  fraf* 
nente  of  bto  tnikedlea  cztot 
PaHAtur  (pt-dlnc').  a  town  in  Soma* 
*""'•**•  tra,  capital  of  a  residency  of 
tbe  tame  name,  and  teat  of  tba  Dntcb 
gOTemment  of  tbe  West  Cktast,  to  tba 
cbief  market  in  Sumatra  for  coffee  and 
gold.  Tbe  town  embracea  a  Cbinesa  set- 
tlement and  a  European  quarter.  Pop. 
12,000. 

Paddle  ^^'^Ih  •  •'•^^  *»'  *.■'  '^^  ^ 

*«nMMw  propelling  and  steering  canoeii 
and  boata  by  a  vertical  motion.  It  to 
aborter  and  broader  in  tbe  blade  tban  tbe 
common  oar,  and  to  naed  witbout  any  ful- 
crum on  tbe  edge  of  the  t>oat  Tbe  boat- 
men sit  witb  tneir  faces  looking  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  boat  moves,  and 
propel  the  boat  by  dipping  tbe  blade  of 
the  paddle  in  tbe  water  and  pushing  luck- 
wards.  When  there  to  only  one  boatman 
a  paddle  witb  two  bladea  cranected  by  a 
common  handle  ia  used. 

raddlefiBh,  i.vffi'Snr'.r-.ht 

sturgeons,  so  named  from  the  elongated, 
broad  snont  witb  which  it  stirs  up  tbe 
soft  muddy  bottom  in  search  of  food.  It 
often  reaches  a  length  of  from  5  to  6 
feet.  The  paddlefisnes  are  exclusively 
North  American  in  their  distribution,  be- 
ing found  in  tbe  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and 
other  great  riven  of  that  continent. 

Padie-wheel,  ^'^^^v^^i 

two  In  nnmber,  one  placed  on  each  aide 
of  the  vessel)  provioed  witb  boards  or 
floats  on  their  circumferences,  and  driven 
by  the  engine  for  tba  abip'k  proputolon 
throu^  tbe  water.  On  rivera  llabto  to 
anch  ot»tmctlona  aa  floating  trees,  etc ,  a 
alngle  paddla-wbeel  placed  at  tba  stsni 
«£  tha  Tasaal  to  iplafad.   Tkt  aUp  Is 


propelled  bv  tba  riaetkB  of  tba  water 
apoa  tba  floata.  Moat  power  to  gained 
wnmi  tba  floata  are  vertical,  pasalag 
tbroofb  tba  water  perpendkotor  to  tba 
dlrectloo  of  greateat  presanre.  Tba  pad- 
dle-wbeel|  formerlr  common,  to  now  al- 
moat  entirely  confined  to  rivar-boata:  la 
ocean-going  steamera,  and  commonly  la 
river  boats.  It  baa  given  place  to  tha 


Paddv   (Ptd'l),  a  Malayan  word  nnt- 
**wu/    ^r^iii,   adopted   In  tbe   Bast 
Indies  for  rice  In  the  bnak,  wbetber  te 
tba  fleld  or  gathered. 
Padella    "»*?W'4:  lUlton,  a  frying. 

*wimirmin    p«n),  a  sbsllOW  VJSSSl  USSd  Ul 

Ulaalnatlons.  A  number  of  them  are 
partially  flUed  with  some  kind  of  greaaa, 
la  tba  mlddto  of  wblcb  to  ptoced  a  wkk, 
and  are  then  placed  so  aa  to  br'  ig  oat 
when  lifted  tba  outlbies  of  a  bailding. 

^erewilri   ^;f-^>)^:^ 

Ush  pianist,  composer  and  atatesman,  bora 
in  PodoUa,  Busdan  Pcdand.  At  the  eariy 
age  of  three  be  began  to  play  the  plano^ 
and  waa  placed  under  the  care  of  a  teacher 
when  he  was  seven  yeara  of  age.  In  1972 
he  went  to  Wanaw,  where  be  leaned 
harmony  and  counterpoint  from  Roguri(\, 
and  later  pursued  thto  branc*«  of  atudy 
under  Friedrich  E3el  of  Berlin.  From 
1878  to  1884  he  was  a  teacher,  afterwards 
adopting  the  career  of  a  virtuoso,  under 
the  tutelage  of  Leschetixky,  making  bto 
formal  d^but  in  Vienna  in  1887.  In  1889 
he  made  bto  first  appearance  before  a 
Parisian  audience  and  created  a  furore  by 
bto  marveloua  playing.  In  1880  he  gave 
bto  first  program  before  a  London  audi- 
ence, and  in  1891  made  the  first  of  bto 
many  phenomenally  successful  visits  to 
Amerln.  As  a  pianist  he  has  had  few 
equals.  He  composed  an  opera,  Ifanm, 
which  was  produced  at  New  York  in  1902. 
Among  bto  compositions  for  the  piaqo,  Ua 
Iftnae*  to  the  most  celebrated.  Other 
favorites  are  Legend,  Melody,  ToeattOf 
Bwleaquef  and  Caprice.  He  wrote  a 
symphony,  a  sonata  for  violin  and  pianos 
and  several  songs.  Following  the  Euro- 
pean war  (1914-18),  when  arrangements 
were  being  made  to  reconstruct  the  state 
of  Potond,  Paderewski  was  called  npm  to 
form  a  government,  and  the  brilliant  pton- 
ist  became  the  harmonizing  Premier  of 
Pdand  In  1919. 

*••***"■*"**  sumed  by  Ae  Turkish  sal> 
tan  and  Perston  shah,  derived  from  sad 
(protector  or  throne),  and  *Mk  (kuic» 
prince). 

of  tba  OuMk  IS  aUaa  a.w.  of  Bodiy« 


Padua 


Pap.  (1M1>  aMU 

Padua   i^?^^^'    Italian.    IHiMm; 

IUI7,  npita  of  tht  proTinct  of  tbo  Mm* 
nwio,  £2  mi:«  w«rt  of  Vraic*.  on  •  low 
nt   on   tiM   Bacchlflimia,    which    flows 


Pagaat 

t.3u^jf'2jiiir*  "*" '  '•*»•"'  •» 


pralM 

Pad 
Pnony, 


lobaptitti. 

8m  Ptomt, 


Ihruuidi  It  In  Mvtnl  bimBcbn  and  u 
crontd  by  oumtrom  bridget.  Tbo 
hooMt  an  lofty,  tbo  itNtta  narrow,  and 
MTtral  of  tbcM,  aa  wall  aa  aomt  of  tba 
aonaraa,  art  ilnad  with  nndiaval  arradM. 
Of  rwant  tlniM  tba  town  baa  been  Im- 

PJ*''*°.j°'.  **»•  oPMinf  up  of  new  and 

tba  widanlna  of  old  atrMta.    Tba  build- 

inga  moat   deawTlng   of  notice  art  tba 

town-booM  or  Palaaso  della  Kaclona,  aa 

tomanM  plla  artcted  batwaan  fn2  and 

1210,  cztendinc  along  tba  marketplace, 

atandlnt  upon  open  arebea,  wltb  a  lofty 

roof,  nld  to  ba  tba  largeat  in  tba  world 

nnaupported   by   pillan.  at;d  containing 

a  larie  ball,  adorned  wltb  muni  paint* 

inga;  tba  large  moaque-like  Cburcb  of  St 

Antonio,  called  II  Santo,  begun  about  tba 

year  1280  and  flnithed  In  tba  following 

cjmtury :  the  Church  of  the  Annunaiata, 

the  walla  of  which  an  covered  with  well- 

preaerved  palntinga  by  Giotto,  etc.    Tba 

univeraity.  aaid  to  have  been  founded  by 

the  Emperor  Frederick  II  in  1238,  waa 

loM  nnowned  aa  the  chief  aeat  of  hw 

anT  medicine  in  Italy;  and  very  many 

namea  famoua  in  learning  and  art  ara 

a£!S?i'**'**r«'''*'»  P?<*a«'  ■"«»>  aa  Oalileo, 
Scaliger,  Tano.  Oiotto,  Lippo  Llppl.  anj 
Donatello.  Padua  ia  the  ■STof  ™labop. 
Under  the  Romana  It  wm  a  flouriabing 
municipal  town,  and  ita  blatory  followa 
the  course  of  eventa  common  to  mMt  of 

f-fi  ''i".?  ?.'  It«'y„on  the  decline  and 
rail  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Later  it  fell 
under  the  domination  of  Venice.  whoM 

3^'m  J^f'^if^i  *^  ^,r*'°?J"'rt  o'  tl'e  king! 

In^  „f  p'l  ■''•  v^^'P-  9«4230.— The  prov- 

«nL  1"'""  ^"1  "°  a™«  «'  8M  "quare 
milw.  and  pop.  of  4n4322.  ■»*"""' 

Padnoah  te^^'^'*)-  «MmtT  aeat  of 
AKi  ^--  McCracken  County,  on  the 
Ohio  and  TennewKM}  Riverg,  ii  milea 
below  the  Cumberland  and  3.->  milea  above 
the  Miaaiaalppi.  It  is  the  second  largest 
jobbing  center  in   the   State,  and  ahipa 

iKK  ''»'i'"'*4>K^"  °'  tobacco.  Brain,  live 
Btock,  etc.  There  are  large  railroad  ahopa 
and  various  other  industries.  I'op.  22,790. 
Padnla  (P*-<i8'lA),   a   town   of  South' 

Pop.  6000.  ^'*^^'    ^'*^*°"    **'    »»••"«• 

Pean    <?*'").  in  Greek,  a  hymn  to 

Apollo  or  to  other  deities,  or  a 

aong  in  praiae  of  heroes.     A  pean  wu 

mag,   pnvioua   to   batUe,   in   honor   of 


Pttttnm  (P^^toot:  Greek,  faatfoafo). 
,»  ,  ,."    ancient    QrMk    city    oi 

Italy,  on  the  Onlf  of  Si  rno.  It  ia  cel- 
abnted  by  the  Latin  poeta  for  tba  fra- 
•'m?**  ^'J*!  twice-blowinf  roaea,  and  ita 
niild  and  balmy  air.  Little  now  remulna 
of  It  but  aome  fngmenta  of  ita  walla  and 
tba  well-preaerved  ruina  of  two  Doric  tarn- 
^''ffi^'u"*'*!?*  'ntereat.  The  city  waa 
!fi*'tij*'  •  ^f**^  «>»«»y  '«»  Sybaria. 

Paea  AP*t*'"')t  'o«*  Awroifio,  one  of 
the  founden  of  South  American 
independence,  bom  of  Indian  pannta  near 
Acarigua.  Veneauela.  In  1780;  entered  the 
patriot  army  In  1810.  roM  to  geneni  of 
diviidon  in  1819,  and  took  a  leading  part 
In  the  battle  of  Canbobo,  which  aecored 
the  independence  of  Colombia  In  1821. 
u  *.'!"'15S^».'^*«*'  •"  concert  with  Bolivar, 
but  in  1820  he  placed  himaelf  at  the  hea<i 
of  the  nvolutfon  which  culminated  in 
the  independence  of  Veneauela,  of  which 
he  waa  the  fint  preaident.  Ha  died  In 
exile  at  New  York  in  1873. 

Paffaniai  (P*:«*-n«'n«),  niccolo,  a 

;Jo7^^    celebnted  vlolinlat,  bom  in 

J7?**'i°«"*?'  .*?>  •*  Nice  in  1840, 
HIa  father,  who  had  aome  knowledge  of 
music,  and  diacemed  the  talents  of  his  son, 
put  bim  at  a  very  early  age  under  the  beat 
mastera  (Coata,  Rolla,  Paer)  to  leara 
music,  and  particularly  the  violin.  With 
tbia  instrument  bis  progreaa  waa  so  rapid 
that  at  the  age  of  nine  be  waa  able  to 
perform  in  public  at  Genoa.  HIa  flnt 
engagement  waa  in  1800,  at  Lucca,  where 
be  found  a  patroneaa  in  Princesa  Eliaa. 
Bonaparte'a  aister.  In  1813  be  left 
Lucca  for  Milan,  and  in  1828  viaited 
*'*??■•. .I^"»™.tJ»l«  period  his  fame  was 
world-wide.  The  wonder  which  be  ex. 
cited  waa  caused  not  merely  by  the  charm 

u:.?  u  "**^V*'°^  ■?<*  •>••  extraordinary 
skill,  but  also  by  his  external  appear- 
ance, which  had  something  weird  and 
even  demoniacal  in  it.  After  visiting 
almost  all  the  great  towns  of  Germany 
be  made  a  musical  tour  through  France 
and  GrMit  Britain,  realizing  Immense 
gaina.  Hia  last  yeara  were  spent  at  a 
villa  near  Parma. 
PafiranS    (P^'gana),  the  worahipers  of 

[^  many   gods,    the  Lealhen;   so 

auted  by  the  Christians  because  after 
Christianity  had  become  predominant  in 
i*in  ^R*"'  *M  ancient  polytheistic  faith 
atill  lingered  in  the  villagea  (paot)  and 
country  diatricts.  \r  k  *     — 


f«ft 


Hgvmk 


p«»*     THoMA*  JKmnsoii,  an 

^    ,!.'  .**?■  y*"  '*<*'•  •»««  •«  ■'••I- 

by.  VininU,  Juuarjr  4.  1806.  dl«d  at 
Rotnc,  Octobtr  36,  1880.  As  UmteaMt- 
commuidcr  h*  wm  tngagcd,  1863-06,  in 
exploimtiona  in  th«  PUtine  ragion,  Bontb 
America.  la  1861  he  eatenNi  the  Coafad' 
erata  atrrice.  Babaegaeatly  he  reaidad  ia 
Argeatina  and  in  Italy.  He  waa  the 
author  of  La  i'fala,  the  Argtntint  Repub- 
lie  and  Pmragma^  (1860). 
PftflNt  TuoiiAa  Nelbor,  author  and 
*"••»  Ambaeiador,  bom  at  Oakland, 
VirginU.  April  23,  1863.  He  practiced 
law  in  Hichmond.  He  haa  written  attrac- 
tive Btoriea  of  Southern  life,  inctudlng 
Mane  Vkan,  8ant9  C'toHt't  Fmrtmer,  Oor- 
don  Keith,  The  Old  Dominion,  the  Negro, 
Jircd  in  the  Bone,  Robert  B.  J>e,  The 
Houthemer,  John  Marvet,  Ataietant,  etc. 
In  lt«13  he  waa  appointed  United  Btatea 
Ambaaaador  to  Italy. 
PaiM  ^Valteb  Hima,  American  editor 
^n%Vf  ^gj  ambaaaador,  bom  at  Car)*, 
North  Carolina,  Auguat  16,  1860.  After 
aevert.!  yeara  of  newapaper  work,  he  be- 
came manager  and  then  editor  of  the 
Forum,  and  later  editor  of  the  Atlantio 
itonthlif.  In  1889  he  founded  the  pub- 
Ibhing  firm  of  Doubleday,  Page  &  Go. 

Snd  became  editor  of  the  Worli'a  Work. 
n  1913  he  waa  appointed  U.  8.  Ambaaaa- 
dor to  Great  Urilmu.  Died  Dec.  21. 1918. 
Pftiret  (paj'et),  8»  JAMia.  auraeon, 
*  »»"•  bom  at  Great  Yarmouth.  Eng- 
land, In  1814;  died  in  1809.  He  waa 
admitted  into  the  College  of  Surgeoqa  In 
1836,  and  became  Hunterian  profeaaor 
of  aurgerr  and  preaident  of  the  college 
(1876).  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as 
a  aurgeon  and  phyaiologiat,  and  publiahed 
Lvoturea  on  CUnicol  Patkologn,  Clinical 
Leoturea,  etc. 

Va<r«f  ViOLXT,  writer,  bom  in  Eng- 
****"»  land  !n  1866 ;  resided  for  many 
veara  in  Italy.  Under  the  pen-name  of 
Vernon  Lee  she  publiahed  Studiea  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  in  Italy,  Miaa  Brown. 
Uauntiima,  Renataaance  Fanciea  and 
FItudiea,  etc. 

"■"rfll.     an     _..„,.__     .„___     _ 

on  the  coaat  of  Dal- 


Pagoda  of  Mohaaalalpa*. 

and  China.    The  atataca  In  tha  temple 
are  often  of  a  coloaaal  alae. 


■-w".. 


matia ;  area,  81  ao.  milea.  Pop.  7403. 
VturnAtk  (pa-gO'aa),  tha  name  ghren 
ragoaa  tS^flindu  and  Buddhiat  tern- 
plea.  The  temple  proper  ia  generally  of 
pyramidal  form,  and  of  a  number  of 
atorlea,  <d  great  aiie  and  height,  and  em- 
bellished with  extraordinary  aplendor. 
Connected  with  it  may  be  Tari<  "«  other 
atracturea,  open  courta,  etc.,  tL  whole 
forming  architectarally  a  very  impoalng 
group.  Pagodaa  are  numeroie  not  only 
&  Hibdoatan,  but  alao  ia  Burmah,  Slam, 


Great  Fegoda  at  BhnTaaMwar,  Orlsu,  InAla. 

PavA  Pftim  *  harbor  in  the  ialand  of 
**»"  ■^»8*'>  Tutnila.  Samoa.  Om  of 
tha  beat  harbora  in  the  Pacific,  it  waa 
ceded  to  the  United  Statea  in  187i2,  and 
occupied  in  1808  aa  a  coalfaif  and  anirply 
atation.  In  the  aubsequent  division  of 
the  Samoan  laUnda  between  Oermany 
and  the  United  Statea,  Totnila  fell  to 
the  share  of  the  latter. 

Paamma  (!>»-«*'»>«).  »f»ap  «*"»»»• 

AOQwuMa  male,  genua  ParadoaAmai 
family   Ylverrida    (dvata   and   ganeU) 


Piflrnnu 


Painter*!  Colic 


IjhaWdnt   EMtera   Asia.    The   pecuIUr 
r»H*!  «M»    '*.*"7  ***•  forehead  and  noM^ 

PaaninUI     lP*-ta'nu).  the  femu  of 
I.JJ.U  CfU'taceana   to   which    the 

iSift?  "oldiercrabe  belonf.    See  Her- 


at  Boetoo  la  1886;  died  la  19ia    He  be- 


„  "    ii™  "•  """^ »  »~w»  ui  ^vj,u.    xie  De- 
came  taiown  aa  an  active  philanthropiat. 
worldngmea'a  aawKsiationa  of 


PahaiUP  (P&'Ulnc'),  a  atate  on  the 
,      ,    ^     eaat  coaat  of  the  Malay  Pen- 

B^^'thi  ^l^.  *^  ••»;  »•:  pop.  ^.000. 

ffiiti^i!  treaty  coMiuded  between  Great 

«f^h.*i*-w°*"'  0'  *''•  '*>«'«»  relation. 
of  that  atate  wa«  conveyed  to  the  rov- 

P?hSnt*i*'  *•»•  ''*"'^»  Settlement.;  Md 
5^te  *" .°°''  practically  a  dependency 
«n^'^i.~'°°'U  ^*  produce.  «5d,  lei^ 
on,  eutta  percha,  rattan,  and  dammar. 

ralllanpiir  (Pa-'an-pOr'),  or  Palau- 
•n-i*:  u  ¥   J.      ^"^^^  *  town  of  Bombay. 

abad.    Pop,  about  20,000. 

Pahlavi.     Iff  ''«»•*»«.  Language  and 

•IraigntOn  <P«»n'tun) ,  a  coast  town  In 
T»o„  9  ,„ii  "^^i'S;  England,  on  Tor 
my,/  miles  s,  of  Torquay,  i.  a  rapidly- 

manufactures  of  cider.  Pop.  11,241. 
Pain  iJ**^^',*  distressing  sensation  of 
.  .  ,  the  body,  resulting  from  particu- 
lar imprewlona  made  on  the  extremitieL 
m.~?  °f"?  ""^  tranraitted  to  the  brain, 
Phj«icai  pain  may  be  produced  by  varioui 
»i.«Tn:°^   injurie.   to   the   organ,   in 

SMfh^^^l"?  '«»j»«^:  by  a>culia? 
.Ute  of  the  brain  and  nerves :  or  by  the 

SSlid"i?*1.'™.?'  *•"*.*  ^•'«<=b  »»l.  been 
^hJr*!.^*  *S  °f*f°  °'  ««at  service  in 
iSiSJf  ^i®  physician  at  arriving  at  a 
miirL*'\"«°?«'". «'  •  <**««««.  and  still 
^?S'i*t.''^°"?*y  *"  frequently  being  the 

dSLSdi  ?  ^'^'^y^«"  *  ^""^  ^^^ 
Paine  <P*n),   Robert   Treat,   state*- 

Ma«.ch»,  in' m^^He^^as^a 
gate  to  the  Provincial  and  ContLntai 

tion  of  Independence,    He  held  the  office^ 

l^ni»fSil»|5^i'JJ  -  ,a  A 

name  (1773-1811).  engaged  in  lite«^ 
puramts  and  i.  b^'t  k^lTfi?  h  «  ?^ 

^^'InTL^irt,^"^  ^^'^-^-'  -S 
^*i^  ^"^^JlSi'kbS'^nal-b^ 


W^'  &'  *"•  AasocUted  Charities  o7 
^M°*  .  ^f.'?"  **?»  interested  in  Peace, 
S^'i?"  •  >W.,*nd  other  ndetie..  and 
created  and  endowed  a  tru.t  for  chari- 
table purpo«»,  named  the  Robert  Treat 
i:^une  Auoclation. 

Paine,  Thomas,  political  and  deisU- 
_^  ^  '  cal  writer,  bom  in  1737  at 
Thetford,  England,  •  In  1774  he  em^ 
fvl,i!kii«**  imerica,  with  a  letter  from 
ITranklln,  Paine  threw  himself  heart 
and  Mui  into  the  cauw  of  the  coloniitt 
5S2.  ^  .^pamphlet  entitled  Common 
«en«0,  written  to  recommend  the  Mpa- 
ration  of  the  colonies  from  Great  Britain, 
and  hia  subsequent  periodical  called  The 
Omia,  gave  h  m,  by  their  great  effect  on 
the  public  mind,  a  title  to  be  consid- 
ered  one  of  the  founder,  of  American 
independence.    In    1787   he   returned   to 

Sl!<ngland,  and  in  anawer  to  Burke'.  Re- 
ecttona  on  the  French  Revolution  wrote 
1.  Kighte  of  Man.  A  prosecution  wa. 
commenced  againat  him  a.  the  author  of 
that  work,  but  while  the  trial  wa.  pend- 
ing be  was  chosen  member  of  the  national 
convention  for  the  department  of  CaUis. 
and,  making  hi.  escape,  aet  off  for  Pranci 
where  hi.  RigkU  of  Man  had  gafaied  him 
great  Popularity,  and  arrived  there  in 
September,  1792,  On  the  trial  of  ^ui. 
AVI  he  voted  against  the  sentence  of 
death,  proposing  his  imprisonment  durinc 
ThtJ'^J^i  *'S  banishment  afterwardi 
This  conduct  offended  the  Jacobins,  and 

*5"*i^?  *•"*  ^'°»«  of  1783  he  was  ex- 
^"i!?^i!2".*''*  convention,  arrested,  and 
committed  to  prison,  where  he  lay  for 
ten  months,  escaping  the  guillotine  by  an 

S^  I^Vui^"'!*^!,""  bi.  confinement  he 
had  finished  the  fiwt  part  of  hi.  work 
againrt  revelation,  entitled  the  Age  of 
Reaton;  it  waa  published  in  London  and 
Pan.  in  1794,  by  which  .tep  be  forfeited 
the  countoiance  of  the  greater  part  ot 
hi.  American  connections.  He  remained 
in  France  till  August,  1802,  when  he 
mbarked  for  America,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  hla  life,  occupied  with 
financial  question,  and  mechanical  inven- 
tipna.    He  died  at  New  York  in  1809, 

Fainesville  iP?°*'^'> •  c  a  p  1 1  a  i  of 

..     ^  .         „     "»ke    County,    Ohio.   i. 

?'*?**1!?-.°°  ^I*^^  ^'^^"'  3  miles  from 
Lake  Erie,  and  29  miles  e,  n,  e.  of  Cleve- 
j  u..^*.  possesses  machine  shops,  sash 
and  blind  factories,  foundries,  flour  mills, 
large  nnrKries,  and  varioua  other  manu- 
factories.   Pop.  6501. 

Pointer's  Colic,  g^  ^«<(  Poi^om. 


Fainting 


Fainting 


Faintinsr  (pan*''"*)  J»  t»>e  art  of  rep- 
•  rewDting  the  eztenwl  facts 
of  and  objects  in  nature  by  means  of 
color.  A  studjr  of  the  art  requires  a 
knowledge  of  form,  animate  and  inani* 
mate;  of  perspective;  and  of  light  and 
shade.    Considered  in  relation  to  the  sub- 

Sets  treated,  painting  may  be  divided 
to  decorative,  historical,  portrait,  genrt 
(scenes  of  common  or  domestic  life), 
landscape  (with  seascape),  architectural, 
and  still  life.  According  to  the  methods 
employed  in  the  practice  of  the  art  it  is 
termed  oil,  water«olor,  fresco,  tempera 
or  distemper,  and  enamel  painting,  and 
in  mosaics,  on  glass,  porcelain,  terra 
cotta,  and  ivory  (this  last  being  called 
miniature-iMiintrng) .  Decorative  works, 
usually  in  fresco  or  tempera,  but  some- 
times in  oil,  are  generally  executed  upon 
the  parts  of  a  building.  For  the  basis  of 
easel  pictures,  wood-panels  prepared  with 
a  coating  of  size  and  white  were  used 
solely  up  to  the  14th  century  for  both  oil 
and  tempera,  and  are  still  sparingly  em- 
ployed ;  but  canvas  covered  with  a  prim- 
ing of  size  and  white  lead,  and  tightly 
nailed  over  a  wooden  frame  called  a 
*r  -'cher,'  is  now  almost  universally 
ad  ed  for  oil-painting.  For  waierKwI- 
ors  paper  alone  is  employed.  The  tools 
used  by  an  artist  are  charcoal,  colored 
crayons,  and  leau  pencils  for  outline  pur- 
poses; colors,  a  palette  for  holding  the 
same,  a  palette  knife  for  mixing  them; 
brushes  for  laying  them  on ;  and  an  easel 
with  adjustable  heights  for  holding  the 
canvas.  A  wooden  manikin,  with  mov- 
able joints,  and  termed  a  May-figure,'  is 
sometimes  used  on  which  to  arrange  cos- 
tumes and  draperies. 

The  term  'oil-colors'  is  emploved  to 
denominate  colors  ground  with  oil,  and 
water-colors  those  wherein  gum  and  glyc- 
erine have  been  employed.  Both  are 
ground  solid,  an  oil  medium  being  used 
in  the  first  case  and  water  in  the  second 
to  thin  out  the  colors  when  on  the  palette. 
Fresco-painting  is  executed  on  wet  plas- 
ter. Mosaic  work  is  formed  by  small 
cubes  of  colored  glass,  called  tessera, 
fixed  in  cement ;  in  tempera  the  colors  are 
mixed  with  white;  in  encaustic,  wax  is 
the  medium  employed ;  and  in  enamel  the 
colors  are  fired.  Egyptian,  Greek,  and 
early  Roman  paintings  were  executed  in 
tempera;  Byzantine  art  found  its  chief 
expression  in  mosaics,  though  tempera 
panels  were  executed ;  and  early  Christian 
art,  up  to  and  partly  iMliiding  the  14th 
century,  adopted  this  last  method.  The 
▼riiide  employed  in  mixing  the  colors  was 
a  mixture  of  gum  and  white  of  egg,  or 
the  expreased  juic*  of  fif-tice  snoots. 
The    intndHctioa    of    eltpaintinc    was 


long  attributed  to  the  Van  Bycks  of 
Bruges  (circa  1880-1441),  but  paintlnt 
in  oil  is  known  to  have  been  practiced  at 
a  much  earlier  period,  and  it  is  now  gen- 
erally held  that  the  invention  of  the  Van 
Eycks  was  the  discovery  of  a  drying 
vehicle  with  which  to  mix  or  thin  tneit 
colors,  in  place  of  the  slow-drving  oil 
previously  in  use.  This  new  vehicle  was 
composed  of  a  thickened  linseed-oil  mixed 
with  a  resinous  varnish,  and  it  was  its 
introduction  that  effected  so  great  a  revo- 
lution in  the  art  of  painting.  For  aa 
account  of  special  methods  of  painting 
see  articles  Freaco-painting,  IfoMta 
Tempera,  Encauatto,  Enameling,  etc. 

Hittorp  — Egypt  and  Greece. —  The 
practice  of  painting  extends  back  to  n* 
mote  ages.  It  comes  first  into  notice 
among  tne  Egyptians  in  the  19th  century 
B.C.,  the  most  flourishing  period  being 
between  1400  &c.  and  525  B.a  With 
them  the  art  was  the  offspring  of  religion, 
and  was  with  sculpture,  from  which  if 
cannot  be  separated,  subordinate  to  ar- 
chitecture. The  productions  are  found 
chiefly  on  the  walls  of  tombs  and  temples, 
but  also  on  mummv-cases  and  rolls  of 
papyrus.  They  consist  chiefly  of  the  rep- 
resentation of  public  events,  sacrificial 
observances,  and  the  affairs  of  everyday 
life.  The  work  is  purely  conventional  in 
character,  and  was  executed  according  to 
a  strict  canon  of  rules  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  priesthood.  Both  outline 
and  color  were  arbitrarily  fixed,  the 
figures  and  objects  being  rendered  in 
profile  and  painted  in  perfectly  pure  flat 
tints,  with  no  light  or  shade.  The  colors 
used  are  very  simple,  but  the  effect  is 
often  very  harmonious,  and  with  a  strong 
sense  of  decorative  composition.  Al- 
though art  is  the  natural  product  of 
man%  mind,  and  cannot  be  anigned  any 
particular  commencement,  it  is  neverthe- 
less doubtless  that  Egyptian  art  slightly 
influenced  that  of  Asia  Bfinor,  ana 
strongly  so  that  of  Greece,  in  which 
country  the  arts  attained  to  the  highest 
excellence.  This  is  proved  by  the  tes- 
timony of  historians,  for  no  specimens  of 
true  Greek  paintings  save  those  on  vases 
have  come  down  to  us.  In  Greece,  as  in 
Egypt,  painting  and  sculpture  were  the 
handmaids  of  architecture,  the  frisna, 
pediments,  and  statues  of  the  templea  be- 
ing originally  colored.  The  more  eelo- 
brated  of  the  Greek  schools  of  pafaiting 
were  at  .^ina,  Sicyon,  Corinth,  and 
Athens;  the  chief  maaters  being  Cimon, 
Polygnotus,  and  Pancsnos,  wno  livea 
aboot  the  fifth  century  B4^  Apollodoms, 
same  century.  sjrstMMtiaed  a  Knowledge 
of  light  and  shade,  while  Zenzis  and  Par* 
rhaaoa  directed  their  efwta  to  the  per 


Pilnting 


Painting 


fiwtiaff  of  an  ideal  human  form.    Timan- 

venention;  and  at  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great  appeared  Apellet   (85o"  a). 

UTih?K-?"'l?l*'?*^"  ■°'""»1  winter. 
^.  i.^*.'****'*,®i  **"««  ^''o  painters  de- 
cline aet  in,  and  Greek  art  gave  itaelf  no 

iSbW.*'"7""w"»'  V"*.*"'  •°«>  unworthy 
robjects.  Greek  painting  aeema  to  have 
been,  in  truth  of  effect  ud  in  light  and 
•hade,  in  no  way  inferior  to  work  of  the 
£S!f«^^'  •i*''°"««'  Penpectlve  L  a 
deed.  °'**  ■•*"  *•*  '"^«  •»««»  Pn«> 

.  J^A  ■•^*''i  •?.•*  *"  ancient  times  an 
art  that  was  indigenous,  or  nrodnced  a 

gSS"  ZVi^'^'  °°*«-  u  The  ?oSSSr  of 
!i^Si.S?^  *''?  Romans  brought  an  influx 
«'  Q«ek  artists  into  Italy,  and  it  was 

SrJ^I'^I?'*'  **■■*  *^*  principal  woTK 
«#  V^f°  ""^  '/"  produced.  A  number 
of  si^imens  of  r^cient  paintings  have 

uiT'Vi  f ''"?P*r"'  ■°**  »*  other  places  in 

I^i.-  i5l?**  remains,  which  are  known 
i^-^t^i?!?  P«>dneed  when  art  tSs  iS 
tel^to  hl«'**±°'!!L,**'«  •°«*«t8  would 
!r«.i®k  •  powessed  a  great  knowledge 
?l.ni™Ji'"°"'l  ^«""'  o'  animals,  andS 
i^^'SS*?  "?.*,'?'*•  .»"<*  o'  their  uses  ta 
art.  Their  skill  as  decorators  has  scanty 

^  '^?S."^--T*'*''  color,  were  3 


•hade,  and  th^  knowted^  of  pe«S^5™ 
■hown  is  true,  but  liSt^  ?S^?n t 
During    the    first    three    centuries    after 

?f'chriS'll'J,*l°«  '"'^"  *"*.  new  toflu'n" 
?h.  «'?'*^*°ii^  ^'i'  practiced  secretly  in 

iT?  K.  r?  ^'l*  establishment  of  Christlan- 
iX*-''  Conatantine  as  the  religion  of  the 
■tote,  pagan  art  received  its  deathblow! 

Sh*"*.-".  ""f.  ''iiS  Pennitted  to  emerge 
and  was  allowed  to  adorn  ita  own 
churches  in  its  own  way.  Mosi^ 
»rt  paintings  and  a  few  pafeta  are 
all  that  are  left  to  us  of  thS  neriS 
No  withatondlng  the  efforts  madS  b^a^- 
k"'  ifu?*  i^Pe*  to  encourage  ita  crowdi 
by  withdrawing  certain  limitat  oni^^J^^ 
fe  •«  'W'da  the  use  of  the  hum« 

frJ?n'tuWriS'%aiSk''fe'ii?tlSS 

?&urex?i^gS£S!"  ^-  wil!"p^ 

S-t*''^  J.l  "Mnifested   the   old   GrMk 

S2L"JS"l'i.iL  Chrirtlanlty:  and  hS 
•«««  iti  kighart  point  aboat  tba  tJa* 


that  Bpman  art  was  at  its  lowest  A* 
Byaantium,  art  had  become  Christian 
sooner  and  more  entire^han  at  Rome 
Like  the  art  of  ancient  Ew^lhowev"?* 
if  *^hl  n^u^*""  the  stVrct  inflS 
S;Bt^*„.?'*?l*'*^'  mechanical  and  wn- 
ventionaj,  but  waa  yet  strong  enough  to 

"SVure'r^  ^^A'r^^'l  thrSuSXtS 
2?n  JJ  i8**  T*"**'.  ^Sf""  «"  Still  to  be 
•een  at  Barenna,  in  Rome,  in  ralermo 

AM  tK-  B**°'*?.  ^^Pth  century  a.d.). 
mX.-il"  ?y»ntine  decorations  are  in 
moaaic,  and  are  noteworthy  for  the  snlen- 
dor  of  the  r  gilded  backgrounds  a,,?  fo^ 
their  grandeur  of  conception,  though  the 
if'Z^'*^'".  ^  ^«»k/^witb  nSaftemSt 
was^^h?,-'*«l!i*';-  ^il  Bysantine  sohJS 
was  thus  the  immediate  parent   of  the 

SroH^r??"  °'  Ita'y.  and  o^f  the  RheniJh 

/2.?..  <^'08?>e  ftchool   in  Germany. 

Italy,  Early   Period.— The   Ita  lino 

painters  could  not,  however,  at  once  fre* 

themselves  from  tLe  Bysan'tlSe  tradittt 

t^e  .5pS'!^?*k'"^  ^  P"'"**"-  to  follow  iS 
rln-^^i''*'"'  P«<iece88or  without  refer- 
ring to  nature:   and  so  this  style  was 

S?  tt.^?  Vj.f,*"^  ^^'^  By«uitiKrtT8te 
mM^i- 1/  i^^^S^v  *™itatore  up  to  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century.  The  break- 
*"«  through  of  this  tradition  and  the 
f5?h*^»"*"."*<'«  hy  the  arts  in  thl 
-iJ^i.*^""?  'orm  part  of  a  movement 

o?S  vi%!.  •iSfailsTin^no^rgr^? 

^rnTlStS^'  "  »'-tofore,'^^!;tr 

PiP'tt/pf"  "'  '^■Jy'  """ely.  Siena, 
thu'4vLP''''^1?\  "hare  the  honors  of 
this  revival,  each  boasting  a  school  and 
llf  Pos«88ing  two  or  th^  great  nameS 
fl?^f  ^"^  consequent  followers.  The 
first  regenerators  were  Guido  of  Siena 

A^^  i'l.  ^''■'  S"**  MarKarifone  o^ 
Areszo,  whose  works,  though    ujrlv  and 

fSrth^:.*!i"""'  y/t„»how%  departurJ 
O?o^-«„*i  'nF°T  o' Byzantine  tradition. 
1240  ^L-^'k"'"*'  "^iT"  "t  Florence  in 
#.H?-..^F' A"''*'*'"',  he  said  to  be  the 
fl«t  f-VL"?^*?  painting,  and  was  th? 
tlon.i  il5  1***  It  '''°l«*"  from  tradi 
hi-  «JE^"'  •■>  '^orks  and  those  ol 
his  predecemors  just  named  forming  the 
transition  from  the  By«uitine  to  thi 
ST^ISlS'K-  HI-  appearand,  mark' 
?^  i^ji?  ^^^^'  "<'  »fter  him  come 
oTh.J^i.''*^?^  *•••  <•."«  "t  Siena  and  the 
other  at  riorence.  in  each  of  whom  op- 

SS!?/#1£?''*'J''  ^•^'°«  *«»  impression 
air«;t  from  nature.     These  were  Duccio 

tor?l!12?*T*?S,/*^'.3»».  whose  S 


Paintinf 


MatiBff 


and  at  Padoa.  Of  thew  two,  Giotto  It 
by  far  the  (reater,  and  his  immcdiata 
pupils  and  their  successon  constituted  a 
school  which  exercised  an  influence 
througfaoat  Italy.  The  rival  achool  of 
Siena  produced  Simone  Memmi  (1284- 
1344),  but  died  out  owing  to  its  ezclusiTe- 
nesB.  The  works  of  all  the  artists  of 
these  two  schools  were  executed  either  in 
fresco  or  in  tempera,  and  although  lack- 
ing  in  chiaroscuro  and  deficient  in  per> 
spective,  compensated  largely  for  these 
defects  by  an  earnestness,  a  devotion,  and 
a  spiritual  significance  which  will  for 
ever  make  the  14th  century  memorable 
in  the  history  of  art.  No  other  schools 
worth;  of  note  existed  elsewhere  in  Italy 
during  this  century;  neither  could  the 
Flemish  or  the  Qerman  school  be  said 
to  have  liad  any  distinct  existence  as 
such. 

With  the  15th  century  came  the  intro- 
duction of  oil-painting,  and  with  it  an 
all-round  improvement  both  in  knowledge 
of  technics  and  power  of  expression.    To 
the  earlier  half  of  this  century   belong 
the  great   masters  of   religious  art,  the 
most    noteworthy    being    Fra    Angelico 
(1387-1465).    who    worked    chiefly    in 
Florence,  and  whose  productions  are  full 
of  the  peculiar  relij^ous  fervor  character^ 
istic  olT  the  painter.    A  knowledge  of  the 
*xact  sciences  as  applied  to  art  gave  an 
added  impulse,  and  Paolo  Uccelli  (139(V- 
1475)  and  Piero  della  Francesca  (1415- 
92)    divide   the   honor   t)elonging   to   the 
perfecting    of   a   system    of   perspective. 
The  works  of  Masolino  da  Panicale  (died 
1420)    show    the   greatest    advance   yet 
made    in    the    direction    of   chiaroscuro. 
Masaccio    (1401-28),   by   his  knowledge 
of  the   figure  and  by   his  treatment  of 
groups  with  their  proper  force  of  light 
and  shade  and  relief  in  appropriate  sur- 
roundings,   became    the    founder    of    the 
modern  style.    Andrea  Verrochio  (1432- 
88),  the  master  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
promoted  a  knowledge  of  anatomy,  and 
Ghirlandajo    (1449-08).    the   master   of 
Michael  Angelo,  may  also  be  mentioned, 
both  as  a  goldsmith  and  as  a  painter. 
TLese  painters  all  belong  to  the  Floren- 
tine school;  but  other  schools  were  co- 
existent, notably  that  of  Padua  founded 
by  Squarclone  (1394-1474),  whose  pupil 
was   Andrea    Mategna    (1431-1506),   an 
artist  who  takes  rank  among  the  great- 
est masters  of  painting.    The   Venetian 
school  also  arose  under  the  influence  of 
the   Bellini,   Giovanni    (1427-1516)    and 
his  brother  Gentile    (1429-1.'507),  whose 
works,  though  somewhat  hard  and  some- 
what dry  in  texture,  yet  in  color  anticl- 
rate    the   great    works   of   their   pupils. 
The  Umbrian  school  produced  Pletro  Pe- 


ragino  (1446-lSaft).  a  paiater^ef^tbi 
first  raak  and  tin  master  of  BaphatL 
The  Neapolitan  achool  also  began  to  be 
heard  of.  The  lulian  art  work  of  the 
15th  century  by  ita  unconaeioosocaa  ani 
spiritual  meaning  excelled  mach  of  tl  t 
which  was  to  follow.  The  latter,  tho  % 
carried  to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfect'  ^ , 
lost  much  of  the  freshness  and  sponta< 
neity  posaenied  by  the  art  of  the  earlier 
century.  .      ^    . 

Hetkerlandt,  Ewly  Pviod, —  Before 
speaking  of  the  16th  century  it  were  well 
to  look  elsewhere  in  Europe,  and  espe- 
cially at  the  Netherlanda,  from  whence 
had  come  the  invention  of  oil  painting, 
which  so  completely  revolutiimised  tech- 
nical methoda.  This  discovery  was  made 
by  the  brothers  Hubert  and  Jan  Van 
Eyck,  of  Bruges,  abont  the  commence- 
ment of  the  15th  century,  and  carried  to 
Italy  br  Antonello  da  Messina  (1445- 
83).  The  greatest  follower  of  this  achool 
was  Hans  Memling    (1450-99).  a  com- 

Farison  of  whose  works  with  those  of  his 
talian  contemporaries  ahows  an  excel- 
lence of  technic  and  a  power  of  expres- 
sion not  always  in  favor  of  the  aoutnem 
artists.  Quentin  Matsys,  of  Antwerp. 
(14G0-1529)  should  also  be  mentioned 
as  belonging  to  this  achool,  a  school  which 
further  exercised  an  influence  upon  that 
of  Germany,  with  a  result  apparent  in 
the  next  century,  and  was  also  the  means 
of  founding  a  school  in  Holland. 

Italy,  Germany,  16th  Century. —  The 
work  of  the  lUth  century  is  centered  as 
much  upon  particular  men  as  upon 
schools.  Though  many  of  the  paintera 
hereafter  named  were  bom  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  15th  century,  their  work  sep- 
arates itself  so  distinctly  from  that  of 
their  predecessors  that  it  is  the  custom 
to  consider  it  aa  belonging  to  the  latter 
period.  The  four  great  schools  were  at 
Florence,  Rome,  Parma,  and  Venice,  and 
each  furnished  from  its  scholars  a  painter 
who  was  in  himself  the  particular  glory 
of  his  schooL  Heading  the  Florentine 
comes  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452-1519), 
who  established  himself  at  Milan,  and 
waa  celebrated  as  a  painter,  acnlptor. 
architect,  and  engineer,  his  chief  popU 
being  Bernardino  Luini  (UlO-iSOS). 
Then  following  no  man'a  st;^le,  but  com- 
ing aa  a  creator,  we  have  Michael  Angelo 
(1475-15U4),  combining  in  himself  the 
highest  powers  in  architecture,  acnlptore, 
aiM  painting.  He  waa  followed  in  Flor- 
ence by  Fra  Bartolommeo  (1475-1617) 
and  Andrea  del  Sarto  (14SS-1631).  The 
Roman  school,  not  indlgenons  bat  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Umbrian  school  before 
mentioned,  centers  itself  round  the  third 
great    name,    that    of    Baphael    Sanxio 


Pidiitingr 


^AJnUng 


calkd  tlM  prinet  of 


(1488-1620),  aptly , 

painten,  who  with  bis  papUs  and  mmOat- 
aotn,  toe  chief  amonf  them  beisf  GioU* 
Robiano,   constitute   the  Roman   school. 
P«rm«, contains  the  work  o£  Oomggi* 
(1491-1534).    feneralljr    known   as    the 
head  of  the  Lonbard  school,  an  artist 
anrivaled    for   grace,   and    harmony   «f 
chi&roscuro.    Finally.  V«iice  produced  a 
school  supreme  in  respect  of  color,  and 
owing  surti  power  as  it  possesses  entirely 
to  the  influence  of  the  BellinL    The  first 
name  in  this  period  is  Giorcione  (1476- 
1511)  ;  then  comes  Titian  (1477-1576), 
who  takes  rank  with  t'  ;  great  masters  of 
the  Florentine  and  Roman  schools;  fol- 
lowed  by  Tintoretto  (1512-04)  and  Paolo 
Veronese    (1532-88),    who   with   Titian 
stand   for  ail   that  is  greatest  in   this 
school.     Hcwever,    it    further    produced 
Jacopo  Bassano  (1510-02),  noted  as  the 
fint  to  introduce  pure  landscape  into  his 
backgrounds;  and  Paris  Bordone  <1S0(V- 
71),  noted  for  his  power  in  coloring  and 
brilliancy   of  effect.    In   the   north   the 
Flemish  school  had  become  rapiaiy  ItaK 
ianized,  with  a  r?«nlt  best  se-a  in  the 
following  centuij.     la  Germany  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Flemish  school  had  made 
itself  felt,  and  had  produced  in  Albert 
Dttrer,   of  Nuremberg,    (1471-1628)    the 
most  celebrated  master  of  his  time  north 
of  the  Alps.    With  him  are  associated 
Lucas     Cranach     (1472-1553),     Burgk- 
mair  (1474-1569),  and  Albrecht  Altdor- 
Ur  (1486-1538). 

Italy,  Holland,  rtc,  nth  Century.— 
The  16th  century  consummates  the  great 
age  of  modem  art,  an  age  that  might 
justly  be  said  to  equal  any  period  of  Greek 
art.  With  the  17th  century  came  the 
declme,  brought  about  chiefly  by  the 
slavish  imitation  of  the  great  pabiters  of- 
the  preceding  period,  and  art  was  only 
ed    from    extinction    by    a    reaction 


save 

headed 

known 


by  the  CaraccL  Their  school, 
Kuuwu  as  tho  Eclectic,  Was  founded  at 
Bologna  by  Ludovico  (1555-1619),  Agos- 
"no  (155t-1607).  ana  Annibale  '(15^ 
1609).  Their  princinle  was  to  unite  a 
direct  study  of  natu.e  with  a  study  of 
the  excellencies  of  the  great  masters. 
To  a  certain  extent  the  object  was  at- 
tained,   and    Guido    Reni    (1574-1642). 

^iH^^  J}?J^}^^h,  «°^  Domenichino 
(1581-1641)  best  illustrate  in  their 
works  the  results  arrived  at  Side 
by  side  with  this  school  grew  up  that  of 
the  Naturalists  at  Naples,  founded  by 
Caravaggio  (1569-1609),  and  having  as 
his  pupil  Spagnolcto  (1588-1656>,  %ho 
m  turn  taught  Salvator  Rosa  (1615- 
73).  Pietro  da  Cortona  (1596-1669), 
the  last  of  the  Roman  school,  was  the 
appoaeat  of  the  Eclectic  style.    With  the 


later  Venetian  achool,  which  count  Cana- 
tetto  (1807-1768)  and  Tiepolo  (1603- 
1770)  among  its  diaciples,  the  art  of  Italy 
owy  be  ntd  to  have  ended.  Its  seed 
spread  itself  and  took  root  in  France,  and 

^RSSi^y?. Jv»  .  *''"°'^e'»'  where  Rubens 
(1677-1640)  had  become  its  greatest  ex- 
ponent,  and  whose  pupils  Jordaens  (1594- 
1678)  and  Vandyck  (1599-1641)  were 
the  most  noteworthy  artists  of  this 
schooL  In  Holland,  however,  art  had 
acquired  a  distinct  individuality,  first  in 
Frana  Hals  (1584-1642)  and  above  all  in 
Ua  typical  painter  Rembrandt  (1U07- 
69),  both  portrait  painters  distinguished 
for  their  portrait  groups;  also  by  iu 
landscape  and  genre  painters,  of  which 
two  classes  of  subjects  this  school  is  the 
great  exponent.  Among  its  lands  ape 
painters  are  Van  de  Velde.  Ruysdael. 
Uobbema.  and  Cuyp;  and  among  its 
fff*r«  painters  are  Gerard  Dow,   Breu- 

fbel.  Tenters,  and  Van  Ostade.  The 
Ipanish  school,  which  stands  alcme  fai 
the  prevailing  religious  ascetic  character 
of  ita  productions,  and  which  in  the  pre- 
^Ing  .centuries  had  been  influenced  by 
Flemish  and  Italian  painters,  reached  its 
greatest  epoch  in  this  century  with  Velas- 
quel  (1599-1660),  one  of  the  greatest  of 
portrait  painters,  Murillo  (1613-80)  ;  and 
yii5L*^!S£»v""y  ^  mentioned  Zarbaran 
(1598-1662),  and  Cano   (1601-67). 

France,  J6th-19th  Century.— The  effect 
of  Italian  art  in  France  remains  to  be 
noted.    The  school  of  France,  influenced 
at  first  both  by  Flemish  and  by  Italian 
art,  finally  inclined  to  the  latter,  and  im 
the    reign    of    Francis    I   j(  1515-47)     a 
school  was  established  at  Fontainebleau 
and  called  by  that  name.     Leonardo  da 
Vinci  worked  in  France,  and  Primaticcio 
carried  on  the  unfinished  work  of  Rosso 
(died    1541).    Jean    Cousin    (1501-89) 
may  be  called  the  founder  of  the  French 
Mhool  as  opposed  to  the  Italianized  ver- 
■/?5,»*W"'*^"    began    with    Simon    Vouet 
(1590-1649).    The    native    school    was, 
however,  finally  overcome  by  the  Italian 
method.    Nicholas  Poussin  (1594-1665), 
figure  and  landscape  painter,  one  of  the 
nreatest    painters     France    can    claim; 
Claude  Lorraine   (1G0O-S2)   and  Gasper 
Dughet  or  Poussin  (1613-75),  landscap- 
MU.  are  painters  who,  though  born  in 
France,  yet  worked  in  Italy,  and  stand 
apart   from    the    followers   of   the   then 
national   style;    as   dots   also    Eustache 
Ltsu.'ur  (1617-65) ,  sometimes  called  the 
^•'rench    Raphael.    This    national    style 
was  coeval  with  the  court  of  Louis  XIV 
and  representative  of  it,   the  chief  ex- 
ponents being  Le  Brun   (1619-90),  Mi- 
fnard    (1610-06).    Du    Fresnoy    (1611- 
66),    and    Jouvenet     (1644-ltll).    To 


Painting 

continue  the  hiatorf  into  the  18th  ,_ 
tury,  wltli  France  we  find  a  «e«dy  d«* 
terioratioD  iMtli  in  teclinic  and  morality; 
the  latter  phase  commenced  by  Wattaau 
and  Lancret,  two  painter*  truly  French, 
and  consummated  by  Boucher  (1704-70). 
Qreuie  (172&-1806;  and  Vien  (1716- 
1800)  were  the  fint  to  protest  against  the 
corrupt  influence  of  Boucher,  and  were 
the  precursors  of  the  reform,  of  which 
David  (1748-1825)  was  the  great  insti- 
gator, a  man  whose  influence  made  itself 
felt  throughout  Europe.  He  insisted 
upon  a  return  to  the  study  of  the  antique, 
and  his  followers  number  a  few  distin- 
guished men,  notably  Groa  and  Guerin. 
G^ricault  (1774-1829) ,  a  pupil  of  Guerin, 
was  the  first  to  break  with  the  extreme 


classicism  of  the  school  of  David,  Md 
Ingres    (1780-1867),    Delacroix    (17W- 
18U3),  Scheffer  (1795-1858),  and  Deta- 
roche,  noted  for  the  reality  of  his  hi^ 
torical  subjects  and  the  tenderness  and 
pathos    of    his    sacred   pictures,    (1797- 
1850)  are  the  most  distinguished  names 
of  the  more  direct  and   romantic  style 
initiated  by  him.     Modem  French  land- 
scape art,  founded  upon  an  impulse  re- 
ceived from  England,  has  had  Decamps 
(1803-450),   Rousseau    <1812-ti7),   Corot 
(1790-1875),  and   Millet    (m5-75)    as 
its  chief  exponents.    The   work  of  Re- 
gnault   (1843-71)    remarkably  illustrates 
the  tendencies  of  modem  ITrench  paint- 
ing.   Bastien    Lepage    (1848-84),    with 
his  literal  renderings  of  nature,  strongly 
influences  the  younger  British  school ;  and 
Meissonier    ( 1815-91 ) ,    G«r«me    ( 1824- 
1904),    Bouguereau    (1825-1905),    Con- 
stans,  and  Cabanel,  and  Puvis  de  Cha- 
vannes  as  a  decorative  artist,  are  some 
of  the  chief  members  of  a  school  which 
is  at  the  present  time  influencing  the  art 
of  the  world.  ^„  ,    ^    . 

Oermany,  Holland,  etc.,  19tk  Centurt. 
—  Germany  during  the  18th  century  re- 
mained stationary  in  matters  of  art,  but 
with  the  revival  in  France  came  a  similar 
but  slightly  later  movement  in  Germany, 
the  precursors  of  which  were  Houer 
(1709-40),  a  Tyrolese  fresco  painter,  and 
Carstens  (1754-98).  The  chief  of  the 
revivalists,  however,  was  Overbeck  (1<8»- 
1869),  who,  with  a  band  of  followers, 
founded  a  school  at  Rome  in  1810,  the 
principle  animating  whose  work  waa  that 
modem  artists  should  only  study  the 
painters  of  the  time  preceding  Raphael. 
Overbeck  painted  religious  subjects,  Md 
worked  both  in  fresco  and  oil.  His 
works,  while  possessing  fine  feeling,  are 

?oor  in  color  and  weak  in  chiaroscuro. 
!hief  among  hia  pupils  is  CoraeliM 
(1783-1867),  one  of  the  greatest  of  mod- 
MEB  Qwasan  saiatatir  and  whow  weik  la 


Painting 

b«t  Mm  In  Monich.    Scbadow  (178»- 
1862)  was  a  papil  of  Cornelius.    Bchnorr 
™Ca«)i8feia  (^794-1872)  chose  for  b^ 
sabjecta  the  medieval  history  and  mytl» 
of  Germany,  and  also  produced  an  a- 
tensive    series    of    illustrations    of  J^e 
Bible  of  great  merit.    Kaulbach  (1805- 
74),  a  great  historical  painter  and  pu- 
pil of  CJornelins,  shows  in  his  work  some 
of  the  worst  faults  of  the  modem  Ger- 
man  achooL    Lessing    (1808;«))    is   fa- 
mous both  for  his   historical  and   land- 
■cape  pictures,  and  among  modem  pain^ 
en  worthy  of  note  are  Gabriel  Max  and 
Mensel,    in    historical;    Knaus    Vautier, 
MeUler,  and  Bochmann,  in  genre;   and 
Achoibach  in  landscape.     In  Dutch  art 
of  the  present  day  the  same  taste  but  not 
the  same  power  of  execution  prevails  as 
in  earlier  times.     Sea-pieces,  landscapes, 
■cenea  of  common  life  are  still  the  chief 
subjects    selected.     Bchotel    and    Scholf- 
liart    have    distinguished    themselves    as 
landscape-paintera.   Van   Os,    Van    Stry, 
and    Ommetcnnck    as    cattle    and    figure 
painters,  whilst  Josef  Israels,  a  pamter 
of  domestic  scenes,  with  M.  Maria  and 
Mesdag,   are    living   artists.    The    influ- 
ence of  the  French  school  is  at  present 
paramount  in  Belgium,  as  was  the  classi- 
cism introduced  by  David  up  to  1830.    At 
that  time  a  reaction  was  begun  by  Leys 
(i81!>-60),   and    followed    up   by    Wap- 
pers    (1803-74),    painters    who   selected 
historical   subjects  of   national    interest 
The  work  of   reformation  continued   to 
be  carried  on  notably  by  Gallait  and  De 
Keyser;  whilst  the  strong  current  of  the 
present   French    influence   may    be   seen 
in  the  works  of  the  living  artists  Alfred 
Stevens  and   Verlat.    In   luly  after  a 
long  period  of  artiflcialness  and   medi- 
ocrity there  are  signs  of  revival  in  paint- 


inc. '  Pio  Joris  and  Cammarano  have 
mined  distinction  as  painters  of  history, 
and  Alberto  dall'  Oro  and  Pallisai  as 
painters  of  landscape.  Morbellt  and 
Segantini  show  in  their  wo  is  some  signs 
of  a  return  to  nature.  Spain,  too,  with 
the  exception  of  the  works  of  Fortuny. 
remains  unindividualistic ;  but  a  strong 
influence  is  now  being  exercised  upon 
her  by  French  art.  Russian  art,  which 
had  remained  at  a  standstill  since  the 
Byaantine    time,    has   since    1850   made 

Sreat  advances.  It  has  produced  Swe- 
omsky,  historical  painter,  Verestchagm, 
a  traveler  artist,  and  KramskoS,  a  re- 
ligious painter.  Scandinavian  art  in- 
cUned  for  some  time  to  the  two  schools 
of  Dflsseldorf  and  Paris,  but  has  finally 
elected  to  follow  the  latter,  several  of  her 
younger  artists  residing  permanently 
there.  Their  choice  ia  usually  landscape, 
and  among  the  chitf  namaa  may  f>e  mso- 


Faintmy 

tloned    Nomuum    Ubde    and    Bd«lfelilt. 
FaTndnti^r  in  England  we  tb*  artid* 

Qrmt  Britain,  18tk  anrf  19tkCenturie». 

bfta  (1407-1534),  an  artist  of  German 
birth  and  training,  though  hl«  worln  were 
principally  produced  in  England  dnrinc 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Rubena  and 
Vandyke,  leadem  in  Fiemiah  art,  also  did 
•ome  work  In  England  during  the  reign 
of  Charlea  I,  the  latter  spending  all  bis 
later  Ufe  in  that  country.  There  were 
other  artists  of  note  «n  the  island  king- 
dom during  this  early  period,  but  for 
the  development  of  a  distinctive  English 
school  of  painting  we  must  come  down  to 
Si'  Joshua  Reynolds  (172»-82).  who  is 
looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  the  Eng. 
Ilsh   school,   and  eminent  as  a  colorist. 

nTO73L»*°Ki'~'^™""«-  Gainsborough 
itl  C^V,  °",  contemporary,  nearly  ap- 
L^fS^'w  •**?  *?  portraits,  and  much  ex- 
celled  him  in  landscapes,  being  in  this 
i-„l*°A"t?*  **'  ^'^^t  skill  and  excel- 
Jence.  Another  eminent  painter  of  this 
period  was  Hogarth  (1697-1764),  whose 
works  were  powerful  satires  on  the  man- 
ners, morals,  and  follies  of  the  age. 
Among  the  contemporaries  of  these  artists 
°>ay,  be  named  Fuseli,  the  'Dante'  of 
painters;  Wilson,  eminent  in  landscapes: 
Romnie   and    Opie,    able   delineators   of 

K-"S?f  .S®*!'*^''^"**  ^27'  famous  for 
his  historical  subjects.  The  nineteenth 
century  yielded  a  prolific  harvest  of 
paintere,  the  fi«t  to  achieve  fame  being 

wIi.iJ5i°?"  .t^y?"*®  (176»-1830), 
highly  distinisaished  for  his  rare  delinea- 

Jm-  S'li*""'*  '??*"•  K'^«>»  of  his  in 
ft  is  field  were  Hoppner,  Jackson,  and 
Raebum.  Sir  David  Wilkie  (1785- 
i««j,  a  Scotch  painter,  has  never  been 
surpassed  in  Britain  in  his  delineations 
Sir  n7lKJiaii  In  poetic  landscape  Tur- 
Mr,yif^h^P x.^^""^  fi"t'  his  works 
^5f  1  *^®,]"«hest  excellence  in  their 
particular  field.  Constable  (1776-1837) 
7^^  aiso  dwtinguished  in  landscape,  and 
among  the  others  of  this  period  may  be 
named  Haydon,  an  historical  painter  of 

^f^  ""rW  ^"^T*^  «P'«"°d'd  colorist VCal- 
cott,    Col  ins,    Nasmyth.    and    Morland. 
Venrf  painting  was  cultivated  by  Birk 
Btothard,  and  others,  h^-jceeded  at  a  later 


PaiiieUo 


flSi."*'*ft?*^i  ■»°*  '^^  ^^hera  in  special 
period   was  the  development  of   a   new 

Its  leading  reprnientatives  being  Holman 
Hunt.  Dante  6.  Rowetti,  John  I.  Mlllata, 
«?  i^Ji™*^°°.^  ^hese  are  only  a  few 
ol  leading  position  among  the  multitude 

n*  iJ"ir  e'^."£*<'  creditable  works  of 
art  in  the  British  school.  To  the  names 
given  we  may  add  those  of  Hall,  Herkl- 
pnf/J*!?'"""'  Poynter.  Forbes,  Lawson, 
Fildes,  Parsons,  and  Moore. 

In  the  United  States  painting  had  but 
Slow  development  until  a  comparatively 
recent  date.  Hie  troublous  times  of 
colonial  settlement  and  the  Revolution 
were  not  conducive  to  art  culture, 
although  even  then  America  had  pro- 
nT^^ooJ^^."  of  merit  — Benlamin  West 
i#^    i?^V  i'^ho   was  made   president 

leV?l737'^18i^f*^f'Sy  ?'  England:  Cod- 
ley  (1737-1815),  of  high  rank  as  portrait 

Rfi°M'"L®,*'"''*  (175tJ-1828),  PlsTrank- 
iola?'*"   '°  portraiture:   Leslie    (1704- 
7a^{'  ^«:«fe, painter;  Trumbull    (1750- 
l^\'    historical;    and    Allston    (1770- 
1843),  the  first  really  distinctive  Amer- 
ican    artist    Thomas     Cole     (1801-48) 
originated  the  American  school  of  land- 
scape painting;   his  pictures  are  lovely 
and  loving  reproductions  of  nature;  his 
worthy   follower  was  Thomas    Doughty. 
Others  of  this  period  were  Inman,  the 
nrst     su«;essful     American     master     of 
genre,  and  Durand,  who  excelled  in  land- 
scape, while  Jarvis  and  Sully  were  noted 
•^r*!"!*  uP"*°J*'?'    and    Vanderlyn    ably 
painted  historical  subjects.     Comng  to  a 
later  date,  we  can  mention  only  a  few 
of  the  leaders  m  art.     In  the  fields  of 
nistory  and  genre  may  be  found  Rotber- 
mel.     Page,     Johnson,     Homer,    Leutxe. 
Weir,    May,    Powell,    Darley.    Lambdin 
Hennessey,   Freeman,    La    Farge,    Elihii 
Vedder,  Huntington,  and  Reid ;  In  marine 


robjects,  Bradfonl,  Dana,  De  Haas,  Dix. 
Hamilton.  Haseltine.  Moran ;  landscape 
has  Church.  Bierstadt,  Kensett.  Inness, 
Hart,  Cropsey,  Casilear.  Gignoux. 
Wyant,  the  Gilfords,  Cranch.  Qriswold, 
Bristol.  Brown,  Fitch.  Richards,  etc.  In 
portrait  painting  Whistler  and  Sargent 
attained  world  fiune,  and  Abbey,  though 
chiefly  celebrated  as  an  illustrator,  has 

date"brNTwtoV^L^lirC^n"r"  MadY^'"  In*?hli  '\T%  ^^f "'^^'^  ^o^""  in  ^lo" 
Eastlate.  Hamilton;  Cope,  £yceL«n^'  lli^il  h  **  °'  landscape  painting  modern 
><w>..    v^lu    1^ J    !?_  ^"i^>.  'jyf^f,   Liana-    artists  nave  made  notable  progress 

PaigieUo  Ipa-i-si-el'lo).  Giovanni,  an 
t        u  Italian     singer     and     musi- 

cian, bom  in  1741.  In  1763  his  first 
opera  {La  Puptlla)  was  performed  with 
great  applause  at  Bologna.  By  the  year 
17««  he  had  composed  nearly  fifty  operas. 
Ib  Russia  bs  compoaed  hia  beM 


I^«L'*«  '"•''•  J**^'  ***^-t  .n»ost  of  these  also 
painting  landscape  and  historical  subjects. 
Landscape  was  also  cultivated  by  Bad- 
dington.  Linnell,  Roberts,  etc.  Lance 
won  fame  for  his  pictures  of  still  life. 
Stanfleld    for    his    splendid    sea    pieces. 


Pidilt7 


falttotlifriiim 


tions,  La  Btrv  PttdroM  and  11  Barhien 
4i  BevigUt^  and  In  Vienna  11  Bi  Teodoro, 
and  twelve  symphoniet  for  the  Emperor 
Jowph  II.    He  died  in  1818.   „    ^,     . 
PniaU-ir   (pa>'H).  a  burgli  of  Scotland, 
raiuey  liHlie  county  o£  Renfrew.  7 
milea   W.8.W.  of  QUigow.    It  coMiata 
of  an  old  town  on  the  weat  or  left,  and 
a  new  town  on  the  eaat  or  right  bank  of 
the  river,  commnnicating  by  three  hanfl- 
■ome     bridges.    The     moat     noteworthy 
building  is  the   Abbey  Church,  now  a 
parish  church,  belonging  to  a  monasters 
Yof    which     little    else    now     reinains) 
founded  in  1163  by  Walter,  son  of  Alan, 
the  first  of  the  bouse  of  the  Stewarts, 
and  at  one  time  a  very  opulent  founda- 
tion.   In    St.    Mirren's    Chapel    or    the 
Sounding  Aisle,  on  the  south  side,  'tanda 
a  tomb  supposed  to  have  been  built  in 
honor    of    Bruce's     daughter     Marjory. 
Paisley  has  been  long  noted  for  m  manu- 
factures, especially  of  textile  gooda.    The 
shawl  manufacture,  introduced  about  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century,  and  long  a 
flourishing  industry,  is  not  now  a  staple, 
but  the  textile  manufacture  ia  still  large, 
and  to  it  has  been  added  that  of  aewing 
cotton,  for  which  Paisley  is  celebrated  all 
over  the  world.    Wilson  the  ornithologist, 
the   poet   Tannabill,   and    Prof.    Wilson 

i Christopher  North)  were  natives  of 
•aisley,  which  possesses  a  bronae  statue 
of  the  ornithologist  and  of  the  poet. 
Paisley  is  a  town  of  ancient  origin,  hav- 
ing been  at  one  time  a  RomaiL  station 
under  the  name  of  Vanduara.  Pop.  84,- 
445. 

Paiamna  (pa-ja'mas),  loose  tronsera 
rajamas  ^^,^  ^y  both  sexes  in  India, 
a  modification  of  which  is  now  largely 
used  for  chamber  wear  in  America  and 
Europe.  .  ,  .     „ 

Pola^in  (pal'a-din),  a  term  originally 
raiaain  ^^ued  to  the  Come$  palatti. 
Count  of  the  Palace,  or  Count  Palatine, 
the  official  who  superintended  the  house 
hold  of  the  Carlovingian  sovereigns,  and 
then  to  the  companions  in  arms  of  Charle- 
magne, who  belonged  to  hia  court.  Lat- 
terly it  was  used  in  a  more  general  sense. 

Palaearctio  Kcgion  ^Fft".  to'ln 

ology,  one  of  six  divisions  of  the  world 
based  upon  their  characteristic  fauna. 
It  embraces  Europe,  Northern  Asia,  and 
Africa  north  of  the  Atlas  range. 

Palaichthycs  <f^r 5?SeV  'co2: 

prising  the  Qanoidei  and  the  Elaamo- 
branchiL 


wrltiBga  and  fignraa  on  ancient  mono- 
*  "'oner-*  — "*  — •-«--.«•  — 


PalKOgrapliy  {JSito!;ind»t:  a?d 

graphe,  writing)  Is  the  science  by  means 
of   which  ancient  inscriptions,  and  the 


mmts,  are  decipoered  and  explained  iw 
dlatinguiahed  from  diplomatto$,  which 
deala  with  written  documents. 
Pft1»Aloffi  (pa-l6-ol'6-Ji).  the  name  of 
*  »**0**'6*  the  sovereigns  of  the  last 
dynasty  of  the  Byxantine  Empire.  Th« 
founder  of  the  dynasty  was  Michael 
Paleologus,  who  in  1200  became  Emperor 
of  Nicsa,  and  in  1261  Emperor  of  Byaan- 
tium.    See  ByMMttne  Empire, 

Paloontologry  iS^i!*-^°^t*1l.: 

dent;  onto,  beings)  is  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  livEag  beinga,  whether  ani- 
mal or  vegetable,  that  have  inhabited  the 
globe  in  the  successive  periods  of  its  past 
history.  The  comparison  of  tba  fossil  re- 
mains of  plants  and  animals,  bcloneing 
for  the  most  part  to  extinct  species,  has 
given  a  powerful  impulae  to  the  science  of 
comparative  anatomy,  and  through  It  a 
truer  insight  has  been  obtained  into  the 
natural  arrangement  and  subdivision  of 
the  classes  of  animals.  But  the  science 
which  baa  profited  in  the  highest  degree 
from  palaeontology  is  geology.  Paiaon- 
tology,  apart  from  its  importance  as 
treating  of  the  paat  life-history  of  the 
earth,  aaaista  the  geologist  in  his  deter- 
mination of  the  chronological  succession 
of  the  materials  composing  the  earths 
crust.    As    a    general    result    of    united 

feological  and  palsontological  researches, 
t  has  been  found  possible  to  divide  the 
entire  series  of  stratified  deposits  into  a 
number  of  rock-systems  or  formations, 
each  of  which  is  defined  by  possessing  an 
assemblage  of  organic  remaina  which  nre 
not  associated  in  any  other  format  im. 
These  systems  as  a  whole  are  divided 
into  three  great  divisions,  based  on  the 
characten  of  their  organic  remains,  and 
thus  representing  three  auccessive  life 
perioda,  aa  foilowa :  -  PaI(rozoio,  or  an 
cient  life  epoch,  which  includes  th4 
Laurentian,  Cambrian,  Silurian,  Devo- 
nian, Old  Red  Sandstone,  Carboniferous, 
and  Permian  rock  systems.  Metozoie,  or 
middle  life  epoch,  including  the  TruuMic, 
Jurassic  or  Oolitic,  and  Cretaceous  rock 
aystems.  Ctinozoic.  or  recent  life  epoch, 
which  comprises  the  Eocene,  Miocene, 
Plioc«e,  and  Post-tertiary  rock  systeaw. 
The  fosail  remaina  of  the  first  two  divi- 
aiona  belong  almost  wholly  to  extinct 
genera.  The  Cainosoic  fossils  belong 
largely  to  living  genera,  or  genera  <mly 
recently  exUnct    See  Oeoton. 

Pateotlieriiim  ir«1S5*g«^"ot 

Ungulate  or  Hoofed  Qnadnipeds  with 
three  toes.  These  animals  resembled 
tapirs,  and  vaMed  in  size  from  a  sheep 
to  a  borae.    They  had  twenty-two  teeth 


?al«oioie 


ia  Mch  law,  and,  te  all  NobabUi«»    m. 
g«Bin  forma  tb*  type  of  (STSaS^  fS? 


Pftlate 


Palaotheriui  rMtoitd. 

ceM  and  Miocene  atrata.    P.  maanMmlm 
a  familiar  apeciea.  "•■F»m»«»  la 

Palaeozoic.    ^^  p*knntoiofp. 


Palanqnin. 


Palaestra     0»-Ie'"tra).    orlainall,    in 
II         .  ureece  a  place  for  wnmt. 

"!"».  >'t«'!L«'«>»  a  place  *f or  tiitaint^ 
athlete,   who   contended    in    the%'ubiS 

MH.^j:.f'i^/««4  V  i?  I'm,  p 


gie  Tribunjjl  aat  in  the  palaM  duriMuS 
the  Reatoration  it 


Reign  of  Terror.     At  loe  neatoration  it 


but  in  the  revolution  of  1848  It  waa  aaaln 
appropriated  to  the  atate/  In  islflt 
was  aet  on  fire  by  the  CommuniiSJ  but 
has  Bince  been  reatored.  The  Thtttw 
Prancnis  and  several  ahopa  now  foS 
jarts^of    the    buildlnga   oT th°e%ate 

Palamedea  iP^-"*:"*'**-*).  •  tenua 

»>r.d««     ♦!,      u     S.  American  birds.    P. 

S2^  ib'thh™""}'^  "creamer  (whl^ 
■een  la  the  typical  spedea. 

Palamkotta  {P5:'»?-kot'tt),  town  of 

trict.  Madtaa  P^^enJy  ?°ffl".'''^ 
TinnevellL    Pop.  sffif'  '**  ''  *^ 

Palanpur.     ^^  PaAIanp«r. 

PalanqniiL  fi^-^v^wKEEw    (pai^m- 

ance  used  in  Ind£  <ihtoa"7c"^h<!22r^- 
poles  on  the  "Zlde™  of  m^'^iSd  ft 
which  a  8ing:t.  person  is  cSwied  fLm 
S'»«  *«>  pJa^^e.    fie  palanqSfn  propj^g 

in  India.  esScwirLSS  the  EuSS.? 
but  tha  introductfon  rf15,i*i^,®"Sn5 


i?.?iiyT*"i.  **'  *.•»•  «>ada  have  almoat 
wuaed  ita  diacontinuance.  »"""« 

Palatals  (]«''■•-*■'»>»  "onnda  w»^ich 
th*  /««4«— ^"^*  *A*''  character  from 
tbe  conjunction  of  the  tonfue  and  hard 
palate,  aa  eh  in  dkareik.  ^^ 

Palate  »V*|!;i5i«  ihe  name  applied  to 
-1-^  •  *  *"•  "^f  *'  *he  mouth.  It  con- 
52^*  "'J"*  portiona,  the  Aard  palate  in 

mer  ia  bounded  above  by  the  palatal 
^°2J.  j»  'wnt  and  at  the  aidea  5  tfi 
alveolar  arches  and  cuma,  beina  lined  by 

noua  with  the  aoft  palate.  It  aupporta 
the  tongue  in  eating,  apeaklng.  and  SraN 
lowing.  The  toft  naUte  ia  a  movable  fold 
suapended  from  t£e  poaterlor  bSrt«  of 

m^nihSr^  J**''*^-      '*   ^"■'■♦"   O'   mucous 

K^"?"*-"*?*"'  *P^  muscles,  and 
m^  *  y^u  o'Pfftition  between  the 
Si"*i.ii°''  .*•  '>'°^«»"  nostrils.  Its  up- 
per  border  ia  attached  to  the  posteriw 
marata  of  the  hard  palate:  ita  lo^r  boi! 
muuu,  IT^*-?'"'  «•««•  hanga  from  the 
SJ- 'S^'  i?  '*"'"  ^tin,  and  on  each 
aide   are   two   curved    folda   of   muMM 

iSf.!?/tif*'*K**  Between  these  on  either 
«de  of  the  pharynx  are  the  two  glandular 
bodiea  known  as  ton»U$.  T&  upper 
■«^  *JS  *•"*.■<>'*  P"'»t«  J»  convex?rte 

fISS,  *'*•♦'****':.  R?™*i»«  *®  *»»«  early  or 
embryo  stage  of  Ita  formation,  when  it 
conaista  of  two  diaHnct  partsT  Non- 
union of  theae  halves  and  pf  th«w  of  the 
hard  pahite  constitutes  the  deformity 
iSfh^i.  "i.***'*,,?"^*®'  often  aaaociated 
7h^  -$?r"P-.  P^^"  ■."  abundant  In 
Ski  1.**"  palate,  accreting  the  mncns 
which  aervea  to  lubricate  the  throat  dur- 
ing the  paaaage  of  food.  The  aoft  palate 
comes  into  action  in  swallowing,  and  alw 
in  apeaking,  being  of  great  imwrtance  fa 
the  utterance  of  certain  aoonda.  Th« 
vedal   oae  <rf  the  nvofai  ia  nSk,:^ 


Falatinftte 


VtlMino 


1 

..I 

u 


known.    It  Ui  often  reUi«a  ar  •nlMgad, 
cauaing  a  troubleaome  coogo. 
v.1»7i«iQf«    (pa-Ut'i-nat:    German 

Palatinate  i^u),  a  dUiaion  o<  tb« 

old  Gennan  Empire,  under  the  ni»e  <rf 
counts-patatlne  ('Pfa  agrafen),  conirtrting 
of  two  aeparate  portiona  diaUngulahed  M 
the  Upper  and  Lower  Palatinate.  Tlia 
Upper  or  Bavarian  Palattoato  waa 
bounded  mainly  by  Bohemia  and  Bavaria, 
and  Ita  capital  waa  Amberg.  Tha 
Lower  or  Rhenish  Palatinata  lay  on 
both  aldea  of  the  Rhine,  aurrounded  by 
Baden,  Alsace,  Lorraine,  etc.,  iU  chief 
towna  being  Heidelberg  and  Mannheim. 
The  counts-palatine  were  in  ppaaewlon  ot 
the  Palatinate  and  the  dletrlcta  belong 
ing  to  It  aa  early  aa  the  11th  century,  and 
were    long    among    the    moat    powerful 

frincea  of  the  German  Empire.  At  th« 
>eace  of  Weatphalla  (1«48)  the  Lower 
Palatinate  waa  wparated  from  the  Up- 
per, Bavaria  getting  the  latter,  while  the 


a  remaui  an 
).  

u 

A  pale  aiiur* 


former  now  became  a  aeparate  electorate 
of  the  empire,  and  waa  henceforth  gen- 
erally known  aa  the  Palatinate.  By  the 
ireatlea  of  Paria  (1814-15)  the  Patat- 
Inate  waa  split  up;  Bavaria  received  tae 
largest  part,  and  the  remainder  waa  di- 
vided between  Heaae-Darmatadt  and 
Prussia.  The  name  Palatinate  now  ht- 
longs  to  the  detached  portion  of  Bavwrta 
on  the  west  of  the  Rhine,  while  the  Up- 
per Palatinate  forms  another  portion  ol 
the  monarchy.     See  Bavaria. 

Palatine.   KTioS?"""" 

Palatine  Hill,    see  Rome. 

Pala+Va  (pA-lafkA),  a  port  and  ci^ 
raiaiKa  ^f  Florida,  capital  of  Put- 
nam Co.,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  St 
John's  River,  50  miles  from  the  sea.  It 
is  frequented  by  deep-sea  aa  well  aa  by 
river  steamers,  and  has  a  trade  to 
oranges,  sugar,  and  cotton,  small  truita 
and  vegetables,  and  has  iron  and  machine 
works.    Pop.  37T9.  i  i     j   «., 

Pa1aT[7flii  (pa-ia'wan),  an  ialand  oo. 
raiawan  ^^^  northeast  of  Borneo,  be- 
longing to  the  Philippines;  area,  4576 
square  miles.  It  Is  mountainous,  well 
wooded  and  watered,  and  very  fertile,  but 
unhealthy.  Pop.  (chiefly  Malaya),  about 
SO  000 
PftlftV    (pa->4').    an    I°4»«»    climbing 

of  the  nat  order  Aacfepiadacec.  Ita 
atalk-tibers,  which  are  stroiif  anc  waive, 
are  apun  into  a  very  fine  yam;  and  ita 
milky  lulce  forma  a  kind  of  caautchouc 

Patoolo  ferS"i;u4  iS  ^ 

Syracuae.  Here  are  the  rniaa  ot  Jhe 
ancient  city  of  Acrae,  founded  by  Byra- 


pleat  kind  of  ordinary.  It 
la  bonnded  by  two  vertfcal 
linca  at  equal  diatancea 
from  the  aidea  of  the  ea- 
cutcheon,  of  which  it  «- 
doaea  one-third.    See  uer- 

TSTfi  Thb,  or  the  EmoUSH  Pai*.  • 
'«•»  n^  formerly  «»»«  *»  t^"*  K.'J 
of  Ireland  which  waa  ,«>">?>«*«>?  'J™". 
Engliah  rule,  in  diat  nctlon  from  the  parte 
where  the  old  Iriah  lawa  and  cuatoma  pre- 

piSJL  (ptne^).  in  ,botany,  the  bracta 
raien  ^^  ,„  atatloned  up«i  the  re- 
centaele  of  Compoait»  between  the  floreta : 
Xtoterlorbimcto   of   the  flowera  or 

•S!u^V<i«»  (pa-lem-Wng').  »  town 
PalemOang  irSumatra.  capital  of 
the  province  of  aame  name,  on  the  Mooal, 
here  called  the  Palembang.  ^Th?". «• 
about  00,000  inhabitanta,  P-'^y  »°^VI^ 
ing  houaea  raiaed  onpoata,  and  pajtly  l«v- 
ng  on  rafta  moored  In  the  river.  Ita  port 
ia  one  of  the  beat  in  the  MaUy  Archipel- 

ValMAia  (pa-lan'th6-a),  a  town  of 
raienCia  ^^jq  in  Leon,  capltol  of  a 
province  of  aame  name,  aituated  on  the 
Carrion,  an  affluent  of  the  Pljuerga.  It 
ta  a  bishop'a  aee,  and  has  a  fine  Gothic 
cathedral.  Pop.  16,940.— The  province  of 
Palencia  ia  fertile  and  watered  by  the 
Carrion  and  Pisuerga.  Area,  3256  square 
milea;  pop.  192,478.  , 

iDalA-nnn*   (pli-len'kl),    a    village    of 

Palenqne  ^^^j,^^  .^'^te  of  caapaa. 

00  milea  w.iu  of  Ciudad  Real.    About  7 
milea  B.W.  of  It  are  aome  of  the  moat  «- 
tenalve  and  magnificent  ruma  In  America, 
belonging  to  the  period  anterior  to  the 
Spanfah     conqueat.    The     P£»ncjPa| ,  «>' 
theae.  called  the  'palace,'  ia  220  feet  long 
by  180  feet  wide,  with  numeroua  aculp- 
turea  and  Uerogiyphica. 
-DalA-raiA   (p4-l*r'm6;    ancient    Panor- 
raiennO  ^^,)^  ^   aeaport   town,   the 
capital  of  Sicily,  beautifully  »»tuated  on 
the  north  aide  of  the  Wand.    It  ia  built 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheater  facing  the 
aea.  and  ia  aurrounded  by  walla.    The  city 
ia   ornamented    by    numeroua   fountaina, 
and  baa  many  public  edificea,  including  a 
cathedral  of  the  tenth  eemtn^  whWi  oon- 
taina  monumenta  in  porptory  of  Oe  Jfflp- 
peror  Frederick  U  aaf  ^«  Boger  Ae 
Norman.    Other  notal^  bpdinga  are  the 
chnrdiea  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Dominic;  a 
royal  palace  of  Sawwmte  origin,  contain- 
ing tlM^pd  of  Kint  Boger:   the  Cap- 


Mm 


Pdettine 


P^  PfttadM  (PiJatiM  CbaptI).  baiU  ia 

datbic  prior  to  1182.  haviogtbt  wa&  » 
£i»^«»wrtd  with  ridi  ^iStiwTZiJt 

JCMraa,  ooBtaiaiBf  mom  of  the  old««t 

a  dtfialt*  date  eaa  b*  aaaigacd  (aiztli  en" 
tarj  a.  0.)  ;  the  arcliicpiwcmal  palace.^ 

•ten,  and  naaitroaa  other  stnicturM  of 
•i^**!*""^  intemt.    The  >ort  iTeS- 

Fajenao  ia  the  reaidence  of  the  nilitarj 
eommaadant  of  the  ialand.  and  haa  aa  a/ 
■•Ml  and  ahipbuildina  ya'rdT  The"  iS^ 

•PJ™.  '«»*■,  wlphnr,  akiu,  oil  "«h 
•mcea,  cream  of  tartar,  llquirice,  and 
manna ;  importa,  colonial  product  woo" 

SirftlLi'  *fe  Ph«nlciana:  it  afteS 
SSi  ^'t*™  *!»•  capital  of  the  CartS- 
fK""v  J'if^S'^"    »    Bidly.    It    iTM 

•owe  held  it  for  a  time,  and  in  1072  U 
£•  *?  t^  ♦?<"5"«-.  The  QeSnaT^: 
PMora  and  the  French  aubaequent^  hSi 
it.  and  aince  the  Sicilian  Vm«n  Ti<m»? 

kltJL^'^^  *^  fortan"e.%7  ASSi 
Ktncdom.  The  court  of  NsdIm  mIh.4 
{If" '«"  1806  to  1818:    affibLldTSS 

^^^  iSl^^l'  *"•  A-  (Stimea 

Palestine  lK«?:"n).   oawaaw.   or 

maritime  coontj?  of  &»H"":u  *»»«  J» 
veet  of  8>ria:^.^^*f'iJ?  ?>•■«»««. 


!S^r  -  !!S*""f  mwwtainoua,  or  con- 
^  •*  ■  fjriw  M  Ptateaua  both  on  tlie 

JSL^wut.*^"^  the^v^ej  of  the 
j!«™«a.  With  the  aiception  of  Moant 
Heraoa  is  the  north  (8060  fa^  fo«  »« 
th.  heiffata  ««54M<fc  nSt  ilie  L2{ 
nmarkable  an  Carmel,  on   tha  bmS. 

(Tabor),  farther  Inland;  Ebal  and  Oerl- 

S^tJ''^^  f ~*  tlie  Mount  of  Ollvi 
in  and   near  Jemaalem.    Paleatine   baa 
comparatively  few  plaina.  though  iS  few 
«l'£l'*«  I'^l"  '^f  »>  ««"^  Variety"* 
niity.    llie  •maritime  or  coaat  plaina  of 
Sharon  and  Phlllatla,  the  riw  pta"  ot 
Jordan,  and   he  ptain  of  Eadraelon  In  the 
Ju-*^  -S^  •"  J?»t  •f*  *ortl>y  of  men! 
n£3'..S'!?„!?.*'*Ji?«  ItSf"""  aw  well  ^ 
S«hV4  ""'til***'-    ^n>«  Jordan  plaihia 
SSSiLil ''"*•..<''  "f"*-    The  plain  of 
^mf^Si  ^"?y  «'  J««««l  «■  of  great 
HSn*"/^-i.t^J»*  Prtnc'P«l  riw  ia  the  Jor! 
oan     (which    aee).  Thla    river    h««. 

bA  Sf  J?^  "'K  Incjudlnrwind",; 


north  to^,u8r  affSf  So^^f  J^ 

St  '^**'*"  ?0  *?<»«ti«OM  ^^SHi 

ley  of  the  Jordan  .ri^V  .1.1  S  ?**P  bli- 
the countiy  froS'th.  SSfK^'**'  •n^raecta 


^^m^  «_L  vyurw  w  oniy  aoout  70.  Its 
coune  from  Merom  to  the  Dead  8e«  !■ 
SJS!.*  7J*i?*  ^  ■ea-level.  iKrt  oTthe 
■<H!alled  rivera  of  Paleatiaa  a»  merslv 

tying  Into  the  Mediterranean,  the  mo«t 

STDfAn  «Vi,^  ^'■•«»'  ''Wch  dSffi 
tne  plain  of  Eadraelon;  and  the  Auieh 

JoSlfn'TA  Thechieitribotal^Jf  hS 
Jordan  ia  the  Zerka  or  Jabbok  Th« 
meet  remarkable  lake  to  the  K5d  Sea 
aW  fSllTiaS  f^Tt?^  »  or  10  broad! 
naJnti^J^*  ^i?^  the  Medlter- 
n,?S.  /m/"*  ?t'l*'  .'■*«■  «"  Bahr-el- 
Huleh  (Merom).  6  miiea  long  and  4  miln 

Ji^n."Sd*rit''lL***^  the  Med"  S 

a«f  «irin«  .^  '°  Paleatine  th?  weUa 
ana  apringa  are  numeroua,  and  are  ail 
counted  worthy  of  note.  Among  the  moat 
intf««ln»  are  the  epringa  of  lot  w"?er 

.1^  wuh^'l*^-    Of  theae  there  are  five  or 

mek  fc»™.M^  ^iJ?*  leoiogy,  the  chief 
Im^  tST^uI^J'  t^  .country  on  both 
SJS.     sJStatSS?".*'  """tow.  'nil  of 

K  n/2l^^?f  '®la»olc  rocka.  the  latter 
S  J^rfS***«^  common  on  the  east  Jde 
^«iS^^  ?•*"■  ®'  volcanic  action  are 
»„„™*^  »w>  eartbqnakea  are  atill  co"! 

■«««■,  rammer  and  winter.  During  the 
Krifttil''"'''  '"*■  'm  Apr"  to  ^vem! 
utter  there  to  a  eomidenible  fall  wTrailifc 


le 


>n- 
b« 
be 
nt 
of 
•t 
b- 
nr 
rl- 
r: 
«. 

IS 

w 

)f 

r- 
>f 
>f 

le 
I- 

>- 
is 
f 
t 

% 

>. 
I 
I 
) 

r 


British  Official  Pholograph 


O  Undtrwood  and  Vndmtood,  N.  Y. 

JKPUSALBM  DBUVBRBD 
^t»Vrv!!i^.?:  '.fc'^W*''"  '*°'?  ^'^^r  was  surrendered  to  the  British  forcei.  Canying  out  the  curtonu 
Uff.r.»^iT^«^V  j^""°^''"'J"J*='^^-  Ge?e«i  AUenby,  U  making  his  triumphal  entry  through  the 
i^StS.*^  ;-  ;?2.  -f^**  «i«»nP;n'«}  by  his  staff  airf  the  commanders  3  the  Pmich  and  Italian  foreea  who 
cooperated  in  the  dnve  through  Paleetme.  the  heads  of  the  tMUtical  misskmi  and  the  maitary  attachis  ol 

tnaot,  Italy  and  the  Unitad  Sutei. 


PUmUm 


PalaftilaA 


tk« 


mbmI  •▼««■•  tt 

■TW  iDohM..  IB  tte  JerdM  nUiS 

~*  -k. .   .  -        I ■ f_ 


tte 

1« 


lovlaads  U  was 


r  ^  wlater  tbt'i'  andli'MldoS 


WUtf  MBk  Into  • 
BUM*  part  U 


!U 


-jc«   wt" 

..1.    V 


„--_  Moapt  M  ik«  klghMT  d«> 
MhUm  wMooMTvy  fwtlk, 
- —  .._•  tlM  MUM  atteBtloa  paid,  u 
fowMTly,  t»  aitlfldal  Intfatka.  and  tbt 
eoMtroetloB  «(  nMrroln  and  water- 
eponM.  It  al^t  bt  ao  afaia.  kmmtm 
ih*  prodnetai  bwidM  tha  uaual  c*faala,aii 

KPM,  Bsa,  oliTM,  oraana,  aad  aprkota. 
,     I  flora  of  PalMtlno  b  rich  <n  flowtr- 
lag  planta,  Includiac  tlw  acar] 
laaoocttiin^  oarciaaiM,  eror.r 
•!••   tte.  .  Tlio   coantry   wf.!» 
tbaband,  bat  it  ia  now,  I    a 
and  daaolate,  tlioatb  fo'  ^  •  of  ■.mi'  ulu 
oak  tzlat  on  tbo  «aft    .     Jo  Jc  'i><u 
<JB  tht  wcat  aida  of  the  •!  ■>  ,  hwe^tr, 
tatrt  ar*  few  traaa.     <'.^  ri.o^t  couitcnn 

two    ia    tba    Oall»    IrrSj;-,.,    l-r    r-'     .ly 

arargratu  oak  aad  t^>r>  dw  *J  ii^'..i  .^'-ccie'i. 
Othar  traaa  ar*  tba  ■•''  re,  or  u  r\<'  ade  , 
areaaMr^  walaat.  .in  ced.  i.  T  e  wmi 
aalmala  ineiiid*  tna  mi-puhI,  fir»  :<  b-ar. 
wolf,  Jackal,  boar.  anttk<p  ,  ^  -'.v..,  r,  r- 
eopin^  Conor,  Jerboa,  att.  Tuf  fitimt.>\  • 
•Blniala  of  bordan  an  tLa  •  ^.me. 
aad  carnal,  tb*  horaa  baini;  '  jsed. 
Th»  cattla  ara  sot  geaarallr  t«.o  :iUJier> 
OM.  8hc«p  ud  coata  ara  abundant 
r""2*  tba  blrda  ara  aaflaa,  Tnltaraa, 
Mwka  — buda  of  prey  being  very  namer> 
•oa  — larena,  baa-aatera,  boopoaa,  atorln, 
sad  nkfatinnlaa.  Flab  abound  fat  the 
8aa  of  Qalfla*  apd  tba  Jordan.  There 
ar*  many  apaeiaa  of  leptilaa,  amoar  them 
bdat  Aa  cfaaaialeon,  land  and  water  tor- 
toiaa,^!|iarda,  and  aarpanta,  and  «tcb  tba 
croeodlla. 

The  nan*  Palaatina,  from  th*  H*br*w 
PalaMft^k  neana  tba  land  of  tba  PhiUa- 
tlaaa.  It  la  properly  only  appUeabl*  ta 
th*  aoathweat  part  of  tb*  eonntry.  Tha 
ancient  name  of  tha  coontry  waa  Canaan, 
and  when  thoa  named,  fai  toe  tima  of  tha 
patrlarcha,  it  waa  parceled  oat  auoof 
a  namber  of  indepoident  tribea.  all  prob* 
ably  Bemltic.  In  the  time  ofHoaaa  th* 
diatrict  eaat  of  tb*  Jordan  waa  taken  and 
dlTlded  amonf  the  tribe*  of  Reuben  and 
Oad,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manaaseh;  and 
later  the  whole  territory  waa  apportioned 
amooff  the  twelve  Jewiah  tribea.  For  tha 
aubaeqaent  bbto>7  £*•  the  article  /e«M. 
In  tb*  tint*  (rf  otir  SaTloar  Pateatin*  waa 
bdd  bj  Xhm  BomFJa,  and  divided  Into  the 
four  proT^oea  of  jSal^  Samaria,  Ju- 
dM,  and  Farea.  In  606,  Paleatine  waa 
taken  by  tha  Saraceaa  onto  Omar.    The 

■^'*^  ^*';?**iJ»'!«*   Oiriatkaa 
ta?a  riaa  t»  tha  OroNdaat  bat  Mokam- 
NBMlaad  ia  omtxal,  ai^  tha 
•— U-i 


rakdlt 

i-T..r— -  of  *«»a  1 .__,■■, 

—  .popolatioa  of       .-wtiae  ia  ^^tatrt 
at  about  TSaoqar    whleh  aomTfSo^ 

j^Jewjah  ImmiiratloB  la  iawaarin^  ^85 

iAl^f^f*f?*  ^<l*  ^S!"^*^  hy  th*  Britlah  la 
1917  dnrtnc  the  Baropeaa  war,  tha  ad- 
viufla  beginninf  with  the  aaptor*  of  B**r- 
Bheba  In  the  aoath.  early  la  Noraatbar. 
nia  dty  of  Qaaa  waa  taken  from  th* 
Torki  on  November  7.  Th*  port  *l  Jala 
^  ia  ndd-Noren^.  and  Oe»Mal  Ai* 
!«Miby,  eonuaaader  of  theBritiah  fanaai 
laced  on  December  7  that  ha  had 
■a  poaaeaaion  of  Hebron.  Than  b*- 
I  eodreliac  moraoieat  that  •»»*ftl4t^ 
aouth  thelittla  town  of  Bethl^ea^ 
Chriat  waa  bom.  Bethldiaan  waa 
A  December  7,  and  tha  Holy  City 
iurrendered,  December  9.  Jeridw 
_.  alao  imated  from  Turldah  oootrol. 
^3(1  the  Jordan  waa  eroaaed  in  Ifay.  int. 

Palefltine  £xploratioii  Fimd, 

\  aodety  eatabUahed  In,  London  ia  1866 


'*'iby, 

an 

Wiif 

vas 


fo  the  punoa*  of  maUnc  a  comprdMB> 
f" -a  adentifle  reaeardiinUie  Holy  Land. 
A  Quarteriy  Btatemmt  and  an  Annnal 
are  laaaed  by^the  aodety.  Large  and  d^ 
tailed  mapa  of  the  country  have  been  pro- 
pared  and  an  immenae  maaa  of  inforiM- 
non  regarding  topography,  natural  hb- 
tory,  etc,  baa  been  aecomulatad. 

Palestine.  %  ^'%  cap  al  of  And«aaB 
*  T  _r  '  pa,  Texaa,  81  milea  a.w. 
of  Longriew,  baa  a  cottw-aeed  oU  mill 
and  compreaa,  aaw  ,and  griat  mlUa,  elfr 
Inmand  aalt  occur  in  the  Tidnity.    Papk 

Falettrina    lPft*lMrtit^;  andaat 

*  .  *"^  PrvneHe),  a  town  o£ 
Central  Italy,  23  mllea  kW  of  Boi^ 
It  la  of  Greek  origin,  and  baa  aumwoaa 
ancient  remaina,  and  the  Barberini  PaK 
aca»  now  deaerted.  Pop.  0027. 
Palettr*    a  ipWea-tre'n*),  QiOTAnn 

*  ^  *  Rkbluioi  (or  PiaTBO 
AZAXaio)  V,  an  Italian  muaical  com* 
poaer,  boa  at  Paleatrina  bi  1624;  died 
to  ISDf ,  In  1S51  he  waa  appointed  by 
P?P»  JnUii*  in  maeter  of  a  choir  «( 
boya  in  tha  Julian  Chapel,  and  waa  tha 
fliat  to  recdve  the  title  of  chapd^aaa- 
ter.  In  1564  he  pnbllahed  a  flr^eoll*c- 
tion  of  maaaea,  and  JuUua  admitted  Mm 
into  the  college  of  dM»iatara  a(  tha 
pope'*  cbapeL  ^He^waa  rliamiaaad  by 
P<V*  Paol  IT  in  U6IL  bat  ia  tb*  aam* 
year  1m  waa  appointed  ehapal-maater  of 
Baa  ^oraanl  la  Lataaaaob  Ha  held  thla 
poat  far  aix  yaui^  wImi  k* 


Palette 

it  for  a  Bimilar  appointment  in  tlie 
cliurch  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  in  whicli 
Im  continued  till  1571.  In  tiie  mean- 
time the  Council  of  Trent,  on  rwasem- 
bUn»  in  15U2,  pointed  out  the  necessity 
of  a  reform  in  church  music,  which  had 
become  vulgar  and  profane.  A  commis- 
sion was  appointed,  and  Palestrina  com- 
posed three  beautiful  musses  which 
created  quite  a  revolution  in  sacred  com- 
position. One  of  them,  the  Mitia  Papm 
Manelli,  is  still  celebrated.  In  1571 
Palestrina  was  appointed  chapel-master 
of  the  Basilica  San  Pietro  in  Uome.  He 
left  an  extraordinary  numl>er  of  moaical 
compositions. 

Palette  <Pa''et).  painter's,  an  oval 
tablet  of  wood,  or  other  ma- 
terial, very  thin  and  smooth,  on  which 
painters  lay  the  various  colors  they  in- 
tend to  use,  so  as  to  have  them  ready  for 
the  pencil.  In  connection  with  the 
palette  painters  use  a  palette  knife,  a 
thin,  round-pointed  knife  for  mixins  up 
colors.  The  palette  contains  a  hole  %t 
one  end  In  which  the  thumb  is  inserted 
to  hold  it. 

Palev    (P**'")'    Fbederick    Apthobp, 
Z    grandson  of  the  following,  was 
bom  in  1810.     Educated  at  Shrewsbury, 
he  went   afterwards   to   St.   John's   Col- 
ieigS  Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  in 
1838.     In     1840    he    became    a    Itoman 
Catholic,  and  in  1874  accepted  the  post 
of    professor    of    classical    literature    in 
the  Catholic  College  at  Kensington,     He 
died  in    1888.    His    best   title   to    fame 
rests  on   the   valuable   work   he   did   is 
editor  and    annotator  of  classical    texts, 
especially  iEschylus  and  Euripides. 
Palev.     Wi"-!*".  an  English  theolog- 
•"    ical  and  philosophical   writer, 
was  bom  at  Peterborough  m  1743 ;  died 
in  1805.     In  1758  he  became  a  sizar  of 
Christ  s    College,    Cambridge,    where    be 
f™^H5^^  ^■^-  as  firat  wrangler  in  1763. 
In  1766  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.,  and 
became  a  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  college, 
w     iSS..*2''°^'°*  y^ar  he  was  ordained. 
In  17T6  be  married  and  gave  up  his  fel- 
lowship.    In  1780  he  became  prebendary 
of  Carlisle,   and   in    1783  chancellor  of 
the    djocese.     In    17ft4    he    was     made 
prebendary  of  St  Paul's  and  subdean  of 
Lincoln;    and    in    17^    he   received    the 
rectory  of  Bishop-Wearmouth.     He  also 
received  in  this  year  the  degree  of  D  D 
from    Cambridge    University.     His    chief 
works  are :     The  Vrinciplcs  of  Moral  and 
r°'***/?in^?*'<'*°P*l'  (1785);  Uoro!  Pau- 
V\'V.  {}'r^^  '  A  ^'^^  °t  **«  ^videncct  of 
Chntttanttif    (1794);   jfatural  Theology, 
^Bviienom  of  (A*  Eaittence  and  At- 
trtbute»  of  ihe  Deity  collects  from  the 
tpptamnee  «t  *«»«r»   (1802),  founded 


Mgrtn 

on  a  work  by  Nlenwentyt,  a  Dutch  philos- 
opher. As  a  writer  he  had  little  claim 
to  originality,  but  was  distingnished  hy 
clearness  and  cogency  of  reasoning,  lu- 
ddity  of  arrangement,  and  force  of  illus- 
tration. His  system  of  moral  philoaophy 
is  founded  pci.  ly  on  utilitarianism. 
Palerhat  /P^i'-fhaf  >,  a  town  in  MaU 
B"""  bar.  Sladras,  India.  It  is  a 
busy  entrepot  for  the  exchange  of  pro- 
duce between  Malabar  and  the  uplaad 
country.    Pop.  44,177. 

Palffrave  (pa^'i^av).  sa  Fiuiron, 

••TOO  »,  '^'*'  i*°™  »"  London  in 
1788.  He  was  a  Jew,  and  bis  original 
name  was  Cohen,  which  he  chang^  to 
t^^"^*',  <"»  embracing  Christianity  In 
1823.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1827, 
and  made  himself  known  by  bis  edition 
?l«  *  KVii''^f?*''n/.  ^"■*«  /»'<«•  ^275  to 

(1831),  H*»e  and  Proitre»$  of  the  Com- 
monwealth (1832) .  In  1832  he  was 
knighted.  He  served  on  the  Municipal 
Corporation  Commission,  1833-33,  and 
was  appointed  deputy-keeper  of  records 

'.°o^i^^;.  ^^  ^^«*  •*  Hampstead  in 
1801.  His  other  works  include  Trutkt 
and  Fictions  of  the  Middle  Agee  (1844), 
Iteporii  of  the  Deputy-keeper  of  tho  Pub' 
ho  Records  (1840-01),  and  the  Hittory 
of  Normandy  and  England  (1861-00). 

Palerave.  ^kancw  tubneb,  son  of 

T  ^  .  ,  J?^  ''^^'^'  was  bom  In 
London  in  1824,  and  educated  at  Char- 
terhouse and  Baliol  College,  Oxford. 
He  became  a  fellow  of  Exeter  Collie, 
aid  was  for  five  years  vice-principal  of 
the  Schoolmaster's  Training  College  at 
Kneller  Hall.  He  then  acted  as  private 
secretary  to  Lord  Granville,  and  later  en 
held  a  post  in  the  Education  Draart* 
ment.  In  1886  he  was  elected  profee- 
soro*  poetry  at  Oxford.  His  literary 
works  include  Idyls  and  Bonos  (1864), 
Oolden  Treasury  of  the  Best  thongs  and 
Lyrtcal    Poems     (1801),    Sonnets    and 


i''yU2L^'"'^'P'^^.  (1865),  Essays  on 
At*  (1800),  and  Selected  Lyrical  Posms 
of  Herrick  (1877).  He  died  in  ISOL 
Palerrave.  Wiluam  Giffobo,  brother 
,  ^  .  '  o'  tae  foregoing,  bom  in 
London  in  1826;  died  in  isSS.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford,  and  from  1847  to 
1853  served  in  the  Bombay  Light  In- 
fantry. He  then  became  a  Roman 
Catholic,  was  ordained  a  priest,  joined 
the  Jesuits,  and  engaged  in  missionary 
labors  in  India  and  Syria.  In  1862  he 
undertook  for  Napoleon  III,  a  Journey 
through  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia. 
He  subsequently  left  the  Jesuits,  entwed 
the  diplomatic  service,  and  married.  Be 
acted  as  British  consul  at  rarioua  plaeta 
until   187&    He  was  appoiatei  ecMof 


PftMiinui 


1 1 . 


MMKl  In  Bulgaria  in  1878,  in  Siam  In 
1870,  and  in  1884  minister  resident  and 
ooual-general  In  Uruguay,  and  tiis  de«tli 
torit  place  at  Montevideo.  His  literary 
wort!  include  Penonal  Narrative  of  a 

»*■;•  ''.®"7'.**',.t*«"'»*  Central  and 
Eattem  Arabia  (1872)  ;  Hermann  Agka, 

•  ^"5?  /l*^^>.=  ^'*0'««A'«  Cave  (18ft) 
and  Duteh  Guiana  (187G). 

P41i   iP*'!S>:,  *H  wcwd.  language  ^f 

*  a  *il*.  Buddhists,  as  closely  related 
to  Banakrit  as  Italian  to  Latin.  It  is 
the  language  in  which  the  oldest  re- 
ligious, philMophical,  and  historical  lit- 
erature of  Buddhism  is  written,  and  is 
especUIlT  the  language  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Buddhists  of  Ceylon,  Bur- 
mah,  and  Siam;  but  it  is  no  lonier 
spoken  anywhere,  though  a  corrupt  form 
of  it  is  to  some  extent  used  for  literary 
nurpoees.  The  study  of  Pali  was  intro- 
dnced  Into  Europe  by  Lassen  and  Bur- 
nout. 


Paliconrea  ^pa-»-k0'r6-a),agenusof 
.,  .     plants,    nat.     order     Ru- 

DlacMB,  tropical  American  shrubs  with 
small  or  rather  large  flowers  in  com- 
pound thyrses  or  corymbs.  P.  offlcinalit 
18  reported  to  be  a  powerful  diuretic,  and 
F.  itnctorM  forms  a  fine  red  dye,  much 
valued  m. Peru.  P.  densiflora  yields  coto 
bark  (which  see). 

Palimpsest    (Pa'/imp-sest;    from 
.*-.    -  UK  J^       ^reek   pahn,  again,   puC. 
atot,  rubbed),  a  manuscript  prepared  by 
erasure  for  being  written  on  again,  espe- 
cially a  parchment  so  prepared  by  wash- 
ing    or     scraping.     This     custom     was 
brought  about  by  the  costliness  of  writ- 
ing materials,    and    was    practiced    both 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in  the 
monasteries,   especially   from   the  7th  to 
the  13th  centuries.     That  which  replaced 
the  ancient  manuscripts  was  nearly  al- 
ways some  writing  of  an  ecclesiastical 
character.    The  parchments  which  have 
been   scraped  are  nearly  indecipherable. 
Xbose    which    have    been    washed    have 
Often  been  revived  by  chemical  processes. 
*  ragments    of    the    Iliad    and    extensive 
portions    of    many    Greek    and    Roman 
writers    have    been    recovered    by    these 
means. 

Palinode  (Pari-nOd),  in  a  general 
«.  j«-i  .,  ■*°**'  *  poetical  recantaUon 
or  dectaration  contrary  to  a  former  one. 
Ui  Bcott  law  It  is  a  solwnn  recantation 
dwnanded  in  addition  to  damages  in  ac- 
ttona  on  account  of  slander  or  defama- 
tion raised  in  the  commianry  court,  and 
ev«  in  the  aheriff  court. 
Palisade  iPan-Md),  a  fence  or  forti- 
neat  ion  conaisting  of  a  row 
orrtrong  atakaa  or  poata  act  firmly  in  the 
*■'     *-    •**«    pwpwadlDDlwty    or    ci>- 


liquely,  for  the  greater  security  of  a  po- 
sition, and  particularly  for  the  closing  up 
of  some  passage  or  the  protection  of  any 
expoaM  point.  ^ 

Palisander-wood   (pai-i-"an'd*r),  • 

-  . .       ,  "a"e    ia    France 

ror  rosewood  and  some  otheir  woods. 
Palissy    <Pal'i-Bi),  Bebaaro,  a  French 
w-  X   ..l^/v""!?,^    ■°<1    philosopher,    bom 
about  1510.    He  was  apprenticed   In  a 
glassworks  at  Agen,  where  he  learned  the 
art  of  painting  on  glass.     Having  com- 
pleted his  apprenticeship,  he  set  out  on 
a  tour  of  France  and  Germany  (1528). 
maintaining    himself    by    practicing    his 
craft   of  glass-painter  and   by  land-sur- 
veying.   During    his   travels    he   studied 
attentively    all     the    books     within     bia 
reach,  and  acquired  an  extensive  knowl- 
edge of  natural  science.     In  1505  he  re^ 
turned   to  France,  married,  and  settled 
at  Saintes.    Shortly  after  his  return  bia 
attention  was  attracted  by  a  fine  speci- 
men of  enameled  lottery,  and  he  there- 
upon resolved  to  discover  for  himself  the 
secret  of  the  enamel.     Being  ignorant  of 
the  potter's  art  he  had  to  grope  his  way, 
and  labored  on  year  after  year  without 
success,    almost    starving,    and    reducing 
jus  family  to  the  depths  of  poverty.     At 
length,   after   sixteen   years   of   unremu- 
nerated  labor   (1538-54),  he  obtained  a 
pure   white   enamel,   affording   a   perfect 
ground  for  the  application  of  decorative 
art.     He  was  now  able  to  produce  works 
m  which  he  represented  natural  objects 
grouped  and  portrayed  with  consummate 
SKiu,    and    his    enameled     potterv    and 
sculptures  in  clay  became  recognized  aa 
^hi- 1  "k^-  ■^•.  '°  Jt5G2  be  went  to  al 
tablish  himself  at  Paris,  where  be  con- 
tinued to  work  at  his  art,  and  also  de- 
1»     1  j^'*".*''''^    lectures,    which    were 
attended  by  the  most  distinguished  men  in 
laris,  and  contained  views  far  ahead  of 
ma  time.     He  suffered  persecution  aa  a 
Huguenot,  and  was  arrested  in  1589  and 
thrown    into   the   Bastille,    where   he   to 
said  to  have  died  in  1500.     He  left  aev- 
ticl    P'*''°'^P'»*<=*'   wofks-    See  next  w 

Palissy-ware,  5,  p^aHar  kind  of 

,  .   t      ^  French  art  pottery  in- 

vented by  Bernard  Palissy.  OChe  sur- 
face is  covered  with  a  jasper-like  wUte 
enamel,  upon  which  animals,  insecta,  and 
plants  are  represented  in  their  natural 
forms  and  colors.  Specimens  of  this 
ware  are  much  valued  and  aought  after 
by  collectora. 

PalionU  iPa-jJ-O'rns),  a  genua  of 
♦K-  *u  .  ^w^'^luoua  ahruba,  nativea  of 
^e  tiouth  of  Europe  and  Aaia  Minor,  and 


Sse  0hrUf9  Tkmm. 


Palk  Stndt 


Falliwr 


Palk  Strait  (M^>'  <^  channel  be- 
t  „  ""•*•*••  tween  the  nwinland  of 
ladk  and  tbe  north  part  of  Geylon, 
aboonding  In  shoala,  currents,  ranken 
rocks,  and  sand  banks. 
Pall  (Pftl)*  •  covering  of  black  relvet 
^^  thrown  over  a  coffin  while  being 
borne  to  bnrial,  the  ends  of  which  in  a 
walking  procession  are  held  by  the 
friends  of  the  deceased.  In  another 
sense  the  pall  or  pcUtiim  is  an  ecclesi- 
astical vestment  sent  by  the  sovereign 
pontiff  on  their  accession  to  patriarchs, 
primates,  and  metropolitans,  and  some- 
times, as  a  nuu-k  of  honor,  to  bishops. 
It  i«  made  of  white  lamb's  wool,  and  con- 
sists of  a  narrow  strip  of  cloth  encir- 
cling the  neck  and  shoulders,  with  two 
narrow  pieces  hanging  down,  all  em- 
broidered with  crosses. 

Palladian  Architecture  i,p*'*r 

ut  *  an), 
a  necies  of  Italian  architecture  due  to 
Palladio  (see  next  article) ,  founded  upon 
the  Roman  antique  as  interpreted  by  the 
writings  of  Vitruvius,  but  rather  upon 
the  secular  buildings  of  the  Romans  than 
npon  their  temples.  It  is  consequently 
more  applicable  to  palaces  and  civic 
buildings  than  to  churches.  A  character- 
istic feature  of  the  style  is  the  use  of  en- 
gaged columns  in  facades,  a  single  range 
of  these  often  running  through  the  two 

frincipal  stories.  It  was  introduced  into 
Ingland  by  Inigo  Jones,  a  follower  of 
the  Venetian  school  of  Palladio. 
Palladio  (Pa-I&'di-O),  Andbea,  one  of 
'^^  the  greatest  classical  archi- 
tects of  modern  Italy,  was  born  at  Vi- 
cenza  in  1518;  died  at  Venice  in  1580, 
where  he  was  architect  of  the  republic. 
He  perfected  his  architectural  acquire- 
ments at  Rome,  and  on  his  return  to 
yicenza  he  established  his  fame  by  his 
designs  for  many  noble  buildings  both 
there  and  in  other  parts  of  Italy.  From 
1660  he  erected  many  buildings  at 
Venice.  (See  preceding  articled  He 
was  the  author  of  a  Treatiae  on  Archi- 

PElladium  /P*-lft'«li-am),  a  wooden 
,  .  V.  V  .  ,^**  ***  Minerva  (Pal- 
las) which  is  said  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven  and  to  have  been  preserved  in 
Troy.  The  Troians  believed  that  their 
city  would  be  invincible  so  long  as  it 
contained  the  Palladium.  The  Romans 
nretraded  that  it  was  brought  to  Italy 


oy  MaetiB,  and  preserved  in  the  temples 
of   Vesta   at   Rome,    but   several   Greek 
cities  claimed  to  possess  it 
Pallftdinin.    i„  ??**•'    discovered    by 

found  in  small  quantity  associated  with 
v'ative  gmd  and   platiaom.    It  presents 


a  gTMt  general  resemblance  to  plattaam. 
but  is  harder,  lighter,  and  mora  easily 

°J!i*"f*1i  .•^'»,'  ^^'  "P«lfic  gfmvity 
about  11.5.  It  is  useful  on  account  af 
Its  hardness,  lightness,  and  resiatanea  to 
tarnish,  in  the  constmction  of  philo- 
sophical instruments. 

Palladins   ip«->*'di-ns),    BuTiLua 

writer  of  tbe  fourth  century  after  Christ. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  on  agrfeul- 
ture,  De  Be  Bu$tica,  in  14  btMtkm. 
Pallah    (P2'''a).  »  species  of  antelope 

in  South  Afe*^'   •"'^"•*'->    '*'»~» 

Pallanza  ,^;M?^'sI^a  *"o?*U 

promontory  on  the  west  side  of  Lago 
Maggiore.    Pop.  4619. 

PidilaS  (P^l'a.")'  of  the  mhior  planets 
revolving  round  the  sun  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  tliat  whose  orbit  is 
most  inclined  to  the  eciintic.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1802  by  Olbe  V;  at  Bremen.  It 
revolves  round  the  sun  in  4.61  years;  di- 
ameter, 172  miles. 

Pallas.  P*!**  SiMow,  traveler  and 
^^A^  ^.'naturalist,  bom  at  Berlin  in 
1741 ;  died  there  in  1811.  Becoming  dis- 
tinguished as  a  naturalist,  he  was  sent  by 
Catherine  II,  of  Russia,  in  charge  of  a 
scientific  expedition  to  Asiatic  Russia. 
The  results  of  his  observations  were  pub- 
lished in  his  TravOt  through  FoHom 
Prortncee  of  the  Rmtian  Empire  (1771- 
76).  His  other  chief  works  are  Bpiei- 
legia  Zoohgieo  (1767-80),  Flora  Rot- 
ttca  (1784-85),  Joarney  through  South- 
ern Ruuta  (1799,  Bug.  trans.  1812). 

Pallas  Athens  &»''•■  »-*IS5«>' 

...  "the   Greek   goddess 

of  wisdom,  subsequently  identified  with 
Uie  Roman  Minerva.      See  Athena. 

Pallavicino  iP*'-a-Te-ch«'na). 

7,  *"'*r  ,.  Sfobza,  son  of  Marquis 
Alessandro  Pallavicino,  of  Parma,  was 
bom  at  Rome  in  1607,  studied  in  the 
Roman  College,  and  afterwards  joined  the 
Jesuits.  He  is  famous  as  the  historian 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  stood  high 
in  the  esteem  of  Pope  Alexander  VII,  who 
made  him  a  cardinal    He  died  in  1667. 

Palliobranohiata  Iff^'ilT^^^'^**- 

...  .  ta),  the  name  for- 
merly applied  to  the  class  of  Brachiopo- 
dous  Mollusca  from  the  belief  that  the 
pallium  or  mantle  lining  the  shell 
formed  the  chief  organ  of  respiration. 
Palliser  (P»l'i"^r).  Sm  William, 
*^^*^*  bom  In  Dublin  in  1880. 
After  passing  through  the  StafC  College 
at  Sandhurst  he  obtained  a  comminion 
in  the  Rifle  Brigade  (1865).  He  waa 
subsequently  trmnaferred  to  the  Hossars, 
and  retired  fnm  the  army  in  187L    He 


Pamvm 


Palmantoa 


WM  th*  Inrcntor  of  projectiles  and  guns 
which  bttr  hi*  name,  and  is  the  author 
of  Buuiy  ImproTcments  in  fortifications. 
etc.  Hi  was  knighted  in  1873,  and  died 
In  1882i 

PalUum.   s«ePflH. 

Pall-mall  XPel-™el).*n  ancient  game, 
Mk  lunu  jq  ^ijJj.^  ^  ^^^  boxwood 

ball  was  with  a  mallet  or  clab  struck 
throuch  a  ring  elevated  upon  a  pole, 
standing  at  either  end  of  an  alley,  the 
person  who  could  do  so  with  fewest 
blows  or  with  a  number  agreed  on  be- 
ing the  winner.  The  game  was  formerly 
practiced  in  St.  James's  Park,  London, 

???.  C*?.  **•  name  to  the  street  called 
Pall  Mall. 

Palm,  *•"*  ***«•    S««  PaltM. 

Palma  IP*!'o»a),  an  episcopal  city  of 
„T^  Spam,  capital  of  the  island  of 
Majorca,  130  miles  south  of  Barcelona. 
It  ia  built  in  the  form  of  an  amphithe- 
ater and  enjoys  an  extremely  mild  and 
sttluDrious  climate.  The  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  ex- 
change, the  governor's  palace,  and  the 
town-house.  There  are  schools  of  med- 
icme  and  surgery,  normal  and  nautical 
schools,  two  public  libraries,  and  a  mu- 
seum. Shipbuilding  yards  employ  nu- 
merous hands.  Paima  is  the  port  of  the 
whole  iMlund.  and  has  au  important  trade. 
Pop.  (IHIO)  (J7..-»J4. 

Palma.  J^copo,  an  Italian  painter, 
,!~r*  called  Palma  Vecchio  (the 
elder  Palma),  was  born  near  Bergamo 
about  1480.  and  died  in  1528.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Titian, 
and  his  later  manner  seems  to  have  I>een 
modified  by  study  of  Giorgione.  His 
work  is  less  remarkable  for  draughtsman- 
ship than  for  the  suCFused  golden  bril- 
liance of  its  coloring.  His  most  not- 
able pieces  are  six  paintings  in  the 
Church  of  S.  Maria  Formosa  at  Venice, 
and  the  TAree  Qroce$  in  the  Dresden  gal- 
lery. • 

Palma.  ^v*""!  '°®»'  northwesterly 
»  of  the  Canary  Islands;  area, 
224  square  miles;  capital,  Santa  Crux 
de  la  Palma,  the  principal  port.  It  con- 
sists for  the  most  part  of  elevated 
mountains,  and  in  the  north  the  coast  is 
high  and  precipitous.  The  climate  is 
agreeable  and  healthy,  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Besides  a  small  quantity  of  grain.  La 
Palma  produces  wine,  fruits,  sugar, 
honey,  wax,  silk,  etc.  Pop.  41,9k. 
Palma  Christi,  ^  °?'°«  frequently 
tor-oU  punt  •**"**  ***  '^^  '^ 

Palma  di  Mor*3oliiaro  i°«?-**- 


a  town  of  Sicily,  la  the  proyinet  ind  14 
miles  ■.■.!.  Qlrg entL    It  la  iiot«l  for  ita 
almonds.    Pop.  14,101. 
PalmaS  in>^l',  Ca«,  5^  beadlaad 

coast,  lat  4'  22'  6"  w.,  Ion.  T  44'  16"  w. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  with  a  fixed  light, 
and  the  adjacent  harbor,  which  is  the 
only  one  between  Sierra  Leone  and  Beniii, 
is  spacious,  secure,  and  protected  bf  a 
reef  from  the  swell  of  the  ocean. 

Palm  Beach,  ?\  ^"fep*  ?2^„^«'<* 

r  ^^  -*'»«'*'"»  co.^  Yr&.,  66  miles  w. 
by  E.  of  Miami,  on  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
between  Lake  Worth  and  the  Atlantic 
coast;  a  fashionable  winter  resort  Tlie 
district  is  semi-tropical  in  character,  pro- 
ducing quantities  cf  fruit  such  as  cocoa- 
nuts,  guavas,  etc.  Pop.  about  300. 
Palmer  (p^'m^r),  in  medieval  times, 
the  name  given  properly 
to  a  pilgrim  who  had  visited  the  oeif 
Land,  from  the  circumstance  that  thoM 
who  performed  the  pilgrimage  to  the  sa- 
cred sepuicher  generally  carried  on  their 
return  a  palm  branch  as  a  memorial  of 
their  Journey.  The  name  was  also  given 
to  other  pilgrims. 

Palmer  S^owabd  Hxnbt,  an  English 
*~~^*»  Oriental  scholar,  bom  at 
Cambridge  in  1840;  graduated  at  St 
John's  College  in  1867.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  survey  expedition  to  Sinai 
(1808-69)  and  to  Moab  (1869-70),  and 
on  his  return  became  professor  of  Arabic 
at  Cambridge  (1871).  In  1882  he  waa 
killed  by  the  Arabs  in  the  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula. Among  his  numerous  works  ar*  a 
Pwratan'EngUtk  DictUmarv  (1876). 
Palmer,  ^to^'nship  of  Hampden  C©., 
'  Massachusetts,  on  the  Ohico- 
pee  Biyer,  16  miles  t  by  w.  of  Spring- 
field.    It    has    manufactures    of   cotton, 

Po°  &l(f"     ^^    '"'^    *"*'   carprta. 

Palmer  (p*>*r),  ebabtvs  dow, 

.  «  ■S'*'?*®?'  '>o™  lo  Onondaga 
county.  New  York,  in  1817;  died  in  l552. 
Among  his  best  works  are  Indian  (Hrl 
Cont^pUting  a  CniciAr,  The  WMte 
Captive,  The  Sleeping  Peri,  and  Lmm4- 
ing  of  the  FOgrimt. 

Palmerston  iP*'"!£:"^*»>'  hewbt 

an  Jjiuglish  statesman,  was  born  in  West- 
minister  in  1784 ;  died  in  1866.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow,  Edinburgh  Univcr- 
Bity,  and  St  John's  College,  Ckmbrlte. 
In  1802  he  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
title  (an  Irish  one).  In  1801  he  was 
returned  as  member  for  Newport  Isle  of 
vV  ight,  and  became  Junior  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty in  the  Duke  of  Portland's  admin- 
istration. In  1800  he  beoune  secretary 
of  war.  and  two  yean  later  hf  ,«•■  aloetad 


AummtoB 


»  nwabtr  of  ParltameBt  for  Cambridn 
UnlTewity.  He  was  a  nipporter  of  Cath- 
olic emancpation,  and  retired  from  office 
in  the  Wellington  ministry  in  1828  with 
other*  of  the  Canning  party.  He  had 
already  made  a  reputation  for  his  com- 
mand of  foreign  policy,  and  in  1830  he 
was  made  foreign  secretary  in  the  Whig 
ministry  of  Earl  Grey.  From  this  time 
he  continued  to  be  a  member  and  lender 
of  the  Liberal  party.  In  1831  he  was 
returned  for  Bletchlngley,  and  after  the 
Reform  Bill  (1832)  for  South  Hants 
He  retired  from  office  in  December,  1834. 
but  in  April,  1835,  he  resumed  bis  former 


Mii-ofi 


Enutus  Dow  Palmer 

appointment  under  Lord  Melbourne.     He 

continued   m   office   as   foreign   secretary 

until    1841.     It   was   during   this   period 

that  be  gained  his  great  reputation  for 

vigilance  and   energy   in    the  conduct  of 

foreign    aflfairs.     In    1845    he    supported 

the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and  in  1846 

he  was  foreign  secretary  in  tlie  Russell 

«iS    17'     Several   causes   of  dissatisfac- 

non,   the  chief  being  Lis   recognition   of 

JUouis    Napoleon    without   consulting    his 

oolleapies^  led    to   ralmerston's    resigna- 

]}S2  "t   ^^^"ber     1851.     In    February, 

fl. "®   became   home  secretary   in   the 

coalition  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen.     On 

the  resignation  of  this  ministry  he  became 

prime-minister,    which    position    he    hekl! 

with    a    brief    interruption,    for    the    re^ 

S^n.^rj'i  ^Vik^-  "«  ^«s  made  D.C.IL 
of  Oxford  in  18JJ2.  and  elected  Lord-rector 
of  Glasgow  University  in  1803. 
Palmerston,  *^«  S^^ef  settlement  in 
«f  fl  *  *  1.  *"*«  Northern  Territory 
of  8.  Australia,  on  Port  De  -win.  accessf- 

dmugVt -Pol,!*  W"^"  "'  *^^  '-«-' 


Pftlmer  WonUi    t''*  cobbmb  name 

Mterplllara,  but  jwrtlcolarl*  tha?  of*tS 
tiger-moth  {Arctia  oa/a).     '"»''«»• 

Palmetto  Pabn  (pai-met'ta),  • 

,  common    nam*   <rf 

C^'*%  the  cabbage-palm,  which  grows 

States  of  North  America.     It  attains  the 

with  a  tuft  of  large  leaves.  It  produces 
useful  timber,  an  J  the  leaves  aSTmdS 
into  hats,  mats,  etc. 

Palmipedes  (pfti-mip'«^ei).  8wn«- 

.-^  tatore$. 

f  almiStry.     ^*®  Cheiromancv. 

Palmitic  Acid    (Pal-mlt'lk),  a  fatty 

--f  Jats  whether^ll  thra^fal  i? 
vegetabe  kingdom,  such  as  palm-oil,  but- 
ter, tallow,  lard,  etc.,  existhig  partly  In 
a  free  state  but  generally  in  roibinatioS 
with  glycerine  (as  a  glycerlde)  It 
forms  a  solid,  colorless,  inodorous^body 
which  melts  at  62°  0.  '' 

Palm-kale  (PAm'kal).  a  variety  of 
1.^.  ^  ,  .  '"^  cabbage  extenslvelv 
cultivated  in  the  Channil  Islanda.  K 
grows  to  the  height  of  10  or  12  feef  and 
has  much  the  aspect  of  a  palm. 
Palm-oil,    ?  ^a"y  substance  obtained 

nate  leaves,  and 
has  a  thick  stem 
covered  with  the 
stumps  of  the 
stalks  of  dead 
leaves.  The  fruits, 
which  are  borne  in 
dense  clusters,  are 
about  1%  inches 
long  ity  1  inch  in 
diameter,  and  the 
oil  is  obtained  from 
under  their  fleshy 
covering.  In  cold 
countries  it  ac- 
quires the  consist- 
ence of  butter,  and 
is  of  an  orange- 
yellow  color.  It  is 
employed  in  the 
manufacture    of 

Boap    and    candles,  »- r..^/. 

for  lubricating  machinery,  wheels  of  rail- 
way-carriages,  and  many  other  purposes 
liy  the  natives  of  the  Gold  Coast  this  oil 
IS  used  as  butter;  u»d  when  eaten  fresb 


Palm-oil  Tree  {Eletia 
euineen*i$). 


r 


Mail 

aLJ  TI^*'**??*^  "^"^  delicate  article   of 
dwt.     It  to  called  also  Falm-buUer. 
Palmi    <P*°">.   tlie  Palmacero,  a  nat 

v>  a  .?r"fr.<>'  arborescent  endogens, 
chiefly  inhabitinr  the  tropics,  diatin- 
futahed  by  their  fleshy,  colorleaa,  six- 
Mited  flowers,  enclosed  within  epathes; 

«  .u°"°"*®  embryo,  lying  in  the  midst 
ol  albumen,  and  remote  from  the  hilum: 
and  their  rigid,  plaited  or  pinnated  leaves, 
sometimes  called  fronds.  The  palms  are 
among  the  most  interesting  plants  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  from  their  beauty, 
variety,  and  associations,  as  well  as  from 
their  great  value  to  mankind.  While 
«?™«.  as  Kunthia  tnontana,  Oreodoxa  fri- 
gtda,  have  trunks  as  slender  as  the  reed, 

ntdentuM  being  500  ftet),  others,  as  Ju- 
bao  apectaMu  and  Cocoa  butyracea.  have 
stems  3  and  even  5  feet  thick :  while  some 
are  of  low  growth,  as  Attaka  amygda. 

i«?'  1°^  f.S  ^}^^}'^^.\  "*«"»  towering  from 
ISO  to  100  feet  high,  as  Ceroxylon  an- 
dtcola  or  wax-palm  of  South  America. 
Also,  while  they  generally  have  a  cylin- 
drical, undivided  stem,  Uyphwne  thebaica 
(the  doum  palm  of  Upper  Egypt)  and 
Hyphwng  coriacea  are  remarkable  for 
ttieir  repeatedly  divided  trunk.  About 
OW  species  are  known,  but  it  is  probable 
that  many  are  still  undescribed.     Wine 

?h^r  **J  P^  ."''  *°  "^^^^^  "ay  be  added 
f„I  K  Jii^'®"!""'  weapons,  and  materials 
for  building  houses,  boats,  etc.     There  is 
scarcely  a  single  species  In  which  some 
useful  property   is   not   found.     The  co- 
coanut,  the  date,  and  others  are  valued 
for  their  fniit ;  the  cabbage-palm,  for  its 
pdible  terminal  buds;  the  fan-palm,  with 
many    more,    is    valued    for   its    foliage, 
whose  hardness  and  durability  render  it 
an  excellent  material  for  thatching;  the 
sweet  iuice  of  the  Palmyra  and  Sthers, 
whoi  fermented,  yields  wine ;  the  center 
-/  i.u     ""KO-Palm   abounds    in    nutritive 
starch;   the  trunk  of  the  war-palm  ex- 
udes a  valuable  wax ;  oil  is  expressed  in 
abundance  from   the  oil-palm;   many  of 
the  species  contain   so   hard   a   kind   of 
fibrous    matter    that    it    is   used   instead 
of  needles,  or  so  tough  that  it  is  manufac- 
*li'"^'°'°i*^°'"''''S^:    a'>«J'    finally,    their 
;rL»  *k"  ^n.sonie  cases  valued  for  their 
fh^?*  i'  ♦?°*!    ^^^    •>»    timber,    or    for 
their   elasticity  or   flexibility,    h'here   is 
only  one  Luropean  species,  the  Chama- 
ropt     humtlu.    See     Chamasrop$;     also. 

lf***r«^«^  """S  Cf^bage-«alm,  Cocoa' 
««»,  VoqutllO'nut,  Date,  Doum  Palm 
Fan^lm.  Palm-oil,  Palmyra  Palm,%Z\ 
Jralm-Sll&r&r.  "  saccharine  substance 
«vwIoo.lil«;   ol^tained  from  the  juic. 


Falolo 


Palm  Sunday.  ^)^^  l^st  Sunday  be- 
ni  J  ^.  X  .  ,'<"■«  Easter,  on  which 
Christ  8  entry  into  Jerusalem,  when  pahn 
branches  were  strewed  before  himT  is 
celebrated.  It  is  still  celebrated  with 
much  solemnity  by  the  Roman  Catholics, 
and  brandhes  are  strewed  in  the  churches. 

Palm  wine  or  Toddy,    »  "pecies 

obtamed  bv  fermenting  the  jui«  of'^the 
flowers  and  stems  of  the  cocoanut  palm, 
the  Palmyra  palm,  the  oil-palm,  and  other 
palms. 

Palmyra     (Pal-mm;    Hebrew,    Tad- 
•    .    i       ?*'^''    ^"y   of    Palms),    an 
ancient  city  of  Syria,  now  In  ruins,  situ- 
ated in  an  oasis  140  miles  E.  w.  E.  of  Da- 
mascus.    It  was  founded  or  enlarged  by 
Solomon   in    the   tenth   century   bTc.     It 
was  an  entrepot  for  the  trade  between 
Damascus   and   the   Mediterranean,   and 
during  the  wars  between  the  Romans  and 
the  Parthians  it  acquired  great  impor- 
tance.   It   became    the   faithful   ally   of 
r9.T'w«?  j!»"°«,the  reign  of  Oallfenus 
(^00-208)    Odenathus,  the  ruler  of  Pal- 
myra, established  an  independent  Palmy- 
rene  kingdom.     Odenathus  was  succeeded 
by  his  widow  Zenobia,  to  whom  Palmyra 
chiefly  owes  its  fame,  and  who  took  the 
title  of  Queen  of  the  East    She  was  be- 
sieged   m    Palmyra    by    Aurelian,    and 
compelled, to   surrender.     On    bis   denar- 
ture  the  inhabitants  revolted,  on  which 
Aurelian  returned  and  destroyed  the  city 

«n;^"t^     kmPIPu^'"""."'^''    t^e    inhabit- 
ants to  rebuild  it,  but  it  never  recovered 

nlPtpTr^^"^^-  ^^?  1^29  Tamerlane  co^ 
pletely  destroyed  it.     There  are  remains 

rnrtn?h-!°*     b«i"dium.     chiefly     of     the 

Ph/  TwS  '"■?*fL  *5*^  *•"«  exception  of 

Palmyra  Palm   (fi<»'a««»   HabeUi- 

„„„  T  J-          .             formu),    the    com- 
mon   Inninn   r\nlM«     •   *« ',  -  - 


.„„..  T  J-  .  1^1  mt9),    (ne    com- 

mon Indian  palm,  a  tree  ranging  from  the 

InS^^t^f."  yf"^t»  o'^Arabif  t"rouS 
India  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  In  Inffla 
and  other  parts  of  Asia  it  forms  the  chief 
uP^T  1 0.000,000  or  7.O0O.O0O  of^S,pu. 
?,lho:  "■  ^"""'J.  "  *  valuable  foo^Tlts 
timber    is    excellent,    and    it    furnishes 

t.^J'^'  T'^''^'^'  and  material  for  hats, 
fans,  umbrellas,  etc.  It  produces  surar 
and  arraclc.  and  its  leaveS  are  used  Sr 
writiug   tablets.     The    young  shoots   a" 

^.'J'^lfl^  ^'?^^?•  ""=  «*^^«  "«  edible,  ani 
the  fruit  yields  a  useful  oil.  A  full- 
grown  Palmyra  is  from  60  to  70  feet 
»  «n*l  its  leaves  are  very  larS 
JjvL'V""^.J*'''™J'a  wood  J»  frequenfly 
given  to  other  woods  of  a  similarlatu™' 
Palolo  (pa -Id  la),  a  dorsibranchiate 
-™-*  .K  ^""^''a.  (P-  vtridis)  found  In 
ereat  abundance  m  the  sea  nwr  the  wnJ 


FalM 


»  -""-  ^  ^ 


Palmyra  P»lm  (BoHtntru  flabMiformU). 

reefs  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  They 
"u*  ^,  *°  '°  '"I-'  numbers  in  nets  by 
the  islanders,  who  esteem  them,  when 
roasted,  as  a  great  delicacy. 
PaloS  jP^'lps),  a  small  town  of  An- 
dalusia,  in  Spain,  famous  as  the 
port  whence  Columbus  sailed  for  the  dis- 
covery of  the  New  World  in  1492.    Pop. 

Paloi  <?■'>*)»  jointed  processes,  sup- 
*■  ,  posed  to  be  organs  of  touch,  at- 
tached in  pairs  to  the  labium  and  max- 
Uta  E  insects,  and  termed  respectively 
labtc  and  mamillary  palpi  or  feelers. 
(Bet^  gure  at  Entotnotogy.)  Palpi  are 
dev  lo  ed  also  from  the  oral  appendages 
of  fcpu^ers  and  Crustacea. 
Palpitation  (pl-P>-ta'8hnn)  consists 
«i„uf*      A  o'   repeated   attacks   of 

vtotent  and  spasmodic  action  of  the  heart 
When  palpitation  arises  from  organic 
lesion  of  tte  heart  it  is  called  aumpto- 
matte,  when  it  is  caused  by  other  dis- 
orders disturbing  the  heart's  action  it  is 
called  functional  Disorders  which  may 
cause  palpitation  include  nervous  affe<> 
nons,  ansmia,  chlorosis,  protracted  men- 
tal emotion,  excessive  use  of  stimulants. 
etc.  ' 

Palsy     CP»>'si).  paralysis,  especially  a 
o      ,'ocal  or  less  serious  form  of  it 
See  Paralytu. 

Palndal  Biseases  (pfi'a-dai;  l. 

m....i.\     A-  _,  1  Po'««.  paladU,  a 


^Punptt-grtH 

Paludan-lCftller  W^^   "<*i'- 

*,?SJ?''**'J**?»*  P®**  0'  Denmark,  bom  In 
;?S;."'n**'?****<*  u*.*  Copenhagm  Unl- 
rj?  1^  ^•j'^"?  .''*■  <^""e'  ■•  *  poet 
iLu^A^'^^  S'^  ^  l^"-  HI.  with. 
include  Adam  Homo,  a  bnmorona  didactic 
poem;    KalannM,    an    Indian    tragedy: 

P.X  -'i.S?**,''!,  romance;  Amor  and 
lUycke,  a  lyrical  drama,  etc. 

Pamnpur.    B^  Pahlanpmr. 
Pamien    ^P*?**'.^^'  »  <ath*dral  dty 

"„?"  ironworks  and  textile  and  other 
mills.    Pop.  T728. 

Pamir  jj»*'n>«r).  an  elevated  region  of 
*  Central  Asia,  that  may  be  re- 
rarded  as  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 
Himalayan   and    Thian    Shan   mountain 
systems.     It  forms   a  plateau   having  a 
general   elevation   of   more   than   13,000 
feet,    dominated    by    still    loftier    ridges 
and  summits  olothed  with  eternal  snow. 
There  are  several  small  lakes  here,  and 
the  sources  of  the  Oxus  take  their  rise 
in    the   Pamir.    The   atmosphere    is   ex- 
ceedingly dry,  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  are  very  great,  and  a  large  part  of 
i??    surface    is    bare   and    barren.    The 
Kirghiz,  however,  find  a  certain  amount 
of  pasture  for  their  cattle  in  summer,  and 
in  favored  localities  there  is  a  little  cul- 
tivation.    The   Pamir,   or   'roof   of   the 
world,'  is  celebrated  throughout  Central 
Asia,  and  trade  routes  have  passed  across 
it  for  ages. 

Pamlico  Sound  .(pamii-ke),  a  sbai- 

,.       ,  low   lagoon   on  the 

southeast  coast  of  North  Carolina.  It  is 
80  miles  loag,  from  8  to  30  miles  wide, 
and  separated  from  the  ocean  by  long, 
narrow,  sandy  islands.  Vessels  can  enter 
n  through  Ocracoke  and  Ilatteras  inlets. 
Pampas  (Pa^'paa),  a  name  given  to 
a  .r.  .  *P*  ^'*'*t  treeless  plains  of 
South  America  in  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, Paraguay,  and  Uruguay.  The 
pampas  are  geaerally  covered  with  grass 
and  other  herbage,  and  in  many  parts 
with  gigantic  thistles,  but  with  the  heat 
of  summer  the  vegetation  is  much 
burned  up.  Shallow  lakes  or  swamps 
occur  in  some  parts,  and  parts  have  the 
character  of  a  salt  steppe.  The  pampas 
are  roamed  over  by  various  tribes  of 
Indians,  as  well  as  by  herds  of  wild  horses 
and  cattle.  In  many  parts  there  are  now 
cattle  ranches,  and  large  fiooks  of  sheen 
are  also  reared. 

Pampas-irrass  (<?»««"•"»»    «r^enw- 

"f  »  "  urn),  B  grass  which 
grows  in  the  pampas  m  the  southern  parts 
of  South  America.  It  h««i  been  intro- 
duced In  the  United  States  and  Europe 


Pftmpero 


TUMBUk 


ift  ?1L?7.  J***''"'?  .?"  ."^•'^"  n>°»"e  than 
10  feet  hicti,  aud  iu  leaves  are  from  6 


Pampai-gnii  (6yn«Wuni  urgtnttum). 

to  8  feet   long.    The  male   and   female 
»wers  are  on  separate  stalks. 
Pampero    (Pam-pa'ro),  a  violent  wind 
_. ,  ."^  from  the  west  or  southwest 

Which  sweeps  over  the  pampas  of  South 
America. 

Pamphylia  (Pam-eri-a),  an  ancient 
.  *  ft  ,  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
eztendincT  along  the  Mediterranean  from 
^ilicia  on  the  east  to  L.vcia  on  the  west, 
it  was  mountainous,  being  covered  with 
the  ramifications  of  the  'ITaurus  Moun- 
tains. Pamphylia  never  attained  any 
political  importance.  It  was  subject  suc- 
cessively to  Persia,  Macedonia,  Syria,  and 
tCome,  although  some  Greek  colonies  for 
a  time  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  in- 
dependence. 

Pamplona   (Pam-plO'na),    or    Pampb- 

and  capital  of  the  province  of  Navanie 
°I  ^.a'^i)'o°a>  and  of  the  ancient  kiogdaa 
of  Navarre,  on  the  Arga.  78  aiiles  nort^ 
??■}  .?'  Jl""8'"~'  ^97  Mrtbe«st  af 
Madrid.  The  tow-n  is  stro^ly  fortited, 
and  has  a  cathedral  dating  from  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  fiablic 
fountains  are  supplied  by  a  maniiceM 
aqueduct.     Pop,  ^,880.  "»«™««w 

Paa.  ■  "»ral  dii-inity  of  ancient  Greece. 
_  *  i»e  god  of  flocks  and  h^rds,  rep- 
rwented  as  old,  with  two  borns.  poiated 
^.  ?  **il?  '»**'*'.  Koafs  tail,  and 
«***.!■  f?*t:  Tlv  worskip  of  Fan  was  well 
a^Miabed,  »«rticnlarfr  in  Arca<fiL  Hta 
M«iv«k  w^  called  by  the  Greeks  Lgcaa 
ioA  wm  kBAwo  at  Itome  as  fW  Lu9«r- 
ectm.    ran  iBv«M«^  th«  sytiass  or  /«» 


Pan. 

Pana,  ■„  c"y  o'  christian  connty, 
-  , ,  '  Illinois,  42  mUes  s.  t  of  Spring, 
held.  It  has  coal-mining  interests,  a  hw 
compress,  creamery,  etc.  Pop.  6056. 
Panama  (Pan-a-ma'),  a  town  and 
capital  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama,  on  the  Gulf  of  Panama  and  on 

lL*-^''ai*^*'  'iS""*..*''  *•>«  Irthmns  of  Pan- 
ama.    The  city  lies  on  a  tongue  of  land, 
across  which  its  streets  stretch  from  sea 
to  sea.    The  harbor  is  shallow,  but  af- 
fords secure  anchorage.     Panama  is  chief- 
ly important  as  the  terminus  of  the  inter- 
oceantc  rai  way  and  also  of  the  Panama 
Canal   (which  see).     The  railway,  which 
has  been   in   operation   since   1855.   runs 
across  the  isthmus  from  Panama  to  Colon 
or  Aspinwall  on  the  AUantic,  and  ac«.m° 
raodates  a  large  traffic.    Pop.  37,606. 
Panama.   ■  republic  of  south  America. 
««»fi«     VT  _?*^"P?"l*  *•»«  isthmus  con- 
necting North  and  Soutb  America,  and 
fomerly  a  depMrtsknit  of  Cclombia,  from 
?!l^'*a"«^*^*o®03.     IthastheC^" 

K»g  and  12<>  ailes  wide  — reduced  to  a 

Area  abMt  30,600  square  miloa.  It  k 
traversed  6v  a  nnge  of  mtraataina;.  wiA  a 
I^  1^70  fm  hlk  aSnSkS  tote.: 

tke  Panama  Canal.  iCch  of  thTlo" 
lands  IS  covered  witk  a  lunriut  trop- 
ical forest,  and  «ario««  ecooomfc 
plants  of  tropit^l  Aaerin,  aw  grow* 
t/^  '""'^  "f*  .  ^^  c'»nsid*rab!e  ^^th. 
ly__***.  ■  aopwlatif.B  nl  about  427,060  tb» 
MegMt  mn  of  Spanish  <iem-nt,  als*. 
wmer«ni»  fct^roea  aad  a  few  Chinea^ 
Panama  ».  tb^  capltm  «ity. 
PanaBtt,  'f^^xia  m,  imrm*rir  caOai 
..  ...  '  .the  isthmu«  of  Darien.  1ms 
•  bnnitli  «f  froo*  40  t»  120  mila^ 


Meta  Morth  with  Sonth  Amcrk*.  aad 

•mntM  the  P«ctfle  from  the  iAtUntio. 

i^iw?*"*  'S  '■<»<*'  •nd  lofty  along  the 

Si     '*'S?°n^    •»?.'    low   **»<!    ewampy 
•long  the  Padfac.    See  Panama. 

Panama  Canal,  Si^-Jig^^^^i^y 

cat  acHMM  the  iBthmus  of  I'aaama  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.     This 
unmeiue  enterprise  waa  originally  under- 
taken la  1881  by  a  French  company  under 
M.  de  IjMaeps,  the  maker  of  the  Suei 
^?*',  JS*  T**""^  »'  excavation  went  on 
until  1887,  when  the  enormoua  expendi- 
ture of  money    («:flie,000,OUO)    and  the 
comparatively   little    work    accomplished 
brought  operationa  to  an  end,  the  com- 
pany falling  into  difficnlUes,  and  euepend- 
ing  payment  in  1889.    In  1892  criminal 
proceedings  were  instituted  by  the  French 
government  against    the   leading  officers 
of  the  canal  company,  and  they  and  sev- 
eral prominent  French  officials  were  con- 
victed of  bribery.     The  abandoned  work 
was  taken  up  by  another  company,  but  no 
marked  progress  was  made.     Meanwhile 
a  project  had  developed  within  the  United 
States  to  excavate  a  similar  canal  across 
Nicaragua,  surveys  had  been  made  and 
other  prelimmary   steps  taken.     At  this 
juncture  the  French  company  offered  to 
•eU  it*  partly  completed  canal  and  its 
right  obtained  under  treaty  with  Colombia 
to  the  United  States  for  $40,000,000.    In 
consequence  of  this  offer  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  project  was  abandoned.    The  Ben- 
ate  of  Ck)lombia  refusing  to  ratify  this 
pnrohase,  the  department  of  Panama  se- 
ceded  (November,  1903),  formed  an  in- 
dependent '•epublic,  and  made  the  requi- 
site  concessions    of    right   of    way    and 
dominion,  for  which  $10,000,000  was  to 
be     paid.      The     preliminary     negotia- 
tions completed,  the  United  States  Canal 
Commission  was  reorganized,  with  emi- 
nent  expert   engineers  as   its  members, 
and  ui  laoB  the  work  was  actually  re- 
sumed.   Excavation,   however,   was   pre- 
ceded by  sanitation.     The  region  to  be 
excavated  was  subject  to  yellow  fever, 
malana,    and    other    tropical    diseases, 
through  the  effects  of  which  the  French 
working   force   had    been    terribly   ded- 
inated.      In     the     interval     that     had 
ehijwed   successful   methods  of  handling 
and  preventinf  those  diseases  had  been 
developed,   and    within   a    year    or   two 
after  the  date  above  given  the  canal  zone 
had  been  cleansed  of  the  scourge  of  yellow 
fever,  and  made  as  healthful  as  probably 
any  part  of  the  united  States,  the  com- 
fort as  well  as  the  health  of  the  work- 
men had  been  attendtd  to,  and  in  the 
years  of  active  excavation  that  followed 
the  death-   and   sick-rate   proved    to   be 
Buurvelloosly  reduced.     When  the  week 


of  ese«T*tioa  wm  onee  fairly  bMoa.  it 
Pr*'^  1  •  rapkUty  that  sunrW 
the  world,  tb«  use  of  coonnoM  dr«d» 
ing  machine*  and  working  appUaaeaa  ttSk 
in  existence  at  the  date  of  UMFttadi 
operations  enabling  the  Ameriaui  aS- 
Bcera  to  prosecute  their  work  irith^- 
precedented  speed.  The  total  aaonat  of 
earth  removed  by  the  two  freadi  com- 

^^'^  ^^^  S*''?  il'?"'*  T8.00a0»  enUe 
yards.  Much  of  this  was  uaelMi  In  the 
new  plan  and  about  282.00U,0(»  eaUe 
yards  in  aU  had  to  be  removed.  Tke  lor- 
™»»  openlag  of  the  canal  took  place  JaB> 
uary,  1U16:  but  on  August  16,^14,  the 
canal  was  officially  opened,  the  steamship 
AncpiL  lOjOOO  tons  register,  owned  bar  the 
Lnitcd  States  War  Dmartmentjbttof 
the  first  vessel  to  make  the  trip.  INrdv* 
hours  is  the  time  set  for  the  average  pas' 
sage,  and  any  ship  up  to  10,000  tooa 
roghter  jiay  be  admitted. 

The  length  of  the  canal  from  the  A»> 
lantic  to  the  Pacific  shoro  line  Is  4(M4 
miles,  and  Is  about  50  miles  betw«n 
deep  water  at  iU  two  extremes.  It  baa 
a  minimum  depth  of  41  feet  and  a  mini- 
mum width  of  800  fc?t.  the  average  bot- 
tom width  being  649  feet.  The  great  dif- 
ficulty in  this  enterprise  was  the  ctosainc 
of  the  mountain  range,  and  the  crwdm 
of  a  wonderful  artificial  canyon.    The  ex- 


cavatjon  of  this  ridge  (the  Culebra  eat, 
as  it  is  called)  was  the  greatest  problem 
to  be  solved  in  making  the  canal,  and 
numerous  slides  greatly  retarded  progress. 
A    second   waa   the   dispositlbn   of   the 
Chngrcs  River,  the  valley  of  which,  and  at 
intervals  the  channel,  is  foUowed  by  the 
^°5''  .  ^Ki^  "ubject  to  sudden  and  great 
floods  in  the  time  of  tropical  rains,  and 
from  the  start  vras  a  serious  difficulty  to 
the  engineers.     The  ritlge  and  the  river 
rendered  the  original  idea  of  a  sea-level 
canal  at  once  extremely  costly  and  highly 
perilous,  ana  a  lock  canal,  with  a  summit 
level  as  feet  above  sea-levol,  was  chosen 
Instead.     This   rendered   necessary   locks 
(t^ee  on  the  Atiantic  and  two  on  the 
racifle  mde),  those  on  the  Atlantic  being 
located  together  at  Gatnn,  about  7  miles 
from  deep  water  on  the  canal  route.    Hero 
an    enormous    concrete    dam    was    con- 
structed, 8000  feet  or  1%  miles  in  length 
along  Its  crest,  «nd  2100  feet  broad  at  its 
greatest  width.    The  crest  of  the  dam  is 
at  an  elevation  of  115  feet,  or  80  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  great  Gatun  Lake. 
which  the  dam  has  made  by  holding  back 
the  waters^  of  the  Chagres.    This  lake  is 
about  1000  feet  wide  for  a  distance  of 
16  miles,  when  it  narrows  to  800  feet  for 
3.8   miles,  ^500   feet   for  3.7   mfles   and 
^•^J^  800  feet,  being  in  tiie  Colebra 
2**«  ^/.S?2*  i'  building  the  canal,  in- 
dodlng  fortifications,  la  placed  at  f40Q,- 


Hmuuk^uiAo  SspMitioa 


PftMUBa-Pftoillc  Exposition, 

ilfJ^IS^**'*."?!  exporitloa  wlpLrntinir  tba 


wcofaltioii  and  InritaUon,  tf.  the  virion 
gSSSL  *V?J'ttdn.te  were  i«u7d  bj 
Bot^l?p'!L.  ^'"  European  War  did 

5Ski.;-*5?  S""5^^  Mexico,  and  the  «- 
SSSf"«^f  ^'*"*"'  "*   South   Ameri«[ 

San  Frandsco  Baj. 


A  aeoond  ezj 
WM  o  ■" 
altion. 


«•  _k«I         •  J    "Vt  '""^  *"•  eniire  aDsenea 
,11^^         Panama<3«lifornia  Expo- 

Tan-American  Exposition,    *  » 

hibltton  participated  ta  by  the  countrifi 
of  North  and  South  America,  held  at 
Buffalo,  New  Yorlt,  in  1901,  intended  to 
represent  the  progress  of  Americans  dur- 
tajr  the  nineteenth  century.  Over  8,000.- 
000  p«ople  attended  the  exposition,  and  ft 
WM  here  that  President  McKinley  was 
assassinated. 

Pan-Amerioan  Union.  ^^*  oiBcui 

^  •—«»«•,  orga  n  i  B  «• 
"<»  anpported  by  the  American  republics 
and  deToted  to  the  encouragement  of  Pan- 
Aaerican  commerce  and  friendship.  Hw 
fUrAmertcan  Conference  ia  a  consress  of 
rspresenUtlTes  of  these  republics,  the  first 
meettac  of  which  was  held  at  Vvashln? 

was  held  at  Mexico  in  1901,  a  third  at 
Bio  de  Jandro  in  1906,  and  a  fourS  at 

2!lS'il.'*y"^*?..^91^;  These  meetinn 
javo  been  productive  of  much  food  in  de- 

K&'2S.f ""°""  '••^'«°  '"^^ 

Panav  (P*;nl').  an  island  of  the  Phil- 
1fi»».  ,iP,P»»«».  J>etween  Mindoro  and 
'!?'"*i  AtA"  °'  triangular  form  with  an 
area  of  4<80  square  miles.  It  is  moun- 
tainous but  very  fertile,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants have  made  considerable  progresa  in 
dTiliMtion.    Capital IloUo.    Pop!u^ 


HospiUI  (18S4-«4>.     Ha  gained  a  hUi 

KnUtion  for  skui  in  surgery.  ^ 

*».       I  'I'**?   of  animals;   one  of 

the  viscera  of  the  aUlnmfn.  In  men 
it  lies  behind  the  stomach  in  front  ol 
the  first  and  second  lumbar  vertebre. 
The  pancreas  is  an  oblong  gland  about 
8  inches  long,  1  %  inches  broad,  and  from 

'^i.^?  \  '°f"  t'".^"'-  .  *•■  '■'«'»*  extremity, 
called  the  Acad,  lies  in  a  bend  of  the  duo- 
denum. The  tail  or  left  extremity  ex- 
tends to  the  spleen.  The  structure  of 
the  pancreas  is  similar  to  that  of  tba 
salivary  ginnds.  It  is  composed  of  lob- 
ules throughout  The  secretion  of  this 
gland  is  conveyed  to  the  Intestine  by 
the  pancreatio  duct.  This  duct  runs 
from  right  to  left,  iind  is  of  the  size  of 
a  quill  at  its  intestinal  end.  The  mn- 
ereatio  juice  is  a  clear,  ropy  fluid.  Tht 
functions  of  the  pancreatic  Juice  in  di- 
gestion are  devoted  'o  the  -onverviou  of 
starch V  elements  into  sugar  and  to  the 
assimilation  of  fatty  matters.  It  also 
acts  upon  albuminoid  matters. 
PanCSOVa  iP*n'tbo-vA),  a  town  of 
_  ,      '  Hungary,  8  miles  e.  n.  e.  of 

Iteigrade,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Temes 
with  the  Danube.  It  is  wdl  built,  and 
wirries  on  a  go<id  trade  with  Turkey. 
Pop.  (1910)  20,808.  ^ 

Panda  iP«°'d»).  or  Wah  (AHumt 
.  .      jnlgent),    an    animal    of    the 

bear  family,  found  in  the  woody  parts 
of    the    mountains    of    Northern    India, 


Panda  (iLa«rti«  Mtmu). 


|OMb 

Pancoast  (P*n'k08t),  Joseph,  an 
li«rfi— ♦»«  r<  ^^^^^K  "argeon,  bom  ia 
Burllnrton  Co.,  New  Jersey,  in  1805 ;  died 

naaorsbips  of  surgerv  and  anatomy  in 
SftSni^UVv'   ■""*   ^   discoveries 


alwut  equal  to  a  large  cat  in  sise     It 
kt'^i'***.°"*"'^'^   *°  <»'w»   "nd  dwells 

Su.'l^lSlsI'S^  Fa7|iX^'''"^  "»•" 
Pandanacea  &4"in?'Si!iVS 

plants,  endogenous  trees  or  shrubs,  with 
flowers  unisexual  or  polygamous;  peri- 
anth waning,  or  consisting  only  of  a  few 
wales.  The  fmit  is  either  injaareels  of 
fibrous  druoes  or  in  berries.  iSe  leaves 
are  long,  imbricated,  and  amfdexieauL 
Aerial  roots  are  a  feature  of  many.  Tba 
order  is  dlridwi  into  two  Me^  - 


^f^&!^'P^ttfSi  ?fMb.".,lSi1^'5.2rA':.'=: 


f««?1?*ii"*5  *"*  '^«^'*S-    **»•  typical 
•ndeotl     jf*]?^*^'')'  ■  colltctlon 

ijij  froa  tbt  wprka  cS^Ronuui  writew 
Jiirinnideiwe.  to  wfalch  tb«  Binperor 

My.  India,  beM  In  great  rcTereoc*  by  tb« 

Pandi^on.   ^  ^'•p'^' 

I-  .1.-  «-_l*?5.?*?  "'•bnian :  one  T«ned 


•tot  tba  aninalain  bamwinf.    #bt  Jaws 


I.  .k-  ■  Ti^v  "™"™"n;  one  T«ne< 
Intb*  ianakrlt  languace.  and  in  tbe  aci- 
mc«,  hwt  and  reltoi<Hi  of  the  Hindoa. 

Paadoon  /j^^SiJ"^'.*,^*  ""i*  »*^««» 

J,  .        J°  ■  «>ody  of  Hungarian  aol- 

alera,  who,  about  the  middle  of  but  cen- 
torjr,  were  dreaded  for  their  aavage  mode 
of  wartate. 

—A  *  Jlioiow.  the  flrat  woman  mi 
avfli,  aent  by  Zeua  to  manltind  in  vence- 
jnee  for  Prometbene'e  theft  of  heavralT 
are.  Each  of  the  goda  gave  her  aome  gift 
fatal  to  man.  According  to  toter  ac- 
eonnta,  the  goda  gave  her  a  box  full  of 
blcoBinga  for  mankind,  but  on  her  open- 

S*  *^*J*9^  *P^y  ■"  fl"'  *way,  except 
hope.    Epimetkeua,    brother    of    Prome- 
thena,  married  her. 
Panel    /P«n'cl),  a  adwdule  or  roll  of 

tuh  i-»  ^r"*- .  <^  •'•♦■^>  1°  Scot- 
tlab  law,  the  prtaoner  at  the  bar  to  the 


rou-te«4  Paagella  (JTanit  Mrmdmctplm). 


••eta.  The  four-toed  _pangoiin  IMitU 
tetrai^cti,^)  Inhablta  iTAfricm.  ^  ^" 
Panic    ^J>**^"^) .,  tbe  name  of  a« 


Pangenesis  (P*a-jen'iHito).  a  tbaory 
K-  /^k  1  T^  *^{  reproduction  oirmd 
^Charlea  Darwin,  in  his  AnimaU  mnd 
2Si'!K  *"*'fr  ^0"»«»«ca«on.  He  rag. 
fMta  that  aU  units  of  the  body  throw  off 

flHDta,  tteir  developmeDt  in  the  next  nn* 
•ratiim  loming  a  new  being.  It  will 
a^Bee  to  a*y  that  thto  theory  has  not  baen 

Panffolin  (f?"'«Win)  the  name  ap- 
^^  ^^  ?"••  to  the  Scaly  Ant- 
•j^ws  (ManldsB),  forming  a  family  of  the 
Jfidentate  order  of  mammals.  They  oc- 
cnr  in  Southern  Aaia  and  Africa ;  have 
tbt  body  invested  by  a  covering  of  imbri- 
?*!r^  *  *J'  ^ray^matertol ;  vary  from 
L1-*k''**  *°  '?**'•»  *°d  defend  them- 
•eivea  by  assuming  tba  form  of  a  baU. 


Panic    ^P**^  ^/)  •„<;>>•  name  of  aona  sp*. 

Panicle  <I>*°  ':^L>  •  •  'orm  of  inSei**. 
j„  I.-  I        *?"**  differing  from  a  raceme 

P&nini  (Pa-ni'n«),  a  celebrated  In- 
n».^  *..  u'*°  P«""n«rian  who  to  sup- 
pojw  to  have  lived  not  later  than  the 
ti''.^n  "'y  B.O.  Hto  Banakrit  grammar 
itmS   '   ■^*«°"fi«'    but   extrwSely^lS. 

Panipat  iP*'?*-p**')x  »  town  of  in- 

-— u  w        "*•  V"  J*"*  Panjab,  60  miles 

Jn'^w''^  .T***™*'  ^^'•»':  airriunded  5 
an  old  wall.    Pop.  about  80,000.  ' 

i.h  M  Pnn«lP«l  librarian  of  the  Brit- 
hh  MuMum.  bora  at  Brescello,  Modena. 
«    1701.    Having    engaged    in    revolts 

in  1822,  and  became  professor  of  Italiim 

to  Th?  ■tfS?&h*^M^'*P*'  **'  P^'"**^  book, 
m   tne  British   Museum,  and  aucceeded 

to  the  principal  librari;nahip  iilsSS 
He  conce  ved  and  designed  the  plan  *m 
the  new  library  and  reading  room,  which 
He'died"to  l"^''   "^  ""^  «»°^"**«t. 

Panjim.   ^  o<^ 

Panjnad.     see  Punjnui, 

Panaa.   s«  Pumfh. 

Panniar.     See  Pannfor. 

Pannonia    (P«»-n«>l-a),  the  andent 
«.^  .  .  "■■•  o'  «  distrkjt  of  Ku- 

l^  ""fSSSEf  *^*^?™»  Pf«8  of  Aus- 
tria,   GanBtkia,   GamioU,   the  part   e| 


t 


Bonry  bttwwa  tbt  Duab*  uid  tb« 
gfvo,  thx""!^  •><  P«>t«  of  CroftUa  ud 
B*"!^  Tlw  PtiiaonlMi  wtrt  Siwlly 
MbdiMd  by  TibwlM.  a.o.  8,  and  Pui. 
Bonis  bcouM  •  BooMB  proTioM.  It  had 
swMroaa  towu,  of  wbicb  Viadobooa 
(ViOUM)  wu  tiM  AM. 

Fanompeiili.  "**  pnom-pnh. 

Ftnontma  (P"a-o-r*'iM:  from  Or. 
^"7  ~^,lMi»^  an.  tbo  wbotc  and 
»oriiiMk  Tltw),  a  painting  in  wbich  all 
Um  objects  that  can  be  Men  naturally 
from  one  point  are  reprewsated  on  tba 
ooncave  elde  of  a  whole  or  lialf  cylin- 
drkal  wall,  the  point  of  view  being  tb« 
axia  of  tbe  cylinder.  A  painting  of  tbia 
kind  when  well  mounted  producea  a  com- 
plete illuaion,  and  no  other  method  is  so 
well  calculated  to  give  an  exact  idea  of 
an  actual  yiew.  See  Diormma. 
Panilavitm  (P«n'elav-ixm),  a  gen- 
-  ™"   eral    name   for   the    ef- 

forts or  aq>tratlons  of  the  Slavonic  races 
in  Europe,  or  some  of  them,  after  union, 
^eluding  the  Russians,  Csechs,  Servians. 
Bulgarians,  etc. 

PftU'tagraph.     ^**  Pantooraph. 

Pantellaria  (Pan-tel-U-re'a),  a  fer- 
Tu  «/r^  "'•  volcanic  island  of 
the  Mediterranean,  50  miles  1.8.  e.  of 
Cape  Bon  in  Africa,  and  80  miles  south- 
west of  Sicily,  of  wbich  it  is  a  depend- 
ency: length,  north  to  south,  0  miles; 
breadth,  6  miles.  It  produces  figs, 
raisins,  wine,  olives,  etc.    Pop.  8010. 

Pantheintt  ifi"":!^*',*?"'  ^h^^''?' 

philosophy,  the  doctrine  of  the  subHtantial 
identity  of  Ood  and  tbe  universe,  a  doc- 
trine tuat  stands  midway  between  atbe- 
iam  and  dogmatic  theism.  Tbe  origin  of 
the  idea  of  a  God  with  tbe  tbeist  and  the 
pantheist  is  tbe  same.  It  is  by  reason- 
ing upon  ourselves  and  tbe  surrounding 
objects  of  which  we  are  cognizant  that  we 
come  to  infer  tbe  existence  of  some  su- 
perior being  upon  whom  they  all  depend, 
from  whom  they  proi-eed,  or  in  whom 
they  subsist  Pantheism  assumes  the 
Identity  of  cause  and  effect.  Matter,  not 
less  than  mind,  is  with  it  tbe  necessary 
emanation  of  the  Deity.  The  unity  of 
the  universe  is  a  unity  which  embraces 
all  existing  varietv,  a  unity  in  which  all 
contradictions  and  all  existing  and  inex- 
pllnible  congruities  are  combined.  Pan- 
thetan  has  been  tbe  foundation  of  nearly 
all  the  chief  forms  of  religion  which  have 
existed  in  the  world.  It  was  represented 
hi  the  Bast  by  the  Sankhya  of  Kapila, 
a  celebrated  ontem  of  Indbin  philosophy 
The  Persian,  Greek  and  Egyptian  kHs- 
toaa     ivstnns     were     also     pantheistic. 


SSSu!".'*  ^  "^  repreaeatatiTt  mb. 
tiMiat  of  Bodera  times.  A  twefoM  dM. 
■too  of  oantbelsni  has  bmuu^SSSt^i. 
That  wUch  losea  the  worldTrOod  om 
f?*^  5*!5«  .«n,w»w*«  modlttcatloM  art 
the  iadividuai  phenomena.  2.  That  which 
loaea  Ood  In  tho  world  and  totally  doUea 
the  sabotaDtiality  of  Ood.  ^^ 

Pantheon  (p«B'tb«-oa.  or  Mo-thr- 

tod),  a  celebrated  temple  at  Borne,  bailt 
I  ^  h?i  •*'  *»•"*«•  Agrippa.  It  is  a 
large  edifice  of  brick,  built  in  circahir 
fonn,  with  a  portico  of  lofty  colnmns. 

iLiff  ."•  ."""■*  ^o™*  *n  tbe  world 
(142%  feet  internal  diameter,  148  fast 
internal  height),  and  its  portico  is  al* 
BMat  aquaUy.oelebratad.  It  la  mht  a 
diureh,  and  is  known  as  Saou  lUria 
Botonda.    Raphael  and  other  famous  mm 

St.  GeneviAve,  is  a  noble  ediflee  with  f 
lofty  dome,  devoted  to  tbe  interment  irf 
lUustrious  men.  The  piaxaa  of  tbe  Pan- 
theon, cleared  b»  Eugenius  IV  of  the 
ruins,   which   Included   basalt   lions   and 

fbTshe-fc*  ""  ''•"*'  *•>•  ^•"•y  «' 

Panther    j[P!°!S»*rJ  W^  »•■*»»•>. 

^  ..  -  one  of  the  Fellda  or  Oat 
tribe,  of  a  yaOow  eolor.  dlverslfled  with 


Panther  IFtUs  pm4tU$) 

iJ!!l!fA!*k  *i.i^*ll°''  *~'<""'  <J'verslfied  with 
roundish,  black  spots,  a  native  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  The  panther  is  now  sun- 
posed  to  be  IdenUcal  with,  or  a  men 
variety  of,  the  leopard.  (See  Leopard.) 
The  name  panther  (in  vulgar  language 
oam«er)  is  given  to  the  puma  InAmuw 


painter) 

Pantosraph  ^'?,'!:5'l'*-«'»'>»  »*•• 

T>-^.«  ,,  called  PAWTAOBapH  and 

Phttaobafh  (from  Or.  pan,  all,  and 
graphetH,  to  write  or  delineate),  an  In- 
strument c<maisting  of  four  linibo  Joined 
tog^er  by  movable  joints,  and  so  coo- 
stmcted  that  by  means  at  It  maps  and 
plana  may  be  copied  mechanically  eithar 


MICROCOrY   RBOUITION  TiST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


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Pantomime 


Papaw 


on  the  Kale  on  which  they  are  drawn  or 
on  an  enlarged  or  reduced  scale.    It  Is 
made  in  a  variety  of  forms. 
Pantomime    (Pan'tu-mlm),  properly 
,  ,  a   theatrical    representa- 

tion without  words,  consisting  of  ges- 
tures, generally  accompanied  by  music 
and  dancing.  The  modem  Chriatmas 
pantomime  is  a  spectacular  pluy  of  a 
burlesque  character,  founded  on  some 
popular  fable,  and  interspersed  with  sing- 
ing and  dancing,  followed  by  •  harle- 
quinade, the  chief  characters  in  which  are 
the  harlequin,  pantaloon,  columbine  and 
clown,  which  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
Italian  pantomime,  although  their  pres- 
ent development  is  almost  entirely  mod- 
ern. 

Faoli    (p*'o-l«).  Pasquaib  db,  a  Ooi> 

.„  lonr  T*^-P-?i:*'J°*'  ^™  i°  1725:  died 
in  lauT.  in  l«u5  he  was  appointed  cap- 
tain-general by  his  countrymen,  who  were 
•irugglujg  for  their  independence  against 
uenoa.  He  organized  the  government  and 
mihtary  resources  of  the  island,  and 
maintained  a  protracted  and  generally 
■nccessfal  struggle  with  the  Genoese. 
ine  latter  being  unable  to  subdue  the 
Island,  sold  it  to  France  in  17G8.  After 
•  bnef  struggle  Paoli  was  obliged  to 
geld,  and  took  refuge  in  England.  After 
K  *  5®^°!?*!?°  *J'  1789  he  was  recalled 
Dy  the  National  Assembly,  and  made 
covenior  of  Corsica.  Disagreements  with 
Uie  Democratic  party  In  France  followed, 
•ad  despairing  of  maintaining,  unaided. 
the  ^dependence  of  the  island,  he  pro^ 
^«}^»  **l  union  with  England.  Subec- 
qnently  he  withdrew  to  England,  and 
received  a  pension  from  the  British  gov- 
ernment. 

Papa  (P^P')'  *  *<>^^  o'  Hungary,  75 
.  _5«  ^"^,^  ^^s*  of  Budapest.  It  has 
a  castle  of  the  Esterhazy  family,  a  Trot- 
estant  college,  etc.  Pop.  17,426. 
Papa  \^4P&).  the  Low  Latin  form  of 
«_  •  ,*^ope,  the  name  given  by  the 
Greek  churches  to  aU  their  priests. 


jenna  to  Stephen  XL  Bishop  of  Rome. 
Benevento  was  added  (n  1053,  and  in  1102 
Matilda  of  Tuscany  left  Parma,  Hlodena, 
and  luscany  to  the  pope.     In  1201  the 
Papal  States  were  formally  constituted  an 
independent  monarchy.    Subsoquently  va- 
rious territories  were  added   to  or  sub- 
tracted from  the  pope's  possessions,  which 
were   incorporated   with  France  by  Na- 
poleon m  1809,  but  restored  to  the  pope 
}"  l»i*-    A  revolution  broke  out  in  Rome 
m  1848,  and  the  pope  fled  to  Gaeta,  but 
lie  was  reinstated  by  French  troops,  and 
Home  was  garrisoned  by  French  soldiers 
until  1870.     In  the  meantime  one  state 
after  another  threw  off  its  allegiance  to 
the  pope  and  Joined  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
and    when    the    French    left    Rome    in 
August,    1870,    King    Victor    Emmanuel 
took   possession   of  the  city,   declared   it 
the  capital  of  Italy,  and  thus  abolished 
the  temporal  power  of  tLe  pope. 

Papantla  (p4-p&nt;i4),  a  town  of 

r  «-    Mexico,    in    the    state    of 

Vera  Cruz,  about  120  miles  northeast  of 
Mexico.  It  indicates  its  ancient  splen- 
10000^  massive   ruins.     Pop.   about 

Papa'ver.    ^^  poppv. 
Papaveracese  (pa-pa-v*r-a'8e^),  the 

„,     .  ^       poppy  family  of 

plants,  an  order  belonging  to  the  poly- 
petalous    division    of    the    exogens.     It 


Papacy.     See  Popes. 

Papal  Flaer.  *Ji®  authorized  flag  of  the 
-i*w  .  '  Roman  Catholic  Church 
Wltn  two  stripes,  gold  and  white,  runnicg 
perpendicularly.  * 

Papal  States  ^  ?^'P**  )  •  *'><'  name 
P*"  ,  "  ,  «iyen.  to  that  portion 
of  Central  Italy  of  which  the  nope  was 
■overeign  by  virtue  of  his  position.  Tlio 
territory  extended  irregularly  fr.im  the 
Aflnatic  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  even- 
toaUy  comprised  an  area  of  15,289  square 
miles  with  3.126,000  inhabitants,  ftome 
was  the  capital.  The  foundation  of  the 
Pawl  States  was  laid  in  764,  when  Pepin 
M  Bref  presented  the  exarchate  of  Ra- 


contains  about  IGO  species,  mostly  mem- 
bers of  the  northern  temperate  regions. 
riiey   are   smooth    herbs,    rarely   shrubs, 

with  alternate,  often  cut  leaves,  and  soli- 
tary, handsome  flowers.    The  poppies  are 

the  most  familiar  members. 

Papaw  (P*:Pft';-Car7co  Papaya,  nat. 
.  o     .V    order  Papayacere).  a  tree 

of  south   America, 

now  widely  culti- 
vated  in   tropical 

countries.   It  grows 

to  the  height  of  18 

to  20  feet,  with  a 

soft     herbaceous 

stem,  naked  nearly 

to   the    topj    where 

the  leaves  issue  on 

every  side  on  long 

footstalks.  Between 

the  leaves  grow  the 

flower    and    the 

fruit,    which    is    of 

the  size  of  a  melon. 

The    Juice    of    the 

tree    is    acrid    and 

milky,  but  the  fruit 

when     boiled     is 

eaten    with    meat, 

hies.   The  Juice  ef  Pff). 


Hptt 


Paper 


the  unripe  fruit  is  a  powerful  vennif uge ; 
the  powder  of  tlie  Meed  even  answers  the 
same  purpose.  Tlie  juice  of  tLe  tree 
or  its  fruit,  or  an  infusion  of  it,  has  the 
singular  property  of  rendering  the 
toughest  meat  tender,  and  this  is  even 
said  to  be  ejected  by  hanging  the  meat 
among  the  branches. —  The  papaw  of 
North  America  is  Aaimlna  triloba,  nat. 
order  Anonaceie;  it  produces  a  sweet, 
edible  fruit. 

Pftner  (P^'p^i*)'  "^  ^^^°  "^^^  flexible 
"  substance,  manufactured  prin- 
cipally of  vegetable  fiber,  used  for  writ- 
ing and  printing  on,  and  lor  various  other 
purposes.  Egypt,  China,  and  Japan  are 
the  countries  in  which  the  earliest  man- 
nfacture  of  paper  is  known  to  have  been 
carried  on.  The  Egyptian  paper  was 
made  from  the  papyrus  (whence  the  word 
paper),  but  this  was  different  from  paper 
properly  so  called.  (See  Papyrus.)  Ac- 
coraing  to  the  Chinese  the  fabrication  of 
paper  from  cotton  and  other  vegetable 
nben  was  invented  by  them  in  the  sec- 
ond century  b.c.  From  the  East  it  passed 
to  the  West,  and  it  was  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Arabs.  Spain  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  country  in  Europe  in 
which  paper  from  cotton  was  made, 
probably  in  the  eleventh  century;  and  at 
a  later  i)eriod  the  manufacture  was  car- 
ried on  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany. 
It  cannot  now  be  ascertained  at  what 
time  linen  rags  w^ere  first  brought  i&to 
use  for  making  paper;  but  remnants  of 
Spanish  paper  of  the  twelfth  century  ap- 
pear to  indicate  that  attempts  were  made 
aa  early  as  that  time  to  add  linen  rags  to 
the  cotton  ones.  The  earliest  paper  man- 
ufactory known  to  have  been  set  up  in 
England  was  that  of  John  Tate,  at  Stev- 
enage, in  Hertfordshire,  about  1495. 
ITie  manufacture  in  England,  however, 
long  remained  in  a  backward  state,  so 
that  until  late  in  the  eighteenth  century 
the  finer  qualities  of  paper  were  imported 
from  France  and  Holland. 

After  the  introduction  into  Europe  of 
cotton  and  linen  rags  as  materials  for 
papermaking,  other  vegetable  fibers  were 
for  many  centuries  almost  entirely  given 
up,  rags  being  cheaper  than  any  other 
material.  It  was  only  about  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century  that  paper-manu- 
facturers again  be^an  to  turn  their  atten- 
tion to  the  possibility  of  using  vegetable 
fibers  ari  substitutes  for  rags,  one  of  the 
earliest  signs  of  the  new  departure  being 
a  work  containing  sixty  specimens  of 
paper  made  from  different  vegetable  ma- 
terials, published  in  1772  by  a  German 
■amed  SchSffer  or  SchaSert.  Straw, 
wood  tod  esparto  are  the  cblef  Tefetable. 


fibera  which  have  been  found  most  suit- 
able  for  the  purpose. 

The  process  by  which  paper  is  produced 
depends  on  the  minute  subdivision  of  the 
fibers,  and  their  subsequent  cohesion ; 
and  before  the  making  of  the  paper 
properly  begins  the  rags  or  other  ma- 
terials have  to  be  cleaned  from  impuri- 
ties, boiled  in  a  strong  lye,  and  reduced 
by  special  machinery  to  the  condition  of 
a  thin  pulp,  being  bleached  with  chloride 
of  lime.  It  is  at  this  stage  of  the  manu- 
facture that  size  is  added,  and  toned  and 
other  colored  papers  have  the  coloring 
matter  introduced.  The  pulp,  composed 
r^*  the  fibrous  particles  mixed  with  water,  • 
IS  now  ready  to  be  made  into  paper. 

Paper  is  made  either  by  the  hand  or  by 
machinery.  When  't  is  made  by  the  band 
the  pulp  IS  placed  in  a  stone  vat,  in  which 
revolves  an  agitator,  which  keeps  the 
fibrous  particles  equally  diffused  through- 
out the  mass;  and  the  workman  is  pro- 
vided with  a  mold,  which  is  a  square 
frame  with  a  fine  wire  bottom,  resembling 
a  sieve,  of  the  size  of  the  intended  sheet. 
These  molds  are  sometimes  made  with 
the  wires  lying  all  one  way,  except  a  few 
which  are  placed  at  intervals  crosswise  to 
bind  the  others  together,  and  sometimes 
with  the  wires  crossing  each  other  as  in 
a  woven  fabric.  Paper  made  with 
molds  of  the  former  kind  is  said  to  be 
laid,  and  that  made  with  those  of  the 
latter  kind  wove.  The  so-called  water- 
mark on  paper  is  made  by  a  design  woven 
in  wire  m  the  mold.  Above  the  mold 
the  workman  places  a  light  frame  called 
a  deckle,  which  limits  the  size  of  the 
sheet.  He  then  dips  the  moid  and  deckle 
into  the  pulp,  a  portion  of  which  be 
lifts  up  horizontally  between  the  two, 
gently  shaking  the  mold  from  side  to  side, 
to  distribute  the  fibers  equally  and  make 
them  cohere  more  firmly,  the  water,  of 
course,  draining  out  through  the  wire 
meshes.  The  sheets  thus  formed  are  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  first  l)etween  felta, 
and  afterwards  alone.  They  are  then 
aized,  pressed  once  more,  and  hung  up 
separately  on  lines  in  a  room  to  dry. 
The  freedom  with  which  they  are  allowed 
to  contract  under  this  method  of  drying 
gives  to  handmade  paper  its  superior 
firmness  and  compactness.  After  drying 
they  are  ready  for  making  up  into  quirea 
and  reams,  unless  they  are  to  be  glazed, 
which  is  done  by  submitting  the  sheeta 
to  a  very  high  pressure  between  platae 
of  zinc  or  copper. 

In  papermaking  by  machinery,  a 
process  patented  in  France  in  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  palp  ia  pUoed 
io  iron  vwtfle  at  one  eoa  of  the 


Paper 

chine,  Md  !■  kept  conetantly  agitated  by 

to  It    From  tbeae  the  pulp  paaMs  to  the 
Pulp-regMlator,   by   which  the  aupply  of 
pulp   to   the  machine   is   Itept  constant, 
i- *^i  tro"*^  sand-catchers  and  strain- 
«8  till  It  reaches  the  part  of  the  machine 
which    corresponds     to    the    hand-mold. 
^liL.?*?^"'*"^'?'.*"  endless  web  of  brass 
wi^'°i!'*'  which  constantly  moves   for- 
ward above  a  series  of  revolving  rollers, 
!i5i  »  *  .vibratory  motion   from  side  to 
«m««hfi!?  «*vep,to  it.  which  has  the 
same  object  as  shaking  the  mold  in  mak- 
ag  by  the  hand.     Meanwhile  its  edges 
IJ^x^P*.!*^*"  ]'y  ''•'at  are  called  deckle 
™hh?r"'^?*K'*'''"'5  °/  vulcanized   India 
robber.    At  the  end  of  the  wire-clo.h  the 
SS^S*"  A^  -^^  dandu^oll,  which  Im- 
KSTHkI*.  ^\^^  ""^  "'''■>  *^»t  Is  desired. 
iuS    nvlHJ"  "^'^  received  by  the  felta. 
In  'J'J^®  *''*  V"'  P"*^  of  the  machine; 
an    endlesB    web,    the    remaining    water 
^  °f  P«"fed  out  In  this  part  of*the  ma- 
TttLS^AlS^I  *"■  ^^«.  consecutive  rollers. 
oth«  WnH^f hf*'  "  Pnnting-paper,  or  any 
?t  J«  A^  that  requires  no  special  sizing, 
it  is  dried  by  being  passed  round  a  suc- 
cession of  large  hot  cylinders,  with  inter- 
^^J^^^.'^^'oothmg  Tohi.     It  is  then  ren- 
der^  glossy  on   the  surface   by  passing 
between  polished  cast-iron  rollers  called 

^rfrf'i,  ""^A  K  ^'"'''y  wound  on  a 
^«^*  the  end  of  the  machine,  or  sub- 
S.«n«  *K  *K"^"°°  of  the  cutting  ma^ 
«»  fS'^'j^'^-  ^^^^^  ^*  *»  cut  up  into  fheets 
of  the  desired  size.  If  the  paper  is  te 
be  sized,  the  web,  after  leav&g  the  ma- 
2„H°®/-*?i,P"'.'^  through  the  sizing-tub, 
IkLtJ^A'^  '^  ,'*'"°'*  *  "«'-'es  of  large 
f^rJS\°°  vk"""^  (sometimes  as  many  as 
forty)  with  revolving  fans  in  the  inside" 
by  the  action  of  which  it  is  dried  If 
X/'IS!''-^?"  ^X'^  ^y  "Jot  cylinders 
01  strength  in  consequence  of  the  dryine 
being  too  rapid.    After  being  dri«ithl 

[he^'ci't  'un'^^T''^  '^'  otazing%olleS,  and 
A^Ji  -"A  "P-.u  '°  "ome  cases  the  sizing  is 
th^L^^^f^  the  paper  has  been  cut  fnto 
sheets,  these  being  then  hung  un  to 
dr^  on  ines  like  hand-made  paper^  ac^ 
quinni  in  the  process  something  of  the 
same  lardness  and  strength.  tIis  total 
length  of  a  paper-machine,  from  the  l^ 
finning  of  the  wire^Ioth  to  the  cuttera 
IS  frequently  more  than  100  feet  ''""*"• 
Faper  was  made  from  straw  at  the 
b^inning  of  the  last  century,  and  tK 
^n^T'l  '"  "•"!  '■'•««'y  "sed.  The  chief 
S2i  ^*  "■*  °'  «t"^  ^«  to  impart  stiff- 
ness to  common  qualities.  To  prevent 
^l^lu''  however,  it  is  necessarv  to  dS 
I^IJJ'''  "'."*="  contained  in  the  ™raw 
k»  meuu  of  a  strong  alkali.    Paper  is 


Paper 


now  also  made  entirely  from  wood   ore. 

itt  n';^."^./^*  P?°  »^i  th^ 
nlt.?«  «.^1'*  °f  i*  '^'"»  thus  made.  Es- 
parto or  Spanish  grass,  exported  larnlv 
from  Spain,  Algerfa,  Tri^fi?  TunlJ Tnd 
other  countries,  has  b^n  applied  to 
?p]?rr'"K''i°^  °°^y. '°  comparativefylScen? 

^nt-  f  °f  '"""^^  '<"■  Pspennaking  be- 
ieaf  1^^'tJ;"''''  ''"d  dates  from  the 
?f»/ 1?°^-  V^^,  ""oot  of  the  lucern  has 
also  been  applied  with  success  in  France 
of  late  years  to  the  fabrication  of  pa^n 
Hmo.°"'  -,?^°*?'  substance,  are  wmei 
*'"!?  "^^^  to  the  fibrous  material 
necessary  to  make  paper,  such  as  a  slli- 
cate  of  alumina  called  Lenzinlte,  kaolin 
or  porcelain  earth,  and  artificial  sulphate 
of  barium  (permanent  white).  The  first 
two  substances  have  a  tendency  to  di- 
minish the  tenacity  of  the  fabricTthe  last 
llriH?"*?*  !*y  stiiie  manufacturers  to  b» 
^ZV^K  V*  P"°ting-papers,  enablinf 
thi  ink  *  *^       *"■  *"P'"""ion  from 

m«?i°Vn°t*».  "°^  filtering  paper  are  both 
made  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary  uaoer 
f"^PL*?5t.the  sizing  is  omitted/  ^pj- 


i.^L?*P"*u'^  °^'^^^  ^y  smearing  writing 
&Tt  i.'U***  I-  con-position  of  lard  an! 
fir  -"'hLI;  ^»»^»>'  after  being  let  alone 
for  a  da;r  or  so,  is  scraped  smooth  and 
wiped  with  a  soft  cloth.  Incombustible 
paper  has  been  made  from  asbestos,  but 
nr^^t J"  "S?^*«  the  ink  from  a  book 
S.  nf^„„°?.fr.'*  material,  the  invendon 
if.»?f  S°  "'i'"^  *^.l'J  though  the  paper 
If^l'-  k"  "destructible.  Indelible  chwk 
paper  has  been  patented  on  several  occa- 

fio^?;^'",^."*  'H  »f  it  the  papeTis 
treated  with  an  ineoluble  ferrScyanide 
and  an  insoluble  salt  of  manganese   and 

of  "Z™  ^''^  "i'^^'^  «f  alumfna  ta'st"d 
ot  alum.  Parchment  paper  or  vegetable 
parchment  is  made  f?Sm  ordinary  un! 
«^^«?"^''  ^J  .treatment  with  sulphuric 
acid  or  oil  of  vitriol  and  ammonia.    The 

^^fi  k'J*^®  P^P^""  ^"  not  an  artificial 
S«£fi$  i'"*  a  ^vegetable  membrane  im- 
ported  from  China,  and  obtained  appar 
ently  from  the  pith  of  a  plant  called 
^^'^^l.-PtPUnfera.  Tissue  paper  is  a 
f^^l  thin  paper  of  a  silky  softness  used 
to  protect  engravings  in  books  and  for 
various  other  purposes.  Tracing  paper  is 
P«n«H/Ti*'^"*  paper  by  soaking  it  with 
!r.^-^n  ^^''?™  *°4  oil  of  turpentine  ot 
nut-oil  and  turpentine. 

In  recent  times  the  uses  of  paper  have 
greatly  multiplied.  Besides  beTnTlargelv 
employed  for  making  collars,  cuffs.  pnH 
other  articles  of  dress,  it  is  sometimes 
used  for  making  huts  in  the  backwoods  of 

^nul'*i!li  ^^i  "«'''?'?  boats,  pipes,  and 
tanks  for  water;  cuirasses  to  resist  mua- 


Pftper-lutngingi 


Papier  XftolU 


kct-bulleta,  wheels  for  railway-carriagea, 
■nd  even  bells  and  cannons.  Paper 
wheels  have  been  used  for  some  of  Pull- 
man's railway  saloon  cars  in  America, 
and  have  worn  out  one  set  of  tires. 
Cannons  made  of  paper  have  actually 
been  tried  with  success.  These  are  only 
a  few  of  the  articles  made  of  paper. 
We  may  add  to  them  barrehu  vases,  milk- 
bottles,  straw  hats,  into  which  no  straw 
enters:  clothing,  handkerchiefs,  etc. 
Even  whole  houses  have  been  built  of 
paper  —  in  Norway  is  a  church,  holding 
1000  persons,  built  entirely  of  It.  The 
demand  for  paper  has  become  so  great, 
in  view  of  the  vast  quantities  now  used 
forprinting  purposes,  that  more  than 
3,000,000  cords  of  wood  are  now  used  an- 
nually  in  this  country  for  making  paper 
pulp,  and  large  quantities  In  Canada, 
spruce  yielding  the  principal  supply. 
Other  species  are  being  experimented  with 
and  even  the  stttlks  of  the  cotton  plant. 

In  England  a  tax  or  duty  on  paper  was 
imposed  m  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  and 
was  not  repealed  till  1861.  At  one  time 
the  duty  was  levied  according  to  size  or 
value,  but  later  by  weight.  So  long  as 
it  was  payable  according  to  size,  paper,  as 
it  proceeded  from  the  mill,  was  cut  with 
rigorous  exactness  into  certain  standard 
sizes,  distinguished  by  different  names. 
These  were  frequently  departed  from 
when  the  duty  was  made  payable  accord- 
icg  to  weight,  but  a  number  of  sizes  dis- 
ti^uished  by  different  names  are  still 
made,  such  as  pot,  foolscap,  post,  royal, 
imperial,  etc.  These  are  now  the  names 
of  standard  sizes  of  paper,  royal  being 
19x24   inches. 

Paper-hangings,  J^??Xn'pas?5 

on  the  walls  of  the  rooms  in  dwelling- 
houses.  The  staining  of  papers  for  this 
purjHMe  is  said  to  be  a  Chinese  invention, 
and  was  introduced  into  France  early 
in  the  seveuteenth  ccutury.  It  is  now 
common  everywhere,  but  more  especially 
in  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States.  Most  of  the  processes  in  paper- 
staining  are  now  usually  done  by  ma- 
chinery; but  there  Is  still  much  hand- 
work in  the  fiuer  qualities,  especially 
those  produced  in  France.  The  first  op- 
eration is  that  of  grounding,  which  con- 
sists in  covering  the  surface  with  some 
dull  color,  the  tint  of  which  varies.  Pa- 
pers with  a  glazed  ground  are  usually 
glazed  immediately  after  receiving  the 
ground  tint.  The  designs  on  the  surface 
of  paper-hangings  are  applied  by  band 
processes  and  machines  exactly  similar  to 
those  employed  in  calico-printing.  (See 
Ctaieo-prtnting.)  Flocb^frnptr  to  made 
by  printiitf  on  the  pMU  wUeh  «m  to 
6— U-K 


receive  the  flock  a  mixture  of  strona 
oil  boiled  with  litharge  and  white  laid. 
to  render  it  drying.  The  colored  flock  to 
then  sprinkled  on  the  paper,  and  adhere* 
to  the  parts  to  which  the  mixture  haa 
been  applied. 

Paper  Honey.   s«®  currency. 
Paper  Mulberry.    8««  Mulberry. 

Paper  KantilnS.      see  Argonaut. 

Paphla&ronia    iP»'-la-««'ni-a).    the 
«>^.*M.«igw<uu  former     name     of     a 

mountainous  district  in  the  north  of  Asia 
Minor,  between  Bithynia  on  the  west  and 
Pontus  on  the  east,  separated  from  the 
latter  by  the  Halys.  On  the  coast  was 
the  Oreek  city  Sinope.  Paphlagonia  was 
first  subdued  by  Croesus,  king  of  Liydla, 
and  afterwards  formed  part  of  the  Per- 
sian Empire,  until  its  satraps  made  them- 
selves independent.  It  was  ruled  by 
native  princes  from  316  B.C.  until  sub- 
dued by  Mithridate?  (63  b.c.),  on  whose 
overthrow  the  district  was  im-orporated 
with  the  Roman  Empire. 
Panhoa  (p&'fos),  the  name  ot  two  an- 
*  *^"  cfent  cities  in  Cyprus  — Old 
Paphos,  a  little  more  than  a  mile  distant 
from  the  southwestern  coast,  upon  a 
height;  and  New  Paphos  (modem  Baffa), 
7  or  8  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Old 
Paphos,  situated  on  the  seashore.  The 
first  was  famous  in  antiquity  for  the 
worship  of  AphroditS  (Venus).  At  New 
Paphos  St.  Paul  preached  before  the  pro- 
consul Sergius. 

Paulas    (pa'pl-as),  a  Christian  writer 
-  of  the  agfe  succeeding  that  of 

the  apostles.  He  is  described  by  Irenmus 
as  a  'hearer  of  John  and  a  companion 
of  Polycarp,'  and  was  martyred  at  Pep> 
gamus  in  163  a.d.  He  was  the  author 
of  five  books  on  the  Sayings  of  our  Lord, 
all  lost,  except  a  few  valuable  fragments, 
which  give  important  information  as  to 
the  early  traditions  regarding  the  New 
Testament:  e.g.  that  Matthew's  Giospel 
was  believed  to  have  been  written  in 
Hebrew,  aud  that  the  Evangelist  '.Uark 
was  the  interpreter  (hermeneutei)  oi  Pe-' 
ter,  and  wrote  to  his  dictation. 

Papier  MIcW  /Siffl^tSf'')^; 

substance  made  of  cuttings  of  white  or 
brown  paper  boiled  in  water,  and  beatoi 
in  a  mortar  till  they  are  reduced  into  a 
kind  of  paste,  and  then  boiled  with  a 
solution  of  gum  Arabic  or  of  size  to 
give  tenacity  to  the  paste.  Sulphate  of 
iron,  quicklime,  and  glue  or  white  of  egg, 
are  aometimea  added  to  enable  the  mate- 
rial to  seeist  the  action  of  water,  and 
Mcaz  and  phoaphato  al  aada  to  teadat 


fapOio 

It  to  «  fmt  extent  fire-proof.  It  is 
OMd  for  maklnc  all  aorta  of  usefal  and 
pmamental  articles  that  can  be  formed 
.  ■»*'»■•  Another  variety  of  papier 
inach«  ia  made  by  paatlng  or  gluini 
Jheeti  of  paper  togetlier,  and  preaaina 
than  when  soft  into  the  form  which  it 

iM  deaired  to  give  (hem. 

Tanilio    (!»,?"''•«).  a  genua  of  bnt- 

tainlng  some  well-linown  apeciea,  aa  the 
awallow-tailed  butterfly  (Papilio  ma- 
eMon),  the  peacock  butterfly  (  P.  lo), 

Papilionaoese  (f»-P»-yo-na'Bhe-s^,  a 

,       ,  .        division      of      plants, 

forming  a  auborder  of  the  Leguminosn 
(which  aee),  distinguished  by  the  resem- 
blant-e  of  the  superior  petals  of  their 
flowers  to  the  extended  wings  of  a  butter- 
fly (Latin,  papaUt).  The  best-known  ex- 
amples are  the  pea  and  bean,  which  are 
the  typical  plants  of  this  division. 
PaDillse  <Pa-P.'l'«),  the  name  applied 
*^  in    physiology    to    small    or 

minute  processes  protruding  from  the  sur- 
face of  tlie  skin,  or  of  membranes  gen- 
erally, and  which  ma^  possera  either  a 
secretory  or  other  function.    The  human 
Skin  exhibits  numerous  papillse,  with  di- 
tfl  ^K  ■'"*'*  extremities,  and  through 
which  the  sense  of  touch  is  chiefly  ex- 
ercised.   The  papiile  of  the  tongue  are 
important  in  connection  with  the  sense 
of  taste.    See  Bkin  and  Ton^Ke. 
FaBin  /»*•?»»).  T^kstb.  natural  phi- 
**        •awpher,     bom     In     Blois,     in 
France,  in   1647.    Having  visited   Bng- 
iy^  ^t>  ^^f  J°  ?^^  admitted  a  fellow 
S:  *fe..'^°y^' J*>«'«*y-    The  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  preventing  him  from 
retuniing  to  his  native  country,  he  set- 
tled at  Marburg,  in  Germany,  in  1087,  as 
professor  of  mathematics,  retaining  this 
SteJ^*  *A"  "0^-    He  is  believed  to  have 
^  in  Germany  about  1714.    He  is  best 
toown    for    the    invention    denominated 
Papin'a  Digeater    (see  Digetter). 
PaPinianilS    (PaP-'n-l-a'nus),   MuiL- 
«...  ..    IU8  (Papinian),  a  Ito- 

S2^»  rS*'*  bom  under  Antoninus  Piu^ 
about  140  A.D.  His  learning  and  intea- 
rlty  won  him  the  first  offices  of  state,  and 
«L!!i>*!  «'tl™tely  chosen  prefect  of  the 
prwtprian  guards  under  the  Emperor 
Beptimius  Severus,  whom  he  accomDa- 
nied  to  Britain.  'The  Emperor  CaracaUa 
cauwd  him  to  be  executed  in  2ia  In 
hto  wwtoT*'  "*  **^  ««»n)t8  taken  from 

Papion  (P«.'P'-<m),  Cvnooephilut 
■.^j...  K-iJfl*"";..  *  •P«»*«  of  dog- 
Z?    V  .^^pon*  nhin  to  the  mandril,     ft 


.-    -  —  ---'    — •»    ,v    luc   uiauurii.      ii 

.5f"{  i?  .f**^   reverence  in   Egypt. 
--  Mlridmif  Wnj  kept  war  5^ 


Papynu 

temnles,  In  the  eaves  of  which  their  ma» 
mled  forms  have  been  often  found. 

Pappenheim  (pap'en-him),  gott. 

Count  or,  imperial  J^neral  in  the^Thlrty 
H^^  ''?'■'  ^  i?  1«^  •*  Pappenheto, 
h.H!I.T?f^-#  g«  OtaUnguished  fiSself  In 
In  in?jQ^on**'  *^i".*  "?  colonel,  in  1020; 
in  1023-25  served  in  Lombardy  aa  com- 
mander of  a  regiment  of  culraaaiera  (tha 

quered,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Ba- 
varians,  40,000  ^  peasantV  in  Up??r 
^^Tk^  ♦■J"*, '°  W  i°'°«'  Tllly.  ^0 
?n  irm»*''t.''T'  °'  the  battle  of  L^^ig 
in  Jh.  aLm  "  '"?«t"o»«ty.  He  appeTna 
w«ii^®  ^''f''^  i?'  I^lltsen  on  the  sMe  of 

JJ^  S*»k'  ^"*  i;"  °>»'t«»y  wounded, 
and  died  the  day  after  the  battle,  1632. 

Pappus  jP^P'"").  In  botany,  tb« 
*^'  feathery  appendage  that 
crowna  many  single-seeded  seed-vessels; 
for  example,  the  down  of  the  dandelion. 
PappnS,  AuacANDMNUs,  mathemati- 
J„  fhl  /«  .^"^  flourished  at  Alexandria 
in  the  fourth  century  after  Christ.  All 
his  works  appear  to  have  perished,  except 
portions  of  his  Mathematlail  Collect^, 

^^^  J'^^T^J^^^f'^  J"'"«'  *°<»  have  sufI 
ficcd  to  found  his  fame.     They  includa 
geometrical    problems    and    theorenw.    « 
treatise  on  mechanics,  etc. 
Papu'a.     ®®®  ^^^  Ouinea. 

Papyrns  (pj-pi'ms;  pa»^«  «»«{. 

*«'  gudrum.    or    Cypir—    pt»w 

"••).  ■?  aquatic  plant  belonging  tb  the 
nat  order  Cyperace»  or  sedges.  It  has 
acquired  celebrity  from  furnishing  the 
paper    of    the    ancient  * 

Ii'gyptians.  The  root  is 
very  large,  hard,  and 
ci-eeping;  the  stem  is 
several  inches  thick, 
naked,  except  at  the 
base,  8  to  16  or  more 
feet  high,  triangular 
above,  and  terminated 
by  a  compound,  wide- 
spreading,  and  beauti- 
ful umbel,  which  is 
surrounded  with  an  in- 
volucre composed  of 
eight  large  sword- 
shaped  leaves.  The  lit- 
tle scaly  spikelets  of 
inconspicuous  flowers 
are  placed  at  the  ex-  i8_,™tu- b  -' 
tremity  of  the  rays  of  "f^KiS??" 
this  umbel.  Formerly  qS^) 
It  was  ezteniiiveiy  culU-         «-""""'• 

J?*"*  H*^''*^  ^fyP^'  but  la  now  rare 
12!!;!;-  IS  1»  abundant  in  the  equatorial 
regions  of  Africa  in  many  places,  and  la 
found  also  io   W«tt«ro  AJrk*  wd  5 


ftr 


PftrftodsQi 


Southern  IUI7.  The  inhabiUnti  of  mim 
countries  where  It  grows  manufacture  it 
into  various  articles,  including  sail-cloth, 
cordage,  and  even  wearing  apparel  and 
boats.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  its 
uses  were  equally  numerous,  but  it  is  best 
known  as  furnishing  a  kind  of  paper.  This 
consisted  of  thin  strips  carefully  separated 
from  the  stem  longitudinally,  Icid  side 
by  side,  and  then  covered  transversely  by 
snorter  strips,  the  whole  being  caused 
to  adhere  together  by  the  use  of  water 
and  probably  some  gummy  matter.  A 
sheet  of  this  kind  formed  really  a  sort  of 
mat.  In  extensive  writings  a  number  of 
these  sheets  were  united  into  one  long 
roll,  the  writing  materials  being  a  reed 
pen  and  ink  made  of  animal  charcoal 
and  oil.  Thousands  of  these  papyri  or 
papyrus  rolls  still  exist  (many  of  them 
were  found  in  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum ) , 
but  their  contents,  so  fnr  as  deciphered, 
have  only  l>een  of  mo<lerate  value. 
Par  {l^^'  Latin,  'equal')  is  used  to 
denote  a  state  of  equality  or  equal 
value.  Bills  of  exchange,  stocks,,  etc.,  are 
ot  par  when  they  sell  for  their  nominal 
value;  above  par  or  below  par  when  they 
sell  for  more  or  less. 

Para  ij>'^-i^')>  a  ■man  Turkish  and 
Egyptian  coin,  ot  copper  or  cop- 
per and  silver,  the  fortieth  part  of  a 
Turkish  piaster  (grush).  Value,  about 
%  of  a  cent. 

Pari  (pA-i'^L'),  or  Bkleu,  a  city  and 
seaport  in  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Tarfl,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  estuary  of  the  ParA  (or  of  the  River 
TocantinsK  The  principal  l<uildings  are 
the  governor's  palace,  the  cathedral,  and 
the  churches  of  Santa  Anna  and  S3o  Joiio 
Baptists.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  legislative 
assembly  of  the  iirovince.  The  port,  de- 
fended by  forts,  is  capable  of  admitting 
vessels  of  large  size.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  caoutchouc,  cacao,  Brazil  nuts, 
copaiba,  rice,  piassava,  sarsaparilla,  an- 
notto,  cotton,  etc.  Pop.  (1913)  170.000. 
The  province  of  Parfi,  the  most  northerly 
in  Brazil,  comprises  an  area  of  44.^.700 
square  miles  on  t)oth  sides  of  the  lower 
Amazon,  and  consists  chiefly  of  vast  al- 
luvial plains  connected  with  this  river 
and  its  tributaries.  These  latter  com- 
prise the  Tapajos  and  the  Xingu,  besides 
many  others,  the  Tocantins  being  an- 
other great  stream  from  the  south.  The 
province  possesses  immense  forests,  and 
is  extremely  fertile,  but  there  is  little 
cultivation,  the  inhabitants  being  fewer 
than  one  to  the  square  mile.  The  trade 
centers  in  the  capiui.  It  is  now  facili- 
tated by  steamboats  navigaUng  the  Am- 
axon  and  Tocantina.    Pop.  estimated  at 


Parabola. 


Parable  (P*r'*-bl),  a  ohort  Ule  Ib 
*******"  which  the  •ctioos  or  tvcnu 
of  common  life  are  made  to  aervt  as  • 
vehicle  for  moral  lessons.  Th«  phnibia 
is  a  mode  of  teaching  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  Eastern  mind,  and  waa  common 
among  the  Jews  before  the  appearance 
of  Christ.  It  is  exemplified  in  the  Old 
Testament  hi  the  parable  addressed  by 
Nathan  to  David  (II  Sam.,  xii).  and 
there  are  frequent  examples  of  it  In  Um 
Tahnud  and  the  Gospels. 
Parabola  (l»r-ab'u-la),  one  of  the 
curves  known  as  conic  sec- 
tions. If  a  right  cone  is  cut  by  a  plane 
parallel  to  a  slant  side,  the  section  is 
a  parabola.  It  may  also  be  defined  as 
the  curve  traced  out  by  a  point  which 
moves  in  such  a  way  that  its  distance 
from  a  fixed  point,  called  the  *  focus,'  is 
always  equal  to  its  perpendicular  distance 
from  a  fixed  straight 
line,  called  the  'di- 
rectrix.' In  the  fig- 
ure B  n  is  the  direc- 
trix and  F  the  focus, 
while  p  is  a  point 
that  moves  so  that 
the  perpendicular  o  p 
Is  always  equal  to 
the  line  p  r;  the  curve  pad  described  by 
a  point  so  moving  is  a  parabola.  The 
line  F  A  c  through  the  focus  is  the  axis 
or  principal  diameter:  any  line  parallel 
to  it,  as  B  D  R,  is  a  diameter.  The  path 
of  a  projectile  in  vacuo,  when  not  a  ver- 
tical straight  line,  is  parabolic. 
Parabolani  (Por-a-bo-l,A'nI),  in  the 
enrly  Christian  church, 
a  class  of  men  whose  chief  dntv  was  to 
attend  on  the  sick  and  diseased. 
Paracelsus     (Par-a-sel'sus),  or  Pnn^ 

IPPUS    AUBEOLUS    TUCO- 
PHBASTUS  BOMBASTUB  VON  HoHENHCIU, 

empiric  and  alchemist,  Iram  at  EInsie* 
dein.  In  the  canton  of  Schwyx,  in  Swit- 
zerland, in  1493.  Dissatisfied  with  the 
means  of  acquiring  knowledge  in  his 
native  country,  he  traveled  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe,  everywhere  sedc- 
ing  to  add  to  his  knowledge-  In  the 
course  of  his  travels  he  became  acquainted 
with  remedies  not  in  common  use  among 
physicians  (probably  preparations  tf 
mercury),  by  means  of  which  he  per- 
formed extraordinary  cures,  and  <4>taliwd 
great  reputativ^n.  In  152G  he  accepted 
the  chair  of  medicine  offered  him  by  tba 
magistrates  of  Basel,  and  lectured  then 
till  the  spring  of  1528.  The  failure  of 
a  lawsuit,  and  the  consequent  quarrel 
with  the  judges,  led  him  to  resume  hto 
wandering  life,  at  first  accompanied  hf 
his  pupil  Oporinus.  who,  however.  di»i 
fosted  with  his  vioioice  and  iotempat^ 


PiiMhvte 

aiic*.  at  lapith  kft  him.  H«  died  at  (ht 
52?*H,"'**;  8««»«tlaii  «t  Sateburt  In 

**  Mt^*  ^^"  than  a  charlatan,  but  he 
•nriched  Klenca,  particularly  chemistry 
and  medicine,  with  lome  valuable  diicov' 
eriee,  and,  indeed,  is  sometimes  looked 
upon  as  the  founder  of  modem  therapen- 

Paraohnte  l^'!;-«'>»»>«  w".,  •»»!!"»• 

tus  of  an  umbrella  shape 
and  conHtructloa,  usually  about  20  or  30 
feet  in  diameter,  attached  to  balloons,  by 
means  of  which  the  aeronaut  may  descend 
slowly  from  a  great  height.  It  is  shut 
when  carried  up,  and  expands  by  inflation 
when  the  aeronaut  begins  to  descend; 
out  it  is  not  altogether  to  be  depended 
on,  and  accidents  In  connection  with  its 
use   have   been    frequent.    The   earliest 


PaniBa 


Paiaehnte   (Oamerin'i  Fsraehuta 
descending). 

'°*i!i*i*'°j°'  a  machine  of  this  kind  is  In 
a  MS.  describing  experiments  made  with 
one  in  1617.  In  lf&  the  French  phy- 
Bicun  Lenormand  made  several  further 
experiments  at  Montpellier;  and  sbortij 
after  the  machme  became  well  known 
through  the  descents  of  Blanchard  in 
Farls  and  London.  See  AeronauHca. 
Paraclete  (Para-klet;  Gr.  paraklm», 
^u  r,  .  *  counselor,  comforter). 
2l,  JSf''""*"'   ^^^  Ho'y  Qtost    ( Joht 

ParaCOtO,  2^*5^^"^  °^  *  South 
a  species  of  CrypTc^ir^.  *The  fa"k*h£ 
asplcy  odor  and  an  aromatic  and  pun- 
gent taste.  It  is  used  as  an  appetiser 
and  m  diarrhoeal  diseases.  Its  active 
principle  is  called  paracotoin,  a  pale  yel- 
low, crystalline  boay,  tasteleis  aSd  Jor- 
less  and  sparingly  soluble  in  water. 
Paradise  iPf^^-^h  tJ»«  «arden  of 
in.ii.  D  1  ''"cn^  The  word  is  orig- 
faaUy  Persian,  and  signifies  a  park.     It 

S^^hwISi""^  !?*.'»  "»e  Greek  language 
ID  the  form  p«radewo«  by  Xenophon,  awl 


baa   been    hitroduced    into   modern   Ian* 

Eiages   as   a   name   for  the   garden   of 
den   (and  hence  of  any  abode  of  haD> 
pinen)  through  its  use  in  that  sense  bk 
the  Septuagint 
Paradise,    Bi>oor.    SeeSWo/Pcrv 

Paradox  (P»^a-doks),  a  statement 
4  1.  u  ^  °'  proposition  which  seems 
to  be  absurd,  or  at  variance  with  common 
sense,  or  to  contradict  some  previously- 
ascertained  truth,  though,  when  duly 
Investigated,  it  may  prove  to  be  well 
founded. 

Paradoxnre    (wr-a-doks'llf,   Pora. 
.     ,  doxirut  typut),  an  ani- 

mal of  the  civet  family  (Viverridc), 
common  in  India,  and  known  also  as  the 
palm-cat  from  its  habit  of  climbing  palm- 
trees  to  eat  their  fruit.  It  can  curl  its 
tail  into  a  tight  spiral. 

Paraeould,  %  "*?•  <»p*t»i  <>'  Qmne 

.,  .  .  ,  "*  County,  Arkansas,  in  a 
rich  agricultural  country.  It  is  an  imoor- 
tant  shipping  point,  and  has  large  stave 
7000  °^^^^    industries.      Pop. 

Paraffin    (Par'a-an),  a  solid  white 
. ,  ,  substance  of  a  waxy  appear- 
ance which  is  separated  from  petroleum 
and  ozokerite,  and  is  also  largely  obtained 
by  the  destructive  distillation  of  various 
organic  bodies,  such  as  brown  coal  or 
lignite,  bituminous  coal,  shale,  etc.    The 
proMss  generally  consists  in  heating  bi- 
tuminous shale  in  iron  retorts  at  a  low 
red  heat :  condensing  the  tarry  products, 
and  purifying  these  by  distillation,  wash- 
ing successively  with  soda,  water,  and 
acid,   and   again   distilling.    Those   por- 
tions  of  the  oil   which  solidify   in   the 
bnal  distillations  are  collected  separately 
from   the   liquid   portions,  washed   with 
5?^,,'?°  S?''^'  a°**  crystallised  or  again 
distilled.    The  partially  purified  paraflto 
(called    paraffln    acale)     is    now    again 
treated    with   acid,   allowed   to   solidify, 
submitted   to   the   action   of   centrifugal 
machmes,  and  finally  strongly  pressed  in 
°  M?'  5?  »move  any  liquid  oil  which  may 
still  adhere  to  it.    The  refined  paraffin  is 
largely  manufacture  into  candles,  which 
may  be  either  white  or  colored,  and  may 
"^  °'J,^  '^^^^  *  certain  quantity  of  wax, 
etc.    The    liquid    oils    obtained    in    the 
process  come  into  commerce  under  the 
general  name  of  parafiki-oil,  the  lighter 
oils  being  used  for  illuminating  and  the 
hMvier   for   Iul  bleating   purposes.    Par- 

"  t'  <*»»*"*•  akin)  on  account  of  its  re- 
markable indifference  to  or  want  of  af- 
finity with  other  substances.  Besides 
being  used  for  candles,  it  is  used  for 
vestaa    and    tapers,    for    waterproofi^^ 


Paragonld 


Paraktet 


■istnc,  mad  gluinf  fabrics,  u  an  dectrio 
Insulator,  aa  a  coating  for  the  inside  of 
beer  barrels,  etc. 

ParaflTOnld  (P»''«-fMd),  a  city,  county 
^n«i»5viuu  ggjij  of  Green  county,  Ar- 
kansas, 67  miles  n.  by  w.  of  Mempbis. 
It  has  flour  and  lumber  mills,  foundries 
and  a  fruit  Industry.  Pop.  5248. 
Pa.rB.flmAV  (p&'rA-fwI,  or  gwft),  an 
rare^ay  inland  repubUc  of  South 
America,  surrounded  by  Argentina,  Urazil, 
and  Bolivia ;  area.  146,00(J  square  miles. 
The  whole  surface  belongs  to  the 
basins  of  the  Paraguay  and  ParanA, 
numerous  tributaries  of  which  intrrsect 
the  country.  Along  tlie  Paraguay  and  in 
the  south,  adjoining  the  Paraufl,  are  ex- 
tensive  swauipy  tracts;  westward  of  the 
Paraguay  the  country  is  little  known. 
Elsewhere  the  surface  is  well  diversified 
with  hill  and  valley,  and  rich  alluvial 
plain.  The  climate  is  agreeable,  the 
mean  annual  temperature  being  about 
75°.  The  natural  fertility  of  the  soil 
is  shown  by  a  vegetation  of  almost  un- 
equaled  luxuriance  and  grandeur.  In  the 
forests  are  found  at  least  sixty  varieties 
of  timber-tree,  besides  dyewoods,  gums, 
drugx,  perfumes,  vegetable  oils,  and 
fruits.  Many  of  the  hills  are  covered  with 
the  verba  mat6  or  Paraguay  tea.  (See 
Mate.)  The  larger  plains  are  roamed 
over  by  immense  herds  of  cattle,  which 
Tield  large  quantities  of  hides,  tallow, 
bones,  etc. ;  and  on  all  the  cultivated  al- 
luvial tracts  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco, 
rice,  maize,  etc.,  are  raised  in  profusion. 
The  exports  are  mainl;^  Paraguay  tea, 
fruits,  tobacco,  sugar,  hides,  rubber,  and 
other  native  products.  Asuncion,  the 
capital,  Paraguari,  and  Villa  Rica  are 
connected  by  a  railway  about  90  miles 
long.  Large  river  steamers  ascend  the 
Parana  and  the  Paraguay  far  above 
Asuncion. 

Paraguay  was  originally  a  Spanish  col- 
ony, the  first  settlement  being  made  in 
1535.  In  IGOS  a  number  of  Spanish 
Jesuits  established  a  powerful  and  well- 
orranized  government,  which  lasted  till 
1758,  when  it  was  overthrown  by  the 
Brazilians  and  Spaniards.  Early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  its  isolated  position  en- 
abled it  by  a  single  effort  to  emancipate 
itself  from  Spanish  rule.  Dr.  Francia, 
secretary  to  the  revolutionary  junta  in 
1811,  was  elected  consul,  but  exchanged 
the  name  for  that  of  dictator  in  1814,  and 
thenceforward,  by  a  rigorous  system  of 
espionage  and  the  strict  prohibition  of 
all  intercourse  with  other  nations,  re- 
tained his  position  till  bla  death  in  1840 
at  the  age  of  eighty-four.  In  1844  Don 
Carloa  Antonio  Lopes  was  elected  presi- 
dent f«r  ten  years,  and  aoon  aftar  tba 


country  was  declared  free  and  optn  both 
to  foreigners  and  foreign  commerce.  Don 
Carlos  Lopez  remained  president  of  Par- 
aguay till  bis  death  in  18(32,  when  ha 
was  succeeded  by  bis  son  Don  Francisco, 
who  concluded  treaties  of  commerce  with 
England,  Franco,  the  United  States,  Bra- 
zil, etc.,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to 
promote  the  growth  of  agriculture  and 
industry  in  the  land.  But  a  disastrous 
war  with  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, which  broke  out  in  18(14  and  only 
closed  with  the  death  of  Lopez  in  1870, 
caused  the  death  of  far  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  mnle  adults  and  entirely 
checked  the  progress  of  Paraguay.  A 
popular  constitutional  government  has 
since  been  established,  and  the  state  it 
now  making  rapid  progress  in  popula 
tion    and    prosperity.    The    people    are 


largely  half-breeds  or  of  Indian  bloods 
Before  the  war  the  population  is  said  to 
have  been  over  1,000,000;  after  the  war 
it  was  not  more  than  a  tenth  of  this. 
The  census  of  1886  made  it  820,688.  not 
including  about  120,000  Indians.  Pop., 
1905,  631,347. 

Pfl.rAfmftv  A  river  of  S.  America, 
Paraguay,    ^^^^^^  ^^^  j^  ^^^  g^^, 

zilian  province  of  Matto  G  rosso,  takes 
a  course  generally  southwards,  and  joins 
the  Paranfl  at  the  southwest  angle  of 
the  state  of  Paraguay  after  a  course  of 
some  1300  miles.  It  receives  the  Pilco- 
mayo,  Vermejo,  and  other  large  rivers, 
and  is  a  valuable  highway  of  trade  to 
Paraguay  and  Brazil. 

Faraspiay  Tea.  ^^  ^«*'- 

Parahyba  (»*-'*■«''>*).  »  maritima 
"^J'  *  province  of  Brazil,  be- 
tween Rio-Orande-do-Norte  on  the  north 
and  Pernambuco  on  the  south;  area, 
28,846  square  miles.  Much  of  the  soil 
is  of  a  sandy  texture,  though  there' ar« 
also  extensive  fertile  tracts  and  large 
forests.  Periodical  droughts  occur.  Pop. 
about  600,000.  The  capital,  Pabahtba, 
is  a  cathedral  city  situated  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  about  11  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  harbor  is  much  fre- 
quented by  coasting  vessels.  Pop.  (1906) 
estimate  30,000.  ' 

Parakeet  (p«''«-k«)'  <*'  pamoqoti, 

*  •   a  subfamily  or  group  of  tha 

Parrots,  characterized  by  their  generally 
small  size  and  their  long  tail-feathers. 
The  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelag* 
form  the  chief  habitat  of  these  birds,  rat 
species  also  occur  in  India  and  Aosttalia. 
Amongst  the  most  familiar  forma  are  tb« 
rose-ringed  and  Alexanurine  pankeata. 
The  former  (Paheomit  torqniA%»),  ftoond  . 
in  India  and  on  the  east«m  coasts  «t 
Africa,  baa  a  brigbt-graen  body  and  • 


HnUu 


PinUelioflfttitiidt 


r 


|*»k  dKd«  raoBd  the  neck.    The  Alexan* 

to  •  OMtfly  allW  tpccle*.  fhm  binS 
auy  b«  taocbt  to  tpMk  with  distinctDen! 

2ULEr»€  27**^  •'  Auttrall.  iiv* 
MBongrt  the  rwd«  and  mw  of  pwampa, 

2SSIS"*«'"  •p«t«ry  !»•««.  The  commra 
•riMi  /orm«M«)  poaeeewe  a  neen  and 
Iprlj    colorad.    and     the    body-feathen 


Parallel  Linet  (p«r'*>^i);  in  rtom- 

I-  the  «une  olane  .V^' fSrll'SJl'^o 
matter  how  Ur  produced. 

Parallel  Motion.  ■  mechanical  con- 

I      JL     .«  trirance  eni> 

ployed  by  Watt  to  communicate  the  aN 
temate  puehea  and  pulls  of  the  piston-rod 
of  a  steam  engine  to  the  end  of  a  tI« 
bratlng  beam,   and   which  prevents   tha 

!iLh»1i°'  '"!?*■  t;*"""'  to  destroy  the 
right-line  motion  of  the  piston-rod.  Tha 
motion  given  to  the  end  of  the  rod  is  not 
accurately  in  a  straight  line,  but  It  is 


SoMringMl  Parakeet  (i>sto«m<« 
(orgiMUtM). 


^•▼inff    each    a 
hue.    The     graa 
hich 


band  of  dark-brown 
♦.ill-  I."  i.f'^'fL  iw^keets  of  Aus- 
i^*  ;.S'.''°'?''  ♦•"•  •™al'  warbling  para- 
keet (Mehptittdcui  mnimlatut)  is  a  «Md 

Australia,  and  feed  on  the  seeds  of  thA 
graajea  covering  the  plaint    Thfy  L^h 

d2,**2«rfll^*'  °»'  fSm-?^ee.  dur'inrSS 
KJHi«-'"^.*i*  ""*■  ■«  "ituated  in  the 
Ste-  *1**'*^  *'**»•  Contrary  to  most 
parrots  they  have  an  agreeable  voice 
Parallax  (jp«>^a-lak8).  the  apparent 
!«■  m.l..H>»  K.  ^?®  of  place  which  bod- 
i?*^i  !*°  Wu'**"'8  viewed  from  diflfei^ 
«nt  points.    Thus  an  observer  at  a  *^ 

but  when  he  moves  to  d  it  is  in  l^tae  witlJ 
_ «,    and    seems   to    have 
gone     backwards.    The 
0  term  has  become  techni- 

■ad  from  the  center  of  cither  the  earth 
"li^aaon-  The  term  '  parallax 'i,  also 
S?"Slig.i*°?**  *''«  nSn.coi"idence  S 


Part  of  Beam  of  Condensing  Rngine. 

aOod.ParaUel  motion.     #,  Piston- 

rod.    /,  Pump-rod. 

u''*.n**''',  **•.  .^""'a  parallel  motion 
iLl'iL  ^J>^°y^  i"  all  stationary  bSS- 
engines.  In  marine  beam-engines  the 
f„  ?«5,S°?"l  employed  differs  somewhat 
Wa^'s^iyv'aiSl.""^  •-  ^"^'^'^  •• 

Parallelogram  of  Forces,  "J™- 

vr«f^^°*?.'*?^  principle,  dedi.cel*by 
t^T*™'  '•"«•>  nwT  be  stated  thus:    If 

on  »  SI^m"*1°? J°  ''"'«^°t  direction^ 
Sf-^li^f  ""^'"  *.*  *••«  aame  time  be  repre- 
Sfrif1.i°.?'"«°'*"^«.«°^  direction  b/tw^ 
straight  lines  meeting  at  the  particle, 
their  resultant  effect  fn  giving  motion  to 

i!?:?*J*f*''''*  ^''.  *5»t  °f  a  force  repre^ 
sented  in  magnitude  and  direction  by  tha 
diagonal  (tcrminajting  in  the  partkle' 
of  the  Darallelogram,  of  which  the  two. 
former  lines  are  two  sides. 
Parallels,  i°  military  operaUons,  ar» 
'  trenches  formed  by  be- 
"Jegers  to  cover  their  assault,  bebg  iw. 
named  because  they  generally  run  piral- 

lluZ'^K^l""  '*°*"°«'.  "^  tl>e  fortreSrVs- 
""ed-     The  communication  from  om  to 

f«L°i?"  *■  effected  by  means  of  ditahes 
formed  lu  zipa^.  so  that  they  may  not 
be  raked  by  the  fire  of  the  fortfesa.  >au- 
ban  first  made  use  of  them  in  1678,  at 
the  siege  of  Maestricht. 

Parallels  of  Latitude.   ^  ^at:> 


Hni'pAi 


fWiitaf 


»mM.m*jmam    ^^^^     which    ill    iU    tff«Ct 

comIsU  In  loM  of  power  in  movinc  or 
low  of  fteling.  or  in  both,  and  it  it 
cauMd  hf  diwftM  of  the  brain,  spinal 
cord,  or  ner\-et,  or  it  majr  be  due  to 
kad  or  other  poison  affertinf  some  part  of 
the  nervous  system.  When  the  paralysis 
Is  limited  to  one  side  of  the  body,  and  the 
voluntary  power  of  movinc  the  muscles 
Is  lost,  this  is  due  to  disease  of  the 
brain  which  Is  of  a  one-sided  or  localised 
character,  and  receives  the  specific  name 
of  hemiptegitt.  It  is  geiicnlly  caused  by 
tht  burstinK  of  a  blood-vessel  in  the 
frrain;  it  may  also  be  doe  to  a  blood- 
vessel being  blocked  by  a  clot  of  blood, 
fhe  paralysis  may  b«  sudden  and  without 
anconsciousnesa,  or  it  may  b«  gradual  and 
Attend*  d  with  sickneaa,  faintness,  and 
eonfasion  of  mind.  In  ordinary  cases  it 
will  be  found  that  one  side  of  the  body  is 
powerless,  the  face  twisted,  the  speech 
thick  and  indistinct.  Recovery  may  be 
complete  or  partial,  or  the  attack  may 
proie  fatal.  In  any  case  the  shock  is  apt 
to  be  repeated.  When  one  side  of  the 
body  and  the  opposite  side  of  the  face  are 
affected,  the  disease,  which  has  its  seat  in 
the  region  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  re- 
ceives the  name  of  cro$$ei  paralyni,  and 
is  considered  more  dangerous  than  ordi- 
nary hemiplegia.  When,  again,  the  dis- 
ease is  situated  in  the  spinal  cord,  the 
paralysis^  which  receives  the  name  of 
parapleffta,  may  affect  either  the  upper 
or  lower  part  of  the  body,  or  motion  may 
be  lost  on  one  side  aud  sensation  on 
the  other.  Local  parolutU  or  parraia  is 
the  term  used  when  disease  or  injury 
affects  a  specific  nerve-trunk,  and  has  no 
connection  with  disease  of  the  brain  or 
spinal  cord.  The  effect  of  this  local 
paralysis  is  to  deprive  the  muscles  of 
their  nerve-supply,  iu  which  case  they 
lose  their  power,  becoming  weak  and 
faint. 

Paramaribo  i^^lVT'^'^i' ^i^ 

ana  or  Surinam,  attout  18  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  River  Surinam,  which  is 
navigable  for  vessels  of  considerable  size. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  Dutch  West  In- 
dian trade,  and  exports  sugar,  coffee,  etc. 
Pop.  8S321. 

Paramatta  (p»'-«i-m«fa),  or  pawu- 

**  MATTA,  a  town  In  New 
South  Wales,  on  a  river  of  same  name 
(really  an  extension  of  Port  Jackson), 
in  a  beautiful  and  well-cultivated  district 
14  miles  west  of  Sydney.  Woolen  cloth 
Is  manufactured  to  some  extent;  and  in 
the  vicinity  there  are  large  salt-works 
and  copper«meIting  furnaces.  Moch- 
fmit  is  grown  in  the  district    Tbt  town 


!•  Mm  Ib  tiM  colon/  necpt  Uy&atf. 
Pop.  12,008. 

merino  wool  and  cotton  warp.  It  was 
invented  at  Bradford,  in  Yorksblrs,  when 
it  is  still  lancly  manufacturtd. 
Parani  fP^-rA-ni'),  •  river  in  Bootb 
"  America,  th*  largcat  except 
tha  Amason,  and  draining  •  largct  basin 
than  unr  other  river  in  the  N«w  World 
except  tn«  Amason  and  the  Mlaaiaaippi. 
It  is  formed  by  the  Junetioa  of  two 
streams,  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Panuia- 
byba,  which  meet  in  Brasil,  and  it  dia* 
charges  itself  into  the  estuary  of  tha  La 
Plata,  ita  final  courao  baing  through  tha 
Argentine  Republic.  Its  principal  tribu- 
taries ara  the  Paraguay  and  the  Balmde^ 
both  from  the  right.  All  the  tributaries 
on  its  left  are  comparatively  short  Its 
lenffth,  from  its  sources  to  its  Junetioa 
with  th»  Paraguay,  is  probabhr  1800 
miles  ynd  thence  to  the  sea  000  nilet 
more.  In  breadth,  currant  and  volume 
of  wster.  thp  Parani  baa  ten  times  the 
magnitude  of  the  Paraguay,  which  k  It- 
self superior  to  the  greatest  European 
rivers.  It  is  an  important  waterway  to 
the  interior  of  tbe  country,  though  with 
obstructions  at  certain  points. 
Parfl.1l4      *  province  of  Southern  Bra- 

province  of  SSo  Paulo,  east  tbe  Atlantic, 
south  the  province  of  Santa  Catharinjt, 
and  west  Paraguay  and  the  province  of 
Matto  Grosso;  area,  85,429  squara  mtlea. 
Its  chief  town  is  Guritiba.    Pop.  (IS^ltf) 

p2:^aliyba  i^'S^ft^^^^ 

River  Parani  (whkh  see). 

Paravet   d*'''!-?®*). ,»  «ortificatk» 

P^*  a  work,  usually  of  earth,  ia- 
tended  to  protect  the  troops  within  tlM 
ramparts,  as  well  aa  the  pieces  at  artil- 
lery used  in  the  defense.  In  order  to 
fire,  the  defenden  ascend  a  ledge  called 
a  banquette,  about  half-way  up  the  para* 
pet  In  architecture  tbe  term  parapet 
is  applied  to  the  structures  placed  at  the 
edges  of  platforms,  balconies,  roofa  of 
houses,  sides  of  bridges,  etc.,  to  prevent 
people  from  falling  over. 

Paraphernalia  /.^f '*JrJj!2n,!*'.J! 

'  law,  a  woman  s  ap- 

parel, jewek,  and  other  things,  which,  la 
the  lifetime  of  her  husband,  sne  wore  as 
the  ornaments  of  her  person,  and  to  whkh 
she  hM  a  dktinct  claim. 
Paraple'gia.     SeePerelyH.. 

Paraaanor    (par' a -sang),  a  Peraiaa 

o     measure   of   distance  used 

both  In  ancient  an4  >!w>dem  times.    Its 


— ^ —  ___ 

BWdWB  Ptnlui  BAM  la  MVMff.  ud  Its 

Paraielene  (p*-ni-M-ii'ii«),  a  inmi- 

timeg  leen  roupd  the  moon,  or  there  majr 

kl  "kS"*  '•?'*  ?"•  ?*"»  *•  *'«ll  •■  certain 
DrtjM  spota,  benrinf  •om>  rewmUanre 
to  tM  moon,  li'anweiene  or  mock  moons 
•Jt  •MlofoiM  to.  parhelia  or  muck  auue. 
Panudte  (^<«-«It).  the  name  ap. 
♦--fc  \r  ,*"*•<*  *•  nnlmala  which  at- 
^«,  themaelree  to  the  exterior,  or  In- 
haWt  Tarioua  altnationa  in  the  Interior, 
ot  the  bodiea  of  other  animala,  Includini 
•nch  forma  aa  tapeworma,  flukea,  aeolecca 
or  hy(Utldaflah.llce,  bIrd-Uce,  c.»mmon 
lice,  etc.  TVue  paraaltea  obtain  their 
poarlahment  from  the  animala  on  which 
they  llTe,  but  there  la  another  claaa  of 

?f3^**?A***  «°>y  <*^«*'»  *  lodring  or 
abode  at  the  expenae  of  the  animala  thvT 
•coompany.    See  Cummental. 

Panudtio  Siieasei  <p»-a-aifik), 

. ,    .  /T^.  ■"cl»  aa  are  pro- 

duced by  paraaltlc  animala  or  planta. 
Amonf  the  animala  producing  auch  dia- 
Ma«  are  the  guinea-worm,  the  louae.  the 
trichina,  tapeworm,  etc.  The  vegetable 
paraaltea  which  produce  diaeaae  In  ani- 
miUa  are  either  fungi  or  algae.  Ring- 
worm la  an  example  of  thia  claaa. 

Parasitic  Plants,  *"<^^    p^*"^   «« 

. ...  ^^'  grow    on    othenL 

from  which  they  reoeive  thei»  nouriah- 
ment     In   tibia  claaa  are  nuuiy   tungi. 

the  formidable  diaeaae  called  fiint,  to 
which  wheat  ia  liable.  Among  larger 
^"yfi?  '^  ,*''•  mlatietoe ;  and  the  genua 
Kagutw.  belonging  to  Sumatra  and 
i!^\  Paraaltea  are  dlctinguiahed  from 
eplphftea,  Inaamuch  aa  the  latter,  though 
they  frow  upon  other  plants,  are  not 
nourii   ed  by  them.    See  Epiphyte. 

ParayleMonial  <»*-,'*    1«    »«»*• 

w—  J  c  -  V» '»  *  town  «f 
France,  dep.  SaOne-et-Lolre,  a  commou 
place  of  pilgrimage,  aa  the  place  where 
i5«n"*-V?  nun  Marie  Alacoque  died  lu 
1690.     Pop.  (1906)  3382. 

Parbl.Okle  (Paifbuk'l),  a  method  of 
II  j_i  ,  ..  i  raising  or  lowering  any 
cylindrical  body,  such  aa  a  barrelTby  an 
inclined  plane  and  a  rope,  the  rope  being 
doubled,  the  double  placed  round  a 
poat  at  the  top  of  the  plane,  and  the 
enda  pasaed  under  and  round  the  object 
to  be  raised  or  lowered,  when  b"  pulling 
or  Blackening  thia  can  be  accomplished. 
Parcel  Post  (pi''"]  »5at),  an  exten- 
ts *  XI.  XT  .  «PP  of  "»e  postal  aerv- 
lee  of  the  United  Statea  by  the  ad- 
miasion  to  the  maila  of  parcels  of  mer- 
chandise of  greater  weight  than  four 
pouada,  and  for  lowering  Uie  rate  on  thia 


Pardon 

cUai  of  BMHar.  On  Apri.  1,  19U.  a 
SSTJ!  £'<W*  for  a'^Umltad  ^intl 
f*®«*  op  r"**..'!?t  <>«U»*ry  wutaa  want 

the  regnlaUona  bar*  alace  bSai  iSalS 
The  new  ayatem  meana  aimply  tha  tstn- 
alon  of  the  preaent  fourth  claaa  of  mall 

"■"ff  *"  P*™'!  *•»•  "•"lot  of  pMcda 
weighing  aa  much  aa  twenty  poan8a(or 

the  substitution  of  a  rikllat  aeaia  cS 
rates,  according  to  diataaceaTtor  tha  flat 
rate  of  one  cent  an  ounc*  or  fraction 
hereof.  Bpoka,  not  at  flrat  IncladedT^n 
f  ter  added  to  the  Parcel  Poat  dualflea. 

weighing  more  than  8  ouncea.  Parcel  Poat 
matter  la  maUable  only  at  poatoBceaJ 
branch  offlcea.  lettered  and  localised  ata- 
tiona,  and  such  numbered  atationa  aa  may 
be  deaigaated  by  the  poatmaater,  or  It  may 
be  dellTered  to  a  rural  or  other  carrier 
duly  authorised  to  receive  auch  matter. 

FMA'^at  JUaS*^  °i**  **<^  ■•▼enty-two 
incbea  in  girth  and  muat  be  prepared  for 
mailing  in  sudi  manner  that  the  contenta 
may  be  easily  examined. 
Parchim  (pAf***™).  a  town  of  Ger. 
»»__,  1  L  JP?°y»  'n  the  Orand-dudiy  of 
MecklenburrSchwerin,  on  the  Elbe,  21 
mllea  aoutheaat  of  Schwerin.  It  haa  man- 
uiactuKa  of  woolen  cloth :  flour,  olL  na- 
per  and  aaw  miUa,  etc.  Pop.  l6j»T. 
Parchment  (P«Kh'ment).  the  sUns 
01  aheep,  ahe-goata,  ana 
aeveral  other  animala,  ao  dreaaed  or  pre- 
pared aa  to  be  rendered  fit  for  wriUng  on. 
Ibis  is  done  by  stretching  the  akin  on 
a  frame,  separating  all  the  fleah  and  hair 
from  the  akin,  reducing  Ita  thlckneaa  with 
a  sharp  instrument,  and  amoothlng  the 
surface  with  pumice-stone  covered  with 
pulverised  chalk  or  slaked  lime.  After 
it  ia  reduced  to  aomething  leaa  than  half 
its  original  thickness,  it  fii  smoothed  and 
slowly  dried  for  use. 

Pardee  {P.'^f^?^'  'P^^  novelist  and 
„  ,  ,  historian,  bom  at  Beveriv 
England,  in  1806;  died  In  18^  Shi 
wrote  numerous  novels,  descriptions  of 
life  in  Constantinople  and  Hungary,  and 
works  dealing  with  French  histwy. 
Pardon  (par'dun),  the  remission  of 
*  T     m®  P^Jyltv  of  a  crime  or  of- 

fense. In  England,  in  neariy  all  caaea 
of  Crimea  except  where  there  ia  an  Im- 
peachment, a  pardon  from  the  crown  may 

h/?*°l^  '^'?'"li»  *rf«l  »»  well  aa  after ' 
and  it  stops  further  progress  in  the  in- 
quiry and  prosecution  at  whatever  time 
It  is  granted.  In  cases  of  impeachment 
no  pardon  can  now  be  grantsd  by  t^ 


fUdnUti 


PtrhtUoi 


•rawo  whll«  the  proMcution  Is  Modlot: 
bat  afttr  eoovicuoa  of  tbt  offtoder  It 

S^^"^  V*J^^*^  *"  *«>  ot^r  etma.  In 
th«  Unltad  States  th«  psrdmiinf  power  is 
lod(sd  in  tiM  President,  and  the  Gov 
•mors  of  most  of  the  States,  and  «- 
tends  to  all  offennes  except  tlioso  wliith 
art  punisfaed  bjr  impeachment  after  con- 
viction. In  some  States  concurrence  of 
«>«  of  the  legislative  bodies  or  of  a 
Pardoning  Board  is  required. 

Pardnbitz  ip«r'<iu-bit«),  •  town  of 

*     .  .  Bohemia,    on     tbe    Elbe. 

It  has  an  interesting  old  castis,  has 
various  industries,  and  Is  a  olace  where 
largs  horse-fairs  are  held.  Pop.  17.029. 
Far^  iP*^''^^'  Ambioibie,  the  father  of 
.~  French  surgery,  bom  early  in  the 
•l**f*Bth  century  at  Laval;  studied  at 
Paris.  He  acted  for  a  time  as  an  army- 
■urgepn.  and  in  1052  be  became  surgeon 
,».  "•^'^',» 'Jj.^  under  whose  saccessors 
(Francis  II.  Charles  IX,  and  Henry  III) 
hs  held  the  same  post.  From  this  «t  was 
said  that  'Par«  was  a  legacy  of  the 
crown.'    He  died  in  1590. 

Pareeorio  Elixir  Xp«r-a-gor'ik), 

*i  u       ^\^      known    also    as 

tbe  camphorated  tincture  of  opium,  ^'  a 
solution  of  powdered  opium,  camphor, 
bensoic  acid,  and  oil  of  anise.  When 
uaed  carefully  it  is  found  to  be  an  excel- 
lent anodyne  and  antispasmodic,  but  pro- 
duces deleterious  effecta  that  must  b« 
guarded  against. 

Pareira   (pa-rl'ni)' a  Portuguese  name 
.  given  to  the  roots  of  certain 

plants  emploved  in  medical  practics,  as 
valuable  tonics  and  diuretics.  The  sort 
admitt^  into  the  pbarmacopceia  is  called 
Pareira  bravo,  and  is  produced  by  CUaam- 

f:lo$  Pareira,  nat.  order  Menispermacea. 
areJa  .(?*-«'**).  Juan  de.  a  Span- 
„  <'"  Ish  painter,  'the  slave  of 
Velaaquex.'  bora  of  West  Indian  parenta 
at  Seville  in  1606;  died  in  1670.  In 
earlv  life  he  was  employed  in  menial 
work  in  the  studio  of  Velasquez,  and  by 
clonelT  watching  bis  methods  attained 
-  •' ■ill  •  -      - 


ttntral  prfnciplet  o(  tb«>  cummoo  IkW.  m 
well  as  of  morality,  statutory  provistoM 
existing  in  moot  of  the  states.  Tha  r*> 
ciprocal  rights  of  parent  and  child  esass 
when  the  child  has  attained  h's  majority ; 
but  may  be  revived  on  slther  side:  thos 
if  an  adult  child  become  a  pauper  tho 
parent  becomes  responsible  for  ita  sup- 
port, and  if  the  parent  beeonw  a  public 
burden  the  adult  child  is  respMisible. 
The  pa.rent  can  leave  hia  property  away 
from  his  children.  The  right  to  tb«  cu** 
tpdy  of  the  child  belongs  to  both  parenta; 
the  child's  preference  beiof  eonsnltsd  It 
he  ia  14  years  old  or  over,  and  if  not  the 
court  may  use  ita  discretion.  Ths  father 
may  collect  hia  child's  earnings,  and  sue 
for  damagM  for  loaa  of  aervlccs  from 
injuries  inflicted  by  a  third  party.  An 
action  may  be  brought  by  the  child  when 
the  parent  is  killed  through  another's 
negligence.  The  ntother  and  pntativs 
father  of  an  iUegitimata  child  are  liable 
tor  ita  support. 

,  •  ™».woaK,  a  term  ased  for 
plaster-work  of  various  kinds,  but  eom< 
monly  applied  to  a  particular  sort  of 
ornamental  plaster,  with  pattenw  and 
omamenta  raised  or  indented  upon  It. 
much  used  in  ths  Interior  and  often  in 
the  exterior  of  houses  of  tbe  Tudor  period. 
jNumbers  of  wooden  houses  so  ornamented 
on  the  outside,  and  belonging  to  the  time 
of  Queen  Elisabeth,  are  still  to  bs  met 
with. 

PareDa-Bosa.  ^^PAf  ^praaosmm, 
7"  5  ^'■*'a  distinguished  vocal- 
ist and  actress,  bom  at  Edinburxh  in 
1836;  died  in  1874.  She  made  he?  first 
•PP«aranc€  as  Amina  when  sixteen  yean 
old.  Her  voice  bad  extraordinary  com- 
pajw  and  power,  and  she  sang  with 
S.u}  '^"t  ■?<««",  to  London,  New  York, 
Philadelphia  and  Boston.  She  married 
Carl  Rosa,  her  manager,  in  1867. 
Paresis  0»a-rt'8is).  a  partial  paraly- 
sis,  or  loss  01  mnscular  mo- 
tion, but  not  of  sensation.  It  is  less 
marlted  In  ita  iffect  than  full  paralysis, 
but  >"  of  the  same  nature.  The  loss  of 
motoi  power  is  progressive  and  likely  to 
end  In  death  in  from  one  to  three  years. 


considerabin  skill  secretly.  At  the  inter- 
cession of  Philip  IV  he  obtained  his 
freedom,  but  continued  in  the  family  of 

Velasquez  till  his  death.    His  success  was „ 

chiefly  In  portraits,  but  he  also  painted  Porli^fiAn    (Psr-he'li'^)ra'moA  mb 

rS?W'oThrr?e?""''  ^*****^'  •"  :"_?H?^>^A°rtKipyJS^^ 

Parent  and  Child,  ^^„,Y^ 

lationship,  has  ita  legal  aspecta,  in  which 
legitimacy  and  illegitimacy  form  a  clear 
distinction.  Various  laws  govern  the 
ff'ation  in  different  countries,  and  in  tbe 
Unit^  States  it  is  generally  held  that 
tne  right  of  protection  and  support  due 
from  a  partnt  to  a  child  is  dependent  on 


the  sun  itself,  and  occasionally  sAen  by 
the  side  of  that  luminary.  Parhelia  an 
sometimes  double,  sometimes  triple,  and 
sometimes  more  numerous.  They  arosar 
at  the  same  height  above  the  horiaon  a* 
the  true  son,  and  they  ar«  always  con- 
nected with  one  another  by  a  wblta  cinla 
***■  f.l'***  .  ^•y  *"*  t*>e  ««ilt  of  certain 
modifications  which  light  nndsrgoes  when 
H  falls  on  ths  crystals  of  ka,  lain-dropst 


?ftria 


Fails 


nr  minate  particles  that  constitute  suita* 
bly  situated  clouds.  Parhelia  which  ap- 
pear on  the  same  side  of  the  circle  with 


Parhelia. 

the  true  sun  are  often  tinted  with  pris- 
matic colors. 

Paria  (P*''|-a).  Gulf  of,  an  inlet  of 
the  Atlantic  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  South  America,  between  tlie 
island  of  Trinidad  and  mainland  of  Vene- 
zuela, enclosed  on  the  north  by  the  Penin- 
sula of  I'aria.  It  possesses  good  an- 
chorage, and  receives  some  arms  of  the 
Onnoco. 

Panah,  XP*'r5-a),  a  name  somewhat 
loosely  applied  to  any  of  the 
lowest  class  of  people  in  Hindustan,  who 
nave,  properly  speak; jg,  no  caste;  hence, 
one  despised  and  contemned  by  society; 
/°  outcast.  Properly,  however.  Pariah 
(a  Tamil  name)  is  applied  to  the  mem- 
bera  of  a  somewhat  widely  spread  race 
in  Southern  India,  generally  of  the  Hindu 
religion,  and  though  regarded  by  the 
Uindus  as  of  the  lowest  grade,  yet  su- 
perior to  some  ten  other  castes  in  their 
own  country.  They  are  frequently  serfs 
to  the  agricultural  class,  or  servants  to 
Europeans. 

Parian  Chronicle.    ,?^«    Arunde- 

»,      .         __     .  ,      '«"t  Marblea. 

Panan  Harble   .(pa'ri-an),  a  mei- 

i,i»i,i„  I  J  I-  .  loy- tinted  marble, 
highly  valued  by  the  ancients,  and  chosen 
for  their  choicest  works.  The  principal 
blocks  were  obtained  from  Mount  Mar- 
passus,  in  the  island  of  Paros. 
Parima  XPa-re'ma).  or  Pa  RIME, 
bxicKRA,  a  mountain  range  sit- 
uated In  the  N.  E.  of  Venezuela.     In  gen- 

**™l.  i."/^°™'J?^*4  0^  ^"^  plateaus,  and 
it»  bifbeat  peaks  rise  to  a  height  of  about 


aXX)  ft  The  Esseouibo,  Orinoco,  and 
Kio  Branco  have  their  rise  in  this  range. 
Parini  jtPa-rt'oe).  Giuseppe  an  Ital- 
^Il„  Ian  poet,  born  in  17M;  died  in 
179P  He  studied  at  Milan,  publiahed 
some  youthful  poetry,  and  wrote  a  dra- 
matic satire  on  the  Milanese  aristocracy 
entitled  //  Qiorno  ('The  Day').  He 
was  latterly  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Milan. 

Pari  passu.  '°  ^^^>  *  *<'™>  signifying 

,^,  f  ,  '  equally  m  proportion, 
without  preference :  used  especially  of  the 
creditors  of  an  insolvent  estate  who  (with 
certam  exceptions)  are  entitled  to  pay- 
ment of  their  debts  in  shares  proportioned 
to  their  respective  claims. 

Paris  (Pa'^'s),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
nat.  order  Trilliacese.  P.  quai- 
rtfoha  ( herb-pa  ris,  true-love,  or  one- 
perry)  is  not  uncommon  in  Britain,  be- 
ing found  in  moist,  shady  woods.  It  has 
a  simple  stem  bearing  a  whorl  of  four 
ovate  leaves  near  the  summit,  and  a  soli- 
tary greenish  flov,  er.  The  fruit  is  a 
purplish-black  berry. 

Paris    (Pa'^i"'  ,Fr-    Pron.    pA-rC';    an- 
•    .    cj^ptly,  Lutetta  Pariatorum),  the 
capital  of  I'  ranee  and  of  the  department 
of  the  Seine.     The  city  lies  in  the  Seine 
valley   surrounderl    by    heights,   those   on 
the  north  being  Cbaionne  La  Villette,  the 
iJuttes-Chaumont  and  Montmartre;  those 
on    the   south    St.   Genevifeve,   Montrouge 
and  the  Butte-aux-Cailles.     Through  the 
valleys   between    these   heights   the   river 
runs    from   east    to   west,   enclosing   two 
islands,   upon  which  part  of  the  city  is 
built.     It  ia  navigable  by  small  steamers. 
Ihe   quays   or   embankments,    which   ex- 
tend along  the  Seine  on  both  sides,  being 
built  of  solid  masonry,  protect  the  city 
in    some   measure    from    inundation   and 
form    excellent    promenades.     The    river, 
which  within  the  city  is  fully  530  ft  in 
width,  and  has  a   length  of  7  miles,  is 
crossed   by   numerous   bridges,   the   more 
important    being    Pont    Neuf.    Pont    des 
Arts,    Pont    du    Carrousel,    Pont    Royal. 
Pont   de   i'Alma,    etc.     The   city   is   sur- 
rounded by  a  line  of  fortifications  which 
measures  22  miles;  outside  of  this  is  the 
enceinte,  while  beyond  that  again  are  the 
detached    forts.     These    now    form    two 
main    lines   of  defense.    The   inner  line 
consists  of  sixteen   forts,   the  outer  line 
of   18  forts   besides   redoubts;   the  area 
thus  enclosed  measuring  430  square  miles, 
with  an  encircling  line  of  77  miles.    The 
climate  of  Paris  is  temperate  and  agree- 
able.   The   city    is   divided    into   twoity 
arrondissements,  at  the  head  of  each  of 
which  is  a  maire.     Each  arrondissement 
IS.  divided   into   four   quarters,   each   of 
which  sends  a  member  to  tbe  mwiicipal 


Purii 


Parii 


council.  The  council  diacusses  and  vote* 
the  budget  of  the  city.  At  the  head  are 
the  prefect  of  the  Seine  and  the  prefect 
of  police.  The  water  supply  of  the  city 
ii  derlTed  from  the  Seine  and  the  Marne, 
from  the  Oun-q  Caual,  from  artesian 
wella,  and  from  springs. 

Streeta,  Boulevards,  etc. —  The  liouscs 
of  Paris  are  almost  all  built  of  white 
calcareous  stone,  and  their  general  height 
is  from  five  to  six  stories,  arranged  in 
separate  tenements.  Many  of  the  modern 
street  buildings  have  mansard  roofs,  and 
are  highly  (rnriched  in  the  Renaissance 
manner.     In  the  older  parts  of  the  city 


Denis  and  Porte  St  Martin,  the  former 
of  which  is  72  feet  in  height.  On  the 
south  side  of  the  Seine  the  boulevards  are 
neither  so  numerous  nor  so  extensive,  the 
best  known  being  the  Boulevard  St.  Ger- 
main, which  extends  from  Pont  Sully  to 
the  Pont  de  la  Concorde.  The  exterior 
jjoulevards  are  bo  named  because  they 
are  outside  the  old  mur  d'oetroi;  and  the 
military  t>oulevards,  still  farther  out,  ex- 
tend round  the  fortifications.  After  the 
boulevards  the  most  famous  line  of  streets 
is  the  Rue  de  Rivoli,  with  its  somewhat 
irregular  extension  in  the  magnificent 
Champs  Eiys^es.    A  second  is  the  Avenue 


Paxis. —  The  Place  de  la  Concorde  and  Montmartre,  from  the  Chamber  of  Deputiea. 


I 


the  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular,  but 
in  the  newer  districts  the  avenues  are 
straight,  wide,  and  well  paved.  What  are 
known  as  'the  boulevard^'  include  the 
interior,  exterior,  and  militaty.  That 
which  is  specifically  called  The  Bovle- 
vard  extends,  in  an  irregular  arc  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Seine,  from  the  Place 
de  la  Bastille  in  the  east  to  the  Place 
de  la  Madeleine  in  the  west.  It  includes 
the  Boulevards  du  Temple,  St.  Martin, 
St.  Denis,  des  Italiens,  Cfapuchins,  Made- 
leine, etc.,  and  its  length  of  nearly  3 
miles  forms  the  most  stirring  part  of  the 
city.  Here  may  be  noted  also  the  ma^ 
vificest   triumphal  arches   of   Porte 


¥t. 


de  la  Grande  Arm^  and  the  Rue  St. 
Antoine.  These  traverse  a  great  part 
of  the  city  from  s.  e.  to  N.  w.  The 
Champs  Elys^es,  a  driveway  about  li 
miles  long,  and  the  Avenue  du  Bois  de 
Boulogne  constitute  the  most  fashionable 
promenades  of  the  city.  Other  important 
streets  are  the  Rue  Castiglione,  Rue  de 
la  Paix,  Rue  de  la  Ghauss^  d'Antin,  the 
Rue  des  Pyramides,  and  the  twelve  fine 
avenues  radinting  from  the  Place  de 
I'Etoile.  There  are  six  passenger  sta- 
tions for  the  railways  to  the  varioas  parts 
of  the  country,  and  a  railway  around  the 
city  (the  ceinture),  by  means  of  which 
interchange  of  traffic  between  the  dlffw- 


Paxil 


Farii 


nt  linM  is  effected.  There  are  also 
tramway  line*  to  Venailles,  St.  Cloud, 
and  other  placea  in  the  aaburbs. 

BtmareM,  Park;  etc — The  most  nota- 
ble public  squares  or  plactt  are  the 
Place  de  la  Concorde,  one  of  the  largest 


and    most    elegant    squares    in    Europe, 
by  fine  buildings  and  adorned 


by  an  Egvptian  obelisk,  fountains,  and 
statues;   Place  de  I'Btoile,  in  which  is 
situated  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  a  splen- 
did   structure    162    feet   in  -  height ;    the 
Place  Venddme,  with  column  to  Napoleon 
I;  Place  des   Victolres,  with  equestrian 
statue  of  Louis  XIV;  Place  de  la  Bas- 
tille,  with   the  Column  of   July;    Place 
de  h^R«publique,  with  colossal  statue  of 
the  Republic,  etc.     Within   the  city  are 
situated    the   gardens    of    the    Tuileries, 
which     are     adorned     with     numerous 
statues  and   fountains;   the  gardens   of 
the  Luxembourg,  in  which  are  fine  con- 
wrvatories  of  rare  plants ;  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes,  m  which  are  the  zoological  gar- 
dens,   hothouses,    museums,    laboratories, 
etc.,  which  have  made  this  scientific  in- 
stitution  famous;    the   Buttes-Chaumont 
Gardens,  in  which  an  extensive  old  quarry 
has  been  turned  to  good  account  m  en- 
hancing the  beauty  of  the  situation;  the 
Pare  Monceaux ;  and  the  Champs  Elys«es, 
the  latter  being  a  favorite  holiday  resort 
of  all  classes.     But  the  most  extensive 
1»™    are    outside    the    city.    Of    these 
the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  on  the  west,  covers 
an  area  of  2150  acres,  gives  an  exten- 
sive view  towards  St.  Cloud  and  Mont 
Val^nen,   comprises   the   race-courses   of 
Longchamps  and  Auteuil,  and  in  it  are 
situated    lalies,    an    aquarium,    conserva- 
tories, etc.     The   Bois  de   Vincennes,  on 
the  east,  even  larger,  is  similarly  adorned 
with  artificial  laltes  and  streams,  and  its 
nigli  plateau  offers  a  fine  view  over  the 
surrounding     country.    The    most    cele- 
brated and   extensive  cemetery  in  Paris 
is  Pftre  la  Chaise   (100%   acres),  finely 
situated    and    having    many     important 
monuments.     The     Catacombs     are     an- 
cient quarries  which  extend  under  a  por- 
tion of  the  southern  part  of  the  city,  and 
in  them  are  deposited  the  bones  removed 
from  old  cemeteries  now  built  over. 

Churches.— Ot  the  churches  of  Paris 
ihe  most  celebrated  is  the  Cathedral  of 
Nfttre  Dame,  situated  on  one  of  the 
irtands  of  the  Seine,  called  the  lie  de  la 
.!?•  -^^  H  *  ^""t  cruciform  structure, 
with  a  lofty  west  front  flanlced  by  two 
squa  2  towers,  the  walls  sustained  by 
muiy  flying  buttresses,  and  tlie  eastern 
end  octagonal.  The  whole  length  of  the 
church  is  426  feet,  its  breadth  164  feet! 
The  foundation  of  Nfltre  Dame  belongs 
to  the  sixth  century;  the  present  edifice 


datM  from  1163;  but  was  mtored  In 
18^.  The  interior  decorationa  art  ail 
modem.  The  Church  of  La  Madeleine, 
a  modem  structure  in  the  style  of  a  neat 
Roman  temple,  entirely  surrounded  by 
massive  Corinthian  columns,  stands  on  an 
elevated  basement  fronting  the  north  end 
of  the  Rue  Royale;  the  Church  of  St. 
Genevieve,  built  about  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  after  its  comple- 
tion set  tfpart,  under  the  title  of  the  Pan- 
theon, as  the  bunring-place  of  illustrious 
Frenchmen;  St.  Eustache  (1532-1637),  a 
strange  mixture  of  degenerate  Gothic 
and  Renaissance  architecture;  St.  Ger- 
main I'Auxerrois,  dating  from  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries;  St.  Gervais;  St 
Roch;  St.  Sulpice;  Notre  Dame  de 
Lorette;  St  Vincent  de  Paul,  etc.    On 


The  Cathedral  of  NAtre  Dame,  Paris. 

the  very  summit  of  Montmartre  is  the 
Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  a  vast 
structure  in  mediaeval  style.  The  Prot- 
estant churches  are  the  Oratoire  and 
Visitation,  and  chapels  belonging  to 
English,  Scotch,  and  American  denomi- 
nations. There  are  also  a  Greek  chapel 
and  several  synagogues. 

Palace*  end  PuUio  BuUdingt. —  Nota- 
ble among  the  public  buildinga  of  Paris 
are  its  palaces.  The  Louvre,  a  great 
series  of  buildings  within  which  are  two 
large  courts,  is  now  devoted  tp  a  museum 


Farif 


Pans 


which  compriaei  splendid  collections  of 
Kulptare,  paintings,  engravings,  bronzes, 
pottery,  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  antiqui- 
ties, etc.  (see  Louvre)  ;  the  palace  of  the 
Tuileries,  the  main  front  of  wliich  was 
destroyed   in    1871   by   the   Communists, 
baa  since  been  restored,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  its  principal  facade,  the  ruins  of 
which  have   been   removed   and   its  site 
converted  into  a  garden;  the  Palais  du 
Luxembourg,  on   the  south  side  of  the 
river,  has  very  extensive  gardens  attached 
to  it,  and  contains  the  Mus^e  du  Luxem- 
bonrg,    appropriated    to    the    works    of 
modem  French  artists;  the  Palais  Royal 
(which    see L   is    a    famed    resort;    the 
Palais  de  I'Elys^es,  situated  in  the  Rue 
8t  Jlonorti,  with  a  large  garden,  is  now 
the  residence  of  the  president  of  the  re- 
public;  the  Palais  du  Corps  L«gislatif, 
or  Chambre  des  Dfout^s,  is  the  build- 
ing  in   which   the   chamber  of  deputies 
meets ;  the  Palais  de  i'lndustrie,  built  for 
the  first  international  exhibition  in  1855, 
is  used  for  the  annual  aalon  of  modem 
paintings,  etc.    The  Hdtel  de  Ville  is  sit- 
uated in  the  Place  de  i'HOtei  de  Ville, 
formerly   Place  de  Qrftve,   on  the   right 
banlK  of  the  river.     It  was  destroyed  by 
the  Communists  in   1871,  but  has  now 
been  reSrected  on  the  same  site  with  even 
greater  magnificence.     It  is  a  very  rich 
example     of     Renaissance     architecture. 
The  Hotel  des  Invalides,  built  in  1670, 
with  a  lofty  dome,  is  now  used  as  a  re- 
treat for  disabled  soldiers  and  is  capable 
of  accommodating  6000.    It  contains  the 
burial  place  of  the  first  Napoleon.    The 
Palais  de  Justice  is  an  irregular  mass  of 
buildings  occupying  the  greater  part  of 
the  western  extremity  of  the  lie  de  la 
Cit&    Opposite  the  Palais  de  Justice  is 
the  Tribunal  de  Commerce,  a  quadrangu- 
lar   building    enclosing    a    large    court 
roofed  with  glass.    The  Mint  (ROtel  des 
Monnaies)  fronts  the  Quai  Conti,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Seine,  and  contains  an 
immense  collection  of  coins  and  medals. 
The   other    principal    government    build- 
ings  are   the   Treasury    (H6tel   des   Fi- 
nances),   in    the    Rue    de    Rivoli;    the 
Record  Office   (Hotel  des  Archives   Na- 
tionales).    The  Exchange    (La  Bourse) 
was  completed  in  1826;  it  is  in  the  form 
of  a  parallelogram,  212  feet  by  126  feet, 
surrounded  by  a  ran^c  of  sixty-six  col- 
umns.   A    distinctive    .eature    are    the 
extensive  nuirlcets,  among  the  most   im- 
portant  of   which   are   the   Halles   Cen- 
trales, where  fish,  poultry,  butcher-meat 
and  garden  produce  are  sold.    A  notable 
and  aniqoe  stracture  is  the  Eiffel  Tower, 
built  im  connection  with  the  Paris  Exhibi- 
tion oi  1889.    It  is  a  structure  of  iron  lat- 
tice-work 0B4  feet  high,  and  ha  ring  three 


stages  or  platforms  (more  than  400  feet 
higher  than  the  Washington  Monument). 
It  is  as  yet  the  highest  structure  in  the 

^frorld.  .^      ,..  , 

Education,  Libranet,  ete. —  The  chief 
institution    of    higher    education    is    the 
academy  of  the  Sorbonne,  where  are  the 
university   'faculties'    (see  France,  sec- 
tion  Education)  of  literature  and  science, 
while  those  of  law  and  of  medicine  are 
in    separate    buildings.    There    are,    be- 
sides, numerous  courses  of  lectures  in  sen 
ence,  philology,  and  philosophy  delivered 
in  the  College  de  France,  and  courses  of 
chemistry,  natural  history,  etc,   in  the 
museum    of    the    Jardin    des    Plantes. 
Among   other  Parisian  schools  are   the 
secondary  schools  or  lyc«es,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  Descartes  (formerly 
Louis   le   Grand),    St.    Louis,    Coraeille 
(formerly    College    Henri    IV),    Charle- 
magne, Fontanes^( formerly  Gondorcet), 
De  Vanves;  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  for 
military  and  civil  engineers,  etc.;  EJcole 
des  Beaux  Arts ;  School  of  Oriental  Lan- 
guages:     Conservatoire     des     Arts     et 
Matters,  and  the  Conservatoire  de  Mu- 
sique.    Of    the    libraries    the    most    im- 
portant   is   the   Libliothfeque    Nationale, 
the  largest  in  the  world.    The  number 
of  printed  volumes  which  it  contains  is 
estimated  at  2,500,000,  besides  3.000,00q 
pamphlets,  manuscript  volumes,  historical 
documents,  etc    The  other  libraries  are 
those    of    the    Arsenal,    St.    Genevieve, 
Mazarin,  De  la  Ville,  De  I'lnstitut,  and 
De  I'Universit*   (the  Sorbonne).    There 
are  also  libraries  subsidized  by  the  mu- 
nicipality   in    all    the    arrondissements. 
Among  museums,  t>esides  the  Louvre  and 
the  LuxemlMurg,  there  may  be  noted  the 
Mus«e  d'Artiilerie,  in  the  Hotel  des  In- 
valides, containing  suits  of   ancient  ar- 
mor, arms,  etc.;    the  Conser^•atoire  des 
Arts  et  M«tiers;  the  Trocad«ro  Palace, 
containing   curiosities   brought   home   b^ 
B'reuch  travelers,  casts  from  choice  specj' 
mens  of  architecture,  etc.;  the  new  pal- 
aces of  the  Fine  Arts,  erected  1897-1900; 
and  the  Cluny  Museum,  containing  an  ex- 
tensive collection  of  the  products  of  the 
art  and  artistic  handicrafts  of  the  mid- 
dle ages.    The  chief  of  the  leamed  socie- 
ties is  the  Institute  of  France   (which 

maa) 

Hoapitals,  etc. — ^There  are  many  hos- 
pitals in  Paris  devoted  to  the  gratuitoos 
treatment  of  the  indigent  sick  and  in- 
jured; and  also  numerous  estaUishments 
of  a  benevolent  nature,  such  as  the  Hotel 
des  Invalides,  or  asylum  for  old  soldiers, 
the  lunatic  asylum  (Maison  des  AJUmta, 
Charenton),  bund  asylums;  the  deaf  and 
dumb  insatute  (Institution  des  Sourds- 
Muets) ;   two  hospitals  at  yineennes  for 


Farii 

^]!nf'*„""''Kf*J?Y"l««*nt  artisans;    the 
S?dJ'v  *"«*'■'!.*''''  infants  are  receiv^  for 

nea<«a._Tlie  theaters  of  Paris  are 
X^i„'"Ik*""''  .*,'»'">J»'o«t  of  «ny  other 
?«  «?.*M  ^''"'■'''i  B?  ™08t  important 
are  the  Maison  do  I'Op^ra,   a  eonreous 

ThMtre  de  la  Gattd.  for  vniiclevilles  and 
melodramas;  Thi^fltro  des  Folies  Dramat- 
iaues,  ThMtre  du  Chafelet.   Th/fltre  du 

xiwatro  rtp  lAmbipi  Comique. 
Induatnes  and  Trade.— ^he  most  im- 

elry  and  the  precious  metals,  trinkets  of 
various  kinds,  fine  hardware  naner- 
Ijanrinp,,  saddlery  and  oth^r  artideT  in 
Irt  te   7'''net-wqrk,   carriajfes,   variou" 

hn  loV.-**  shawls  and  carpets,  Gobe- 
flSwJ^^nn^hi""'^'  Tb"'Wery.  artificial 
stmm^;  J  T"^''  «"•»<?'""<»,  scientific  in- 
Ntraments,  types,  books,  engravings,  re- 
fined suKar.  tobacco  (a  governmomt 
raonopoly ) .chemical  pro.iuct.«.  etc!  That 
which  IS  distinctively  Paris  an  is  the 
making  of  all  kinds  of  small  oninmental 

A  large  trade  is  carried  by  the  Seine 
Mh^above  and  below  Paris  ^  weU  as  bj 

Population. —  According  to  aDoraxi. 
mate  estimates,  the  population  o?Ws 
yaft  in„1474,  150.000^  under  Henry  II 
(1547-e9),  210.000;  In  1590  ^000- 
L°^185^"/^./^*^il««-17lS)'.  ^:SoO;' 
m   1856    (before  the  annexation  of  th* 

?m^??°?ii*H%.°'''  ^r  S.„cf4! 

iVsKTaf?'  }oS}  H*^""  the  annexation) 
JiSS?''§iyii  1S81,  2,2U9,023;  1886    2  25fi: 
«^  19;i.  2,714.008 :  1911.  ffilia    * 

Psri-  Sn\7;^^^  •  ^"*  appearance  of 
Fans  in  history  is  on  the  occasion  of 

t^of  tv^''""  ^^  Gaul  whe^the  sman 
inue  of  tbp       ■■■    ,  were  found  inhabiting 


Farix 

lation  tliat  wolves  appeared  in  hm4> 
and  prowled  .bout  thnSStJ"  Un^ 
l^uls  XI  a  course  of  prosperity  amin 
commenced.     In  the  reigS^  l^SsTlV 

after  having  stood  for  about  300  yean! 
and  what  are  now  the  prlLcipal  ^tt 
vards  were  formed  on  their  site  nOTm 
Only  the  Bastille  was  left  (tfirS  * 
and  in  place  of  the  four  princ  pal  ^' 
of  the  old  walls,  four  triSmJhal  ««h« 
were  erected,  two  of  which.^the  P^TrS 
St-  Denis  and  Porte  St  Idartin  sSl 
stand.     Many    of   the    finest  tdifitlea^S 

Son  hTfh^^*"^^«*.<^"'i''f  the  R^o* 
tion.  but  the  work  of  embellishment  was 

b^  ^ll'  Ik*''*  ''•'Ttory.  and  contlnuSl 
Dy  all  subsequent  governments  Th« 
reign  of  Napoleon  III* is  ^"faiiy  note? 
worthy  in  this  respect;  during  "t^  Pa£ 
h^«!.Hl^"l  "P  ^y  spacious  streets  and 

ried  on  by  the  French  national  govera^ 
ment  m  order  to  wrest  the  citl  frnm 
the  hands  of  the  Commune,  piris^^ 
been  the  scene  of  international^  exhSl- 
rions  in  1855  1867.  and  iw"  but  the 
most  important  was  that  of  1889  in  com! 

K^h'T  ?t*''«  centenalT  of  "he 
trench    Revolution.    In    1900  was   held 

a™.,^''P*^'"°°  Unfverselle,  at  whfch 
fh^"f^t°^  secured   the  greater  part  of 

teln^La-"  "L'"*^*  anprtcedent^ 
of"Se' dSr'to  iW'^'"*^^  -  »^*  P"t 
Paris  (PF'"*a  •  c*ty,  county  aeat  of 
«  "f  n.»J  ^^^h  ^i^Poi? ?«  n»ile. 


the  banks  o.  $ine:'knd"^upyrnK'ihe 

island  now  called  fie  de  la  Ch^     If  »« 

filTthp^^*^.  'll'"®  summoned  him  to 
nil  the  imperial  throne.  In  the  beein- 
ning  of  the  fifth  century  it  suffer^ 
S-tL'"?^  ;•»«  "^rthem  hordes  and  ultt 
Sf'llj  1®"  JS*o  the  hands  of  the  FranS 

faf  i?f^^'r"<i«?'"°  °'«<»«  it  his  eaS- 
!*'??,  508. ,  In  987  a  new  dynastv  was 
«tablished  in  the  peraon  of  Hugo  Ca^ 
from  whose  reign  A)wnw«rrt«  P.,h  ?^  ' 

'^«"»  vn,  Paris  was  nvaced  by  pestl- 


o      *  r»  ^Hf*"^  Ni'i'1''''  iiu^ois.  3«  miles 
8.  of  Danville.    It  has  manufactures  of 
lumber,   flour,   brooms,   gloves,   etc..   and 
railroad  car  shops.     Pop.  7664. 
Paris.     ?.  "ty,  county  seat  of  Bourbon 
,-.      ., '     Co..  Kentucky,  on  Stover  Creek, 
l.{  miles  N.  E.  of  Lexington.     Its  indus- 
*.rics  include  whisky,  tobacco,   live  stock 
nnd  blue-grass  seed.    Pop.  5850. 
Paris.     ?,  °^'  county  seat  of  Lamar 
.«!    J     Co..  Texas,  on  the  Texas  Pacific 
and  other  railroads,  93  miles  w.  K.  by  b.  of 
i-mllas.      It   has   cotton   gins   and   com- 
presses, oil  mills,  manufactories  of  fumi- 
ture,  mattresses,  shoes,  etc.    Pop.  13.500. 
Pans,     ?  G"«^  mythology,  also  called 
TJ  •         i^-"*\*S*™'  the  second  son  of 
Pnam.  king  of  Troy,  by  Hecuba.     His 
mother  dreamed  before  hia  birth  that  die 
had  brought  forth  a  firebrand,  which  waa 

tw  aestroctMm  at  Trojr.    To  pwnwt  tiiia 


ftiii 


PariA 


th«  child  waf  exposed  on  Mount  Ida, 
wbtre  he  waa  diacovered  by  a  shepherd, 
who  broufht  him  up  as  bis  own  son. 
Here  his  trace  and  courage  commended 
him  to  the  favor  of  CEnone,  a  nymph  of 
Ida,  whom  he  married.  At  the  marriage 
of  Peieus  and  Thetis  a  dispute  arose 
whether  Hera,  Athena,  or  Aphrodite  was 
the  most  beautiful,  and  as  such  entitled 
to  the  golden  apple.  Paris  was  chosen 
judge,  and  decided  in  favor  of  AphroditS, 
who  had  promised  him  the  fairest  woman 
in  the  world  for  his  wife.  Subsequently 
be  visited  Sparta,  the  residence  of  Mene- 
laus,  who  had  married  Helena  (or 
Helen),  the  fairest  woman  of  the  age, 
whom  he  persuaded  to  elope  with  him. 
This  led  to  the  siege  of  Troy,  at  the  cap- 
ture of  which  city  Paris  was  killed  by  an 
arrow. 

Parig  ^viB  Albebt  Phuippb  d'Ob- 
*"  »  l£ans,  Coute  de,  son  of  the 
Due  d'Orleans,  and  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe,  born  in  1838.  After  the  revo- 
lution of  1848  he  resided  chiefly  in  Clare- 
mont,  Engiand,  where  he  was  educated 
by  his  mother.  During  the  American 
Civil  war  of  1861  he,  along  with  bis 
brother  the  Due  de  Chartres,  volunteered 
into  the  northern  army,  and  served  for 
some  time  on  the  staff  of  General  McClel- 
lan.  On  his  return  to  Europe  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  married  his  cousin  the 
Princess  Marie  l8al>«lle,  eldest  daughter 
of  the  Due  de  Montpensier.  After  the 
Franco-German  war  he  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  first  national  assembly. 
The  Comte  de  Paris  was  recognized  by  the 
royalists  as  head  of  the  royal  house  of 
France.  Under  the  expulsion  bill  of  1886 
he,  along  with  the  other  princes,  was  for- 
bidden to  enter  France.  He  published 
a  Hittory  of  the  Civil  War  in  America, 
and  a  work  on  English  Trade-unions.  He 
died  in  England  in  1894. 
Poina  Matthew,  an  English  historian, 
*»"»>  born  about  1195;  died  in  1259. 
He  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery 
of  St.  Albans,  and  in  1235  succeeded 
Roger  of  Wendover  as  chronicler  to  the 
monastery.  He  was  very  intimate  with 
Henry  III,  and  had  a  large  number  of 
influential  friends  besides.  In  1248  ha 
went  on  an  ecclesiastical  mission  to  Nor- 
way. He  is  characterized  as  at  once  a 
mathematician,  poet,  orator,  theologian, 
painter,  and  architect.  His  princi^l 
work  is  his  Hiatoria  Major  (or  Chronica 
Majora),  writt«i  in  Latin,  and  compris- 
ing a  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  world 
down  to  his  own  times,  the  latter  por- 
tion (1^5-69)  being,  however,  the  only 
part  exdnrively  his;  the  Bittoria  An- 
iorum,  called  uso  Hittoria  Minor,  a  sort 
9t  abridtmtBt  of  tlit  fonB«r;  and  als* 


Live$  of  ikt  Ahbot$  of  Bt,  Albmtt,  Kinga 
of  if  erda.  etc. 

Paf^a  Tbeatieb  of.  Of  the  numerous 
x^HXU,  treaties  bearing  this  designatioa 
a  few  only  of  the  most  important  can  b« 
mentioned  here.  On  February  10,  1763,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  England,  in 
which  Canada  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain.  On  February  6, 1778,  waa  signed 
that  between  France  and  the  United 
States,  in  which  the  independence  of  the 
latter  country  was  recognized.  A  treaty 
was  signed  kietween  Napoleon  I  and  the 
allies,  ratiSed  April  11,  1814,  by  which 
Napoleon  was  deposed  and  banished  to 
Elba.  The  treaty  for  the  conclusion  of 
peace  between  Russia,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  France,  Sardinia,  Austria,  Turkey, 
and  Great  Britain,  on  the  other,  at  the 
end  of  the  Crimean  war,  was  ratified 
March  30,  185U.  The  treaty  of  peace 
with  Germany,  at  the  end  of  the  Franco- 
German  war,  May  10,  1871,  by  which 
France  lost  a  great  part  of  her  Rhine 
provinces.  The  treaty  of  peace  between 
the  United  States  and  Spain  in  1899,  by 
which  Spain  lost  her  colonial  possessions 
in  the  West  Indies  and  the  Pacific. 
PapSg  Univebsitt  of,  came  into  exist- 
*  »   ence    in    the   beginning   of   the 

thirteenth  century,  and  was  long  the  most 
famous  center  of  learning  in  Europe.  It 
was  suppressed  by  a  decree  of  the  Con- 
vention m  1793. 

Paris  Basin,  L"rea^-^fj;«  *J;  J[^l 

on  which  Paris  is  situated.  Besides  a 
rich  fossil  fauna  of  marine  and  fresh- 
water molluscs,  the  remains  of  mammals 
are  abundant  and  interesting  from  their 
affinity  to  living  forms. 
Paris  Blue,  t  bright. Wue  obtained 
>  by  exposing  rosaniline, 
aniline  and  some  benzoic  actd  to  a  tem- 
perature of  180° 0. 

Paris  Green,  *  preparation  of  cop- 
'  per  and  arsenic  em- 
ployed on  artificial  flowers,  in  wail-pa- 
pers,  and  as  an  in  Hcide  on  plants. 
Parisll  (pai^lBt  X  district  marked 
•"  out  as  t  belonging  to  one 
church,  and  whose  spiritual  wants  ar« 
to  be  under  the  particular  charge  of  its 
own  minister ;  or,  to  give  the  sense  which 
the  word  often  has  in  acts  of  Parliament, 
a  district  having  its  own  offices  for  tha 
legal  care  of  the  poor,  etc.  Parishes  have 
existed  in  England  for  more  than  a 
thousand  years.  They  were  originally 
ecclesiastical  divisions,  but  now.  in  Eog^ 
land  especialiv,  a  parish  is  an  unportant 
subdivision  of  the  country  for  purpoaea 
of  local  self-government,  most  of  the  local 
ratal  and  taxas  being  coiofiacd  within  that 


^..' 


Suiih  Qexx 


Tvwst 


*it«,  and  to  a  certain  extent  wlMm- 
poMd.  In  Scotland  the  diviiion  into 
MriahM  was  completo  about  the  besin- 
nint  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  thin  di> 
Tuion  is  also  recofuixed  for  certain  civil 
purpMes  as  well  as  for  purposes  purely 
occlesiasticaL  In  the  United  States  a 
Mrisb  is  a  body  of  people  united  in  one 
church  organization.  In  Louisiana  the 
counties  are  called  parishes. 

Parish  Clerk  h«J^>,''^'v\  *V 

,  ,  .  .  Church  of  England, 
whose  principal  duties  are  to  read  the 
responses  to  the  minister.  The  appoint- 
ment is  lenerally  made  by  the  incum- 
bent, and  the  emoluments  consist  of  sal- 
aries and  fees  on  marriages,  burials,  etc. 
Park  (l?'^'''(>>  i°  *  l«sal  Bense,  a  large 
.  1.  ?'•?*  *'  ground  enclosed  and 
privileged  for  wild  beasts  of  chase,  by 
the  monarch's  grant,  or  by  prescription. 
The  only  distinetion  between  n  chwe 
and  a  par*  was,  that  the  latter  was 
enclosed,  whereas  a  cbace  was  always 
open.  The  term  now  generally  applies 
to  ornamental  grounds  connected  with  a 
gentleman  8  residence  or  public  grounds 
devoted  to  recreation.    The  latter  are  gen- 

SE?ii?  "*  *"■  "*'"■  *  ^We  town  or  city. 
Within   recent   years  the  establishing  of 
dty  yarks  has   made  great  progress  in 
the    United   States,   one   of   the   earliest 
and   most   famous    being   the   large   and 
picturesque    Fairmount    Pssk    of    Phi]*< 
delpbia.     Within  the. present  century  the 
development  of  pleasure  grounds  of  this 
kind  has  gone  on  very  actively   in  the 
cities  of  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston  and 
otben  of  the  large  cities  of  this  country 
and  in  many  of  the  smaller  ones.     Great 
national  and  state  parks  have  also  been 
tormed,  chief  among  the  former  being  the 
Xellowstone  and  Yosemlte  naflonal  parks. 
See  National  Parkt. 

Park  City,  2,  ^0^°  ^^  Knor  county, 
,  J  ,  *  Tennessee;  a  new  place, 
OTMnized  'n  the  first  decade  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  Pop.  5126. 
Park,  MuNGo,  an  African  traveler, 
.  ,«/,  ^T.^  °«a'  Selkirk  in  Scotland, 
in  1771;  died  in  1806.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession; received  an  appointment  as 
assistant-surgeon  on  board  an  East 
indiaman  and  made  a  voyage  to  India. 
Returning  to  England  in  1793  he  was 
engaged  by  the  African  Society  to  trace 
tte  OTurse  of  the  Niger.  He  reached  the 
Qambw  at  the  end  of  1795,  and  advanc- 
ing northeastward  arrived  at  the  Niger 
!!!^Lr*rVu  "^f*"  exploring  part  of  the 
2?.w??*u®i  *^,'  ""if*'  ^«  returned  home,  and 
published  hhTraveU  in  tht  InUriirVf 
Africa  in  1799.  He  settled  at  F^buL 
aa  a  country  doctor,  but  in  180S  aw^tad 


command  of  a  govcnuaent  cxpediUon  to 
tha  Niger.  Having  advanced  from  Pisa* 
ua  on  the  Gambia  to  Sansandliw  on  tbo 
Nlwr,  he  built  a  boat  at  the  tettw  plaM. 
with  the  intention  of  following  the  Nicsr 

tained  that  the  expedition  advanced  down 
.?  't'^I  ?"  '?'  ■•  Boussa,  where  it  was 
attacked  by  the  natives,  ^t  is  supposed 
that  Mungo  Park  was  drowned  Tnbis 
efforts   to   eKapa.    The  Journal   of   his 

SubillS  WSs."  '"  "  »"•  Niger  was 

Parke,  Thomas  Heazi*,  surgeon,  was 
I-  10KT  J  J°  Roscommon,  Ireland, 
In  1M7,  and  educated  at  Dublin.  He 
participated  as  surgeon  in  the  campaign 

hiFt'^F^fi^  ^  ??*>  *.°  that  forlK 
kUm  oi  General  Gordon  in  1884-85 ;  also 

dition,  in   1887-90.     He  received  medaS 

f!^"*!.*''!  ^""I'l",'*  Medical  Association, 
and  the  Royal  Geographical  Societies  of 
L«nd(m  and -Antwerp,  also  the  Queen's 
S^istts""    ****  Khedive's  Star,    fle  died 

Parker  /p>'''*«/>'  altoit  bbookb, 

v„,i,  t  ■,ti'^'J*°'^  ?^  Cortland,  New 
York,  in  1852.  Studied  law,  practiced  at 
Kingston,  and  became  chief  judge  of  the 
Court  of  AppeaU  of  New  York  in  1898. 

iSjtt™  "^  *°  "S"^*.  P?'*  ^  Democratic 
politics,  was  offered  the  poet  of  Assist- 

1904.  received  the  Democratic  nomina- 
tion for  President  of  the  United  States. 

Rl  ?"■  ulf******  by  Theodore  Rooaevelt, 
the  Republican  candidate. 

Parker,  Gilbebt,  novelist,  bom  in 
.  ^  .*„  Canada,  in  1862.  He  lec- 
tured in  English  in  Toronto,  edited  a 
newspaper  in  Sydney,  and  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  able  and  popular  novels,  including 
When  j  almond  came  to  Pontiak,  Tha 
8eatt  of  the  Mtghty,  etc. 
Parker,   ^°^    Henbt,    an    English 

£i°i^^-  .  ^J*  was  a  well-known  pnb^ 
lisher  in  Oxford,  and  in  1870  beoime 
keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum.  He 
devoted  much  time  and  labor  to  excava- 
tions in  Rome. 

Parker,  Matthew,  Archbishop  of 
'  Canterbury,  bom  at  Nor- 
wich, in  1504;  died7n  1575.  He  wm 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  after  hav- 
ing been  liceiwed  to  preach  was  appointed 
dean  of  Stoke  College  in  Suffolk  He 
was  also  made  a  king's  chaplain  and  a 
canon  of  E^.  In  1S4  he  was  appointed 
""««  of  Corpus  Christi  CollewT Ca^ 
bridge,  and  elected  vice^bancellor  of  that 
nniversity  the  following  year.  WhS 
Queen  Mary  succeeded  to  the  throne 
Parker  was  daorivad  af  hia  offices,  and 


Htkiw 


muincd  in  Goncealment  until  tlie  accM- 
■ton  of  BUnbetli  in  1BS8.  By  royal 
osomard  he  waa  aummoned  to  Lambwi, 
and  appointed  Archbiabup  of  Canterbury. 
It  waa  while  be  held  this  office  that  he 
had  what  ia  knuwu  as  the  BtMkop't 
Bibie  translated  from  the  text  of  Cran- 
mer,  and  published  at  his  own  expense. 
Ue  was  the  founder  of  the  Antiquarian 
Society,  a  collector  of  M8S..  whidi  he 
presented  to  his  coilege,  and  editor  of  the 
Vhroniclea  of  M'aUingkum,  Matthew 
Pari$,  and  Roger  of  Wcndover. 

Pftrkfir  ^iiKODOBB,  an  American  di- 
'  vine,  son  of  a  Massachuaetts 
fanner,  bom  at  Lexington  io  1810;  died 
at  Florence  in  1860.  He  studied  at 
Harvard  University,  and  in  1837  waa 
settled  as  a  Unitarian  preacher  at  West 
Boxbury.  Although  his  doctrine  was 
accounted  heterodox,  yet  such  was  his 
eloquence  and  ability  that  he  soon  be- 
came famous  as  a  preacher  and  lecturer 
over  New  England.  In  1843  he  visited 
England,  France,  Italy,  and  Germany, 
and  settled  as  a  preacher  in  Boston  on 
his  return.  He  was  a  prominent  advo- 
cate of  the  abolition  of  slavery.  The 
principal  of  his  published  works  are: 
Ocoa«tona<  Sermons  and  Speeches:  and 
Sermons  on  Theism,  Athetsm,  aitd  the 
Popular  Theologff. 

81  Porker  ^^  Htde,  a  British  admiral, 
^  I  **•*'»■'**>  bom  about  the  year  1711; 
foaght  ag&inst  the  French,  Spaniards, 
and  Dutd.  In  1783  he  perished  on  his 
way  to  the  East  Indies. 

Pftrker    S™  William,  a  British  ad- 

1860;  entered  the  naval  service,  frreatly 
diatinguished  himself  by  the  capture  of 
the  Belle-Poule,  a  B'rench  frigate,  and 
in  1809  made  himself  master  of  the 
citadel  of  Ferrol.  In  1841  he  took  com- 
mind  of  the  fleet  ooerating  against 
China ;  forced  the  entrance  of  the  Yang- 
tse-kiang,  and  appeared  before  Nanking, 
where  terms  of  peace  were  agseed  upon. 
In  1863  he  was  made  admiral  of  the 
fleet 

xax&crBUUr^  city,  capital  of  Wood 
Co.,  West  Virginia,  on  the  Ohio  River, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Kanawha,  12 
miles  from  ftlarietta,  Ohio.  It  has  an 
extensive  trade  in  petroleum,  which  is 
abundant  in  its  vicinity,  and  has  large 
lumber  mills,  oil  refineries,  iron  and 
steel,  brick  and  tile  works,  and  manufac- 
tures of  furniture,  etc.     Pop.  ^,000. 

Parkman  ^  park'man ) ,  Francis,  his- 
^^^^^  torinn.    born    at    Boston, 

Naasachnsetts,  in  1823 ;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1844.     After  spend- 
inff  •  year  in  Europe,  he  made  a  trip 
7_U— 0 


PurUaiiitiil 


to  the  Rocky  Mountaina  and  poUUM 
The  OaUfornia  and  Oregon  Trail,  tad 
UUtorit  of  the  Vonepiraow  of  PomMmo. 
Taking  up  the  history  of  France  in  Aaar* 
ica  as  his  lifework,  he  wrote  a  aeriaa 
of  able  and  popular  works,  admired  for 
their  graces  of  style  and  graphic  deliaa- 
ation  of  the  subject.  They  include  The 
Old  Rfgime  m  Canada  (1884),  The 
Pioneere  of  France  in  the  New  World 
(1866).  The  Jesuits  in  North  America 
(1866),  The  Discovery  of  the  Oreat 
West  (1861)),  Connt  Frontenao  and  New 
France  under  Louis  XIV  (1878),  ifoii<- 
calm  and  Wolfe  (1884).  and  A  Half  Gen- 
turn  of  Conflict  (1892).  He  died  ia 
189a 

Parkhurst  ^SiWoV£5.15,l^'.? 

Framingham.  Massachusetts,  ui  1842. 
He  studied  theology  in  dermany  and  in 
1880  became  pastor  of  the  Madison 
Square  Presbyterian  Church.  New  Yoi^ 
In  1891,  as  president  of  the  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Crime,  he  beipu  an 
attack  on  the  police  methods  in  New 
York,  and  was  prominent  in  the  inveati*' 
gation  that  followed. 

ParUamcnt    ^^t^f^'^^^S: 

to  sneak),  the  supreme  le^atire  a*- 
sembly  and  court  of  law  in  Britain.  In 
the  article  Britain  the  power  and  organi- 
zation of  Parliament  are  dealt  with,  while 
here  its  procedure  and  regulationa  are 
noted.  When  a  new  Parliament  ia  ram- 
moned,  and  the  two  houaea  have  met  on 
the  appointed  day  in  thdr  teapectiTe 
chambers,  the  lord-chancellor  require* 
the  presence  of  the  Commcma  in  the 
Upper  House  to  hear  His  Majeaty'a  com* 
mission  read.  When  this  ia  done  tb» 
Commons  withdraw  to  the  Lower  Hooaa 
and  choose  a  speaker,  previous  to  tlw 
election  of  whom  the  cleric  of  the  Honaa 
acts  as  speaker.  After  hia  election  tiw 
administration  of  the  requisite  oath  to 
the  members  is  then  proceeded  with  in 
both  Houses.  When  most  of  the  mon- 
bers  have  been  sworn,  the  Commons  are 
summoned  to  the  Upper  House,  and  tiia 
purposes  for  which  Parliament  haa  ben 
assembled  are  then  declared,  either  by 
the  king  in  person  or  hy  hia  repreaenta- 
tive.  After  the  royal  speech,  cmtalnlaff 
this  declaration,  has  been  read  in 
presence  of  the  members  of  both  Hooasa, 
a  reply  to  the  address  is  moved  in  eaeh 
house  separately. 

A  house  for  the  traasactfea  of  \ifat- 
ness  must  consist  of  at  leaat  l^irtr  m«n- 
bers.  otherwise  the  spMker  will  not  ^3u 
the  chair.  The  speaker  of  tiie  Hoaaa 
of  C!ommons  cannot  take  part  in  a  ddiata 
in  the  Honse,  and  can  on^ 


?ftrli«m«]it 


SBMUooa  of  order  or  practice.  He  can, 
owercr,  vote  in  cases  where  tlie  votes 
•w  equally  divided,  or  in  committees 
of  tile  whole  house.  The  lord-chancellor 
w  «€  oglcto  the  speaker  of  the  House  of 

1    "?•  ".1''  *•«  "V  ""oth  "peak  "nd  vote 
in   the  House.     When   a   division   takes 
place  upon  a  motion    fthot  Is,  when  a 
vote  is  taken  on  the  motion)   the  prac- 
Uce  Is  that  those  assenting  to  and  those 
dissenting    from    the   motion    before   the 
House  each  retire  into  a  separate  lobby 
provided     for    that     purpose,    and     are 
counted  as  they  re-enter  the  house,   by 
two  tellers  on  either  side,  who  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  speaker.    The  mover  of  a 
motion  puts  it   in  writing,  and  delivers 
it  to  the  speaker,  who,  when  it  has  been 
seconded,    puts    it    to   the    House,   after 
Which  it  cannot  be  withdrawn   withou* 
the   consent   of   the   House.     There    are 
various  ways  in  which  a  motion  may  be 
superseded,  such  as  by  the  adjournment 
of  the  House,   by   the  motion   that   the 
orders  of  the  day  be  now  read,  and  by 
the  moving  of   the  '  previous  question ' 
(which  see).    The   House  is  adjourned 
when  it  Is  found  that  there  are  fewer 
than   forty   members   present.    Order   is 
generally  enforced  by  th«  chair,  and  in 
extreme  aues  of  obstruction  or  the  like, 
the  offender  is  '  named '  and  suspended, 
or  otherwise  dealt  with  at  the  discretion 
or    the    house.     Irrelevancy    or    tedious 
repetition  may  abo  be  dealt  with  by  the 
chair,  and  to  prevent  debates  being  end- 
iewly  protracted,   a   measure  called   the 
C^Mww  recently  adopted.    See 

The  method  of  making  laws  is  much  the 
same  in  both  Houses.  In  order  to  brins 
•  private  bill  into  the  House  of  Commons 

^J?,.-?*  *K*^?"fy  to.  prefer  a  petition 
sMting  forth  the  aims  of  the  measure,  and 
otherwise  comply  with  the  standing  orders 
of  the  house.  When  this  is  done  the 
House,  on  the  motion  of  a  member,  directs 
iS!,n„-  }'lKH-.,'Pt''o*L'»ced.  The  second 
i^^l°l *^e  bill  18  then  fixed,  and  after 
bei^  read  it  is  referred  to  a  select  com- 
mittee, upon  which  devolves  all  the  actual 
wor«,  in  the  shape  of  amendment,  accept- 
ance, or  rejection.  The  committee  on 
romi^etion   of  its    abors   reports   to   the 

5?^:."°^  *^®  **'"  ™«y  then  be  read  a 
third  time  and  passed.  Private  bills  in- 
clude all  those  of  a  purely  local  character, 
such  as  the  measures  promoted  by  munici- 
pal corporations,  private  individuals,  rail- 
**7,'.  **■»  and  water  companies,  etc.  In 
public  matters  a  bill  is  brought  in  upon 
motion  made  to  the  House  without  any 
petition.  The  bill  Is  read  a  first  time, 
Mkdl  after  a  convenient  interval  a  second 
««•,  and  after  each  reading  the  soeakw 


Parliuaent 


puts  the  question  whether  it  shall  proceed 
f^'u-K'*""-  1."  the  opposition  succeeds 
the  bill  must  be  dropped  for  that  seoskm. 
After  tira  second  reading  it  is  (cfcn«d  to 
a  committee,  which  is  either  selected  by 
the  House  or  the  House  rmolves  itself  Into 
a  committee  of  the  whole  House.  A  com- 
mittee  of  the  whole  llotisc  is  composed  of 
every  member,  and  Is  presided  over  by  a 
chairaan  other  than  the  speaker —  the 
speaker  having  vacated  the  chair,  and  the 
mace  that  lies  before  him  having  been 
rcmovMl.  In  these  committees  the  bill  Is 
debated    clause    by     -lause,    amendmenu 

S"  k'..*''®  H"."""  ''"**!  »P'  and  sometimes 
the  bill  entirely  new-modeled.    After  it  has 
gone  through  the  committee  the  chairman 
reports  to  the  House  such  amendments  as 
have  been  made,  and  then  the  House  re- 
considers the  whole  bill  again.     When  the 
House    has   agreed   or  disagreed   to   the 
amendments  of  the  committee,  the  bill  is 
then  ordered  to  be  reprinted.     It  Is  then 
read  a  third  time,  and  amendments  are 
"*  i""'  ,Sf"*®  o'  ^t*  progress  sometimes 
made.    The  speaker  then  puts  the  ques- 
lion  whether  the  bill  shall  pass.     If  this 
be  agreed  to  the  title  is  settled,  and  the 
bill    carried    to    the    bar   of    the    Upper 
House,  when  It  is  received  by  the  chi^ 
cellor.     It  there  passes  through  the  same 
forms  as  in  tha  other  House,  and  if  re- 
jected no  most  notice  is  taken  of  it.    But 
if   It    be   agread   to   the   Lords   send   a 
message  bv  ona  of  the  clerks,  or  on  rare 
occasions  by  two  masters  In  chancery  to 
that  effect,  and  tiie  bill  remains  with  the 
tords.     If   any   amendments   ai«   made, 
such  amendments  are  sent  down  with  the 
bill  to  receive  the  concurrence  of  the  Com- 
mons.    If  the  Commons  disagree  to  the 
amendments,  and  both  Houses  in  confer- 
ence fail  to  agree,  then  the  bill  is  dropped. 
If,  however,  the  Commons  agree  to  the 
amendments  the  bill  is  sent  back  to  tiie 
Uirds  by  one  of  the  members,  with  a  mes- 
sage  to  acquaint   them   therewith.    Hie 
same  forms  are  observed,  nuttatit  matoa- 
du,  when  the  bill  begins  in  the  House  of 
Lords. 

The  royal  assent  to  bills  may  be  given 
°L  ^^f  'l'."',*?  person;  in  which  case  he 
attends  the  House  of  Lords  in  state;  or 
the  royal  assent  may  also  be  given  under 
letters  patent  and  notified  in  his  absence, 
to  both  Houses  assembled  together  in  the 
Upper  House,  by  commissioners,  conslst- 

wL„  T**l°.,P*t"  °*"e^  «  *he  letters. 
When  the  bill  has  received  the  royal 
assent  in  either  of  these  ways  it  is  then, 
and  not  before,  a  statute  or  act  of  pan 
liament.  All  proceedings  relating  to  th« 
public  income  or  expenditure  orffinate  in 
the  Comnjons.  a  committee  of  the  wh<^ 
House,  called  the  committee  of  supply,  di» 


Timmuk  OhMM 


.— — .  aad  pMrioc  th*  mrfooa  MtlnutM 
duiiac  the  ■wIob.  TImm  ara  all  craiol- 
Idatu  in  ui  appropriation  bill  at  the  end 
of  tba  aeaiioQ  lent  to  the  Honw  of  Lords 
for  approval,  receive  the  royal  aaaent  and 
beooaw  law. 

Within  recent  yean,  however,  a  vigor- 
ona  movement  has  been  made  to  limit  the 
power  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  dealing 
with  financial  measures.    This  movement 
readied  a  high  state  of  development  in 
1010.  when  it  became  evident  that  the 
hereditary  righto  of  peers  to  legislative 
power  would  have  to  be  curtaiM  and  the 
cmistitution  of  the  House  of  Lords  modi- 
fied, the  people  sustaining  the  ministry  in 
a  revolt  against  the  existing  conditions. 
As  a  result  a  bill  was  passed  by  the  House 
of  Ckimmona  in  1011,  and  accepted  after 
vigorous    opposition    by    the    House    of 
Lords,  greatly  curtailing  the  powers  of 
the  latter  bodv  and   making  the   lower 
House  the  dominant  power.    The  right  of 
rejecting  or  amending  money  bills  was 
taken  from  the  House  of  Lords  and  the 
scope  of  what  ctmstituted  a  money  bill 
was  extended  to  Include  one  connected  in 
almost  any  way  with  the  finances.     In 
addition,  if  any  bill  not  connected  with 
finance  should  pass  the  lower  House  in 
three  successive  sessions  of  that  body  it 
was  not  to  be  subject  to  amendmAt  or 
rejection  by  the  Lords,  provided  that  two 
years  had  passed  between   its  introduc- 
tion and  ito  third  passage.    The  duration 
of  a  Parliament  was  also  limited  to  five 
jrears,  instead  of  seven  years,  as  formerly. 
The  Parliament  of  France   resembled 
that  of  England  in  being  originally  a  con- 
vocation of  the  great  vassals  of  the  crown. 
St.  Louis  was  the  first  to  introduce  into 
this   body   counsellors   of   inferior   rank, 
cbieflv  ecclesiastics.    The  parliament  had 
jndicial  as  well  as  pollticalfunctions,  and 
after  1304,  when  it  became  a  permanent 
court  at  Paris,  the  barons  rarely  attended 
and  lawyers  were  its  chief  members  and 
officials.    It  remained  the  chief  tribunal 
of  the  country,  except  for  a  short  period 
after  1771,  until  the  Revolution,  its  most 
important  power  being  that  of  registering 
the  edicta  of  the  sovereign  and  thus  giv- 
ing them  the  force  of  law.    It  could  pro- 
test against  a  tyrannous  law  and  was 
thus  able  to  modify  the  otherwise  abso- 
lute power  of  the  monarchs. 

Parma  ip'K"*^'.  *  «**y  «'  ^'«>rti» 

JZ  Italy,  capital  of  the  province 

of  Parma,  on  the  small  river  Parma.  72 
mUes  southeast  of  Mihin.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  line  of  ramparta  and  bas- 
tions, and  though  an  old  town  liaa  quite 
a  modem  aspect  The  principal  sgoares 
are  tour,  and  one  of  them,  the  Piassa 
Orand^  ia  large  and  handsoma.    Among 


the  more  important  baildlngs  ai«  tba 
cathedral,  .began  in  1068,  •  emdfonB 
building  with  a  dmne,  an  ezealknt  aiaai- 

gle  of  tha  Lomhard-Bomaneaqna  s^lt,  tha 
iterior  of  the  dome  being  paiatad  In 
fresco  by  Correggio;  the  baptistery,  a 
structure  of  man>le;  the  Church  of  La 
Bteccata;  the  Church  of  San  Giovanni, 
which,  with  other  chorchea  and  build- 
mgs,  contains  paintings  by  Correggio  and 
Massuoli,  who  were  bom  here:  toe  ducal 
palace,  now  the  prefecture;  the  Palaaao 
dello  Pilotta,  comprising  tha  museum  <^ 
antiquities,  picture^llery.  and  library 
(more  than  800,000  vols,  and  5000 
MSS.) ;  and  the  university  (about  200 
students).  Parma  was  ori^nally  an 
Etruscan  town,  and  became  a  Roman  col- 
ony in  183  B.O.    The  manufactures  are 

Pop.  53.781.- -The  province  lies  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Po;  area,  1258  square 
miles ;  pop.  204.150.  It  is  watered  eUefly 
by  the  Taro,  the  Parma,  and  the  Hjwia. 
all  of  which  fall  into  the  Po.  ^^ 

Parma.  Dccht  of,  formerly  an  inde- 
f*  .  »  pendent  state  of  Upper  Italy, 
but  since  i860  incontorated  in  the  King- 
dom of  Italy,  and  divided  into  the  prov- 
inces of  Parma  and  Piacensa.  It  com- 
prehended the  three  duchies  of  Parma 
proper,  Piacentia  of  Piacensa,  and  Ouas- 
talla,  and  had  an  area  of  about  2206 
square  miles.  Parma  anciently  formed 
part  of  Gallia  Cispadana  and  Liguria. 
Charlemagne  made  a  present  of  it  to  the 
pope;  but  it  subsequently  becmme  an  in- 
dependent republic,  and  in  the  alzteentb 
century  was  erected  into  a  duchy  whidi 
was  lon«  ruled  b»  the  Faraeae  dak«8. 
The  victories  of  the  French  in  Italy  la 
the  beginning  of  this  century  enabled  Na- 
poleon to  seise  the  duchy  and  ttUuA  it  to 
his  Kingdom  of  Italy.  After  Nap<rie<m's 
downfall  it  fell  to  hia  widow,  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa,  for  life,  and  there- 
after to  the  Duke  of  Lucca. 

Parmeeianino      (p*r-incM-nfi'n«). 

B     -*"v        Same  as  Jf  assolo. 

Parmenides  (p».'"«e?'W8«).»Q>reek 

, '''r  ,  philosopher,  native  of 
Elea  in  Italy,  and  head  of  the  Bleatle 
school,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century  b.c.  In  450  he  went  to 
Athena,  accompanied  by  hte  pupil  Zeno. 
and  there  bmime  acquainted;  according 
to  Plato,  with  Socrates.  Like  XenoaS- 
anea,  he  developed  his  philosmhy  in  a 
?^^  9<>^^  0»  Nature,  of  wYkhdi  about 
lap  linea  are  still  extant  One  part  of 
this  poem  dealt  with  what  i$  or  '%rath,' 
and  the  second  part  with  what  only 
appears  or  'Opinimi.' 

Parmesan  Cheete  j^'^h'im'Ttfe 


VtrmigiftBo 


?ftrot 


In  Um  neighborhood  of  Parma  of  skimmed 
ailk  by  a  peculiar  proceM,  flavored  with 
Haffroo.  and  celebrated  for  it^  lieeping 
«uallti«a.  Indeed,  it  become*  so  hard  aa 
to  require  to  be  grated  wlien  uaed. 

northeast  of  the  province  of  Ooyaa,  flows 
northeast,  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  provinces  of  Piauhi  and  Mnranhflo, 
and  falls  into  the  Atlantic  below  Par^ 
nabyba;  iotal  course  about  800  miles. 
The  port  of  Pamahyba  admits  only  small 
vessels.  Pop.  about  12,000. 
PamaJini  (P*r-nas'sus),  or  LiAKxf- 
.  BA,  a  mouatain  of  Ort^ece, 

situated  in  Phocis,  Qd  miles  northwest  of 
Athens.  It  has  two  prominent  peaks,  one 
of  which  was  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  Bacchus,  and  the  other  to  Apollo  and 
the  Muses,  while  on  its'  southern  slope 
was  situated  Delphi  and  the  Castalian 
fount.  Ita  height  is  8068  feet,  and  a 
magnificent  view  is  obtained  from  its  top, 
Pamell  (  P*  r'nel ) ,  Chabixs  Stb wabt, 
7  born  at  his  father's  estate  of 

Arondale,  County  Wicklow,  Ireland,  in 
1846,  was  connected  on  his  father's  side 
with  a  family  that  ojiginallv  belonged  to 
Congleton,  Cheshire,  and  whose  meml>er8 
included  Paraell  the  poet,  and  Sir  John 
Pamell,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in 
Orattan's  Parliament;  while  hJH  mother 
was  the  daughter  of  Admiral  Stewart  of 
the  United  States  navy.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge; 
became  member  of  parliament  for  Meath 
in  1873;  organised  the  'active*  Home 
Kule  party,  and  developed  its  obstruction 
tactics ;  and  in  1879  formally  adopted  the 
policy  of  the  newly-formed  Land  League, 
was  an  active  member  of  it,  and  was 
chOTen  president  of  the  organization.  In 
1880  he  was  returned  for  the  City  of 
Cork,  and  was  chosen  as  leader  of  the 
Irish  party.  In  the  session  of  1881  he 
opposed  the  Crimes  Act  and  the  Land 
Act;  was  arrested  (October  13th)  under 
the  terms  of  the  former,  along  with  other 
luembers  of  his  party;  and  was  lodged  in 
Kdmamham  Jail,  from  whence  he  wus 
not  released  until  the  following  May.  In 
1883  he  was  the  recipient  of  a  large  money 
testimonial  (chiefly  collected  in  America), 
and  in  this  year  was  active  in  organizing 
the  newly-formed  National  League.  At 
the  general  election  of  1885  he  was  re- 
elected for  Cork,  and  next  year  he  and 
nis  followers  supported  the  Home  Rule 
proposals  introduced  by  Mr.  Gladstone. 
*?."S  he  also  brought  in  a  bill  for  the 
feUe' ojf  Irish  tenants  that  was  rejected, 
in  1887  he  and  other  members  of  his 


party  wert  acenaed  by  tb»  Tlmat  Mwt* 
paper  of  complioit/  with  tb«  crimea  and 
outnges  committed  by  the  eitreme  secticn 
of  tbs  Irish  Nationalist  party.  To  invsa- 
tigate  this  charge  a  commission  of  three 
*"°fSSo*'"".  yPPo'nted  by  the  government 
in  1888,  with  the  result  that,  after  much 
evideni-e  had  been  heard  on  both  sides,  a 
report  was  laid  before  Parliament  in  Feb- 
ruary. 1890,  Mr.  Pamell  being  acquitted 
?L?"  '••*  graver  charges.  He  died  in 
1881. 

„  "'    Hn    in    l«t9:   died   in    1717. 

He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  and, 
taking  orders  in  1705,  was  presented  to 
the  archdeaconry  of  Clogher,  but  he  re- 
sided chiefly  in  London.  He  was  at  first 
associated  with  Addison,  Congreve,  Steele, 
and  other  Whigs;  but  towards  the  latter 
part  of  Queen  Anne's  reign  he  joined  the 
Tory  wits,  of  whom  the  most  notable  were 
Swift,  Pope,  Gay,  and  Arbuthnot.  He 
afforded  Pope  some  assistance  in  his  trans- 
lation of  Homer,  and  wrote  the  Life  pre- 
fixed  to  it.  By  Swift's  recommendation 
he  obtained  a  prebend  in  the  Dublin 
Cathedral  and  the  valuable  livhig  of  Fin- 
glass.  After  his  death  a  collection  of  his 
poems  was  published  by  Pope  in  1721. 

Parochial  Board  fe!'"'''j  ^'^jj" 

,  ,  ,  ^     .     Scotland,  a  body 

of  men  in  a  parish  elected  by  the  payers 
of  poor-rates  to  manage  the  relief  of  the 
poor,  a  duty  which,  in  England,  is  per- 
formed by  overseers,  and  to  some  cases 
by  the  guardians  of  the  poor. 
Parody    (Par'u-dl),  a  kind  of  literary 
I       u.  1.    .  composition,  usually  in  verse. 
In  which  the  form  and  expression  of  grave 
or  serious  writings  are  closely  imitated, 
but  adapted  to  a  ridiculous  subject  or  a 
humorous  method  of  treatment. 
Parole     (Pa-r«l').  *  promise  given  by 
a  prisoner  of  war  that  he  will 
not  try  to  escape  if  allowed  to  go  aboiTt 
at  liberty;   or  to  return,  if  released,   to 
custody    at    a    certain    time    if   not    dis- 
charged ;  or  not  to  bear  arms  against  his 
captors  for  a  certain  period ;  and  the  like. 
ParOS     (P»i'ro8),    an    island    to    the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  one  of  the 
Cyclades,  4  miles  west  of  Naxos;  length 
13  miles;   breadth   10  miles.     It  is  gen- 
erally mountainous;  but  the  soil,  though 
often  rocky,  is  fertile,  and  in  some  places 
well  cultivattd      Its  marble  has  been  fa- 
mous   from    ancient    times,    and    is    the 
material  of  which  some  of  the  most  cele- 
brated pieces  of  statuary  are  composed. 
Paros    was    the    birthplace    of    the    poet 
Archilochus  and  the  patoter  Polygnotus. 
Parikia,  a  seaport  on  the  northwest  coast, 
is  the  chief  town ;  pop.  2200.     Pop.  of 
hiland,  7740. 


ftararU  Oluid 


FftTFot^iUh 


Ftrotid  Oland  iffJ^'^^'  '•>  •»- 

Miirary  flaada,  tb«re  being  two  parotkia, 
op*  on  either  tide  of  the  f»ce.  imme- 
diately in  front  of  the  external  enr.  and 
canfflunicntiug  witli  the  mouth  by  n  ilmt. 

J*  *     inlaid    woodwork    in    ce- 

omctric  or  other  iwttema,  and  generaU/ 
of  dlsertnt  colon,  principally  uaed  for 
floora. 

pan*  (P*r) ,  a  amall  fiah  common  In  the 
rjvera  of  England  and  Scotland, 
at  one  time  believed  to  be  a  diatinct  ape- 
cl«  of  tlie  genua  Balmo,  but  now  almoat 
univerMlir  regarded  aa  the  young  of  tb« 
Mlmon.     ITie    term    ia    alao    applied    to 

n*iiJ°"P'  2'  ■?.?  «'  *»»•  Salmonld*. 
Called  aiao  BranHing, 

Parr,  Cathabhoc    8e«CaMaHiici>arT. 

Parr.  ?***?=^^^?^  Engllah  acbolar, 
*"**»  born  in  1747;  diedTln  1825.  lie 
waa  educated  at  Harrow  and  Cambridge: 
t«"«nt  Bucceaaiyely  in  the  grammar 
acboola  of  Stanhope,  Colchester,  and  Nor- 
wich; and  in  1783  became  perpetual 
curate  of  Hatton  in  Warwickahire. 
Here  he  «igaged  in  literature,  and  became 
noted  among  bia  contemporaries  ao  a 
claaaicai  purlat  and  bitter  polemic. 
Parr.  Thomas,  better  known  as  Old 
»  TP.  ^o"".  waa  bom,  It  ia  aaid,  in  1483 
?Ly'^'.?°'i"l**>°vS*»'^P"'>''e'  and  died  in 
1635,  he  being  then  in  bia  152d  year.  A 
metrteal  account  of  bia  career  waa  pub- 
liahed  in  1636  by  John  Taylor,  the  *  water 
poet,  and  he  waa  buried  in  Westminater 
Abbey,  where  a  monument  recorda  bia 
longevity.  Hie  age,  however,  haa  been 
diaputed,  and  doubtleaa  be  was  not  nearly 
ao  old  as  represented. 

Parrakeet,  F  p^boq^^t.  wca  pwa- 

ParrhasinS  (l»r-r§'8he-ua),  a  Greek 
<i  •  u^u  Pa*?ter.  born  at  Ephesus, 
flourished  about  420  b.c.  Several  of  his 
pictures  are  mentioned  by  ancient  au- 
thors, but  aone  of  them  nave  been  ore- 
aerved. 

Parriflh     j^wabd    (1822-1872),   an 

'     American  pharmacist,  bom 
in  i'hiladelphia,  graduate  of  the  Philadol^ 

Shia  College  of  Pharmacy.  He  cHtab- 
shed  a  scnool  of  practical  pharmacy  la 
1840,  and  waa  made  professor  of  materia 
medica  in  the  College  of  Pharmacy  in 
1864,  and  profeaw>r  of  practical  phar- 
macy in  ^1867.  He  won  renown  for  his 
'  Parrisfa's  Chemical  Food,'  a  compound 
ayrup  of  phoaphate  of  ir«m. 
Parrish,  Maxtoxd  (1870-  ),  an 
'  American  painter  and  illos- 
trator,  bom  in  Philadelphia  in  1870.  Ho 
■tndiod  at  tfa«  PauuorlTania  Aeademy  of 


IIm  Arts  and  tha  Dmel  InstitnC^  PkO* 
■delphla.  and  waa  a  pupil  of  Uowanl 
Pyle.  Humv  of  the  many  books  which  ha 
baa  richly  illuatrated  are  The  QoUm 
Age,  EugvuH  Field's  Po«m«  of  t'AUdAoodL 
and  Alulhir  Oown  Khpmei,  Irrlaf's 
Entekerbockcr  UUtory  of  New  Fork 
Hia  mural  dewmtiona  include  tba  wdl- 
known  'Old  King  Cule'  in  the  Kaidwr- 
bpeker  Hotel,  New  York,  panda  in  the 
Curtis  Buihling,  PhiladeljihU;  and  otbor 
meorutiouH  in  hotels  in  t'hicago  and  8an 
Frnncisco.  He  was  elected  to  the  Na- 
tlonul  Academy  of  Deaign  in  1906. 

Parrot  l?"r'"*i»  ■  """•«  common  to 
...  ,  wnJs  of  the  family  Paittaddia, 
^  the  onltr  Scansorea  or  climbers.  The 
UU  is  houked  and  rounded  on  all  sides, 
and  ir.  much  wctl  in  climbing.  The  tam 
are  generally  short  and  strong,  the  toes 
being  arranged  two  forwards  and  two 
backwanls.  The  tongue,  unlike  that  of 
moat  other  birds,  is  soft  and  flsahy 
throughout  its  whole  extent.  The  winn 
are  of  moderate  size,  but  the  tall  is  qftSi 
a<»igated,  and  iu  so-ne  cases  assists  in 
Oimbing.  The  plumage  is  generally  brO- 
liant.  Parrots  breed  in  hollow  trees,  and 
subsist  on  fruits  and  seeds.  Seveml  spo- 
eies  can  not  only  imitate  the  various  tones 
o:  the  human  voice,  but  also  exerdse  in 
J  cases  actual  conversational  powers. 
;e  live  to  a  great  age.  instances  bcdng 
i  <wn  of  these  birds  reaching  seventy  ana 
even  ninety  years.     The  spider  nu- 

merous, and  are  known  under  the  v 
names  of  parrots,  parakeets,  macaws,  u.. 
keets,  lories,  and  cockatoos  (see  these 
■fwclea),  the  namp  parrot,  when  ussd 
distinctively,  being  generally  applied  to 
spedes  of  some  siae.  that  have  a  strondy 
hooked  upper  mandible  and  a  abort  w 
medium-lenKth  taU.  They  are  nativss 
of  both  tromcnl  and  subtropical  regiona. 
«id  even  extend ,  northwards  into  tS 
United  States,  and  south  to  tbe  Straifei 
cf  Mageiinu,  i\ew  Zealand,  ano  lasmunia. 
The  best^known  species  is  tbe  Gray  P-  r- 
Tot  {PaittdfttJ  eruthiciie)  of  West  n 
Africa,  which  can  be  most  easily  trai;  -U 
to  talk.  The  Green  Parrots  {Vhrit$o.  . 
are  also  common  as  domestic  pets,  being 
brought  from  the  tropical  regions  of  South 
America.  The  Carolina  parrot  {Conirut 
Carobnentts)  ia  found  in  the  United 
Statea,  and  is  gregarious  in  its  haUta. 

Parrot-coal.  ?  ¥"*  «f*^«"  *»>  scot- 

TLti  J.  .t  .  i*°.°.  *®  cannel-coal. 
Minen  distinguish  this  coal  into  two  va- 
?«"*■  —  ▼*«•.  'dry'  or  i^b  parrot,  as^ 
'soft*  or  oil  parrot.  .~*    ^     «. 

Parrot-fish.  %  ^^^  °I  *^«  geno* 

l!r  u  u,  .  ^^nf*'  ^'^^  LabrldiB. 
remarkable  for  tbe  beak-like  plates  into 
^L^tPi'liSf  dthsr  Jaw  at«  united, 
WO  for  tbtir  brilliancy  of  otrtor,  fkom  ooa 


Hnf 


I 


w  tCktr  at  wkleh  d^tmMtMMi  tt0  kftvt 
NMlfatf  tMr  pepa.  £mwm.  MwToCtkt 
■MdM  u*  trapkiU,  but  oat,  B.  onUntk. 
th«  MMVt  eC  tiM  uetoata,  aad  wtaMMd 
bjrtk«m  Utt  BMt  dolle«te  o(  aU  lokM,  k 
iBMd  ttt  tbt  MidUerraBMO.       ^^ 

™^  bof«  at  &ilh  Id  1790;  dwTii 
18B6.„H«  jolMd  tb«  mrj  la  1808,  b«- 
OMM  IkatMuot  la  1810,  took  aart  la  tko 
MwcMafnl  txMdltloB  ap  tbo  CoiuMctlcat 
Blrtr  ia  1818,  aad  eratiaMd  oa  tbo 
North  Amoricaa  otatioB  till  1817.  Ia 
tbo  (pllowiaf  jroar  ho  waa  appoiatad  eon- 
laaador  of  tbo  Aleammitr  ia  aa  txpcdi- 
tjea  to  tbo  Arctic  rogioao  uador  Sir  Joha 
Boot,  aad  dariac  tbo  saccfcdiac  aiao 
jroan  bo  coaiauiadod  varioin  tipodltioaa 
oe  bia  ewa  accoaat  ia  efforts  to  Bad  a 
aortbwoat  po,aMfo,  aad  to  reach  tb*  aorth 
polo.  Ho  alfurwardo  filled  rariotw  gor- 
eraaieBt  slttjatioao,  becaaio  rear-adniral 
of  the  white,  lieoteaaat-foveraor  of 
Oreeawich  BoaplUl,  and  received  tbo 
hoBor  of  kalfhtbood.  He  pobliebcd  oer- 
eral  Toluaiee,  ia  wbkh  be  aarrated  hia 
▼oyacea  aad  adTeatures. 

7  7T.  '"  *'»*''■  »»  **••  flre-worehip- 
iag  followen  of  Zoroaster,  chiefly  settled 
ia  BombaT,  Burst,  etc.,  where  they  are 
anoagst  the  most  successful  merchants. 
IWT  have  a  great  reverence  for  Are  la 
all  m  forms,  siaco  they  find  la  it  tbo 
symbol  of  tbo  good  d^t/  Ahurt-Masda 
(Ormnsd).  To  this  divfaity  they  bavo 
dedicated  'fire-temples,'  oa  whoso  altar 
tb^  sacred  flame  is  kept  coatinually  bum- 
lag.  Benevoleace  is  the  chief  practical 
precept  of  their  reiigioa,  and  their  prac- 
tice of  this  flads  its  evidence  ia  their 
many  charitable  iastitutions.  One  of  the 
most  curious  of  their  customs  is  in  the 
disposal  of  their  dead.  For  this  they 
erect  what  are  called  *  towers  of  silence,' 
tailt  of  stone,  about  25  feet  high,  and 
with  a  small  door  to  admit  the  corpse, 
laside  is  a  large  pit  with  a  raised  circular 
platform  round  it  on  which  the  body  is 
oipooed  that  it  may  be  denuded  of  flesh 
b/  vultures,  affer  which  the  boaes  drop 
through  aa  iron  grating  into  the  pit  be- 
low. The  number  of  Parsees  in  India  is 
about  100,000.    See  Quebrea. 


Btela  kaiota,  M  batef  iaor  iavafoi. 
Haabarg  panl«y,  a  varbgr  witk  a  larfo 
•T^'SL!**  ''i*  •  •F!^  J"  «>»«hfatod  fSr 
'^J^?^  *"*'  "*."^  hi  tka  aam  way  aa 


carrots  or  paimlBo. 


»),  a  plaat  of  tha 


UBboUlftfii,  tbo  P.  Milaa  (eoamoa  or 
9!!^.P*'^'^'  «'.*^icfa  than  art  auiay 


Paiidev  (P'^nlO,  a  plant  of  the  nat 
*"^.J;. order  Umbelliferaj,  one  spe- 
cies of  which,  the  common  parsley  {Pe- 
troteUnum  tatlvnm),  is  a  well-lcnown  gar- 
den vegetable,  used  for  communicating  aa 
aromatic  and  agreeable  flavor  to  soups 
and  other  dinhes.  It  is  a  native  of  Sar- 
dinia, introduced  into  Britain  about  the 
Biiddle  of  the  sizteeath  century,  and  now 
widely  grown.  A  variety  with  curled 
leaflets  is  geaerally  preferred  to  that  with 


varietioaL  It  la  a  talL  oiaet  ^aat.  witl 
phiaato  Uaveo  aad  br^t-yolktw  flowers, 
conmoa  tbroa^oat^Bagfauid  aad  ia  mm 
^!^  'JL^!?'^1i»  *^  Aaorica,  aad  macA 
caltivatod  for  ita  roots,  which  bavo  beea 
"■•?  J^  £?  oaculoBt  from  a  very  early 
period.  They  aia  also  caltivatod  as  food 
for  tbo  use  of  cattle. 
Fanon  (P*''*i>n)f  la  Sagllah  oeeleal- 

laeumbeat  of  a  parish;  also,  la  a  wider 
sease,  aav  oao  that  has  a  parochial  chargt 
or  curs  of  souls.  Four  requisltaa  art  aoc- 
essary  to  constitute  a  parsoa,  vis.:  holy 
orders,  preseatatioa,  laMltatioa.  aad  la* 
ductiun.  His  duties  eoaslst  chMy  of  per- 
forming diviae  service  aad  admiaisteriac 
the  sacrameats.  I  a  tbo  Uaited  StauS 
P^r^on  is  synonymous,  ia  commoa  speech, 
with  miaister,  preacher,  or  clergvaian. 

?«0M.  iS2stii?sM?n?^ 

Kansas  Ctty,  oa  the  Neosho  River.  It  Is 
the  headonartora  of  tbo  Ifisaoari.  Ken- 
tndtr  aad  Tezaa  Rallway.with  asteaaiva 
maeaiBO  and  ear  dmpa.    Pop.  14JSO0. 

Panonitown  JSlj'-nrSy';: 

narket-towB  ia  Kiag's  county,  Irelwid. 
on  the  river  Littib  Brosaa,  about  90  milea 
8.W.  of  Dublia.  The  modem  parts  ara 
well  built  and  rMulariy  biid  out  la  streets 
aad  squares.  Bfrr  Castle,  the  seat  of  tbo 
Earl  of  Rosse,  with  its  famous  telesc<«^ 
closely  adjoins  the  towa.    Pop.  4488. 

Parterre  i^*^}^''^-*  •y»te™  «'  p^ 

~  .  *"  dea  flower-beds  arrangedia 
a  desiga,  with  tnrf  or  gravel  s|wces  In- 
tervening. Also  applied  to  the  pit  of  a 
French  theater. 

Parthenogenesis  i,?*'-/.'!!?!?'^'^ 

thenoa,  a  virgia:  genetit,  birth),  ia  soOl- 
ogy,  a  term  applied  to  the  productioa  of 
new  individuals  from  virgin  females  by 
means  of  ova,  which  are  enabled  to  de- 
velop tboaselves  without  the  contact  of 
the  male  element.  We  flad  several  ex- 
amples of  this  peculiar  phenomenon  amobg 
insects.  The  most  notable  are  the 
aphides  or  plant-lice,  whose  fertilised  ova, 
deposited  In  the  aatoma,  lie  without  ap- 
parent development  thruo^out  the  win- 
ter, aad  la  the  foilowiag  spring  prodnc* 
modified  females  only,  lliese  females, 
without  sexual  contact  with  the  maie» 


lurtlMMB 


TftriBtnli^ 


fivt  Mfftk  to  a  MMod  ftBmtkm  llkt  to 
UmmIvw.  tad  till*  fom  o(  rtprodactioB 
to  iuMMMr  npMtvd.  In  b*  MceMd- 
fa«  MtoBia.  iMwmr,  malt  isMeti  appMr 
la  tlM  brood,  and  tba  ova  ara  again  Im- 
BiwMtad  witli  thj  mak  tlentnt.  In 
thto  caaa  partbtnotcnmis  baa  Bora  tba 
appMianot  of  altemata  gentration.  P«r- 
baoa  »bt  truMt  instanct  of  partbraogra- 
Mb  to  found  in  tba  unfartfiixed  qwtn- 
bca,  wbicb  deposits  egga  out  of  whicb 
■wto  or  drone-bMi  art  batcbtd.    The 


which  produce  neutcra  or  fenmlea  art  i£ 

]  in  the  uiual  way.  but  tlit  egga 

_j  produce  t lie  males  are  not  fertll- 

toad.     In  tlie  silkworm  moth  certain  fe- 


l^ 


•Ua.  who  eooqutrtd  all  Oeatial  lilc 
TbtM  anla  wtrt  followad  bjr  tba  ea» 
qoarlag  lliAaaiBMdana.    Ita  ^anta. 

H  fP^'^  "*  ***^  JbacauM  It  partakaa 
of  the  character  both  of  a  mb  aad  •■ 
adject  vt.  Tba  particlpla  difan  fraai  tE 
adjectirc  In  that  It  Implita  ttaa,  UM 
tbere:ort  applies  to  a  speciOe  act,  wlbiaaa 
tba  adJect  ve  designatea  only  an  attribat% 
as  a  habitual  quality  or  chaiMrttriirtie. 
without  raard  to  timt.  Wbtn  wa  say, 
bt  has  hamed  hia  lesson,'  wa  bava  ro* 
nrd  to  a  specifle  act  tena  at  a  eartala 
time ;  but  In  the  pbrasa  *  a  learwed  maa,' 
leamcd  designatea  a  babitnal  quality.    Ib 


nales.  without  fertiliaatlon,  product  eggs 
from  wbicb  ordfaiary  larvv  art  duly  de- 
veloi>ed. 

Parthenon  (l>*r'the-non:  Gr.,  frma 
•  •uMAvuvu  paracaoe.  a  Tirgto— <.«., 
Athena  or  Minerva),  a  celebrated  Grecian        „ 

Jaia^STe  S'nelf'mi.^u'SSS  H  ^^^^^'Jt&  ^M^ot'lSL^ 
ancient  architecture.     It  to  built  5^  ma"   —  »•■-  --.-^ -">-~"5Jy.  «  ?*?«*. 


the  former  cast  harne*  to  s^rticipto;  im 
the  latter,  an  adjective.  Tbera  art  two 
partlcipica  in  Engltoh:  .be  preaeat  - 
•nding  in  -img,  and  tba  pist  — tadiaa.  la 
regular  verba,  in  -ed. 


ble,  In  the  Doric  style,  and  had  originally 
" tb 


on  tba  Kelvin  'and~'tbe  "ciydcTadJolniair 
Glasgow  on  the  west.    It  hAs  llonr^mUB. 


8  coll"    »s  on  esch  of  the  two  fronts,  wItL 

17  coju     ts  on  the  sides,  or  46  in  all.  of  

'™°"  j!7.'«*l  ?  '°<^'>«*  The  pediments 
were  filled  with  large  statues,  the  met- 
ises adorned  with  sculptures  in  relief. 
After  serving  as  a  Christian  church  and 
aa  a  mosque,  it  was  rendered  useless  for 


I  m  m^KTva  tm  «i«  incapaoit  ox 

anjr  inflection,  as,  for  insunct,  tba  prtpo* 
sitlon,  f"-' — " —   -'  '        T    r- 


any  such  purpose  In  IQgl  by  the  ezplo- 
ft®"  ,5'  ^ .  V*ntit7  of  gunpowder  which 
the  Turks  liad  placed  In  it  during  the 


m^  of  Athens  by  the  Ven^U'nik 
Xnougb  the  more  precious  pieces  of 
senipture  have  been  diapetsed  amona 
varior-  "* — — t.—^. —    .         — -:■ 


.7^?*  European  collections  (see  EJain 
Mmrbtet),  the  Parthenon  still  boars  an 
impoaing  aspect. 

Parthia  <P*r'tl>l-a),  in  the  widest 
.  ,  .  "i?"^  *'■■  **»«  Parthian  Em- 
Pire,  lyfaig  between  the  Euphrates,  the 
Oxus,  the  Caspian  Sea.  and  tba  Aratdan 
oea.     In  the  narrowest  sense  Parthia  was 


■•lion,  conjunction,  etc. 

Partnership  i£JS;?i?n-'!f>tJ?orr 

mora  persons  for  the  purpose  of  under- 
taking  and  prosecuting  conjointly  any 
business,  occupation,  or  calling;  or  a  tm- 
nntary  contract  by  worda  or  writing,  bo- 
tween  two  or  mora  paraons,  for  Joinlrg 
together  their  money,  goods,  labor,  akdi. 
?K  !  ♦" '  *°f  °'  *^*™'  ™J*<»  ■"  »Fe«neat 


that  the  gain  or  loas  shall  ba  dlTidtd  in 
certain  proportion  amongst  thm,  df 
pending  upon  the  amount  of  moMy,  cap* 
ital,  stock,  etc.,  furntohed  by  each  pan- 
ner.  Partnership  may  be  conatitotad  by 
certain  acts  connected  with  tba  nndertak' 

}Sif/5''*w""°  J'X****  «  •»•  contract. 
The  duration  of  tba  partnerahlp  may  ba 

bm  of  a  partnership  art  called  neaiiaal 
1-  S  *bey  bave  not  r  ly  actual  interest 
K  »  K  ^^  "'  """*   "•  <"■  **•  P«)8t«. 


westera  part  of  the  modem  Persian  prov- 

S*Ho^»kP*®"*?»°-  .The  Partbians  Vere 
M  Scythian  origin,  fought  only  on  horae- 

in  archery.  They  were  subject  succea- 
•ivrfy  to  Perstans.  Maceffins^ 
Syrians,  and  finally  developed  an  1^ 
porunt  empire  wterding  to  thr  Euphra- 
tes, and  restoting  the  Romans  with  vari- 
?"  ^fS^**;     Tlie    PartWan    dyw. 


%Sh  ^l  •"oj''«»«  their  aamea  to  bt  naed. 
bold  tbeiaaelyes  out  to  the  world  aa  im^ 
^^tly  having  an  interest:  ><orM«af  «r 
sleeping,  wfara  tbey  are  mere^  passtvt  ia 
tht  firm,  ia  contradistinction  to  tbeat  who 
are  active  and  conduct  tba  boi^eas  aa 
pnpeipals,  and  who  art  kaowa  m  otteii- 
ceedad  b7'th?"8aaSinl£rth2'*/.*Ml?"h!SS  w'fej*!*""*-  ^  P*rtB«*lp  may  bt 
,  «M»er««t  ^^j«  A4^/,  a  Per-  braadi  ot  boaineas,  withovt  rtrmiirilnni 


IParton 


Paiadena 


inf  all  the  adveDtures  in  which  any  one 
partner  may  embark,  but  lucb  reserration 
must  be  specified  in  the  deed  of  contract 
cor  in  the  usual  course  each  member  of 
a  partnership  is  liable  at  common  law 
101'  the  debts  of  the  firm,  and  a  sleeping 
partner  is  responsible  for  all  debts  of  the 
firm  which  have  been  contracted  during 
his  partnership.  The  powers  of  partners 
are  very  extensive,  and  the  contract  or 
other  act  of  any  member  or  members  of 
the  associated  body  in  matters  relating  to 
the  joint  concern  is,  in  point  of  law,  the 
contract  or  act  of  the  whole,  and  conse- 
quently binding  upon  the  whole,  to  the 
extent  of  rendering  each  liable  for  it  in- 
dividually ns  well  as  in  respect  of  the 
partnership  property.  This  power  does 
not  extend  to  matters  extraneous  to  the 
joint  concern.  Partners,  though  they 
should  act  in  a  fraudulent  manner  as  re- 
spects their  copartners,  bind  the  firm  in 
all  matters  .onnected  with  its  peculiar 
dealings. 

Parton  (pWtun),  James,  biographer, 
rv!^  '^''■n  at  Canterbury,  England, 
in  1822 ;  died  in  1891.  He  became  a  resi- 
dent of  New  York  and  for  a  time  was 
editor  of  the  Home  Journal.  He  wrote 
numerous  able  and  popular  works  ol 
biography.  Among  them  were  Life  of 
Thomat  Jefferson,  Life  and  Timea  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  Life  of  Voltaire,  Cap- 
tttin$  of  Industry,  Famous  Americana,  etc. 
Partridere  (P*r'trij>,  a  well-known 
»  rasorial  bird  of  the  grouse 
family  (Tetraonidae).  The  common  par- 
tridge {Perdix  cinereua)  is  the  most  plen- 
tiful of  all  game-birds  in  Britain,  and 
occurs  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Europe,  in 


Red-legged  Partridge  (Perdix  rufus) 

SoTth  Africa,  and  in  some  parts  of  West- 
ern Asia.  The  wings  and  tail  are  short, 
the  tarsi  as  well  as  the  toes  naked,  and 
the  tarsi  not  spurred.  The  greater  part 
of  the  plumage  is  ash-gray  finely  varied 
with  brown  and  black.  They  feed  on 
grain  and  ither  seeds,  i^^ects  and  their 
uurvjB  and  pupee,  and  are  chiefly  found  in 
coIPVKted  frouodw,    B««i^o«  this  species 


there  are  the  red-legged,  French,  or 
Guernsey  partridge  (P.  or  Caocabii 
rM/M«),  which  may  now  be  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  different  parts  of 
England:  the  Greek  partridge  (P.  tama- 
ttlia)^  the  African  partridge,  the  Arabian 
partridge,  the  Indian  partridge.  The 
name  partridge  is  applied  in  the  United 
states  to  several  North  American  species 
of  the  genus  Ortyx  or  quails. 

Partridge  Berry,  ?  p1«5*  «'  J^e 

rt     ,^.     .  *•'' heath  family,  the 

Oaultherta  fyrocumbena,  inhabiting  North 
America,  also  known  as  wintergreen.  The 
name  is  also  applied  io  another  North 
American  shrub,  Mitchella  repena,  a 
pretty  little  trailing  plant,  with  white 
fragrant  flowers  and  scarlet  berries,  nat 
order  Itubiacese. 

Partridge Picreon.  ^  name  for 

.  ^  ,,  °  .  o**""'  some  of  the 
Australian  pigeons,  otherwise  called 
bronze-wmgs   (which  see). 

Partridge  Wood,  ?  ^^P  pretty 

*«  j^.,.  ^'hardwood  ob- 
tained from  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil, 
and  much  esteemed  for  cabinet-work.  It 
is  generally  of  a  reddish  color,  in  various 
shades  from  light  to  dark,  the  shades 
being  mingled  in  thin  streaks.  It  is  said 
to  be  jVielded  by  a  leguminous  tree,  Andira 
inermta,  and  other  South  American  and 
West  Indian  trees. 

Parts  of  Speech    ?>*      *^«  .  Masses 
J-    ..  ^  .       .  >°*o    which    words 

are  divided  in  virtue  of  the  special  func- 
tions which  ther  discharge  in  the  sen- 
tence. Properly  speaking,  there  are  only 
seven  such  classes,  namely  the  noun,  ad- 
jective, pronoun,  verb,  adverb,  preposi- 
t'on  and  conjunction ;  for  the  article, 
which  IS  usually  classed  as  a  separate 
part  of  speech,  is  essentially  an  adjective, 
while  the  interjection  can  hardly  be  said 
tr>  belong  to  articulate  speech  at  all. 
Kach  of  the  parts  of  speech  will  be  found 
separately  treated  und  r  their  several 
heads  throughout  the  work. 

Party-wall  '"  *•*?  ^*"  *at  separates 
^.       "  „  two  houses  from  one  an- 

other. Such  a  wall,  together  with  the 
land  upon  which  it  stands,  belongs  equallv 

J^"ir"l®,''"°5"<""^»  "'  *^^  tw^o  teneraenti. 
half  belonging  to  the  one  and  half  to  the 
otner. 

ParviS  (pAr'vls),  Fabvise.  the  name 
given  in  the  middle  ages  to 
the  vacant  space  before  a  church,  now 
applied  to  the  area  around  it. 
Pasadena  <Pa-\-a-d<»'na).  a  city  and 
1  in,  ^  ,.5'°*<'''  resort  of  Los  An- 
reles  Co.,  California.  10  miles  n.  e.  of  Ixw 
AngelCT,  on  the  Southern  Pacific,  Santa 
F«,  Salt  Lake  and  other  railroads. 
It  IS  near  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Madr« 


Paiml 


Passamaqnoddy  Bay 


MonnUins,  and  embowered  in  a  wealth 
of  aoutbern  vegetation.  The  city  has 
important  fruit  induatriea,  particulariv 
oranges  and  lemons.  U  lias  a  polytechnic 
^nool    a^   a   naturi     history   museum. 

PaSCed  ^P/}"'^*'.)'  Buuca,  a  French 
.  ^    pnilosopher  and  mathematician, 

S??!**,?)?^™"?^'  '°  Auvergne  in  1623; 
died  in  1602.     In  early  youth  he  showed 
a  decided  inclination  for  geometry,  and  so 
rapid  was  his  advance  that  while  yet  in 
bis  sixteenth  year  he  wrote  a  treatise  on 
conic  nections,  which  received  the  aston- 
ished   commendatioa    of    Descartes.     His 
studies  in  languages,  logic,  physics,  and 
pbilasophy  were  pursued  with  such  assidu- 
ity that  his  health  was  irrecoverably  gone 
in  his  eighteenth  year.     In  1647  he  in- 
vented a  calculating  machine,  and  about 
the  same  time  he  made  several  discoveries 
concerning  the  equilibrium  of  fluids,  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  etc.    He  now 
came  under  the  influence  of  the  Jansenists 
—  Arnauld  and  others  —  and  from   1654 
he  lived  much  at  the  monastery  of  Port 
Koyal,  and  partly  accepted  its   rigorous 
rule,  though  he  never  actually  became  a 
solitaire.    He    afterwards    retired    to    a 
country  estate,   and   finally  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  closed  a  life  of  almost 
unbroken  ill-health.    About  1655  he  wrote, 
in  defense  of  his  Jansenist  friend  Arnauld. 
t»a  famous  'Provincial  Letters'  (Lettres 
Ecntea  par  Louis  de  Montalte  A  un  Pro- 
vtnctal  de  aet  Amis),  and  after  his  death 
his  Pentiet  or  Thoughts  were  published 
as  the  fragments  of  an  unfinished  apology 
for  Christianity.     The  latter,  however,  for 
long  appeared  in  a  garbled  aud  corrupt 


form,  and  it  is  only  lately  that  anything 
V«f  a  Pu»"e  text  has  appeared.  Of  the 
ijettreu  there  are  many  trustworthy  edi- 
tions. 

PaSOO.     ^^  ^^'^o  **«  Paaoo. 

Pas-de-Calais  <Pa-d*-k&-la),  a  mari- 
xr..-*!.  m  t""^     department     of 

™n^  f*  France;  area,  2G06  scuare 
miles.  Its  coast,  extending  about  80 
S^s'ii  '  P^sents  a  long  tract  of  low  sand- 
hills, but  near  Boulogne  forms  a  lofty 
crumbbng  cliff.  The  interior  is  generally 
nat,  the  streams  and  canals  are  numer- 

""f'^^^mu***®  '^''  '«•■*''«  "Dd  well  culti- 
vated. The  principal  harbors  are  Bou- 
logne and  Calais.  The  chief  minerals  are 
indifferent  coa  ,  good  pipe  and  potter's 
clay,  and  excellent  sandstone.  There  are 
numerous  iron-foundries,  glassworks,  not> 
l^'iies.  tanneries,  bieachworks,  mills,  and 
factories  of  all  kinds.  The  capital  ia 
Arras.     Pop.  1,012,460.  ^  .-^»,..    -^w      .-    ^,i 

Pasewalk    ^^t''*"'^'    *   ^°^''    °'  ^y  «P«»»"f  out  of  the  Bay  oT°F?n<iy* 
Prowla,     government     of  and  lying  letween  the  i^  i  iSffi; 


Stettin,  27  milea  from  the  town  of  that 
name,  situated  on  the  Ucker.  Ita  indua- 
triea embrace  iron-founding,  starch,  to- 
bacco, etc.    Pop.  10,619.  • 

Pasha  lP*-8li»'.P*'»hA),  in  Turkey,  an 
"  honorary  title  origiually  be- 
stowed on  princes  of  the  blood,  but  now 
conferred  upon  military  commanders  of 
high  rank  and  the  governors  of  provinces. 
There  are  three  grades,  each  distinguished 
by  a  number  of  horse-tails  waving  from 
a  lance,  the  distinctive  badge  of  a  pasha. 
Three  horse-tails  are  allotted  to  the  high- 
est dignitaries ;  the  pashas  of  two  tails  are 
generclly  the  governors  of  the  more  im- 
portant provinces;  and  the  lowest  rank, 
of  one  tail,  is  filled  by  minor  provincial 
governors.  Spelled  also  PocAa  (the 
French  spelling). 

Pasht,  !,°  Egyptian  mythology,  a  god- 
.  '  dess  chiefly  worshiped  in  Buba8< 
tus,  in  Lower  Egypt,  whence  her  alterna- 
tive name  of  Bubaalea.  She  was  said  to 
be  the  daughter  of  the  great  goddess  Isis. 
She  was  represented  with  the  head  of  n 
cat,  the  animal  sacred  to  her. 
Pasqne  Flower    <pask),    the    name 

PuUaUlla.  nat.  ordec  Ranunculacese,  a 
plant  with  purplish  flowers  found  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  so  named  be- 
cause its  petals  are  frequently  used  to 
dye  Easter  or  paaque  eggs.  The  flower 
blossoms  in  spring,  and  its  leaves  when 
crushed  emit  an  acrid,  poisonous  juice. 
Pasquinade    (Pas'kwl-nild),    a    lam- 

...■i.ii„o»:  .  •  ?*"*"'.  ^"^  8**o'"t  satirical 
publication,  deriving  its  name  from  Pat- 
uviuo,  a  tailor  (others  say  a  cobbler,  and 
oiuers  again  a  barber)  who  lived  about 
the  end  of  the  15th  century  in  Rome, 
and  who  was  much  noted  for  his  caustic 
wit  and  satire.  Soon  after  his  death 
satirical  placards  were  attached  to  a  muti- 
lated statue  which  had  been  dug  up  oppo- 

?i  th"  ^^°P-  "^  ""J™"  was  transferred 
to  the  statue  and  the  term  paaguil  or 
pasqumade  applied  to  the  pkoirds  in 
which  the  wags  of  Rome  lampooned  well- 
Known  personages. 

Passaic  ^  P^^^^'^Ji ),  a  city  of  Passaic 
D  .  _,  county.  New  Jersey,  on  the 
Passaic  River,  and  the  main  l&e  of  the 
i!.rie,  N.  Y.,  Susquehanna  &  Western,  and 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  raU- 
roads,  12  mUes  w.  of  New  York.  Has 
large  manufactures  of  wool,  textUes.  and 
hanukerchiefs;   also  extensive  print  aud 

mofnr*!'  l**'^^\.^'^^^''.  m«nufacturing. 
metal,  leather,  silk,  belting  and  packiiu 
plants.     Pop.  66,000.  »»».»"»■ 

Passamaqnoddy  Bay  (pa*^-Bi' 


Jrasian; 


FMMTer 


and  tk«  Ouwdian  praTince  of  New  Brnna- 
widt.  It  is  about  13  miles  loam  and  6 
miles  wide,  and  is  dotted  with  islands 
wmch  make  a  safe  harbor  for  the  thrivinc 
town  of  Eastport. 
Pauant   (Pa!>'u>t),  in  heraldry,  a  term 

TT^  applied  to  a  lion  or  other  ani- 
■lai  in  a  shield  appearing  to  walk  lei- 
surely, looking  straight  before  him,  so 
that  he  is  seen  in  profile;  when  the  full 
face  is  shown  the  term  patMant  gardant 
M  employed;  and  when  the  head  is  turned 
fairly  around,  as  if  the  animal  were  look- 
ing behind,  it  is  pauant  regardant. 
PaSSaU    (P^'«>u)f  a  town  of  Bavaria, 

"""**  picturesquely  situated  on  a 
rocky  tongue  of  land  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Inn  and  Danube,  91  miles 
B.  ir.  ^  of  Munich,  on  the  southeast  fron- 
tier of  the  kingdom.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  an  important  ex- 
ample of  17th  century  work ;  the  bishop's 
palace;  Church  of  S<:.  Michael;  Jesuit 
College,  now  a  lycein;  the  town-house, 
gymnasium,  library,  etc.  There  is  an  im- 
porUnt  trade  in  timber.  The  fortress  of 
Oberhaus  crowns  a  precipitous  wooded 
height  (426  feet)  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube  opposite  Passau.     Pop.  18,003. 

Passeneers  <p^''«?--i*">-..  Railway, 

1      ..  .*°"  other  public  carriers 

are  legally  required  to  carry  passengers 
without  any  negligence  on  their  (the  ear- 
ners )  part.     In  case  of  accident  the  car- 
"*'-"'  .oWiged  to  show  that  it  was  from 
no  fault  or  UMligence  on   his  part,  or 
on    the  part   of  his   servants,    that    the 
accident  occurred.    Hoice  all  passengers 
injured  (or  in  case  of  death  their  nearest 
relatives)  have  a  claim  for  compensation, 
unless  it  can  be  proved  that  the  accident 
was  due  to  the  fault  of  the  passenger. 
Passengers  by  sea  are  carried  subject  to 
the  same  general  law  as  those  by  land; 
the  carriers  are  bound  to  observe  all  due 
precautions  to  prevent  accident  or  delay. 
No  rassenger  ship  having  fifty  persons  on 
board,  and  the  computed  voyage  exceed- 
ing   eighty    days    by    sailing    vessels    or 
-orty-nve   by   steamers,  can   proceed   on 
its  voyage  without  a  duly  qualified  med- 
t\  P'fctitioner  on  board.     In  the  case 
of  imminent  danger  from  tempest  or  ene- 
miea  passengers  may  be  called  upon  by 
the  master  or  commander  of  the  ship  to 
lend    their    assistance    for    the    general 
safety. 

PaSSereS  iP"f?''*«).  the  name  given 
*..^:  .  *»'  Linmens  and  Cuvier  to 
the  extensive  order  of  birds  also  called 
iQS^Kres  or  perchers.  S^  Instssorti. 
Omttkologff. 

PanilUF-belL  !>>•  bell  that  was  rang 

"     '    "  ^^».  In  former  times  at  the 

Hour  of  a  person's  daath,  from  the  belief 


that  devils  lay  in  wait  to  aflUet  tha  soot 
the  moment  when  it  escaped  fimn  the 
bodv.  and  that,  bells  had  the  power  to 
terrify  evil  spirits.  In  the  proper  sense 
of  the  term  it  has  now  ceased  tote  heard, 
but  the  tolling  of  bells  at  deaths  or  funer- 
als is  still  a  usage,  more  particularly  as 
a  mark  of  respect. 

Passion  iP*"''''»°>'  .Tm:.,*  name  for 
.^  ^    the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  and 

its  attendant  sufferings. 

Passion-flower    (^««»/»tf»-«).  a  large 
.     ^     .   ,  genus  of  twining 

plants  belonging  to  the  nat.  order  Pas- 
sifloracejB.  They  are  all  twining  plants^ 
often  climbing  over  trees  to  a  consider, 
able  length,  and  in  many  cases  are  most 
beautiful  objects,  on  account  of  their 
large,  rich,  or  gaily-colored  flowers,  which 
are  often  succeeded  by  orange-colored 
edible  fruits,  for  which  indeed  they  arc 
chiefly  valued  in  the  countries  where  ther 
grow  wild.  Paatiflora  laurifoUa  n»-*- 
duces  the  water-lemon  of  the  West  Im  « 
f^d  P.maliformia  bears  the  sweet  cala- 
bash. The  name  is  applied  more  espe- 
aally  to  P.  casmlia,  which  is  commonly 
cultivated  in  England  out  of  doors,  and 
18  the  one  to  which  the  genus  owes  its 
name. 

PaSSionistS  iPash'un-istz),     a     relig- 

^tT>  *  J  M"^'  °2ii«'^  in  tl»e  Church 
of  Rome,  founded  in  1737.  The  members 
practice  many  austerities;  they  go  bare- 
footed, rise  at  midnight  to  recite  the 
canonical  hours,  etc.  ft  is  also  known  as 
the  Order  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  the  Pas- 
sion of  Christ. 

Passion  PlaV.  *,  ^ystenr  ©r  miracle 
Atm^      *  .      P'"y  representing  the 

different  scenes  m  the  passion  of  Christ. 
The  passion  play  is  still  extant  in  the 
periodic  represenUtions  at  Oberammer- 
gau  (which  see). 

Passion  Week.  se«  Botv  week. 

Passive  <P""'*I)»  ^^  grammar,  a  term 
applied  to  certain  verbal  forms 
or  Inflections  expressive  of  suffering  or 
being  affected  by  some  action,  or  express- 
ing that  the  nomiuative  is  tne  object  of 
some  action  or  feeling;  as,  she  it  loved 
and  admtred. 

Passometer  (Pa»-<Mn'e-t*r),  a  small 
I  J  u  ^  ...  niachine,  with  a  dial  and 
index-hands  like  a  watch,  carried  by 
pedMtrians  to  record  their  steps  in  walk- 
ing a  sort  of  hodometer.  Also  known 
as  .^edometer. 

PaSMVer  (Paa'O-ver),  a  feast  of  the 
Je\ro,  uBtiiuted  to  com- 
memorate the  providential  escape  of  the 
Hebrews  in  E&rpL  when  Oo^^smiting 
the  first-iMm  of  the  Esyptians,  paued 
over  the  bouses  of  th«  Israelites,  whieli 


Paifport 


Faftiodo 


were  lioarked  with  the  blood  of  the 
IMueluU  lamb.  It  wu  celebrated  on 
the  fint  fall  moon  of  the  spring,  from  the 
14th  to  the  21et  of  the  month  Niun, 
which  was  the  first  month  of  tlie  sacred 
year.  Doring  the  eight  days  of  the  feast 
tbo  Israelites  wei-e  permitted  to  eat  only 
unleavened  bread,  hence  the  passover  was 
also  called  the  'feast  of  unleavened 
bread.'  Every  hrnseholder  with  his  fam- 
ily ate  on  the  first  evening  a  lamb  killed 
by  the  priest,  which  was  served  up  with- 
out breaking  the  bones.  The  passover 
was  the  princi;al  Jewish  festival. 


PaSSDOrt    (P''*^P*rt),    a    warrant    of 

,*^  prUectlon  and  authority  to 

travel,  grante';  to  persons  moving  from 

flace  to  placr,  by  a  competent  authority, 
n  some  state-i  uo  foreigner  is  allowed  to 
travel  withor.t  a  passport  from  bis  gov- 
ernment, an'i  in  all  cases  the  visitor  to 
the  continent  of  Europe  is  wiser  to  pro- 
VMe  nimselt  with  one,  if  only  as  a  means 
of  idectifration.  In  Russia  and  Turkey, 
m  particKi'ar,  a  passport  is  indispensable. 
Fassport^  to  British  subjects  are  granted 
?-'  .!^S  Foreign  Office,  London.  In  the 
Lp.H-d  States  passports,  with  description 
w  the  applicant,  are  issued  by  the  Staf^ 
iMsjMTtment  at  Washington.  Thev  art 
good  for  two  years  from  date,  renewabi* 
by  stating  the  date  and  number  of  th*. 
CM  one.  The  fee  required  is  one  dollar. 
They  are  issued  only  to  citizens,  native- 
bom  or  naturalized. 

Pasta  (P*»'t*).  GnroiTTA,  an  operatic 
1  ,  ,2iv^**'«  °°"^  *t  Como,  near  Mi- 
vffiv™  sP^  °'  Jewish  parents ;  died  in 
law.  She  appeared  at  first  without  suc- 
cess, but  in  1819-22  her  reputation  stead- 
ily increased,  and  up  till  1833  she  held 
one  of  the  foremost  places  on  the  lyric 
stage,  which  she  then  quitted.  She  was 
specially  distinguished  in  the  tragic 
opera :  Bellini  wrote  for  her  his  Norma 
and  Sonnamhitla,  and  she  made  the  rOles 
Of  Mtdea,  Detdemona,  and  Semifomide 
her  own. 

Paste  iJ'*"*^'  *  composition  In  which 
there  is  just  sufficient  moisture 
to  soften  without  liquefying  the  mass,  as 
the  paste  made  of  flour  used  in  cookery. 
The  term  IS  applied  to  a  highly  refractive 
variety  of  glass,  a  composition  of  pounded 
,'  rock-crystal  melted  with  alkalinV  salS 
and  colored  with  metallic  oxides :  used  for 

Pastel  <P««'tel),  or  Pastil,  a  colored 
CnvoH.    ^"^°°-     ^^*^^  painting.      gee 

Pastern  i^^'?^'  ,the  part  of  a 
««+  ♦!.  «  '?"®I"  J*«  between  the  joint 
next  the  foot  and  the  coronet  of  the  bo«f  • 


it  answers  to  the  first  phalanx  of  a  man's 
finger. 

Pasteur    (P*»^t««).  Lotns,  a  French 
^  .     ,    «^e™^t  "»d  physicist,  bom 
at  Dftle,  Jura,  in  lffi2;  educated  at  Jena 
University  and  the  Ecole  Normale,  Paris, 
wherein  1847  he  took  bis  degree  as  doc- 
tor.    The  following  year  he  was  appohited 
professor  of  physics  in  Strasburg,  where 
he  devoted  much  research  to  the  subject 
of  fermentation ;  in  1857  he  received  the 
appointment  of  dean  in  the  Faculty  of 
Sciences,  Lille;  in  1863  he  became  pr»- 
fessor  of  geology,  chemistry,  and  physioi 
•t  the  Bcole  des  Beaox-Arti,  Fuia;  ami 
w  1867  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Sor- 
bpnne.     He   became   a    member  of   tiw 
Frwich  Academy  in   1882.      He  won  a 
world-wide  reputation  by  hia  mccess  in 
demonstrating  the  agency  of  microbes  in 
fermentation  and  decomposition,  in  intro- 
ducing a  successful  treatment  of  disease 
p  silkworms  and  cattle,  and  in  his  efforU 
to  check  hydrophobia  by  means  of  inocu- 
lation.   To  enable  him  to  deal  with  this 
disease  under  the  best  conditions  a  Po»- 
teur  InaMute  was  opened  In  Paris,  where 
patients  were  received  from  all  parts  of 
''Europe,  and  thousands  of  persons  suifer- 
lug  from  hydrophobia  were  cured  of  the 
terrible  disease.    Similar  institutlcms  haye 
een  opened  elsewhere.    He  died  in  1885. 
bee  Hydrophobia. 

Pasteurizer  ^JKf'H''"*^*'^' J?  *^^ 

J  *•.  ^  Mtus  for  preserving  milk 
and  other  flnids  from  deterioriation, 
named  from  Louis  Pasteur  (q.  v.)  Oa 
famous  French  chemist  To  Ull  the  ba«- 
teria  a  degree  of  heat  varying  fwmi  180 
to  160  Fahrenheit  is  employed.  Tke 
pMtenriiation  of  milk  baa  grown  in  fkvoK 
and  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  United 
States  Dqtartment  of  Ankmltarc  an- 
nouncn  that  it  has  been  proven  to  be  lew 
^pen^ve  than  is  generally  believwL 
According  to  the  figiues  of  the  denait- 
ment  a  Mrefnl  study  of  a  nomber  of  ^^k 
Rq?^  "^oye^  the  average  cort  to  to 
0.313  cent  for  a  gallon  of  milk  and  0.684 
for  a  gaUon  of  cream.  Laboratory  teats 
have  indicated  that  milk  can  be  botUed 
hot  and  thus  prevent  reinfecti<m  while 
handling  The  paatenrisation  of  milk  at 
low  temperatures  is  said  to  hasten  tto 
rising  ofereaau 

Pasticcio  (P*»-ti8h'i-8),  In  mnide,  an 
opera,  cantata,  or  othar 
work,  the  separate  numbers  of  which  ai« 
gleaned  from  the  compositiain  of  vsrions 
authors,  or  from  several  diaceonectsd 
works  of  one  author.    In  art  the  t«m  b 

fi*^Jiwi?  1  V\  ^^J^^'  *•»¥**  original 
is  rt2l*^uLi*  *°  treatment  andexeoStioii 
In  the  direct  manner  of  aaotlwr  artist 


FwtiUe 


Patagonia 


Pastille   <P"'t*i.  pwita').  or  pastu,, 

a  mixture  of  udorouH  gum- 
renn  made  up  into  small  cones  and 
burned  in  an  apartment  to  give  it  a  pleas- 
ant perfume.  Pastilles  are  also  made  into 
gilla,  and  used  by  smokers  to  give  the 
reath  an  aromatic  odor. 
Pasto  (P^B'tO).  a  town  of  the  republic 
of  Colombia,  dep.  Cauca,  found- 
ed in  1530.  It  has  manufactures  of  blank- 
ets, hats,  pottery,  etc.    Pop.  6000. 

Paston  Letters,  ^Vers^^SSfeS 

by  and  to  members  of  the  Paston  family 
in  Norfolk  during  the  period  of  the  warj 
of  the  Ruses,  four  volumes  of  which  werD 
published  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Johu 
Fenn,  and  a  fifth  by  his  literary  executor. 
Sergeant  Frete  (Loudon,  1787-89  and 
1823).  These  letters  deal  freely  with  the 
domestic  affairs,  the  interests  in  public 
movements,  the  intriguing  at  elections, 
and  tbe  lawsuits  of  this  particular  family, 
and  all  the  relations  of  English  popular 
life  in  the  period  in  which  they  were  writ- 
ten. An  accurate  and  extended  edition  in 
3  vols,  by  Mr.  Gairdner  has  been  pub- 
lished (1872-75). 

Pastor  (Ptts|tur),  a  genus  of  birds  be- 
longing to  the  starling  family, 
found  in  the  north  of  Africa,  Syria,  and 
India.  The  rose-colored  pastor  (P.  ro- 
sius)  is  a  favorite  song  binl. 
Pastor  ^^^  regularly  onlained  preacher 
'  of  a  congregation  of  religious 
worshipers. 

Pastoral  Letters  (Pas'tur-al)  arc 
circulars  ad- 
dressed by  a  bishop  to  the  clergy  or  laity 
under  his  jurisdiction  at  certain  stated 
times  or  on  special  occasions  for  pur- 
poses of  instruction  or  admonition. 

Pastoral  Poetry,    S°f^^y  '^Wch 

Jf  deals,  in  a  more 
or  less  direct  form,  with  rustic  life.  It 
has  generally  flourished  in  highly-cor- 
rupted artificial  states  of  society.  Thus 
it  was  that  Theo^'ritus,  the  first  pastoral 

{)oet,  made  artistic  protest  against  the 
icentiousness  of  Syracuse*  and  Virgil 
wrote  his  Bucolics  and  Eclogucn  in  the 
corrupt  Roman  court.  In  the  16th  cen- 
tury pastoral  poetry  received  its  most 
notable  expression  in  the  Arcadia  of  G. 
Sannazaro,  the  Aminta  of  Tasso,  and  the 
Pastor  Fido  of  Guarini.  This  tendency, 
which  was  so  ,)otent  in  Italy,  spread  to 
England,  and  influenced  the  Shepherd's 
Calendar  of  Spenser,  the  Arcadia  of  Sid- 
ney, the  Faithful  Shepherdess  of  Fletcher, 
As  You  lAkc  It  of  Shakespeare,  and  the 
Coma*  of  Milton.  The  Gentle  Shepherd 
of  Allan  Ramsey  (1725)  was  the  last  suc- 
cessful dramatic  pavtoral. 


Pastoral  Binsr  *  "^  ^°"^  ^v 
^uawMiu.  Aiu^,   bishops  on  the  ri«- 

fingcr  of  the  right  hand. 

Pastoral  Staflf,  i^i^tror'^SW 

It  is  of  metal,  or  of  wood  ornamented 
with  metal,  and  has  the  head  curved  in 
the  form  of  a  shepherd's  crook  as  a  sym- 
bol of  the  pastoral  ofiBce.    See  Crosier. 

Pastoral  Theology,  '^^\  Pf"J  ^^l 

which  treats  of  the  obligations  of  the  pas- 
tors themselves,  and  which  is  therefore 
designed  for  the  training  and  preparation 
of  the  candidates  for  the  pastoral  office. 
PastrV  ^  Pfts'tri ) ,  'articles  of  food  made 
*  of  paste  or  dough,  which  has 
been  worked  up  with  butter  or  fat,  so 
that  it  aHsumes  a  light,  flaky  appearance. 
There  are  several  varieties,  such  as  puff- 
paste,  paste  for  raised  pies,  and  a  light 
spongy  kind  called  hriochc.  Pastry  as  a 
rule  is  somewhat  indigestible. 
Pasture  (pas'tOr),  land  under  grass 
and  herbage,  which  is  eaten 
as  it  grows  by  horsp««.  oxen,  sheep,  and 
other  herbivorous  i  aals.  First-class 
pastures  are  used  for  feeding  heavy  oxen ; 
second  class  for  inferior  or  dairy  cattle; 
while  hillsides,  moors,  and  uplands  are 
utilized  for  sheep.  The  great  plains  of 
the  Western  United  States  have  long  been 
devoted  to  pasture,  feeding  vast  multitudes 
of  grazing  animals,  and  the  same  is  the 
case  with  the  great  grassy  areas  of  South 
America,  New  Zealand,  and  Australia. 
See  Common. 

PatasrlTini      (Pa-t«-JI'ain)  is  the  name 
.    .         .  applie<l  to  the  expansion 

of  the  skin  or  integumentary  membrane 
by  means  of  which  buts,  flying  squirrels, 
flying  lizards,  and  other  semi-aerial  forms 
support  themselves  in  the  air.  This  mem- 
brane is  not  a  ^rue  wing,  but  is  used  as 
a  kind  of  parachute  for  temporary  sup- 
port. 

Pata&ronia     (Pa-tn-gO'nl-a),  the  name 
o  usually    applied    to    that 

southern  portion  of  South  America  which 
is  bounded  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  w.  by  the 
Pacific,  s.  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and 
N.  by  the  Rio  Negro.  Since  1881  this 
large  territory  has  been,  by  treaty  divided 
between  Chile  and  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic. NO  that  the  portion  west  of  the  Andea 
(63,(X)0  square  miles)  belongs  now  to  the 
former,  and  the  portion  east  of  the  Andes 
(360.000)  belongs  to  the  latter.  The 
Straits  of  Magellan  form  a  southern 
boundary  of  360  miles,  and  separate  the 
mainland  from  the  lumierous  islands 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Here  the  Chilean 
government  has  established  the  settlement 
of  Punta  Arenas,  with  stations  along  the 


FatanuuF 


Patera 


coMt  Pstagonia  eait  of  the  Andes  coo- 
■iita  mainly  of  TAst  undulating  plains, 
frcQuentiy  covered  witli  shingle  ana 
broken  up  by  ridges  of  volcanic  rock. 
The  vegetation  is  scantv,  except  in  tlie 
region  adjoining  the  Andes,  and  in  many 
places  there  are  shallow  salt  lakes  and 
lagoons.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rio 
Negro,  the  Cbupat,  the  Rio  Desire,  and 
the  Rio  Chico,  all  of  which  have  their 
sources  in  the  Andes,  and  run  eastward. 
There  are  few  if  any  good  seaports.  The 
Patagonians  are  a  tall,  muscular  race 
averaging  fully  6  fiot  in  height,  with 
black  hair,  thick  lips,  and  skin  of  a  dark- 
brown  color.  They  are  a  nomad  race, 
divided  into  numerous  tribes,  whose  chief 
occupation  is  in  hunting  and  cattle-breed- 
ing. This  native  population,  however, 
never  numerous,  is  rapidly  disappearing. 
Colonization  is  encouraged  by  the  Argen- 
tine government,  and  there  are  many 
tracts  suitable  for  European  settlement. 
The  country  was  first  discovered  by  Ma- 
gellan in  1520. 

Fatamar  (pa-t;-™ir'),  a  vessel  em- 
ployed  in  the  coasting  trade 
of  Bombay  and  Ceylon.  Its  keel  has  an 
upward  curve  amidships,  and  extends 
only  about  half  the  length  of  the  vessel; 
the  stem  and  stern,  especially  the  former, 
have  great  rake ;  and  the  draught  of  wa- 
ter is  much  greater  at  the  head  than  at 
the  stern.  These  vessels  sail  remarkably 
well,  and  stow  a  good  cargo. 
Patau.      ^^  LalUapatan. 

Patchouli  (Pa-cW'").  »  perfume  oh^ 
^^  tamed  from  the  dried 
leaves  and  branches  of  the  Pogottemon 
mitehouli,  a  labiate  plant  of  India  and 
China,  where  it  is  cultivated  on  a  large 
scale.  It  is  used  in  India  to  scent  costly 
Cashmere  shawls,  tobacco,  and  hair-oil, 
and  is  everywhere  valued  as  a  preserva- 
tive  of  woolens  and  linens  from  ImKcta. 

I    Pftttdefoiegras  <^;|'.%,'-{ 

•^  mr^de  from  the  enlarged  livers  of  overfed 
geese,  and  much  relished  by  epicures.  It 
is  made  in  the  form  of  a  pie,  and  tronx  its 
oily  nature  is  very  ir  ligestible. 
Patella  (r>a-tel'a),  fie  name  applied 
«.»*«>«•  ^^  anatomy  to  the  'knee- 
cap '  or  '  knee-pan,'  the  sesamoid  bone 
of  the  knee. —  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
a  genus  of  gasteropodous  molluscs  com- 
prising the  limpetci. 

Paten  ^P**'*")'  "»  ecclesiastical  term 
applied  to  the  roand  metailic 
plate  on  which  the  bread  is  placed  in  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lc-d's  supper.  It  often 
serves  as  a  cover  for  the  chalice. 
Patent  iPat'e°t.  pa'tent),  a  privilege 
from  government  granted  by 


letters  patent  (whence  the  name),  con- 
veying to  the  individual  er  individuals 
specified  therein  the  sole  right  to  make, 
use,  or  dispose  of  some  new  invention  or 
discovery  for  a  certain  limited  period. 
The  patent  laws  vary  considerably  In  dif- 
ferent countries.  In  the  United  Sutes 
under  the  act  of  1870  a  patent  is  granted 
for  a  period  of  seventeen  years  to  the 
original  inventor  only;  in  France  it  is 
granted  to  the  patentee  for  a  term  of  fif- 
teen years  on  payment  of  $20  annually ;  in 
Germany  the  period  is  fifteen  years  with 
a  first  payment  of  $7.50 ;  in  Great  Britain 
it  is  granted  for  fourteen  /ears,  but  the 
period  may  be  extended  if  the  inventor 
can  prove  that  his  invention,  while  use- 
ful, has  been  of  little  benefit  to  him. 
The  various  colonies  and  dependencies  of 
Great  Britain  have  each  a  separate  patent 
law.  An  international  convention  for  the 
protection  of  patentees  has  becm  formed 
whereby  equal  rights  are  secured  in  all 
the  signatory  countries.  The  Patent 
Office  of  the  United  States  is  a  bureau 
of  vast  extent,  its  extensive  museum  of 
800,000  models,  located  in  a  fine  marble 
building,  being  one  of  the  sights  of  the 
capital.  It  employs  a  large  number  of 
examiners  and  clerks,  and  issues  more 
than  30,000  patenta  annually.  It  issues 
minthly  volumes  in  quarto,  with  detailed 
iescriptions  and  drawings  of  patents,  and 
a  weekly  Official  Qaxette  of  the  Patent 
Office,  with  reduced  drawings  and  lists  of 
new  patents. 

Wftfkin  forty  years  (1871-1910)  the 
United  States  iissued  over  800,000  patents, 
while  the  total  number,  since  the  forma- 
tion of  the  government,  crossed  the  1,000,- 
000  mark  in  1911.  This  much  sur- 
passes the  issue  of  other  countriei,  the 
rttents  issued  by  Great  Britabi  and 
ranee  being  about  400,000  for  each 
country;  Germany,  226,000;  Belgium, 
mow;  Canada,  120.000,  and  other  na^ 
tions  in  diminishing  numbers. 
Patera  <Pat'e-ni).  *  shallow,  circular, 
„  saucer-like  vessel  used  by  the 

Greeks  and  Romans  in  their  sacrifices  and 
libations.    The  name  is  applied  in  archi- 


ArehitcetunI  Peter*. 

tectnre  to  the  representation  of  a  flatJ^ 
round  dish  in  bas-relief,  used  as  an  oraa- 
neat  in  friezes,  etc. 


P«t«roiiliii 


Fatmof 


VKunus,  an  andcat 
Bonan  biatoriao,  bon  abcot  19  B^: 
diad  aboQt  lil  A.a 

Paternians  iSJ"2S  We  Sth'*S: 

tm,  followara  of  Patermu,  who  are  aaid 
to  iMiTe  held  that  Ck>d  made  tbe  nobler 
parta  of  man  and  Satan  tbe  lower. 
Hence  tbey  aerved  Ood  with  the  former 
parta  and  tbe  devil  with  tbe  latter. 
Ffttemo  (P*-t*''nO),  an  ancient  town 
x-«l.cruo  of  Sicily,  10  milea  nortb- 
weat  of  Catania,  at  tbe  foot  of  Mt.  Etna. 
In  the  vicinity  are  mineral  springs  and 
the  rouihia  of  hatha,  an  aqueduct,  etc. 
Pop.  20,098. 

Paternoster  /<5;?*'-|Se*r'.').^;& 

opening  of  worda  of  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Lord's  prayer,  hence  employed  to  des- 
ignate the  prayer  itself.  See  LortTa 
Praifer, 

Paterson  iJ^SLV^VS^'  "■  *"'**'•  t**® 

„       _  capital    of    Passaic    county. 

New  Jersey,  on  both  sides  of  tlie  Passaic, 
near   its  celebrated   falls,   and   16  miles 
northwest   from   New    Yorlt.    The   town 
was  founded  in  1792,  and  now  possesses 
numerous    churches,    schools,    parks,    li- 
brary,  etc.     Tbe  falls,  60  ft  high,  are 
within  the  city  limits  and  supply  abun- 
dant wateroower  to  tbe  numerous  manu- 
factories of  the  place.    The  eilk  industry 
here  is  the  most  important  in  the  United 
States,    the   silk   nulls   and   silk   dyeing 
establishments     giving     employment     to 
26,000  hands.    There  are  large  shirt  fac- 
tories, locomotive  and  bridge  works,  ma- 
chine shops  and  cotton  and  woolen  mills. 
In  addition  linens,  carpets,  velvets,  iron 
fopdn,    and    various    other    articles    are 
made.    The  city  has  several  academic  in- 
stitutions.   Pop.  125,600. 
Paterson.   William,     financier     and 
Z     ,     :"    '  founder    of    tbe    Bank    of 
England,  was  bom  in  Dumfriesshire  in 
10® ;  died  in  London  in  1719.    He  went 
through  England  as  a  peddler,  settled  for 
•  wnge  "t  Bristol,  subsequently  resided  in 
the  Bahama  Islands.    Returning  to  Lon- 
don, he  engaged  in  trade  with  success, 
and  in  1OT4  proposed  and  founded  the 
Bank  of  England,  being  one  of  its  first 
directors.    Before  this  time  he  had  con- 
ceived tbe  project  of  foundins  a  free  em- 
porium of  trade  in  Darien,  and  in  1606 
he  obtained  the  sanction  of  a  Scottish  act 
of    parliament    constituting    the    Darien 
Company.     (See  Darien  Scheme.)    After 
the  failure  of  this  great  scheme  he  re- 
turned to  England,  broken  in  health  and 
fortune.     When  the  Treaty  of  Union  be- 
tween  England  and   Scotland   was  con- 
cluded in  1707,  Paterson,  who  waa  one 


of  ita  warmest  adtMstas,  tttwt  much 
difficulty  received  an  lademiiitj  of  {18,- 
WO  for  tbe  losses  he  had  suatained. 
Paterson  waa  a  great  financial  gmioa. 
but  most  of  his  views  (such  aa  his  advo- 
cacy of  free-trade)  were  far  in  advance 
of  bis  time. 

PatholOffV     (P«-t>»J.'<>-Jl).  that  part 

plains  tbe  nature  of  diaeaaes,  their  causes 
and  symptoms,  comprehending  nosology, 
etio.ogy,  and  aymptomatology.  Pathology 
may  be  divided  into  general  patholoffy, 
which  rMards  what  ia  common  to  a  num- 
ber of  diseases  taken  as  a  claas;  and 
apeoMl  patholony,  which  treata  of  Indi- 
vidual diseases. 

Patiala  (P«t-«-a'l*).  «n  Indian  na- 
*  "  "  tive  state  in  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Punjab  government,  the  larger 
part  of  which  ia  situated  south  of  the 
Sutlej  and  the  other  part  in  tbe  hill 
country  near  Simla;  area,  6412  square 
miles.     Besides    the    usual    agricultural 

Products,  the  state  has  slate,  lead,  mar- 
ie, and  copper  mines.  The  Mab&rAja 
of  Patiala  has  been  of  service  to  Se 
British  government  on  several  critical 
occasions,  such  as  tbe  mutiny  of  1867, 
and  for  this  loyalty  be  has  been  re- 
warded by  an  increase  of  territory.  Pop. 
g.'J^®  "i?S.lf'  1'586,692.  Tbe  capital  Is 
Patiala,  130  miles  8.B.  of  Amritsir.  It 
was  founded  in  1762  by  Sardar  Ala 
Singh,  and  has  a  pop.  of  63,629. 
Patina  (?«-*«'?«.  pat'I-na),  in  the  fine 
-11.  i:  ^V*'  the  fine  green  rust   (an 

alkaline  carbonate  of  copper)  with  which 
ancient  bronzes  and  copper  coins  and 
medals  become  covered  by  lying  In  par- 
Ucular  soils.  This,  like  varnish,  is  at 
once  preservative  and  ornamental.  An 
artificial  patina  is  produced  by  tbe  forgers 
of  antiquities  bv  acting  on  them  with 
acetic  acid,  but  it  is  not  durable. 
Patmore  (Pafmor).  Covewtbt  Kea». 
8KT  Deiqhton,  an  English 
poet,  bom  In  1823.  He  published  his 
first  volume  of  poems  in  1844,  becac:: 
assistant  librarian  at  the  British  Museum, 
and  associated  himself  with  tbe  pre- 
Raphaelite  movement.  His  reputation  aa 
a,Poet  was  established  by  tbe  publicaticn 
of  the  four  parts  of  r*«  Angel  in  the 
Howe  (1854-63),  which  he  revised  in 
successive  editions.  Besides  this  work  he 
published  The  Unknown  Erot  and  other 
9**'j  a.  poetical  anthology  called  the 
Chtldren't  Garland,  a  Me^.  tir  of  B.  W. 
Proctor,  and  several  contribntiMis  to 
periodicals.  H*  died  in  1896. 
PatmOS    (Pat'mos),  an  island  of  Tup- 

A  1..  ,  ''^'L  ^  45.**'  *"  t>>e  Grecbm 
Archipelago,  about  26  miles  s.8.w.  of 
Samoa ;  greatest  length,  12  miles ;  breadth. 


FitBA 


Patriok 


nmtlj  6.  The  island  ia  an  irregular  nuuM 
of  iMurren  rock,  africaltural  products  ar« 
scanty,  and  the  population  (mostly 
Greeks)  find  their  chief  occupation  in 
fishing.  Near  the  excellent  natural  har- 
bw  of  La  Scala  is  the  small  town  of 
Patmos,  overlooked  by  the  old  monas- 
tery of  St  John,  in  a  grotto  of  which, 
it  is  said,  the  Apostle  John  saw  his 
apocalyptic  visions.  Pop.  about  4000. 
Patna  (pafuS),  a  city  of  Hindustan. 
^^  in  the  lieucenant^ovemorship  of 
Bengal,  situated  on  the  Ganges  near  its 
junction  with  the  Son  and  the  Gandak, 
and  about  400  miles  northwest  from  Cal- 
cutta. It  extends  for  9  miles  along  the 
river,  from  which  its  tombs,  mosques,  and 
monuments  present  a  fine  appearance. 
On  the  west  side  is  the  suburb  of  Banki- 
pur,  where  the  government  offices  and 
European  residences  are  situated.  By 
reasmi  of  its  central  position  and  natural 
advantages  the  city  is  an  important 
business  mart,  and  the  chief  seat  of  the 
opium  trade.  Pop.  134,785. —  The  dis- 
trict of  Patita  has  an  area  of  2079 
square  miles,  for  the  most  flat  and  ex- 
ceedingly fertile.  The  staple  crop  is  rice, 
and  the  other  products  are  wheat,  barley, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  sugar-cane.  Pop. 
1,624,985. 

Patna  *  native  state  in  the  Central 
'  Provinces  of  India.  The  coun- 
try is  hilly,  and  its  large  forests  are  in- 
fested by  tigers,  leopards,  etc.,  while  about 
a  fourth  of  its  area  of  2400  square  miles 
is  cultivated.  It  is  now  under  direct 
British  supervision.  Pop.  277,748. 
Patois  (PA-twa),  a  French  word  of 
unknown  origin  used  to  denote 
a  dialect  spoken  by  the  rustic,  provincial, 
or  uneducated  classes. 
Paton  (pafon),  John  Gibson,  mls- 
sionary  to  the  New  Hebrides 
(1824-1907),  born  at  Kirkmahoe,  near 
Dumfries,  Scotland,  educated  at  Dumfries 
Academjr,  Normal  Seminary  and  Glasgow 
University.  He  was  a  city  missionary  in 
Glasgow  for  ten  years,  and  after  being 
nrdained  to  the  ministry,  sailed  for  the 
New  Hebrides  in  1858.  His  struggles  to 
propagate  the  Gospel  among  the  cannibals 
are  graphically  told  in  his  Autobiography. 
In  1892  he  visited  the  United  States. 
Paton.  S"  Joseph  Noel,  a  Scottish 
**'7"»  painter  (1821-190i),  bom  at 
Dunfermline.  Among  his  pointings  are 
^•*\Oleanmq,  Spirit  of  Religion,  Oberon 
and  Tttanw,  Luther  at  Erfvri,  etc. 
PatraS  (P?'t'*»).  »  fortified  seaport 
„  «nd  important  trading  town  of 

tireece,  in  the  northwest  of  the  Morea, 
OB  the  east  side  of  the  gulf  of  same 
name.  Hie  public  buildings  include  sev- 
eral (AarefaM.  habitats,  and  a  celebrated 


castle  of  great  atrenctb,  also  ranaiM  of 
a  Roman  aqueduct.  There  is  aa  im- 
portant trade  in  currants.  Pop.  87*401 
—  The  Gulf  of  Patras  lies  betweoi  the 
northwest  part  of  the  Morea  and  Noitlf 
em  Greece,  and  communicates  on  tiM 
east  with  the  Gulf  of  L<«Muito. 

Patriarch  i?^r-A'£''t5fi  ?nS 

archein,  to  rale),  the  anteoiiuvian  head 
of  a  family ;  especially,  originally  anplied 
to  the  three  ancestors  of  the  Hebrew  race, 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  The  term 
at  a  later  period  became  the  title  of 
the  presidents  of  the  sanhedrim,  which 
exercised  a  general  authority  over  the 
Jews  of  Syria  and  Persia  after  the  de- 
straction  of  Jerusalem.  From  them  the 
title  was  adopted  by  the  Christiana,  who 
applied  it,  from  the  beginnhig  of  the  5th 
century,  to  the  bishops  of  Rome,  Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and 
Jerasalem.  The  Patriarch  of  Rome  be- 
came the  supreme  pontiff  of  the  West 
(see  Popet),  the  four  heads  of  the  East- 
em  church  preserving  the  title  of  pa- 
triarch. The  PatriarHi  of  Constantinople 
is  the  primate  of  the  Greek  Chuivh  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  bears  the  titie 
of  <BC«me<itcaI. 

Patrician    (pa-tri«l»'an;  Latin,  patri- 
"  ,   OMw,  from  «o«er,  father), 

the  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  the 
members  and  descendants  by  blood  or 
adoption  of  the  original  aente*,  houses 
or  clans  who,  after  the  plebeians  became 
a  distinct  order,  constituted  the  aris- 
tocracy of  the  city  and  territory.  See 
Rome, 

Patrick  if**''**  5    P*J»icro»).    s*- 
AvxxvA.   the  apostle  of   Ireland,   was 

bom  about  873  in  the  British  Roman 
province  of  Valentia,  probably  at  Nem- 
thur  on  the  Clyde  where  Ehimbarton  now 
is.  His  father,  a  decuri<m  in  the  Roman 
army,  retired  to  a  farm  on  the  Solway. 
whence,  at  the  age  of  sixteoi,  Patrick 
was  carried  off  by  a  band  of  marauders 
and  sold  as  a  slave  to  the  Irish  Celts 
of  county  Antrim.  After  six  "ears  he 
made  his  «Kape,  and,  resolving  to  de- 
vote himself  to  the  conversicHi  of  Ireland, 
prroared  himself  for  the  priesthood! 
probably  at  the  moiaatic  Imiitation 
T^S^  ^K^!^  Ninian  at  Candida  Caaa 
(Wl  horn)  in  Galloway.  Having  been 
ordained  a  bishop  and  received  th*  papal 
benediction  from  Cele^tine  I,  Im  wSt 
over  to  Ireland  about  the  year  4S5.  He«e 
he  is  said  to  have  founded  over  360 
churches,  baptized  with  his  own  ^"mi 
more  than  12,000  persons,  and  ordained 
a  (Teat  number  of  priests.  Hie  date  of 
hfa  dMth  is  probably  468;  it  occurred 
•t    a    place   called    Saul,    near   Dow*. 


Patrick 


Pfttti 


K trick,  and  hia  relica  were  preeenred  at 
>«mpatrick  till  the  time  of  the  Reforma* 
tion.  Hia  authentic  literary  remaina  con- 
akt  of  hia  Confeuiotu  aitd  a  letter  ad- 
dreaaed  to  a  Welah  chief  named  Corotic. 
^  eziatMce  of  two  other  Irish  apoatlea, 
Patrick  or  Palladina.  and  Senn  (old) 
Patrick,  about  the  acnie  time  has  caused 
much  confusion  in  the  history  of  the  early 
Irish  church. 

Patrick  ^''•t  OsoEV  or,  an  Irish  or- 
r  Ji:  *  <J«f  o'  kniahtbood,  instituted 
m  1788  by  Oeorge  III,  originally  con- 
alstina  of  the  sovereign,  the  lord-lieuten- 
ant of  Ireland  for  the  time  being  (who 
ia  the  grandmaster  of  the  order),  and 
fifteen  knights;  but  by  a  statute  in  1833 
the  order  was  enlarged  and  the  number 
of  knights  raised  to  twenty-two.  The 
badgp  of  the  order  is  of  gold,  oval  in 
shape,  with  the  cross  of  St.  Patrick 
surmounted  by  a  shamrock  in  the  center, 
and  round  this  is  a  blue  enameled  band 
bearing  the  motto  '  Quia  separlbit.'  The 
iMdge  is  suspended  to  a  collar  of  roses 
and  harps  by  means  of  an  imperial  crown 
and  gold  harp.  The  mantle  and  hood 
are  of  aky-blue  tabinet,  lined  with  white 
ailk. 

Patristic  Theolcgy  <PViS^e% 

biatorical  theology  which  Is  particularly 
devoted  to  the  lives  and  doctrines  of  the 
fathers  of  the  church. 
PatrOClnS    (pa-trCWus),   in    Greek 

lea,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Tro- 
jan war.  Hia  success  was  at  first  bril- 
liant; but,  Apollo  having  stunned  him 
and  rendered  him  defenseless,  he  was  slain 
by  Euphorbus  and  Hector.  See  Achille$. 
Patrol  (?*-*'<*•').  a  walking  or  march- 
.  '"  ing  round  by  a  guard  in  the 
night  to  watch  and  observe  what  passes, 
and  to  secure  the  peace  and  safety  of  a 
garrison,  town,  camp,  or  other  place; 
also,  the  guard  or  persons  who  go  the 
rounds  for  observation. 
Patron  (P^'trun),  in  the  Roman  re- 
""  public,  a  patrician  who  had 
plebeians,  called  clients,  under  hia  imme- 
diate protection,  and  whose  interests  be 
supported  by  his  authority  and  influence. 
In  later  times  the  term  patron  was  ap- 
plied to  every  protector  or  influential 
promoter  of  the  interests  of  ot*-  ^rs ;  hence 
the  saints  who  were  believed  to  watch 
over  the  interests  of  particular  persons, 
places,  or  trades  were  called  patron 
saints.    See  next  article. 

Patronaere  ipa'trun-ij,  pat'run-ij), 

*  o     Ecclesiastical,  the  right 

of  presenting  a  fit  person  to  a  vacant 
benefice.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  bishops 
appointed  the   holders  of  all  beoeficea. 


bat  aubaequently  wboi  proprietor*  of 
lands  began  to  erect  and  endow  churchea 
they  obtained  theprivilege  of  nominating 
the  clergyman.  For  a  considerable  time 
not  only  the  nomination  but  alao  t>>«  in- 
veatiture  of  the  clergy  were  in  the  .da 
of  lavmen;  but  the  hierarchy  began  to 
consider  this  an  infringement  of  ita  pre- 
rogativea,  and  several  succeaaive  popes 
and  councils  declared  that  the  inveati- 
ture  was  not  valid  unless  it  bad  also 
received  the  sanction  of  the  eccleaiastical 
authority.  Eccleaiastical  patronage  thus 
came  to  reside  mainly  in  the  pope,  and 
the  principal  benefices  in  Europe  were 
filled  by  Italian  ecclesiastics,  who  were 
often  ignorant  of  the  language  of  their 
fiocks.  In  England  this  led  to  the 
Statutes  of  Provisors  (1350-1415),  by 
which  persons  who  should  attempt  to  en- 
force such  appointments  were  subj«'cted 
to  severe  penalties.  In  England  the 
sovereign  is  the  patron  paramount  of 
all  benefices  which  do  not  belong  to  other 
patrons ;  but  a  vast  number  of  livings  are 
in  the  gift  of  private  persona,  who  pos- 
sess the  advotcson  as  attached  to  tneir 
property.  See  Advoicson. 
Patroons     ^^^  name  given  to  the  lorda 

nial  days  in  America.  The  act  of  IWd 
provided  that  directors  and  shareholdera 
?n  the  Dutch  West  India  Co.  (q.  ▼.) 
might  take  up  certain  sections  of  land  in 
New  Netherland  provided  they  aettled  • 
number  of  tenants  thereon.  These  estates 
were  known  as  manors  and  their  pro- 
prietors as  patroons.  The  tenants  were 
bound  for  a  period  usually  of  ten  yeara 
and  were  little  better  than  slaves,  with 
the  patroons  petty  sovereigns  within  their 
domains.  The  evils  of  the  patroon  aystem 
culminated  in  the  Anti-Rent  War  (q.  v.), 
which  put  an  end  to  feudal  tenures.  The 
largest  manor,  and  the  most  soccessfnl, 
was  that  of  Kilaen  Van  Rensselaer  in  Al- 
bany and  Rensselaer  counties. 
Patten  (Pafen),  Simon  Nelsoh. 
""  economist,  born  at  Sandwich, 
Illinois,  in  1852,  became  professor  of 
political  economy  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1888.  He  wrote  Theory 
of  Social  Forces,  Development  of  English 
Thought,  The  New  Basts  of  CiviliMtion, 
Product  and  Clima  ,  etc. 
Patti  (P«t'e),  DEUNA  Mabia  Guy 
BLNOA,  opera  singer,  born  at  Ma- 
drid in  1843;  received  her  musical  train- 
ing from  her  brother-in-law,  Maurice 
Strakosch;  made  her  first  appearance  in 
New  York  in  1859  as  Luna;  and  in 
1861  made  a  brilliant  d6but  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  in  the  parta  of  Amina, 
Violetta,  Zerlina,  and  Martha.  Snbm- 
ouently  she  aucceaafulbr  eatabitshed  ist 


FftttiMm 


i  i 


Nputatimi  M  an  artlite  in  the  chief  cittee 
of  Borope  and  America.  She  married 
three  timet,  to  the  Marquis  de  Ctu, 
1868,  Sisnor  Nicolinl.  1883.  and  Baron 
Cedersirom,  1899.  She  died  at  Oraic-y- 
NoB  Oaatle,  Wales,  Sept  27.  1919. 

Pattison  Jpgt'f-n^K  tr*in"ifi!f: 

died  in  1884.  He  wai  educated  at  Oriel 
CollMe,  Oxford;  received  a  fellowship 
in  1^8,  and  two  years  subsequently  he 
was  ordained  and  won  the  Denyer  theo- 
logical prize.  In  1853  he  was  appointed 
tutor  of  his  college,  and  in  1861  became 
rector  (or  head)  of  Lincoln  College. 
He  devoted  himself  to  university  reform, 
for  this  purpose  made  many  journeys  to 
Oermanv,  and  was  assistant-commissioner 
on  the  educational  commi-ssion  of  the  Duke 
of  Newcastle.  He  was  a  contributor  to 
the  famous  E*»ay»  and  Reviewt,  and 
pablished  an  edition  of  Pope's  EpUtlea 
•nd  Satiret  (1869),  a  work  on  Isaac 
Casaubon  (1875),  a  memoir  of  Milton 
in  the  Jfen  of  Letter*  Beriet  (1879),  the 
Bonnett  of  Milton,  etc. 
Pan  (?<*)»*  town  of  France,  capital  of 
"•  the  department  of  Basse  s-Pyr- 
in^s,  formerly  of  Btom,  picturesquely 
situated  on  a  height  above  the  right  bank 
of  the  Oave-de-Pau,  in  view  of  the  Pyre- 
nees (10  miles  distant),  and  58  miles 
CS.B.  of  Bayonnc.  The  most  interesting 
edifice  is  the  castle  in  which  Henry  IV 
was  born,  crowning  a  rising  ground  and 
overlooking  the  Oave-de-Pau.  It  is  a 
large  irregular  structure,  flanked  with  six 
square  towers.  The  oldest  part  is  sup- 
posed to  date  from  1363,  and  the  whole 
is  well  preserved.  Pau  is  a  favorite 
winter  resort,  enjoying  a  mild  dry  climate 
and  a  peculiar  stillness  of  the  atmosphere, 
with  no  sudden  variations  of  temperature. 
Pop.  (1911)  37,14! ». 

Panchonti  (PS-chon't' ;  Uonandra 
polyandra),  a  large  tree 
found  in  the  mountain  regions  of  India, 
and  from  which  a  substance  of  the  nature 
of  gutta-percha  is  procured,  llie  wood 
of  the  pauchonti  is  close-grained  and 
heavy. 

Panl  (PS')>  tl>e  apostle,  commonly 
"*"  called  Saint  Paul,  was  bom  of 
.Tewish  parents  at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  and 
inherited  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citisen. 
He  received  a  learned  education,  and 
early  went  to  Jerusalem  to  study  under 
Gamaliel,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Jewish  rabbins.  Thus  prepared  for  the 
office  of  teacher,  be  joined  the  sect  of  the 
Pharisees,  and  became  a  persecutor  of 
the  Christians,  to  crush  whom  the  sanhe- 
drim employed  him  both  in  and  out  of 
Jerusalem.  He  was  present  at  and  eo- 
conraged  the  stoning  of  Stephen,  and  It 
8~— L-"-5 


Paid  I 

waa  only  whan  ha  waa  ovartaktn  bjr  a 
vision  on  his  way  to  Damaaeoa  that  b« 
became  a  convert  to  Chriatianity.    His 
sudden  conversion  was  indicated  by  tba 
change  of  his  name  from  Baul  to  Pint, 
and  he  engaged  in  the  work  of  an  apoatle 
with  an  ardor  that  overcame  every  dlf- 
ficuity.    Arabia,     Syria,     Asia     Miner, 
Greece,  and  the  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean  were  the  scenes  of  his  labors.    The 
churches   of   Philippi   in   Macedonia,   <A 
Corinth,  Galatia,  and  Theaaalonica,  non- 
ored  him  as  their  founder;  and  he  wrote 
epistles    to   these   chnrches,   and    to   the 
churches  in  the  chief  cities  of  Oreect  and 
Asia  Minor.    By  admitting  the  Gentilea 
to  the  church  he  incurred  the  hatred  of 
the   Jews,    who   persecuted    hira    aa    an 
apostate.     Undismayed,  the  apctstle  went 
to    Jerusalem,    and    was    ther«   arrested 
and  brought  to  Cssarea,  where  he  waa 
kept   a  prisoner  for  two  yean  by  tha 
Roman     governors     Festua    and    Falls. 
He  appealed,  as  a  Roman  citisen,  to  tlM 
emperor ;  and  on  his  way  to  Rome,  where 
he  arrived  in  the  year  62,  he  was  aUp- 
wrecked    on    the    island    of    Melita.    At 
Rome  ho  was  treated  with  respectful  kind- 
ness, and  there  ia  reason  to  believe  that 
he  for   somo  time   regained   hit  liberty. 
According  to  the  tradition  of  the  early 
church   the   apostle  suffered   martyrd<NB 
during  the  reign  of  Neio. 
Paul,   i*"®  °''™*  of  five  popea— Paul 
-  clr\  ^'  P?P*  '""^  TVf-fm,  brother 
of  Stephen  II,  stood  on  good  terms  with 
Pepin  and  Charlemagne.— Paot.  II,  pop« 
from  1464-71.  a  native  of  Venice,  ori^ 
nally  called  Pietro  Barbo,  caused  a  era- 
sade  to  be  preached  against  the  Hnsaitea. 
—  PADt   in,  pope   from    1534-49,   for- 
marly    Alessandro    Famese,    excommuni- 
cated Henry  VIII,  1536,  concurred  In  tin 
foundation    of    the    order    of    Jeaaits, 
opened   the  Council   of  Trent,  defended 
himself  by  his  legates  in  the  conferences 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  at  the 
"'!»  ..*''  Worms  and  Ratisbon,  and  es- 
tablished  a  general   inquisition  for  tha 
suppression  of   the   Protestant   revolt— 
Paul  IV,  pope  from  1555-69,  formerly 
John  Peter  Caraffa,  energetically  directed 
the  power  of  the  Inquisition  against  the 
ProtesUuBt  movement  and  eatabliahed  an 
Index  Librorum  Prohibitornm. —  PAin.  V. 
pope    from    1605-21,    formerly    Camillo 
Borghese,  succeeded  Leo  XI. 
Paid  I.    Emperor  of   Russia,   son    «l 

was  bom  in  1754.  On  the  death  ol 
Catharme  in  1796  he  succeeded  to  tha 
throne,  and  began  his  rei|^  with  acts 
of  generosity.  He  put  an  end  to  tha 
war  with  Persia,  and  liberated  the  Poles 
who  wws  in  coninemeat  ia  Russia.    Mm 


Hll 


Paul'!  OAth«dna 


JefaMd  tlM  coiUitkNi  of  crowns  agaiiMt 
Fnaeok   and   wnt   100,000  omo,   onder 
■awiuoir  and   Kontkoff,  to   Italy  and 
Bwitaerbind.  and  partly  to  Holland,  bat 
bt  aftarwamte  favored  the  caoM  of  Na- 
Mloon.    Panl  eaimd  blmwlf  to  b«  de- 
cbiKd  Orandmaiter  of  the   Knigbti   of 
Malta  (1798).  bat  BriUin,  bavins  eon- 
qaered   tb«   bland   in   1800,   refnwd   to 
ranrmder   It   to    the    Runian    emperor. 
Ha  tberefore  laid  an  embargo  on  all  Brit- 
tab  tbipa  in  tbe  Runian  porta,  and  pre- 
vailed  npon   tbe  Swedisb,   Danish,   and 
Proaalan  coarts  to  enter  into  a  conven- 
tij«  aftlnat   Great   Britain.    At   length 
(1801)   tbe  Internal  administration  and 
bis  increasing  acts  of  tyranny  gave  rise 
to  a  strong  popular  discontent,  and  be 
was  murdered  in  bis  bed,  March  24,  1801. 
Pawl.  St.  TnfonfT  i«,  Roman  Catholic 
^  philanthropist,  bom  of  poor  par- 
onta  In  Sontbera  France  in  1576;  died  in 
1000.    He   was    educated    at    Daz    and 
Toalouse;  ordained  a  priest  in  1000;  in 
1005  he  was  csptured  by   pirates;   re- 
mained in  slavery  in  Tunis  for  two  years, 
and  finallv  escaped  to  France.    He  after- 
wards visited  Borne,  from  which  he  was 
aent  on  a  mission  to  Paris,  where  he  be- 
ou'.e   almoner   to   Queen    Margaret    of 
Yaiois.    In    1616   he   began   the    labors 
wbicb  occupied  so  large  a  portion  of  his 
life,  and  which  included  the  foundation 
of  the  Institution  called  tbe  Priests  of 
tbo  Mission  or  Laaarists,  the  reformation 
of  tbe  hcispitals,  tbe  institution  of  the 
Sisterhood  of  Charity,  tbe  instruction  of 
idfa^  at  his  Priory  of  St.  Lasare,  etc. 
Among  tbe  last  acts  of  his  life  was  the 
fmindation  of  an  asylum  for  aged  work- 
ing people  of  both  sexes,  and  a  hospital 
tor  all   the  poor  of   Paris,   which   was 
opened  1667.    He  was  canonized  in  1737. 
Paula.  |>*?oi8  DE.      See  Frond*  of 
»•»«•»  Paula. 

Panldine  (?«l'4io8).  James  Kibmb, 
.  ^  ^  »  miscellaneous  writer,  bom 
ta  putchess  county,  New  York,  in  1779 ; 
died  In  1860.  He  removed  to  New  York. 
wb«*  he  became  intimetely  acquainted 
with  Washington  Irving,  and  published 
In  ccmnection  with  him  a  series  of 
humorous  and  satirical  escayg,  entitled 
Samaifundi.  For  some  years  h«  was 
•ecretary  of  the  United  States  navy.  He 
published  a  aecond  series  of  Salmagundi, 
entirely  his  own  composition;  several 
novels,  among  which  are  Konigtmarke, 
and  the  Dutchman't  Fireside;  a  Life  of 
Waikinffton:  and  many  political  pam- 
phlets, poems,  etc. 
Pauli    (P?   16)»    REiimoLD,    biatorical 

j.^  .  ,!J]25"'  •**">  «t  I*«'""o  in  1823; 
ffled  In  1882.  He  was  educated  at  Ser- 
Un   and   Bonn;   resided   in   London  for 


fJ*''* J?*f •  *'^'»  ^  *'■•  •«5rttary  to 
ttaa  Prnaslan  miniater,  and  afterwaida 
5??™JlwP">'«"*»  sacceaslvsJy  at  Boa- 
toek.     Tttblngcn,    and     Ottttingen.     Bia 

w.  (IJBl),  a  continuation  of  Lappcn- 
rg'a  Historp  of  England,  a  Uittorv  of 
??fJ*^'^,  •**<^  '*•  Treatiet  of  1814  •** 
1815,  PUrtvret  of  Old  England,  a  mmio- 
graph  on  Simon  de  Montford,  and  Buana 
on  Engliah  History. 

Panlioians  ,\P!!'i!!!i*-?°">i»  fb*!?- 

tian  sect  founded  fai  tbe 
7th  century  In  Armenia.  They  rejected 
the  adoration  of  the  Virgin  and  tha 
saints;  refused  homage  to  the  croaa;  de- 
nied the  validity  of  the  aacraments;  in- 
terpreted spiritually  baptiam  and  the 
Lords  supper;  would  not  recognize  any 
prieatly  dignity;  and  their  public  wor- 
ship was  altogether  free  from  ritual. 
They  suffered  severe  persecution  at  the 
hairas  of  tbe  Byzantine  emperora,  bat 
as  late  as  the  16th  century  remnants  of 
tbe  sect  were  found  in  Bulgaria. 

Paul's  Cathedral  Sj;.  a  'amoua  re- 
-      .         «     .      ,         'Hgious   edifice   of 
London,    England,    is   situated    on    Lud- 
gate  Hill,  an  elevation  on  the  north  bank 
of   the  Thames.     The  site  of   the  pres- 
ent building  was  originally  occupied  by 
a  church  erected   by  Ethelbert,  king  of 
Kent.   In   610.    This   was   destroyed  by 
fire   In    1087,    and   another   edifice    Old 
St.  Paurs,  was  shortly  afterwarda  com- 
menced.   Tbe     structure     was     In     the 
Gothic   style.   In   the   form   of   a   Latin 
cross,  690  feet  long,  130  feet  broad,  with 
a    lead-covered    wooden    spire    rising    to 
the  height  of  520  feet.    The  middle  aisle 
was  termed  Paul's  Walk,  from  Ita  being 
frequented  by  idlers  as  well  as  money- 
lenders   and    general    dealers.    Old    St 
f^o"J  ■v'^S?  J°"5=*»  damaged  by  a  fire  in 
?^^Iti>/  "Kl>tning  in  1444,  again  by  fire 
In    1561,   and   was   utterly   destroyed   by 
the   great   fire   in   1066.    The   ruins   re- 
mained for  about  eight  years,  when  the 
rebuildhig  was  taken  in  hand  by  tbe  gov- 
ernment   of    Charles     II     (1075-1710). 
The  whole  building  was  completed  at  a 
total  coat  of  flJ511,202  by  Sir  Christo- 
Pber   Wren,   architect.    The   building  is 
of  Portland  stone,  in  the  form  of  a  croas. 
Its  length  is  510  feet:  the  width  from 
north  to  south  portico  282  feet ;  tbe  gen- 
eral   height   is   100   feet.     The   whole   is 
surmounted  by  a  great  dome  raised  on 
eight  arches.    Above  the  dome  la  a  lantern 
or  gallery  tenninated  above  by  a  ball  and 
gilded  cross,  404  feet  from  the  pavement 
beneath.    Ihe  crypt  under  tbe  nave  con- 
tams  the  burying  places  of  many  illus- 
trious personages,   and  some  interesting 
relics    of    old    St    Paul's.    Amoof   the 


PAil't  Grois 


"Hfuumi 


anineMna  monnnwiita  aod  aUtact  to  the 
lllgstrioiu  dead  majr  be  noted  thoee  of 
John  Howard  and  Dr.  Johuon,  by 
Bacon;  atatuM  of  Neleon,  Eari  Howe, 
and  Sir  Joahaa  Rejrnoldt,  by  Flazman; 
BialMV  Heber,  bjr  Chantrey;  and  mono- 
menta  to  Lord  KodneT,  Lord  Heathfield, 
Admiral  Collingwooa,  OenemI  Aber- 
crbmbie,  etc.,  by  Roeai,  Weatmacott,  and 
otbera.  The  monument  to  the  Duke  of 
Wellinfton,  by  Alfred  Stevens,  is  ac- 
counted the  finest  work  of  its  kind  in 
Encland.  It  conaists  of  a  rich  marble 
aarcophagua  and  canopy  elaborately  orna- 
mented with  bronie  aculptures.  It  ia 
80  feet  in  height  and  coat  npwarda  of 
£30,000. 

Panl'i  Cross,  «-;£«"-  &^ 

which  atood  at  the  north  aide  of  old  St 
Paul'a.  London ;  a  favorite  place  of  re- 
aort,  from  which  aermona,  political  dia- 
rouraea,  etc.,  ufied  to  be  delivered.  It  waa 
demoliahed  in  1043. 

Panl's  School,  «ir  oV'^'SoSS^ 

achool,  endowed  by  John  Colet  in  1512 
for  153  boys  of  'every  nation,  country, 
and  class.'  The  first  building,  on  the 
east  of  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  waa 
burned  in  lOGO;  the  second,  by  Wren, 
was  taken  down  in  1824  and  another 
building  erected.  In  1884  a  new  school 
was  opened  at  West  Kensington.  The 
Mercer's  Company  are  patrons. 

Paulus  aigineta  <^f-    ^i'-J^f; 

medical  writer,  bom,  it  is  supposed,  in 
the  7th  century  in  the  island  of  iEgina, 
and  connected  with  the  medical  school 
at  Alexandria.  He  abridged  the  works 
of  Galen,  and  was  deeply  read  in  those 
of  Hippocrates  and  others.  His  works 
have  been  translated  into  English. 

FanlUS  DiaCOnUS  (dl-ak'o-nus),  an 
Italian  ecclesias- 
tic, bom  about  790 ;  died  about  800.  He 
was  educated  in  the  court  of  the  Lombard 
kings  at  Pavia.  In  781  he  was  called 
t  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  and  was 
one  of  the  principal  instruments  of  the 
intellectual  reforms  eflFected  by  the  em- 
peror in  the  countries  of  Western  Eu- 
rope. Paulus  drew  up  a  book  of  homi- 
lies from  the  fathers,  wrote  a  history 
of  the  bishops  of  Mctx,  and  a  history  of 
the  Lombards. 

Paul  Veronese,  see  Feroneae. 

Pauperism.  ^   ^^'^^   *°^   ^®'*'* 

PaUSaniaS    (P3-"*'ni-'M).    »    Lacedae- 

monian    general,    nephew 

of  Leonidas.    He  commanded  the   allied 

Greeka  against  the  Peraiana  at  the  battle 


of  Plata*  in  4TB  B.  a    To  biawrif 

he  aacribed  the  victory,  and  hk  prataa 
aiona  became  inanpportabia  wb«n  b«  dftar- 
warda,  with  a  combined  Greek  fleet,  dt> 
Uvered  Greece,  Cyproa,  and  flnally 
Byaantium  from  the  Peraiao  rale.  At 
length  he  entwed  into  aecrtt  negotiatieaa 
with  Xenea,  and  conceived  the  deatea 
of  making  bimaalf  maater  of  Graec*.  To 
eacape  arraat  he  aought  abelter  in  tba 
temple  of  Athene  at  Sparta,  where  he 
waa  ahnt  in  by  the  enraged  people  and 
atarved  to  death  (■.o.  487). 

PaUSaniaS.  A.  Pf***  writer  on  my. 
*»uMuuaB,  thology,  hiatory,  and  art, 
who  lived  in  the  2d  centary  after  Ohriat, 
and  of  wboae  peraonal  hiatory  nothing  la 
known.  Hia  HeUodo*  PtrUigM$  ('Pere- 
grination of  Hellaa')  la  an  itinerary  in 
ten  hooka  of  hia  travela,  which  were  ez- 
tenaive.  He  apnea  ra  to  have  viaited  tha 
whole  of  the  Peloponneau*,  Rome,  Syria, 
and  Palestine.  He  deacribea  templet, 
theaters,  tombs,  statues,  pictnrea,  monu- 
ments of  every  aort.  Ht  alao  mentlona 
mountaina,  rivera,  and  foantaina,  and  tha 
mytboloaical  atoriea  connected  with 
them.  Hia  observation  ia  accurate,  and 
hia  description  aimpie  and  reliabkk 

Pausilippo.   ^^Po^ipo- 
Pavement  iSltir^^ioJiiatS;'  3 

atonea,  blocka  of  wood,  etc.,  laid  on  the 
ground  in  auch  a  manner  aa  to  make  a 
hard  and  convenient  roadway.  Pave- 
menta  of  lava,  with  elevated  aidewalto, 
are  found  in  the  ancient  Roman  citiea 
of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  and  tba 
paving  of  important  highwaya  waa  praifr- 
ticed  by  the  Romana.  Of  modem  citiea 
Paria  is  generally  mentioned  aa  haThit 
the  oldest  pavement:  but  it  fai  certain 
that  Cordova,  in  Spain,  waa  paved  abont 
860  A.D.  In  London  aome  of  the  (Mat 
atreeta  were  paved  in  the  15th  century. 
Holbora    was   firat   paved   in    1417,   the 

freat  Smithfield  Market  not  nntll  1614. 
itreet  pavements  hi  modem  citiea  are 
uaually  of  stone,  asphalt,  concrete,  or 
wood.  The  stone  commonly  used  for  the 
carriage  way  ia  granite,  blocka  of  whkh 
are  placed  upon  a  aolid  bed  of  concrete 
and  the  intersticea  filled  with  aand  and 
grouted  with  asphalt,  lime,  or  cement. 
Concrete  pavement  ia  compoaed  of  br^Mn 
atone,  etc.,  mixed  with  Portland  or  other 
cement  ,  or  asphalt.  (See  Coaoratek) 
Trinidad  and  Veneraelan  aqdialt  la  nvw 
much  used  for  paving  city  atreeta,  and 
bricks  and  wood  blocka  are  cominc  faito 
nae.  Wood  pavementa  have  tha  advan- 
tage of  being  noiaeleaa,  and  amne  recent 
pavements  of  thia  kind  are  Tory  dw^le 
They  are  laid  in  difEer^t  waya,  but  the 


HfUL 


Tftztoa 


blooki  whidi  form  the  paTtrntat  an  al- 
wai*  plaMd  on  thair  nda.  m  that  tba 
mii  ftaifaet  of  tba  wood  it  espoawL 
Tha  apaeaa  batwaan  tha  blocka  ara  uaoally 
iUad  with  fiaTal,  apoo  wbkh  bot  tar 
or  pitch  ia  pourtnL 

P&Tia  <P*!^-*i  ItaUan  proa.  p*-v«'A). 
*•'*•  a  city  of  Italy,  in  LombaHy, 
S|i  milaa  from  Milan,  on  tba  left  bauk 
of  tba  Tidao,  capital  of  a  prorlnca  of 
tha  Mma  nama.  Paria  ia  itiU  partly 
aommndad  by  old  walla  and  fortiaca< 
tioB%  and  la  cminactcd  with  tbe  Adriatic 
by  tha  Po  and  Ticino,  and  with  Milan 
by  a  canaL  Of  edi6cea  tbe  moat  im* 
portant  ara  tha  cathedral  (begun  in 
1486),  coatalninr  tome  good  palntingt, 
and  tba  tomb  of  8t  Aufuatlne;  tha 
cbueeh  of  San  Micbele,  a  Romannque 
adillca  of  tba  11th  century ;  tbe  CaKtello, 
or  eaatle,  now  a  barrack,  erected  by 
Oaleaaio  Visconti.  13(MMtO;  the  uni- 
▼anity,  founded  in  13G1,  a  liondnouie 
bnilding,  with  a  library  of  about  13U,iJU0 
TMomea;  the  Collpgio  Borrnnipo,  etc. 
Tba  manufactures  are  unimportant. 
About  4  miles  to  the  north  ia  the  famous 
Carthusian  monastery  Ccrtosa  di  I'nvia, 
with  a  magnificent  churrh  in  the  Gothic 
atyie,  begun  1896,  and  with  a  facade  that 
nnks  aa  the  finest  decorative  work  of 
tba  kind  in  North  Italy.  Paria  was  a 
pla<!e  of  considerable  Importance  during 
tba  reign  of  Augustus.  It  afterwards 
oame  into  tha  posaesaion  of  the  Lombard 
kinga.  who  made  it  their  capital.  It  waa 
latterly  under  the  Milanese.  Pop.  (1914) 
40,260.— x'he  pr«>vino«>.  which  extends  on 
bou  aides  of  tbe  Po,  has  an  area  of 
128S  square  miles,  partly  covered  by  the 
Apennines.  Pop.  604,382. 
Pavilion  (p4-vll'yun),  in  architecture, 
,.  a   turret   or  small    building, 

usually  isolated,  having  a  tent-formed 
roof,  whence  the  name.  A  projecting 
part  of  a  building,  when  it  la  carried 
higher  than  the  general  structure  and  pro- 
rided  with  a  tent-formed  roof,  ia  alao 
called  a  pavilion. 

Favlosrad  (p*y-i6.grAt'),  a  town  of 

o  **  Soutliern  Russia,  16  miles 
northeaat  of  Ekaterinoslav,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  that  name.    Pop.  17,188. 

Pawl  (P9')«  *  "'lo'"*  Pl«"e  or  bar  mov- 
ing round  a  pivot  at  one  end,  so 
aa  to  catch  in  a  notch  or  projection  of  a 
revolving  body  and  prevent  motion  in 
nne  direction,  aa  in  the  capstan  or  wind- 
lass of  a  ship. 

Pawnbroker  (P«n'br6-k*r)  a  per- 
son  who  lends  money 
an  goods  pledged  or  deposited  at  a 
i«pilly  fixed  rate  of  iLcerest,  and  under 
ua  restriction  of  a  government  license. 
Ktbough  this  mode  of  borrowing  ia  oc- 


eulOMlly  takaa  adTtatago  of  by  aO 
claaaM,  and  bankara,  wbra  thay  aeeapl 
aaenrity  for  tbair  adraacaa,  act  on  tha 
sama  prlnelpla  aa  tba  pawnbroker,  tha 
''?."'9^'  1'  *  ■peeial  one,  origiaataa 
chiefly  la  the  necaaaitiea  of  tba  poor.  Is 
tba  middia  agea  landing  upon  pladgaa  araa 
a  trade  almoat  ezclaairaiy  paraoad  by 
Jawa  and  Lombarda.  On  tha  Earopaaa 
continent  this  form  of  borrowing 
s  .partly  conducted  by  cbariubia 
institutional  called  Monta  da  PI4t« 
(which  aaa).  In  England  pawnbrokara 
were  recognlaed  by  sUtnta  U  tha  rai^ 
of  Jamea  I,  and  In  1872  an  act  waa 
passed  to  consolidate  all  tha  acta  talatiac 
to  pawn*  lers  In  Great  BriUin;  but  It 
does  not  end  to  Ireland.  In  tba  Unltad 
States  tbe  several  atatea  have  each  tbair 
own  laws  governing  pawnbrokiug.  Pawn« 
brokers  have  been  taxed  |20  annually 
bythe  Federal  government  since  July  1, 

Pawtucket  /.^;i'{V-'i^'  *  *■•'*' Ji' 

«L  J  w  .  ,  Providence  county, 
Rhode  Island,  4i  milea  w.w.t  of  Provl 
denoe.  It  Is  situated  at  the  head  of  naTi- 
gat  on  of  NurrujtanHett  Bay,  on  the  Paw- 
tuokrt  River,  which  has  a  fall  of  BO  feet, 
yielding  wa  <»r  power.  Cotton  manufac- 
ture in  the  United  States  bernn  In  thia 
city.  Calico  printing  is  done  here  on  tlia 
largest  state.  The  thread  works  are  tha 
largest  in  the  coiintry.  and  there  are  ax- 
tensive  bleaching  and  dyeing  factoriea, 
with  many  ofl-er  mnnufacturing  eatab- 
Hsbmentm.  Top.  51,022. 
Pfttf  L\  a),  an  <j'x'!->9la8tical  ntensH  In 

the  ttoman  Catholic  Church,  formed 
UEuallv  of  a  plate  of  metal,  chaaed,  en- 
graved, or  inlaid  with  figures  representbig 
the  Virgin  and  Child,  the  crucifixion,  etc., 
which,  having  been  kissed  by  the  priest 
drring  the  Aguua  Dei  of  the  high  maaa, 
is  handed  to  the  acolyte,  who  preaanta 
'L*9  ''?  hissed  by  each  of  tbe  eccleaiastics 
officiating,  saying  to  them  Pam  tecum 
(peace  to  thee).  The  decorationa  of  tlia 
pax  are  frequently  very  rich. 
PaXO  (P"'8o;  anciently  Pa»o$),  one 
of  the  Ionian  Islfmds,  belonging 
to  Greece,  9  miles  south  ofCorfu.  It  ia 
nearly  6  miles  long  and  2  broad,  and  con- 
sists of  a  mass  of  limestone  rock.  Prin- 
cipal product,  olive  oil  of  the  finest  qual- 
ity. Pop.  about  6000. 
Paxton   (Pak>'tun),  Sib  Joseph,  land- 

,  "scape  gardener  and  architect, 
bom  in  Bedfordshire  in  1808;  died  in 
^^^  ..^®  ^^  edneated  9t  the  free  schod 
of  Woburn;  became  gardener,  and  after^ 
wards  estate  manager,  to  tbe  Duke  of 
Devonshire  at  Cbatswortb,  in  Derbyahira: 
designed  the  Crystal  Palace  for  the  great 
International    ExhIUtion     (London)     ia 


fftx-waz 


18B1,  aad  mmi  after  wm  kolgbtad.  B« 
tdltod  tht  MorUeultmrml  BagUtmr,  tha 
ifaf  <w  0/  HetoMy,  the  Cottat*  CalM« 
jar.  and  waa  tba  author  of  a  Poeftal 
Jwawfaal  Dfotioaary.  He  was  tlactad 
Mwbtr  of  Parliancnt  for  CoTtatry  ia 

HM,  and  coniiamd  to  repreaent  it  antQ 
(iaath. 
V^v.vraw  tha  Dam*  firoi  to  tba 
*^*  ""^  strong,  atiS  ttndona  mnnlnf 
aloDV  tha  stdaa  of  tha  neck  of  a  larm 
qnadrapcd  to  tae  middle  of  tha  back,  aa  in 
an  ox  or  bone.  It  dltnlDiahes  the  mua* 
ealar  effort  needed  to  support  the  head  in 
a  horixontal  poaition. 

Ptymaiter  ^jr ;'S»V  ."d  'Sfy! 

from  whom  the  officers  and  men  receive 
their  wagea,  and  who  is  int  runted  with 
money  for  that  purpose.  In  matt.'rs  of 
general  discipline  the  paymaitter  i*  sub- 
ordinate to  the  commanding  officer  of  his 
regiment  The  paymaster  of  a  ship  in 
tha  nary  lias  a  general  charge  of  tba 
financial  department  in  the  Tessel. 
Pnim  (p&Q)>  James,  novelist,  bom  at 
*»J"  Cheitenham,  England,  in  1830; 
educated  at  Eton,  Woolwich  Academy, 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  published 
two  volumes  of  verse;  contributed  to  the 
Wettmituter  Revievr  and  HoutehoU 
Woria;  became  editor  of  Chamhcra'$ 
Journal  In  186&  and  of  the  Comhill  Mag- 
OMine  in  1882.  He  published  innumerable 
novela,  of  which  the  following  may  be 
mentioned:  Lott  Sir  MaMtngberi,  A 
Comniy  Famih,  Found  Dead,  By  Promjf, 
The  Talk  of  the  Totra,  The  Luck  of  the 
Darrele,  The  Heir  of  the  Aff*<t.  He  died 
in  1888. 

Pavtia  John  Howaso,  waa  bom  in 
x^ayuo,  j,g^      York      In      1702.    Ho 

adopted  the  stage  as  his  profession,  but 
is  especially  known  as  the  author  of  the 
favorite  song  of  Home,  Sweet  Home.  In 
1861  he  was  sent  as  consul  to  Tunis, 
where  he  died  in  1852. 

Pays  de  Vaud  {^»|  ^^  ^«>-  »«• 

Pe&  (P^)>  "■  well-known  legnminooa 
■"***  plant  of  the  genus  Piaum,  the  P. 
aativum  of  many  varieties.  It  is  a  climb- 
ing annual  plant,  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  has  been  cultivated  from 
remote  antiquity.  It  forms  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  culinary  vegetables ;  con- 
tains much  farinaceous  and  aaccbarine 
matter,  and  is  therefore  highly  nntritioiw. 
It  ia  cultivated  in  the  garden  and  in  the 
field.  Ita  aeed-vesael  ia  a  pod  containing 
one  row  of  round  seeds,  which  are  at  first 
Mt  and  Jnicy,  in  which  state  they  ara 
iotd  for  tba  table  under  the  nama  of  artttt 


jMM.  Tbay  aftarwarda  kaidan  aad  b^ 
eoaa  farinaeaooa.  A  whitiah  aort,  which 
raadllT  apUt  whan  snbjactad  to  tba  acttea 
^  miibtonaa,  ia  uaed  in  couidarabia  qoaB- 
titisa  for  aoapa,  and  especially  for  aaa* 
atorca.  There  ia  a  blna  sort  wbldi  aa- 
Bwara  tba  aama  porpoaa. 

PM*beetl«|  JbhSS^^ST  about  I 
Inch  long,  black,  with  white  apote  and  dote 
on  the  wing-caaea,  varr  de^tmetlT*  to 
croM  of  peaa  in  tha  aouth  of  Europe  aad 
in  North  America.  Called  alao  Pmh^, 
Pea-ehcfer,  and  Pea-vieevil. 

Maasacboaetta,  in  1796 ;  died  In  1800.  In 
1887  he  went  to  London  and  eatobliabed 
the  firm  of  George  Peabody  h  Oa.  ex- 
change brokera  and  money-lendera.  Hav- 
ing acquired  a  large  fortune,  te  gave 
1200,000  to  eatebliah  a  fraa  librarr  la  hia 
native  town;  presented  |1,M)0,TXX)  to 
foond  a  free  librarv  and  institnto  of  art 
and  acience  at  Baltimore;  and  ia  1882 
placed  $760,000  In  tha  hands  of  traatasa 
for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  of  London,  .to 
be  employed  in  building  model  dwelllna 
houses.  He  afterwarda  added  |1,7BO,000 
to  this  benefaction.    In  1806  ha  maoa  a 

Iift  of  $2,100,000,  afterward  Inereaaad  to 
3.600,000,  fot  the  cauaa  of  education  In 
the  South.  In  the  aama  year  ha  gave 
$150,000  to  Harvard  University  to  found 
a  museum  foi  anthropological  and  arclue* 
ological  research.  Tbia  institution  has 
sent  out  many  exploring  ezpeditiona  and 
done  very  valuable  work. 

Peabodv  '^  ^"^^  <>'  Eases  Co.,  Maa- 
»»  suchusetts,  2  miles  w.  of 
8ult>m.  It  contains  the  Peabody  Insti- 
tute, with  a  latge  library  and  a  collection 
of  paintiiiKM,  utc  The  place  was  named 
ill  tuinur  uf  (jiurge  I'eubody,  who  was 
burn  here,  and  has  leather  and  other 
mauufat-tureH.    Pop.  16,721. 

Peace  Conference.    P*  "***  "»'»■ 

mentooa  c  o  n- 
ference  m  history  was  that  which  met  in 
Paris,  Jan,  18.  1019,  foDowing  the  Great 
war.  (See  next  article.) 
PeRPA  IirrcBiTATiONAL.  The  first  na- 
x^cni^c,  jj,,^^,  moyement  in  the  dbwc- 
tion  of  bringing  about  a  permanent  eon- 
diti(m  of  peace  between  the  nationa,  of  ax; 
intemati<mal  character,  waa  the  cxm.tait' 
ence  held  in  1899.  at  The  Hague,  Hol- 
land, at  the  auggestion  of  the  Cmax  at 
Riwsk,  to  consider  what  could  be  dona  ia 
ine  waj  ^s  w^iucing  the  anaaiBsite  of  the 
nationa  ^  1  inducing  them  to  aettia  tbdr 
diSerencv:s  by  arbitration  inataad  of  war. 
The  mbit  important  reanlt  of  tbia  confer- 
ence of  the  nations  waa  tha  eatabliahmeat 
at  Tha  Hague  of  a  Permaaoit  latenui' 


Peace 


Peacock 


i 


tiooal  Court  of  Arbitration,  which  settled  in  thia  respect  according  to  soil  and  di- 
amicaUjr  a  number  of  international  dis-  mate.    The  varictiea  of  the  fruit,  wldeh 
putes.     One  of   the   must  important  of  is  a  large  downy  drupe  containing  a  stona, 
these  was  the  settlement  in  IdlO  of  the  are    very    numerous,    differing    in    siae, 
long-standing  fishery  controversy  between  flavor,  and  time  of  ripening,  but  they  are 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.    A  principally  of  two  sorts,  the  free-atonet 
second    conference     was    held     at    Tho  and  the  cUnsf-atones,  so  called  according 
Hague  in  1907.    The  Hague  Tribunal  was  as  the  stouc  separates  reitdily  or  adheres 
unable  to  settle  the  larger  disputes,  and  to  the  flesh.    The  peach-tree  is  supposed 
at  about  the  time  a  third  conference  wus  to  have  been  introdaced  into  Europe  from 
nlauned  the  greatest  war  in  all  history  Persia.    In  the  United  States  it  is  very 
broke  out.     (See  European  War. )     The  extensively  cultivated.    The  peach  regions 
Nobel  Peace  Prise  was  given  to  President  include    Delaware,    Maryland,    Georgia* 
Roosevelt  in  190(1  in  recognition  of  his  Michigan,  the  eastern  and  southern  shores 
useful  serviced  in  brining  about  a  treaty  of  the  Great  Lakes.  New  Jersey,  Califor- 
of  peace  between  Russia  and  Japan.    An-  nia,    and    parts    of    Mibsouri,    Alabama, 
drew  Carnegie,  in  December,  1910,  do-  Kansas,   Arkansas,    Louisiana,   Colorado 
sated  the  sum  of  $10,000,000,  the  income  and  Texas.    The  ripe  fruit  is  occasionally 
of  which  was  to  be  used  in  the  support  distilled  and  made  into  peach  brandy, 
and    furtJierance   of    aU    movements    to-  Pea  conk      (pS'kok),  called   also  Pba- 
ward  peace.  The  American  Peace  Society,  *  «**«'*'V^'k      Fowr,  a  large  and  beautiful 
a  long-standing  institution,  held  several  gallinaceous    bird    of    the    genns    Pavo, 
notable  congresses.    Among  other  Ameri-  properiv   the   male    of   the   species,    the 
can  peace  organizations  may  be  mentioned  female  being,  for  distinction's  sake,  called 
tho  League  of  Nations  Union    (formed 
from  a  union  of  the  New  York  Peace  So- 
ciety and  the  World's  Court  League),  the 
League  to  Enforce  Peace  (under  the  pres- 
idency of  Hon.  Wm.  H.  Taft),  the  World 
Church  Alliance,  the  American  Peace  and 
Arbitration  League  (incorporated  1909). 
At  the  peace  conference  which  followed 
the  European  war  a  plan  for  a  League  of 
Nations  (q.  v.)  was  incorporated  with  the 
treaties  of  peace  with  Germany  and  her 
allies  (see  Treaty).    The  conference  con- 
vened at  Paris,  Jan.  18,  1919,  and  the 
treaty  with  Germany,  which  included  the 
Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations,  was 
signed  by  representatives  of  the  belliger- 
ent powers,  June  28,  1919.    The  covenant 
went  a  step  farther  than  any  former  peace 
ccmference  in  that  the  signatory  nations 
agreed    to    prohibit    all   commercial   and 
financial  relations  with  any  country  that 
went  to  war  without  the  consent  of  the 
League.      The   members    of   the    League  <^  peakcH.    The  common  peacock,  P.  cria- 
agreed  to  preserve  '  as  against  external  **<«*,  is  a  native  of  India  and  South- 
aggression  '  the  territorial  integrity  of  all  eastern  Asia.    This  bird  is  characteri^ 
nations    within   the    League.     A    clause  *>y,*  c""^*  o'  peculiar  form,  and  by  the 
spedficaUy   recognized   the  Monroe   Doc-  **"  coverts   of   the   male  extending  far 
trine  (q.  v.).  beyond  the  quills,  and  being  capable  of 

Peace  SlVer.  "^larg?  .rper  of  Can-  erection  into  a  broad  and  gorgeous  disk 
.  V  '  ada,  which  rises  in  the  The  shining,  lax,  and  silky  barbs  of  the8« 
monntaina  of  British  (Jolumbia,  flows  feathers,  and  the  eye-like  spots  which  dee> 
northeastwards,  receives  the  drainage  of  orate  their  extremities,  are  known  to 
Lake  Athabasca,  and  finally  enters  the  every  one.  The  colors  and  plumage  ara 
Great  Slave  Lake  under  the  name  of  the  said  to  bo  more  brilliant  in  the  wild  than 


Peacock 


Slave  River.    It  is  600  miles  in  length. 
Peach.     (P^^)>  a  tree  and  its  fruit,  of  hen 
the  almond  genus  (order  Rosa- 


in  the  domesticated  state.    The  wild  pea- 
hen leys  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  eggs^ 
...         .^.     -        ,         .  "nd  r"^'ace8  only  a  sinfde  brood  in  eaeb 

seae),  the  AmadMiu  peraiea,  of  many  year,  the  young  birds  of  both  sexes  ar« 
Taiieties.  This  is  a  delicious  fruit,  the  featfa»  A  i>7'Vo  for  the  first  two  yean: 
producfl  of  warm  or  temperate  climates,  and  11  the  rd  year  the  taltcoverta  at 
ne  tree  is  of  moderate  stature,  but  varies  the  mala  \>^»m  to  be  developed  and  to 


Peaeook 


Pm' 


timme  their  laatrons  appearance.  The 
black-ahouldered  or  Japan  peacock  (P. 
niffripeftnit)  is  regarded  as  a  variety  of 
the  common  sjpecles;  the  Javan  peacock 
(P.  mti(«oiM)  IS  a  distinct  form. 
P»fl.rAr1r  Thomas  Love,  an  English 
xeacui^K,  writer,  bom  in  1783;  died 
in  1866.  His  first  important  work  was 
a  no.:'  entitled  Headlong  Hall,  published 

*  •  Itl^,  anti  this  was  followed  by  Melin- 
i\urt,  tiighinit/i  t  Ahhey,  Maid  Marian, 
"he  Minfortun  I  of  Elphin,  Crotchet  Gas- 
«;<•,  GrpU  *3r  Kge,  and  a  poem  called 
l\'htdodai>hne.  He  was  the  friend  and 
t^otuto:  of  F*helley,  and  was  connected 
with  the  Euiit  India  OfSce  for  nearly 
forty  years. 

Peacock-butterfly,  ^^  ^XtoS^ff 

insects  to  butterflies  of  the  species  Va- 
netaa  lo,  from  the  eyes  on  their  wings 
resembling  the  eyes  on  peacocks'  feathers. 

Peacock-fish,  *  ^^^  "*  *''!  Mediter- 

*  wMwvvn.  uou,  ranean      and      Indian 

seas  (Crenilahrut  pavo),  characterized  by 
the  brilliancy  of  its  hues  —  green,  yellow, 
and  red. 

Pea-cra.b  ^  small  brachyurous  cnista- 
">  cean  of  the  genus  Pinno- 
theres, which  lives  in  the  shells  of  oysters, 
mussels,  and  other  bivalves.  There  are 
several  species  in  the  United  States. 
Peak  (?*'')»  °^  High  Peak,  a  district 
^vwA  jjf  England,  forming  the  north- 
west angle  of  Derbyshire,  and  consisting 
of  a  wild  and  romantic  tract,  full  of  hills, 
valleys,  and  moors,  and  celebrated  for 
its  Imiestone  caverns  and  grottoes. 
Peale  (l>^^)>  Chables  Wixson,  paint- 
er and  naturalist,  was  born  at 
Charlestown,  Maryland,  in  1741;  died  in 
19Sn.  He  studied  under  West  in  Eng- 
land, and  afterwards  settled  in  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  won  a  high  reputation 
as  a  portrait  painter.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
and  formed  in  Philadelphia  a  museum  of 
natural  curiosities,  containing  the  skele- 
ton of  a  mammoth.  It  was  known  as 
Feale's  Museum. 

Peale  (P^')<  Rehbbandt,  artist,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in 
Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1778. 
When  17  years  old  he  executed  a  portrait 
of  Washington,  from  whom  he  bad  three 
sittings.  He  painted  portraits  of  many 
distinglridied  men.  He  was  presidmt  of 
the  American  Academy,  and  also  one  of 
'he  original  members  of  the  Academy  of 
'^  His  portrait  of  Washington 
i)  was  purchased  by  CJongress.  fie 
to  IMO. 

Pea^maggot,  ;i\„-*^riYich"U 

its  ^fs  In  peas. 


Pea-nut.     "*"•  *■  ground-nut. 

Pear  (P*')*  *  t"^  o'  **»«  genus  Pynw, 
•*'"'*  order  Rosacee,  the  P.  comments, 
growing  wild  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  from  which  the  numerous 
cultivated  varieties  have  originated.    The 
fruit    is   characterized   by    a   saccharhM 
aromatic  juice,  a  soft  and  pearly  liquid 
pulp,  melting  in  the  mouth,  as  in  the  but- 
ter-pear; or  by  a  firm  and  crisp  consist- 
ence, as  in  the  winter  bergamots.    1^ 
pear  is  chiefly  proi>agated  by  grafting  or 
budding  on  the  wild  pear  stock,  or  on 
stocks  raised  from  the  seeds  of  cultivated 
pears,    called    free    stocks.     It    is    also 
grafted  on  the  quince,  the  medlar,  and  the 
white  thorn.    At  the  present  day  more 
than  200  varieties  are  enumerated,  and 
constant  accessions  are  made  every  year. 
France  and  the  north  of  Italy  are  cele- 
brated for  the  perfection  to  which  they 
have  carried  the  culture  of  this  fmit,  and 
it    is    largely    cultivated    in   the   United 
States.    Numerous    varieties    are    culti- 
vated solely  for  the  purpose  of  making 
perry,  a  liquor  analogous  to  cider,  and 
prepared  nearly  in  the  same  manner.   The 
wood  is  fine-grained,  of  a  yellowish  color, 
and  susceptible  of  a  brilliant  polish.     In 
the  early  ages  of  Greece  it  was  employed 
in  statuary;  now  it  is  used  for  musical 
instraments,   the   handles   of  carpenters' 
tools,  in  wood-engraving,  etc. 
Pearl     (p^i*!)'  the  name  applied  to  a 
•"**    concretion  produced  within  the 
shells  of  certain  speeies  of  bivalve  mol- 
luscs as  the  result  of  some  abnormal  secre- 
tory    process.     These     concretions     are 
highly  valued,  and  are  classed  among  the 
gems.    The  production  oi  a  pearl  is  gen- 
erally begun  by  the  introduction  of  some 
foreign  body,  such  as  a  grain  of  sand, 
within    the    mantle-lobes.    The   presence 
of  this  body  has  the  elFect  of  setting  ap 
an  irritant  action,  resulting  in  the  d<posi- 
tion    by   the   mantle   of    a   quantity   of 
nacreous  material  over  the  offending  par- 
ticle.   This  material,  in  certain  species 
of  molluscs,  is  of  such  a  texture  and  char- 
acter, and  is  deposited  in  such  regular 
lamins  or  layers,  that  in  due  time  the 
stracture  known   as  a   'pearl,'  Taryiac 
in  worth  and  brilliancy,  is  formed.    CU3 
among    such    molluscs    are    the    peai^ 
oyster    (Meieagrina   marfforitifiro),   tte 
pearl-mussel      (AvioiUi     mmvmitifiimU 
and    the    fresh-water    mnnwls     (gnwi 
Vnio). 

The  chief  pearl-oyster  llsheriw  «» 
those  of  Ceylon,  which,  toce^er  wiUi  the 
fisheries  in  the  Persian  Qoif,  wsn  knowB 
to  the  andents.  The  dii«  teat  of  tiw 
Ceylon  fidiery  is  in  the  Qolf  of  Maaur, 
on  the  northeast  of  the  islaad.    It  be- 


Pearr 


fliu  in  FebruarY  or  March,  and  extendi 
over  a  period  of  about  a  month,  a  large 
fleet  of  Doats  usually  being  engaged  in  It, 
The  aTerage  depth  at  which  the  oysters 
are  found  varies  from  60  to  70  feet,  and 
the  divers  are  let  down  by  a  stout  rope 
weighted    by    a    heavy    stone.    Having 
gathered  a  number  of  the  oysters  into  a 
net,  at  the  end  of  half  a  minute  or  so 
the  diver  is  pulled  up.    The  oysters  being 
carried   to  shore,   and   laid   in  piles,   in 
about  ten  days  become  thoroughly  decom- 
posed.   They  are  then  thrown  into  sea- 
water,  and  carefully  examined  for  pearls ; 
while  the  shells,  after  being  cleaned,  are 
split    into    layers    for    the    sake    of    the 
mother-of-pearl.     The     pearl-fisheries     of 
Ceylon  are  a  government  monopoly,  but 
the  revenue  derived  from  them  is  not  a 
regular  one,  the  fishery  sometimes  failing 
for  years  in  succession.    There  rvas  no 
fishery,  for  example,  between   1837  and 
1864,  or  between   1863   and   1874.     The 
best  pearls  are  found  about  Ceylon,  Per- 
sia, and  other  eastern  coasts,  and  inferior 
ones  on  the  tropical  coasts  of  America. 
The   pearl-oyster   occurs    throughout    the 
Pacific.     Very    fine    pearls    are    obtained 
from  the  Sulu  Archipelago  on  the  north- 
«U!t    of    Borneo.     Of    late    years    pearl- 
fishing  has  tieen  started  with  considerable 
success  in  Australian  seas;  and  it  is  car- 
ried on  also  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  upon 
the  coast  of  California,  and  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Panama.     Pearls  are  also  to  some 
extent    obtained    from    t'e    fresh-water 
mussels    of    the    streams,    especially    in 
China,  also   in   the   United    States   and 
Germany.     The     British     rivers     have 
yielded  valuable  pearls,  but  the  fisheries 
there  are  now  neglected  as  unprofitable, 
and  findings  of  this  kind  in  the  United 
States  are  only  occasionally  made. 

Pearls  have  formed  valued  articles  of 
decoration  and  ornament  from  the  earliest 
times.  Julius  Ciesar  presented  Servilia, 
the  mother  of  Marcus  Brutus,  with  a 
pearl  valued  in  modem  computation  at 
$240,000;  while  Cleopatra  is  fabled  to 
have  swallowed  one  gem  valued  at  $300.- 
000  or  $400,000.  A  pearl  purchased  by 
the  traveler  Ta vernier  is  alleged  to  have 
been  sold  by  him  to  the  Shah  of  Persia 
for  £180,000.  The  'Pilgrim'  pearl  of 
Moscow  ia  diaphanous  in  character,  and 
weighs  24  carats. 

Artificial  pearls  are  largely  made  in 
France,  Osrmany,  and  Italy,  the  pearl 
being  verv  well  imitated  by  the  scales  of 
certain  fishes.  A  substitute  for  black 
pearls  is  found  in  cloee-grained  hspmatite, 
not  too  highly  polished,  and  pink  pearls 
are  imitated  by  turning  small  spheres  out 
of  the  rosy  part  of  the  conch-shell 


PearL   MoraoB    of.    see    MotKw-of' 
~   pearl, 

PeErl'ESll.   v*"®  conuDon  name  for  car. 
'   bonate  of  potassium.    Sec 
PotaaK 

Pearl  Barley.    SeeBoriey. 
Pearl  Moss,  *>\,"t™<»  "  oamgem 

'    (which  see). 

Pearl  Powder.    ^««  Bismuth. 

Pearl  Stone.    *    felspathic    mineral, 

,      ■     "vwiic,    consisting  of  silicate  ot      ' 
aluminum    with    varying    quantities    of 
iron,    lime,    and    alkalies;    it    occurs    in 
spherules,  which  have  a  pearly  luster. 
PearSe       Padbaic,   Insh  lawyer,  edu- 
'      cator,    and   president   of  the 
short-lived   Irish   Republic,   which   lasted 
for  a  week  in  April,  1916.     Although  at 
first  holding  to  the  belief  that  Ireland's 
independence  could  be  obtained  by  peace- 
ful methods  he  allied  himself  with  the  ex- 
treme Sinn  Fein  movement  which  culmi- 
nated in  the  revolt  of  April  24,  1916,  on 
which  day  the  Republic  of  Ireland  was 
proclnimed,    Padr^ic    Pearse   Higning   the 
proclamation   as  President.     AYter  seven 
days  of  severe  fighting,  with  hundreds  of 
casualties.   Pearse  surrendered.     He  was 
taken  to  En^lnnd.  tried  bv  court  martial, 
and  executed  May  3.  1916. 
PearV     Robebt  Eowin,  a  faoious  Arc- 
•''    tic  explorer  was  Iwrn  at  Cres- 
son  Springs,  Pennsylv  inia,  in  1856,  and 
entered    the   civil   engineer  corps   of  the 
United  States  Navy  in  1881.    His  first 
expedition  northward  was  made  in  1886, 
when,  with  one  companion,  he  penetrated 
the   Greenland   ice-cap  for   100  miles   in 
lat.  69°  30'  N.     In  1891,  with  a  party  of 
six,  he  went  to  Northern  Greenland  and 
made  a  brilliant  sledge  journey  of  1300 
miles,  crossing  Greeiiland  to  its  Atlantic 
coast  and  discovering  Independence  Bay 
in  lat.  81°  37'  N.    He  made  a  second 
expedition    in    1893 -L.>,    again    crossing 
Greenland,  and  in  1897  voyaged  to  Cape 
York    and    brought    back    an    immense 
meteorite  discovered  there.     In  1898  he 
went  north  again,  on  this  occasion  the 
discovery   of  the   North    Pole   being   his 
main    object.     He    remained    until    1902, 
making  efforts   to  cross   the  ice  of  the 
Arctic    Sea    by    means    of    dog    sledges, 
and   reaching  the   high  altitude  of  88» 
39'    N.   lat.    He  also   traced  the  north 
coast  of  Greenland,  thus  proving  Green- 
land to  be  an  island.    In  1905  the  inde- 
fatigable explorer  set  out  again  and  in 
this  expedition  reached  87°  6'  N.  lat.,  the 
highest   point   to   that   date  attained   in 
the  northern  seas.    Dissatisfied  with  hia 
achievements    while   the   pole   retntinad 


Feasant  Proprietors 


Peaoary 


nndlacoTered,  be  embarked  on  a  sixth  ex-  "Pt^at     (P^t),  a  kind  of  turfv  rabataaM 
1909  achieved  the  purpose  to  which  bis    —*-•-•-     *---  ...«». 


f^i         life  had  been  devoted,  attaining  the  pole, 
'  the  northern  extremity  of  the  earth,  on 

April  6.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  the 
honor  of  this  great  achievement  would 
be  lost  to  him,  Dr.  Frederick  A.  Cook, 
of  Brooklyn,  who  bad  been  for  a  year 
or  two  lost  to  sight  in  the  North,  return- 
ing on  Sept.  1,  1909,  with  the  statement 
that  he  had  reached  the  pole  on  April  21, 
1908.  Investigation  of  his  story,  how- 
ever, proved  its  falsity,  and  the  full  credit 
of  the  discovery  was  left  to  the  unweary- 
ing Peary. 

Peasant  Proprietors   (pez'ant), 

*  t  n  e  owners 

of  relatively  small  estates  of  land  which 
they  cultivate  themselves;  the  term  de- 
riving its  specific  meaning  and  importance 
from  the  theories  of  a  class  of  economists 
represented  on  the  European  Continent 
by  Sismondi,  and  in  Britain  by  John 
Stuart  Mill.     See  Land. 

Peasants*  War,  f.  «"»*  insurrec- 

'  tionary  movement 
among  the  German  peasantry,  which  in 
1525  spread  over  the  whole  of  Germany. 
The  immediate  cause  of  this  movement 
was  religious  fanaticism,  but  the  pent-up 
forces  by  which  it  was  impelled  grew  out 
of  the  long  course  of  oppresBion  to  which 
feudal  customs  and  priestly  tyrannv  had 
subjected  the  people.  Before  the  Refor- 
mation, particularly  from  1476  to  1517, 
a  series  of  popular  commotions  and  in- 
surrections had  broken  out  in  various 
parts  of  Southern  Germany,  without  pro- 
curing any  relaxation  of  burdens.  The 
Reformation  gave  hopes  of  relief,  and 
though  Luther  and  Melanchthon  opposed 
the  idea  of  carrying  out  a  religious  and 
a  social  revolution  simultaneously,  a  gen- 
eral ferment  among  the  peasantry  came 
to  a  head  on  Jan.  1,  1525,  with  the  cap- 
ture of  the  convent  of  Kempten  (Bava- 
ria). A  general  unorganized  rising  of 
the  German  peasantry  followed,  fearful 
excesses  and  atrocious  cruelties  were 
committed,  but  in  a  few  months  the 
mobs  were  dispersed  or  massacred  by 
the  soldiery  of  the  nobles.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  150,000  persons  lost  their 
lives  in  these  risings,  which  for  the  time 
gave  a  severo  blow  to  the  Reformation. 
See  also  AnabaptUU;  Jacquerie. 

Pea-stone.  ?^  pisolite  (pisviit),  a 

'  limestone  rock,  composed 
of  globules  of  Hmostone  about  the  bixe  uf 
a  pea,  usually  formed  round  a  minute 
^ain  of  sand  or  other  foreign  body,  and 
joined  with  a  cement  of  lime.  In  piso- 
jitic  rocka  belonging  to  the  Oolitic  period 
irooatoae  ii  frequently  foond. 


which  has  accumulated  by  constaat 
growth  and  decay  in  hollows  or  moiat  ai^ 
nations  on  land  not  in  a  state  at  cultiva- 
tion, always  more  or  less  saturated  with 
water,  and  consisting  of  the  remains, 
more  or  less  decomposed,  of  mosses  and 
other  marsh  plants.  Peat  is  generally  of 
a  black  or  dark- brown  color,  or  when  re- 
cently formed,  of  a  yellowish-brown;  it 
18  soft  and  of  a  vhcia  consistence,  but  it> 
becomes  hard  and  darker  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  When  thoroughly  dried  it  bums, 
giving  out  a  gent.'e  heat  without  much 
smoke ;  accordingly  it  is  used  as  fuel. 
Pea-weevil.      °*®  Pearbeetle. 

Peba  iRf'^^^'m*  species  of  the  arma- 
.  ,  ,  dillo  (Tatuaia  aeptemcinctua) 
found  in  various  parts  of  South  America. 
Its  flesh  is  much  valued  by  the  natives. 
Pebble  ^P^'''')  ^^  jewelry,  a  name 
commonly  given  to  an  agate, 
scotch  agates  are  commonly  known  as 
Gcotch  pebbles, 

Pebrioe  (Peb'rln),  a  French  name 
for  a  destructive  epizootic 
disease  among  silkworms  due  to  mternai 
parasites,  which  swarm  in  the  blood  and 
all  the  tissues  of  the  body,  passing  into 
the  ;-'developed  eggs  of  the  females,  so 
that  's  hereditary,  but  only  on  the  side 
of  th  mother.  It  is  contagious  and  in- 
fecticus,  the  parasitic  corpuscles  passing 
from  the  bodies  of  the  diseased  cater- 
pillars into  the  alimentary  canal  of 
hep 'thy  aiikwoims  in  their  neighborhood. 
Pecan    (.P*-kan'),    Pecan-nut,   a   ape- 

f,  aes  of  hickory  (C'arya  oUtMB' 
ormtt)  and  its  fruit,  growing  in  the 
Jnited  States,  especially  in  ^xaa.  It 
is  a  large  tree,  with  hard,  very  toogh 
wood,  pinnate  leaves,  and  catkins  of  small 
flowers.  The  nut  it  yields  is  very  pal- 
atable and  is  a  favorite  for  table  use. 
PeCCarV  (P«k'a-ri;  Dicotvlei},  a 
^^^''^^'■y  genus  of  Ungulate  qiad- 
rapeds,  included  in  the  Artiodactyle 
('even-toed')  section  of  that  order,  and 
nearly  allied  to  swine,  in  which  family 
(Suide)  the  gmaa  is  classified.  These 
animals  are  exclusively  confined  to  Amer> 
ica,  in  which  continent  they  represent  the 
true  swine  of  the  Old  World  In  gen- 
eral fom  the  peccaries  resemble  small 
pigs.  The  best-known  species  are  the 
collared  peccary  (Dicotylea  torquaima) 
and  thewhite-lipped  peccary  (D.  foM4- 
<!»«).  The  former  occurs  abundantly  in 
Sooth  America,  and  also  extends  into 
North  America,  living  generally  in  small 
flocn.  which  do  not  hesitate  to  attack 
with  their  tusks  any  one  who  meddlee 
with  ibwt.    Their  food  comia^  of  wl\99, 


Pe-elii-le 


Pedak 


potatoei.  ■ocar-cane.  and  •imilar  ma- 
terials, and  caltivated  fields  suffer  mnch 
from  their  raids.  This  species  of  pec- 
vary  is  readily  domesticated.  The  flesh 
ia  sav9ry,  and  less  fat  than  pin'  flesh. 
D.  labintut  is  exceedingly  pugnacioas  and 
is    a    dangeroas    animal    to    encounter. 


ColUred  Peecwy  (DieotyUt  torquMut). 

The  peccary  possesses  a  glandular  sac  or 
pouch,  situated  in  the  loins,  which  se- 
cretes a  strongly^smelling  fluid  of  foetid 
nature.  This  must  be  cut  away  imme- 
diately on  iiilling  a  peccary,  to  avoid 
contaminating  the  flesh. 

Pe^hi-li  (P«-ch6-lS'),  a  province  of 
f  6M!IU  U     ^5"^^     (jjjj^,  ^^^^  Peking. 

Peck  <P**)»  the  fourth  part  of  a 
bushel;  a  dry  measure  of  8 
quarts  for  grain,  pulse,  etc.  The  stand- 
ard or  imperial  peck  contains  2  gallons 
or  554.548  cubic  inches. 
PeCODteris    (p«-kop't6r-is),   the  name 

ferns  occurrmg  in  the  Cloal-measures, 
New  Red  Sandstone,  and  Oolite,  from 
the  comb-like  arrangement  of  its  leaflets. 
Pecos  Biver  (P^'kos),  a  river  of 
V^,  "!  ^^"^'^  New  Mexico  and  Texas, 
which  has  a  southeasterly  course  of  about 
800  miles,  and  falls  into  the  Rio  Grande 
del  Norte,  but  in  summer  is  generally  dry. 

died  in  1674.  He  studied  medicine,  and 
especially  anatomy,  at  Montpellier,  in  his 
studies  discovering  aud  demonstrating  the 
course  of  the  lacteal  vessels  in  the  human 
body. 

Pecten  (P«k'ten),  a  genus  of  Lamelii- 
branchiate  Mollusca,  included 
m  the  oyster  family  (OstrteidK),  and 
popularly  designated  under  the  name  of 
'scallop-shells.'  Numerous  species  of 
pppten  — 180  or  mora  —  are  known,  The 
common  pecten  (P.  opercuJdns)  and  the 
frill  or  great  scallop  (P.  maximus)  are 
the  most  common  forms.  The  latter 
form  is  esteemed  a  delicacy.  The  shell  of 
this  species  was  borne  in  the  middle  afcs 


by  pilgrims  in  their  hats,  as  a  sign  uat 
they  had  -iKlteC  the  Holy  Land.  The 
shell   is  what  ronnded,  and   termi- 

nates su  jrly  in  a  triangular  'ear,' 
in  which  the  hinge  exists.  The  name 
'pecten'  (Latin  for  'comb')  is  de- 
rived from  the  hidentation  of  the  edge* 
and  surfacM  of  the  shell. 

Pectinibranchiata    iP*"^:,* * ° - \- 

.,  ,  bran-ki-ft'ta), 

those  gasteropods  having  pectinated 
branchia:  or  gills,  as  the  purple  shells 
(Murem),  whelk  {Buodnum),  cowries 
(Cyprceo),  etc. 

Pectolite     (.P«k'tu-llt),  a  mineral  con- 
V^  sistmg  of  a  silicate  of  lime 

and  soda.  It  is  a  tough  grayish  or 
whitish  mineral  occurring  in  trap-rocks, 
in  aggregated  crystals  of  a  silky  luster, 
arrarged  in  sparlike  or  radiated  forms. 
Called  also  Stellite. 

Peculiar  (Pe-^fll'yar),  in  canon  law, 
a  particular  parish  or  church 
which  has  jurisdiction  within  itself,  and 
exemption  from  that  of  the  ordinary  or 
bishop's  court.  The  Court  of  PecuUart, 
in  England,  is  a  branch  of  the  Court  of 
Arches  which  has  jurisdiction  over  all 
the  parishes  in  the  province  of  Canter- 
bury which  are  exempt  from  the  ordi- 
nary jurisdiction,  and  subject  to  the 
metropolitan  only. 

Peculiar  People,  %  Tl"  ^^.  °' 

*^  »  English  religion- 
ists whose  special  doctrine  seems  i,o  be 
the  eflSciency  of  prayer  without  the  use 
of  any  efforts  on  their  own  part.  In 
sickness  they  reject  the  aid  of  physicians, 
acceptinp;  the  exhortation  of  St.  James 
V,  14,  15  in  a  strictly  literal  sense.  They 
are  called  also  Plunutead  PeaUian,  from 
the  place  of  their  origin. 
PeCUlimn  (P^-k^'ll-um),  private  prop- 

man  law,  that  which  was  given  by  a 
father  or  master  to  his  son,  daughter, 
or  slave,  as  his  or  her  private  property. 
PedaerOfiTV  (P«^'a-fo-Ji),  the  science 
o  oj  of  teacning,  or  the  sys- 
tematic developing  of  the  human  faculties. 
Its  ideal  is  to  study  the  individual  na- 
tures of  youth,  in  order  to  train  each 
m  the  special  functions  or  talents  with 
which  he  or  she  is  endowed,  so  as  to 
develop  their  minds  in  the  most  effective 
direction. 

Pedals  (P?d'als),  parts  of  the  mech- 
anism of  a  musical  instru- 
ment acted  on  by  the  feet.  Pedals  are 
used  for  different  purposes  in  different 
instruments.  In  the  onan  they  are  used 
in  two  distinct  wave;  first,  to  act  on  the 
swell  and  stops  when  the  instrument  ie 
played  with  the  hands;  second,  to  act 
up<Hi  a  distinct  set  of  pipes,  called  the 


P«dM 


PmA^ 


pedal  organ,  and  which  are  played  inde- 
pendently. On  the  pianoforte  there  waa 
at  fint  only  one  pedal,  used  to  raise  the 
dampen  and  prolona  the  sound  after  the 
fingers  were  lifted  from  the  keys;  a  sec- 
ond was  used  to  soften  the  notes,  and 
is  called  the  soft  or  una-corda  pedal;  a 
third  has  of  late  years  been  introduced, 
which  arrests  the  sound  immediately  after 
the  note  is  struclE,  and  produces  an  arti- 
ficial staccato.  In  the  harmonium  the 
pedals  supply  the  instrument  with  wind. 
Pedee  (pfr^e'),  Gbeat  and  Little, 
two  rivers  in  the  United  States. 
The  former  rises  in  North  Carolina,  en- 
ters South  Carolina,  and  falls  into  the 
Atlantic ;  total  course,  360  miles,  of  which 
200  miles  are  navigable  for  boats  of  60 
or  70  tons.  Little  Pedee  rises  in  North 
Carolina,  and  enters  the  Great  Pedee  32 
miles  above  its  eml>ouchure. 
Pedestal  (Ped'es-tal),  an  insulated 
basement  or  support  for  a 
column,  a  statue,  or  a  vase.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  base,  a  dado,  and  a  cornice. 
When  a  range  of  columns  is  supported 
on  a  continuous  pedestal  the  latter  is 
called  a  ttylobate. 

PedeteS  (Pe-dfi'tes;  Or.  pidetet,  a 
leaper),  a  genus  of  rodent 
mammals,  of  the  mouse  family,  of  which 
the  best-lcnown  species  is  P.  capenait  (the 
jumping-hare  of  South  Africa). 
Pedicel  (P«d'i-8el),  in  botany,  the 
stalk  that  supports  one  flower 
only  when  there  are  several  on  a  pedun- 
cle. Anv  short  and  small  footstalk,  al- 
though It  does  not  stand  upon  another 
footstalk,  is  likewise  called  a  pedicel. 

Pedicellarise  (Ped-i-sil-a'n-a),  cer- 
.  «-**«»/    Jam     minute     organ- 

isms or  structures  found  attached  to  the 
skin  or  outer  surface  of  star-fishes,  sea- 
urchins,  and  other  Echinodermata.  £}ach 
pedicellaria  consists  essentially  of  a  stalk 
attached  to  the  organism,  and  bearing  at 
its  free  extremity  two  or  inore  movable 
blades  or  jaws,  which  close  and  open  on 
foreign  particles  so  as  to  retain  them. 
The  exact  nature  of  these  structures  is 
still  a  matter  of  doubt. 

Pedic'idus.    ^^  ^*»«- 

Pedigree.     ®®*  Qenealogy. 
PedilanthuS     (P«d-i-hm'thn8),     a 

ican  plants  belonging  to  the  nat  order 
Euphorbiaccs,  of  which  one  species  (P. 
I^Aymalotdes),  used  medicinaUy  in  the 
W«t  Indies,  is  known  under  the  nam*  of 
ipecacuanha,  and  is  employed  for  the 
same  porpoae  as  that  drag. 

Pediment  <R8d'*-n»ait),  in  classic  ar- 
.bvwMAvui,  c^t^ptu^    Q^    triangular 


mass  resembling  a  gable,  above  the  en- 
tablature at  the  end  of  huildings  or 
over  porticoes.  The  pediment  is  aur 
rounded  by  a  cornice,  and  is  often  orna- 
mented with  sculpture.  Ilie  triangular 
finishings  over  doors  and  windows  are 
also  called  pediments.  In  the  debased 
Roman  style  the  same  name  is  given  to 
these  same  parts,  though  not  trUngnlar 
in  their  form.  In  the  architecture  of  the 
middle  ages  small  gables  and  triangular 
decorations  over  openings,  niches,  etc., 
are  called  pediments. 

PediDalDi     <  Ped/l-pal-Pi )  .an  order  of 
r^^r"    arachnidans.    It  comprises 
the  scorpions,  together  with  certain  other 
animals. 

Pedometer  (Pe-dom'e-t6r)  is  an  in- 
**'^^*  strument  like  a  watch, 
which  serves  to  indicate  the  distance  a 
pedestrian  traveler  has  gone,  or  rather 
the  number  of  paces  he  has  made.  See 
Ptutometer. 

Pedro  IT  Emperor  of  Brazil,  was 
x-earQ  XX,    ^^    ^^    ^^    Janeiro    in 

1825;  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
abdication  of  his  father,  Dom  Pedro 
I,  in  1831,  and  married  the  Princess 
Theresa  Christiua  Maria  (died  1800), 
sister  of  Francis  I,  kiac  of  Naples,  in 
1843.  Brazil  prosperea  greatly  under 
the  rule  of  Pedro  II,  who  did  much  to 
develop  its  resources  in  every  direction. 
In  1871  he  issued  an  imperial  decree  for 
the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery,  which 
totally  ceased  in  Brazil  in  May,  1888. 
In  1889  a  revolt  of  republicans  took  place 
and  he  was  put  on  board  ship  and  sent 
to  Europe,  tne  successful  revolutionists 
establishing  a  republic.  He  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  Europe  and  died 
in  1881. 

Peduncle     (j>e-dung'kl),  in   botany, 
"^*^    the  stem  or  stalk  that  sup- 
ports the  fructification  of  a  plant,  •.  e- 
the  flower  and  the  fruit. 

Peebles  ](?*''''")»  °'  Twiemjaul  an 
~J^  "T  inmnd  county  in  Scotland,  be- 
tween Dumfries,  Selkirit,  Edinburgh,  and 
Lanark;  area,  856  square  miles.  The 
greater  part  of  the  surface  consists  of 
mountain,  moor,  and  bog,  and  the  main 
industry  is  sheep  farming.  Highest  sum* 
mit.  Broad  Law.  2723  feet,  near  tba 
south  border.  White  and  red  freestone 
are  common  In  the  northern  r^rt  of  th* 
county,  and  both  coal  and  limestone  have 
been    wrought   at   various    points.    Tha 

Pop.  15.006.— Pkebi£s,  o^ital  of  tht 
above  county,  on  the  Tweed,  ia  a  favorite 
summer  resort.  The  manotaetai*  of 
tweeds  and  other  wooloi  staffs  is  carried 
"J-  PeeWe*  was  made  a  royal  burgh,  in 
ioOi.    Fop.  8O0O. 


Peeolu 


Peep-o'-day  Boyi 


Feeohi.    S«e  Dauw. 

P«Mi1r«1H  1 1  <  Pfiks'kil ) ,  a  TiUage  in  town 
f  CCJUMUU  ^i  CorUandt,  WestclieBter 
county,  New  York,  on  the  K.  bank  of  tlie 
Hudson,  42  miles  n.  of  New  York  City. 
Here  is  the  Peekskill  Academy.  Manufac- 
tures indude  boilers,  stoves,  hollow  ware, 
bricks,  hats,  liquors,  yeast,  raincoats,  un- 
detwear,  oilcloth,  etc.     Pop.  lti,500. 

PcbI  (p^^^'  <^  Beaport  town  and  popular 
watering  place  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  Isle  of  Man.  It  has  important 
fisheries.  On  St.  Patrick's  Isle,  joined 
to  the  mainland  by  a  causeway,  are  the 
ruins  of  St.  German's  Cathedral  and  of 
Peel  Castle.  About  3  miles  to  the  south- 
east is  Tynwald  Hill,  celebrated  in  con- 
nection with  the  passing  of  the  Manx 
laws.    Pop.  3600. 

Pe»1  Sib  RmEUT,  a  British  statesman, 
*««;*,  ^^  y^^  February  5,  1788, 
near  Bury  in  Lancashire.  His  father, 
who  had  raised  himself  from  a  compara- 
tively humble  station  to  be  the  largest 
cottcn  manufacturer  in  the  world,  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1800,  and  left  be- 
hind him  a  fortune  of  nearly  £2,000,000, 


Sir  Robert  Peel. 

of  which  the  largest  share  was  inherited 
by  his  eldest  son,  Robert.  Young  Peel 
was  sent  to  Harrow  and  Oxford,  where 
be  took  his  oachelor's  degree  in  1808, 
with  double  first-class  honors.  Imme- 
diately on  attaining  his  majority  he  was 
elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Cashel ; 
in  1810  he  became  under-secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies,  and  in  1812-18  he 
was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  In  1817 
1m  was  elected  representative  of  the  Uni- 


versity of  Oxford,  and  in  1880  iccceeded 
his  father  as  baronet.  In  the  election 
of  1832  he  was  returned  for  Tamwortli, 
for  which  he  continued  to  sit  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  On  the  diamissail 
of  the  Whig  government  in  1884  Peel 
undertook  the  government,  but  his  party 
in  the  house  being  in  a  minority  the 
task  was  hopeless.  After  a  brief  strug- 
gle the  ministry  resigned,  and  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Whig  ministry  of  Lord 
Melbourne,  which  lasted  from  1885  to 
1841.  The  general  election  of  1841  gave 
a  large  majority  to  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and 
the  formation  of  a  Conservative  ministry 
could  no  longer  be  delayed.  In  1844  and 
1845  he  passed  his  celebrated  English  and 
Scotch  Banking  Acts.  During  the  recess 
in  1845  the  potato-rot  and  famine  in  Ire- 
land brought  the  question  of  the  corn- 
laws  to  a  crisis,  and  Peel  declared  in 
favor  of  their  total  repeal.  The  act  re- 
pealing the  corn-laws  (after  a  modified 
duty  for  three  years)  was  passed  June 
26,  184a  On  the  same  day  the  min- 
istry was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on  the  Irish  Coercion  Bill,  and  on 
the  29th  of  June  Peel  resigned  the  pre- 
mietship.  As  leader  of  the  opposition  he 
supported  many  of  the  measures  of  the 
government  of  Lord  John  Russell,  who 
succeeded  him;  but  the  policy  of  Lord 
Palmerston  after  the  revolution  crisis  of 
1848-'9  evoked  from  him  a  more  active 
hostility  to  the  ministry.  On  June  29, 
1850,  he  was  thrown  from  his  horse,  and 
received  injuries  of  which  he  died  on 
July  2.  By  his  will  he  renounced  a  peer- 
age for  his  family,  as  he  had  before  de- 
clined the  Garter  for  himself. 
Peele  ^eoROE>  one  of  the  poets  of 
'  Shakespeai^'s  time,  was  born  in 
Devonshire  about  1558,  and  educated  at 
Oxford,  where  he  made  a  great  reputa- 
tion. Ultimately  he  settled  at  London 
as  a  theatrical  writer,  and  was  the  asso- 
ciate of  Nash,  Marlowe  and  Greene.  Of 
the  many  dramas  of  which  he  was  reputed 
to  be  the  author  only  a  few  are  certainly 
known  to  be  his,  among  these  few  being 
The  Chronicle  History  of  Edward  I.  He 
died  in  1598. 

Peele-Tower.  **'"  s»™p!y  p**^.  the 

*  »  name     given     on     the 

Scottish  borders  to  small  residential  tow- 
ers erected  for  defense  against  predatory 
excursions.  They  were  usually  square 
buildings  with  turrets  at  the  angles.  The 
lower  part  was  vaulted,  and  served  for 
the  accommodation  of  horses  and  cattle. 

Peep-o^day  Boys,    {J^S^^SS'ul^ 

gents  who  appeared  in  Ireland  in  1784, 
shortly  after  the  volunteer  movement. 
They  were  so  named  from  visitics  the 


Peepnl 

hoQMS  o(  the  'defenders,'  their  anUgo- 
nista,  at  daybreak  in  searcli  of  arms. 
VaatmiI  (pe'pul),  PiPUL,  or  Sacred 
reepiU  ^^^  (Fich*  religioaa),  a  spe- 
cien  of  fig-tree  common  in  India,  and  held 
sacred  by  the  Hindus  and  Buddhittts. 
Its  leaves  are  heart-shaped  on  long  stalks. 
It  attains  a  great  age,  and  is  usually 
planted  near  temples,  where  it  affords 
shelter  to  the  devotees.  Vishnu  is  said 
to  have  been  born  under  a  peepul-tree. 
Its    fruits    are    edible,    but    not    much 

paAr  (P*f;  French,  pair,  from  Latin 
■'*'^*  par,  equal),  m  general,  sigjifies 
an  equal,  one  of  the  same  rank  and  sta- 
tion. In  this  sense  it  is  used  by  the 
common  law  of  England,  which  declares 
that  every  person  is  to  be  tried  by  his 
peers.  Peer  also  signifies  in  Britain  a 
member  of  one  of  the  five  degrees  of 
nobility  that  constitute  the  peerage 
(duke,  man]uis,  earl,  viscount,  baron), 
or  more  strictly  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  dignity  and  privileges  of 
peers  originated  with  the  growth  of  the 
feudal  system,  the  peers  being  originally 
the  chief  vassals  holding  fiefs  directly 
from  the  crown,  and  having,  in  virtue  of 
their  position,  the  hereditary  right  of 
acting  as  royal  counselors.  Subsequently 
not  all  the  crown  vassals  appeared  at 
court  as  advisers  of  the  king,  but  only 
those  who  were  summoned  to  appear  by 
writ.  This  custom  grew  at  length  into 
a  rule,  and  these  summonses  were  con- 
sidered proofs  of  hereditary  peerage.  In 
later  times  the  honor  of  the  peerage  has 
been  exclusively  conferred  by  patent.  As 
regards  their  privileges  all  peers  are  on 
a  perfect  equality.  The  chief  privileges 
are  those  of  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
of  a  trial  by  persons  of  noble  birth  in 
case  of  indictments  for  t.  .-ason  and  fel- 
ony, and  misprision  thereof,  and  of  ex- 
emption from  arrest  in  civil  cases.  The 
British  peerage  collectively  consists  of 
peers  of  England,  of  Scotland,  of  Great 
Britain,  of  Ireland,  and  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  but  only  a  portion  of  the  Scotch 
and  Irish  peers  are  peers  of  Parliament. 
Paa>a«ii«  (peg'a-sus),  in  Greek  my- 
x^cgasus  thology,  a  winged  horse,  the 
offspring  of  Poseidon  and  Medusa.  Bel- 
lerophou  made  use  of  Pegasus  in  his  fight 
with  the  Chimtera.  (See  Bellerophon.) 
With  the  stroke  of  his  hoof  Bellerophon 
called  forth  the  sacred  well  Hippocrene, 
on  Mount  Helicon,  from  which  he  was 
iu  later  times  called  the  horse  of  the 
muses. 

PAty'osTis  a  genus  of  acanthopteroua 
* "»  ttSUB,  ggjjgg  allied  to  the  gurnets. 
P,  draco,  or  sea-dragon,  inhabits  the  In- 
dian 


Pekan 


P^vmntite    (peg 'ma -tit),   a   co»rs« 
r  e^mailie    g  p  a  n  i  t  e  rock.  oompoMd 
mainly   of   felspar   and  quart/,   used  in 
the  manufacture  of  porcelain. 
Ppcm      ipe'gi})t    now    a    division    of 
*^o"'     Lower  Burmah,  but  previous  to 
1757  a  powerful  and  independent  king- 
dom, and  from  that  period  up  to  1853  a 
province  of  the  Burmese  Empire,  from 
which  it  was  severed  and  annexed  to  the 
British  dominions  in  1853.    The  province 
comprised   the  whole  delta  of  the  Irra- 
watly;    area,   25,904  square   miles;    pop. 
2,323,512.     The  modem  division  of  Pegu 
lies    mainly    on    the    east    of    the    lower 
Irrawady;  area,  about  13,(XX)  sq.  miles; 
cultivated  area,  2043  square  miles;  pop. 
1,810,000.     Chief  town,  Rangoon. 
Pavn      an  ancient  city  in  the  Pegu  dl- 
■•■*'6**>    vision  of  Lower  Burmah,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Pegu   River,  about  70 
miles  north  from  Rangoon.     Founded  in 
the  sixth  century  A.D.,  and  long  the  cap- 
ital of  the  kingdom  of  the  same  name,  it 
was    formerly    a    place    of    great    size, 
strength,    and    importance,   but    was   de- 
stroyed in  1757  by  the  Burmese.     A  new 
town  has  been  built  on  the  site  of  the 
old.    Pop.  (1911)  17,104. 
PftTiliri     or     PEHlxvi.     See     Peraia — 
reaiMlf    Lanpuage. 
PAi.Tin     (pa-n6'),  a  river  of  Northern 
X-Cl  nu    ^hjna,    rises    near   the   Great 
Wall,   and   flows  southeast   to  the  Gulf 
of  Pechelee.    It  is  navigable  for  boats 
to  within  20  miles  of  Peking,  which  it 
passes  at  the  distance  of  about  10  miles. 
At  its  mouth  is  the  small  town  of  Taku, 
with  several  forts,  which  acquired  some 
note  in  the  war  with  the  British  and 
French  in  I860. 

Peine  Forte  et  Dure  fe.??-.^ 

ishment  formerly  inflicted  upon  a  pris- 
oner who  refused  to  plead  guilty  or  not 
guilty  when  put  on  trial  for  felony.  He 
was  put  into  a  low  dark  chamber,  and 
laid  on  his  back  naked,  on  the  floor.  As 
great  a  wei|;ht  of  iron  as  he  could  I)ear 
was  then  laid  upon  him,  and  in  this  sit- 
uation bread  and  water  were  alternately 
his  daily  diet  till  he  died  or  answered. 
PeinHS  (Pe'i-Pfta).  a  lake  of  Russia. 
"  between  the  governments  of 
St.  Petersburg,  Revel,  and  Livonia: 
length,  55  miles;  breadth,  SO  miles.    It 


discharges  Itself  by  the  Narova  into  the 

-    -  -     -      It  is      " 

fish. 


Gulf  of  Finland. 


well  supplied  with 


Peishwa  °^  Peshwa  (pecdi'wa),  the 
>  prime-minister  and  subse- 
quently the  head  of  the  Mahratta  Empire 
or  Confederacy.  See  Mahnttaa. 
Pekan  (pck'^Qi  pSlum),  a  species  of 
S.MAMM.   amrten      {Mntteia     pennanti) 


Pddn 


Pelagimim 


OMrly  allied  *o  the  Mbl«,  found  in  woody 
retbna  of  North  America. 

,..r^  \.?"««*«"  county.  Illinois,  on  the 
Illinois  River,  10  miles  below  Peoria.  It 
has  wagon  and  plow  factories,  sagar 
rcnneries,  chemical  and  malt  works,  dis- 
tilleries, strawboard  factories,  etc.  Coal 
abounds  within  the  citr  limits.  Grain  and 
other  products  are  shipped.  Pop.  9807. 
Pekinsr  (Pfr-king*) ,  or  Pekin'^  ('  north- 
«  \^  .  •"?»  capital'  as  opposed  to 
Nanking),  the  capital  of  the  Chinese 
republic,  is  in  the  province  of  Chih-le 
OS  Pechelee,  on  an  extensive,  barren, 
wndy  plain,  between  the  rivers  Pei-ho 
and  Hoen-ho,  about  40  miles  from  the 
Great  Wall,  and  100  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Pechelee.  The  entire  circuit  of 
the  walls  and  suburbs  of  Peking  is  reek- 


Temple  o{  Heaven,  Peking. 

ooed  at  30  miles.  There  are  in  all  six- 
teen gates  leading  into  the  city,  each 
protected  by  a  semicircular  enceinte,  and 
a  higher  tower  built  in  galleries.  The 
city  consists  of  two  portions,  the  north 
or  Tartar  city,  and  the  south  or  Chinese 
city.  The  former  Is  built  in  the  shape 
of  a  parallelogram,  and  consists  of  three 
inclosures,  one  within  another,  each  sur- 
rounded by  its  own  wall.  The  innermost 
Incloaure  ('the  forbidden  city')  con- 
tains the  imperial  palace,  and  buildings 
connected  with  it,  in  which  the  emperor 
and  royal  family  formerly  resided.  The 
aeooD^  (  the  imperial  city ')  was  the  resi- 


dence of  the  imperial  princes  and  sflidals 
of  the  highest  rank.    The  outer  or  Tartar 
citT  proper  was  th«  seat  of  the  six  auprems 
Mbun^  and  opntaina  the  legations  of 
Great  BriUln,  France,  the  United  ISfatea 
and  Russia.    In  the  Chinese  dty  broad 
straight  streets  run  from  gate  to  gale, 
intersecting  each  other     t  right  anglea, 
but    they    are    unpaved,    and    in    rainy 
weather   impassable    from    mud.    Among 
the  principal  public  buildings  of  PeUnc 
are  the  Temple  of  Eternal  Peace,  belo^ 
ing    to    the    lamas;    the    Mohammedan 
mosque;  the  observatory;  the  Temple  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Temple  of  Heaven. 
In  the  latter  temple  the  emperor  period- 
ically offered  sacnfice.     It  is  a  vast  cir- 
cular building   surmounted   by   a  couple 
of  inverted  saucer-shaped  roofs,  one  over 
the  other,  and  the  exterior  is  brilliantly 
and  harmoniously  colored.     It  occupies  a 
commanding  position,  and  is  approached 
from  the  different  sides  by  magnificent 
alabaster     stairs.    ITiere     are     religious 
edifices  appropriated  to  many  forms  of 
religion,  the  principle  of  toleration  being 
here  carried  to  the  utmost  extremity  — 
among   these  are   the   Greek   and   Latin 
churches,  Moslem  mosques,  Buddhist  tem- 
ples,  besides  temples  dedicated  to  Con- 
fucius and  other  deified  mortals.    Among 
the   institutions  of   Peking  are  the  na- 
tional college,  the  medical  college,  astro- 
nomical board,  and  the  imperial  observa- 
tory.   Peking  is  sustained  solely  by  its 
being  the  seat  of  government,  having  no 
trade  except  that  which  is  produced  by 
the  wants  of  its  population.     Peking  is 
regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  one  of  their 
most  ancient  cities,  but  it  was  not  made 
the  capital  of  tfie  country  until  Its  con- 
quest by  the  Mongols  about  1282.    In  the 
war  of  1860  Peking  was  occupied  by  the 
British  and  French  on  October  12,  and 
evacuated  by  them  Nov.  5,  after  burning 
the  summer  palace  and  inflicting  othw 
damage.     In  1900  it  was  the  chief  seat 
of  the  Boxer  outbreak  and  attack  on  the 
foreign  embassies,  and  was  occupied  by 
the  international  force  sent  to  the  relief 
of    the    diplomatic    bodies.     Considerable 
damage  was   done  to  the  imperial  city 
and  palace,  th3  court  having  fled.     (See 
China,  HUtorv.)   WlAin  recent  years  Im- 
provements are  heinz  made  in  the  streets 
and  means  of  travel  in  accordance  with 
European  ideas.    Pop.  (1912)  693,000. 
Pelasianism    (P«-lft'Ji-an-i«n).  the 
•J     TIj       i.L     ■/■te™   o'  opinions 
identified    with    the    name    of    Petegius 
(which  see).    They  included  a  denial  of 
original  sin  or  the  taint  of  Adam;  the 
maintenance  of  the  doctrine  of  free-will 
and  the  merit  of  good  works,  and  of  the 
power  m  man  to  receive  or  reject  the 


Pelagiu 


Pelican 


goapel.  The  promulgAtloo  of  his  viewi 
by  Pelagliu  wm  nearly  timultaneoua  with 
that  of  the  orthodox  theory  of  original 
ain,  etc.,  by  Augustine,  and  in  the  devel- 
opment of  bis  doctrine  Augustine  was 
influenced  by  bis  opposition  to  Pelagian- 
ism.  Among  the  early  supporters  of 
Peiagios  was  Cksieatius.  a  Koman  advo- 
cate, who  afterwards  became  a  monk; 
and  It  was  the  application  of  Coelestios 
for  ordination  as  a  presbyter  at  Carthage 
which  led  to  the  open  conflict  between 
the  two  schools  of  thought  His  appli- 
cation was  denied  on  the  ground  of  seven 
heretical  opinions,  and  he  was  condemned 
and  excommunicated  by  the  Council  of 
Carthage  held  in  412  ▲.!>.  In  417  and 
418  A.D.  the  Council  of  Carthage  re- 
peated its  condemnation,  and  the  Em- 
peror Honoriua  issued  a  rescript  against 
the  Peiacian  doctrines.  The  pope  then 
confinued  the  sentence  of  the  councils, 
and  anathematized  the  Pelagians.  In 
the  East,  Pelagianism  waa  oflkially  con- 
demned by  the  Council  of  Bphesus  in  431 
A.D.  A  doctrine  subsequently  distin- 
guished as  $emi-pelagianitm  was  taught 
by  John  Cassian,  a  monk  of  Constan- 
tinople, ordained  a  deacon  by  Chrysostom 
in  403. 

PHdonna  (pe-lil'ji-us),  the  author  of 
.K^cin^iUB  jjjg  system  of  doctrine  which 
goes  by  his  uame  (see  above  article), 
was  understood  by  his  contemporaries 
to  be  of  British  birth,  and  the  name 
is  supposed  to  be  a  Qrsecised  form 
of  the  Cymric  Morgan  (sea-begotten). 
He  was  not  a  monk,  but  he  adhered  to 
monastic  diacipline,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  sanctity  and  purity  of 
life.  He  came  to  Rome  in  the  beginning 
of  the  6th  century,  and  Is  there  said  to 
havo  learned  the  opinions  afterwards 
ideii.iQed  with  his  name  from  a  monk 
Ruffinus,  whose  teaching  was  founded  on 
that  of  Origen.  In  410  A.D.,  during 
Alaric's  third  siege  of  the  city,  he  escaped 
with  his  convert  and  pupil,  Ccelestius,  to 
Northern  Africa,  and  had  gone  from 
there  to  Palestine  before  the  meeting  of 
the  Council  of  Carthage  (411-12)  which 
condemned  Coelestius.  In  Palestine  he 
lived  unmolested  and  revered  until  415, 
when  Orosius,  a  Spanish  priest,  came 
from  Augustine  to  warn  Jerome  against 
him.  The  result  was  that  he  was  prose- 
cuted for  heresy,  but  two  councils  (at 
Jerusalem,  and  at  Dioapolis,  the  ancient 
Lydda)  pnmonnced  him  orthodox.  He 
was  subsequently  expelled  from  Jenm- 

ilem.  however,  in  consequence  of  coodem- 
nations  b?  the  Council  of  Carthage  in 
417  and  418  A.D.,  and  by  a  synod  held 
at  Antioch  in  421  a.d.    Nothing  is  known 

!  of  his  mbaeqaent  career. 


P«lAmil  (P«l  •-»!■)  f  a  genus  of  ven- 
omoua  sea-snakes,  often  found 
swimming  in  the  ocean  at  great  dhitances 
from  land.  It  haa  a  length  of  2i  feet, 
and  is  black  above  and  yellow  beneath. 
PAl^AmiTB  *  genus  of  fishea,  belonging 
x-Bl  amys,  ^^  j,,^  ScombrUa,  or  mack- 
erel family.     Five  apecies  are  known. 

Felargoninm.    «*•  otranium. 
PelaBgians  &'";i^*'^U  ??iS 

over  the  whole  of  Oreece,  the  coasts  and 
islands  of  the  iGgean,  and  also  in  Aaia 
Minor  and  Italv.  Niebuhr  regarded  them 
as  a  great  and  widely-spread  people,  in- 
habiting all  the  countries  from  the  Po 
to  the  Bosphorus,  and  supplying  a  com- 
mon foundation  to  the  Greek  and  Latin 
peoples  and  languages.  Other  writers, 
such  as  Qrote,  receive  the  entire  tradition 
of  the  Pelasgians  with  almost  complete 
scepticism. 

Pel^e  (pe-lft')>  MoRT,  a  volcano  in  the 
xcxcc  j^-j^^^  ^^  Martinique,  Weat  In- 
dies, which  broke  into  violent  eruption 
with  disastrous  results,  on  May  8,  1902, 
after  having  been  quiescent  for  half  a 
century.  St.  Pierre,  the  principal  city 
of  the  island,  lay  at  the  mountain's  foot 
and  ita  inhabitants,  80,000  in  number, 
were  overwhelmed  and  destroyed  by  an 
outflow  of  hot  and  smothering  gases.  The 
only  one  that  escaped  with  life  waa  a 
convict,  who  lay  locked  in  an  underground 
dungeon. 

Pelens  (PS'IO").  in  Oreek  mjrthology, 
^*'"*'  son  of  ifeacus,  king  of  .Sglna. 
After  many  adventures  he  beoime  master 
of  a  part  of  Thessaly,  and  married  the 
nymph  Thetis,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Achilles.  The  nuptials  were 
celebrated  on  Mount  Pelion.  and  honored 
with  the  presence  of  all  the  gods,  who 
brought  rich  bridal  presents.  Aftw  his 
death  he  leceiTed  divine  honors. 

Pelew  Islands  ,<Sg;'>'to\*E?'&K: 

line  Archipelago,  in  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean.  They  are  about  twenty  in  nom- 
ber,  extend  nearly  n.  n.  e.  and  s.  8.  w.  87 
miles,  and  are  completely  encircled  by 
reefs.  They  are  fertfle,  and  enjoy  a  good 
climate.  The  inhabitanta  are  Polyneabns, 
and  have  g«ierally  got  a  high  cliaraeter 
from  visitors.    Pop.  3100. 

Pelias  /p^'H."?"'' ."  **°''»  ®'  ■en^Mta, 

'"^    inclnding  the  common  viper  «r 
adder  (P.  benu). 

Pelican  <P*l'»-kan),  the  mme  of  wr- 
Acuuau  g^j  ^eb-footed  Uids  of  the 
genua  Ptieednua.  They  are  larger  duw 
the  swan,  have  a  great  extaat  of  wtng, 
and  are  excellent  swimmnrs.  Pelicans 
are  gr^iarioas,  and  fraqnent  the  neii^- 


PeUon 

borhood   of    riven.    I«ke«.    and    the    •»- 
eoIitfecdiBg  chiefly  on  fish,  which  they 
SSture     wltli    ireit     adroltnew.    They 
hive"    large   Attened   bill,    the   upi«r 
mndible  teralnated  by  a  atronf  hook, 
irhteb  curve,  over  the  tip  o£  the  lower 
one  •  heneath  the  lower  mandible,  which 
to  ^iSSd  of  two  flexible,  bony  branch«i 
S^^nfat  the  tip,  a  great  poucli  of  naked 
dcin  to  appended,  capable  of  ho»f 'o? ,» 
coMlderable   number   of   fish,   and   tliua 
SSbllM  the  bird  to  dispose  of  the  Buper- 
flSTou"  quantity  which  may  b^  taken  Jur- 
Ing  flihlnf  expeditions,  either  fo    is  own 
consumption  or  for  the  nouriHhmeot  of  Its 
Mung.     The  speclea  are  found  In  Europe, 
Asia    Africa,  and  America.     They  some- 
ffi  perl:?  upon  trees-   the  nest   Is  of 
rough  construction,  usually  placed  close 


PeUaprft 


of  artillery,  subseouentljr  ■•S,l£!Q°.^5'te 
in  1823,  in  the  Morea  In  182^29.  and  In 
Algeria.  In  this  country,  being  now  a 
colonel,  in  184B  he  suffocated  In  a  cave 
Tparty  of  Arab,  who  had  taken  refuge 
In  It.  by  lighting  a  fire  at  the  mouth,  au 
atrocity  wBlch  brought  great  odium  on 
hto  name.  In  1866  he  reptoced  Canrobert 
S.  "mmander-ln-chlef  of  the  French 
army  in  the  Crimea:  and  by  tha  vigor 


Marihal  Pillttier. 

with  which  he  pushed  the  siege  he  jus- 
tified the  expectations  which  had  been 
formed  of  him.  On  t'ae  caoture  of  the 
MaTakoff    and    the  ^  fall    of  Sebastopol 

P«ll8sler    received    hto    """bai"  >?*°"' 
and  an  annual  pension  of  100,000  francs^ 
He  was  afterwards  v'ce-presldent  of  the 
senate,  a  privy-councilor,  and  ambassador 
to    England    (1838).     In    I860   ^e   wa« 
appointed  governor-general  of  Algeria. 
-D^llla     (pel'la),  the  ancient  caplUl  of 
Pella    ifncedonia.  and  the  birthplace  of 
Alexander  the  Great.     It  surrendered  te 
Paulus    .Emilius    lt»   B.C.,    and    from    t 
torge  and  magnificent  city  it  sank,  undet 
the  Romans,  to  a  mere  station. 
■B  ii.J!--«     (pe-la'gra,  pel'a-gra),  an 
reUagra    endemic  disease  of  compara- 
tively modern  o"S'°  oci"",*?*  ^^PfPT/ 
iu    the    plains   of    North    Italy.     It   be- 
gins   by    an    erysipelatoua    eruption    on 
the  skin   which  breaks  out  in  the  spring, 
continued  Tui  the  autumn,  and  dlwippears 
in  the  winter,  chiefly  affecting  those  parts 
of  the  surface  which  are  habitually  ex- 
inem   lu  ui."."."b,_>-  .r---r--^  liroT-rs    nosed  to  the  mn  or  air.  to  aocompaniea  « 
Prissier     lPa-l6»-y*U  "^^^  Xlt^nkoff     SSed  by  remarkable  lassitude,, melan- 
reUSSier    ^jiABU:,  Due  de  Malakoff.   P^^^^^^ness.   hypochopdrlasis,   and 


Feliean  (F«J«c«nia  onoerotatu*) . 

♦«    th.    water.    The   common    or   white 
SliJin  (P.fnocromu,)  to  colored  a  del- 
ate white,  tinged   with   '«««  0' ^SSfs 
Se  voung  birds  are  fed  by  the  parents 
with  ffis  from  the  pouch,  and  the  ma  es 
Se  said  to  feed  thiincubating  females 
'"a  similar  manner.    The  common  pel- 
ican inhabits  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa. 
About   the   middle   of   September    flocks 
iS^r    to    Egypt.    During    the    summer 
U^tha  thev  take  up  their  abode  on  the 
Ke™  ofte  Bine?  Sea  and  the  shores 
of  Greece.     The  pelican  is  not  only  sas- 
MptiblTof  domestication,  but  may  even 
be  trained  to  fish  for  its  master. 
«  »•  fn*'H-un).  a  mountain  ot 

Pchon  i?eiie!  in  Thessaly,  near  the 
MM  fiSOO  feet  high.  In  the  war  of  the 
^t'anVwith  the  gods  the  former,  say 
SeSetT.  piled  oJla  upon  Pelion  to  aid 
themta  cfimbing  to  Olympus 


Marshal  of  France,  was  bom  in  ksj*, 
5Sd  ta  Algeria  in  1^  He  was jdu^ 
rated  at  the  school  of  St.  Lyr,  nnci  in 
Sis  «tered  the  army  aa  sub-lieutenant 


Sre  awwvated,  with  shorter  intervals 


m      I    MUew 


i*Mt 


is  tb«  winter.  At  Imfth  the  eurface  be- 
come* pemanently  enveloped  in  a  tliick, 
llTid  cruet,  deatti  saccevding  tliie  condi- 
tion. The  disease  ie  almost  confined  to 
those  who  reside  in  the  country,  leading 
an  agricultural  life,  nod  to  the  lowest  or- 
ders of  society.  Tlie  gencrni  opinion  is 
that  the  pellagra  retiultti  from  the  extreme 
poverty  anti  low  unwlioleiouie  diet  of  ,he 
peasantry.  It  has  recently  been  main- 
tained that  the  disease  is  (fue  to  the  use 
of  spoiled  maize  in  mailing  polenta,  the 
common  food  of  the  Italian  peasantry. 
The  actual  origin  of  the  disease,  bow- 
ever,  is  not  yet  fully  established.  It  has 
recently  made  its  appearauce  in  the 
United  States. 
PelleW      £i>WAiU).     See  Exmouth. 

PellifiO     (pel'i-ko),  Silvio,  an  Italian 

luszo,  in  Piedmont.  By  his  tragedies  of 
Laodamia  and  Franceica  da  Rimini 
(represented  in  1811),  with  great  ap- 
plause) be  earned  an  honorable  place 
among  Italian  poets.  In  the  same  year, 
with  Manzoni  and  others,  he  estabiishea 
the  periodical  Jl  Conciliatore.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  liberal  spirit  displayed  in 
his  productions  he  was  in  lti'20,  along 
with  several  of  his  friends,  arrested  on 
the  charge  of  lielonKing  to  the  Carbonari, 
and  in  1822  was  condemned  to  death,  but 
the  sentence  was  eumuinted  to  imprison- 
ment in  the  Austrian  prison  of  the  Spiel- 
berg for  fifteen  years.  In  1S30  be  was 
set  at  liberty.  Peliico  has  given  a  most 
interesting  account  of  bis  ten  years'  suf- 
ferings In  Le  Mie  Prigioni  ('  My 
Prisons'),  which  has  been  translnted 
into  many  languages.  His  constitution, 
naturally  feeble,  bad  been  comrletely 
shattered.  The  MarcbioueHS  of  Barolo 
offered  him  an  asylum  at  Turin,  and  he 
became  her  secretary.  He  died  in  1854. 
Pellitorv  (pel'i-tu-rl),  or  Spanish 
*  •'     Chamomile     (Anacuclut 

Pyrethrum),   a    plant    nearly   resembling 
chamomile,   of   the   same  order  and   be- 
longing to  an  allied  genus,  a  native  of 
the  Levant  and  of  Southern  Europe.     It 
J  was  introduced  into  England  in  IT.'iO,  and 
f:iM  chewed  to  relieve  toothache  and  rheu- 
matism of  the  gums.    A  genus  of  plants 
'  { Parictaria)    of  the  nettle  order  is  also 
known  as  pellitory,  or  wall-pellitory.    The 
jcommon  wall-pellitorv  (/'.  officinHlit)  is  a 
herbaceous  perennial,   with   prostcate  or 
'""*ct  branched  stems,  ovate  leaves,  and 
aail  SowcriL     It  contains  niter,  and  was 
trmerly  used  aa  a  diuretic. 
^elonidaS     ip^Wt-daa),    in    ancient 
*^     "^    Greek    history,    a    Theban 
leneral  and  statesman,  who  lived  in  inti-  - 
ite     friendship     with     Epamiaondas. 
tf— L— 6 


The  aupremacy  of  tb«  Spartan  raetiaa  la 
Thtbea  forced  Pelopidas,  with  othar  m- 
ilea,  to  take  refuge  in  Athena,  but  be 
returned  in  B.c.  379,  and  succeeded  in 
overthrowing  i  .o  Spartan  party  and  re- 
covering the  citadel  of  Thebes.  In  the 
war  with  Sparta  which  followed  Pelop- 
idas distinguished  himself  in  the  battles 
of  Tegyra  (375)  and  of  Leuctra  (871). 
by  which  Thcbos  became  for  a  time  the 
leading  power  of  Greece.  In  304  he  was 
sent  against  Aiexnpder  of  Pbera,  tyrant 
of  Thessaly,  whom  !;•  defeated  lu  the 
battle  of  Cynoscephale,  though  he  him- 
self was  slain. 

Peloponnesus  <]>«;  - « -.C  d^ti  "p".: 

lops'),  the  peninsula  which  comprehends 
the  most  southern  part  of  Greece,  now 
called  the  Moren.  Peloponnesus  was  an- 
ciently divided  into  »\x  states:  .Messenla, 
Laconia  (Sparta).  Elis,  Arcadia,  .\chaia, 
and  Argolis,  to  which  some  add  Sicyon. 
See  Greece  and  articles  on  the  different 
states. 

PelonS  (pS'lops),  in  Greek  mythology, 
r"  son  of  Tantalus,  king  of  Lydia. 
He  married  Uippodaraia,  a  aani;hter  of 
King  (UnomauB  of  Elis,  and  succeeded 
bis  fnther-in-law  in  that  kingdom.  Pel- 
opouuesus  received  its  name  from  him. 
Of  his  sons.  Atreus  and  Thyestes  are 
most  celebrated.  Many  and  very  difer- 
ent  mylhs  are  connected  with  his  name. 
Peloria  (Pe-lo'rl-a:  Gr.  peUr,  a  mon- 
vAVAAo  .    jjj  botany,  the  appear- 

ance of  regularity  of  structure  in  the 
powers  of  plants  which  normally  bear 
irregular  flowers,  instances  of  which 
occur  in  the  snapdragon  ^d  the  toad- 
flax, which,  being  normally  irregular,  aa- 
sume  a  symmetrical  form. 

Peltier    <p«i-te-ji),  jean  chaklbs 

1  ,*Atiianase,  French  physicist; 
born  in  1785 ;  died  in  1845.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  papers  in  different 
departments  of  physics,  but  his  nam*  is 
sgecially  associated  with  the  thermal 
effects  at  junctions  in  a  voltaic  circuit. 
PelUSium  LPf-'S'^^l-um ;  the  '  Sin  '  of 
the  Scriptures),  a  city  of 
ancient  Egypt,  situated  on  the  eastern 
arm  of  the  Nile  delta,  about  2}  mile* 
from  the  sea,  near  the  modem  Damietta. 
Pelvis  <P«''J" ;  Lutln,  pihit,  a  basbi ) , 
the  bony  basin  formed  by  tlie 
haunch-bones'  and  sacrum  of  Verte- 
brata,  which  constitutes  the  girdle  or  arch 
giving  support  to  the  lower  or  hiad«r 
limbs.  The  pe'vis  thus  corresponds  to 
the  shoulder-girdle  of  the  upper  or  for* 
limbs;  and  forms  a  cavity  or  basin  in 
which  several  of  the  abdominal  viscera, 
and  omns  relating  to  reproduction  and 
tJia  arinary  functieas,  ar*  pr»t«cted  aad 


Ptmberton 


Fm 


fOBtaUMd.  Th«  ptlvls  cmi^u  oJ  font 
boB«a,  tht  (roDt  and  iUIm  being  formed 
by  tb«  two  0M«  iNMiiiiiMita  or  iniioinl- 
utt  b.)B«,  and  tiM  circle  beini  com- 
pttted  behind  by  the  $»erum  and  the  coo- 
_  ^  cy*.     Kaon    In- 

'""'        *  nooiinate     bone 

cooaietii  In  early 
life  of  three 
pieces  trrined 
tUum,  Uchium. 
and  pubit,  and 
the  J'  meet  In 
front  at  the 
•ympAyeie  p«- 
hit.  The  peWie 
o*  man  AiSen 
Feirii.  muttrlally   from 

m,  XUub;  *,  iMhluqi;  «,  n,,j  ^f  woman, 

riibia:    4.   eymphysU   pu-  „        difference* 
Is:    •.    ■aemni;    /,    eoe-   u     .__      chiefly 
cyx;     g,     MetebnlttB     or  ""/_'_  ^       coieu/ 


c^'iW  t«  ISSrVn^i,"  reference  to  the 
bone.  greater      capac- 

ity required  for 
the  womb  during  pregnancy,  and  for  the 
expuUion  of  the  child  at  birth.  It  also 
Tariea  aomewhat  in  the  different  racea  of 
men.  . 

Pembcrton  ^Si^f^nca^S^l.  n 

miles  w.  of  WIgnn,  with  coliieries,  TOtton- 
mills,  chemkal  works,  etc.    Pop.  (1911) 

85.6*0-  ....  .      , 

VAmlivAV    (pem'bri),    a    seaport    of 
remOrey   ^^^h    Walea,    in    Carmar- 
tbensblre,  on  the  Burry  Inlet,  5  milen  w. 
of    Llanelly.     It    haa    tin    and    copper 
works,  and  ships  considerable  quantitiea 
of  coal.    Pop.  (1911)    12.188. 
PAmKrAlrA    (pem'brSk),  a  seaport  of 
remorOKe    ^^^^^^    Wales,    capital   of 
the  county  of  the  same  name,  on  a  creek 
on  the  Boutbcrn  side  of  Milford  Haven, 
206  miles  west  of  London.    On  the  west 
side    are    the    picturesque    ruins    of    an 
ancient    castle    or    fortress    erected    In 
1092,    the    remains   of    which    gire    evi- 
dence  of    its    former    magnificence.    On 
the   northwest   side   is   Pembroke   Dock, 
otherwise  called   Pater,   a  maall  village 
until  1814,  when  the  roval  dockyard  for 
the   conatruction   of   ships   of   war   was 
removed    thither    from    Milford    Haven. 
The  town  has  now  but  little  trade  be- 
yond that  connected  with  the  government 
dockyard,    which  comprises   an   area    of 
about  80  acres,  and  is  strongly  fortified. 
Pop.    (1911)     16,673.— The    county    is 
bounded  by  the  Cardiganshire,  Carmar- 
thenshire, the  Bristol  Channel,  and  St. 
George's   Channel;   area,   628  sq.   miles. 
Its  coast-line  is  deeply  indented,  and  in 
the  south   is  the  magnificent  harbor  of 
Milfoid  Haven.    The  surface  is  generallT 
undalating.  and  greatly  diversified  witK 


bllla  and  dales.  Lead,  boa,  alata,  and 
coal  are  worked.  The  climate  to  bnmld 
and  very  mild.  Chief  towns :  Haverford- 
west, Pembroke  and  Tenby.  Pop.  K>,WV6. 
V*THliivkV«  a  town,  seat  of  Renfrew 
f emOrOKe,    ^,       ^  Allnmette   I^ke. 

Ontario,  Canada.    It  is  the  centre  of  a  lum- 
bering IndtiMtry  snd  ban  Miwmllls.  woolen 
and  other  Indimtrles.     Pon.  (1011)  WW. 
Punimin&n    (pemM-kan).   orifinally 
remmican    ; 'North  American  Indian 
preparation  consisting  of  the   lean   por- 
tions   of    venison   dried    by    the   sun   or 
wind,  and  tlten  pounded  into  a  paste  and 
tightly    pressed     into    cakes.     Perawican 
made  of  beef  is  frequently  used  by  trav- 
elers. ,  .  ,  ,  . 
Pan    an  Instrument  for  writing  with  a 
*'"»  fluid.     Pens    of    some    sort    have 
been     in    use    from    very    early    tlm«i, 
adapted   to   the   material   on   which   the 
characters    were    to    be    inscribed.    The 
metallic  stilus  for  the  production  of  in- 
cised   letters   was  probably    the   earliest 
writing  implement.     It  was  used  by  the 
Romans    for    writing   on   tablets   coated 
with  wax ;  but  both  they  and  the  Greeks 
also  used  wlmt  la  the  true  ancient  repre- 
sentative of  the  modern  pen,  namely,  a 
hollow  reed,  aa  Is  yet  common  in  Eastern 
countries.     It    has    been    asserted    that 
quills  were  used  for  writing  aa  early  as 
the  fifth  century  A.D.    In   Europe   they 
were   long  the  only   writing   Implement, 
the  sorU  generally  used  being  those  of  the 
goose  and  swan.     Up  till  the  end  of  the 
first  quarter  of  the  19th  century  these 
formed  the  principal  materials  from  which 
pens  were  made.     In  1803  Mr.  Wise  pro- 
duced steel  pens  of  a  barrel  form,  mouiited 
in  a  bone  case  for  carrying  in  the  POcket. 
They  were  of  indifferent  make,  and  being 
expensive     (costing     balf-a-crown     each 
originally,  though  the  price  was  subse- 
quently reduced  to  sixpence),  were  very 
little    used.     Joseph    Glilott    commenced 
the    manufacture    about    1820,    and   suc- 
ceeded in  making  the  pen  of  thinner  and 
more    elastic    steel,    giving    It    a    higher 
temper  and  finish.     Mr.  Glilott  was  fol- 
lowed into  the  same  field  by  Mr.  Perry 
and  others,  and  their  improvements  have 
so  reduced  the  cost  and  raised  the  quality, 
that  a  gross  of  better  pens  are  now  sold 
by  the  same  makers  at  one-sixth  of  the 
price  of  a  single  pen  In  1821.     Cast-steel 
of  the  finest  quality  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture, and  the  various  operations  are 
performed  by  cutting,  stamping,  and  em- 
bossing apparatus  worked  mosliy  by  hand- 
fly   presses.     Birmingham   was   tr     first 
home  and  is  still  the  principal  center  ot 
the  steel-pen  industry,  though  the  manu- 
facture has  spread  to  the  United  State« 
and  other  countries.    Gold  pens  tipped 


PttaaiiM 


PmU 


with  Blantt  partielM  of  Iridiu*^  art  now 
la  WMMwhat  nteMlrt  uw.  «       a  good 
OM  will  lait  for  jTMirt.     Fountain  pena 
and  MOholdtra,  to  carry  a  ronald«rabl« 
•uppir  of  ink  aud  to  discharge  it  in  an 
Moal  manner,  were  Invented  by  .Toaeph 
Brtoiah  and   liave  been   frequently   and 
crMtljr   improTed   upon.    Tbey  are  now 
in   Bomawhat   common    use.    Gold    pena 
are  oaually  employed  in  them. 
Penance    (Peofn*),    in    theology,    a 
"*"*"*    punUhnient  accepted  or  lelf- 
impoaed  by  way  of  aatlafaction   and  in 
lolten  of  tor  row  for  sin.     In   the  early 
(vhriatiaa  church  pnancea  were  of  three 
kinda  —  aecret,  public,  and  solemn.    The 
nrat    conalsted    of   such    actiona   as   are 
commonly  impoaed  by  confeaaora  at  the 
preaeot  day,  aa  the  repetition  of  certain 
prayera,  etc.     Public  penance  waa  in  uae 
from  the  earliest  days  of  the  church.     It 
was  often  very  B«>vpre,  and  the  peoitenta 
had  to  maice  a  public  confession  of  their 
sins  in  the  church.     It  became  gradually 
the  custom  of  the  bishops  to  commute 
the  canonical  penanops  for  pious  works, 
such  aa  pilgrimageH,  alms-fleeda,  and  other 
worka  of  charity;  and  these  again  were 
exchanged      lor      indulgences.     In      the 
Roman  Oatholic  Church  penance  is  one 
of  the  seven  sacramenta.     The  matter  of 
it  consiHts  of  the  three  acts  of  the  peni- 
tent:     1.  Contrition,  or  heartfelt  sorrow 
for  sio  aa  being  an  offense  againat  God; 
2.    Confeasion    to    an    authorised    priest, 
and    3.  Satiafaalon,    or    the    acceptance 
and   performance   of   certain   penitential 
worka  in  atonement  of  the  sin;  and  the 
form   of  the  aacrament   is   the  aentence 
of   aba«lution    from    sin    pronounced    by 
the  prieat  who   received   the  confession, 
and  has  been  satisfied  of  the  earnest  re- 
pentance of  the  ainner.     According  to  the 
doctrine  of  the   Protestants  there  is  no 
such  sacrament ;  they  consider  repentance 
and  faith  aa  the  only  requisites  for  for- 
giveness. 

Penane  (p*-n«ng'),  Pulo-pewawo, 

,  .    "    or  PuNCB  or  Wales  Islaitu, 

an    island    belonging   to    Great    BriUin, 

k  lying    at    the    north    entrance    of    the 

iStralta  of  Malacca,  off   the  west  coaat 

of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  from  which  it 

IB  separated  by  m  channel  2  to  5  miles 

across;  area,  107  aq.  miles.    Two-fiftha 

of  Penaag  la  plain,  and  the  reat  hills  — 

I  tor  the  mprt  Piirt  wooded  — which  rise 

to  a  hdcht  of  2784  feet  in  the  peak  now 

—    aa  •  awwtorinm.    The  climate  is 


a  haadaoBM  town,  rapidly  lacrMalMja 
aiae,  and  baa  a  larga  commwea.  Tka 
harbor  la  the  atralt  bctweea  ialand  tad 
mainland.  Penang  waa  made  over  by 
treaty  to  the  Kaat  India  CompMy  In 
1788  by  the  Rajah  of  Quedah,  and  with 
Province  Welieaiey,  a  long  strip  of  the 
Malay  Peninaula  opposite  (area,  270 
aquare  miles),  it  now  forma  on*  of  the 
8tralta  Hettlementa,  having  a  resident 
councilor  to  control  adminiatration.  Pop. 
of  the  settlement  248.207. 

Penarth  ip*"/*!:!**.')'  *  ■wport  of 

.KVUUI.U  ii^yjj,  ixaln,  in  Glamorgan. 

at  the  month  of  the  river  Taff,  8  milea 

aouth  of  Cardiff.    Penarth   was  an   oh- 

sctire  village  until  the  formation  of  ita 

docka  (18tB-84),  which  have  made  It  an 

important  ahipplnf  port  for  the  minerala 

of  South  Walea.     It  la  frequented  In  anm- 

5""  '?,i,'^>'»i5«-Jel*<*  ■°a  ■•••Ida  raaort. 
Pop.  (1911)  15,4fiB. 

Penatei  (Pr.?*'t««).  *•>•  prlvat*  or 
*',*"■  public  goda  of  the  Romana. 
The  imagea  of  these  gods  were  kept  in 
the  penetralia,  or  central  part  of  every 
house,  each  family  having  ita  own 
Penatea  and  the  state  ita  public  Penates. 
The  Lares  were  Included  among  the 
Penates,  but  were  not  the  only  Penates; 
for  each  family  had  generally  but  one 
I>ar,  whereas  the  Penates  are  nsnally 
spoken  of  in  the  plural.  Their  worship 
was  closely  connected  with  that  of  Vesta. 
Pencil  iP«B'"il).  ■»  Inatniment  used 
•..  rk'  .minting,  drawing,  and 
writing.  The  first  pencils  used  by  artiata 
were  probably  pieces  of  colored  earth  or 
chalk  cut  into  a  form  convenient  for  hold- 
ing In  the  hand.  On  the  introduction  of 
moist  colon,  however,  delicate  bruahea 
of  fine  haira  were  used."  Pencils  of  this 
kind,  and  of  variona  degreea  of  fineneaa, 
are  now  almoat  solely  need  by  paintera 
for  laying  on  their  colors;  and  in  China 
and  Japan  they  are  generally  employed. 


instead  of  pens,  for  writing.  The  haira 
•  sed  for  theae  pencila  are  obtained  from 
ihe  camel,  badger,  aqulrrel,  aable,  goat, 
etc.  The  hairs,  being  selected,  arT  bound 
in  a  Uttle  roll  by  a  string  tied  tightly 
round  their  root  enda.  The  roll  ia  then 
fixed  into  tha  end  of  •  qniU  tube.  For 
larger  pendb  a  socket  of  tin-plate  ia 
need  Instead  of  the  quill.  Black-lead 
p«icila,  for  writing  or  drawinc.  «re  made 
of  slips  of  graphite  or  plumbago  (other- 
wise known  aa  black-lead),  generally 
Sni~  wiT*  Ini^J'hll'ukT'  m^'  «'"""  »  cased  In  ee«mr  wood.  Bloeka  ot  tftaohita 
X™i«i  ^^*^iite-  ^  **"•''  *•  *"  »«»/  *»»»<!  of  each  a£  aaTMrity 
S!*?™?' -.5l«_  _¥*»«*   P«>«w*«  cpooa-  that  they  can  be  aawrf  op  tatofto  iSnafl 

aqoait  allcoa  of  ordinary  pendl  length : 
pot  a  matbod  baa  been  devbod  of  purify- 


[^         '^'"S^^  notauiP  and  dovaa. 


•^  c^im  ua  port  oc  xm  ■etneBeot,  ig  gxonad  f  m  §a»  powdar,  la^diated  or 


Pendant 


Pendulum 


washed  until  pnn,  intimately  mixed  with 
day  in  various  proportions,  and  after- 
wards soiidified  by  pressure.  The  com- 
parative hardness  and  blackness  of  pen- 
cils are  attained  bj  the  degree  of  heat 
to  which  they  are  subjected  and  the  pro- 
portions of  (raphite  and  clay  in  tne 
leads.  Nuremberg  is  the  great  center  ol 
the  lead-pencil  trade.  Colored  pencils  are 
prepared  from  various  chalks,  such  as 
are  used  for  crayons,  instead  of  the 
graphite.  Pencils  for  writing;  on  slate 
are  made  by  cutting  slate  into  small 
squsre  pieces  and  rounding  them,  or  into 
narrow  slips  and  incasing  them  in  wood. 
P*n<1oTif  In  architecture,  is  a  hang- 
f  enunub)  j^g  ornament  used  in  the 
vaults  and  timber  roofs  of  Gothic  build- 
ings, more  particularly  in  late  Gothic 
work.  In  vaulted  roofs  pendants  are  of 
stone,  and  generally  richly  carved;  in 
timber  roofs  they  are  of  wood  variously 
decorated.  Fine  examples  of  stone 
pendants  are  to  be  seen  in  the  chapel  of 
Henry  VII  at  Westminster  Abbey.    See 

Pl>Tlf1fkntive  (pen-den'tiv),  in  archi- 
renaeuuve  tecture.  the  portion  of 
>:  dome-shaped  vault  which  descends 
into  a  comer  of  a  quadrangular  opening 
Irhen  a  ceiling  of  this  kind  is  placed  over 


PendantlTe  Boof,  Salitbary  Cathedral. 
a  a  a,  PendentiTea. 


a  Straight-sided  area ;  in  Gothic  architec- 
ture, the  portion  of  a  groined  ceiline 
springing  from  one  pillar  or  impost,  and 
bounded  by  the  ridges  or  apices  of  the 
longitudinal  and  transverse  vaults. 
1>A«i minium  (pen'dfl-lum),  in  the  wid- 
renaninm  ^^  g^nse,  a  heavy  body 
suspended  so  that  it  is  free  to  turn  or 
swing  upon  an  axis  which  does  not  pass 
through  its  center  of  gravity.  Its  only 
position  of  stable  equilibrium  is  that  in 
which  its  center  of  gravity  is  in  the  same 
vwtieal  plane  with  the  axis.  If  the  body 
is  dhvUwed  from  its  poiritioo  U  w<U  tMod 


to  return  to  it,  and  It  will  oscillate  or 
swing  from  one  side  of  that  position  to 
the  other  until  its  energy  is  destroyed 
by  friction,  and  it 
at  length  comes  to 
rest.  A  small, 
heavy  l)ody  sus- 
pended from  a  fixed 
point  by  a  string, 
and  caused  to  vi- 
brate without  much 
friction,  is  called  a 
'  simple  pendulum. 
When  the  swings 
of  a  simple  pendu- 
lum are  not  too 
great  —  that  is, 
when  they  are 
never  more  than 
about  3°  on  each 
side  of  the  posi- 
tion of  rest  —  the 
pendulum  is  isoch-  Oridiron  tfereariar 
ronous,  that  is,  Fendnlum.  Pendulom. 
each    swing    occu-  .  ,  ,    ^ 

pies  the  same  time,  and  its  period  is  true 
to  the  law  — 

where   T   is    the   period    of   a   complete 
vibration,   «•   is   the   well-known   mathe- 
matical number  3.1416,  I  the  length  of 
the  pendulum  in  feet,  and  a  the  accelera- 
tion due  to  gravity,  or  32.19   feet  per 
second  at  London.    The  *  seconds  *  pen- 
dulum has  for  its  time  of  vibration  (half 
its  complete  period)  one  second.    In  the 
above  equation,   putting  for  T  two  sec- 
onds, and  for  g  32.19,  we  find  the  length 
of  the  seconds  pendulum  at  London  to 
be  3.26  feet,  or  39.1398  inches.    A  true 
simple  pendulum  is  a  mathematical  ab- 
straction:   a    heavy    particle,    an    inex- 
tensible  and  inflexible  weightless  string, 
and    no    friction;    these    conditions    are 
only    approximated    to    in    nature.    The 
ordinary  pendulum  is  what  is  properly 
a   'compound    pendulum.'    A   compound 
pendulum,  as  seen  in  clocks,  is  usually  a 
rigid,  heavy,  pendulous  body,  varymg  In 
size  according  to  the  size  of  the  clock, 
but  the  '  seconds '  pendulum  may  be  con- 
sidered the  standard.    The  pendulum  is 
connected  with  the  clockwork  by  means 
of  the  escapement,  and  is  what  renders 
the  going  of   the  clock   uniform.     (See 
Clock.)     In  a  clock  it  is  necessary  that 
the  period  of  vibration  of  the  pendulum 
should   be  constant    As   all   substances 
expand  and  contract  with  lieat  and  cold, 
the  distance  from  the  coiter  of  suspen- 
sion   to    the    center    of    gravity    of    a 
pendolnm  is  continually  alterhig.    Pendu- 
Innw  oooatxiMted  so  Aat  iaonase  or  d!i» 


?0AmU» 


PeiriTunlar  War 


InatiOB  of  ttmperatare  do  not  affect 
this  ratio  an  called  compenaation  pen* 
duloms.  Tbeaa  take  particular  names, 
aoeordinc  to  their  forms  and  materials, 
as  the  fffidiron  pendulum,  the  mercurial 
pendulum,  etc.  The  former  is  composed 
of  a  number  of  rods  so  connected  that 
the  expansion  or  contraction  of  certain 
of  them  is  counteracted  by  that  of  the 
others.  The  mercurial  "pendulum  con- 
sists of  one  rod  with  a  vessel  containing 
mercury  at  the  lower  end,  so  adjusted 
in  quantity  that  whatever  alterations 
take  place  in  the  length  of  the  pendulum, 
the  center  of  oscillation  remains  the  same, 
the  mercury  ascending  when  the  rod 
descends,  and  ttce  veraA. 
Penedo  (P&-na'du),  a  town  of  Brazil, 
.■■cu^uv  jjj  jjjg  province  of  Alagoas, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  San  Francisco 
River.  Pop.  about  12,000. 
Penelone  (pen-el'u-p«),  in  Greek  my- 
xeneiope  thology,  the  wife  of  Odys- 
seus (Ulysses)  and  mother  of  Telemacbus, 
who  was  but  an  infant  when  his  father 
sailed  against  Troy.  During  the  pro- 
tracted absence  of  Odysseus,  Penelope 
was  surrounded  by  a  host  of  suitors, 
whom  she  put  oS  on  the  pretext  that 
before  she  could  make  up  her  mind  she 
must  first  finish  a  large  robe  which  she 
was  weaving  for  her  father-in-law, 
LaSrtes.  To  gain  time  she  undid  by  night 
the  work  she  had  done  by  day.  Her 
stratagem  was  at  last  communicated  to 
the  suitors  by  her  servants,  and  her  posi- 
tion became  more  difficult  than  before; 
but  fortunately  Odysseus  returned  in  time 
to  protect  his  spouse,  and  slay  the  ob- 
noxious wooers,  who  had  been  living  in 
riot  and  wasting  his  property. 

Penelope,   UriJ'al^S''^'^'"' 

PenPllill  (Pen'gwin),  a  family  of  na- 
■*  &*"  tatorial  or  swimming  birds 
adapted  for  living  almost  entirely  in  the 
water.  They  possess  only  rudimentary 
wings,  destitute  of  quill-feathers,  and 
covered  with  a  scaly  integument  or  skin. 
Although  useless  as  organs  of  flight,  the 
wings  are  very  effective  aids  in  diving, 
and  on  land  they  may  be  used  after  the 
fashion  of  fore-limbs.  The  legs  are 
placed  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the 
body,  and  the  birds  assume  an  erect  at- 
titude when  on  land.  Hie  toes  are 
completely  webbed.  They  inhabit  chiefly 
the  nigh  southern  latitudes,  congregating 
sometimes  in  colonies  of  from  30,000  to 
40,000.  There  are  three  different  tvpes 
of  penguins,  represented  br  the  king 
pengnin,  the  jackass  penguin,  and  the 
rockhopper,  constituting  respectively  the 
generic  groaiM  Aptenaidjftei.  Bphenitcue, 
and   OttumotM,    Tb»  jackaaa  pnguia 


and  the  rockhopper  are  aboat  2  ft.  8  Iih 
Ib  hiigiit;  tiia  kug  aomtwhat  laxtn. 


Penguins 

P^TlimllinTn  (pen-i-sil'i-um),  a  fenua 
reniCimum  ^^  fungous  plants  found 

on  decaying  bodies  and  in  fluids  in  a 
state  of  acetification.  P.  glaucum  is  the 
ultimate  state  both  of  the  vinegar-plant 
and  the  yeast-plant,  called  in  its  first 
stage  Torula  cerevisite. 

PeninsiUa  ^^^t^Uiiri^ 

island),  a  portion  of  land  almost  sur- 
rounded by  water,  and  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  narrow  neck  or  isthmus. 
The  term  'The  Peninsula '  is  frequently 
applied  to  Spain  and  Portugal  conjointly. 

Peninsular  War,  £rV"t?iS2 

and  ambition  of  Napoleon,  who  propoaed 
the  partition  of  Portugal  (ISdr),  and 
placed  his  brother  Joseph  npon  the  throne 
of  Spain.  For  a  time  the  whole  penin* 
sula  was  occupied  by  French  troops,  bat 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  peoples  rose 
in  defense  of  their  liberties,  and  waged 
a  fierce  guerrilla  warfare  against  the  in- 
vaders. Britain  joined  the  patriots  in 
1808.  Of  the  memorable  struggle  which 
ensued,  the  main  features  were  the  re- 
treat of  Sir  John  Moore  to  Corutia,  and 
his  glorious  death  there;  the  accession  of 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (afterwards  Duks 
of  Wellington)  to  the  supreme  command; 
his  formation  of  the  celebrated  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras,  where  he  held  the  Fr«ch 
armies  in  check  until  he  had  accomplisbed 
the  complete  liberation  of  Porttlgal;  ud 
hia  sutMequent  victorious  march  throogli 
Spain,  marked  by  the  neat  battlea  of 
Salamanca  (1812)  and  Vlttoria  (1818). 
In  the  apring  of  1814  tbe  tide  of  war 
rollad  thcongh  tba  paassa  ti  tkm  Ffv 


'»»iiliiiiii 


Feniftone 


Pennant 


»<.  Into  the  Mratb  of  France,  where  thia 
great  •truggle  was  concluded  by  the 
crowning  victor/  of  Toulouae. 
PAiiiatATiA  lpen'ia-ton)(_a  town  of 
renUXOne  iVrkshire,  England,  12 
miles  K.w.  of  Sheffield,  with  steel  and 
other  induatriefu    Pop.  (1911)  7408. 

Penitential  Psalms  ir-f/'trh; 

seven  psalms  vi,  xxxii,  xxxviii,  li,  cii, 
cxxx,  cxliii  of  the  Authorized  Version, 
so  termed  as  being  specially  expres- 
sive of  contrition.  Reference  is  made 
to  them  by  Origen.  They  have  a  special 
place  in  the  breviary  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  psalm  most  frequently  re- 
peated as  being  the  most  penitential  is 
the  Miserere,  the  lu  of  the  Authorised 
Version.  .       .  ^      .^ 

P^Ti  1  f  ATI  ti  nrv     ( pen-i-ten'sha-ri ) ,     a 

reniieniiary  ^^^^^^^  jq  ^hich  con- 
victed offenders  are  confined  and  sub- 
jected to  a  course  of  discipline  and 
instruction  with  a  view  to  their  reforma- 
tion. The  two  systems  of  penitentiaries 
in  the  United  States  are  linown  as  the 
Pennsylvania,  or  solitary  confinement 
system,  and  the  New  Yorlc,  or  aggregate 
labor  <<ystem. 
PAtii^-ATi'Ha-rxr    st  the  court  of  Rome, 

examined   and   delivered   out   the   secret 
Gulls,  graces,  or  dispensations  relating  to 
caac3  of  conscience,  confession,  etc. ;  also 
an    officer     in     some     Roman    Catholic 
cathedrals,  vested  with  power  from  the 
bishop   to   absolve   in  cases   referred    to 
him.    The   rope    has   a   grand    peniten- 
tiary, who  IS  a  cardinal  and  is  chief  of 
the  other  penitentiaries. 
PATiTt      WILLIAM,   the   founder   of   the 
f  ciui)    State  of  Pennsylvania,  was  born 
in  London  in  1G44.     He  was  the  only 
son  of  Admiral   Sir   William  Penn.     In 
his  fifteenth  year  he  was  entered  as  a 
gentleman  commoner  of  Christ  Church. 
Oxford,  where  he  imbibed  the  views  of 
the    Society    of    Friends    and    was    ex- 
pelled  from   the   university.     His   father 
sent  him  on  travels  in  France  and  Hol- 
land, and  in  16G6  committed  to  him  the 
management  of  a   considerable  estate  in 
Ireland.    At  Cork  he  was  committed  to 
prison    for    attending    Quaker    meetings, 
and  although  he  was  very  soon  liberated, 
he  had  to  leave  Ireland.     In  1668  Penn 
appeared  as  a  preacher  and  an  author, 
and    on    account    of   an    essay,    entitled 
The  Bandy  Foundation  Shaken,  he  was 
imprisoned   in  the  Tower,   where  he   re- 
mained seven  months.    During  this  time 
he  wrote  his  most  celebrated  work.  No 
Cre$i,   no   Crown,   and    Innocency   toith 
H«r  Open  Face.    In  1670  Sir  William 
itail,  folly  reconcUsd  to  bis  son,  to  whom 


he  left  bis  estates  and  all  bis  property. 
This  same  year  meetings  of  Dissenters 
were  forbidden,   under  severe   penalties. 
The  Quakers,  however,  continued  to  meet 
as  usual,  and  Penn  was  once  more  put 
into  prison  for  six  months.    The  perse- 
cutions of  Dissenters  continuing  to  rage, 
Penn   turned   his   thoughts   towards   the 
New   World.    From   his   father   he   had 
inherited  a  claim   upon  the  government 
of   £16,000,    and    in    settlement    of    this 
claim  King  Charles  II,  in  1681,  granted 
him  large  territories  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Delaware  River,  the  present  State  of 
Pennsylvania,    with    right    to    found    a 
colony  or  society  with  such  laws  and  in- 
stitutions as  expressed  his  views  and  prin- 
ciples.   The   following  year   Penn   went 
over  to  America  and  laid  the  foundations 
of  his  colony   on   a   democratical   basis, 
and   with  a  greater  degree  of   religious 
liberty  than   had   at  that  time  been   al- 
lowed in  the  world.    The  city  of  Phila- 
delphia was  laid  out  upon  the  banks  of 
the  Delaware,  and  the  colony  soon  came 
into  a   flourishing  condition,   its  settlers 
including  not  only  Friends,  or  Quakers, 
but  immigrants  of  different  denominations 
and  countries.     He  remained  in  the  prov- 
ince about  two  years,  adjusting  its  con- 
cerns, and  establishing  a  friendly   inter- 
course with  his  colonial  neighl)ors.     Soon 
after    Penn    returned    to    England    King 
Charles    died     (1685),    and    the    respect 
which  James  II  bore  to  the  late  admiral, 
who  had  recommended  his  son  to  his  fa- 
vor, procured  to  him  free  access  at  court. 
His  influence  with  the  king  had  its  effect 
in    producing    the    release    of    the    1200 
Qualters  then  in  prison,  and  probably  in 
the  issue  of  a  general  pardon  and  the  re- 
peal of  relJKioHs  testn  and  penalties.   After 
the  revolution  ot  1688  his  former  intimacy 
with  .Tames  II  led  to  a  charge  of  disloy- 
alty and  trials  for  conspiracy  and  treason. 
While  lie  was  aiMjuitted,  he  was  for  a  time 
deprived  of  his  American  province.     He 
returned  to  Pennsylvania  in  1600,  remain- 
ing until  1701.     But  the  ill  management 
of  his  agents  brought  him  into  debt  and 
his  refusal  to  pay  unjust  claims  led  to 
his  imprisonment,  his  friends  finally  com- 
promising with  his  extortionate  creditor. 
He  died  July  30,  1718. 
PAnTinnf     or  PKNOAira,  a  long,   nar- 
feauaut,    ^^^  banner  displayed  from 
the  mast-head  of  a  ship-of-war,  usually 
terminating  in  two  ends  or  points,  called 
the  tvaUow't  taU.    It  denotes  that  the 
vessel  is  in  actual  service.  . 

PATiTiflTit  (pen'ant),  Baberaix,  u  the 
rennani  ^^^^xy  contended  for  by  the 
clubs  in  the  various  baseball  leuuea. 
It  is  of  silk  and  is  purchased  out  of  ths 
league's  funds  and  presented  to  the  cmb 


Pwimmt 

wlnalnf  the  most  fames  of  the  season 
in  that  leagne. 

Pennant.    Thomas,  an  English  nat- 
*  »    nrallst  and  antiquary,  bom 

at  Downing,  in  Flintshire,  in  1726.    He 
early  devoted  himself  to  natural  history 
and  archaeology.     In   1761   be  published 
the   first   part   of    his   British   Zoology, 
which    gained   him   considerable   reputa- 
tion both  in  Britain  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent.   In   1765   he   made   a  journey   to 
the  Continent,  where  he  visited  Buffon, 
Ha  iter,   Pallas,   and   other  eminent   for- 
eigners.    He  was  admitted  into  the  Royal 
Society  in  1767,  and  in  1769  he  under- 
took his  first  tour  into  Scotland,  where 
he    met    with     a     flattering     reception. 
After  a  busy  life  of  literary  labor  and 
research  he  took  leave  of  the  public  in 
1793  in  an  amusing  piece  of  autobiogra- 
phy—  The    Literary    Life    of    the   late 
TAoMM    Pennant.    He    died    in     1798. 
Pennatnla    LPen-afO-la),  a  genus  of 
Coeienterate      animals 
(popularly    known   by 
the  name  of  '  sea-pens ' 
or     •  cocks'- combs  ' )  ; 
belonging      to      the 
class  Actinozc,  order 
Alcyonaria.     The  sea- 
pens  consist  each  of  a 
compound      organism, 
which     may     be     de- 
scribed as  consisting  of 
a  main  stem  or  cceno- 
aarc,  with  lateral  pin- 
nse  or  branches.  These 
branches   are  crowded 
on    their    upper    mar- 
gins   with    the    little 
polyps    or    individual 
animals  that  make  up 
the    compound     mass, 
and    which    are    con- 
nected       together 
through  the  fleshy  me- 
dium     or      coenosarc. 
The  lower  end  of  the 
stem   is   fleshy,   desti- 
tute   of    polyps,    and 
.contains    an    internal 
coral-rod.     By   this   fleshy   root  the  sea- 
pens  attach  themselves  loosely  to  the  mud 
of  the  sea-bed.     The  British  species   (P. 
ahoiphoria),    averaging    about    3    or    4 
inches    in    lengtli,    derives    its    scientific 
name   from   its   property  of  emitting  a 
phosphorescent  light  i 

Pennell  <Penel).  Joseph,  American 
.*'***"''"  etche/.  illustrator  mf  ao- 
ftfaor.  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1860.  In 
F1884  he  married  Elisabeth  Robins,  who 
I  has  been  his  literary  collaborator  in  tha 
\  preparation  of  nnmerons  iUastrated  books 
I  of  timvtl  and  description. 


Penaatala 
{P.  rubra). 


Penniylvmnia 

Pennon   iP«»'«o).  *«n»«ll  triangular 

the  middle  ages  near  the  points  of  tholr 
lances,  bearing  their  personal  devices  or 
badges,  and  aometimes  richly  fringCKl  with 
gold. 

Pennsylvania  inKSMfanl}? 

States  of  the  American  Union,  bounded 
w.  by  New  York  and  Lake  Erie,  e.  by 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  a.  by  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  and  West  Virginia,  and 
w.    by    West    Virginia   and    Ohio;    area 
45,126   sq.    miles.     Except   on    the   east, 
where  the  river  Delaware  forms  an  irrtjp- 
ular  boundary  line,  its  sides  form  an  al- 
most   exact     parallelogram     facing     the 
cardinal  points.    The  surface  is  traversed 
southwest    to    northeast    bj    the    Alle- 
gheny mountain   chain,  and  covered   by 
many  smaller  ranges,  which  are  more  or 
less  parallel  to  it.    These  include  the  Blue 
Ridge,  or  South  Mountain,  on  the  eaat, 
the  Allegheny  ridges  on  the   west,  and 
various  intermediate  ones,  while  between 
them  lie  the  large  and  fertile  Cumber- 
land,   Lebanon,    and    Wyoming    valleys. 
On    the    east    side    the    Alleghenies    are 
rugged  and  steep,  but  on  the  west  de- 
scend  very  gradually,  and   then  stretch 
out    into    an    extensive    table-lauu.    The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Delaware,  which 
receives  the  Lehigh  and  the  Schuylkill; 
the   Susquehanna,    with    its   main   tribu- 
tary,   the   Juniata;    and   the    Allegheny, 
which  unites  at  Pittsburgh  with  the  Mo- 
non|rahela    to    form    the    Ohio.     Pennsyl- 
vania is  one  of  the  healthiest  states  of 
the  Union.     The  soil  has  various  grades 
of  fertility,  but  Is  in  general  well  adapted 
for  agricultural  operations.    The  richest 
and  most  highly  cultivated  tract  is  south- 
Mst  of  the  mountahis  on  both  banks  of 
the    Susquehanna,     including    the    Lan- 
caster and  Chester  valley  regions :  also  the 
valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  its  tritutaries. 
The  most  important  crops  consist  of  oats, 
com,  wheat,  rye,  buckwheat,  and  potatoes! 
while  tobacco  is  abundantly  raised  in  the 
Lancaster     valley     region.     Dairy     and 
market   garden   products   are   also    large 
and  valuable.     Nearly  one-fourth  of  the 
state   is  covered    by   woodland   and   the 
lumber  interests  are  extensive.     In  miu- 
eral      wealth      Pennsylvania     has     long 
ranked  high,  especially  in  coal,  iron,  and 
petroleum.     In    the    mountain    districts 
of  the  north  and  east  to  the  west  of  the 
Susquehanna  an  anthracite  coal-field  of 
unrivaled    value    occurs    over    an    area 

the  west  of  the  Alleghenies  a  vast  bituml- 

K""  '^i'!!i*.u*''  ''•'*«•»  Plttaburih  my 
be  considered  the  center,  has  been  trsMd 
•m  an  «rw  of  12fi60nw9  SSS. 


FMUuylTania 


Tk«  Odd  ■tnito  of  both  these  fieldi  oon*. 
^^i«  niaiiy  valuable  Mams  of  ironitoiw. 
and  both  the  ameltinf  and   working  of 
Iron    havo    long   been    regarded   as    the 
moat    important    interest    of    the    atate. 
An  accession  of  immense  value  was  the 
discovery  of  petroleum  in  1868.    Pennsyl- 
vania surpasses  all  other  states  m  the 
value  of  its  mineral  products,  while  in  the 
production  of  coal,  it   still   stands  pre- 
eminent, the  state  producing  about  one- 
third    u»e   coal    of    the    entire    country. 
Other  mineral  products  are  pig  iron,  ce- 
ment rock,  copper,  feldspar,  flint,  glass, 
sand,  graphite,  etc.    There  are  a  number 
of  noted  mineral  springs.    In  the  amount 
of  its  manufactures  the  state  is  second 
only  to  New  York.    The  aty  of  Philadel- 
phia is  one  of  the  world's  great  manufac- 
turing centers,  Pittsburgh  is  unsurpassed 
in  the  country  for  its  iron  and  glass  in- 
terests, and  several  other  cities  are  prom- 
inent in  iron  and  steel  products.    In  ma- 
chine-shop   products   Pennsylvania    takes 
first  rank,  as  also  in  textile  and  carpet 
manufactures  and  shipyard  products.    Its 
trade  is  also  large,  both  foreign  and  in- 
land.     In    railroad    facilities    it    stands 
third,  vrith  11,290  miles,  being  surpassed 
only  by  Texas  and  Illinois.     Its  canals, 
formerly  over  1000  miles  in  length,  have 
been  largely  abandoned  in  consequence  of 
railroad  rivalry.     Education  is  well  ad- 
vanced, the  higher  institutions  of  learn-- 
ing  including  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, State  Ck)llege,  University  of  Pitts- 
burgh, Bryn  Mawr  College,  Lafayette  Col- 
lege, Lehigh  University,  and  other  promi- 
nent institutions.    The  first  settlement  in 
the   state   was   made    by   a    company   ot 
Swedish  emigrants  in  1G38.     The  Dutch 
afterwards  gained  possession,  but  it  was 
wrested   from    them   by   the    English   hi 
1664.    A  subsequent  settlement  was  made 
in  1682  by  William  Penn,  from  whom  the 
state  has  derived  its  name.    It  is  the  sec- 
ond state  in  respect  of  population.    Cap- 
ital,  Harrisburg;   largest  city,   Philadd- 
phi4.    Pop.  (1910)  7,665,111. 

VATinflTrlvaTiin  Uxivebsity  of,  an 
rCnnsyiVania,  undenominational  in- 
stitution of  higher  learning,  founded  in 
Philadelphia  in  1740  as  a  charity  school, 
reorganized  as  an  academy,  again  as  a 
college,  and  in  1791  as  the  '  University  of 
Pennsylvania.'  It  comprises  a  college; 
the  Graduate  School;  Schools  of  Law, 
Medicine,  Dentistry,  Veterinnry  Medi- 
dne;  the  Flower  Astronomical  Observa- 
tory, etc.  At  the  close  of  1013.  the 
university  had  553  instructors,  5,323  stu- 
dents, and  a  library  of  880,000  volumes 


Peniaoola 

•VUla  by  German  settlen  and  their  de- 

Itcendants. 


VanTitr  (pcn'i),  a  Britiah  coin^Cfor- 
Penny  ^^rly  of  copper,  since  1860  of 
bronze)  and  money  of  account,  the 
twelfth  part  of  a  shilling,  closely  egual 
in  value  to  two  cents  of  the  American 
curreucy.  It  was  at  first  a  silver  coin 
weighing  about  22»^  grains  troy,  or  the 
two-hundred-and-fortieth  part  of  a  Saxon 
pound.  Till  the  time  of  Edward  I  it  was 
■o  deeply  indented  by  a  cross  mark  that 
it  could  be  broken  in  halves  (thence  «ued 
half-penny)  or  quarters  (fourthiMS 
or  farthings).  Its  weight  was  steadUy 
decreased  till  at  last,  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  it  was  fixed  at  7%  grains. 
Copper  pennies  were  first  coined  in  i-lVi, 
but  copper  half-pennies  and  farthings  had 
been  in  use  from  1672.  In  the  United 
States  the  term  is  often  applied  to  a  cent 
PATiTifrpnval    (pen'i-roi-al),   a   species 

jrennyroyai  \5  n,int  {Mentha  Puu- 


Pinnsyivania  Dntch,  ^  p^i  e  c  t 


gi|S94  i^th  Engliph,  ipokw  to  remuyl* 


aium)  formerly  in  considerable  repute 
as  a  medicine,  but  now  almost  totally 
neglected.  See  Mint.  ,  ^  ^^  ^,  . 
Vl-nnhannf  (pe-nob'skot),  the  largest 
renODSCOT  ^^^^  qJ  Maine.  It  flows 
300  miles  B.  by  W.  to  Penobscot  Bay. 

iPenobscot  Indians,  Si^s'iiviig  Si 

American  colonial  times  in  what  is  now 
the  state  of  Maine.  In  language  they 
were  Algonkin  and  at  one  time  were  part 
of  the  Abnaki  confederacy.  Most  of  the 
Penobscot  Indians  now  living  are  in  Old- 
town,  Maine.  .      .»     ^. 

Penology  <pfi°^t^«^J  AtX'  tS- 

ence,  being  that  department  of  sociology 
concerned  with  the  processes  devised  and 
adopted  for  the  repression  and  prevention 
of  crime.    The  study  of  penology  has  at- 
tracte<i  wide  attention  within  recent  years, 
and  much  has  been  done  through  legisla- 
tion and   awakened   public  sentiment  to 
improve  penal  systems  generally. 
PpTiritll    (pen'rith),  a  market-town  of 
rennin    England,    in    the    county    of 
Cumberland,  17  miles  south  by  east  of 
Carlisle.     Pop.  (1911)  8612. 
PpTKiflPola    (pen-sa-kola),    a    port   of 
jrensuouiU.    entry  and  county  seat  of 
Escambia  county,  Florida,  on  Fensacola 
Bay,  about  10  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,   and   50   miles    (direct)    s.  E.   of 
Mobile.     It  has  a  deep  harbor  and  the 
bay  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  capa- 
cious in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.    It  has  been 
selected   as   a   naval    station    and   depot 
the  navy   yard  being   at   Warrington,  7 
miles  to  seaward  of  the  town.     The  en- 
trance to  the  harbor  is  defended  by  sev- 
eral strong  forts.     There  are  here  laige 
grain  elevators,   and   the  place  has   an 
fztensive  shippbf  trade  in  ItiiDMr,  flMf 


Pennonary 


Peniateuch 


TUVieiiUty  ot     \[,     t..n       fZ- 

Pkmsacola. 


a   U  L  F      OF     M   £  X  I    0    0 


UdM,    wod,    cotton,    and   naral    stores,  rolls  Jnne  90,  1913,  the  disbursement  for 
Pop.  29,610.  pensions     amounting     to     1174,171,010. 

While  the  system  of  old  age  pensions  has 
not  been  introduced  into  the  United  States 
as  a  goTemment  institution,  it  has  besn 
established  in  some  of  the  states  and 
cities,  for  teachers,  policemen,  and  fire- 
men, and  by  a  number  of  railroad  and 
other  corporations.  The  government  is 
considering  a  general  service  pension  sys- 
tem. 

PATia-inna  MoTHKBS*.  In  connection 
XCUUUiiB,  ^itj,  country-wide  discus- 
sion of  the  education  of  the  child  have 
come  within  recent  years  many  definite 
steps  for  preserving  to  the  child  the  bene- 
fits gained  only  from  proper  home  in- 
fluences. In  the  belief  that  separation 
of  mother  and  child  necessarily  works  to 
the  detriment  of  the  child's  development, 
many  states  have  exacted  legislation  that 
will  enable  motbevs  too  poor  to  maintain 
PffnainTiarrr  (pen'shun-a-ri),  one  of  their  children,  to  keep  them  at  home  in- 
f  cuBXUuaiy  ^j^^  ^j^jpf  niagistrates  of  stead  ofpladng  them  in  various  institn- 
towns  in  Holland.  The  Urand  Pen-  tions.  This  is  being  done  through  a  pen- 
atonarv  was  the  first  minister  of  the  sion  or  allowance  system.  Many  state 
United  Provinces  of  Holland  under  the  legislatures  have  passed  these  pension 
old  republican  government.  laws,  and  a  number  of  cities  have  pro- 

PitnsiATift  (pen'shuna),  annual  allow-  Tided  similar  aid  by  municipal  ordinances. 
x«;uBxvuB  ^^^  gf  money  settled  upon  P*ntaiPOn  (P«»'ta-gon),  a  figure  of 
persons,  usually  for  services  previously  *«*"«'«'6»'"  five  sides  and  five  angles; 
rendered.  In  Britain  civil  pensions  are  if  the  sides  and  angles  be  equal  it  is  a 
conferred  on  certain  ministers  of  state,  regular  pentagon ;  otherwise,  irregular, 
etc.,  on  retirement  after  a  number  of  PentaSTanh.  ^^  Pantogrmph. 
years'  service,  with  smaller  sums  called   ***"»'"'6*"r"'" 

the  civil  list  pensions.  These  latter  pen-  Pentamera  (pea-tam'6-ra),  one  ot 
sions  are  assigned  to  those  who,  by  tneir  «*"•'«*'**»**«*  tj,g  primary  sections  into 
personal  services  to  the  crown,  by  the  which  coleopterous  Insects  (beetles)  are 
performance  of  duties  to  the  public,  or  divided,  including  those  which  have  five 
by  their  useful  discoveries  in  science  joints  on  the  tarsus  of  each  leg. 
and  attainments  in  literature  and  the  PAnfomskTAnA  ( pen-ta-me-r5'ni ) ,  a 
arts,  have  merited  the  gratitude  of  their  -K^cuMWUcrwuB  fnmous  collection  of 
country.     In    addition,    army   and    navy   fifty  folk-tales    (Naples,   1637),   written 


pensions  are  paid   to  veterans 
incapacitated     for    service    by 


^hose  by  Giambattista  Basils  in  the  Neapoli- 
nds,   tan  dialect    They  are  claimed  to  be  told 


«tc.    By  a  law  which  became  eftcctive   during  five  days  by  ten  old  women  for 
January    1,    1909,   a   system   of   old-age    the  entertahomient   of  a   Moorish   slave, 


who  has  usurped  the  place  of  the  right- 
ful   princess.    They    have    been    trans- 


pensions  was  established  in  Britain.    A 

similar  system  had  existed  in  Germany  .  .  

for  many  years,  and  like  ones  have  been    lated  into  German  and  English,  a  corn- 
established  to  a  partial  extent  in  some   plete  English  translation  being  published 
Jother   countries.     In    the   United   States    by  Sir  Richard  Burton  in  1838.    These 
'^.the  iwnsion  system  differs  from  that  of    tales  are  of  great  value  to  the  student 
%most  other  countries ;  pensions,  with  few   of  folk-lore. 

fil^xceptions,  are  granted  only  on  account  Pentflmeter    (P^'tam'e-tto),    in 
xis.^t    military    service;    having    no    large  •*•»'**•'«*»***'"'»**    prosody,    a    verse    c<»- 

"    "        "  *      '         It  faeloi 


|standing   army,    its   pensions   are   given   sisting  of  five  feet 

^chiefly   to   volunteers   and  drafted   men.    pecially    to    Greek    and    Latin 


verse 

longs  more  es- 

.  Latin    poetry. 

Since  the  Civil  war  the  pension  system  The  first  two  feet  may  be  either  dactyls 

*as  developed  from  a  v<»ry  small  estab-   or  spondees,  the  third  is  always  a  spondee, 

"^ishment  to  a  great  bureau.    The  appro-  and  the  last  two  anapests.    A  pentameter 

[iriations     made     by      Congress     have   verse,  subjoined  to  a  hexameter,  constl- 

increased  yearly.    In  1861  tMie  was  dis-   tutes  what  is  called  the  elegiac  measure. 

ursed  on  account  of  pensions  |1,072,461.  Penta.tenell     (pen'ta-tftk).  the  Greek 

%er«   were  820ja00   pensioners   on  the  .  w^*«*»vm    Qm^^  applied  to  the  first 


-r 


Pentatenoh 


inkthikswrt 


five  book!  in  the  Bible,  called  «too  Uie 
Law  of  Moees  (Hebrew.  Tor**  Mo»^fO,> 
or  limply  the  Law  (Torci*).  The  dl- 
▼iaion  of  the  whole  work  into  five  iwrta 
haa  by  aome  aatboritiea  been  auppoaed  to 
be  original;  othera,  with  more  probabil- 
ity, think  it  waa  ao  divided  by  the  Greek 
tranalatora,  the  tltlea  of  the  aeveral 
hooka  being  Greek,  not  Hebrew.  It  be- 
glna  with  an  account  of  creation  and  the 
primeval  condition  of  man;  of  the  en- 
trance of  sin  Into  the  world,  and  God  a 
dealing  with  it,  broadening  out  into  a 
biatory  of  the  early  world,  but  again 
narrowing  into  biographiea  of  the  found- 
era  of  the  Jewish  family;  it  then  pro- 
ceeda  to  describe  how  the  family  grew 
into  a  nation  in  Egypt,  tells  us  of  ita 
oppression  and  deliverance;  of  its  forty 
years'  wandering  in  the  wilderness;  of 
the  giving  of  the  law,  with  all  its  civil 
and  religious  enactments;  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  tabernacle;  of  the  cen- 
sus of  the  people;  of  the  rights  and 
duties  of  the  priesthood;  and  concludes 
with  the  last  discourses  of  Moses  and  his 
death.  The  Pentateuch  and  the  book  of 
Joshua  are  sometimes  spoken  of  together 
aa  the  Hexateuch;  when  Judges  and  Ruth 
are  added,  as  the  Ociateuch. 

Until  nearly  the  end  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury the  convlc^iion  that  Moses  wrote  the 
complete  work,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last    chapter    or    ao    of    Deuteronomy, 
ascribed  to  Joshua,  might  be  aaid  to  have 
been  universally  adhered  to;  but  previ- 
ously to  this  the  question  whether  the 
Pentateuch  was  the  work  of  one   man 
or  of  one  age,   and  what  share   Moses 
had    in    its   composition,   had    been   dis- 
cussed seriously  and  with  more  or  less 
critical     investigation.     Spinoza^      in     a 
work  published  in  1679,  maintained  that 
we  owe  the  present  form  of  the  work 
to   Ezra.    A    scientific   basis   was   given 
to    the    investigation    by    Jean    Astruc 
(1753),  who  recognized  two  main  docu- 
mentary sources  in  Genesis,  one  of  which 
used    the    name    Elohim    and    the    other 
Jehovah    for    God.    This    'documentary 
theory '  gave  way  to   the  *  fragmentary 
theory'  of  Vater  (1815)  and  Uartmann 
(1818),  who  maintained  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was   merely   a   collection   of  frag- 
ments   thrown    together    without    order 
«r  design.     This  theory  has  now  lost  its 
popularity  by  the  substitution  of  another, 
called    the    'supplementary    hypothesis, 
whose  leading  principle  is  that  there  was 
only  one  original  or  fundamental  docu- 
ment (the  Elohistic)   giving  a  connected 
history   from   first  to  last,   such   as  we 
have  in  the  Pentateuch ;  but  that  a  later 
editor    (the   Jehovist),   or   several   ano* 
cenive  editors,  enlarged  it  to  its  preaent 


extent,  Mmatimw  vtw  frMttl/,  by  ttt 
inaertimi  of  additloiial  mattar  from  other 
aouicca.  whathwr  th«M  had  appoarad  io 
a  wiittan  form  already,  or  wiMthtr  they 
were  atill  floating  in  the  mlnda  of  the 
people  aa  traditiona.  The  book  of  Jouraa 
!a  now  generally  regarded  aa  fas  ita  char- 
acter belonging  to  and  completing  the 
Pentateoch.  !>•  Wette  waa  the  firat  to 
concern  himaelf  (early  in  the  last  cen- 
tury) with  the  hiatorkal  apart  from 
the  literary  criticiam  of  the  Pentateuch, 
and  refused  to  find  anything  in  it  but 
legend  and  poetry.  The  diacnaaiona  on 
theae  pointa,  which  until  recently  were 
mainly  led  by  German  theolpgiana,  have 
latterly  been  taken  np  by  BnglUh  bibli- 
cal critics,  among  the  earlieat  being  Dr. 
Davidaon  and  Biahop  Colenaa 

Among  thoae  critlca  of  the  preaent  day 
who  deny  the  Moeaic  authorship  of  the 
Pentateuch  there  is  a  tendency  to  recog- 
nize three  elements  or  componmt  parts 
welded  together  in  the  whole  work   (in- 
cluding  Joshua).    One  of   theae   is  the 
fundamental  or  Elohfaitic  document,  which 
is  partly  historic  in  its  matter  but  mainly 
legal,  embracing  Leviticus  and  parts  of 
Exodus  and  Numbera.    Another  element 
consists  of  the  Jehovlatic,  which  ie  al- 
most   entirely    narrative   and    hiatorical, 
and  to  which  beionga  the  biatory  of  the 
patriarchs,    etc.    The    third    comTOnwit 
element  is  Deuteronomy,  the  second  giv- 
ing of  the   law,  aa  the  name  algniBeik 
The  respective  antiquity  of  the  aeveral 
portlona  has  been  much  disputed,  mapy 
critlca  making  the  Elohistic  the  earliest, 
the  Jehovistic  second,  Deuteronomy  last 
Some   modem  critics,  however,  put   the 
Elohistic  section  last,  believing  it  to  have 
been  drawn  up  during  the  exile  and  pub- 
lished by  Ezra  after  the  return;  while 
the  Jehovlatic  aection  is  assigned  to  the 
age  of  the  early  klnga,  and  Deuteronomy 
to  the  reign  of  Joalah. 
P*Tif»rnat    (pen ' te - kost :   from  the 
renieCOSl    ^f^^  pen«*o«W,  the  fif- 
tieth),  a  Jewish   festival,   held   on   the 
fiftieth  day  after  the  passover,  in  celebra- 
tion of  the  ingathering  and  in  thankagiv- 
ing  for  the  harveat.     It  waa  alao  called 
the  Feast  of  Week$,  because  it  waa  cele- 
brated seven  weeks  after  the  passoyar. 
It   is   also   a   festival   of  the   Christian 
church,  occurring  fiftv  daya  after  Eaater, 
in  commemoration  of  the  deacent  of  the 
Holy   Ghost  on  the  disciples,  called  in 
England  Whifuntide. 

Penthesilea  l^^^ei't^lo^^, 

queen  of  the  Amazona  (which  aec). 
P»Tiflti^inv     (p*n-ty»vr),  an  ancient 
renTnievre    ,J^ty  of  Brittany,  now 

forming  the  French  department  of  Mor> 


in 

a 


PoitlaBd  Firth 


Peopl«'i  Palftoe 


bihan.  It  Mongad  in  earlier  timw  to 
Mfval  branebct  of  the  bouw  of  Brit- 
taaf,  bnt  at  a  later  period  came  to  the 
boiMca  of  Broeae  and  Laxembourg,  and  in 
1S6B  waa  erecteu  in  tbeir  uvor  by 
Obarlca  IX  into  a  dukedom.  It  after* 
wards  fell  to  the  crown,  and  was  given, 
in  1607,  b7  Loais  XIV  to  one  of  bia 
Illegitimate  sons  by  Madame  de  Monte* 
span,  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  who  died 
in  1787.  His  only  son  and  heir  was 
Louis  Jean  Marie  de  Bourbon,  duke  of 
Penthi«vre.  bom  in  1725;  died  in  1703; 
served  as  general  at  Dettingen  and  Fon- 
tenoy,  and  was  father-in-law  to  King 
Louis  Philippe. 

Pcntland  Rrth  eteli'L-p^ritinl 

the  mainland  of  Scotland  from  the  Ork- 
ney Islands,  and  connecting  the  North 
Sea  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  about 
17  miles  long  east  to  west,  and  6  to  8 
miles  broad.  A  current,  setting  from 
east  to  west,  flows  through  it  with  a 
velocity  of  3  to  0  miles  an  hour,  causing 
many  eddies,  and  rendering  its  navigation 
difficult  and  dangerous. 

Fentland  Hills,  ,*  ?°P  *?'  ^^^' 

**""***"**  *****•»»  jun^^  jn  tjjg  coun- 
ties of  Edinburgh,  Peebles,  and  Lanark, 
commencing  4i  miles  south  by  west  of 
Edinburgh,  and  extending  southwest  for 
about  lo  miles.  The  highest  summit. 
Scald  Law,  is  1888  feet  above  sea-leveL 
pfkunmhrfl.  (pen-um'bra),  the  par- 
reniUnDra    t,^,  shadow  between  the 

full  light  and  the  total  shadow  caused 
by  an  opaque  body  intercepting  the  light 
from  a  luminous  body,  the  penumbra 
being  tha  result  of  rays  emitted  by  part 


Umbn  and  Pannmbrs. 

of  the  luminous  body.  An  eye  placed  in 
the  penumbra  would  see  part  of  the  lumi- 
nous body,  part  being  eclipsed  by  the 
opaque  body:  an  eye  placed  in  the 
'  umbia,'  or  place  of  total  shadow,  would 
receive  no  ran  from  the  luminous  body ; 
an  eye  placed  anywhere  else  than  in  the 

Knumbra  and  umbra  seea  the  luminous 
dy  without  aclipae.  The  subject  is  of 
importaoca  in  the  consideration  of 
eclipses.  In  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  sun, 
as  long  aa  any  part  of  tha  same  is  visible 
the  piurtisa  obiarvinf  ara  bt  thapentMi- 


kra/  whan  the  aclipae  is  total,  In  tha 
bra.  Tha  cut  shows  tha  phenomeoa  «f 
tha  umbra  and  penumbra  u  the  caae  of 
a  Inminoua  body  between  two  opaqoe 
bodlea,  the  one  laiger,  the  other  smallar 
than  Itself.  See  also  Eolip$«, 
Pavimi  (pin'sa) ,  a  government  of  Bua- 
X-euza  ,^  bounded  by  Nijni-Novgorod, 
TamboT,  Saratov,  and  Simbirsk;  aiaa, 
14,996  aquare  miles;  pop.  1,4914216.  Its 
surface,  though  generally  flat,  ia  inter- 
sected DT  some  low  hills  separating  the 
basins  of  the  Don  and  Volga.  About  60 
per  cent  of  the  soil  is  arable,  the  cliief 
crops  being  rye,  oats,  buckwheat,  hemp, 
potatoes,  and  beet-root,  and  about  14  per 
cent  is  under  meadows  or  grasing  land. 
The  forests  are  extensive.  The  cUtf  ax- 
ports  are  com,  spirits,  timber,  metala, 
and  oila. —  Penza,  the  capital,  ia  on  an 
eminence  at  the  junction  of  the  Penxa 
and  Sura,  440  miles  southeast  of  Mos- 
cow. It  was  founded  in  1666  as  a  de- 
fense against  Tartar  incursions,  is  mostly 
built  of  wood,  has  a  cathedral,  sevenu 
other  churches,  a  theater,  etc.  Pop. 
76,552. 

PensATiee  (pen'sana),  a  municipal 
xeozauce  borough  .nd  seaport  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  county  of  Cornwall,  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  the  northwest  of 
Mount's  Bay,  26  miles  southwest  of 
Truro.  The  harbor  has  accommodation 
for  large  vessels,  and  there  is  a  consid- 
erable export  of  tin  and  copper,  china- 
clay,  and  pilchards.  The  pilchard  and 
other  fisheries  employ  many  persons. 
Penzance  has  a  fine  climate  and  pleasant 
environs,  and  is  becoming  a  favorite  wa- 
tering-place. Po;^.  13.136. 
Peonv  (P^'u-°>:  Pannia),  a  genua  of 
J  plantj  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Ranunculacen,  and  very  generally 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  the  sake  of  their 
large  showy  flowers.  The  species  are 
mostly  herbaceous,  having  perennial 
tuberous  roots  and  large  deeply-'obed 
leaves.  The  flowers  are  solitary,  and  of 
a   variety    of  colors,   crimson,    purplish, 

gink,  yellow,  and  white.  The  flowers, 
owever,  have  no  smell,  or  not  sn  agree- 
able one,  except  in  the  case  of  a  shrubby 
species,  P.  Moutan,  a  native  of  China, 
of  which  several  varieties,  with  beautiful 
whitish  flowers  stained  with  pink,  are 
cultivated  in  gardens.  The  roots  and 
seeds  of  all  the  species  are  emetic  and 
cathartic  in  moderate  doses.  P.  oftoi- 
nOlu  or  fcMtiva,  the  common  peony  of 
cottage  gardens,  was  formerly  in  great 
repute  as  a  mfdicine. 

Peoplc^s  Palace,   li^'^^J^j^. 

don,  aitoated  in  Mile-end  Road,  opened 
by  Qaeen  Victoria,  Umt,  1867.    It  pre- 


Pm^i  Ftrty 


▼idw  for  the  population  of  the  EMt  End 
•  hall  for  concerto,  enterulnmenti,  etc..  a 
librarjr  and  readini-rooma,  gyouiaaia, 
iwiaiininf-battu,  aoclal-meetlnc  rooms, 
roome  for  tame*,  refresbment  rooms,  a 
winter-garden,  technical  ■cboola.  etc.  The 
nucleus  of  the  palace  was  the  Beaumont 
Institute,  founded  by  Mr.  J.  T.  B.  Beau- 
nMMit  (died  1840).  who  left  £12,800  to 
establish  an  institution  for  the  moral  and 
intellectual  improvement  of  the  working 
classes  in  the  East  End  of  London.  A 
movement  set  on  foot  by  a  novel  by  Mr. 
Walter  Besant  —  All  fiortt  and  Condi- 
tions of  itfeii  — resuUed  in  raising  the 
fond  to  £75,000,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  People's  Palace. 

Peonle'fl  Partv  <>'  Popitust  Pabtt, 

the  Unii  d  SUtes  which  held  Its  first 
national  convention  in  1802.  Its  plat- 
form demanded  a  iMal  tender  currency 
Issued  directly  by  the  government,  not 
throush  the  medium  of  banks;  free  coin- 
age of  gold  and  silver  at  a  ratio  of  10  to 
1;  a  graduated  income  tax;  {;overnment 
ownership  and  operation  of  railroads,  tel- 
egraphs and  telrphones;  that  land  should 
not  be  monopolized  ly  aliens,  and  that 
railroad  lands  should  be  reclaimed  and 
held  for  settlers.  This  party  hnd  been 
preceded  by  the  'Farmers'^  Alliance,' 
holding  similar  views.  It  nominated 
candidates  for  President  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent in  1802  and  in  1800,  and  in  1000 
endorsed  the  Democratic  nomination  of 
William  J.  Bryan.  It  nominated  can- 
didates also  in  1004  and  1008.  but  its 
rote  greatly  fell  off,  becoming  insignifi- 
cant in  the  latter  year. 

Peoria     (!*:«'«;•■).  *  city  of  Illinois, 
f curia    ^pu^i  ^f  p^^,^  j,^^  ^^  jij^ 

west  bank  of  the  Illinois  River  (here 
called  from  its  width  Lake  Peoria),  IGO 
miles  8.W.  of  Chicago.  Peoria  is  a  great 
railway  center  and  is  connected  with  St. 
Louis  by  river  steamers  and  with  Chi- 
ca«o  by  the  Michigan  Canal.  It  is  a 
rapidly  rising  place,  the  seat  of  a  large 
grain  traffic,  especially  in  corn  and  oats, 
and  is  extensively  engaged  in  pork-pack- 
.••  I.*  '■  .■»  important  manufacturing 
city,  distilling  being  its  leading  interest, 
while  the  production  of  agricultural  im- 
plements stands  second.  There  are  vari- 
ous other  Isrge  products.  Peoria  has 
several  notable  public  buildings,  a  public 

y.^'^'L.SJj?  "^^  100,000  volumes,  etc. 
JrOp.  00,800. 

PeverinO    (Pep-*r-e'n0),  the  Italian 

'^     7^  .  name   for   a   volcanic   rock 

ceapesed  of  sand,  scorie,  cinders,  etc, 

— sented  t«vether.    It  is  so  named  fro 


the  aaall   peppercom-Uke   fragmenta   of 
wUek   it    &    oompoaed.    Tbe   Tarpeian 


Bock  in  Borne  is  compossd  of  rad  pa^ 
erino,  and  tlM  catacombs  art  tba  bollows 
of  old  quarrias  dug  io  it 
Pemn  ^P«p7">>  ^  wun*  of  two  dla- 
*  "A****  Ungoisbad  Frank  rulars  of  the 
8th  century,  under  tin  last  kings  of  tba 
Merovingian  dynasty.—  1.  Pinif  or  Hst- 
I8TAI.,  major-domo  at  the  court  of  Dago- 
bert  II,  was,  after  tbe  death  of  the  king, 
appointed  Duke  of  the  Franka,  and  ander 
a  feeble  regency  ruled  the  kingdom  with 
almoat  despotic  sway.  Charlea  Martel 
waa  his  natural  son. —  2.  Pinir  u  Bisr, 
son  of  Charles  Martel,  was,  by  agree- 
Ft*"*™''**^  *•}•  ?2fi!»»  Pfoclsimod  King  of 
*^*  ?^SP>».'"  l5?'  •''•»  the  depooition 
of  Childeric  III.  He  defeated  the 
Longobards  in  Italy,  and  made  the  Holy 
See  a  preaent  of  the  laada  which  he  con- 
quered from  them  —  the  origin  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  popes.  Ha  bo- 
came  the  founder  of  the  Carlovingian 
fe2*i?*J't.'»*'°«  'uccwded  at  his  death  in 
'®S  ^Jkl*  ■?"•  Charles  the  Great,  usually 
called  Charlemagne. 

PCDBer    <P*P'«'!   Wper),  a  genua  af 
^       «.  P"^""*"'  *•»•  tyP*  o'  the  natural 
** Ki*u    Plperacee.    The    Piper    nigrum, 
which  furnishes  the  black  pepper  of  com- 
merce, is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
where   It  is  cultivated  on   an  extensive 
scale.    It  la  a  climbing  plant,  with  broad, 
ovate,    acuminate 
leaves,  and   little 
globular     berries, 
which,  when  ripe, 
are   of  a   bright- 
red    color.      The 
pepper  of  Malac- 
ca. Java,  and  es- 
pecially    of     Su- 
matra,     is      the 
most       esteemed. 
Its    culture    hss 
been      introduced 
into  Tsrious  oth- 
er tropioil   coun- 
tries.   White  pep- 
per   is    the    best 
and    soundest    of 
the  berries,  gath- 
ered   when    fully 
"■'.R®'    'S^    deprived    of    their    externaf 
skin.    The  CAovtco  Betle,  or  betel,   be- 
longs    to     the     same     natural     order. 
Cayenne    pepper,    Guinea    pepper,    bird 
pepper,  etc.,  are  the  produce  of  species 
of   Captieutn,   natural  order    Solanaoee. 
Jamaica  pepj^r  Is  pimento  or  allspice. 

Pepper.  S^?i*,''t  .p'»y»'c*««»  bom  at 

a  distinguished  physician  of  the  same 
name.  He  graduated  in  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  became  a 
profeasor  then  in  1OT6»  and  wa^  «^i^ 


Black  Pepper  (Piptr  lU- 


Ptpptioorn  Xrat 


Ptn^^ott 


PMfMt  of  the  Unifmdty  In  1880b  n- 
rigDlnf  In  UMk  Ho  woo  von  tctlTo  In 
oxtoDdinc  tbo  lerao  and  ackunf  to  tho 
•odowmoat  of  too  UnlTonttr,  which 
ow«s  Ita  i^oomt  high  otondloc  locfcljr  to 
hhn.  Ho  wot  also  actively  connoctod 
with  tho  Pablic  Library  of  Philadelphia, 
tbo  CoBunoicial  Uqmuhu.  and  othor  la* 
■titatlona.    Ho  diod  in  1696. 

Peppercorn  Bent,  •,  °rtll,«2S 

dtnand.  A  nominal  rtnt  of  on*  pepper- 
eon  a  year  la  an  expedient  for  wcuring 
acknowiedfment  of  tenancy  in  caees 
where  houaea  or  land*  are  let  virtaally 
free  of  rmt 

Peppennint.   s^^*«<. 
Peppermint-tree,  %%Ji'^l^'*^. 

tive  of  New  South  Walea. 
Penner-not      *   murh-eeteemed   Weet 

pal    ingredient    of    which    la    casmreep 

(which  eee).  with  fleah  of  dried  fish  and 

VMotables,  chiefly  the  unripe  poda  of  the 

eehra.  and  chilliea. 

PemiAr-root  *  herbaceous  plant  of 
repper  root,  ^^^  ^^    ^^^*'  ^j^^^,^ 

fera,  a  native  of  the  United  States,  so 
called  from  the  pungent,  mustard-like 
taste  of  its  root,  which  is  used  as  a 
condiment. 

Pepperwort,  f  p.!?.°*  "'  *•  ««°" 

A  i«^^vA  «*  WA  w,    Leptdtum,    one    species 
of    which     (L.    latlvum),    the    common 
nrden  cress,  is  cultivated  for  the  table. 
See  also  Denturia. 
Penime    (Pep'«in),    an    active   princi- 

peculiar  animal  prii^ciple  secreted  by  the 
stomach.    The     pepsine     or     pepsia     of 

ftharmanr  is  a  preparation  of  toe  mucous 
ining  of  the  stomach  of  the  i)ig  or  calf. 
It  is  often  prescribed  in  cases  ot'  indi- 
gestion connected  with  loss  of  power  and 
tone  of  the  stomach. 
Penvs  (V«V»  or  pep'is),  Sahuxl,  sec- 
**'*'*"  retary  to  the  admiralty  in  the 
reigns  of  Charles  II  and  James  II.  was 
born  at  Brampton,  Huntingdonshire,  in 
1632,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
early  acquired  the  patronage  of  Sir  Ed- 
ward Montagu,  afterwards  Earl  of  Sand- 
wich, who  employed  him  as  secretary  in 
the  expedition  for  bringing  Charles  II 
from  Holland.  On  his  return  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  principal  oScers  of 
the  navy.  In  1678,  when  the  king  took 
the  admiralty  into  bis  own  hands,  Fepya 
was  appointed  secretary  to  that  oflce,  and 
performed  his  duties  with  great  credit 
During  the  excitement  of  the  Popish  Plot 
he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  but  was 
aftar  soaa  tlmo  dischargad  wittoat  a 


trlaL  and  reinautad  la  hia  ofleo  at  tba 
admiralty,  which  ba  bald  nntli  tba  abdl* 
eatkm  of  Jamea  II.  He  dlad  la  1708. 
Ha  waa  preaidmt  of  the  Koyal  Society 
for  two  years ;  but  his  title  to  fame  reata 
upon  hia  Diary  (lUBO-W),  which  la  • 
moat  entertaining  work,  revealing  the 
writer's  own  character  very  plainly,  giv- 
ing an  excellent  picture  of  contemporary 
life,  and  of  areat  value  for  the  hiatory 
of  the  court  of  Charles  II.  It  is  in  short- 
hand, and  was  discovered  among  a  col- 
lection of  books,  prints,  and  manuscripts 
bequeathed  by  Pepys  to  Magdalene  Col- 
lege, Cambridge:  first  printed  in  1825. 

Peanoti  *  *'^^  o'  American  Indiana, 
f  equoiB,    ,  b^g^p^  ^,  j^^  Moheganal 

residing  near  the  Thames  River,  in  Con- 
necticut. Strong  and  warlike,  they  op- 
posed the  settlement  of  the  English  u 
Connecticut.  Hostilities  broke  out  in 
1637,  the  Indian  town  was  burned,  and 
the  tribe  practically  annihilated. 
Perfl.  (P&'i*)'  *■  auburb  of  Constanti- 
*^"*  nople  (which  see). 
Persa  (pe-r«'a),  a  district  of  Paleo- 
**"*'•  tine  eastward  of  the  Jordan, 
the  'Oilead'  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Perftk  (P&'iAl')t  a  native  state  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  extending 
about  80  miles  along  the  west  coast,  and 
stretching  inward  to  the  mountain  range 
which  forms  the  backbone  of  the  penin- 
sula; area,  7940  sq.  m.,  pop.  320,665. 
Since  1875  Perak  has  been  practically  a 
dependency  of  the  Straits  Settlements 
(which  see),  the  native  rajah  being  con- 
trolled by  a  British  resident  appointed 
by  the  governor  of  that  colony,  and  Eng- 
lish officers  holding  many  posts  under  the 
native  government.  Perak  is  a  flourish- 
ing and  progressive  country.  Roads  and 
railways  are  constructed  or  bfing  made 
and  its  rich  resources  developed.  Tin  is 
produced  in  large  quantities,  and  tapioca, 
pepper,  rice,  sugar,  coffee,  cacao,  and  cin- 
chona are  successfully  cultivated.  The 
chief  town  is  Iliaipeng,  but  the  head- 
quarters of  the  British  resident  are  at 
Kwala  Kangsa. 

Perception  iSi^^'t^iJ^^^^i 

perceiving;  the  faculty  by  which  we  have 
knowledge  through  the  medium  or  in- 
strumentality of  the  bodilv  organs,  or  by 
which  we  bold  communication  with  the 
external  world.  Perception  takes  cog- 
nisance only  of  objects  without  the  mind. 
We  perceive  a  man.  a  horse,  a  tree :  when 
we  think  or  feel,  we  are  coii«c<o««  of  our 
thoughts  and  emotions.  Two  great  dla- 
pntea  are  connected  with  perception,  both 
brought  into  full  prominence  by  Bishop 
Berkeley.  The  fin>t  is  the  origin  of  our 
jadgmmta  of  tbo  distaiwoa  and  raal  siaff 


Ttntml 


Vncy 


BltodM  of  rUiblt  bodiM.  Th*  Mooad 
quwtlon  h«a  rttertnc*  to  tbt  froimdi 
wo  havo  for  aaMrting  tiio  txisttuct  of  to 
•xtoml  mattrial  world,  which,  accord' 
taw  to  Borkolcjr,  was  connactod  with  tho 
otoor.    B«o  ldeaU»m. 

Peroeval  iia;.?-.^l>;il«"^  ^, 

John  P«re«?al,  Eari  of  Egmont,  bom  in 
1788;  r«c«iT«d  hia  aducatlon  at  Harrow 
and    Trinity    CoHcfa,    Cambridge.    On 

fuitting  the  univeraitT-  be  studied  law. 
n  1801  he  became  aolicitor-general,  and 
in  1802  attorney-general.  In  1807  he 
waa  appointed  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
ebeouer.  and  on  the  death  of  the  Duke 
of  Portland,  in  1800,  he  became  premier. 
In  this  post  he  continued  till  May  11, 
1812,  when  a  person  named  Bellingham 
shot  him  dead  in  the  lobby  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  Perceval  was  a  keen  de- 
bater and  a  fluent  and  graceful  speaker, 
bnt  was  shallow  anfl  intolerant,  and  un- 
eoual  to  the  task  of  leading  the  councils 
of  a  great  nation. 

Pftreh  '^  genus  of  acanthopterous 
*"**'"'  flshe»,  forming  the  type  of  the 
perch  fsmily  (Pereidie).  The  common 
perch  {Perca  nuviatilit)  is  a  common 
tenant  of  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers. 
The  body  is  broad,  and  somewhat  flat- 
tened laterally.  There  are  two  dorsal 
fins,  the  anterior  supported  by  very 
strong  spines.  It  is  colored  a  greenUh- 
brown  on  the  upper  part*,  the  belly  being 
of   a   yellowish    or   golden    white.    Tho 


The  common  Perch  (Percha  fiuviatUU).  o, 
OiU-eover,  with  the  gitl-Blit  behind  it;  p.  One 
of  the  pectoral  fins,  the  left;  t',  The  left  ren- 
tral  Cn;  d,  The  first  dorsal  iin;d',  The  second 
dorsal  fin;  e,  The  caudal  fin  or  Uil;  «,  The 
BBSl  ia;  i.  Lateral  line. 

sides  are  marked  with  from  five  to  seven 
blackish  bands.  The  average  weight  is 
from  2  to  3  lbs.  The  perch  is  a  voracious 
feeder,  devouring  smaller  fishes,  worms, 
ate.  The  American  yellow  perch  is  one 
of  the  most  common  and  beautiful  of  the 
freah-water  fishes  of  the  United  States. 
Hie  Serrdnus  cobrUla  and  8.  gigat  (giant 
parch)  are  also  sometimes  termed  ^sea- 
parches.'  For  the  climbing-perch  of  In- 
dln  see  Ciimbing-pereh. 


Perch,  J|»^*  ■•••^  •'  »"»«*^  ■*• 
Perohen,  ji;,ggy»«  "««*•  "^ 
PeroWorioAddir^^^Ji'JJg 

tha  action  of  strong  anlpharie  acid  upon 
potaaalum  perchlorata.  It  ia  a  colorless, 
sirupy  liqaid,  resembling  snlphnrie  acid. 
Brought  into  contact  with  organic  nat- 
ter it  ia  inauntly  decomposad,  often  with 
exploaive  violence.  The  perchioratoa 
have  tha  general  formula  BICIO,  wbara 
M  represents  a  monovalent  matal,  socb 
aa  potassium  or  sodium. 

Per'cida.    ^  ^««*- 
Pcrcnwioii  i^^-^^Si^^^^J^^i 

diagnoaia  which  consists  in  striking  gantly 
on  the  surface  of  one  of  the  cavitlea  of 
the  body,  and  then  endeavoring  to  aaeer- 
tain  from  tlie  sound  produced  the  condi- 
tion of  the  organ  lying  beneath.  Per- 
cussion is  most  frequently  used  on  tha 
chest,  but  it  ia  alao  occaaionally  applied 
to  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  tha  head, 
etc. 

Percussion  Caps   SfiJ^iJ  ToSS 

at  one  end  for  conveniently  holding  tha 
detonating  compoaition  which  ia  exploded 
by  percuasion,  ao  aa  to  ignite  the  powder 
hi  certain  kinda  of  firearma.  The  cop- 
per cap  came  into  general  naa  between 
1820  and  1880. 

PerCV  (pc>^'0,  the  name  of  a  nobla 
'  family  who  came  to  England 
with  William  the  Conqueror,  and  whoae 
head,  Wiluax  dc  Pebct,  obtained 
thirty  knights'  fees  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land. A  descendant,'  also  named  Wnr 
UAic,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
12th  century,  left  behind  him  two  dangh- 
ters,  the  elder  of  whom  died  childless, 
and  the  younger,  Agnes,  married  Joa- 
celine  of  Lorain,  brother-in-law  of  Henry 
I,  who  assumed  the  surname  of  his 
bride.  His  son,  RiciiABO  OE  Pebct,  was 
one  of  the  twenty-five  barons  who  ex- 
torted Magna  Charta  from  King  John. 
His  great-grandson,  Heivbt.  Lobo  Pebct, 
was  created  Earl  of  Northnmberland  in 
1337.  He  was  Marshal  of  England  at 
the  coronation  of  Richard  II,  against 
whom,  however,  he  took  up  arma,  and 
succeeded  in  placing  the  crown  on  the 
head  of  the  Lancastrian  aspirant,  Henry 
IV.  He  took  up  arma  against  this  king 
also,  but  his  forces  were  beetei  at 
Shrewsbury  (1408),  where  his  son, 
Henry  Percy  (Hotspur)  .fell ;  and  again 
at  Bamham  Moor  (1407-8),  where  he 
himaelf  fell.  Hia  titles  were  forfeited, 
but  were  revived  ia  favor  of  bte  grand- 


Pteoj 


Perfeotioniiti 


MB  Bnnnr.  who  wm  appoiatad  lord  btch 
eMMabla  m  Epgtond.  and  who  fell  flf bt> 
iof  lo  tbf.Luinstrian  c«um  at  St  Al- 


but  (14B8).  For  tbt  mum  cauM  bla 
•OB  and  aaccoMor  aharad  th«  aanM  fata 
at  Towton  (14U1).  Tba  fourtb  *arl  waa 
■ardtnd  durlns  a  popular  rlainc,  cauaad 
by  bto  aaforciof  a  aubaid/  ordarad  hj 
tte  aTariciona  Umn  VII.  Tba  aixth 
and  aavaatb  aarla  fell  by  tba  banda  of 
tba  aiacatloner  in  tba  relgua  of  Edward 
Ti  and  Blimbetb  rcapectivelj.  Tba 
•icbtb  died  a  violent  deatb  in  tba  Tower, 
wbara  b«  waa  confined  on  a  cbarca  of 
taking  part  in  a  plot  In  favor  of  llarv 
of  Scotland.  ALonitoif,  tba  tentb  earl, 
took  part  in  tbe  civil  war  againat  Cbarlea 
I,  and  aftarwarda  uaad  all  bla  influenca 
to  bring  about  tba  Reatoration.  Jos- 
CKUifc,  tba  alavantb  earl,  died  witbont 
male  iaaue;  bla  only  daughter  married 
Cbariea,  duka  of  Bomeraet,  and  became 
tbe  mother  of  ALOERNOir.  dvkb  of  Bom- 
nacT,  who  was  created  Earl  of  Nor* 
tbumberland,  with  remainder  to  bla 
•on-in-law,  Bn  Hugh  BMiTHSoR^^a 
Yorkshire  baronet  of  good  family.  The 
latter  succeeded  to  tbe  earldom  in  1750. 
aaauming  the  name  of  Percy,  and  in  1706 
received  tba  ducal  title.  Tbe  present 
duka  thus  rapreaenta  the  female  line  of 
tba  ancient  historical  house. 
Vmrnjr  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Dromore, 
*«*«/»  In  Ireland,  was  bom  at  Bridge- 
north  In  1728,  and  graduated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  in  1753.  He  held  sev- 
eral livings,  in  1769  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  king,  and  in  1778  raised 
to  tbe  deanery  of  Carlisle,  which  he 
resigned  four  years  after  for  the  Irish 
bishopric  of  Dromore.  He  died  at 
Dromore  in  1811.  The  moat  popular  of 
his  works  are  bis  ReKquet  of  Ancient 
EnaUah  Poetry,  based  on  an  old  manu- 
scrnit  collection  of  poetry,  but  much 
modernised  in  style.  The  work  waa  pub- 
lished in  1766,  and  materially  helped  to 
give  a  more  natural  and  vigorous  tone 
to  Einglish  literature,  then  deeply  tainted 
with  conventionalism. 
Pfkrfliv  (per'diks),  the  generic  name 
x^eroix  of  the  true  partridges.  Hie 
common  partridge  is  P.  etnereue. 

Peregrine  Falcon.    ««>  ''«'«"•• 
Perekop  ^S.-tRV^Sus.'u.^'S^erS^ 

ment  of  TVurida,  85  miles  if.n.w.  of 
Bimferopol,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Perekop, 
formerly  a  place  of  some  military   iro- 

K>rtance.  The  iatbmaa,  about  20  miles 
ng,  by  4  miles  wide  where  narrowest, 
connects  tba  Peninsnla  of  tbe  Crimea 
with  tba  mainland,  and  aeparatcs  tbe 
Cka  9i  AsoT  f  taa  tba  Black  Sea. 


Pire-la-ChaiM    (p*r'i*-«i>**)'  •  t^ 

^^  moua   camatan    to 

tba  nortbaaat  of  Paris,  opened  in  1804. 
It  occupies  ground  a  part  of  which  waa 
granted  to  Pkn  da  la  Chaise,  or  Chaiaa, 
confaaaor  of  Louis  XIV.  lu  present  ex- 
tent la  212  acres,  and  it  contains  tba 
burial-placea  of  great  numbara  of  emi- 
nent Frenchmen. 

Perennial  { elt^^if-VJ"  !S'*'?(iiS 

plants  whose  roots  subsist  for  a  number 
of  years,  whether  they  retain  their  leaves 
in  winter  or  not.  Those  which  retain 
their  leavea  are  called  everareenis  such  as 
cast  their  leaves  are  called  ieoUuoue. 
Perennial  herbaceous  pWnts,  like  trees 
and  shrubs,  produce  Bowers  and  fmit 
year  after  year. 

Perennibranchiate    iP«fk,.\Va); 

a  aection  of  the  amphibian  order  Urodala, 
in  which  tbe  brancbia  or  gills  of  early 
life  persist  throughout  tbe  entire  exist- 
ence of  the  animal,  instead  of  disap- 
pearing when  tbe  lungs  are  developed. 
Examples  are  seen  in  the  Proteua,  Siren, 
and  Axolotl.     See  Amphibia. 

Pereyaslavl   <o«n'WSriim"RS2 

sia,  government  of  Poltava.  175  niles 
W.2T.W.  of  Poltava.    Pop.  14,600. 

Pereyaslavl-Zalyesskii,  f °^  *>J} 

Central  Russia,  government  of  Vladimir, 

87   miles  northeast  of  Moscow.     It  baa 

extensive     cotton     manufactures.     Pop. 

8662. 

Perfectionists  (Pe'"-'ec'«h«n-i«t»),  or 

popularly  named  Fbxe-ix>vkbs.  an  Amer- 
ican sect  founded  in  1838  by  John  Hum- 
phrey Noyes.  Noyes  was  employed  as  a 
law-clerk  at  Putney,  in  Vermont,  when 
tbe  fierce  religious  revival  of  1831  spread 
over  the  New  England  States,  but  be 
abandoned  law  for  religion,  and  took 
upon  himself  tbe  re^itoration  of  tbe  prim- 
itive Christian  ideal.  His  distinctive 
doctrines  were  —  1st,  reconciliation  to 
God  and  salvation  from  sin  —  purely 
matters  of  faith;  2d,  recognition  of  tbe 
brotherhood  and  the  equality  of  man  and 
woman ;  and  8d,  community  of  labor  and 
its  fruits.  In  1838  be  succeeded  in 
organising  a  aocirtty  giving  expression  to 
his  views  at  Pitnev.  Besides  himself 
this  included  bis  4rife,  his  mother,  and 
hia  sister  and  brother,  who  were  joined 
by  several  otb<»r  families.  All  property 
waa  thrown  into  a  common  stock;  all 
debts,  all  duties  fell  upon  tbe  society, 
which  ata  in  one  room,  slept  under  one 
roof,  and  lived  upon  one  common  atore. 
All    prayar    and    (dtgioas    service   was 


r 


dw  wen  bn^Mi  nm  and 


*.»  nm  and  •  oobdms  niar- 

riut  fjTRtMi  WM  caUbUalMd.  bf^  which 
Mch  man  hveaiM  Um  horiNUid  mm  brothtr 
of  tverr  woomii  :  tvery  wonaii  th*  wtf* 
and  aiatOT  of  every  man.  Thejr  Ma  ,that 
tnie  believen  are  free  to  follow  the  lodi- 
catioue  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  all  thingR, 
notbinf  bdnf  good  or  bad  in  itidf.  Coa- 
■equently,  tney  rejected  all  laws  and 
rulea  of  conduct  except  thoee  which  each 
bcHerer  formulated  for  hlmaelf  ;  bat  to 
prevent  the  ineonvenieneee  arising  from 
an  ignorant  exereiae  of  individual  liberty, 
they  introduced  the  *  principle  of  eym- 
nntny,'  or  free  public  opinion,  which  in 
fact  constituted  the  eupreme  government 
of  the  aoeiety.  At  length  Putney  became 
too  hoetile  for  this  atate  of  ailaira  to 
continue;  the  catabliahment  was  broken 
up;  but  about  fifty  of  the  picked  and 
tried  men,  with  as  many  women  and 
children,  held  togetber.  Uniting  their 
means,  they,  in  1847,  bought  a  piece  of 
foreet-land  (about  600  acres)  at  Oneida 
Creek,  a  sequestered  district  of  New  York 
State,  and  in  the  course  of  twenty  years 
they  made  it  one  of  the  most  productive 
estates  in  the  Union.  The  family  or 
society  numbered  at  one  time  over  800 
mnnbers,  with  a  branch  community  of 
50  or  W  members  at  WalUngford,  Con- 
necticut. This  status  continued  for 
thirty  years:  but  the  public  opinion  of 
the  neighborhood  began  to  demand  thnt 
the  social  practices  of  the  society  should 
he  abandoned ;  and  this  was  done  in  1870. 
under  the  counsel  of  its  founder  and 
director.  Mr.  Noyes.  Ma.riage  and  fun- 
ily  life  were  introduced;  and  in  1880 
communism  of  property  gave  way  to 
joint-stock,  and  the  society  was  legally 
incorporated  as  the  Oneida  Community, 
Limited.  Some  of  the  more  necessary 
and  common  commnnistie  features,  how- 
ever, were  preserved,  such  as  commou 
dweUings,  a  common  laundry,  library,  etc. 
Ttmrfnm^m  ( per'fflmi ),  substances 
JfenumeS  ^j^ttting  anagreeaUeodor, 
and  used  about  the  person,  the  dress,  or 
the  dwelling.  Perfumes  of  various  sorts 
have  been  held  in  high  estimation  from 
the  moat  ancient  times.  The  Egyptians, 
Hebrews,  Phffinicians,  Assyrians  and 
Persians  are  known  to  have  made  great 
use  of  them,  as  did  ako  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  In  the  middle  ages  France  and 
Italy  were  most  conspicuous  for  the  nse 
and  preparation  of  perfumes.  Perfumes 
are  pardy  of  animal  but  chiefly  of  vege- 
table origin.  They  may  be  divided  into 
two  dames,  cmde  and  prepared.  The 
former  consist  of  such  animnl  perfumes 
as  mnsk,  dvet,  ambergris,  and  such  vexe- 
(ghle  perfwDea  as  are  obtained   in  the 


Fwiaatii 


form  of  eaaintlal  otb.  Tha  prepared  pmt- 
fuBMa,  many  of  theia  known  by  fancy 
naoMa,  coanat  of  variooa  odsturea  or 
preparations  of  odorooa  sabataocaa  made 
up  aeoordiag  to  redpe.  At  the  present 
time  the  manufacture  of  perfnmcs  ia 
chiefly  carried  on  in  Parts  and  London, 
and  in  various  towns  near  the  Mediterra- 
nean, espedally  in  the  sooth  of  France. 
Certain  districts  a.v  famous  for  certain 
productions:  as  Cannes  for  its  perfumes 
of  the  rose,  tuberose,  cassia,  jasmine: 
Ntmea  for  thyme,  roeemary  and  lavender ; 
Nice  for  the  violet  and  mignonette.  Ehig- 
land  claims  the  superiority  for  her  lav- 
ender, which  is  cultivated  upon  a  large 
scale  at  Mitcham  in  Surrey.  The  scat  of 
the  production  of  otto  of  ro<ies  is  Bulgaria, 
espedally  in  the  cantons  of  Kesanlik  and 
Kartova.  Of  late  years  chemists  have 
succeeded  in  produdng  a  variety  of  nrti- 
fidal  odoriferous  substances,  some  iden- 
tical with  plant  perfumes,  others  jielding 
new  odors.  Thus  artifidal  musk  diifers 
widelv  in  odor  from  true  musk,  but  it  is 
a  delightful  perfume,  with  many  applica- 
tions fn  perfumery. 

PerflrAnmi  (P*r'ga-mu8),  or  PcaoA- 
f  c<i(Kiuus     j„,„    ^^  andent  dty  in 

the  west  of  Asia  Minor,  north  of  Smyrna, 
on  the  Calcus.  It  was  founded  by  emi- 
grants from  Greece,  and  rose  to  impor- 
tance about  the  commencement  of  the 
third  century  B.  c.  when  it  was  made  the 
capital  of  an  independent  state,  which 
subsequently  became  a  Roman  province 
Pergamus  was  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
cities  of  antiquity.  Many  fine  remains 
Rtill  exist  in  evidence  of  its  former  gran- 
deur, and  valuable  results  have  been  oh- 
tained  through  excavations  carried  out  by 
the  Prussian  government.  The  modem 
town  Bergama  (q.  v.)  occupies  its  site. 
Penrola  (p^r'gO-la),  a  term  adopted 
fer^Oia  from  the  Italian  for  an  ai*or 
of  trellis  work  over  which  are  trained 
vines,  and  espedallv  for  such  an  arbor 
covering  a  path,  walk  or  veranda. 

Penrolesi    Cp«r-go-in'se),  oiovAirnrA 

xcrifoxeu  battista.  an  luUan  mu- 
sical composer,  bom  at  Jesi  in  ITIO; 
studied  at  the  conservatory  of  music  at 
Naples;  produced  his  first  oratorio  and 
his  first  opera  in  1731 ;  led  a  life  of  no- 
torious profiigacy;  nnd  died  at  Pozzuoli 
in  March,  1736.  His  compodtions  are 
regarded  as  the  best  representations  of 
his  period. 

Perianth  (ner'l-anth),  in  botany,  the 
floral  envelope,  the  calyx 
and  corolla,  or  dther.  This  term  ia  ap- 
plied when  the  calyx  and  coroUa  are 
combined  no  that  they  cannot  be  satis- 
factorilv  distinguished  from  eadi  other, 
as  in  many  mooocotyledonoos  idanta.  tiM 


PiriMrdltii 


VnidM 


tillp,  orekis,  ttc  Tb«  periaath  ia  e«ll«d 
ti»f($  wbw  it  couisu  of  ooe  rtrtieil. 
tad  ^»itU*  wb^n  It  consisu  o(  both  caljrs 
and  corolla. 

fericarditii  JSSllS^-^i'^-J^ 

braaaoua  mc  (pericardium,  which  i 
eoaiaiaing  th«  heart.  In  the  acuta  al 
of  tha  diaeaae  ttiera  la  tsudation  oi 
lymph  or  aerum;  at  a  later  ataga  fala* 
nwnbraiMa  are  formed,  and  at  a  atlll 
later  ataga  the  two  aiaea  become  glued 
together,  forming  adherent  pericardium. 
Tbia  ia  generally  followed  by  cliangea  in 
the  aubatance  of  tlie  heart,  or  in  ita  In- 
ternal aurface,  oriflcea,  or  valvea,  and  a 
fatal  termination  ia  rarely  long  delayed. 
The  aymptoma  of  pericaraitia  are:  lat, 
pain  mora  or  leaa  acute  in  tha  location 
of  the  heart;  fever  ia  preaent  with  loaa 
of  appetite  and  dry  tongue.  An  anxiooa 
respiration  and  a  feeling  of  OTorwheluing 
oppreaaion  are  also  preaent,  with  fre- 
quent aighing,  wliich  givea  momentary 
relief.  Moat  of  tha  aymptoma  are  tggra- 
vatad  by  motion  or  a  high  temperature. 
For  tha  diagnoaia  of  paricarditia  we  muat 
rely  mainly  on  the  physical  aigna,  but  It 
ia  only  when  the  eifuaion  is  considerable 
that  lnveatigati<m  by  percussion  is  of 
much  use.  In  ordinary  cases,  where 
adhesion  takes  place,  there  may  be  an 
apparently  complete  recovery  at  the  end 
of  three  weeks  or  less;  but  adhesion 
frequently  gives  rise  to  other  structural 
changea  of  the  heart,  and  then  fatal  die- 
ease  of  tbnt  organ  nlmoMt  always  follows. 
In  slight  cnaes  a  real  cure  without  adhe- 
sion may  be  effected.  Thia  disease  ia 
freauenli'y  brought  on  by  exposure  to 
cola  or  draughts  when  the  body  is  warm 
and  perspiring.  Its  most  frequent  oc- 
currence is  in  connection  with  acute 
rheumatiam. 

Pericardium  tei;ir''fffiTi;rS;: 

sac  or  bag  of  the  heart  in  man  and  other 
animals.  In  man  it  containa  the  heart 
and  origin  of  the  great  vesnels.  It  con- 
aista  of  two  layers,  an  outer  or  /fbroaa, 
and  an  inner  or  serous  layer.  The  inner 
surface  of  the  membrane  secretes  a  serous 
fluid,  which  in  health  is  present  only  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  lubricate  tha  heart, 
and  so  to  facilitate  ita  movementa  within 
the  sac. 

Ferican)  (Per'l-karp).  In  botony,  tha 
i^  aeed-veaselof  a  plant,  or  the 
whole  case  or  covering  fai  which  tha  seed 
ia  inclosed.  The  pericarp  oftw  con- 
sisu  of  very  distinct  layers,  aa  in  tha 
plum,  in  which  the  externa'  ikiu  forma 
tha  epworp,  tha  pulp  or  fleb.  tha  aaroe- 
oerp.  and  the  stone  which  encaaea  tha 
aaad    the    mtdooarp.    P^-ieaipa    taoviv* 

lO-U-5 


aoch  namaa  aa  eapanla,  ailiqna,  taguaM, 
drapa,  harry,  nut,  cone,  ttc. 

dast  Graaea,  bom  at  Athana  abont  4M 
P.C.  Ha  waa  connactad  by  family  rala- 
'ona  with  tha  arlatocracy,  but  aa  Cimon 
w  already  at  ita  bead  ha  endaavorad  to 
i,ain  tha  favor  of  tha  popular  party.  In 
thla  ha  fully  auoceadad  by  his  eloqoanet, 
abiUtiaa,  and  political  tactica,  ao  that 
on  the  death  of  Cimon,  in  440  n.G*, 
Periclea  bacama  Tirtual  ruler  af  At^na. 
By  hia  great  public  worka  he  flattered 
the  vanity  of  the  Athenians,  while  ha 
beautified  the  city  and  employed  many 
laborera  and  artlata.  Hia  chief  aim  waa 
to  make  Athena  undoubtedly  tha  flrat 
power  In  Greece,  as  well  aa  the  chief 
center  of  art  and  literature,  and  this 
position  it  attained  and  held  for  a  num- 
ber of  years. 
iSea  Graeoe.) 
Lt  the  com- 
mencement of 
tha  Pelopon- 
nealan  war  (a. 
0.  481).  in 
which  Athens 
bad  to  contend 
agalnat  Sparta 
and  other 
statea,  Pericles 
was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief. 
The  Spartana 
advanced  into 
Attica,  but 
Periclea  had 
made  the  rural 
population  take 
refuge  in  Ath- 
ens and  refuaed 
battle.  After 
they  retired  ha 
led  an  army  into  Megaria,  and  next  year 
be  commanded  a  powerful  fleet  agalnat 
the  Peloponneaua.  In  480  b.o.  a  plague 
broke  out  ,ln  Athena,  and  for  a  brief 
period  Periclea  lost  hia  popularity  and 
waa  deprived  of  the  command.  The  peo- 
ple, however,  aoon  recalled  him  to  the 
head  of  the  atate,  but  amid  bis  nnmezoua 
cares  he  was  afflicted  by  domeatic  ca- 
lamitiea.  llany  of  hia  frienda,  and  bH 
two  aona,  Xanthippus  and  Paralua,  were 
carried  off  by  the  plague;  and  to  coMola 
him  for  thla  loaa  the  Atheniana  allowed 
him  to  legitimize  hia  aon  by  Aapasia. 
He  now  sunk  into  a  lingering  sicsness. 
and  died  b.  c.  429,  in  the  third  year  of  tha 
Pelop<mneaian  war.  Partclea  waa  diatin- 
guiahed  by  intelieetnal  breadth,  elevated 
moral  tone,  unruffled  aerenity,  and  saperi- 
wit7  to  tba  pi«jadlo«  9(  bU  •#•.    Otf 


PerleUt. —  Aatlqae 
bast 


Paridote 


Pflriodieali 


BUM  ii  Intimately  connected  with  the 
highest  glory  of  art,  science,  and  power 
in  Athena. 

Peridote  (P*r'i-dOt),  a  name  given  by 
*vA««kw«v  je^eiera  to  the  green  trans- 
parent varieties  of  olivine.  It  is  usually 
some  shade  of  olive-green  or  leek-green. 
Peridote  ii  found  in  Brazil,  Ceylon, 
Egypt,  and  Pegu.  It  is  a  very  soft  gem- 
stone,  difficult  to  polish,  and,  when  pol- 
ished, liable  to  lose  its  luster  and  to 
suffer  by  wear. 

P^rier  •  (P^-rl'^)!  Casimir,  a  French 
statesman,  was  born  at  Gre- 
noble in  1777;  educated  at  Lyons,  and 
served  with  honor  in  the  campaigns  of 
Italy  (1799  and  1800).  In  1802  he 
established  a  prosperous  banking  house 
in  company  with  his  brotlier.  In  1817 
he  waa  elected  to  represent  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  Here  he  became  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  oppositiou  under  Charles 
X,  and  was  distinguished  as  an  eloquent 
advocate  of  constitutional  principles  and 
an  enlightened  financier.  After  the  revo- 
lution of  1830  he  wns  prime-minister  to 
Louis      Philippe.     Died     in      1832.     Ilia 

frandson,  of  the  same  name,  was  Presi- 
ent  of  France.  1894-9.5. 
PeriB^e     (p^r'l-jS),  that  point  in  the 
o  orbit   of  the  moon  which   is 

at  the  least  distance  from  the  earth.  See 
iipo^ee. 

Vi^ritmrA  (pfi-ri-gOr),  an  old  province 
f  CX^SVfU  of  France.  It  formed  part 
of  the  military  government  of  Guienne 
and  Gascony,  and  is  now  represented  by 
Dordogne  and  part  of  Lot-et-Garonne. 
P^rifimenz  (PS-r'-seu),  a  town  of 
o  France,  formerly  capital 

of  Ptfrlgord,  now  chief  town  of  the  de- 
partment of  Dordogne,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Isle,  08  miles  E.N.E.  of  Bordeaux. 
There  are  bombazine  and  serge  factories, 
iron  and  copper  foundries,  and  a  large 
trade  in  flour,  wine,  brand/,  and  the 
lauouB  truffle  pdtea  de  Pingord.  Pop. 
(1911)  33,548. 

Perihelion    (Per-l-he'li-on;     Greek, 
*  pert,  near,  and  helioa,  the 

snn),  that  part  of  the  orbit  of  the  earth 
or  any  other  planet  in  which  it  is  at  the 
point  nearest  to  the  sun.  The  'perihe- 
lion distance'  of  a  heavenly  lM>dy  is  its 
distance  from  the  sun  at  its  nearest  ap< 
proach. 

Pprirn  ipft-r6m'),  an  island  in  the 
f  cixiu  gjjgjj  qJ  Bab-el-Mandeb,  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  about  10  miles 
from  the  Abyssinian  and  Ii  mile  from 
the  Arabian  shore;  7  sq.  miles  in  area. 
It  has  been  held  by  Great  Britain  since 
18S7,  and  is  under  the  government  of 
Aden.    It  to  of  coiuequeoce  from  its  com- 


manding position,  which  readen  it  tke 
key  of  the  Red  Sea.  On  ita  loathweit 
side  is  a  well-sheltered  harbor  capable  of 
containing  a  fleet  of  warahipe. 

Perimeter  trtt'-J^ida^llSS 

of  any  figure  or  body,  llie  perimeters 
of  surfaces  or  figures  are  lines;  those  of 
bodies  are  surfaces. 

Period  (P^'>°i-ud),  in  aatronom/,  the 
interval  of  time  occupied  by  a 
planet  or  comet  in  traveling  once  around 
the  sun,  or  by  a  satellite  in  traveling 
around  its  primary. 

Periodicals  !iSs"t;!iJ?'"il„S[?':i 

regular  intervals,  and  whose  principal 
object  is  not  the  conveyance  of  newe 
(the  main  function  of  newspapers),  but 
the  circulation  of  information  of  a  lit- 
erary, scientific,  artiintic,  or  miscellaneous 
character,  as  also  criticisms  on  books, 
essays,  poems,  tales,  etc.  Periodicals  ex- 
clusively devoted  to  criticism  are  gen> 
erally  called  revteioa,  and  those  wnos» 
contents  are  of  a  miscellaneous  and  en* 
tertaining  kind  magazinet;  but  there  hi 
no  great  strictness  in  the  use  of  the 
terms.  The  first  periodical  was  pub* 
iished  in  France,  being  a  scientific  mat* 
azine,  the  Journal  dc$  Savanta,  issued  iii 
1GU5,  and  still  existing  in  name  at  least. 
The  most  famous  French  literary  peri- 
odical is  the  Revue  de  Deu*  Mondet, 
begun  in  1829,  from  1831  issued  fort- 
nigbtly,  and  marked  by  an  ability  which 
has  placed  it  in  the  front  rank  of  the 
world's  periodicals.  Into  it  tales,  poems, 
etc.,  are  admitted,  and  the  names  of  the 
contributors  have  to  be  attached  to  their 
articles.  The  earliest  English  periodical 
seems  to  have  been  the  Weeklf/  Memorial* 
for  the  Ingcnioua,  the  first  number  of 
which  is  dated  January,  16S1-S2,  and 
which  lasted  but  a  year.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  several  other  periodicals,  whldi 
for  the  most  part  had  but  a  brief  exist- 
ence. In  the  18th  century  a  number  of 
monthly  reviews  appeared,  including  the 
Monthly  Review  (n49-1844)  ;  the  Crit- 
ical Revicic  (1750-1817);  the  Britiak 
Critic  (1793-1843)  ;  the  Anti-Jaeobin 
Review  and  Magazine  (1798-1821).  At 
length  in  1802  a  new  era  in  criticism  was 
introduced  by  the  Edinburgh  Review,  the 
organ  of  the  Whigs,  which  came  oat 
every  three  months,  and  soon  bad  a 
formidable  rival  in  the  Quarterly  Review 
(1809),  the  organ  of  the  Tories.  In 
1824  the  Weatminater  Review  was  started 
by  Bentbam  as  the  organ  of  utilitarian* 
ism  and  radicalism,  and  with  it  was 
afterwards  incorporated  the  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review  (1827-46) ;  and  la 
1836  the  DMin  Bevim  was  establliM 


ffriodidty 


Peripatetfto  Pliiloiopliy 


u  th*  omn  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
farty.  Air  the  quarterlies  still  exist, 
with  Tariom  moatiily  reviews  of  later 
date. 

Passinc  over  the  Tatler  (1709-10), 
Bptctator  (1711-12,  revived  1714),  etc., 
wnat  tltoala  be  considered  to  be  lui  gene- 
ri$,  the  first  English  magazine  properly 
speaking  may  be  said  to  be  the  Oentle- 
man'a  Joumtl,  or  Monthly  MitoeUanp, 
commenced  in  1692.  it  was  followed  in 
1731  by  the  Oentleman'a  Magazine,  pub- 
lished by  Cave.  The  success  of  Cave's 
Tmture  Drought  out  a  host  of  imitators, 
the  London  Magazine  (1732-84),  the 
Scott  Magazine  (1730-1817),  the  Euro- 
pean Magazine  (1782-1826),  and  the 
Monthlg  Magazine  (179U-1820),  being 
among  the  chief  of  this  class  which  w^ere 
originated  in  the  18th  century.  To  these 
a  large  number  has  since  been  added. 
Oermany,  Russia,  the  United  States,  and 
other  countries  were  later  in  embarking 
actively  in  periodical  publications,  but 
the  United  States  now  stands  first  in 
activity  in  this  field.  The  North  Amer- 
ican Revieio,  the  oldest  of  these,  began 
as  a  quarterly  in  1815,  and  is  now  pub- 
lished as  a  monthly.  I'bere  followed  the 
Atlantic,  the  finely  illustrated  Ilarper't, 
Scrihnert,  and  Century  magazines,  the 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  and  a  host  of 
others  of  '  tore  recent  date.  The  United 
States  has  no  counterpart  of  the  British 
reviews,  but  in  lighter  magazine  litera- 
ture has  no  rival  in  number  and  circula- 
tion of  periodical  publications. 
Periodieitv  (p6-ri-u-dis'i-ti),  the  dis- 
*  *****""**•*  position  of  certain  thmgs 
or  phenomena  to  recur  at  stated  periods. 
It  denotes  the  regular  or  nearly  regular 
recurrence  of  certain  phenomena  of  ani- 
mal life,  such  as  sleep  and  hunger.  The 
first  indication  of  a  diseased  state  is  gen- 
erally a  disturbance  of  the  natural  or 
acquired  periodicity  of  the  various  func- 
tions of  life. 

Periosteum  (p^f  ■ » -  <>» ' « -  »m) .  th<> 

A«A&vait»tuu.  gj,,oui,  membrane  invest- 
ing the  bones,  and  which  serves  as  a  me- 
dium for  the  transmission  of  the  nutri- 
tive bloodvessels  of  the  bone.  The  peri- 
osteum firmly  adheres  to  the  surface  of 
bones  (including  the  inside  of  the  long 
bones),  save  at  their  gristly  or  carti- 
laginous extreinities,  and  it  becomes  con- 
tinuous with  the  tendons  or  ligaments 
inserted  into  bones.  When  the  perios- 
teum, through  disease  or  injunr,  becomes 
affected  the  blood  suoply  and  nutrition 
of  the  bone  suffer,  and  in  consequence  the 
bone-tissne  dies  or  become*  necroeed,  and 
is  ssfoliated  or  thrc<wD  off.  When  a 
bone  is  fractured  the  periostenm  plays 
M  taavortant  part  is  tba  repair  of  tiis 


injury,  new  osseous  material  being  de- 
posited by  the  membrane. 
P^riofititis    (per-i-os-tl'tis),  inflamma- 
renosilUB    j,^  ^,,  ^^^^  periosteum,  a 

painful  ailment  frequently  brought  on  hv 
sudden  exposure  to  cold  after  l>eing  heated. 

Peripatetic  Philosophy  iJ^Vtiy. 

ikf,  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  and  his 
followers,  so-called,  it  is  believed,  l>ecauBe 
he  was  accustomed  to  walk  up  and 
down  with  his  more  intimate  disciples 
while  he  expounded  to  them  his  doc- 
trines (Greek,  per*,  about,  patein,  to 
walk).  The  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
starts  from  his  criticism  of  the  Pla- 
tonic doctrine  of  ideas,  in  combating 
which  he  is  led  to  the  fundamental  an- 
tithesis of  his  philosophy,  that  between 
matter  and  form.  The  notion  or  idea  of 
a  thing  is  not,  he  says,  a  separate  e:dst- 
ence,  different  from  the  thing  itself,  out 
is  related  to  the  thing  only  as  form  to 
matter.  Every  sensible  thing  is  a  com- 
pound of  matter  and  form,  the  matter 
being  the  substance  of  which  the 
thing  consists,  while  the  form  is  that 
which  makes  it  a  particular  thing 
(a  stone,  for  example,  and  not  a  tree), 
an:^  therefore  the  same  as  its  notion  or 
idea.  The  form  is  the  true  nature  of  a 
thin^.  Origination  is  merely  matter 
acquiring  form,  it  is  merely  a  transition 
from  potential  to  actual  existence. 
Everything  that  actually  exists  previ- 
ously existed  potentially  in  the  matter 
of  which  it  is  composed.  Matter  is  thus 
related  to  form  as  potentiality  to  actu- 
ality. And  as  there  is,  on  the  one  hand, 
formless  matter,  which  is  mere  poten- 
tiality without  actuality,  so,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  pure  form  which  Is  pure 
actuality      without      potentiality,     litis 

Eurc  form  is  the  eternal  Being,  styled 
y  Aristotle  the  first  or  prime  mover. 
The  whole  of  nature  forms  a  scale  rising 
from  the  lower  to  the  higher  of  these  ex- 
tremes, from  pure  matter  to  pure  form, 
and  the  whole  movement  of  nator>i  Li 
an  endeavor  (incapable  of  realisation;  of 
all  matter  to  liecome  pure  form.  Mottcu 
is  the  transition  from  the  potential  to 
the  actual.  Space  is  the  possibility  of 
motion.  Time  is  the  measure  of  motl'nt: 
According  to  his  physical  conception  die 
universe  is  a  vast  sphere  in  constant  mo- 
tion, in  the  center  of  which  is  our  earth. 
On  this  earth,  as  in  all  nature,  tbere  is 
a  regular  scale  of  beings,  the  hlglMst 
of  which  is  man.  who,  to  nntritlffii,  sen- 
sation, and  locomotion,  adds  reason,  ^nis 
soul,  which  is  merely  the  animatbg  pria- 
ciple  of  the  body  and  stands  to  the  oody 
in  the  relatiou  of  form  to  matter,  canmit 
be   tboofht   of   as   separated   from    te 


Pariploea 


Pexitonitii 


iMdjr:  but  tlw  nuoii  b  MiactUiif  hii^iw 
than  that,  and  u  a  purt  InttUaetoal 
prindpla  niata  apart  fma  the  body,  and 
doM  aot  ahare  In  Ita  mortalitr.  Prac- 
tical pUloaophy  ia  divided  br  Ariatotit 
into  ttliica,  aconomica,  and  politica.  Ac- 
cording to  hia  ethicai  mtem  tba  hicheat 
good  ia  liappinen,  whicn  dependa  on  the 
raticmal  or  Tirtuoaa  activity  of  the  aoul 
throughout  life.  Virtue  ia  proficiency  in 
willing  what  ia  conformed  to  reaaon. 
All  virtuea  are  either  ethical  or  dianoetic. 
The  former  include  juetice  or  righteoua- 
ness,  generoaity,  temperance,  bravery,  the 
firat  being  the  higbeat.  The  dianoetic 
virtuea  are  reaaon,  acience,  art,  and  prac- 
tical intelligence.  For  the  attainment  of 
the  practical  ende  of  life  it  la  neceaaary 
far  man  to  live  in  aociety  and  form  a 
State. 

The  acbool  of  Ariatotla  (the  Peripa- 
tetic acbooi)  continued  at  Athene  unin- 
terruptedly till  the  time  of  Auguatua. 
Thoae  who  proceeded  from  it  during  the 
firat  two  or  three  centuriea  after  hia 
death  abandoned,  for  the  moat  part,  the 
metaphysical  aide  of  Aristotle's  teaching, 
and  developed  chiefly  hia  ethical  doc- 
trinea,  or  devoted  themaelvea  to  the  atudy 
«rf  natural  history.  Later  Peripatetica 
returned  again  to  the  metaphyaical  spec- 
ulations of  their  master,  and  many  of 
th«m  diatingaiahed  themaelvea  aa  com- 
mentatsra  on  hia  worka.  No  one  of  the 
phiioaophical  achoola  of  antiquity  main- 
tained ita  influence  ao  long  aa  the  Peri- 
patetic, l^e  philoaophy  of  the  Arabiana 
waa  almoat  excluaively  Aristotelianism, 
that  of  the  achoolmen  (scholasticism) 
waa  alao  baaed  on  it,  and  even  down  to 
modem  times  ita  principlea  aerved  aa  the 
rule  in  phiioaophical  inquiriea. 
Perinloea.  (per-iplo-ca),  a  genua  of 
x-enpioca,  cfi£,bing  planta  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Asclepiadacen,  na- 
tivea  of  South  Europe  and  temperate  and 
subtropical  Aaia,  one 
being  found  in  tropical 
Africa. 

Periplw  4?f^!,-»i|?,: 

ing  around'),'  a  term 
applied  particularly  to 
the  voyage  of  Afrfcaya 
Hanua  (which  aee). 

Peripneumonia. 

See  PiMtNnMla. 

Peripteral   }^^f[ 

in  Greek  architeetore,  a 

term     aignifying     aur- 

rounded   by   a   row   of 

columna:  aaid  of  a  tem-     pi,n  of  P«rip^ 

9U   or   otkar   buUdiaf,      teral  Te«»la. 


aapadally  ^  a  temple  tba  calla  of  which 
la  aaRoasdad  by  columna,  thoae  on  the 
flanka  (or  aidaa)  being  diatant  one  inter- 
columniation  from  the  walL 
Peril  (P*'r«*>,  in  Peraian  mythology, 
*«'*«  tbe  deacendanta  of  fallen  aplrita 
excluded  from  paradiae  until  their  pen- 
ance ia  accomplished.  They  belong  to 
the  family  of  tbe  genii  or  jin,  and  are 
conatantly  at  war  with  the  IMva  (the 
evil  Jin.)  They  are  iraasortal.  and  apend 
their  time  in  all  imaginable  delighta. 
Periflfione  (per'i-ecOp),  an  apparatus 
x-enscope  adapted  ^  ^^  ^gove  the 

water  from  a  submerged  aubmarine  and 
reveal  the  position  of  surrounding  vesaehk 
Thia  ia  uaually  a  reflecting  priam,  which- 
can  be  revolved  to  any  an^e. 

Periisodactyla   ^^-'liV^'^.'S^ 

odd,  uneven;  dakttilo$,  finger  or  toe), 
one  of  tbe  two  great  divisiona  of  tbf 
order  of  Ungulata  or  Hoofed  Quadru* 
peds,  the  animala  included  in  whioh  ara 
distingukhed  by  the  fact  that  the  toea, 
numbering  one  or  three,  are  odd  or  un- 
even in  number.  Thia  term  is  opposed 
to  the  Artiodactyla  or  'Even-toed' 
Ungulata.  The  horse,  tapir,  and  rhinoe- 
eroa  compriae  the  three  exiatin-  genera. 

Periataltio  Motion  t<fif)V*?flo 

called  yniaoTii:.As,  the  name  given  to 
certain  movementa  connected  with  digca- 
ti<m  observed  in  the  stomac!i  and  intea- 
tines,  which  proceed  with  r.  wave-like  or 
apiral  moti<m,  the  object  being  to  grrd- 
ually  propel  forwarda  the  contenta  of 
these  viscera. 

Periftvle  (Pe''i-«tll),  in  architecture^ 
'  "^  a  range  of  columns  sur- 
rounding the  exterior  or  interior  of  any- 
thing, as  the  cella  of  a  temple.  It  la 
frequently  but  incorrectly  limited  in  aig- 
nification  to  a  range  of  columns  around 
the  interior  o£  a  place,  aa,  for  example,  aa 
open  court. 

Peritoneum    (Pe'-^-tu-nJ'um),    the 
-wuviuu    ggjQQg  membrane  lining 

the  abdominal  cavity  and  covering  tba 
inteatines.  Ldke  all  other  aerous  mem- 
branea,  the  peritoneum  presents  the  struc- 
ture of  a  closed  sac;  one  layer  (pari. 
etal)  lining  the  abdominal  walls,  the 
other  or  vitoeral  layer  being  reflected 
over  the  organa  of  the  abdomen.  A  cav- 
ity—  the  peritotteal  oo«t(y  —  is  thus  in- 
doacd  between  the  two  layers  of  the 
membrane,  and  thia  containa  in  health 
a  quantity  of  aeroua  fluid  Jnat  anflkiant 
to  moiaten  its  surfaces. 

Peritonitii  iSVi'-.^^IU  %'SS. 

nenm  (whicn  aet).  It  to  either  acuta  or 
ohraaic^  and  tha  ohroaia  fam  aitlMr  itimr 


Tnlwlf 


Bemutatioiii 


B'  I  or  tubercular.  It  may  be  caused  by 
oriet  such  aa  a  blow  or  a  wound  pierc- 
ing tiie  belly:  ii  often  the  reeult  of  ulcer- 
atloni  of  the  ttomach  or  bowels,  and  of 
dteeaaea  of  liver,  kidnera,  etc.,  and  is 
■ometimet  a  (rave  complication  of  puer* 
peral  fever.  The  symptoms  are  cEiefly 
severe  ^in,  increased  by  pressure,  and 
fever,  fimollient  poultices  and  fomen- 
tations  to  the  abdomen  when  the  patient 
is  able  to  bear  their  weicht,  bathing  in 
tepid  water,  and  small  doses  of  opium 
are  the  means  of  cure  resorted  to.  Fluid 
food  is  to  be  given  —  beef-tea,  thin  soup, 
milk,  etc.  For  chronic  cases  nourishing 
diet  <s  required,  sea-air,  friction  of  the 
belly  t^ith  cod-liver  oil,  iodine  treatment, 
etc. 


(p4rm),  an  eastern  government 
Bf  B      •  ■         -» 


Periwig.   s««  ^^' 


Periwinkle  i^^^SJhJiTli 

a  genus  oi  nerbaceous  or 
suffruticose  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Apocynace*  or  Dog-bane  family,  llie 
greater  and  lesser  periwinkle  (Fwica 
ma;or  and  Tinea  minor)  are  hardy 
plants,  which  blossom  in  early  spring, 
and  are  pretty  common  in  woods,  hedges, 
and  thickets  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  in  the  south  of  England.  Their  flow- 
ers are  of  a  fine  blue  color,  but  when 
cultivated  in  gardens  they  may  be  made 
to  yield  purple  and  variegated  fldwers, 
both  single  and  double. 

Periwinkle  (««o^"«).  »  ««»'>■  •' 

*va,<,n.uuuv  jnoiiuBca  very  commen 
on  the  British  coasts.  The  shell  is  spiral, 
has  few  whorls,  and  is  without  a  nacre- 
ous lining;  the  aperture  is  rounded  and 
entire  or  nnnotched  (holostomatous). 
The  common  periwinkle  (L.  littorea)  oc- 
cupies the  lone  between  high  and  low 
water  marks,  and  is  gathered  and  eaten 
In  immense  quantities.  It  is  called  the 
iDiUi  in  Scotland,  in  some  parts  simply 
the  buekie,  but  is  quite  different  from  the 
mollusc  called  toAeMi  (Bii«o{immi»)  in 
England. 

Perinrv  (p^i'ju-ri),  the  act  or  crime 
f  oirjiurjr  of  willfully  making  a  false 
<wtb  in  judicial  proceedings  hi  a  matter 
material  to  the  issue  or  cause  In  ques- 
tion. The  penalties  of  perjury  attach  t» 
willful  falsehood  in  an  alBrmation  made 
b&a  Quaker  or  other  witness  where  such 
aiBJrmation  is  received  in  lieu  of  an  oath. 
Perjury  is  a  misdemeanor  paolsbable  in 
England  and  the  United  States,  at  com- 
mon law,  by  fine  or  imprfawmntBt ;  hi 
Scotland  UB  puQiriuDent  Is  p«ul  Mrvi* 
tnde  or  Imprisonment  Pcjmlarly,  the 
mwe  act  of  making  a  false  oath,  or  of 
TioIattH^  an  mtk,  ynrliad  M  bTkwecl. 


Xenn  ^^  B.iiMaia.,  partly  in  Europe  and 
partly  in  Asia;  area.  128,211  sq.  miles. 
It  is  traversed  north  to  south  '>/  the 
Ural  chain,  and  is  well  watered  b'  rivers 
belonging  to  the  Petchora,  Tobo  'alBu- 
eut  of  the  Obi),  and  Kama  .y.tems. 
North  of  the  60th  degree  regular  culture 
becomes  impossible,  and  the  far  greater 
part  of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  forests 
and  marshes.  The  government  is  rich  in 
minerals,  comprising  iron,  silver,  copper, 
platinum,  nickel,  lead,  and  gold.  There 
was  formerly  a  principality  of  Perm,  the 
Permians  (a  Finnish  tribe)  being  under 
independent  princes. —  Perm,  the  capital 
of  the  government,  is  situated  on  the 
Kama,  ^0  miles  northeast  of  Moscow. 
It  has  flourishing  industries  in  iron,  steel, 
leather,  etc.  In  the  neighborhood  is  a 
government  manufactory  of  guns  and 
munitions  of  war.  Perm  derives  its 
commercial  importance  from  being  an 
emporium  for  the  goods  which  are  un- 
shipped here  from  the  steamers  coming 
up  toe  Kama,  and  despatched  by  rail,  car, 
or  sledge  to  Siberia.    Pop.  (1911)  61.614. 

Permansranate  (pep-n«">'«a-nftt),  a 

*  '^M.  r.ri-r..£iir..T*»v  compouud  of  por- 
manganic  anhydride,  MutOf,  and  a  base. 
Potassic  permanganate  is  used  as  a 
disinfectant,  and  aa  a  chemical  reagent. 

Permian  Formation  iJ^iJJ^; 

rock  formation  which  received  its  name 
from  covering  an  extensive  area  in  the 
government  of  Perm,  in  Russia.  It  rests 
upon  the  carlMniferous  strata  and  forms 
the  upper  portion  of  the  Primary  or 
PaUeosOTc  geological  age;  being  followed 
by  the  Triassic,  the  first  of  tlwSecondary 
systems. 

Permit  (pe''j>*t),  a  written  permto- 
-  *"—•  gfon  given  by  officers  of  tho 
customs  or  excise  for  conveying  spirits 
and  other  goods  liable  to  duties  from 
place  to  place. 

Permutationi  and  Combina- 
tions, l^  mathematlos,  the  dUCerent  or. 
»«M»*  j^^  iq  which  any  things  can  Im 
arranged  are  called  their  *pennuta- 
tions.*^  The  *  emnbinations '  of  things  are 
the  different  collections  that  can  be 
formed  out  of  them,  without  regaidliw 
the  order  in  wliich  the  tilings  an  piaoa£ 
Thus  the  pwmntations  of  tfa*  lattcni  •, 
»,  a  taken  two  at  a  time,  at*  •»,  ft4.««> 
oo,  fte,  ok,  bdng  six  in  nombar.  nab 
gomMpatJOBi,  however,  are  only  thiea. 
namely  •&,  oa  fto,  and  so  la  all  eaaaa 
tha  number  of  permntatioM  eoteaeda  A* 
BombMr  of  ooabinatioBs.  Tkt  thanry  <tf 
and    rrmiMaaiisus    Is    ot 


^PniMUDMlOO 


Perpendiovlir  Style 

■OBM  importMce   from   its   bearlnga   on  BpedM  of  wWch,  P.  infmtont  (ofhenrte 
ttat  of  probabiUaes.  BotrvUt  infeatant),   i>  Mid   to   bo   the 

PemambTlCO    (P*r-nam-bo'ka),    a  cause  of  the  potato  disease. 
_  north-eastern   state  of  T>Afe\naa    -r        «       ^     ». 

Braiil,  bounded  w.  by  Ceara  and  Para-  *  croUBC,  La.  See  La  Pirotue. 
^^J^,.}*^  the  Atlantic,  8.  bj  Alagoas  Peroxides  (P*r-oks'Ids).  the  general 
and  Bahia,  and  w.  by  Piauhy.  Area,  *  c*"*AttCS  ^^j^^  applied  to  the  binary 
^673  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,178,150.  It  com-  compounds  of  oxygen  containing  the 
prises  a  comparatiTely  narrow  coastal  greatest  amount  of  that  element;  thus 
Bone,  a  high  iiUand  plateau,  and  an  inter-  of  the  two  oxides  of  hydrogen,  H^  and 
mediate  xone  formed  by  the  terraces  and  11,0*  the  latter  is  the  peroxide, 
slopes  between  the  two.  Its  surface  is  PemendiGlllar  (P*r-pen-dik'fk-la  r), 
much  broken  by  the  remains  of  the  ancient  *  crpcnoiCUiar  j^  ^nj^tpy^  ^  jj^^ 
plateau  which  hp-  been  worn  down  by  falliug  directly  on  another  line,  so  as 
erosion.     The  coastal  zone  is  low,  well-  to  make  equal  angles  on  each  side.     A 


wooded  and  fer 
tile.  It  has  a  hot, 
humid  climate, 
relieved  to  some 
extent  by  the 
south-east  trade 
winds.     This   re- 

Li  o  n  is  locally 
lown  as  the 
mattaa  (forests). 
The  middle  zon?, 
called  the  can  tin- 
ga  or  agreite  re- 
gion, has  a  dry 
climate  and  light- 
er vegetation.  The 
inland  region, 
called  .:he  $ertao, 
is  high,  stony 
and  dry,  and 
frequently  devas- 
tated by  p  r  o- 
longed  droughts 
(seocaa).  The 
dimate  is  charac- 
terized by  hot 
days     and     cool 


FerpendicnUr  Style,  Abbey  Ohnrch.  Bsth. 


straight  '^n?  is 
said  to  be  perpen- 
dicular t(  a  curve 
when  it  cuts  the 
curve  in  a  point 
where  another 
straight  line  to 
which  it  is  per- 
pendicular makes 
a  tangent  with 
the  curve.  In  this 
case  the  perpen- 
dicular is  usually 
called  a  normal  to 
the   curve. 

Perpen- 
dicular 

Style,  £,t'ulS«; 

variety  of  the 
pointed  Got  hie, 
the  latest  -ariety 
to  be  Introduced, 
sometimes  called 
tbo /lortf  or  Tsdor 


nights,  and  there  are  two  clearly  defined  style  of  Gothic.  It  prevailed  in  E<ngland 
seasons,  a  rainy  season  from  March  to  from  about  the  end  of  the  14th  to  the 
June,  and  a  dry  season  for  the  remaining  middle  of  the  16th  century.  It  is  chiefly 
montJia.  The  rivers  of  the  state  include  a  characterized  by  the  predominance  of 
number  of  small  plateau  streams  flowing  straight  lines  in  the  design,  and  espedaHy 
southward  to  the  Sao  Francisco  River,  in  its  tracery.  Another  feature  is  tlie 
and  several  large  streams  in  the  eastern  lofty  square  towers  of  its  churches,  divided 
part  flowing  ei.  stward  to  the  Atlantic,  into  stages  by  bands,  and  each  stage  filled 
nmambuco  is  chiefly  agricultural,  the  with  windows.  The  mullions  of  the 
lowlands  being  devoted  to  sugar  and  fruit,  windows  are  vertical,  goierally  rise  to  the 
with  coffee  in  some  of  the  more  elevated  main  arches,  and  are  often  crossed  by 
localities,  the  agreste  region  to  cotton,  to-  horizontal  ban  or  transoms.  Large  win- 
baoeo,  Indian  com,  beans  and  stock,  and  dows  are  a  distinctive  feature  of  tUs 
th«  urtao  to  grazing  and  in  some  locali-  style.  The  tracery  of  the  doors  is  simflar 
ties  to  cotton.  The  capital  of  the  state  is  to  that  of  the  windows.  There  are  two 
Bedfe,  commonly  known  among  foreigners  kinds  of  roof  peculiar  to  the  style— the 
a«  Pemambuco.  vaulted  roof,  with  fan-tracery,  and  the 

P^mftM  (p^'''nou),  a  seaport  town  and  opcn  timber-roof.  Nearly  all  of  the  erf- 
«cxiuftu  watering-place  in  Russia,  in  leges  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are  sped- 
the  government  of  Livonia,  at  the  en-  mens  of  it,  and  it  is  also  exoaplifled  mors 
trance  of  the  river  Pemau  into  the  Qulf  or  less  in  many  of  the  English  cathedrals ; 
of  Riga.    Pop.  about  18,000.  while    the   majority   of   the   oU   parish 

PArmuumArfl.  (p«i>o-nos'po-r«),  a  churchra  of  England  alao  am  of  tha  Pia^ 
rerouospora.    j^;^    ^    ^^j^    ^^  pendicular  style. 


Perpetual  Motion 


PeneontioBS 


Perpetual  Motion  <Pjfjffi'«^>;  ^ 

ABM  orifiiiatM,  continnes  for  ever  or  ««mv 
tiidmBiteiy.  The  problem  of  a  perpet- 
ual motion  coniiiBts  in  the  invention  of 
a  macbine  which  shall  liave  the  prin- 
dplM  of  its  motion  within  itself,  and 
Bomberlen  schemes  have  been  proposed 
for  its  solution.  It  was  not  till  the  dis- 
covery of  the  principle  of  the  conserva- 
tion of  energy  (see  Energy,  Conaerva- 
tiOH  of),  experimentally  proved  by  Joule, 
that  the  impossibility  of  the  existence  of 
a  perpetual  motion  was  considered  to  be 
a  physical  axiom.  This  principle  asserts 
that  the  whole  amount  of  energy  in  the 
universe,  or  in  any  limited  system  which 
does  not  receive  energy  from  without,  or 
part  with  it  to  external  matter,  is  invaria- 
ble. But  every  machine  when  in  action 
does  a  certain  amount  of  worlc,  if  only 
in  overcoming  friction  and  the  resistance 
of  the  air,  and  as  the  perpetual  motion 
machine  can  start  with  only  a  certain 
amount  of  energy,  this  is  gradually  used 
up  in  the  work  it  does.  A  machine,  hi 
short,  to  l>e  perpetual,  would  need  to  be 
<me  with  no  friction,  and  which  met  with 
no  resistance  of  any  Icind.  The  mechan- 
ical arrangements  which  have  been  put 
forward  as  perpetual  r  otions  by  invent- 
ors are  either,  (1)  Systems  of  weig'  ts, 
which  are  allowed  to  slide  on  a  wheel  into 
such  positions  relatively  to  the  axis  of  the 
wheel  as  to  produce  a  constant  turning 
movement  in  one  direction;  (2)  Masses 
of  liquid  moving  in  wheels  on  the  same 
principle;  (S).  Masses  of  iron  arranged 
on  the  same  principle,  but  subjected  to 
the  attractions  of  magnets  histead  of  their 
own  weights.  Numbers  of  patents  for 
such  machines  have  been  talcen  out,  but 
in  every  case  inventors  have  shown  an 
ignorance  of  the  elementary  principles  of 
natural  philosophy. 

Perpiman  iPer-pen-yan),  a  dty  of 
4.  vAj/xguaii  soutbern  France,  capital 
of  dep.  Pyr£n£es-Orientales,  on  the  Tet, 
about  7  miles  from  the  Mediterranean. 
Guarding  the  entrance  from  Spain  into 
France  by  the  East  Pyrenees,  it  is 
strongly  fortified,  has  a  citadel  and  other 
worlis,  and  ranks  as  a  fortress  of  the 
nrst  class.  The  city  has  •  much  of  the 
Spanish  character.  The  principal  build- 
ing is  the  cathedral,  founded  in  the  14th 
c«»tunr.  Perpignan  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  county  of  Roussiilon,  was 
long  nmter  Spanish  rule,  and  was  not 
united  to  France  till  the  Treaty  of  the 
Pyrenes  in  1669.  Pop.  (1911)  aB,6ia 
Perranlt  (P?-'«).Cha«le8,  a  French 
™  writer,  bom  in  1628:  died  in 

1708;  superintendent  of  royal  buildings 
undar    Colbert    His     hifhly     mediocre 


Le    Siich    de    LouU    h    Onni 
1887),  gave  rise  to  the  famous  contro- 
versy pursued  in  his  ParalMe  Ji:  ^ndme 
0t  aes  Modeme:     He  is  best  known  by 
his  prose  fairy  tales. 

"P^rrxr  Matthew  Calbbaith,  was 
'^**^J»  bom  in  S.  Kingston.  R.  L, 
1704:  died  in  1868.  As  commander 
(1826)  he  was  on  the  recruiting  service 
at  Boston,  and  helped  to  organise  the  first 
naval  apprentice  system  in  the  United 
States  navy.  He  rendered  distinguished 
service  in  the  Mexican  war  (1848)  and 
as  commodore  was  despatdied  with  a 
squadron  to  Japan  in  1852.  There,  after 
many  diflBculties,  he  negotiated  a  treaty 
with  that  nation,  safeguarding  the  rights 
of  American  commerce  (1864). 
P(>rrv  Oltveb  Hazabo,  naval  officer, 
■^«'**J>  brottier  of  M.  C.  Perry,  bom  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1786.  He  was 
in  the  navy  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  in 
1813  was  sent  to  Lake  Erie  to  build  a 
fleet  and  seek  to  gain  control  of  the  watan 
of  that  lake.  This  he  accomplished  la  a 
brilliant  action,  September  10,  1818,  in 
which  he  annihilated  the  British  fleet 
Sent  in  1819  as  commander  of  a  squadron 
to  the  West  India  waters,  he  died  of  yel- 
low fever  at  Trinidad. 

Persecutions  (P*r-8e-ka'Bhuna>.  the 
name  usually  applied 
to  periods  during  which  the  early  Chris- 
tians were  subjected  to  cruel  treatment 
on  account  of  their  religion.  Ten  of 
these  are  usually  counted.  The  fint  per- 
secution (64-4J8)  was  carried  on  under 
Nero.  The  cruelties  practiced  on  this 
occasion  are  worthy  of  the  ferocious  in- 
stincts of  that  notorious  tjrrant  The 
apostles  Peter  and  Paul  are  supposed  to 
have  suffered  in  this  persecution.  The 
aecond  pertecution  (96-90)  took  place 
under  the  Emperor  Domitian.  Many 
eminent  Christians  sufFered,  and  it  u 
generally  held  that  St  John  was  exiled 
to  Patmos  at  this  tin  >.  The  third  per- 
aecution  began  in  the  third  year  of  Tra- 
jan (100).  This  persecution  continued 
for  several  years,  with  different  degrees 
of  severity  in  many  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  the  severity  of  it  appears  from  the 
great  number  of  martyrs  mentioned  in 
the  old  martyrologies.  The  fourth  ter- 
«cc«**o»«  "Oder  Marcus  Aurelius  (181- 
180),  at  different  places,  with  several  to- 
termissions  and  different  degsees  of  vio- 
lence, continued  the  greatest  part  of  his 
Kiga.  It  raged  with  particular  fury  in 
Smyrna  and  Lyons,  and  Vienne  in  Gaul. 
Pol^carp  and  Justin  Marxyr  are  famous 
victims  of  this  period.  The  fifth  began 
in  197  under  Severus.  During  the  aimth 
pemeiMon,  under  Maximian  (236-288). 
only    Christian    teachers   and    miaistm 


<9  CommiUM  on  Public  Information 

oimotu.  JOHN  J08BPR  musHnro 

Coinmandar4a-CUif  of  the  Amafiean  Bipaditionary  Fonm  in  Burap*. 


VuMjuioni 


Bmift 


wgn  pafMeatad.  Dedin  began  hli  nicn 
(MS)  with  a  peneeation  of  the  Ohiis- 
ous  (the  ««Mn<A)  throushout  his  do- 
iriniom,    Thia  wm  the  fint  really  leneral 


paneeation.  Valerian  in  267  pat  to 
death  tew  bat  the  deray  (eighth  per$eim- 
Man) :  and  the  ezecaoon  of  the  edict  of 


tew  bat  the  deray  (eighth  pvnecmr 
wmnm, :  and  the  ezecanon  of  the  edict  of 
AoreUan  against  the  Christians  (274)— 


I 


the  ninih  pertecution,  as  it  was  called— 
waa  prevented  by  his  violent  death.  A 
severe  persecution  of  the  Christians  (the 
imth)  took  place  under  the  Emperor 
Diodetian  (303).  Throughout  the  Ro- 
man Bmpire  their  churches  were  de- 
stroyed, their  sacred  books  burned,  and 
all  imaginable  means  of  inhuman  violence 
employed  to  induce  them  to  renounce 
tbdr  faith.  Persecutions,  prindpally  di- 
rected against  the  dencv,  continued  with 
more  or  less  viger  until  Constantine  the 
Great  (312  and  313)  restored  to  the 
Christians  full  libr^hy  and  the  use  of 
tbeit  churches  and  goods;  and  his  con- 
version to  Ghristiainty  made  it  the  es- 
tablished rdigion  of  tho  Boman  Empire. 

PcrsephonJ    Ktfi^t'J^Ji^ 

Proterpine),  in  Greek  mytholotry,  the 
daoghter  of  Zeus  and  DCmeter  (Ceres). 
Wlme  she  was  gathering  flowers  near 
Bnna  in  Sidly  Pluto  carried  her  off  to 
the  infernal  regions,  with  the  consent  of 
Zeus,  and  made  her  his  wife,  but  in  an- 
awer  to  tiie  prayers  of  DSmetCr  she  was 
permitted  to  spend  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer of  each  year  in  the  upper  world. 
In  Homer  she  bears  the  name  of  Pcrse- 
phoneia.  l%e  chief  seats  of  the  wonihip 
of  Persephone  were  Attica  and  Sicily. 
In  the  festivals  hdd  in  her  honor  in 
antumn  the  celebrants  were  dressed  in 
mourning  in  token  of  lamentation  for  her 
bdng  carried  off  by  Pluto,  while  at  the 
spring  festivals  they  were  dad  in  gay 
attire  in  token  of  joy  at  her  return. 

PftTieTlolis  (P6r-8ep'u-lia),  a  Pendan 
xersepOilB     ^^y  ^f  g^^^^   antiquity, 

famous  for  its  magnificent  ruins,  situate 
in  a  fertUe  valley  of  tho  present  province, 
Farsistan.  Its  foundation  is  generally 
ascribed  to  Gyrus,  but  its  history  is  in- 
volved in  much  doubt.  It  was  one  of 
Persia's  capitals,  and  the  place  of  burial 
for  many  of  its  monarchs :  and  it  was  the 
residence  of  Darius  III  when  it  was  taken 
in  331  B.  c.  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who 
is  said  to  have  given  it  up  to  pUlage  and 
destruction,  but  this  probably  applies  only 
to  some  of  its  principal  palaces.  The  re- 
mains of  large  marble  cdnmns,  vast  por- 
tals, walls,  huge  figures,  bas-reliefs,  etc., 
aawly  prove  the  former  extent  and  mag- 
Bucenee  of  its  •vyal  palace  and  temples. 

TtoneilS  (?«'■*■>.  JSv'™!^*^^'** 
♦  '*•"'"""     ham.  aon  of  Uanaa  •""  Zeoa. 


AVA0V1W,  donlans,  aon  ^  PUUp  V, 
succeeded  his  father  B.  o.  178.  Th»  Ro- 
mans defeated  him  at  Pydna,  108  B.a 

PeneiU    *  northern  eonstdlatioa.  mar- 
*   rounded  by  Andromeda,  Aries, 
Taurus,    Auriga,    Ownelopardalaa,    and 
Cassiopda. 

Pershing    ifia?»»f>»  S"\£SS 

general,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Ameri- 
can Expeditionary  Forces  in  Europe  from 
June,  1017.  He  was  bom  in  Linn  conntr, 
Missouri,  and  graduated  fnmi  the  U.  8. 
Military  Academy  in  1886.  His  record 
follows :  First  lientenant,  0th  U.  8.  Gav- 
alnr,  1886 :  first  lieotenont,  10th  Oavalry. 
1901;     bngadier-generaL   1906:     major- 

general,  1916;  general,  1917.  He  aenred 
1  the  Apache  Indian  campaign,  1886; 
Sioux  campaign,  1890-81;  waa  military 
instructor  at  the  University  at  Nebradta, 
1891-85;  instructor  in  taedcs,  U.  8.  Mili- 
tary Academy,  1887-88 ;  served  in  the 
Santiago  campaign,  1888:  Philippine 
Islands,  1898-1903 ;  on  the  General  8tafl, 
1903-00;  on  duty  in  the  Philippinea  as 
military  governor  of  Moro  Province,  1908- 
13:  commanded  8th  Brigade^  Praddio^ 
GaL,  1914:  commanded  border  districts, 
1914-16.  Be  was  in  omimand  of  the 
United  States  troops  sent  to  Mexico  in 
pursuit  of  Villa,  1916-17.  Appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  American  Bz- 
peditionaiT  Forces,  he  arrived  in  France, 
Juno,  1917,  and  commanded  in  person  the 
reduction  of  the  (German  salient  at  St. 
Mihid  (g.  t.)  and  other  saocessfnl  opera- 
tions in  the  European  war  (q.  T.).  Ho 
was  created  a  knight.  Grand  Oraes  if  ftM 
Bath  by  Great  Britain  in  1918.  Return- 
ing to  the  United  States  on  Sept.  8,  1818, 
Ids  rank  of  general  was  made  permanent. 

Persia  te"i  kffSSw  w2£S 

Iran),  a  aingaom  oc  westers 
Asia:  bounded  north  bv  Transcaacasiaii 
Russia,  the  Caspian  Sea.  and  Busaiaa 
Central  Asia;  east  by  Afghanistan  and 
Bduchistan;  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf; 
and  west  by  Asiatic  Turkey;  extending 
for  700  miles  from  N.  to  8.  and  800  mika 
from  E.  to  w. ;  area,  about  636,(X)0  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  est.  about  102000,000.  The  eoantry 
IS  divided  into  27  provinces;  eapitu 
Teheran;  diief  trade  centers,  Tdteran, 
Tabrees,  Ispahan:  dderif  porta,  Buhfaw 
and  Bender  Abbas  on  the  PenUa  QtOL 
Other  large  towns  are :  Meshed,  BaKcwMk, 
Keimsn,  Yod,  HamadSs,  SMrii^  &mvI^ 
Kom,  Besht. 

PAwHosI    ^eoftiret. — ^Pwria    nay   la 
erasidered  as  an  derated  idataan,  btolMi 


Ptnia 


■Matetea,  wUeh  •Itcnate-  witli  •ztw 
■tvtplaiM  and.  b«mn  dtMrts;  tbt  imut 
of  KboMMU  In  Um  nortbMst  «i«a«  kb- 
■orta   about    ontHWvantb   of   tbo   mtirt 
am.    Ix>w  tncta  txiat  on  th«  PoraJaa 
Galf  ua  tbo  Caaplan  8«a.    Tb«  interior 
?'*^!J>*7*  *B  tle?atioa  of  from  2000 
to  eOOO  feet  aboTo  tbe  tea.    Tbia  raat 
ecntral  plataaa  ia  anpported  in  tbe  s, 
and  8.  hf  two  grtat  mountain  ebaina  or 
ajratan,  and  from  tbaae  all  tbe  minor 
ranfta  aeem  to  aprinc.    The  north  chain, 
an  utenalon  of  tbe  Hindu  Kuih,  entera 
Petda  fnoB  Northern  AffbanisUn.  pro> 
eaeda  aeroaa  the  conntrjr,  and  readiea  its 
matcrt  elevation  on  tbe  aouth  of  the 
gmian.  where  it  Ukea  the  name  of  the 
BllHini  Mountaina.  and  attains  in  Mount 
pMUTend    a    helfht    of   nearly    20,000 
feet    Still  further  west  it  becomes  linked 
with    the    mountains    of    Ararat.    The 
other  great  mountain  system  runs  from 
northwest  to  southeast  nearer  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  is  of  considerable  width,  and 
foniM  aereral  separate  ranfes.    In   one 
of  these  an  elevation  of  17,000  feet  is 
readud.    The   riven   are   few   and    in- 
aignincant.    Not  one  of  them  is  of  any 
tuvigabla    importance,    except    the    Eu- 
imratea,  whteh  waters  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  southwest  frontier,  and  the 
Karun,   recently  opened   to  the  naviga- 
tion  of   the   world.    The   latter   is   en- 
tirely within  Persian  territory,  and  flows 
into  the  Sbat-el-Arab,  or  united  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.    Of  the  streams  which 
flow  northwards  into  tbe  Caspian  the  only 
important  one  is  tbe  Klzil-Usen  or  Sefid 
Rud  (White  River),  which  has  a  course 
of  about  360  miles.    There  are  a  great 
number  of  small  fresh-water  lakes,  and 
a  few  very  extensive  salt  lakes,  the  larg- 
est being  ununiah  in  the  extreme  north- 
west. 

Climate,  Product*,  etc. — The  climate 
varies  considerably  in  different  prov- 
inces, and  in  the  central  plateau  in- 
tense summer  heat  alternates  with  ex- 
graie  cold  in  winter.  The  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  are  scorched  up  in  sum- 
mer; those  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  esi^x-ially 
the  prts  covered  with  dense  forest,  are 
humid,  Imt  also  noted  for  malaria.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  Persia  ic  but  little 
developed.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  and 
antnnouT,  are  abundant;  sulphur,  naph- 
tha, and  rock-aalt  exist  in  great  quanti- 
ties; coal  ilao  exists.  The  turquoise 
mines  of  Nishapur  are  about  the  only 
<»»s  receiviM  anythfag  like  adequate 
attention.  Tbe  interior  of  Persia,  par- 
ticularly  its  eastern  and  aouthem  regiona, 
ia  Doatly  devoM  of  v^etation  over 
lajge  areas ;  the  southwest  has  its  for- 
m»  of  stunted  oaka  and  other  treea,  Biafi 


Jangle;  bat  oa  tba  Ca^an  tba  Boaatais- 
aMaa  art  eovtrsd  with  daoaa  and  m^- 

walnut,  Intermingiad  with  bes-treea.  cy- 
preaaea,  and  cedara.    Lower  down  wheat 

T  .K**?**'.  "^  «to»»'.v«Jy  cultivated. 
In  tbe  level  and  rich  plaina  below,  tbe 
sugar-cane  and  orange  coma  to  perfec- 
tion; the  pomegranate  growa  wild;  Um 
cotton-plant  and  mulberry  ara  aztenaively 
and  successfully  cultivated,  and  large 
tracta  are  occupied  by  tbe  vine  and  or- 
charda  producing  every  kind  of  Euro- 
pean fruit.  In  tbe  low  plaina  tbe  only 
grain  under  extensive  and  regular  cul- 
ture ia  rice;  tbe  principal  subsidiary 
cropa  are  cotton,  indigo,  opium,  sugar, 
madder,  and  tobacco.  Ezcellent  datea 
are  produced  on  the  aouthem  coaat  tracta. 
Irrigation  ia  well  understood  and  exten- 
sively practiced.  The  domestic  animala 
are:  sheep,  chiefly  of  the  large-Uiied  va- 
riety; goata,  some  of  which  Brod..ce  a 
wool  little  inferior  to  that  of  Quhmere; 
asses  and  mules  of  a  large  and  superior 
description;  horses  of  Arab,  Turkoman, 
and  Persian  breeds,  and  camela.  Wild 
animals  include  the  lion,  leopard,  wolf. 
Jackal,  hyena,  bear,  porcupine,  wild  aaa, 
gaaelle,  etc. 

Manufacturet  and  Trade. —  The  manu- 
factures of  Persia  were  once  celebrated, 
but  excepting  some  carpeta  and  abawla.  It 
may  be  said  that  tbe  country  baa  ceaaed 
to  export  manufactured  articles.  Its 
chief  exporta  now  are  rice,  dried  froita. 
opium,  silk,  wool,  cotton,  hides,  pearla, 
and  turquoiaea.  Chief  imports:  textiles, 
china  and  glass,  carriagea,  sugar,  tea, 
cpfiee,  petroleum,  drugs,  and  fancy  arti- 
clea.    The  internal  trade  of  the  cot 


is  almost  entirely  carried  on  by  caravans. 
The  total  exports  and  imports  are  valued 
■1  ibont  $§0,000,000;' the  revenue  ia 
•i^'iU*fZ5*^'22f*'  the; foreign  debt  ia 
$16,757,000.  There  are  aome  6B00  nUles 
of  telegraph  lines  in  operation,  and  a  reg- 
ular postal  aervice  was  organized  in  1877. 

Government. —  The  government  of  Per- 
sia has  long  been  an  absolute  monarchy, 
the  only  control  to  which  its  ruler,  the 
Hbab,  was  subject  being  the  precepts  of 
the  Koran.  He  surrounded  hunself  with 
a  certain  number  of  advisers,  forming  a 
ministry,  eleven  of  whom  were  heads  of 
special  departments.  These  ministers  he 
cabled  and  dismissed  at  pleasure.  In 
1806  a  constitution  and  a  legislative 
assembly  were  granted  and  Persia  came 
in  a  measure  within  the  circle  of  limited 
monarchiea. 

Pcopfe.— The,  population  is  chiefly 
made  up  of  Iraniana  or  pure  Peraiana  am 
Turanians  rTuxfcish  and  Tartar  trihea), 
and  ha  religion  belongs  almoat  ezclaaivwr 


Imi* 


t*  tk«  Bkiak  Met  of  UohKomiMm,  m 
■8N  vtoonlj  to  a  ■nbdlTiaion  of  tut 
Met  ^^  priiitbood  is  very  infltMnti*! 
tad  yvr  Biiotcd.  Edaettion  is  con- 
pumtivt^  well  •ttendfld  to.  Penis  being 
cotMidenia,  next  to  Chins,  tl>e  best-edu- 
cated eoontry  in  Asia.  The  Persians  art 
rather  short  and  slenderly  built,  fair  In 
complexion,  hair  long  and  straight,  but 
beard  bushy,  snd  almost  invariably  ]et 
black.  The  women  are  beautiful.  Intel- 
lectual, and  politA.  The  Persian  is  cele- 
brated for  his  sffable  mannen,  but  alao 
for  his  craft  and  deceit.  Polygamy  is 
Ukh  authorized. and  encouraged. 

fl<«tory. —  The  original  country  of  the 
Persians   occupied    a   small   portion   of 
modem  Persia  on  the  north  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.    After  being  under  the  Assyr- 
ians, and  next  under  the  Medes,  Cyrus 
(B,o.  B69-S29),  by  conquering  and  unit- 
ing  Media,    Babylonia.    Lsdia,   and   aU 
Asia  Minor,  became  the  founder  of  the 
Persian  Empire.    The  empire  was  fur- 
ther exteiMled  by  his  son  and  successor 
Cambyses  (b.c.  G2X>-G22),  who  conquered 
Tyre.     Cyprus,    and     Egypt;     and    by 
Darius  I,  who  subdued  Thrace  snd  Mace- 
donia, and  a  small  part  of  India.    His 
SOD     Xerxes     (48&-4(}6     b.c.)     reduced 
Egypt,    which    had    revolted    under    his 
father,     and    alao    continued    the    war 
against  the   European  Greeks,  but  was 
defeated  on  the  field  of  Marathon  and 
at   Salamis    (480  B.a),   and   obliged   to 
defend    himself    against    the    Greeks    ia 
a   disastrous    war.    Artaxerxes    I    (B.p. 
405-425)    had  a  long  and  comparatively 
peaceful  reign.    Artaxerxes  was  followed 
by  Darius  II  or  Darius  Nothus,  Arta- 
xerxes   II    (Mnemon),    Artaxerxes    III 
(Ochus),  and  Darius  III   (Codomannus, 
B.O.  838-330),  the  last  of  this  dynastv. 
known  as  the  Acbaemenian  dynasty.    He 
was  defeated  by  Alexander  the  Great  in 
three  battles,  lost  his  life,  and  the  em- 
pire passed  into  the  hands  of  his  con- 
Sueror.    On  the  dissolution  of  the  Mace- 
onian  Empire,  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander   (323),   Perria   ultimately   fell  to 
bis  general  Seleucus  and  his  successors 
the     Seleucida      (312).    They     reigned 
over  it  till  236  B.  0.,  when  the  last  Seleu- 
cus was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Arsaces   I,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of   the   Arsacide  and    of    the    Parthian 
Empire,  of  which  Persia  farmed  a  por- 
tion, and  which  lasted  tiU  226  ▲.  D.    The 
supremacy  was  then  recovered  by  Persia 
In    the    person    of    Ardisbfr    BaMg^n 
(Artaxerxes),    who    obtained    the    sov- 
^Ignty  of  idl  Central  Asia,  and  left  it 
Co   Us  descendants,   the  Sasaanidae,   so- 
called  from  Sassan.  the  grandfather  of 
4idkAfr.    This    djnuutty    oMitiniMd    to 


raifB  for  about  417  jmn,  oate  tWMtf' 
•Is  soverdfBs.    Tha  lakB  fli  Suor  ZI. 
called  tteGiMt  (81(m31).  umI  that  oi 
Cbonroes    I    (Khosru,    681-«T»),    WM* 
peiteps  the  most  noubls  of  tha  whait 
dynas^.    The  latter  extendad  tha  Pti^ 
slaa  Emplra  from  tha  MaditomuMaa  to 
the  Indus,   from  the  Jazartea  to  Ara- 
bia   and    the    eonfinsa    of    Egypt.    He 
waged  successful  wars  with  the  IndlaM. 
Turks.  Rinnans,  and  Arabs.    Chosroca  II 
591-4128)      made     extensive     cooqueats. 
but  lost  them  again  in  the  middle  of  the 
reign  of  the  Bysantine  Emperor  Bera- 
clius.    His    SOB    Ardishfr    (Artaxerxes) 
III.  but  seven  years  old,  succeeded  bUa, 
but  was  murdered  a  few  daya  after  bis 
accession.    He  waa  the  last  descentent 
of    the    Sassanlda    in    the    male    line. 
Numerous     revolutions     aow     followed, 
until  Yesdigerd  III.  •  nephew,  «< J5!>«*' 
roes  II,  ascended  the  throne  la  682  at 
the  age  of  sixteen.    He  was  attacked  UM 
defeated  by  CaUph  Omar  In  68tHM6,  aad 
Persia  became  for  more  than  150  years 
a  province  of  tha  Mohammedan  Bamire. 
The  Arab  conqueat  had  a  profound  in- 
fluence on   Persian   life  aa  well   aa  on 
the  language  and  religion.    The  old  Per- 
sian religion  was  given  up  in  favor  of 
Mohammedanism,     only     the     QuAres 
(which  see)  remaining  true  to  the  faith 
of   their    fathers.    About    the   beginning 
of  the  ninth  century  the  Persian  terri- 
tories began  to  be  broken  up  into  numer- 
ous petty  states.    The  Seljuks.  a  Turk- 
ish dynasty,  who  first  became  powerful 
about    1037,    extended    their    domlnioos 
over    several     Persian    provinces,     and 
Malek-Shah,     the     most     powerful «  of 
them,    conquered    also    Georgia,    Syria, 
and     Asia     Minor.    Through     Genghis 
Khan  the  Tartara  and  Mragpla  became 
dominant  in  Persia  about  1220,  and  tiwy 
preserved  this  ascendency  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century.    Than  ap- 
peared   (1387)    Timurlenk   (Tamwlaae) 
at  the  head  of  a  new  horde  of  Moogola. 
who    conquered    Persia    and    filled    the 
world  from  Hindustan  to   tha  extroai- 
ties   of   Asia   Minor   with    terror.    Bat 
the  death  of  this  faaKtus  conqueror  in 
1405  was  followed  not  long  after  by  the 
downfall    of    the    Mongol    dominion    hi 
Persia,  where  the  Turkomana  thoacator- 
ward   remained  masters   for   100  years. 
The  Turkomans  were  succeeded  by  the 
Sufi    dynasty     (1501-1736).    The    ftiat 
sovereiga  of  thu  dynaatr,   Ismail  Bafi. 
pret«i«id  to  be  deacesded  trvm  AU.  Om 
son-in-kw  ot  Mohammad.    Ha  aawwiad 
the  title  of  ahah.  and  tetroAload  ib»  awt 
of  AU  (the  Shiita  or  Hdah  wet).    Tb» 
great   Siah   Abbas    (1587-1028)    latro- 
docad  abaolate  power,  and 


rtOCmHk 


JrifBA 


kbi  OifltaL    ITndar  Shah  BoUmui  (ie6&- 
M)^tlM  wpin  daeliMd,   aad  mtlrtly 
•oak  ondtr  bii  boo  UnMtin.    A  p«ri«d 
w  itTolhi   ami  •nareby   followed    aotll 
Knll  Kban  aMeiMled  Um  throii«t_iB  ^f^ 
M  Nadir  Bhah.  and  mtorad  Penia  to 
Mr  formar  importanct  by  ■uocwaful  wan 
and    a    atroBf    goTemiaeot    In     1747 
Madlr  waa  murdered  by  the  commandera 
of  hia  toarda,  and  hia  death  threw  tb* 
wipira     atain     into     confusion.    Kerim 
Blian,  who  had  aerved  under  Nadir,  auc- 
cfloded,  aftar  a  long  period  of  anarchy,  in 
making  himself  master  of  the  whole  of 
Weatara    Iran   or    modem    Persia.    Ha 
died   in   1770.    New   disturbances   nrose 
aftar  hto  death,  and  continued  until  a 
ctiaueh,   Aga   Mohammed,   a   Turkoman 
bakmginff  to   the  noblest   family  of  the 
triba  of  the  Kajara,  and  a  mnn  of  un- 
common guallttea,  seated  himself  on  the 
throna,  which  he  left  to  his  nephew  Baba 
Khan.    The    latter    began    to    reign    in 
1796   under   the   name    of    Futtoh    Ali 
Shah,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Teheran. 
Thia  monarch's  reign  was  in  great  part 
taken    np    with    disastrous    wars    with 
Russia   and   Turkey.    In   1813   he   was 
compelled  to  cede  to  Runla  all  his  pos- 
aessrans  to  the  north  of  Armenia,  and  in 
1828  hia  share  of  Armenia.    Futteh  Ali 
died  In  1834,  leaving  the  crown  to  his 
grandson,  Mehemet  Shah,  during  whose 
ratatt  Persia  became  constantly  weaker, 
ana  Rnasian  influence  in  the  country  con- 
stantly greater.    He  died  In  1848,  and 
waa  succeeded  by  his  son  Nasr-ed-Deen, 
bom  1829t.    The  latter  was  obliged  to  sup- 
preaa  a  number  of  insurrections,  and  in 
1851  a  serious  rebellion  of  the  pure  Per- 
sian party  in  Khoraasan,  who  refused  obe- 
dience to  the  KaJar  dynasty  on  religious 
grounds.     Nasr-ed-Deen  was  assassinated 
in  1896,  and  his  son,  Mazaffcr-ed-Deen, 
aooceeded  to  the  throne.     The  new  Shah 
was  a  man  of  liberal  ideas,  who  had  made 
aeveral  visits  to  the  European  capitals, 
and  who,  in  1906,  surprised  the  world  by 
granting  a  legislative  assembly  and  a  con- 
stitution to  his  pe<iple.     Ue  died  in  Jan- 
uary, 1007,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
IConammed  Ali   Mirza.     The  new  Shab 
rebdled  against  constitutional  restrictions 
and  in  1906  dispersed  the  assembly,  an 
act  tliat  waa  followed  by  a  revolution,  the 
eapture  of  the  capital,  February  13,  1900, 
and  the  dethronement  of  the  Shah.     His 
son,  Ahmed  Mina,  11  years  of  age,  was 
raiaed  to  the  throne  under  a  liberal  re- 
gent.   Russia,  however,  favored  the  cause 
of  the  deposed  Siiah  and  during  the  years 
1911-12  seriously  thraatenad  the  freedom 
of  Persia.    See  uhuaUr. 

Up  till  the  banning  «i  Um  European 
war  in  1014  Persia  had  aoM  within  the 


'ai^araaof  influenea ' of  Roaala and Oraat 
Britain,  Roaaia  controlling  a  aaetton  In 
tha  northern  part,  Oraat  Britain  a  aaetlaB 
in  tha  south,  leaving  a  oantral  bait  em- 
trolled  by  neither  government.  The 
country  was  invaded  oy  HkMslsn  feicaa 
during  the  war,  and  upon  their  retire- 
ment a  new  Notionalist  mir-'4try  waa 
formed,  with  a  new  program  loonng  to 
the  rehabilitation  of  Persia.  In  1010 
Ureat  Britain  agreed  to  advance  |104MU,- 
UOO  to  enable  Persia  to  initiate  certain 
contt-mpluted  reforms,  with  the  help  of  a 
Britiith  financial  advi  er.  Persian  cus- 
toms receipts  were  mode  the  security  fdr 
the  loan. 

Language  end  Lifers  (are,— Iranian 
is  the  name  now  usually  given  to  all 
forms  of  the  Persian  language,  which 
belongs  to  the  great  Indo-European  or 
Aryan  division  of  languages.  The  oldeat 
form  of  the  language  is  called  Old  Bac- 
trian  or  Zend.  It  Is  that  in  which  the 
Zend-Avesta  (which  hoe)  was  originally 
composed,  and  is  very  doaely  allied  to 
the  Old  Sanskrit  of  the  Vedas.  The 
neit  development  of  the  Iranian  langua^ 
is  the  Old  Persian  of  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions of  the  Auhsmenian  dynasty. 
We  then  lose  sight  of  the  Iranian  lan- 
guage, and  in  the  inscriptions  and  coins 
of  the  Sassanian  kings,  and  in  the  trans- 
lations of  the  Zenda-Veata  made  during 
the  period  of  their  sway  in  Persia,  we 
find  a  language  called  Pehlevi  or  Pehlvi, 
which  is  strictly  merely  a  mode  of  writ- 
ing Persian  in  which  the  words  are 
partly  represented  by  their  Semitic 
equivalenU.  This  curious  disguised  lan- 
guage is  also  known  as  Middle  Penian, 
yew  Penian  was  the  next  development, 
and  is  represented  in  its  oldest  form  in 
the  Shanameh  of  Firdusi  (about  1000 
A.  D.).  In  its  later  form  it  is  largely 
mingled  with  Arab  words  and  phrases,  in- 
troduced with  Mohammedanism  after  the 
Arab  conquest.  ITie  written  character  is 
the  Arabic,  but  with  four  additional  let- 
ters with  three  points.  The  Persiana 
possess  rich  literary  treasures  in  poetiy, 
history,  and  geography,  but  principally 
in  the  former.  Among  the  most  brilliant 
of  Persian  poets  are:  Rudagi,  a  lyric  and 
didactic  poet  (flourished  about  902),  re- 
garded as  the  father  of  modem  Persian 
poetry;  the  epic  i)oet  Firdusi  (beginning 
of  11th  century),  whose  most  celebrated 
work  is  the  poetical  history  of  the  Skana- 
mch  ('  Book  of  Khigs ')  in  0000  couplets; 
Omar  Khayyam  (died  1123),  the  author 
of  the  celebrated  Quatraina;  Nisimi 
(12th  century),  a  didactic  poet;  Sadi 
(13th  century),  a  lyric  and  moral  poet, 
author  of  the  OuUatan  or  Rote  Oarden, 
a  oollcatiaB  ef  atorlea;  Rami,  hia  oo» 


Ovlf 


jpflnuDSiOwi 


tampenn,  •  frcat  myatie  and  didactk 
writw,  tte.;  lUlii  (bora  about  the  be> 
flBiiiof  o(  the  14th  ccotarjr),  tb«  moat 
ctlabrattd  writer  of  odei;  Jami  (10th 
c«u;ury),  on«  of  the  moat  productive  and 
moat  captivating  of  Persian  poeta.  (8«e 
tb«  diSerant  articlea.)  In  the  luth  cen- 
tury literary  production  almoat  ccaaed. 
The  Peraiana  are  remarluible  aa  being  tb« 
only  Mohammedan  nation  which  baa  cul- 
tivated the  drama.  Their  productiona  iu 
thia  prorinca  of  literature  cloaely  rcaem- 
bit  toe  myateriea  of  the  middle  agea,  and 
abound  in  natural  and  affecting  lyrical 
paaaagea.  Nui  leaa  numeroua  are  the 
pnm  fablea,  talea,  and  narrativea,  many 
of  which  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
liab,  French,  German,  and  other  Euro- 
pean languages.  It  waa  also  through 
the  Peraian  tnat  much  of  the  Indian  lit- 
erature in  fablea  and  talea  waa  trnnamit- 
ted  t-*"  the  Arnba,  and  tbence  to  Europe. 
In  th«9  departmenta  of  history,  geography, 
and  Btatiatica  the  Persiana  have  aome 
large  and  valuable  worlcs.  Tabari  ia  the 
earlleat  hiatorian  (died  022  JuD.). 
Mirlihond,  who  flourUhed  in  the  15th 
century,  wrote  a  voluminoua  work  on 
th«  Hittory  of  Periia  down  to  1471. 
Geometry  and  nstronomy  were  also  culti- 
vated with  ardor  by  the  Peraiana,  but 
their  knowledge  on  tneae  subjecta  waa  in 
a  great  measure  borrowed  from  the  Ara- 
blana.  Religioua  works  are  alao  numer- 
oua; besides  those  treating  of  Mohammed 
and  Mohammedan  religion,  they  have 
tranalationa  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the 
Gospels.  The  Peroians  have  also  trans- 
lated many  works  belonging  to  old  Indian 
literature,  among  others  the  epics  Rama- 
yana  and  Uakabhamta,  besides  the 
abridgment  of  the  Yedaa.  They  have 
alao  paid  great  attention  to  their  own 
language,  aa  the  number  of  lexicograph- 
ical and  grammatical  worka  teatify. 
Among  the  most  important  modern  worka 
are  the  journals  of  Nasiru  'ddin  Shah, 
composed  in  colloquial  Persian,  and  the 
wrinnga  of  the  religioua  leaders. 

Perrian  Gulf,  |er.L""fronSte 

and  communicating  with  the  Indian 
Ocean  by  the  Strnit  of  Ormuz,  35  miles 
wide;  greateat  length,  560  miles;  medium 
breadth,  180  miles.  It  receives  the  wa- 
ters of  the  united  Euphrates  and  Tigria, 
and  of  a  number  of  small  atreama;  the 
principal  port  ia  Busliire.  There  are 
many  islands  in  the  golf;  the  largest 
are:  Kiahim,  Ormus,  and  the  Babreia 
lalea;  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  latter 
tbera  art  locrative  paari-fiaheries. 

Fenian  Powder,  ^:,g&«***^tS: 

doMd  froB  tlM  BMt.  and 


tha  flowtra  of  tbt  PifrHlurmm  Mmnm  M 
ro«««M  (feverfew  genua),  tmu  oidw 
Comnoait*,  a  native  of  tha  OftoeMaa, 
Peraia.  etc. 

Perrian  Wheel,  ^.o^^^fc^atTS 

France,  a  machine  for  raiaing  watar  to 
irrigate  gardana,  meadowa,  etc.,  amploirad 
from  time  immemorial  in  Aaia  aad 
Africa,  and  int/oduced  by  the  SaracMW 
into  Spain  and  other  Europaaa  eona- 
triea.  It  conaiata  of  a  double  water- 
wheel,  with  float-boarda  on  oaa  aida  and 
a  aerlea  of  bucketa  on  the  other,  which 
are  movable  about  an  azia  above  their 
center  of  gravity.  The  wheel  ia  placed 
in  a  atream,  the  water  tnrna  it,  and  the 
filled  bucketa  aacend:  when  the/  reach 
the  higheat  point,  their  lower  enoa  atrika 
againat  a  fixed  obatacle,  and  Um  watar 
ia  diacharged  into  a  reaervoir.  In  Por- 
tugal, Spain,  Southern  France,  and  Italy, 
thia  contrivance  ia  extenaiveiy  oaad;  aad 
haa  been  modified  to  enable  it  to  draw 
water  alao  from  ponda  and  wella,  aai- 
mala  anpplying  the  motive  power,  and 
pota,  leather,  or  other  baga  taking  the 
place  of  bucketa. 

Pemgny  ^/^^^iHui^^^f^, 

French  stateaman,  born  in  1808;  died  bi 
1872.  In  youth  a  royaliat,  in  tlM  army 
a  republican,  be  finally  became  one  of  oa 
Btauncbest  and  moat  active  aupportora  of 
Napoleon  III.  He  inatigateo  and  todt 
part  in  the  military  riaing  at  Straahurg 
In  1830,  and  waa  arreeted,  but  cacaMNl. 
In  1840  he  ahared  Napoleoo'a  ezpadttioB 
to  Boulogne,  waa  again  captured,  aad 
for  a  time  kept  in  confinement  On  tha 
outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  FelNniary, 
1848,  be  baatened  to  Parla,  contribirtad 
largely  to  determine  the  vote  by  whldi 
Napoleon  waa  elected  preaident  (Dacant- 
ber  10,  1849),  and  waa  alao  mie  of  the 
moat  prominent  acton  in  the  oo«s  #d<ol 
(December  ?  1851),  by  which  NapolaoD 
made  himaelt  .mperor.  He  held  tin  ofioa 
of  minister  of  the  interior  from  18S2-{Mi, 
and  again  from  1860-^;  waa  appoiatad 
member  of  the  senate  in  1862;  ambaaaa- 
dor  to  Great  Britain  in  ISJS.  Ha  wa* 
elevat(>d  to  tha  rank  of  duke  hi  1868. 
Persimmon     (J»*r-sin»'an),    the   frolt 

atnUlntt,  a  tree  (a  species  of  ebooy)  na- 
tive to  the  Uaited  Sutea,  bk»»  aasa- 
dalljr  the  Southern  Statea,  whai*  U 
attains  tiie  height  of  60  feat  or  inoni. 
The  fruit  la  atKcuknt,  raddhik  and  AoM 
the  aiae  of  a  amall  plum,  coataiainc  a  few 
oval  irtoBea.  It  ia  powarfoDv  aatringMit 
when  green,  tat  whan  tniljnm  tha  palp 
beemnaa  mtit,  paUtUUa,  and  vary  awaet 
Tboia  an  v«ilaa  alao  in  Afrioa  abi 


W9twVU 


Vn^^MtiTt 


Pinilll   (P*r'iA«-M).  foil  MflM  AULVS 

^    .      HBwroi  WhAaom,  m  Soma 

Mtirleal  poet,  wm  bora  a.  d.  84  at  Vol- 

la  Btrr*         ~     ~ 


-.. Itrnrte,  sad  dM  ifKS.    H*  wm 

WMl  coaB«ct«d;  mu  oa  nieadlr  tmna 
with  MB*  o(  tlM  moat  tBiaoit  nca  of 
tlw  ttai^  aad  much  bctontf  for  tb*  parity 
ud  amcaitr  ot  hi»  maaatra  Six  MtirM 
by  bin  bsT*  bcoa  prwerrcd:  tbc^  are 
dl«tiBgai«bMl  for  Tlmr.  amdMaew,  aad 
aaatorttjr  of  toat.  Drydaa  aad  Gilford, 
MMmi  otbon,  bavo  traadated  tbem  into 
Bai^iib. 

*■"•**"»  Ban*  firea  to  cuan  of 
alttraatiaff  coaadoaaaaaa,  ia  which  a  per- 
aoa  may  toM  all  memory  of  past  vventii 
aad  gala  a  aew  teriea  of  memories.  In 
■a»  caaea  theao  two  aeriea  of  memoi-ioa 
Btay  alteraate  or  replace  each  other,  ao 
that  two  diatiact  peraoaalities  aepm  to 
oeenpT  one  body.  Tliia  abnormal  atate  ie 
aaaauy  tha  reaalt  of  aome  injury  affecting 
tiM  brain.  In  aome  caaea  more  than  two 
peraoaalittea  are  dereloped.  In  normal 
peratma  the  dream  state  ia  a  parallel 
«(ample,  the  dream  aeries  of  tboiignta  dia- 
appearing  on  waiting  and  at  tfmea  reap- 
nHinng  on  renewal  of  sleep. 

^«««»ity.  STotTTl^a':  'SU; 

tbfaga  briongiag  to  the  person,  aa  money. 
itwMa,  fumltare,  etc.,  as  diatinguiahed 
iron  real  estate  in  lands  and  houses.  In 
tb«  Uaited  States  and  England  'he  dis- 
tiaetion  between  retl  and  pertot,^,  prop- 
erty b  very  nearly  the  same  as  the  dis- 
tlnctioB  between  heritahh  and  movable 
proptrty  in  the  law  of  Scotland. 

Fenonation.  g^  '•^^  Perwua- 
Penoniiloation  L^rfAit^^l 

arta,  poetry,  and  rhetoric,  the  repreaen- 
tatloB  of  an  inanimate  subject  as  a  per- 
aoe.  I%<8  may  t>e  done  in  poetry  and 
rbatorie  cither  by  glviag  epitheta  to  in- 
animata  snbJacU  which  properly  belong 
oaly  to  persons,  or  by  repreaentUig  them 
as  aetoaUy  performing  the  part  of  ani- 
outed  brings. 

FeriDeotive  (P*Mpek'tiv),  the  art 
,k«;a9|fvuutc  ^,  ,eience  which  teaches 
how  to  produce  the  representation  of 
objects  on  a  flat  surface  ao  as  to  affect 
the  eye  in  the  sanie  manner  ns  the  object 
or  objects  i-hoaaehres  when  viewed  from 
a  givaa  point  Perspective  la  intimately 
eoaaected  with  the  arta  of  deaign,  and  ia 
partloalarly  necessary  in  the  art  of  paia^ 
W9,  M  witaoat  correctaesa  of  perspective 
M  piatw  ma  ba  «iitln)r  r- tiafaaioiy. 


Pcmaetiv*  aloM  sMiblM jm  to  rsprseaiit 
fonsDui  tsMMi     (aaa     J'WveAafMiifaa) 
with  aoeataor.  aad   It  to   raqaiirftola 
daliaMtlag  arm   tha  aii^latt   poattbaa 
of    dtjects.    Tbat^  part    of    perspaetlva 
which  rclatoa  to  tha  form  of  tb«  obieeta 
differs     aaacatiallT     from     that     whl^ 
teachea  the  gradatioa  of  colora  aocordieg 
to  tha  ralaUya  dtotaaca  of  ohjaeta.    Haace 
peispectiva  ia  dividad  iato  atatAeaMMoaJ 
or  limemr  ptraptctiw,  aad  tha  perspaetiva 
of  color  or  aerW  yersyeoMva;    The  con- 
tour of  aa  object  drawa  upon  paper  or 
canvaa    represents    aothiag    more    than 
■uch    an   latersectioa    of    tha    raya    of 
light   aent   from    tba   astremitiea   of    it 
to  the  eye,  aa  would  arise  on  a  glasa 
put    la      the    place    of    the    paper    or 
caavas.    Suppoae  a  specUtor  to  be  look 
ing  through  a  glass  wiadow  at  a  pro» 
pect  without,  he  will  perceive  the  abape, 
Btae,  and  situatioa  of  every  object  visible 
upoB  the  glaas.    If  the  objeeta  are  aeat 
the  window  the  spacea  they  occupy  on 
the  gjnaa  wiU  be  larger  than  thoae  occu- 
pied by  similar  objeeta  at  a  greater  dia- 
tance:  if  they  are  parallel  to  the  win- 
**'^'..*^*.'.r  •kapwi  upon  the  glass  will  be 
parnllel  likewise;  if  they  are  oblique,  their 
shapes  will  be  oblique;  and  ao  oa.    An 
the  person  alters  his  position,  the  situ- 
atioa of  the  objects  upoa  tha  wiadow  will 
be  altered  also.    The  horiaontal  line,  or 
iae  corresponding  with  the  horiaoa,  will 
in  every  situation  of  the  eye  be  upoa  a 
level  with  It,  that  is,  will  seem  to  be 
roiaed   aa   far   above   the   ground   upon 
which  the  spectator  stands  aa  his  eye  is. 
Now  suppose  the  person  at  the  window, 
keeping  his  head  steady,  draws  the  figure 
of  an  object  aeen  through  it  upon  the 
glass  with  a  pencil,  aa  if  the  poht  of  a 
pencil  touched  the  object,  he  would  then 
have  a  true  repreaentation  of  the  object 
in  perspective  aa  it  appeara  to  his  eye. 
Representations    of   obleot*   have,    how- 
ever, generally  to  be  drawn  on  opaque 
planea,  and  for  this  purpose  rules  must 
be  deduced  from  optics  and  geometry,  and 
the  application  of  these  rules  coostitutes 
what  ia  properly  called  the  art  of  per- 
spective.   Linear  perqjtective  includes  tha 
varioua     Uada     of     proieetion$.     Been- 
oaraphie  projection  reprosenta  objeeta  as 
the/  actually  appear  to  the  eye  at  lim- 
ited diatancea.    Ortkogroj^ie  projeetiona 
repreaeat  objeeta  aa  they  would  appear 
to  tha  eye  at  aa  Infinite  distance,  the 
ran  wfaicfa  procead  from  them  being  c<ir- 
allel   fautead   of  craverging.    It   ia   tba 
method  oa  which  plaaa  aad  asctioaa  are 
drawa.    A   MnTa-aye  vtew  to  a  aeene- 
grapUe  w  orthofn^ie  projection  takea 
ifpm^M  atovatad  point  b  tila  air  from 
wbi^  tka  «y«  to  suppoaad  to  look  dowa 


Hl^pimtktt 


MM  tht  objects.  AtfM  jMrtpMMM 
tSmbm  kMT  to  Judg*  o(  tho  d«^M  «C 
jUht  wbl^  objMta  raflwt  in  proportkm 
to  tttiff  dtetaae%  tad  of  tiM  cndatlOB 

to  tiM  iat»t- 

tlon  Mch  ob> 


0I  ttoto  tiato  la  r.  portioa  to  tbo  later* 
tmnm  air.  B7  11  >  «pplleatlon  Mch  ob> 
iMt  la  a  okturt  i-  tlvw  tlMt  dtgrao  <rf 
eolOT  aad  Tig bt  which  bth»p  to  tta  dti- 
taaco  from  Um  tptctator.  Tht  chana 
and  harmmy  of  a  pictnrt,  partkalarly 
of  a  laadaoapo.  depend  grcatl/  apoa  cor- 
net atrial  ptfapoctlT*. 

Penpirttion  ii;^?^S;\^'^ 

tioB  of  ipoclal  glandi,  »Vt  MidoHp«ro«« 
or  flWMt  ftend*  of  th**  "'C.     The  term 
pereplration  is,  how     .    aoi«. times  osed 
to  inclnde  all  the  "»■(.;{'  an  of  t*<    Mn, 
raeh  as  those  of     le  .  I't    c  ..^   „mr. 
or  follicles,  etc.    Tl.-'  ew>ui-fi"n.i«t,  .    , 
ated  la  the  sabr;)''- ■-."•<.  aHl^o-'e   u-  fi;' 
tisrae  of  the  tl'n,     >u'  <t  <  f  "  cJikl-ui 
tnbe,   Inreflted    i»    ■     en  iiai      n  twoi 
at   blood-yesix'ls,    >    ^    c  fit'i^tn   .    tc    >lt 
surface  of  the  -''iin,  w  '•..-».  >i  cp«  >■  .n  c-. 
obliaat  Talml  -  aper.  u^.     Ibe  •,   iiin;:! 
of  tot  sweat-  I"  i.:»  r«,,i  uitii.)    h"  i>oi>a\f 
'pMto'   of    the    •-Kiu.     T(.>    ldii;e"t    aiA 
most  namerous  du-^U  »-    «.  uaitc  i-.  tau 
pain    of    the    baoi'     (Krr.upn    "  '1  mtes 
2736  to  the  square  Is  Iv      ■  '  tiun  Wit  .on 
3S28).     Perspiration  ]»  M  in.    {h. 

Mwafftle  and  senfltble,  lut  iuiutur  being 
separated  In  the  form  of  an  invltible 
vapor,  the  latter  so  as  to  become  Tisible 
by  condensation  In  the  form  of  little 
drops  adhering  to  the  skin.  Water,  fatty 
adds,  carbonic  acid,  salts,  etc.,  are  ro- 
moTed  from  the  body  by  the  sweat,  by 
which  also  tbe  skin  Is  kept  moist.  By 
the  passing  off  of  the  sweat  as  vapor, 
heat  is  lost  from  the  body,  and  thus  the 
grester  or  less  activity  of  the  sweat 
glands  plays  an  Important  part  in  regu- 
latlag  the  bodily  t3mperature.  For  these 
reasms  the  regular  process  of  perspiration 
Is  necessary  for  tbe  preservation  of  good 
health.  The  constituents  of  sweat  are 
to  some  extent  dependent  on  the  varied 
bodily  conditions  and  circumstances, 
hence  the  various  results  of  anolynis  by 
different  authorities.  The  quantity  of 
sweat  evolved  from  the  skin  has  l>een  esti- 
mated at  nearly  two  pounds  daily. 
Perth  (perth),  a  city  of  Scotland,  oap- 
'^^^"^  Ital  of  the  county  of  the  nm« 
name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tay. 
Hie  North  and  Sooth  Inches,  two  fine 
public  parks,  ext«id  akmg  tbe  river 
bank,  ai^  a  bridge  of  nlst  an^es  leads 
to  the  sotmrb  of  Bridfeod.  St  John's 
(^ureh,  a  OotUc  baBMig  partly  aadent, 
the  Bplsoma]  catlwjMa,  the  Coonty 
Boildingi,  S»  mnniSrbQMiBfi.  aai 
tbt  nUwa^autloB,  fia  laifiat  1&  " 


maaofaotarts  eott<m  ftoda, 
wi'Mwys,  plaidik  tablaiiaf . 
ce     .4*>    •t'^    The    rlfar   It 


laadt  Jsasns  auodal  motion,    Partk  la 
MMiattd  for  Ite  bisaehtttlda  aad  dya- 
woria.    It 
fianwaa, 
carriaMa,    ce 

navifaolt  to     e  city  for  aauUl  

Ptrtn  is  gtawally  sttppor  i  to  bt  ^ 
Bmnaa  Mrigln.  Its  earlMSw  *jiowa  char- 
ter Is  dated  1106;  bat  it  was  iint  tnettd 
into  a  royal  burgh  in  1210  by  WUliaai 
the  LioB.  Till  the  death  of  Jaaea  I, 
In  1437,  It  was  the  capital  of  Sootiaad, 
and  both  tlMB  and  subsequently  it  bt> 


came   the   scene   of   sous   of   tat   

remarkable  events  In  Scottish  history. 
Pop.  83Jie6. —  The  ootrimr,  whieb  ooea- 
pies  the  center  of  Scotlnnd,  baa  as  as- 
treme  length,  east  to  w«rt.  <rf  88  nilsa: 
breadth,  north  to  sooth,  60  mHea;  ana, 
12,52R  so.  milea.  The  Orampiana,  wbdeb 
occupy  tne  m.  aad  k.w.  of  tbt  oomtf, 
culminate  in  several  high  paaka,  tneliw* 
ng  Benlawers  (8864  fttt),  aad  dM 
Jchil  and  Sidlaw  rangta  occupy  tbt  AA 
Tbt  principal  rivtr  to  tbt  Tay,  tbt  bairfa 
of  which  comprises  nearly  tbt  wbalt 
county.  The  chief  lakes  art  Loeb  T->f, 
a  mMolfl^Bt  expanse  of  wat«r,  16  n  .'m 
long;  Loch  Bridit.  Loch  Bannocb,  aai 
Loch  Katrint.  Sheep  farming  la  «► 
tenslvely  carried  on.  The  salmon  flafe- 
eries  of  the  Tay  are  very  vahiablt. 
Tbe  principal  towns  of  the  cooaty  aia 
Perth,  Blafrgowrit,  Griel^  and  Drnwlaat. 
Pop.  123,260. 
PArth     capital  of  Wtatem  Aoatralia, 

above  its  port,  Fre«mantlt  (at  tbt  moatb 
of  the  Swan  Bi- ir).  It  waa  foon^ted 
with  the  Swan  Biver  Settlement  in  MHk 
iH  well  laid  out,  with  tooad  atrttt&iad 
has  some  good  buildings.    Popw  BB,flMk 

Perth  Amboy,  SuSSaSi^rk  * 

Jersey,  oa  Baritan  Biver,  Statan  Idaad 
Sound.  Baritan  Bay  21  milta  a.  w.  of 
New  York ;  has  a  good  liarbor.  Btrt  are 
large  depooits  of  flrt-day  aad  kacdte.  aad 
fire  briau,  tiles  aad  teiTa  ootta  m  ttt  < 
best  qualitr  are  made.  It  has  otbw  ia- 
dup  Mes  of  importance,  iadndiaf  aaMdl* 
log  refining  uid  dtmnteal  woii%  irtm 
fou     ilea,    tttd    woi^    tte.   Pop.   87,- 

Perihei  (im'ti*),  Fhkhbiiob  Onan- 
'"'"L  w»H,  a  Qermaa  pnbUAtr, 
bora  in  1772:  died  ia  1843.  Afitreanyfw 
on  busipeas  m  Hambnrg  for  a  BumiMr  ol 
Tear^  is  ISSl  he  removed  to  So^a  sad 
fonnded  a  prosperous  puUlahkw  baiiwtts, 
chiefly  of  Mstorieal  aad  St^^cal  tttaa- 
ture.  Aa^OBjele,  founded  the  bm  Jaatw 
Perthea  of  Qotha,  pnbUabtni  of  tin  £»• 

itOm^MH  aad  of  tbt  HmmaJTSTiMm 


Pertinaz 


Pern 


Pttrtinaz  ip*'  "-n*i").  publiu* 

HBI.VIU8,  a  Roman  em- 
pwor,  bora  in  126  a.  o^  the  aon  of  a 
madmaB.  He  dlatinguishecl  hlmMlf  in 
tiie  army,  and  attracted  the  attention 
of  Marcua  Aureliua,  who  elevated  him  to 
the  conaulate  in  179.  During  the  reign 
of  Ciommodna,  Pertinax  was  employed  In 
Britain  and  Africa,  and  finally  made 
prefect  of  Rome.  After  the  murder  of 
Oommodui  he  waa  proclaimed  emperor 
in  108,  but  in  three  months  was  mur- 
dered by  the  praetorian  guards. 

Perturbations  tK;bTai-^'eJXrl' 

tiea  or  deviations  of  the  planets  from 
their  regular  elliptic  orbits.  These  de- 
viations arise,  in  the  case  of  the  primary 
planets,  from  the  mutual  gravitations  of 
these  planets  towards  each  other,  which 
dnange  their  elliptic  motions  around  the 
ann;  and  in  that  of  the  secondaries, 
partly  from  the  mutual  gravitation  of 
the  secondariea  of  the  same  systeni,  sim- 
ilarly deranging  their  elliptic  motions 
aroond  their  primary,  and  partly  from  the 
unequal  attraction  of  the  sun  on  them 
and  oa  their  primary. 
P«vra  Ip^'tQ),  a  city  of  Lasalle  Co., 
'^****  Illinois,  on  the  Illinois  Kivor.  100 
milea  W.  S.  w.  of  Ghica|[o.  The  Illinois 
and  Midiigan  Canal  begins  here  and  the 
river  i»  navigable  to  this  point.  There 
are  a  large  clock  plant,  zinc  works,  plat- 
ing plants,  manufactursM,  and  coal  is 
mSied.    Pop.  7984. 

Purn  *■  city,  county  seit  of  Miami  Co., 
*«*">  Indiana,  on  the  Wabash  River, 
67  miles  v.  of  Indianapolis.  It  has  car- 
shops,  cabinet  works,  steel-works,  and 
alao  makes  electrical  appliances,  refriger- 
ators, baskets,  etc  Pop.  10,910. 
PArn  (pe-rO'),  a  republic  of  South 
*****  America,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Ecuador,  on  the  west  b^  the  Pacific 
Ocmn,  on  the  south  by  Chile,  and  on  the 
east  bv  Bolivia  and  Brazil ;  area,  605.733 
sq.  miles;  pop.  estimated  at  4,500,000. 
Principal  towns:  Lima,  the  capital; 
Arequipa ;  Callao,  the  principal  port ;  and 
Cuzco,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Inca  em- 
pire. The  population  is  mixed,  influding 
whites,  Indians,  Africans,  Asiatics,  and 
their  mixtures  and  sub-mixtures.  The 
dominant  race  is  of  Spanish  origin,  to  a 
large  extent  mixed  with  Indian  blood. 
The  Indians  are  chiefly  descendants  of 
tribes  organized  under  the  Incas. 

Physical  Features. — ^This  country  ex- 
hibits great  varieties  of  physical  char- 
acter. It  is  traversed  tliroughout  its 
length  by  the  Andes,  running  parallel  to 
and  on  au  average  60  miles  distant  from 
die  coast,  the  region  between  largely 
muiatiaft  9t  iMutdj  dMert,  sxaept  whan 


watered  by  tranaverM  moontain  streams. 
The  Andes   consist   bare   of   two   ouin 
chaina  or  Cordilleraa,  connected  by  cross 
ranges,  inclosing  extensive  and  lofty  val- 
leya    and    plateaua.    The   Andes    region 
is  roughly  estimated  at  about  two-fifths 
of  the  entire  area  of  Peru.    The  loftiest 
summits  are  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  W.  Cordillera;  several  peaks  attain 
Uiere  an  altitude  of  20,000  ket  or  more. 
The    country    east    of    the    Cordilleras, 
forming  a  part  of  the  Amazon  baain,  and 
mostly  covered   by  dense  forest,   is  but 
little  known  and  almost  exclusively   in 
possession  of  the  native  Indians.    It  is 
called    Montafia   or   Los    Bosques.    The 
elevated    region     between    the    gigantic 
ridges    of    the    B.    and    W.    Cordilleras, 
called  Las  Sierras,  is  now  the  chief,  aa 
it  was  anciently  almost  the  exclusive  seat, 
of  the  population  of  Peru.     It  is  partly 
occupied  by  mountains  and  naked  rocka, 
partly  by  table-lands  yielding  short  grass, 
and  extensive  hilly  pasture  grounds,  and 
partly  by  large  and  fertile  valleya.    The 
mo»t    important    districts    are    those   of 
Pasco,  of  Cuzco,  the  valleys  of  the  Rio 
•Tnuja,  and  of  the  Mara&on  or  Amazon. 
llie  first  of  these  lies  at  one  of  those 
points  where  the  branches  of  the  Andes 
unite,  the  ridges  sinking  into  an  elevateid 
plain,  which   has  here  a  general  height 
of  14.000  feet.    The  veins  of  the  precious 
metals,  with  which  this  region  abounda, 
have    attracted    to    it    a    comparatively 
dense     population.    The     table-land     of 
Cuzco  descends  from  an  elevation  of  less 
than  12,000  feet  in  the  s.  to  about  8000 
feet  in  the  n.     Of  the  lakes  Lake  Titi- 
caca    (12,542  feet  above  seo-Ievel),  the 
largest    in    South    America,    and    which 
partly  belongs  to  Bolivia,  is  the  only  one 
of    commercial     importance.     Tlie    chief 
rivers  are  the  Marafion  or  main  stream 
of  the  Amazon,   and  the  Huallaga  and 
Ucayale,   which   join   the   MaraQon ;    the 
Ucayale,  formed  by  the  united  waters  of 
a   number  of  streams    (Apurimac,   Uru- 
bamba,   Paucartambo),   being  abont  the 
same  size  as  that   river.     In  the  mari- 
time  region  of  Peru   earthquake  shoclcs 
are  of  common  occurrence,  and  some  of 
them  have  been  of  exceptional  severity, 
the  most  disastrous  being  those  of  1746, 
18U8,  and  1877.     Qo'd  and  silver  occur 
in  all  the  provinces  of  Peru,  and  form 
the  chief  wealth  of  the  country.     Quick- 
silver   is   also   abundant.    Copper,    lead, 
and  iron  also  exist  in  various  places. 

Climate. —  The  climate  of  Peru  ia  aa 
varied  as  its  phyirical  aspect.  On  a  por- 
tion of  the  coast  no  rain  has  fallen 
within  the  mesMpy  of  man,  but  the 
garua,  a  thick  liiTy  mist  often  accom- 
Danisd  hr  drinllaf  nio,  is  a  ptrtiBl 


Bm 


Tern 


eooMOMtiloa,  and  the  rlvwa  from  th« 
Andei  afford  meaiw  of  irrigation  for 
sugar  and  cottm  plantations.  From  Mo< 
Tcmber  to  April  tb«  ikr  la  cloadieas,  and 
were  it  not  for  the  cool  oceanic  currenta, 
and  the  streams  of  cold  air  from  the 
snowy  Andes,  the  heat  would  be  unbear> 
able.  Fortunately  the  rainy  season  in 
the  mountains  corresponds  with  this 
period.  The  central  plateau  region  has 
a  mild  and  comparatively  humid  climate, 
but  the  higher  regions  are  inclement  and 
subject  to  terrific  tempests.  East  of  the 
Andes  the  regular  equatorial  winds  from 
the  east  come  loaded  with  humidity,  and, 
checked  by  the  mountains,  pour  down 
copious,  and  in  some  places  almost  per- 
petual, rains. 

Plant$  and  AnimaU. —  Pern  is  exceed- 
ingly rich  in  botany,  each  region  having 
its  own  flora.  In  the  less  elevated  por- 
tions of  the  Eastern  Andes  a  tropical 
vegetation  Is  found;  while  on  the  higher 
parts  representatives  of  Alpine  families 
(as  the_gentian8)  luxuriate.  In  the  for- 
ests of  Eastern  Peru  cinchona  trees  grow 
abundantly  and  supply  the  valuable  bark 
from  which  the  quinine  is  extracted.  The 
same  sone,  especially  the  hot  plains  and 
swamps,  also  supply  coca,  the  medicinal 
properties  of  which  have  for  centuries 
been  known  to  the  n  .tives  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  who  chew  the  leaves  as  a  stim- 
ulant. Tobacco,  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  cof- 
fee, coca,  and  maise  are  grown  in  various 
parts  and  in  increasing  quantities.  The 
eastern  face  of  the  Andes  ts  as  remark- 
able for  Its  fauna  as  it  is  for  its  flora. 
The  forests  on  the  lower  ranges  and  in 
the  plains  swarm  with  many  species  of 
parrots  and  monkeys;  the  tapir,  sloth, 
ant-eater,  armadillo,  etc.,  are  found  here; 
the  rivers  are  alive  with  alligators;  and 
in  the  inundated  plains  the  boa-constric- 
tor attains  a  huge  size.  The  puma  and 
the  South  American  bear  inhabit  the 
higher  levels;  the  llama,  ihe  guanaco,  the 
alpaca,  and  the  vicufia,  the  still  more 
elevated  regions. 

Commerce. —  Peru  exports  precious 
metals,  silver  ores,  guano,  cubic  nitre, 
wool  of  the  llama,  alpaca,  and  vicufia, 
cotton,  sugar,  cinchona  bark,  coca  leaves 
^d  cocaine,  chinchilla  skins,  and  hides. 
The  chief  imports  are  machinery,  cotton, 
woolen,  and  linen  goods,  and  provisions. 
The  trade  of  the  country  has  suffered 
much  from  revolutiour  and  more  from 
the  disastrous  war  with  Chile  (1879-83). 
The  export  of  guano  and  cable  nitre  has 
naturally  declined  since  tha  Chileans  pos- 
sess^ themselves  of  tht  gnano  deposits 
of  the  ^Lobos  Islands,  juul  of  the  prov- 
ince of  TarapacA,  wUdi  contains  the 
ricbaat  oitnta  beds,  n*  foralgn  trade 
ll—U— « 


is  chiefly  carried  <m  with  Great  Britain 
and  (Germany.  The  internal  trad*  ol  tha 
country  has  been  fostered  by  the  ecn- 
struction  of  railways,  one  of  which 
atUlns  a  height  of  16^600  feet  in  its  pu- 
sage  through  the  Andes,  and  exhibits  re- 
markable engineering  works.  Some  2000 
miles  have  been  constructed  at  a  cost  <tf 
about  $170,000,000,  but  only  about  UOO 
miles  are  in  worldng  order. 

Oovernment,  etc — The  government  is 
based  on  a  constitution  adopt«>d  in  1867. 
and  modeled  on  that  of  the  United  SUtes! 
The  legislative  power  is  in  the  han<te  of 
a  senate  and  a  house  of  representative*, 
the  senate  being  composed  of  two  sena- 
tors for  each  province,  and  the  hooae  of 
representatives  containing  one  memliw 
for  every  20,000  of  the  population.  Tba 
president,  elected  for  four  years,  is  tba 
executive.  Peru  has  a  foreign  debt 
(chiefly  contracted  in  England)  amount- 
ing to  $157,000,000.  including  unpdtd  in- 
tereat  since  1876.  In  1890  this  £bt  was 
settled  by  transfer  of  all  the  railways 
of  the  State  to  the  bondholders.  There 
is  besides  an  internal  debt  of  $36,000,000. 
JA®/J'i'5JJ5'  revenue  amounts  to  abmit 
$15,000,000.  In  Peru  the  Indian  is  on 
a  level  in  political  rights  with  the  white 
man;  there  exists  absolute  political  bat 
not.  religious  freedom,  the  constitution 
probibitmg  the  exercise  of  any  other  n- 
ligion  than  the  Roman  Catholic.  Th«e 
Is,  however,  a  conaiderable  amooat 
of  tolerance.  Education  is  compalsM* 
and  free;  there  are  universities  at  r.«ma. 
Arequipa,  and  Cuaco.  The  Peraviim 
language,  of  which  there  are  many  dia- 
lects, still  maintaina  itself  alonnMe  of 
the  language  of  the  conquerors. 

Htttory.—  Of  the  early  hiatory  of  Feni 
we  are  almost  entirely  ignorant,  bat 
existing  ruins,  spoils  secured  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  the  description  l&t  as 
by  the  historians  of  the  SpaniiA  cob* 
quest,  suflkiently  prove  that  the  andeot 
Peruvians  had  no  mean  knowjedge  «( 
arohitectnre,  sculpture,  metal  work,  ete. 
Xbey  also  had  made  considerable  pi«c- 
ren  in  astronomical  science.  The  earn 
religion  of  the  Peruvians  is  bound  op 
in  the  god  Viracodia,  the  creator  of  the 
sun  and  the  stan,  and  ttaax  him  the 
Incaa  or  emperors  claimed  descent  as 
the  sons  of  the  sun.  Under  the  Incaa  the 
empire  was  divided  into  four  parts,  cone- 
■Ponding  to  the  four  cardinal  ptrfnts: 
each  division  had  a  separate  govanaMat. 
\nS^  P''*!  Vy.*  viceroy  of  roval  blood. 
AU  the  land  belonged  to  the  Inca,  and 
trade  was  carried  on  by  barter,  mooma 
being  unknown.  The  thirteenth  bmo^ 
arch  of  the  Incas  was  reigning  when  the 
Spanish  adventurer.  Piaarro.  diaembarkad 


?era  Baliaiii 


Pmim 


te  PW«  iB  M81.  Tto  lB«  WM  tl*« 
uiiimer  (ICJIir  m"i">"  «'  ^  milij«eta 
win*  iiimnnnfl.  md  tb«  whole  country 
fell  in  a  dwrt  time  into  the  hands  of 
the  inniden.  It  wu  then  formed  into 
•  Bpnidi  fieaonltr ;  nhMQucntly  partn 
of  ft  were  made  into  lepanite  prorinces 
mwh  as  Quito  and  Boenoa  Ayrefc  In 
1821  the  country  prodaimed  ita  indepen- 
dence, but  did  not  obtain  actual  free- 
domfroin  Spanirii  rule  untU  1S24.  after 
a  pnilonged  war.  Since  then  Peru,  like 
the  rMt  of  the  South  American  repablic& 
haa  auffered  from  much  disaeneione  and 
nvolutions.  In  the  epring  of  18TB  it 
joined  Boliria  in  a  war  against  Chile, 
leanltinff  in  complete  defeat  Peru  had 
to  cedeby  the  peace  of  1888  the  province 
of  Tarapacft,  while  Chile  alao  got  poa- 
■eesion  of  the  departments  of  Tacnn  and 
;^  Arica  for  ten  years,  when  the  inhabitants 
were  to  decide  by  Tote  whether  they  would 
zwnain  under  Chilean  rule.  Posseaaion 
waa  finally  settled  by  arbitration  (1918) 
in  favor  ml  OUle.  "Ptiea,  after  attemptiug 
to  gain  reparation  from  Germany  for  the 
siniing  of  a  ship,  severed  diplomatic  rela- 
ti<ms  with  that  country  in  1017. 

Peru  Balsam,  *b[SX'  L'.^^"cSJ 

tain  species  of  Mynxylon.  order  Legw- 
minwut,  natives  of  tropical  America, 
used  in  medicine  and  perfumery.  It  is 
obtained  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  after 
beating,  sewching  and  removing  the  bark. 
Its  vwatile  oil  contains  dnnamie  and  ben- 
■ric  add,  whidi  give  it  fragrance.  It 
has  the  general  qualities  of  balsams  and  is 
used  <^eily  as  a  disinfectant  expectorant. 
P*rn frill.  (P&-rO'JA:  andent  Peruaia), 
rem^a  a*town  ol  Central  Italy,  cap- 
ital of  the  province  of  the  same  nn  ne^ 
84  miles  north  of  Rome.  It  is  rich  in 
art  and  literary  treasures,  and  has  many 
remarkable  buOdincs,  indnding  a  Gothic 
cathedral  of  the  loth  century,  a  number 
<A  churches  and  monasteries,  a  town-hall 
(ItaUan-.Gothic.  begun  12812,  and  a  uni- 
▼ersity,  founded  in  1307.  The  manufac- 
tures, not  of  much  consequence,  con:iiBt 
of  velvet,  silk  stufih,  eta  Perugia  was 
an  old  Etruscan  dty,  and  was  conquered 
by  Bome  in  310  B.O.  Subsequently  it  was 
takm  hr  Totila,  and  recaptured  by  Narses 
in  662.  It  was  incorporated  with  the 
Papal  States  in  1512  and  annexed  to  Italy 
in  1800.  In  the  16th  century  it  became 
the  center  of  the  Umbrian  school  of  paint- 
ing. Pop.  (1011)  06305.— The  province 
of  Perugia  has  an  area  of  8748  square 
miles,  and  is  very  ferttle.  It  is  traversed 
in  all  directions  by  offsets  of  thr-  A  per 
■iuea.  The  prlndjtal  streaiD  Is  the  TP. 
Pop.  (1SU)  6864tt. 


XOn^am,  ^^^^  (aDdem,  Trm»im§mM 
Lao—),  a  hUM  in  luly,  0  mUes  wert  of 
Perugia,  about  8  miles  long,  varying  in 
breadth  from  7  miles  to  4  miles,  sur- 
rounded with  olive  plantatimis.  It  con- 
tains three  islands,  and  abounds  in  fish. 
It  has  no  vidMe  oatlet. 

Pemgino  'J^^JS^i^nfrJ^. 

gino,  the  founder  of  the  Boman  school 
of  painting,  bom  at  Gitt&  ddla  Pieve  (a 
dependency  of  Perugia)  in  1440;  died  at 
Fontignano  in  1523.  He  spent  his  youth, 
learnt  his  art,  and  lived  much  at  Peru- 
gia (whence  his  symame),  and  at  an 
early  age  distinguished  himself  by  his 
works.  His  eaael  pictures  were  done  in 
bis  earlier  practice  in  tempera,  but  he 
afterwards  became  a  master  in  the  oil 
method.  About  1480  Pope  Sixtus  IV 
sent  for  him  to  Rome,  where  he  war 
employed  along  w<<b  Signorelii,  Ohirlan- 
daio,  llotticelli,  anr'  Rooaelll  In  deeoratin*; 
the  Sixtine  Chaptl  with  frescoes.  Find 
specimens  of  bis  frescoes  are  preserved  isi 
Perugia,  Rome,  Bologna,  and  Florence, 
and  specimens  of 'his  other  works  are  nd: 
infrequent  in  European  galleries.  Ra- 
pliael  is  his  most  celebrated  disciple. 

Peruke.    ^**  '^^. 

Peruvian  Bark.  Jg?^**^  ^^ 

Path  971  (pt-rufsS),  BAUUsaua,  ar- 
f  erozzi  ^fjj^  ^j  painter  of  the  Ro- 
man school,  bom  at  Siena  in  1481;  died 
at  Rome  in  1537.  He  went  early  to 
Rome  and  was  employed  in  the  decoration 
of  various  churches.  He  designed  the 
Farnesina  Villa  <m  the  banks  of  the 
Tiber,  and  he  succeeded  Raphael  aa  ar- 
chitect of  St.  Peter's.  After  the  sack  of 
Rome  by  the  army  of  Constable  Bourbon 
be  returned  to  Sioia,  where  he  van 
made  city  architect.  In  1535  he  waa 
again  in  Rome,  and  thenceforward  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  architecture. 
Hist  best  existing  works  in  fresco  are  at 
Siena. 

P»«a  rn  (pii'>&-r6;  ancient,  PiM«r««), 
xcsHru  ^  fortified  town  and  seaport  of 
Italy,  province  of  Pesaro  e  Urbino,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Foglia,  in  the  Adriatic. 
It  is  tlie  see  of  a  bishop.  The  harbor, 
formed  by  tlie  mouth  of  the  Foglia,  has 
become  shaiiow;  but  the  trade  in  the 
wine,  fmit  (particularly  figs),  oiL  silk, 
and  other  products  of  the  district  is  con- 
dderable.  The  illustrious  composer  Ros- 
sini was  born  here  in  1792.  Pop.  of 
town,  14,7(i8. —  The  province  of  Pesaro  e 
Urbino  has  an  area  of  1144  square  miles. 
Poll.  235,882. 


II  ii 


Fetohora 


9Midii«n.  (P«»-kI4lr*)i  a  town  ui 
''■™"'™  forticM  of  Italy,  90  mUM 
Mrthwwt  of  IfaBtoa,  one  of  the  four 
stroncholdi  whicli  fonn  Urn  famou 
•  QniiaiiktonU.'  Pop.  2M2. 
PMuita.  (P«-ot'ta),  the  Spanish  mon^ 
f  VMM   „q|j^  «qniTalent  to  a  franc. 


a  Bwlat  philanthropiat  and  edoeatloaal 
rofomwr.  After  a  few  yean  <rf  aueciaefiil 
teaching  in  Tarioos  placea  he  <9«i«d  a 
•ebool  in  the  Oaatle  of  Yverdnn  (eaaton 
Vaod),  which  thegoTemment  had  pfawed 
PMliftVA.r  (P»-«hI'wur),  a  town  of  •*  hi»  dtapoMJ.  Hii  novel  LJenAordt  M«i 
xeuwwar  j^^j^  j^  ^^^  Punjab,  cap-  0«nrud  (1781-8B,  4  vola.)  exerted  apow- 
ital  of  the  division  of  the  same  name,  u  onol.  moral  influence,  whUe  Us  educa- 
tional treatises  have  laid  the  fotindatioD 
for  the  more  rational  system  of  d«nen- 
tary  instruction  which  sow  obtains  ia 
Burope.  The  grand  principle  that  lay  i^ 
the  basis  of  Pestaloasi's  method  was  that 
of  communicating  all  instruction  by  direct- 
appeal  to  the  senses  and  the  understand- 
ing.  and  forming  the  child  by  constantly 
calling  all  his  powers  into  exercise. 

Festh)    or  Pest.    See  Budapeaf. 


miles  east  of  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  Khyber  Pass.  It  covers  a  large  area, 
is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wail,  and  com- 
manded by  the  Bala  Hissar,  a  fort  which 
crowns  an  eminence  just  outside  ti^e 
walls.  It  has  several  good  mosques,  but 
few  architectural  attractions.  It  is 
favorably  situated  for  commerce,  lying  in 
the  great  route  from  Bolchara  and  Cabul 
to  India,  and  its  proximity  to  the  Khyber 
Pass  makes  it  an  important  strategical 
point  of  British  India,  hence  a  British 
garrison  is  stationed  here.  The  popula- 
tion, including  the  military  cantonment  2 
miles  w.  of  the  city  proper,  is  96,147. 
TLj  cantonment  accommodates  a  large 
force,  the  population  in  it  being  about 
20,000.  The  division  or  commissioner- 
ship  comprises  the  districts  of  Peshawar. 
Haaara,  and  Kohat,  with  the  control  of 
part  of  the  hill  tribes  inbabitinc  the 
Khyber  Pass.  Area,  8381  square  miles. 
PeiMto  (pe-ahe'tO),  or  Peshitto 
X-CBmiO    ^jjj^j     j,^     ♦simple,'     'true,' 

or  according  to  some,  'explained'),  is 
the  name  given  to  a  Syriac  translation 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
Neither  the  time  of  its  appearance  nor 
its  authorship  are  positively  known.  It 
is  extremely  faitiiful,  and  pMsesses  high 
authority,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
New  Testament,  of  which  it  is  probably 
the  first  translation  that  was  made. 
Four  of  the  catholic  epistles  and  tbe 
Revelation  of  St.  John  are  wanting. 
Peso  (P'l''0)>  *•  ailver  coin  and  money 
*  *"~  of  account  which  is  used  in  Mex- 
ico and  other  parts  of  Spanish  America. 
It  is  often  considered  equivalent  to  a 
dollar. 
PeSSiiniBm    (Pe^i-n>i«m),     a    modem 

rirr*-,     j^j^     ^^     dCUOtC     thO     OpiU- 

ion  or  doctrine  that  maintains  tbe  most 
.unfavorable  view  of  everything  in  nature, 
'and  that  the  present  state  of  things  only 
tends  to  evil;  that  in  human  existence 
there  is  an  enormous  surplus  of  pain 
over  pleasure,  and  that  humanity  can 
find  real  good  only  by  abnegation  and 
self-sacrifice.  It  is  antithetical  to  opti- 
mum, and  as  a  speculative  theory  is  the 
work  of  Schopenhauer  and  Voo  Hart- 
mann,  though  it  to  preluded  in  the  meta- 
pfavsics  of  Brafamanisn  and  tba  phitoa- 
opby  of  Boddhii ... 


Pestilence.       See  Pla^ne. 

Petflin  Cp«-tan'),  Herbi  PHiurm, 
***"**"*■  French  soldier,  bora  neai* 
Calais  in  18S6.  He  graduated  from  tha 
St  Cyr  military  school  and  in  1800  b»- 
came  captain  of  the  Ohaaaenrs  k  Pied, 
He  was  made  a  general  of  a  divisicm  in 
Sbptember,  1914,  and  soon  after  the  open- 
ing of  the  great  war  he  commanded  thti 
23d  Army  Corps,  taking  a  brilliant  pare 
in  the  Allied  offensive  In  Artoto  in  May 
and  June,  1015.  His  greatest  fame  ui 
based  upon  his  heroic  defense  at  Verdon, 
February   to  June,    191A,   from   the   re- 

Siated   assaults  o'  the   German   amies, 
e  succeeded  General  Nivelle  as  chief  at 
staff. 

Petal  (P^oI)>  an  appellation  given  to 
AW  MM     jjjg    leayeg    of    ti,g    condla    of 

plants,  in  dtotinction  from  those  ai  the 
calyx,  called  tepals. 

Petalite  <R?f •-»*). ^*  rare  mlnend,  a 
A«M»uw  riiicate  of  aluminum  and 
lithium,  containing  frmn  6  to  6  per  eent 
of  the  latter.  It  occurs  in  maaaes  of 
foliated  structure;  color  wUte,  ooaoioa- 
ally  tinged  with  red,  great,  m  tune. 

Petaluma    (p«t-*-i»'n»«).  *  ^tK.*» 

Sonoma  oounty,  Ctflfor- 
nia,  42  miles  w.  br  it.  of  San  Franeiaeo. 
It  has  manufacturing  and  shipping  inter- 
ests.   Pop.  5880. 

Petard   <P?^*1').  «  hai^nuved  torn- 

chine  of  gun-metaL  and  loaded 
with  from  9  to  20  ns.  of  powder.  It  was 
formeriy  employed  to  Inreak  down  gates, 
bridges,  barriers,  etc.,  by  its  ex^aion. 

PetanmS.     see  Flvktg-pkaamgm: 

Petehora  Cpet-chO'ra ),  a  rivar  of 
reicnOTB  ^^^  rise,  in  the  nortk 
of  the  gorenuneat  of  Perm,  <m  the  west- 
ern  dope   of  the  Ural  Mbunt^ns,    and 


i 


Feteohis 

•ftor  A  cotUTM  of  «boat  900  mllM  telk 
Into  •  bay  of  th«  Arctic  Ocmh  by  « 
noaber  of  moutbi. 
Peteehie    (pe-tek'i-«),  in  nMdldne,  a 

-**"*'  name  for  purple  or  crimson 
qftota  which  appear  on  the  skin  in  cer- 
tain diaeaaea. 

Peter  (P^'t«r),    the    Apostlc,    com- 
*'»•«»*  mcmly  called  Saint  Peter,  was  a 
Galilean  fisherman  from  Bethsaida,  origi- 
nally  named   Simon,   the  son  of  Jona, 
and   brother  of   St   Andrew,   who   con- 
dacted    him    to    Christ.    Jesus    greeted 
Simon  with  the  significant  words,  '  Thou 
,art  Simon  the  son  of  Jona;  thou  shalt  be 
called  Cephas '  (in  Greek  Petrot,  a  stone, 
whence    the    name    Peter).    After    the 
miracnlous  draught  of   fishes  Peter  be- 
e».me  a  regular  and  intimate  disciple  of 
oar  Lord.    The  impetuosity  of  his  char- 
acter led  Peter,  especially  in  the  early 
days  of  his  apostleship,  to  commit  many 
faults  which  drew  upon  him  the  rebuke 
of  his  divine  Master.    His  zeal  and  elo- 
quence made  him  often   the  speaker   in 
behalf  of  his  fellow-apostles  on  important 
occasions,    and    bis   opinions    had    great 
influence  in  the  Christian  churches.     On 
one  memorable  occasion  he  incurred  the 
rebuke   of    the    apostle    Paul    in    conse- 
quence of  bis  behavior  towards  the  Gen- 
tile Christians  in  regard  to  social  inter- 
course.   Nothing  certain  is  known  of  his 
subsequent  life,  but  it  is  almost  beyond 
doubt  that  he  was  a  Joint-founder  of  the 
church  at   Rome,  and   that  he  suffered 
martyrdom  there,  most  likely  under  Nero, 
about  64  A.  D.    The  only  written  docu- 
ments left  by  Peter  are  bis  two  Epittlea. 
The  genuineness  of  the  First  Eptttle  is 
placed  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt,  both 
the  external  and  internal  evidence  being 
of  the  strongest  description;  that  of  the 
Second  Epittle,   however,   has  been   dis- 
puted by  numerous  critics  oa  what  ap- 
pears to  be  plausible  grounds.     Doubts 
of  its  genuineness  already  existed  in  the 
time  of  Eusebius,  and  it  was  not  admit- 
t^  into  the  New  Testament  canon  till 
398  A.D. 
PetO*  P*  Gbuel,  King  of  Castile  and 

.r^<^>  OOTU  1334,  succeeded  his 
father  Alfonso  XI  in  1350,  and  died  in 
1360.  His  reign  was  one  long  series  of 
cruelties  and  despotic  acts.  The  year 
following  hk  coronation  he  put  to  death 
Eleanora  de  Guaman,  his  father's  mis- 
tress. In  1353  he  married,  though  con- 
trary to  his  will,  Blanche  of  Bourbon, 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  princesses 
of  the  time,  whom,  however,  he  aban- 
d<med  two  days  after  his  marriage  in 
order  to  rejoin  his  mistress,  Maria  Pa- 
dilla.  The  queen  was  imprisoned  and 
divorced,    and    his    mistress's    relations 


Prtir  I 

appointed  to  tba  highest  (Mem.  Ha 
then  married  the  beautiful  Juana  de 
Caatro,  but  only  to  abandon  her  after  a 
few  months.  Two  revolu  against  Urn 
were  unsuccessful.  On  the  second  occa- 
sion, however,  in   1866,  Peter  fled,  and 

ySSr'^t**"*"*^'"'.!  ^  ^"  reinstated  in 
1867  by  an  English  army  led  by  Ed- 
ward the  Black  Prince.  Executions  and 
confiscations  naturally  followed,  but  these 
fresh  cruelties  only  helped  to  swell  the 
ranks  of  his  opponents,  of  whom  the 
dilef  was  his  half-brother,  Henry  of 
Transtamara.  In  1369  Hennr  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  Peter  at  Montiel,  and 
the  latter  was  slain  in  a  sword  combat 
with  his  brother. 

Peter  '™*  Hebmit,  an  enthusiastie 
monk  of  Amiens,  whose  preach- 
ing, after  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  (end 
of  the  eleventh  century),  gave  rise  to  the 
first  Crusade.  (See  Cruaadet.)  Peter 
led  the  way  through  Hungary  at  the 
head  or  an  undisciplined  multitude  of 
nearly  100,000  men,  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  whom  survived  to  reach  their 
destination,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  personal  courage  at  the  storming  of 
the  holy  city.  On  his  return  to  his  na- 
tive country  he  founded  the  abbey  of  Noir- 
moutier,  and  died  its  first  superior  in 
1115. 

Peter  I  i™E  Gkeat),  Alexkhivitch, 
Emperor  of  Kussia,  bom  in 
1672,  was  the  eldest  son  by  his  second 
wife  of  the  Czar  Alexis  Mikhailovitcb. 
His  elder  brothers,  Fedor  and  Ivan,  were 


Peter  the  Great. 


feeble  in  constitution.  Fedor  succeeded 
his  father  in  1676,  and  died  in  1682. 
Ivan  renounced  the  crown,  and  Peter 
was  declared  czar,  with  his  mother,  the 
Czarina    Natalia    Kirilovna,    as    r^ent 


Mer  n 


Peterbonngh 


8«pbhi,  third  daughter  of  Alezia,  ambl- 
Uoiu  to  govern,  tocceeded  in  having  Ivan 
iMticlaimed  cxar  jointly  with  Peter,  and 
bmrarif  regent    Peter  was   relegated  to 
private  life,  his  education  purposely  neg- 
lected,  and   hia   bad    habits   encouraged. 
In  1W9  he  wrested  the  power  from  his 
sister,   and   confined   her   in   a   convent. 
Peter  was   now   virtually   sole  emperor, 
tbcwprh,  till  the  death  of  his  brother  in 
1697;   he   associated   bis  name  with   his 
own   in  the  ukases  of  the  empire.     He 
now  determined  to  do  what  he  could  to 
raise  his  country  out  of  its  barbarism, 
and  to  place  its  people  in  the  ranks  of 
civilised   nations.     His  journey  to   Hoi- 
land  and  England    (1697-98),  when  he 
worked   as   an   artisan   in   shipyards,   is 
familiar;    and    the    knowledge    he   there 
gained  was  amply  profited  by  on  his  re- 
tarn.    Peter,  however,  not  only  created 
a  navy,  but  gave  Russia  a  seaboard  and 
seaports    by    wresting   the    Baltic    prov- 
inces   from    Charles    XII     of    Sweden. 
Young   Russian   nobles  were  obliged  to 
travel;  schools  of  navigation  and  mathe- 
matics  were    founded ;    agriculture    was 
improved  by  the  introduction  of  imple- 
ments, seeds,  and  superior  breeds  of  cat- 
tle.    Peter  imported  foreign  artisans  of 
all    kinds,    established    manufactories    of 
arms,  tools,  and  fabrics,  and  distributed 
metallurgists  through  the  mining  districts 
of  Russia;  roads  and  canals  were  made 
to  foster  internal  commerce,  and  to  ex- 
tend trade  with  Asia.     In  1703  he  laid 
the   foundation   of   St    Petersburg,   and 
twenty  years   later  of   its   Academy   of 
Sciences.     Laws   and   institutions   which 
in  any  way  interfered  with  his  projects 
he   either  abolished   or  altered.     In  hia 
seal  to  do  good  he  was  too  frequently 
injudicious   m   choosing   times   and   sea- 
sons, and  the  least  show  of  opposition 
irritated  him  into  ferocity.    He  repudi- 
ated his  wife  a  few  years  after  marriage 
for    her    reactionary    leanings;    for   the 
same    reason    his    son    Alexis    was    ill 
treated,  compelled  to  renounce  the  succes- 
sion, and  condemned  to  death,  but  died 
suddenly   before  sentence  could   be  car- 
ried out     Peter  died  January  28,  1725, 
the  immediate  cause  being  inflammation, 
contracted  while  assisting  in  the  rescue  of 
some  soldiers  in  Lake  Ladoga.     In  1707 
he  had  married  his  mistress  Catharine; 
this  marriage  was  publicly  celebrated  in 
1712;  Catharine  was  crowned  in   1724, 
and  succeeded  Peter  after  his  death.     See 
Catharine  I. 

Peter  U.  Alexkievituh,  Emperor  of 
'  Russia,  grandson  of  Peter 
the  Great  and  son  of  Alexis,  ascended 
^S'^".™"?  '°  consequence  of  the  will 
of  Catharine  I,  in  1727,  wh«i  bat  thir- 


teen  year*  old.  He  died  in  1730  of  th* 
smallpox,  and  was  saccMded  by  Anna 
Ivanovna. 

Peter  TTT.  FpowMwrncH.  Empmr 
"""^  "■""»  of  Raasia.  bom  in  1728, 
was  the  son  of  Anna  Petrovna,  danghter 
of  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  Dake  of  H«ri- 
stein.  Peter  III  ascended  the  throne  la 
January,  17U2,  bat  on  account  of  his  Ger- 
man proclivities  and  other  causes  a  coo- 
spiracy  broke  out  in  July  of  the  same 
year.  He  abdicated  oo  the  10th,  and  was 
murdered  on  the  17th  of  the  same  month. 
See  Catharine  IL 

Peterborough  <ffi;*"f'V^'i^ 

parliamentary  borough  of  Enc land,  partly 
In  Huntingdonshire,  but  chiefly  in  coanty 
Northampton,  on  the  left  bank  of  tto 
Nen,  76  miles  it.  of  London.  It  is  aa 
important  railway  and  agrlcaltaral  eni> 
ter.  The  princioal  building  is  its  eatte< 
dral,  originally  founded  in  6^1,  destroyed 
by  the  Danes  in  870;  rebuilt  in  966.  aad 
again  partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1116. 
It  has  its  present  form  since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sixteenth  centary.  The 
prevailing  character  of  the  building  is 
Norman,  but  it  exhibits  examples  of  the 
transition,  early  English,  decorated  Eng- 
lish, and  perpendicular  styles.  Sodm 
alterations  and  restorations  have  recently 
been  carried  out.  The  bishopric  was 
founded  by  Henry  VIII  (1541),  aad  his 
wife,  Catharine  of  Aragon,  was  interred 
in  this  cathedral.     Peterborough  received 

(19lT&^ '^'"'*"    *°    ^*'*-    ^^ 

Peterborough,  J,  g-JfiJ-J^SS 

of  Ontario,  on  the  river  Otonabee,  26 
miles  north  of  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  well 
built;  has  manufactures  of  machinwy. 
agricultural  implements,  etc.,  and  belag  a 

(louf  laiSa  "•■  '  '^  *"'••  ^'^ 
Peterborough,  gJf^Xrtffi 

1658,  succeeded  his  father.  Lord  Mor- 
daunt  1675,  and  his  uncle  In  the  earl- 
dom of  Peterborough,  1697.  William  of 
Orange  created  him  Earl  of  M<mmonth, 
and  appointed  him  first  commissioner  M 
the  treasury  for  his  services  in  connee* 
tion  with  the  dethronement  of  James  IL 
He  eminently  distinguished  himself  ia 
Spain  as  a  commander  In  the  Spaalsh 
Succession  war,  1705,  especially  by  th« 
capture  of  Barcelona,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  the  British  jMrliament  He 
also  held  several  diplomatie  posts;  was 
created  a  Knight  of  the  Garter  in  1713, 
meral  of  the  British  marine  foices  in 
17^  and  died  in  17SS  on  a  voyag*  to 
LIraoii. 


PtterliMd 


Peter^i  Ptaot 


Peterhead  l'*'^*'^)'  •  "^^port  ^ 

*'■**"„  SooUwmL  in  the  coimtj 
and  26  mile*  m.1(A  of  Aberdeen,  on  a 
paninsola,  near  tbe  moat  eaaterbr  point 
of  Scotland,  with  a  liarbor  on  either  side 
of  it,  c«Mnnianicatinc  by  a  cut  acroai  the 
iMhnias.  The  town  is  lubatantially  bo  lit 
«  granite,  obtained  from  qaarriea  in  the 
nMhborhood,  has  several  elegant  public 
boildings,  and  a  statue  of  Field-marshal 
James  Keith,  presented  by  William  J, 
emperor  of  Germany.  It  has  a  good 
trade,  and  is  an  important  center  of  the 
herring  fishery.  The  Greenland  whale 
and  seal  fisheries  are  also  important  in- 
dustries.   Pop.  11.750. 

St.  Petersburg,  celebrated  for  its  imperial 
summer  palace  in  Versailles  style,  built 
in  1711  by  Peter  the  Great   Pop.  11300. 


Petermann   iP*<?*^"*°^i^»„'h«' 

a  uerman  geograpber, 
bom  in  1822;  died  at  Gotha  in  1878. 
His  first  Important  worlc  in  cartography 
was  a  map  for  Humboldt's  Central  A$ia. 
He  afterwards  assisted  Keith  Johnston 
in  the  preparation  of  his  Phytical  Atla$; 
became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Geograph- 
ical Society,  and  contributed  to  the  En- 
ovciopoMlta  Brttaantoa,  etc.  In  1854  he 
l>ecame  profenor  of  geography  at  Gotha, 
and  superintendent  of  Justus  Perthes* 
geographical  establishment,  editing  the 
Mitteitungen,  the  foremost  among  geo- 
graphical magasines. 
Peter-VOrt.    Sj.,  capital  of  the  island 

•*^  *  of  Guernsey,  on  a  bay  on 
the  east  side,  picturesquely  situated  on 
the  slope  of  a  liill.  It  has  a  court-house 
and  prison,  a  college,  and  the  finest 
chu"-h  in  the  Channel  Isles.  The  en- 
virif,  ^  are  exceedingly  beautiful.  The 
hartx  f  is  lane  and  commodious,  and  the 
ro«ds;ead  affords  convenient  anchorage. 
Fort-George,  a  regular  fortification  of 
ctasUerable  strength,  stands  about  a  half 
mile  sooth  from  the  town.  Pop.  about 
18000. 
Peter*!     Saint,     the     Cathedral     of 

■»  Home,  the  largest  and  one  of 
the  moat  magnificent  churches  in  Chris- 
tendom. It  is  a  cruciform  building  in 
the  Italian  style,  surmounted  by  a  lofty 
dome,  built  on  the  legendary  site  of  St. 
Peter's  martyrdom.  In  306  Constantine 
the  Great  erected  on  this  spot  a  basilica 
of  great  magnificeoce.  In  the  time  of 
Nicholas  V  it  threatened  to  fall  into 
ruins,  and  he  determined  on  its  recon- 
struction, but  the  work  of  restoration 
Kocejpded  slowly,  and  Julius  11  (1JW)3- 
13)  decided  on  the  erection  of  an  entirely 
new  building.  He  laid  the  fonudation- 
atene  of  tha  new  catlwdnd  on  the  18tb 


OC  April,  1606,  and  sa!«!ted  ttt  fmow 
Bniuate  as  his  archit«!t  Aftar  tilt 
Utter's  death  various  arditaeta  had 
dtarge  of  the  work  until  Mi^a/d  Aacdo 
mw  apppintod  in  1546.    Ha  nearlyeom- 

Sleted  the  d<«ie  and  a  large  portion  of 
Jie  bnUding  before  hla  decease  (1668). 
The  nave  was  finished  in  1612,  the  fbeada 
and  portico  in  1614,  and  the  dinich  waa 
?«iicated  b,  Uj-bM  VIII  on  November 
18,  162&  ,  Tha  aztanaive  oolonnad* 
which  aurrounda  the  piaani  and  forma  a 
niagnificent  approadi  to  tha  dinreh  waa 
begun  by  Bernini  in  1667.  The  interior 
diameter  of  the  dome  ia  189  fast,  the  «z< 
torior  diameter  19BH  foot;  ita  height 
f~?  tbe  pavement  to  the  baaa  offlEa 
l*ntjm  w  feet,  to  the  top  of  tha  craai 
outside  448  feet  The  lengtti  ot  tha  catha> 
dral  within^ the  walla  la  618%  feet;  tha 
height  of  the  nave  near  the  door  162)4 
feet;  the  width  87%  feet  The  width  of 
^  side  aisles  is  83%  feet;  the  oitira 
width  of  nave  and  aide  alalea,  including 
tiM  piers  that  acparate  them,  197%  feet 
^e  height  of  the  baldacchino  ia  94%  feet 
The  circumference  of  the  piers  which  BXOh 
port  the  dome  is  253  feet 
Peters.  RicnABo,  American  Jurist, 
_:"'*»  torn  near  Philadelphia,  Anr 
nst  22,  1744.  During  tha  Revointiona]^ 
War  he  was  mude  secretary  of  the  board 
^'''".fe.^JJlA»«"*°«""t*1178L  Died 
August  22, 1828. 

Petersbnre  (P6'te«-bnrg),  a,  dty 
*,",••  *°d  river  port  of  Vir- 
ginia, on  the  Appomattox  River,  23  milea 
8.  of  Richmond.  It  is  an  important  rail- 
yw  center,  and  a  place  of  considerable 
nade  and  manufacturing  induatry.  The 
falls  of  the  river,  just  above  the  dty,  fur- 
nish abundant  power  to  the  various  milla 
and  factories.  This  place  was  besieged 
m  the  Federal  forces  under  General 
Grant  in  1864-86,  and  the  capture  of 
this  town,  'the  last  dtadd  of  the  Con- 
federacy, was  soon  followed  by  the  sur^ 
render  of  General  Lee  and  the  end  of 
the  CivU  War.  Pop.  24,127. 
Petersen  Nnxs  Matthias,  Danish 
x-ei,ersen,  1,5,^^^  ^^^  philologist 

horn  Oct  24,  1791;  died  AUy  U.  1862. 
Among  other  works  he  wrote  a  Jaittorf 
of  the  Danish,  HonoegitM  and  8v>tii»h 
Language*  (1829-<30). 

Peter»8  Pence,  f^^^trfbut^^o^- 

tile,  western  conntries  of  Europe.  The 
idea  of  an  annual  tribute  seems  to  have 
originated  in  England  before  the  Norman 
conquest  and  was  exacted  from  every 
householder  about  St  Peter's  Day  for 
the  aupport  of  an  Ehigli^  college  or  hoa- 

«lce  in  Rome.    It  waa  finally  ■Imllthai 
r  Slhwbeth. 


'P«t«rwftrdei]i 


PitSi 


fVMAWMAuuu     town  and  fartWM  of 

Hangary,  on  the  Danube,  opposite  Neu- 

Mti,  46  miiea  northwest  of  Belcrade,  the 

•trongeat  fortreu  on  the  Danube.    Poi>. 

fi019. 

Pfttiolfi    (pefi-01).  in  botany,  a  leaf- 

reuoie  ;»;;|^.   [^^  foot-.taik  of  a 

leaf,  which  connects  the  blade  with  the 
branch  or  stem. 

Potion  de  Villenenve  (p*-"-^'  d* 

Jebomb,  a  French  revolutionist,  origi- 
oally  an  advocate  at  Cbartres,  where  n< 
was  born  in  1753,  was  chosen  deputy,  by 
the  tiers-^tat  of  that  city,  to  the  states- 
general  in  1789.  In  Octolier  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Pub- 
lic Safety;  elected  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  in  1700 ;  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  criminal  tribunal  of  Paris, 
and  became  mayor  of  Paris  in  1701. 
After  the  death  of  the  king  ho  was  nomi- 
nated a  deputy  to  the  Convention ;  joined 
the  Girondists;  was  impearbed  by 
Uobespierre;  escaped  from  prison,  and 
died,  it  is  supposed,  from  hunger,  bis 
body,  in  1704,  being  found  in  a  fn^ld  in 
tlie  department  of  the  GiMnde  half  de- 
voured by  wolves. 

Petition  ( P^-t>Bh'un) ,  a  representation 
of  grievances  with  an  appeal 
for  redress.  The  first  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  pro- 
vides that  Congress  shall  make  no  law 
abridging  the  right  of  the  people  peacea- 
bly to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  gov- 
ernment for  a  redress  of  grievances. 
The  right  of  petition  has  always  been 
treated  as  an  individual  right,  whereby 
the  citizen  can  make  bis  grievances 
known  to  the  highest  authority  in  the 
State  or  Union.  In  the  anti-slavery  agi- 
tation in  the  United  States  the  right  of 
petition  was  hotly  contested;  and  it  was 
finally  decided  that  all  petitions  sad 
memorials  touching  the  aboliti^  of 
slavery  should  be  laid  upoa  the  table 
without  debate.  The  Bill  ol  Ri^ta, 
which  is  a  part  of  all  state  constitu- 
tions, perpetuates  the  right  of  petit  ioa  as 
a  fundamental  right  incidcat  t»  the  rela- 
tions between  tbe  goverament  iumI  the 
people.  The  right  of  petition  is  wide- 
spread and  has  been  exercised  in  England 
fron  very  early  times. 

F<titu>n  of  Eight,  t^^^t 

■Mitary  decbratioa  of  the  rights  and 
libertkB  •<  tte  people,  aaaeated  t»  by 
Okartas  I  te  the  keghudm  ol  Us  tdgn 
1 1^8),  Hd  cwisjfcrad  a  cMstitattoari 
mt  aecoad  m  iammtamm  only 
(^arta.    Hm  paatim  ' 


(1)  that  no  frccaan  ahoald  be  fonad  to 
pay  any  tax,  loan,  or  benevoleoM,  unlaw 
ui  accordance  with  an  act  of  parllanMat : 

(2)  that  no  freeman  ahould  be  imptte- 
oned  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  land: 

(3)  that  soldiara  and  aailora  ahoold  not 
be  billeted  on  private  persona;  (4)  com- 
missions  to  punish  soldiers  and  aailon  by 
maHial  hiw  should  be  aboliabed. 

Petitio  Prindpii   .'S?i!i?l?£j£ 

a  species  of  vicious  reasoning,  which  con- 
sists in  tacitly  assuming  the  proposition 
to  be  proved  as  a  premiss  of  the  syllogiam 
by  which  it  is  to  be  proved;  m  otlier 
words,  begging  the  question. 
Petit  Jury.     See  Jury. 

Petofi  (pe-tea'fC;,  Sahdeb,  a  Hon- 
*  "  garian  poet,  bom  in  1828.  In 
his  youth  he  was  for  some  lime  a  common 
soldie'-  and  then  a  strolling  player;  in 
1843  lie  contributed  to  the  journals  sev- 


Vetoikey 

•nl  P09Bf  which  attracted  Instant  at- 
tCBtiOB;  h«  atap  wrota  aereiml  dnugaaa 

••*•  V,^?5v  o' Ne?w')  becama  the  wa^ 
aasff  flBu)  of  tht  rerolatira;  and  in 
rteognition  of  hia  Irrical  ferrency  he  has 
bcto  nancd  'the  Hunaariaa  Barna.'  In 
tba  rtvolati<»arT  war  be  waa  an  adjutant 
ni^r^Bem.  Killed  in  the  battle  of 
Dcbuaborf. 
PetOlkeV   (P<-tos1ki),  a  cltr  of  Em- 

T  ilT^T^  "•*»  """Si''  Michigan,  on 
Uttle  Traverse  Bay,  00  miles  w.  k.  «.  of 
Traverse  City.  Lime,  lumber,  flour,  pa- 
per, etc.,  are  manufactured.  Bear  River 
famiahing  much  water-power.  Pop.  477a 
Petra  (Pi'lf*) .  ■  ruined  city,  formerly 
f.  „  "»•  Nabathasan  capital  of  Ara- 
bui  Petrsa,  in  a  narrcr  valley  of  the 
Wady  Hum.  about  110  miles  8.S.E.  of 
Jerusalem.  It  appeara  to  have  been  a 
place  of  considerable  extent  and  great 
magnificence,  for  Its  ruins,  partly  tem- 
ples, etc.,  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  cover 
a  large  space.  It  seems  to  have  been  the 
Joktheel  of  the  Old  Testament,  taken  by 
Amasiah  from  the  Edomites. 
Petraroll  LP«'tr*rk),  Fbanoeboo 
M  ^.  "™*«C^  "  Italian  poet 
and  acholar,  bom  at  Areszo  In  1304.  His 
father  being  an  exile  from  Florence,  his 
earliest  yeara  were  spent  at  Incisa,  in 
the  vale  of  Amo,  and  afterwards  with 
his  father  at  Carpentras.  near  Avignou, 
where  he  b««an  hia  education.  He  after- 
ward atudied  law  at  Montpellier  and 
Bologna,  but  hia  own  inclinations  led  him 
to   devote   hia    time   to    Latin    and    the 

FiSr'IC"'  P^^  It  '^a"  «t  Avipnon  in 
1327  that  he  Orst  saw,  in  the  duirch  of 
St.  Claire,  the  Laura  who  exorrisod  so 
great  an  influence  on  hia  life  and  lyrics. 
Our  Information  regarding  this  lady  is 
exceedingly  meager,  but  it  is  supposed 
that  her  name  was  Laura  de  Noves,  that 
she  had  become  the  wife  of  Hughes  de 
Sada  two  years  before  she  was  seen  by 
Petrarch,  and  that  she  died  in  1348  a 
virtuous  wife  and  the  nother  of  a  large 
family.  After  this  first  meeting  Pet- 
rardi  remained  at  Avignon  three  years, 
atnging  hia  purely  Platonic  love,  and 
hanntlnc  Laura  at  church  and  in  her 
walka.  He  then  left  Avignon  for  Lom- 
bes  (French  department  of  Oers),  where 
he  held  a  canonrv  gifted  by  Pope  Bene- 
dict XIL  and  afterwarda  visited  Paris, 
Brabant,  Ghent,  the  Rhine,  etc.  In  1337 
he  returned  to  Avignon,  bought  a  small 
eatate  at  Vaucluse.  in  order  to  be  near 
Ldiura,  and  here  for  three  years  wrote 
numerous  sonnets  in  her  praise.  It  was 
npMi  hia  Latin  scholarship,  however, 
that  be  rested  his  hopes  of  fame.  His 
Latin  worka  were  highly  esteemed,  and 


Petri* 


In  1841  ha  waa  called  to  B<nm  to  Medfa 
the  laorwta  crown  awarded  for  his  tSta 
poem  of  Africa,  an  epic  on  the  PubIo 
wars.  At  Parma  ha  learned  of  the  death 
°i  h^°^  "^^^^  •>•  recorded  on  hia  copy 
of  Virgil,  and  celebrated  in  hia  Trimmpkl 
A  large  part  of  hia  time  waa  employed 
iQT.?*f***?»  ..d'P'o'nftlc  missions,  and  In 
1370  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Arqua. 
near  Padua,  where  he  pasaed  hia  r«- 
mainina  yeani  in  religioua  aterciaes, 
dying  July  18,  1374.    Amtmg  hia  LatS 


Francesco  Pstrarca. 


works  are  three  books  of  Bpiatles 
(ijputola  Famtltaret)  and  twelve  Ec- 
logues, his  poem  Africa,  various  philo- 
sophical, religious,  political,  and  historical 
treatises;  his  Italian  poema,  on  which  hia 
fame  now  entirely  rests,  chiefly  conaist 
of  Bonetti  and  Canzoni  in  Vita  e  in  Mort» 
d%  Laura,  and  of  Trionfi  ('Triumphs'), 
a  series  of  allegorical  visiona.  Hia 
poems  had  an  important  influence  on  the 
development  of  Italian  and  modem  Euro- 
pean poetry. 

Petrel  (?«*'"*'),  the  common  name  of 
-  ..*"*  web-footed  oceanic  birds  of 
the  family  Procellaride.  The  petrels 
are  nocturnal  in  their  habita,  breed  in 
holes  lu  the  rocks,  lay  but  one  egg,  and 
are  almost  all  of  small  siae  and  more  or 
less  somber  plumage.  The  amnller  ape- 
cies  are  well  known  to  sailora  under 
the  name  of  Mother  Carey's  chickena, 
and  their  appearance  is  supposed  to 
presage  a  storm.  The  term  stormy  petrel 
IS  more  exclusively  applied  to  the  Tka- 
laaatdrdma  pelagica,  a  bird  which  seems 
to  run  in  a  remarkable  manner  along  the  ^ 
surface  of  the  sea,  where  it  picks  up  itaf 
food. 

Petrie   ip*'*""")-  wmxiam  matthbw 

FusoESs.    archieologist,    bom 


ta    186a.      H« 

wiwl*  ft  work  OB  8t9fifktn§9 


ot  OiML  BfTpt,  ftid  aftorwaru 
I— pi  I  at  Tuit  and  other  aadmt 
citft%  Bakinf  maor  tatneftticg  dia- 
amriM.  Hla  Tm  Yeant  Dlm**^*  tnd 
0m»  wwckM  ait  Talaabl*. 


Nera,  before  tateriaf  the  Onlf  of  UbImA 

Mfenl  M»i^«e.  thus  tornbt  fwniBii 
■mall  ielaade.  TIm  noaad  fi  lew,  aii 
•zt^nivo  portlona  <4.  Both  ^  Idaadi  tm 


Uw  BialBlaBd  are  fooded 

The  Kipoctodt  Oanal,  eratiecttam 


P«tliiiMtiOn   (P«t-rl-fa|'nhaD)..   a  grad  with  Krouiadt,  admiti 

important  ■eaport,  the  dilef  port  _  , 
■la  for  the  export  of  raw  material  ane 
import  of  manufartnred  good*.    IIm  1^  ^^ 
la  froan  lor  an  averaga  of  14T  dart  n 


^   ..      ,     ,  name  riyen  the  ornuio 

Bodief  (animal  or  vegetable >  which  have, 
If  ■low__procen,  been  couTerted  into 
MOBo.  The  term  in  need  in  much  the 
as  fiHtili. 


The  BmrnuM^ 
ST   PBTBRSBDRa 


Ptttt- 


Petrikan,  ^pwwww. 
Petrobmiians  is^  V"  -, bra'ehani). 

n.1.  .  /n.  »  .  the  folio  were  of 
Peter  (Pienre)  de  Bruys,  a  Provencal, 
who  in  the  bMinning  of  the  12th  eentorj 
prea<Aed  agalnat  the  doctrine  of  bap> 
tinnal  regeneration,  the  use  of  diurchM. 
altar^  midflxea  reUce,  etc,  prayers  for 
the  dead,  and  flie  doctrine  6f  dm  nd 
preeoiee. 

Pttrograd  y^fayM),    ogjf— "y 


^  year  and  is  aamvlgable  for  a  Imtm 
time  because  of  ice  fnmi  Lake  LnteS. 
It  te  crossed  by  three  beautiful  pemumit 
bridge«—the  Nicholas,  the  TriSSTiSd 
the  Alexander— and  the  central  and 
wealthier  portions  of  the  dty  hava  wida, 
Mraght  streets  and  large  opoi  naow. 
The  Ateiralty,  on  the  m«fa<flia^  ^T-^ 

SrS.telJ£t  ?^;,."^  i»n«w"tt;>Btrf 
tne  ministry  of  the  navy,  iriillt  ^ 

tha  Oreat,  oected  in  1781:  and  to  Ow 
eart  ie  the  imperial  wlBtw  jpalaei^  ^wSSk 


■^11  4,1  ■* 


MtfOltUI 


te 

,  __.  ._  iiatiM 
■ai  hatMon  tad  ooo- 

I  iaain  O*  Mat  of  laaay  iMned 

-    Tk»mat»m  tztruaitr  ot  Vaa- 

r  Ulaad  la  tba  eaater  of  comimr- 

Iritf  aad  omitalna  tb«  stock  ex- 

•ad  ttb  idaad  alio  oootaiaa 

-"jdratiflcuid  adoeatlonal  iasti- 

oaiyamty,  the  academy  of 

_-  Madmjp  <rf  arts,  the  marine 

^^^^=r'iM^  miidiit  iutitate.  and   the 

uf .ft  Faol^aow  naed  aa  a  state  priaoa. 

ftrtiUei^  ainseiun.    Aptfthaea- 

— I,  to  tile  north,  coatalaa  a 

mrden  of  great  wduatUie  Taloe. 

-?   •»•-*;»   forenunent   doekrante. 

^hive  faetoriea  are  ontside  tbeliaiits 

r^^foiirji  few  indnstrlal  estab- 

— within  tba  dtjcmidoyinc  more 

thu  twenty  w«»lmMB.  The  dty  is  really 
■MMh  kM  a  mamifactariiw  dty  than  Mai- 
«2^  or  Berlh^  and  oOylhe  great  influx 
m  faaemmariei^  consequent  upon  the 
■tate  t^dnc  into  ita  huida  the  administra- 
ttraof  the  raUwars  aad  spiritnous  liquors, 
nved  It  frmn  iMfaw  ita  reUtlT?  im- 
'^'^■*l*f  .•■  indaatrial  center  in  faror 

Tm  duef  iaduatries  are  cottons  and  otlier 
tattles,  metal  aad  madiinery,   tobacco. 
'  Sy^,".*  candles,  diemlcals,  Iwew- 
■atiueries,  sugar  refineries,  ship- 


iropeaa  sdenea  aad  pUloaophy,  aad  la 
-r^*J"  cOTtributed  to  £t  fhwdom 

PaiiL  Beriia  and   Vienna.     Tlie  great 

525?*?'  f'.  *?f/'**.*«'  Uterary.  artlstio  and 
tedinical  institutions,  as  well  aa  the  de- 
Tdopment  of  the  prMs^and  of  mnsle 
attraat  nersons  from  all  the  rariooa  pror- 
incea  of  Russia.  The  dimate,  hoiraVer, 
ia  azceediaghr  dtfllcult.  bdng  damp  an<i 
Twy  (^aageable,  though  leaa  aevere  than 
might  be  expected  in  latitude  00*  n.  The 
arerage  temperature  is  88.6*  for  the  year 

Petrography  {St^**S*    *i»* 

•nrfae^  cohered  In  rdatioa  to  thdr 

rock  ov  mineral  oil;  a  liquid,  inflamma- 
ble anostanee,  in  certain  boilitiea  exud- 
ing f'om  the  earth,  in  amne  places  od- 
<wt«r-  OB  the  surface  of  the  water  la 
wellf^  ta  other  places  obtained  in  great 
quantities  by  boring.  It  la  essnSiUy  - 
ctHrpooed  of  a  great  number  of  hydro- 
carbons; is  unctuous  to  tiie  touch:  ex- 
hales a  ttoong  odor :  flows  diiefly  from 
beds  asBodated  with  coal  strate;   and 


f^  Print&  plants,  potteries, 
~-i-^-J»»'l»i  ote.  fte  chief  export  is 
pHn;  oe  duef  imports,  coaL  metals. 
Wimr  material.  herHnrcoflSe^  tea!  rtS 
Gu  rajIwMft  meet  at  Petrograd.  but  the 
Nnra  to  tha  prindpal  channel  for  trade 
wia  the  reat  of  Ruaaia  by  means  of  the 
Vdgt  and  Ita  tributaries     The  regtoa 

wSlfS  ^***.  Iffte  and^the  GSTof 
IlBlaad  wu  inhaUted  in  the  ninth  eaa- 

gwod  and  Pskor,  eagw  lo  secure  domialra 


plan) ;  in  smaller  qnantitiea  in  many 
other  countries.  It  fields  kerosene,lMuC 
aflln,  and  pwraflin  oiL  ao  extendrely  em- 
PioTcd  for  illuminating  purpoaes:  also 
lubricating  oil  and  vaseUne;  and  haa 
be«i  largehr  onployed  ut  liquid  fuel  in 
netoriea,  looomotiTes,  and  ateamships. 
Bteama%  ^Mdally  constructed  wfoi 
tenka,  are  now  engaged  in  its  trannort 
The  greateat  and  most  remarkable  ^ntop- 
?^}b^  ^  petroleum  induatry  began 
in  180^  want  a  e«npany  'atmek  oil* 
by  borfaig  at  OB  Creek,  Pa.,  and  obtained 
a  mpply  <rf  400  galloaa  a  day.  This  led 
to  numerous  otiiar  borings,  and  the  oil  was 
obtained  in  such  qnaatiOes  tiiat  tnwaaof 


viiNiiu 


ffttj 


ilw  MCB  ^raag  np  is  Um 

J  dlstrktt  nllwayi  w*n  eoMtniet«l, 
IWBHWH  NMrroln  wtm  aad^  and  kwff 
lto«  e(  cU  pipM  laid  down,  whii*  lam 
faitiMna  WW*  rcallawi.  At  fint  th* 
borlafi  wn  not  mj  datp,  and  tb«  oil 
amrally  flow«d  natiiraUy;  aaliMqmBtly 
dMpor  borinfi  w«f«  ntciwary,  and  tM 
oil  eoaM  mtiy  be  raiwd  to  tb*  torfaco 
b/  punpinc.  Tbo  United  BtatM  leads 
tM  workl  Dotb  in  tbo  prodaction.  fadli- 
tiM  of  haadliof  and  refining.  The  oil- 
flelda  ar*  well  clatriboted  tbroucbout  the 
country,  and,  altboufb  Pcnmylvania  ia 
■till  a  great  producer,  otber  fields  bav* 
been  opened  up.  The  coast  ranges  of 
Southern  California,  principally  in  Ven- 
tura, and  Los  Angeles  counties,  after 
abortive  borings  by  inexperienced  per- 
SMS,  were  tahen  np  by  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York  i>eople  versed  in  the  business, 
and  have  since  produced  steadily  and 
largely.  California  and  Oklahoma  now 
lead  in  production,  and  Illinois,  West  Vir^ 
finia.  Ohio,  and  Texas  bare  also  been 
found  to  contain  profitable  oil-belts. 
Several  other  states  are  also  producers, 
Colorado  and  Wyoming  producing  an  ail 
of  much  higher  gravity  tnan  most  of  the 
others.  Nearly  4UU,UUU.UU0  barrels  (of 
42  gallons  eadi)  of  petroleum  are  estl* 
mated  to  be  now  produced  annually  ia  the 
world.  Of  this  great  total  about  SSO.OOO,- 
tmO  (a  great  advance  within  the  past  ten 
years)  are  produced  in  the  United  States, 
SIO,000,000  In  Russia,  and  25,000.000  in 
Mexico,  with  minor  yields  in  other  locali- 
ties. Both  the  American  and  Mexican 
yields  are  steadily  increasinc. 
troPtt-JlT, 
of     the     composi'tion     of 


the  science 


Petrology,  ^TtS' 

rocks  of  mineral  formation. 

Petromyzontida,  i|r*X'-^Sii 

given  to  a  family  of  animals  in  allusion 
to  the  manner  in  which  they  remove  small 
stones  from  their  breeding-grounds  — 
formed  from  the  Greek  Petra,  a  rock; 
mysotie,  sucking.  They  comprise  the 
familv  known  as  lampreys.  Their  form 
is  eel-like,  the  skin  naked,  the  head  of 
the  adult  is  elongated,  the  dorsal,  anal, 
and  caudal  fins  represented  by  a  con- 
tinuous or  interrupted  membrane;  the 
pectorals  ai:d  ventrals  not  developed. 
All  the  species  undergo  a  metamorphosis, 
a  very  dltter^t  form  being  possemed  by 
the  young  or  larvat. 

Petro'niiis  Arbiter,  tnteS'^i- 

torions  for  his  licentioosBess,  was  bom 
at  Marseilles,  and  lived  in  the  court  of 
Nero.  He  is  supposed  by  manr  authori- 
ties to  be  the  author  of  Satyrfami  LOni, 
«  work  of  Action  of  gcaat  ability  and 


liesatiooanass,  of  which  only  frapiarti 
hava  been  prsasrvcd. 

pttrap.Tiovdc  I'carfflrssKi 

of  Asiatic  Bnssia,  foroMrly  capital  9t 
Kamtchatka,  on  th*  east  coast  M  Kam- 
tchatka.  It  ia  now  of  little  ImportaBeik 
ita  naval  Institutions  having  bean  traa» 
ferred  to  Nikolaievsk. —  Ahw  a  town  «t 
Central  Asiatic  Bussia,  in  the  govemaeat 
of  Akmoiilnsk,  on  the  Iscnin.  Pop. 
21 79& 

pitropoiii  ssin'r!K'p«ss  s 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  26  milea  by  rail  froM 
the  city  of  that  name.    Pop.  about  10,000t 

PetroMlinum  j^ST'"''"*"^*  "* 
PetroTik  iffiSr^?li.'goSSLeS{ 

and  70  miles  h.r.w.  of  the  town  of  8ar> 
atov.    Pop.  0806. 

Petmavodik  H^TK^^^.;: 

ital  of  the  government  of  Okmeta,  oa 
Lake  Onega,  102  miles  northeast  of  St. 
Petersburg.  It  has  an  important  gov- 
ernment marine  and  cannon  foundry,  asd 
manufactures  of  iron  and  •copper  mf. 
Pop.  12,985. 

Petah  °^  IrtK,  a  town  of  Enropean 
f  cbBU,  Turkey,  in  Albania,  T8  miles 
iv.E.  of  Scutari.  Pop.  about  12,000. 
Pettie  (l^t'tO,  John,  a  distlnguisbed 
Zl  painter,  bom  at  Edinburgh  ia 
1839;  studied  there  at  the  Royal  Scot- 
tish Acadeiuy ;  exhibited  Th9  Pri»o»  Ptt 
(1850)  at  Edinbnrgh.  and  began  ia  tb* 
following  year  to  exhibit  in  London.  Ra- 
markable  alike  for  vigorous  concmtioa 
and  technical  dexterity  hto  historicarand 
ifenn  paintings  were  numerous.  Of 
these  may  be  mentioned  The  DrmmhtU 
Comrt-mariM  (1864),  DUgnc»  of  Woi* 
*%-i*86D),  Bwor4  and  Dagamr  PM$ 
USZ^  ^*^  atrittgt  to  Her  JVoia 
<^^^)j.2!i?  TnitoTilSSS),  and  Per- 
f~*,'i.i^*^>-  He  was  elected  A.R.A. 
in  186Q,  and  R  A.  in  1878.  He  died  in 
1803. 

PcttV  (^*'')»  ?»  WnxjAic,  suttett- 
«  Clan  and  political  economist, 
bom  at  Romsey.  Hampafaire^  in  1628; 
died  in  1687.  He  was  educated  hi  his 
native  town  and  in  Normandy;  served 
for  a  time  in  the  navy;  studied  medi- 
cine at  Utrecht,  Leyden,  and  Paria : 
came  to  Oxford,  and  was  (lOtt)  elactod 
a  fellow  of  Braseaose;  became  pro- 
fessor <a  anatomy  (1661),  and  in  the 
following  year  joined  tb*  army  in  Ira 
land  as  a  physician.  Here  b*  was  tp 
pointed  surveyor  of  the  forfeited  Irisit 
estates  (1664),  and  produced  the  Dowa 
Survay  oi  Irish  Lan4k    He  btcaaw  s*e> 


MICROCOPY   RESOIUTION  TfST  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 

1^  |2^ 
|»    |3j2 

■  «.3 

1.1 

u 

12.5 


|Z2 


I 

I 


2.0 


1.8 


^  /APPLIED  ItVMGE    Inc 

^Sr.  1653  East  Main  StrMt 

^S  Rochester.    New  York         14609       USA 

^S  (716)    482  -  OKIO  -  Phone 

^S  (716)  288  -  S989  -  Fax 


Pettyohaps 


Phaooohere 


retary  to  Henry  Cromwell,  the  lord- 
lieutenant;  and  In  1658  entered  Parlia- 
ment. He  wrote  a  Treatite  of  Tawet 
and  ContributioM. 

Pettychaps  ^P^^'tThVee  %r  "f^ 
■mall  species  of  warblers  of  the  Kcniis 
Syivia,  such  as  the  S.  trochilua  and  the 
8.  tibilatriw. 

Petty  Officei.  "n  oflScer  in  the  navy 
J  W.1U.WWA,  whose  rank  corre- 
sponds with  that  of  a  non-commissioned 
officer  in  the  army.  Petty  cflScers  are 
appointed  and  can  be  degraded  by  the 
captain  of  the  vessel. 

Petty  Sessions,    '°    .  England,      are 
vj   w«,a»xvuo,    sessions  of  two  or 

more  justices  of  the  peace,  on  which 
power  is  conferred  by  various  statutes 
to  try  minor  offenses  without  a  jury. 
Petunia  (Pe-ta'nl-a),  a  genus  of 
^  American  herbaceous  plants, 
nat.  order  Solanaceie,  nearly  allied  to 
tobacco.  They  are  much  prized  by  horM- 
culturists  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 
Petuntse  (Pe-tun'tze),  Petuntze, 
the  Chinese  name  for  what 
is  thought  by  geologists  to  be  a  partially 
decomposed  granite  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain. 

Petworth-marble,  *'««  called  s««- 

'  »ex  -marble, 
from  being  worked  at  Petworth  in 
Sussex,  a  variously-colored  limestone  oc- 
curring in  the  Weald  clay,  and  com- 
posed of  the  remains  of  fresh-water 
shells. 

Peutingerian  Table  iPf;*'°tabie 

of  the  roads  of  the  ancient  Roman  world, 
written  on  parchment,  and  found  in  a 
library  at  Speyer  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  was  so  named  from  Conrad  Peutinger, 
a  native  of  Augsburg,  who  was  the  first 
to  make  it  generally  known.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  constructed  about  a.d. 

Pew    ^P^)>  B  separate  inclosed  seat  in 
a  church.     In  England  pews  are 
I  held  m  the  Established  Church  either  by 
'  prescriptive  right,  or  l)y  the  will  of  the 
bishop.     In  the  United  States  pews  are 
sold  to  actual  owners,  or  rented  to  seat- 
holders  at  a  fixed  price. 
Pewter    .(P^'ter),  an  alloy  of  tin  and 
lead,  or  of  tin   with  propor- 
tions  of   lead,  zinc,   bismuth,   antimony, 
or  copper,  and  used  for  domestic  uten- 
sils.    One  of  the  finest  sorts  of  pewter 
is  composed  of  100  parts  of  tin  to   17 
parts    of    antimony,    while    the  common 
pewter    of    which    beer-mugs    and    other 
vessels  are  made  consists  of  4  parts  of 
tin  and  1  of  lead.    The  kind  of  pewter 
w    which    tea-pots    are    made     (called 


Britannia-metal)  is  an  alloy  of  tin,  brass, 
antimony,  and  bismuth. 

Peyer's  Patches,   {"yrpttUS 

found  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
small  intestine.  They  are  usually  the  seat 
of  ulceration  in  typhoid  fever. 

PeyrOUSe,  La.    See  La  reroute. 

P^zenfl.8  (pfta-nas'),  a  town  of  France, 
.  "*■  in  the  department  of  H6rault, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  H«rault,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Peine,  25  miles  w.  8.  w. 
from  Montpellier.     Pop.  6432. 

PeZOphapS.  See  Solitaire. 

PeZOporUS.  See  Parakeet. 

Pfalz     (pf&lts).     See  Palatinate. 

VfpiifpT  (P^'f^i*)*  Ida,  an  enthusiastil 
xxciucx  traveler,  born  at  Vienna  in 
1797 ;  died  in  1858.  In  her  youth  she  was 
educated  by  her  father  into  masculine 
habits  and  hardiness;  and  on  the  death 
of  her  husband,  visited  Turkey,  Palestine, 
and  Egypt  (1842)  ;  Scandinavia  and  Ice- 
land (1845)  ;  journeyed  round  the  world 
in  1846-48,  visiting  China,  India,  Persia, 
Greece,  etc. ;  in  1852  visited  California, 
Peru,  Oregon,  etc.,  and  in  1856  explored 
Madagascar.  The  narratives  of  her  vari- 
ous journeys  were  translated  into  English. 
Piieiderer  (Pffl'd6r-*r),  Orro,  Oer- 
***'**'*  man  philosophical  theolo- 
gian, bom  at  Stetten,  Wurtcmberg,  18^ ; 
died,  1908.  He  was  a  pastor  at  Heilbronn 
from  1868  till  1870,  when  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  Jena,  whence  he  was  transferred 
to  Berlin  in  1875.  His  philosophical 
views  may  be  regarded  as  a  blend  of  those 
of  Hegel  and  Schleiermacher,  while  in 
criticism  he  leaned  toward  the  school  of 
Baur.  His  principal  works  are  Religiont' 
philosophie  auf  geachichtlicher  Orund' 
lage.  Religion  una  Moral,  Der  Paulinia- 
inu$,  Chrundriaa  dea  Chriatlichen  Olau- 
bens  und  Sitten-Lehre,  Dae  Vrohrieten- 
thum.  Influence  of  thr  Apoatle  Paul, 
Development  of  Theolvyy  Since  Kant, 
Philosophy  and  Development  of  Beliffion, 
and  Evolution  and  Theology. 
Pforzheim  (p'orts'hlm),  a  town  of 
riorzueun  ^^^  Orand-duchy  of  Ba- 
den,  15  miles  6.  E.  of  Carlsruhe,  on  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Black  Forest,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Nagold  with  the  Enz. 
The  chief  industry  is  in  the  making  of 
gold  and  silver  trinkets,  and  the  other 
manufactures  are  machinery,  castings, 
tools,  chemicals,  leather,  paper,  cloth, 
etc.    Pop.  (1010)  6tf,082. 

Phacochere    ('ak'^-wr).  phaco- 

Aunvvvucic      cHfflBE,  the  wart-hog  of 
Africa,  a  pachydermatous  mammal  of  the 


Phaoops 


KQua  Phacochaerut,  akin  to  the  swine, 
characterized  by  a  large  wart-like  excres- 
cence on  each  side  of  the  face.  The 
tusks  of  the  male  project  8  or  9  inches 
beyond  the  lips,  and  form  terrible 
weapons.  P.  Eliani  is  the  Abyssinian 
phacochere  or  Ethiopian  wild-boar. 
Plrnnnm  (fa'kopz),  a  genus  of  fossil 
rnaCOpj  trllobites.  P.  latifront  is 
characteristic  uf  the  Devonian  forma- 
tion, and  is  all  but  world-wide  in  its  dis- 
tribution. _  .  .  .,  , 
Pliokiln  (fS'dO),  a  Greek  philosopher,  a 
rUKUU  scholar  of  Socrates,  and 
founder  of  a  school  of  philosophy  in 
Elis.  The  dialogue  of  Plato  on  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  which  contains 
the  conversation  of  Socrates  in  prison 
before  his  death,  bears  the  name  of 
Phedo.     None  of  his  own  writings  are 

Pliw^ro      (fS'dra),  in  Greek  mythol- 
X^xiwuia     Qgy^  daughter  of  Minos,  king 
of  Crete,  was  the  sister  of  Ariadne  and 
wife  of  Theseus.     She  falsely  accused  her 
stepson,    Hippolytus,   of   a  criminal   at- 
tempt  upon  her   honor,  an   injustice  of 
which  she  afterwards  repented,  and  was 
either   killed   by    her   husband    or   com- 
mitted   suicide.     Sophocles    and     Eurip- 
ides made  this   the  subject  of  tragedies 
(both  of  which  are  lost),  and  their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  Racine. 
Pliwilma     (fe'drus),    a    Latin    writer 
fUicUlua     Qf  ^jje  Augustan  age,  who 
translated    and    imitated    the    fables    of 
JEsop.    He  was   a   slave   brought    from 
Thracia    or    Macedonia    to    Rome,    and 
manumitted     by     Augustus.     Some     au- 
thorities   have    doubted    the   genuineness 
of  the   fables  ascrib«>d   to  Phredrus,   but 
their  style  is   favorable   to  the  supposi- 
tion   of    their    genuineness.     There    are 
five  books,  containing  ninety-seven  fables, 
attributed  to  him.     They  are  notable  for 
beauty  of  style  and  purity  of  language. 
PTiapflinTl    (fa'e-ton),  a  mythological 
fnactuun    character,    who    one    day 
obtained    leave    from    his    father    Helios 
(the   Sun)    to  drive   the  chariot  of  the 
sun,   but   being   unable   to    restrain    the 
horses  Zeus  struck  him  with  a  thunder- 
bolt and  hurled   him  headlong  into  the 
river    Po.     The    name    in    its    English 
form  of  Phaton  is  applied  to  an  open 
four-wheeled  carriage. 
Vhairi^At^-ntL   (faj-e-d«'na),    in    medi- 

kind  of  obstinate  gangrenous  ulcer  which 
eats  into  or  corrodes  the  adjoining  parts. 
PliatrnnvtM  (fag'6-sltz),  the  white 
rnagOCyxes  ^^  colorless  blood  cor- 
puscles, also  called  leucocytes.  They  are 
cells  with  active  ameboid  functions  and 
engulf  both  nutritive  and  injurious  aub- 


Phalarii 


stances.  These  cells  are  now  known  to 
have  important  physiological  functions, 
and  that  to  their  healthy  activity  is  due 
the  destruction  of  invading  bacteria. 


XUH.ia.ugci  gjygQ  to  tjje  animals  of 
the  genus  Phalaugiata,  a  genus  of  mar- 
supial quadrupeds  inhabiting  Austral- 
asm;  also  called  phalangiats.  They  are 
generally  of  the  size  of  a  cat,  are  noc- 
turnal in  their  habits,  and  live  in  trees, 


Vulpine  Fhalanger  {Phalanffirta  viiZpIna). 

feeding  on  insects,  fruits,  leaves,  etc. 
The  sooty  phalanger  or  tapoa  (P.  ful*- 
gindsa),  so-called  from  its  color,  is 
pretty  common  in  Tasmania.  The  vul- 
pine phalanger  or  vulpine  opossum  {P. 
vulplna)  is  another  species,  common  in 
Australia.  See  also  Flying  Phalanger. 
Vhala-nvfil  (fa-lan'jez),  the  name  ap- 
xuaiuugcs  jjp^  to  the  separate  bones 
of  which  the  digits  (or  fingers  and  toes) 
of  vertebrates  are  composed.  Each  digit 
or  finger  of  the  human  hand  consists 
of  three  phalanges,  with  the  exception  of 
the  pollex  or  thumb,  whicli  is  composed  of 
two  only. 

Phalansterianism,  SS^'-see  fSJ: 

rier. 

PlifllgTiT  (fal'anks),  a  name  given 
JTUUiitus,  generally  by  the  Greeks  to 
the  whole  of  the  heavy-armed  infantry 
of  an  army,  but  more  specifically  to  each 
of  the  grand  divisions  of  that  class  of 
troops  when  formed  in  ranks  and  files 
close  and  deep,  with  their  shields  joined 
and  their  pikes  crossing  each  other.  The 
Spartan  phalanx  was  commonly  8  feet 
deep,  while  the  Theban  phalanx  was 
much  deeper. 

Pfifllan'a  (fal'a-ris),  a  ruler  of  Ag- 
ruttlitlis  jigentum  in  Sicily  (prob- 
ably between  571  and  549  B.C.),  chiefly 
celebrated  in  tradition  for  his  cruelty. 
He  is  said  to  have  burned  his  victims 
in  a  brazen  bull,  within  which  a  slow 
fire  was  kindled.  By  means  of  pipea 
fitted  in  its  nostrils  the  shrieks  of  the 
tyrant's  victims  became  like  the  bellow- 
ing of  the  animal.  The  letters  of 
Phalaria,  of  which  an  English  edition  waa 


Plkftlarif 

pablithed  in  1696,  were  shown  to  bt 
ipuriom  by  Bicbard  Bentley  in  his  DU- 
amrtation  on  Phalarit  (1699).  See  Bent- 
ley. 

Phalaris.  ■-  ""V."  «*"""  <>'  grasps, 

~^^  7  o'  which  the  seed  o£  one 
of  the  species,  P.  canarienait,  or  canary- 
inun,  is  eztensiveiy  employed  as  food 
for  birds,  and  commonly  Icnown  as 
canary-seed. 

Phalarone  (fal'a-rOp),  the  common 
""  "*'*'  name  of  several  gralla- 
torial  birds  forming  the  genus  Pkala- 
rdpua.  The  gray  pbalarope  (P.  lohatus), 
frequently  seen  in  Britain  in  the  course 
of  its  migration  from  its  Arctic  breed- 
ing place  to  its  southern  winter  quarters, 
is  a  beautiful  bird,  rather  over  8  inches 
long,  with  a  short  tail  and  slender 
straight  bill.  The  red-necked  pbalarope 
(P.  hyperborevt) ,  which  breeds  in  some 
of  the  most  northern  Scottish  islands,  is 
rather  smaller  than  the  gray  phalarope. 
Phallus  (f*'''"").  the  emblem  of  the 
generative  power  in  nature, 
carried  in  solemn  procession  in  the 
Bacchic  orgies  of  ancient  Greece  (see 
Bacchanalia),  and  also  an  object  of  ven- 
eration or  worship  among  various  Orien- 
tal nations.  (See  Lingam.)  In  botany, 
PkalluM  is  a  genus  of  fungi  of  the  di- 
vision Qasteromycetes.  A  most  com- 
mon species  is  P.  impudfcu$  or  fatidut, 
popularly  called  stinkhom,  which  has  a 
foetid  and  disgusting  smell. 

Phanerosramia  ('"n-e-m-ga'mi-a), 

«u«u>wv5a.utM  ^  primary  division 
of  the  vegetable  Itingdom,  comprising 
those  plants  which  have  their  organs  of 
reproduction  (stamens  and  pistils)  de- 
Teloped  and  distinctly  apparent.  See 
Botany. 

Phantasmagoria  (;a°-tas-ma-g5'. 

plied  to  the  effects  produced  by  a  magic- 
lantern. 

Pharaoh  (ffi'rS),  the  name  given  in 
*  **""    the    Bible    to    the    Icings    of 

Egypt,  corresponding  to  the  p-ba  or 
PH-BA  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
which  signifies  the  sun.  The  identifica- 
tion of  the  Pharaohs  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture with  the  respective  Egyptian  kings, 
particularly  the  earlier  ones,  is  a  matter 
of  great  diflSculty.  See  Egypt. 
Pharaoh's  Rat.      ^^  ichneumon. 


Phannaoy 


Pharisees  (far'l-sgz),  a  religious 
1..  ..  .^  ^  .  "^^  among  the  Jews 
which  had  risen  into  great  influence  at 
the  time  of  Christ,  and  played  «  promi- 
nent part  in  the  events  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament.  The  most  probable  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  Pharisees  as 
«  duttiact  sect  is  that  which  refers  it  to 


the    reaction    against    the    attempt    of 
Antiochua  Epiphanes  to  break  down  the 
distinctions  between  his  Jewish  and  his 
Greek  subjecu.    At  the  time  of  Christ 
the    Pharisees    stood    as    the    national 
party  in  politics  and  religion  —  the  op- 
ponents  of   the   Sadducees.    The   funda- 
mienul    principle    of    the    Pharisees    was 
that  of  the  existence  of  an  oral  law  to 
complete   and    explain   the   written   law. 
•Moses,'  said   theMishna.  'received  the 
Uiw   (the  unwritten  law  ia  meant)   fron 
Sinai,  and   delivered   it   to  Joshua,  and 
Joshua  to  the  elders,  and  the  elders  to 
the  prophets,  and  the  prophets  to  the  men 
of  the  Great  Synagogue.*^    This  oral  law 
declared  the  continuance  of  life  after  the 
death  of  the  body,  and   the  resurrectioa 
of    the    dead.     This    authoritative    tradi- 
tion received  in  process  of  time  additions 
which  were  not  pretended  to  be  derived 
directly  from  Moses:  —  1st,  Decisions  of 
the  Great   Sjuagogue   by  a   majority  of 
votes    on    disputed    points.     2d,    Decrees 
made  by  prophets  and  wise  men  in  dif- 
ferent    ages.     3d,     Legal     decisions     of 
proper  ecclesiastical   authorities   on   dis- 
puted Questions.     These  authorities  com- 
prehended both  the  writers  of  the  sacred 
books  and  their  approved  commentators. 
There    is   no   djubt    that,    though    their 
strict  observance  of  small   points  often 
led    to    hypocrisy    and    self-glorification, 
the    sect    contained    a    body    of    pious, 
learned,  and  patriotic  men  of  progress. 

Pharmacopoeia   If4r-ma-ku-p§'ya; 
^  Greek,  pharmakon, 

drug,  poiki,  making),  a  book  containing 
the  prescriptions  for  the  preparation  of 
medicines  recognized  by  the  general  body 
of  practitioners.  Up  till  1»I33  separate 
Pharmacopa>ias  were  issued  by  the  Col- 
leges of  Physicians  of  London,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Dublin.  There  is  now  a  Brit- 
ish Pharmacop<pia,  issued  by  the  medical 
council  of  the  kingdom,  and  an  American 
pharmacopoeia,  based  on  that  of  Britain. 
Pharmacy  (far'ma-sl),  Phabmaceu- 
•'  TICS  (Greek,  pharmakon, 
drug,  pharmakeuein,  to  administer  drugs), 
the  art  of  preparing,  compounding, 
and  combining  substances  for  medical 
purposes;  the  art  of  the  apothecary. 
As  these  substances  may  be  mineral, 
vegetable,  or  animal,  theoretical  phar- 
macy requires  a  knowledge  of  botany, 
zoology,  and  mineralogy:  and  as  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  their  properties, 
and  the  laws  of  their  composition  and 
decomposition,  of  chemistry  also.  In  a 
narrower  sense  pharmacy  Is  merely  the 
art  of  compounding  and  mixing  drugs 
according  to  the  prescription  of  the  phy- 
sician. (See  Apotkecartt  and  Chemittt.) 
In  pharmaceutical  operations  the  apothe* 


Fhamaoet 


PhftunicUB 


caries'  weicht  !■  used,  in  which  20  iraiiw 
make  a  scruple,  3  scruples  a  drachm,  8 
drachms  an  ounce,  and  12  ounces  a 
pound;  in  fluid  measure  60  minims 
(drops)  make  1  fluid  drachm,  and  8 
drachm.8  a  fluid  ounce.  The  following 
abbreviations  and  signs  are  used  by 
physicians  in  writing  their  prescriptions: 
S,  ounce;  3,  drachm;  9,  temple ; 
f.  3,  fluid  ounce;  f.  3,  fluid  drachm; 
ITI^, minim;  Gut.  (gutta),  drop;  Cochl. 
(cochleare),  spoonful;  j.  or  i.,  one; 
8S.,  half;  aa  or  ana,  of  each;  q.  s.  (quan- 
tum tufficit),  as  much  as  necessary;  p.  e.. 
equal  parts. 

FhamaCeS  i/ar'na-s*").  a  king  of 
"**  Pontus  overthrown  by 
Ciesar  in  47  B.C.,  a  victory  announced 
in  the  famous  message  sent  to  Rome: 
Veni,  vidi,  vicL 
PharO        *  ganie.     See  Faro. 

Pharos  (f&'n>s),  a  lighthouse.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  is- 
land of  Pharos,  close  to  and  now  part 
of  Alexandria,  which  protected  the  port 
of  that  city.  On  the  eastern  promon- 
tory of  the  island  stood  the  lighthouse 
of  Alexandria,  so  famous  in  antiquity, 
and  considered  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world,  built  300  years  B.C.  See  Light- 
houae. 

Pharsalus  i'"'?*!"!^?^^*  *?^  «' 

ancient  Thessaly,  near 
which  Cssar  defeated  Pompey,  B.C.  48. 
(See  Cwtar  and  Pompey.)  It  is  now 
represented  by  the  small  town  Phersala, 
seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop.     Pop.  1363. 

Pharyngobranchii  ^/'^Jl^k,!?: 

'pharynz-gilled'),   the  name  applied  to 


with  which  it  is  continuous.  It  ia  of  a 
funnel  shape,  and  about  4  inches  in 
length :  the  posterior  nostrils  open  into  it 
above  the  soft  palate,  while  the  larynx, 
with  its  lid,  the  epiglottis,  is  in  front  and 
below.  The  contraction  of  the  pharynx 
transmits  the  food  from  the  mouth  to 
the  oMophagus.  From  it  proceed  the 
eustachian  tut>es  to  the  ears. 
PhaSCOeale  (/««-kog'a-le),  »  genna 
*  of    small    marsupials, 

closely    allied    to    the    dasyures.    found 
throughout  Australia.  New  Guinea,  etc. 
PhaSCOlarciOS   ya»-kal-ark'tos).  Sea 
Koala. 

PhaSCOlomyS  ie'S2riJ**'na°me"'"oJ'  IK 
wombat  (which  see). 
Phase  i^^^^f  i°  astronomy,  one  of  the 
""~  recurring  appearances  or  states 
of  the  moon  or  a  planet  in  respect  to 
quantity  of  illumination,  or  figure  of  en- 
lightened disc. 

PhaseolUS     (/a-,»6'o-la").    the    genus 
.  of    leguminous    plants    to 

which  belong  the  kidney-bean  and  scarlet- 
runner.     See  French  Bean. 

Phasian'idse,  jA=e«"„t;«^«-     ^ 

Pliasis  (^'«i«).  a  river  of  Colchis 
*  (Transcaucasia),     now     called 

the  Rico,  anciently  regarded  as  the 
boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia.  It 
rises  in  a  spur  of  the  Cfaucasus,  flows  in 
a  generally  western  direction,  and  falls 
into  the  Black  Sea  near  Poti.  Pheas- 
ants are  said  to  have  been  first  brought 
to  Europe  from  the  banks  of  this  river, 
hence  their  name. 

Phasmidse  (fas'ml-de),  specter  ia- 
7  „  .  .  se-ts  or  walking-sticks,  a 
family  of  ortbopterous  insects  allied  U 


Pharyngobranchii. 
The  Laneelet  (Amphioxu*  laneeotatut) ,  en- 
larged. 0,  Mouth;  b.  Branchial  aac;  g, 
Stomach;  h,  Diverticulum  repreaenting  the 
liver;  {,  Intestine;  a.  Anus;  n,  Notocbord; 
/,  Bndimenta  of  fin-raya ;  p.  Abdominal  pore. 

the   .owest   order   of    fishes,   represented 
solely  by  the  laneelet   (which  see). 

Pharyngognathi  tffirT'frifi^oi 

acanthopterous  fishes,  which  includes  the 
wrasses,    the    parrot-fishes,    the    garfish, 
snury-pikes,  and  fiying-fish. 
Pharvnx     (fa'ringks).   the  term   ap- 

<r'*'—    plied   to   the  muscular  sac  Phsamida,  or  Specter  Insects, 

which   intervenes   between   the  cavity  of   j   aadomorphut  vhutHrnia  fBMdiu.  w.im... 
the   mouth  «nd   th*   narrow   «sophagUa.     '  ..ick>!"T4^S£W«"i"^ 


Pheasant 


the  Mantidn,  reatricted  to  warm  coun- 
triea,  and  remarkable  for  their  very  close 
Fesemblance  to  the  objects  in  the  midst 
of  which  the^  live,  this  peculiarity, 
known  as  mimicry,  being  their  only  pro- 
tection against  their  enemies,  llie 
family  includes  the  genera  Phagma,  Phyl- 
Hum,  Cladomorpkua,  etc.  Some  of  them 
are  destitute  of  wings,  and  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  dead  twigs,  while  the  ab- 
sence of  motion  in  the  insects  adds  to 
the  deception. 

PheASant  ( ^ez'dtit ) ,  the  general  name 
*"**  "  ".  given  to  birds  of  the  fam- 
ily Phasianidffi,  which  comprises  .several 
genera  besides  that  of  the  pheasants 
proper,  Phaaidnua.  There  are  usually 
naked  spaces  of  skin  on  the  head  or 
cheeks  and  often  combs  or  wattles.  The 
plumage  of  the  males  is  brilliant,  that  of 
the  females  more  sober,  and  the  mnlcs 
carry    spurs    on    the    tarso-metatarsus. 


Kseve's  Pheasant  iPhasia)  us  veneratus). 

The  wings  are  short,  the  tail  long.  The 
three  front  toes  are  united  by  a  inembraue 
up  to  the  first  joint,  and  the  hinrler  toe  is 
articulated  to  the  tarsus.  The  food  con- 
sists of  grains,  soft  herbage,  roots,  and 
insects.  They  are  chiefly  terrestrial  in 
habits,  taking  short  rapid  flights  when 
alarmed.  The  pheasants  are  polygamous, 
the  males  and  females  consorting  together 
during  breeding-time,  which  occurs  in 
spring.  The  common  pheasant  (Phaai- 
anut  ColcMcua),  now  fully  domesticated 
but  originally  said  to  be  a  native  of  the 
banks  of  the  Phasis  in  Western  Asia, 
is  the  familiar  species.  It  extends  in 
its  distribution  over  Southern  Europe, 
and  is  said  even  to  exist  in  Siberia. 
These  birds  breed  freely  in  a  domesti- 
cated state.  The  pheasant  will  inter- 
breed with  the  common  fowl,  the 
Guinea  fowl,  and  even  with  the  black 
grouse;  and  there  are  white  and  pied 
Tarieties  of  the  common  species.  The 
hvbrid  produced  by  the  union  of  a  cock- 
pheasant  with  the  common  ben  is  termed  a 


Phereoydet 

pen.  Other  species  inhabiting  Southern 
Asia  and  the  EJastem  Archipelago  are 
the  Diard's  pheasant  of  Japan  (P.  ver- 
«tco/or)  ;  Reeve's  pheasant  (P.  venera- 
tua)  of  China ;  and  SOmmering'a  pheas- 
ant (P.  Sommeringii),  found  in  Japan, 
lliere  are  various  others  often  put  in  dif- 
ferent genera,  as  the  firebacks,  birds  of 
rich  plumage,  natives  of  Siam  and  the 
adjaceut  islands;  the  silver  pheasants 
(genus  Euplocimua),  of  China,  Burmah, 
and  various  parts  of  India,  with  a  gen- 
erally white  plumage,  the  feathers 
marked  with  fine  black  lines;  the  golden 
pheasant  of  Tibet  and  China,  the  type 
of  tlie  genus  Thaumalea.  It  is  noted 
for  its  brilliant  colors  and  magnificent 
crest.  See  also  Argua  Pheaaant,  Impey 
Pheaaant,  Tragopan. 

Pheasant's  Eye.    ^^^  ^**«'"*- 
Pheasant  Shell  (^*o«»«"ei'o).     » 

^.uwuBwuii  wuvu  gpnus  of  gasterop- 
odous  molluscs,  found  in  South  America, 
India,  Australia,  the  Mediterranean, 
etc.  The  shell  is  spiral  and  obovate,  the 
outside  polished  and  richly  colored. 
PhelDS  (f^lpz)*  Edward  John,  diplo- 
"  matist,  was  bom  at  Middlebury, 
Vermont,  in  1822;  died  in  1900.  Ee  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Yale  in  1881, 
was  United  States  minister  to  England 
1885-80,  and  one  of  the  counsel  for  this 
country  in  the  Behring  Sea  arbitration 
of  1893. 

Phenic  Acid,  STdd.  ^"  """" 
Phenomenalism  /.^aTsTs'ttrilThu 

losophy  which  inquires  only  into  the 
causes  of  existing  phenomena.  The  scep- 
tical phenomenalism  of  Hume  is  now  rep- 
resented by  Poailiviam.  A  phenomenalist 
does  not  believe  in  an  invariable  connec- 
tion between  cause  and  effect,  but  holds 
this  generally  acknowledged  relation  to  be 
nothing  more  than  a  habitually  observed 
sequence. 

Phenylamine  <.1«S,-„T  ^  *    ^'"°* 

Phers  (fe're),  an  ancient  city  of 
Thessaly,  which  under  the 
rule  of  tyrants  of  its  own  became  a 
controlling  power  of  the  whole  of  Thes- 
saly, and  for  long  made  its  influence  felt 
in  the  affairs  of  Greece.  In  3,'>2  B.  c. 
it  became  sulgect,  with  the  rest  of  Thes- 
saly, to  Philip  of  Macedon. 

Pherecydes  il^^SS\,\?^i 

century  a  c,  a  native  of  the  island  of 
Syros,  and  a  contemporary  of  Thales. 
He  is  said  to  have  taught  the  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis,  or  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  and  to  have  been  the  in- 


Fhidiu 


Philadelpliia 


•tractor     of     Pythagoraa.    Some     fraf- 
menta  of  hia  work  are  extant. 
P1ii#liaa    (fid'l-aa),  a  celebrated  Greek 
CMiJUium   i^uiptor,  who  was  born  about 
400  B.O.,   and   flourished   in   the   age  of 
Periclea,   but  of  whose   life  hardly   any 
particulars  are  known.    Among  his  works 
were  three  statues  of  Atheua  which  were 
all  in  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  in  the  time 
of    Paosanias.    One    colossal    statue    of 
Athena  was  in  bronze,  and  the  goddess 
waa  represented  as  a  warrior-goddess  in 
the  attitude  of  battle.     The  second  and 
Btil*  more  famous  stood  in  the  Parthenon, 
and  was  made  of  ivory  and  gold,  repre- 
senting Athena  standing  with  a  spear  in 
one  hand  and  an  image  of  Victory  in  the 
other;   it   measured,   with    the   pedestal, 
about    41)    feet    in    height.     The    third 
statue,  in  bronze,  of  a  smaller  size,  was 
called    emphatically    the    beautiful,    on 
account    of     its    exquisite    proportions. 
Another  colossal  statue  by  Phidias,  that 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  was  ranked  for  its 
l>eauty  among  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
Zeus    was    here    seen    sitting    upon    a 
throne,    with    an   olive    wreath    of    gold 
about  his  temples ;  Ihe  upper  part  of  his 
body  was  naked;  a  wide  mantle,  cover- 
ing   the   rest   of    it,   hung   down    in    the 
richest  folds  to  his  feet,  which  rested  on 
a    footstool.     The    naked    parts    of    the 
statue  were  of  ivory,   the  dress  was  of 
beaten    gold.    The    right    hand    held    a 
Victory,   and   the   left   a   scepter   tipped 
with  the  eagle.    The  Zeus  was  removed 
to  Corstantfnople  by  Theodosius  I,  and 
was  destroyed  by  Are  in  475  a.  d.    During 
the  government  of  Pericles,  which  lasted 
twenty  years,  Athens  vas  adorned  with 
costly    temples,    colonnades,    and    other 
works     of     art.     Phidias     superintended 
these  improvements;   and  the  sculptures 
with  .which  the  Parthenon,  for  instance, 
among    other    buildings,     was    adorned, 
were  partly  his  own  work,  and  partly  in 
the   spirit    and    after    the   ideas   of    this 
great  master.     Of  the  merits  of  these  we 
can   ourselves  judge.     (See   Elgin   Mar- 
hlet,  Parthenon.)     Phidias  received  great 
honors   from    the   Athenians,    but    he    is 
also  said    to   have   been    falsely    accused 
of  peculation,  and  of  impiety  for  putting 
his   own    likeness    and    that    of    Pericles 
Oa  the  shield  of  Athena.    He  died  proba- 
bly about  B.  c.  432. 

Pllio'fllifl.  (f6-84-lf'y4).  a  city  of  an- 
x-lugiuiH.    jjignj    Greece    in    the    most 

mountainous  part  of  Arcadia.  On  one 
of  the  mountains.  Mount  Cotylium,  to 
the  northeast  of  the  site  of  Phigalia,  is 
situated  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius, 
built  in  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  by  Ictinus,  the  architect  of  the  Par- 
thenon at  Athens,  and  still  one  of  th« 

12— U--6 


best-preserved  temples  in  Greece.  The 
frieze,  which  was  usually  on  the  exterior 
of  the  temple,  was  here  in  the  interior, 
and  with  the  metopes  waa  of  Parian 
marble.  It  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  is  quite  complete,  consist- 
ing of  23  slabs  of  marble  2  feet  high, 
carved  in  high  relief,  the  whole  being 
101  feet  long.  The  subjects  are  the 
battle  of  the  LaplthiB  and  the  Centaurs, 
and  that  between  the  Amazons  and  the 
Greeks,  the  school  being  that  of  Phiuiaa. 

Philadelphia  iSf^t^'e'it/^of^RiS^ 

tine,  east  of  the  Jordan,  originally  Rab- 
bath-Ammon,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Ammonites.  (2)  An  important  city  in 
the  east  of  Lydia.     See  Ala-Shehr. 

Philadelphia,  »,<=S  ff^lt^'s'ta^ej 

in  Pennsylvania,  ranks  as  the  third  larg- 
est city  in  the  Union.     It  is  situated  on 
the  rivers  Delaware  and  Schuylkill,  and, 
following   the  course   of   Delaware   Bay 
and  River,  is  OG  miles  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.    New  York  lies  97  miles  to  the 
northeast  and  Washington  136  miles  to 
the  southwest.    The  site  is  nearly  flat, 
but  slopes  gently  towards  both  the  Dela- 
ware and  the  Schuylkill,    llie  houses  are 
largely  built  of  brick,  with  white  mar- 
ble   trimmings.     The    streats   were    orig- 
inally laid  out  so  as  to  run  nearly  due 
westward  from  the  Delaware,  intersected 
by  other  streets  running  nearly  north  and 
south,   and   still   almost  everywhere   the 
streets  cross  each  other  at  right  angles. 
Market  Street,   the  great  central  street 
running  east  and  west,  and  continuously 
built  upon  for  several  miles,  has  a  width 
of  100  feet;  Broad  Street,  the  principal 
central  street  running  north  and  south, 
is  built  upon  to  a  much  greater  length, 
and  is  113  feet  in  width.     Most  of  the 
other  chief  streets  vary  from  50  to  66 
feet  brond,  some   of  the  avenues,  how- 
ever,  being   much   wider.    An   extensive 
system  of  street  railway  extends  through 
nearly  all  the  wider  streets  with  subwas 
and  elevated   railway  extending  through 
the  entire  length  of  Market  Street.    A 
number  of  bridges,  for  railway  and  gen- 
eral traffic,  span  the  Schuylkill  and  a  reg- 
ular service  of  steam-ferries  across   the 
Delaware  affords  communication  with  the 
New  Jersey  side  oi  the  river.    Philadel- 
phia is  the  fortunate  possessor  of  several 
of  the  chht  historical  monuments  of  the 
United  States,  the  most  notable  of  these 
being  the  State  House,  containing  a  large 
room    called     Independence    Hail,    from 
the     circumstance     that     the     Declara- 
tion of   Independence   waa  signed   there 
(July  4,  1776).    The  Liberty  Bell,  said 
to  have  signaled  that  fact  to  the  peo- 


Fliiladelpliia 


lliiUdelphia 


pie.  U  prawrvcd  m  un  inv«luibl»  hiatorlc 
tr*a»ure.    Carpentere*  Hall,  in  which  the 
Brat  Confretia  met;  Chriat  Church,  which 
Washiniton  attended  while  Prertident,  and 
other  hlatoric  aitea,  are  aeduloualy   pre- 
aerved.    Among  the  other  notable  build- 
inn  are  the  cuatom-bouue,  a  white  marble 
edifice:   the  United  Statea  new  mint,  a 
granite-fronted  building ;  the  poat-office,  a 
large    and    handsome    granite    structure 
with  a  dome;  the  new  City  Hall,  having 
an  elevation  of  647  feet  and  surmounted 
by  a  colossal  statue  of  Penn;  Girard  Col- 
lege, a  fine  example  of  the  Corinthian 
style;  the  buildings  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania;  the  Memorial  and  Horti- 
cultural Halla  in  Fairmount  Park,  erected 
iu  187U  for  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  and 
still  retained;  many  handsome  churches, 
banks,  insurance  oCBces,  etc.    Charitable 
iustitntiona  are   numerous  and   efficient. 
The  educational  establishments  include  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  with  a  medi- 
cal   department;    the    Jefferson    Medical 
College;   the  Women's  Medical  College; 
the  Jledico-Chirurgical  College,  the  Hah- 
nemann College,  the  College  of  Pharmacy ; 
the  Academy   of  Hr.e  Arts;   the  Drexel 
Institute;  Temple  University;  the  School 
of    Industrial    Art;    the    School    of    De- 
sign for  Women;  the  Philadelphia  Muse- 
ums; numeroua  colleges  and  educational 
institutirins     aupported     by     the     relig- 
ious denominationa ;  Girard  College,  de- 
voted to  the  secular  education  of  orphan 
boys;  and  the  public  achoola.    Many  of 
the  above  institutions  possess  extensive 
and    valuable    librariea,    in    addition    to 
which  are  the  large  collections  belonging 
to  the  Philadelphia  Library,  the  Mercan- 
tile Library,  the  Free  Library,  with  its 
many  branches,  the  University  and  the 
Academy  of  Science  libraries,  and  varioua 
others:  while  Philadelphia  is  one  of  the 
recognized  centers  of  literary    dramatic, 
and  artistic  culture.    Scientific  progress 
18  represented  by  the  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural   Sciences,    the    Franklin    Institute, 
the  Philosophical  Society,  Historical  So- 
ciety,   etc.     In    addition    to    the    public 
squares   the  chief   place   of  outdoor  re- 
creation   is    Fairmount    Park,    with    an 
area  of  over  3000  acres,  possessing  much 
natural  beauty,  being  well  wooded,  and 
having   a   great   variety   of   surface.    A 
handsome  Parkway,  adorned   with  mag- 
nificent buildings,  is  projarted  to  connect 
the  park  entrance  with   the  City   HalL 
The   principal   places   of   indoor   amuse- 
ments  are    the    opera    houses,    theaters, 
numerous    concert-rooms,    etc.    Philadel- 

Shia  ranks  high  as  a  center  of  foreign,  in- 
ind,  and  coasting  trade.  The  leading 
articiea  of  export  are  grain,  provisions, 
petroleum,  anthracite  and  gas-coal,  iron 


and  iroo-wares,  lumber,  tobacco,  and  cot- 
ton (raw  and  manufactured).    The  prin- 
cipal importa  conaist  of  cotton,  woolen, 
and  flax  goods,  tin-plate,  iron  and  iron- 
ore,  chemicals,  etc    The  river  channel  is 
being  deepened  so  that  the  largest  mer- 
chant   ships    may    reach    the    wharves. 
Philadelphia    la   the   firat   manufacturins 
city  in  the  United  States,  the  carpet  in- 
dustry  being  the  largest  in  the  country. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  locomotive 
industry,  the   largest  in  the  world,  and 
also  of  the  shipbuilding  industry  of  the 
city  and  its  environs.     The  other  leading 
manufactures  are  iron  and  steel,  machin- 
ery   and    toola,    refined    sugar,    clothing, 
boots  and  shoes,  brewery  products,  chem- 
icals, household  furniture,  and  a  great  va- 
riety besides. —  Philadelphia  was  founded 
and  named  by  William  Penn  in  1({82  as 
the   capital    of    his   colony    of    Pennsyl- 
vania.    For  a   long  time   it   was  almost 
exclusively    occupied    and    controlled    by 
puakers.     Many   of  its   most   important 
improvements    were    due     to    Benjamin 
•Franklin,  and   it   played  a   most  promi- 
nent part  during  tne  Revolutionary  war. 
In    May-November,     1870     (a     hundred 
years  after  the  issue  of  the  Declaration 
of   Independence),  a   Centennial    Exhibi- 
tion, the  first  World's  Fair  in  the  United 
States,  was  held  on  the  grounds  at  the 
southwest  extremity  of  Fairmount  Park. 
It  was  a  large  and  imposing  display  of 
art  and  industry  and  baa  left  the  city  two 
well-filled    structures,    the    Horticultural 
and  Memorial  halls.     The  city  has  mag- 
nificent railroad  terminals.     The  Pennsyl- 
vania    Railroad     station,     completed     in 
1894,  is  of  modern  Gothic,  absolutely  fire- 
proof;  the  train  shed  is  one  of  the  largest 
single  spans  ever  constructed,  being  304 
ft.,  covering  sixteen  tracks.    The  Phila- 
delphia &  Reading  Railroad  termipal  is 
of  composite   Renaissance,   and   built  of 
New  England  granite,  brick,  and  terra- 
cotta.   The  train  shed  has  a  clear  span 
of  266  ft.,  covering  thirteen  tracks.    Of 
more  recent  construction  is  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  Railroad   terminal,  a   handsome 
structure.    All  these  run,  by  underground 
or  elevated  tracks,  to  the  center  of  the 
city.    No  cit;   in  the  Union  is  better  pro- 
vided with  freight  terminals  than  Phila- 
delphia.   The  area  of  the  municipality  is 
130  sq.  miles,  embracing  the  whole  county. 
Of    tbia    a    considerable    portion    in    the 
northern  section  is  rural  in  character,  but 
the  grea    r  part  of  the  area  is  closely 
built  ovei.   the  city  containing  an  enor- 
mous number  of  well-built  two-story  resi- 
dences  for  people  of  small   means.     In 
this  respect  there   is  no  other  city  iti 
equal,  and  it  has  well  been  called  a  '  city 
of  homes.'    Pop.  1,540,006. 


Philemon 


Fnilemon    j»^oi.  to.  one  of  the  books 

ot  the  New  TetUmcnt.  This  epistle, 
according  to  the  prevalent  opinion,  was, 
toietber  with  the  Epistles  to  the  Epbe- 
sisns,  Colossians,  and  Pbilipplsns.  wrlt- 
tenfrom  Rome  during  St.  Pauls  first 
imprisonment  in  that  city.  The  only 
doubt  thrown  on  this  opinion  by  those 
who  accept  the  genuineness  of  the  epistles 
is  contained  in  the  tuggestion  supported 
by  Meyer  and  others,  that  tbeat  epistles 
were  written  during  the  apostle's  iDipris- 
onment  at  Cesarea.  The  genuinAess 
and  authenticity  of  Philemon  is  ques- 
tioned  by  very  few  critics. 

Philetas  of  Cos  J«'f,*";„'/  X' 

flourished  between  350  and  200  b.c.  He 
wrote  elegies,  epigrams,  and  prose  gram- 
matical works,  lie  was  preceptor  to 
Ptolemy  Philadeiphus,  and  a  favorite 
model  of  Theocritus.  Fragments  of  his 
poems  are  extant.  ^        . 

Philidor  (fil'i-dor),  Francois  Aifpaft 
f  uuiuui  danican,  a  French  musical 
composer  and  celebrated  chess  player; 
bom  in  1726;  died  in  1705.  In  early 
youth  he  was  a  chorister  in  the  chapel 
of  Louis  XV,  and  afterwards  supported 
Limtself  as  a  teacher  and  copier  of  music. 
He  traveled  in  Holland.  Germany.  Eng- 
land, etc.,  and  in  1753,  when  in  England, 
he  set  Dryden's  Ode  for  St.  Cccilia'a  Day 
to  music.  He  had  while  here  devoted  his 
attention    principally    to   chess ;  _  and   he 

f;ained  extended  fame  from  having  pub- 
ished  his  analysis  of  the  game,  which  is 
still  referred  to  as  an  authority.  On  his 
return  to  Prance,  in  1754.  he  produced 
about  twenty  operas  at  the  Op4ra  Co- 
mique.  He  went  to  London  in  1779, 
where  he  produced  the  music  to  Horace's 
Carmen  Seculare,  his  best  work.  Having 
been  pensioned  for  his  services  he  aban- 
doned musical  composition  nltogetber,  in 
17S8,  in  order  to  give  himself  up  entirely 
to  chess. 

PliiliTi  (fil'Jp).  one  of  the  twelve 
xiuuj^  apostles,  according  to  John's 
gospel  *of  Bethsaida,  the  city  of  Andrew 
and  Peter,'  and  who  was  called  to  follow 
Jesus  at  Bethany.  After  the  resurrec- 
tion he  was  present  at  the  election  of 
Matthias  to  the  apostleship,  but  is  not 
again  mentioned.  In  the  Western  church 
he  is  commemorated  on  May  1. —  PuiUP 
THE  EvANQEUST,  Often  confoundcd  with 
the  above,  is  first  mentioned  in  Acts  yi,  5. 
He  preached  at  Smyrna,  where  Simon 
Magna  was  one  of  his  converts;  baptized 
the  Ethiopian  eunuch;  entertained  Paul 
and  his  companion  on  their  way  to  Jeru- 
salem, when  '  he  had  four  daofbtera  which 
did  prophecy.' 


PhiUpH 

Pliilin  TT     King   of    Mactdon,    Uw 
rniUp  11,    moat    famous  of   the   flv« 


Macedonian  kings  of  this  name,  and  tha 
father  of   Alexander   the   Great,    was   « 
Bon  of  Amyntaa  II.  born  B.c.  382.    He 
passed  a  portion  of  liis  early  years  in 
Thebes,  where  he  became  well  acquainted 
with  Greek  literature  and  politics,  and 
succeeded  bis  elder  brother,  Perdiccas,  In 
300.     His  position  at  tirst  was  not  very 
secure,  but  as  he  had   few  scruples  and 
was  a  man  of  the  highest  talents  both 
for  war  and  diplomacy,  in  a  sliort  time 
he   bad    firmly   established   himself,   had 
reorganized    the   Macedonian   army,   and 
proceeded  to  extend  his  sway  beyond  his 
own  kingdom.     His  ambition  was  to  make 
himself,   in  the   first   place,  supreine   in 
Greece,  and  to  accomplish  this  he  began 
by  seizing  the  Greek  towns  on  his  bor- 
ders: Ampliipolis,  which  gave  him  access 
to  the  gold-mines  of  Mount  Pangffus,  Po- 
tidwa,  Olynthus,  etc.    The  *  sacred  war ' 
carried  on  by  the  Amphictyonic  council 
against  the  Phociuns  gave  Philip  his  first 
opportunity  for  interfering  directly  in  the 
affairs  of  Greece.     (See  Greece.)     After 
the  capture  of  Methone  —  the  last  pos- 
session of  the  Athenians  on   the  Mace- 
donian   coast  —  between    354    and    352. 
Philip  made  himself  master  of  Thessaly, 
and    endeavored    to    force    the    pass    of 
ThermopyliB,    but    was    repulsed    by    the 
Athenians:  Philip,  however,  compensated 
himself  by  equipping  a  navy  to  harass  the 
Athenian   commerce.     T'he   terror   of  his 
name  now  provoked  the  *  Philippics '  of 
Demosthenes,    who  endeavored   to   rouse 
the  people  of  Athens  to  form  a  general 
league  of  the  Greeks  against  him;  but 
by  346  he  was  master  of  the  Phocian 
cities  and  of  the  pass  of  Thermopyls,  and 
as  general  to  the  Amphictyonic  council  he 
was  the  crowned  protector  of  the  Grecian 
faith.     In  the  spirit  proper  to  his  office  he 
marched  into  Greece  to  punish  the  Locri- 
ans  for  an  act  of  profanity;  but  instead 
he  seized  the  city  of  Elatea,  and  began 
to  fortify  it.     Demosthenes  now  exerted 
all   bis   eloquence   and   statesmanship   to 
raise  the  ancient  spirit  of  Grecian  Inde- 
pendence, and  a  powerful  army  was  soon 
in  the   field,  but  beinjf  without  able  or 
patriotic  commanders  it  was  defeated  at 
the    decisive    battle    of    Cbwroneia     in 
August,  338  &  c.    After  this  last  straggle 
for    freedom    Philip    was    acknowledged 
chief  of  the  whole  Hellenic  world,  and 
at  a   congress  held   at  Corinth   he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  Greek  forces, 
and  was  to  organize  an  expedition  against 
Persia.     While  preparing  for  this  enter- 
pHse  he  was  murdered  in  336  b.  c,  some 
say  at  the  instigation  of  hi*  wife  01yi«- 


^ 


I 


Pliilip  I 

Pllilin  I     King  of  France,  son   of 

and  ■ucGcedcd  to  tb«  throne  under  tli« 
faardiaubip  of  Baldwin  V,  count  of 
Flanden,  in  1000.  The  Norman  conquest 
of  England  tooic  place  in  hia  reign,  and 
b*  supported  Prince  Robert,  eon  of  the 
Conqueror,  in  his  revolt  against  his 
father.  He  was  a  worthless  debauchee 
and  was  detested  bj  his  subjects.  He 
died  in  1108. 

Philip  11,  A^<»U»JU»N  Ki°«  0' 
*uAU|r  A^f    France,    born    1105,    was 

crowned  as  successor  during  the  lifetime 
of  his  father,  Louis  VII,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1180.  One  of  bis  first  measures 
was  the  banishment  of  the  Jews  from  the 
Itingdom,  and  the  confiscation  of  their 
property.  Philip  next  endeavored  to  re- 
press the  tyranny  and  rapacity  of  the 
nobles,  which  he  effected  partly  by  art 
and  partly  by  force.  In  1100  he  em- 
barked at  Genoa  on  a  cruHade  to  the  Holy 
Land,  where  be  met  Richard  Ca'ur  de 
Lion,  who  was  engaged  in  the  same  cause 
in  Sicily.  The  jealousies  and  disputes 
which  divided  the  two  kings  induced 
Philip  to  return  home  the  next  year. 
He  invaded  Normandy  during  Richard's 
captivity  (1103),  confiscated  the  posses- 
sions of  King  John  in  France  after  the 
death  of  Prince  Arthur  (1203),  prepared 
to  invade  England  at  the  instance  of  the 
pope  (1213),  turned  his  arms  against 
Flanders  and  gained  the  celebrated  battle 
of  Bonvines  (1214).     He  died  in  1223. 

Philip  m,   ?"y?<J  ^''«  ^""^h  King 
'   "*^J  of   France,   wos   the   son 

of  Louis  IX  and  Margaret  of  Provence. 
He  was  born  in  1245,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  1270.  In  1271  he  possessed 
himself  of  Toulouse  on  the  death  of  his 
uncle,  Alphonso ;  in  1272  he  repressed  the 
revolt  of  Roger,  count  of  F'oix,  and  in 
1276  sustained  a  war  against  Alphonso 
X,  king  of  Castile.  The  invasion  of 
Sicily  by  Peter  of  Aragon,  and  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  French,  known  as  '  the 
Sicilian  vespers,'  caused  him  to  make  war 
against  that  prince,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  died.  1285. 

Philip  rV  i^=  B*^)'  King  of 
*  "*"*'  *  '  France,  was  born  in  1268, 
and  succeeded  his  father  in  1285.  He 
liad  already  married  Joanna,  queen  of 
Navarre,  by  which  alliance  he  added 
Champagne  as  well  as  Navarre  to  the 
royal  domain,  which  he  made  it  his  policy 
still  further  to  IncreaHe  at  the  expense 
of  the  great  vassals.  He  even  attempted 
to  take  Quienne  from  Edward  I  of  Eng- 
land, but  afterwards  entered  into  an  alli- 
ance with  that  monarch,  and  gave  him 
bis  daughter  in  marriage  (1299),  from 
wUch  originated  the  claim  of  Edward  III 


Phmp  n 

OB  the  crown  of  Franc*.  H«  was  long 
engaged  in  war  with  Flanders,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  accession  of  the  Walloon 
territory  to  France,  and  the  restoration 
of  the  rest  of  Flanders  to  its  count  on 
condition  of  feudal  homage.  Philip  had 
b«en  engaged  at  the  same  time  in  a  vio- 
lent dispute  with  Pope  Boniface  VI 11, 
in  which  he  waa  supported  by  the  States- 
general,  and  he  publicly  burned  the 
pope's  bull  excommunicating  bim.  On 
the  death  of  Boniface  and  of  Benedict 
XI,  Clement  V,  who  succeeded  the  latter, 
was  elected  by  the  influence  of  Philip, 
and  fixed  his  residence  at  Avignon. 
Clement  before  hia  election  entered  into 
a  regular  treaty  as  to  the  terms  on  which 
he  should  receive  the  pontificate.  The 
destruction  of  the  order  of  the  Templars 
(1307-12),  and  the  seizure  by  the  king 
of  their  goods  and  estates,  was  one  of 
the  fruits  of  this  alliance.  Philip  left 
numerous  ordinances  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  kingdom,  which  mark  the 
decline  of  feudalism  and  the  growth  of 
the  royal  power.  He  also  convoked  and 
consulted  the  States-general  for  the  first 
time.     He  died  in  1314. 

Philip  VI,  2.*'  VALOI8.  King  of 
*»***i'  » *»  France,  was  the  nephew 
of  Philip  IV,  to  whose  last  son,  Charles 
IV,  be  succeeded  in  virtue  of  the  Salique 
law.  He  was  born  in  1203,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown  In  1328.  In  his 
reign  occurred  the  wars  with  Edward 
III  of  England,  who  claimed  the  French 
crown  as  grandson,  by  his  mother,  of 
Philip  IV  (see  above  article).  Philip 
died  in  1350.  His  reign  was  unfortunate 
for  France  by  the  long  war  which  it 
inaugurated,  known  in  France  as  the 
Hundred  Years'  war;  and  he  has  left 
an  evil  memory  by  his  persecutions  of 
Jews  and  heretics,  his  confiscations  and 
exactions. 

Philip  IL  SJf  Spain,  was  the  son  of 
xuiup  XX,  Charles  V  and  Isabella  of 
Portugal,  and  was  born  at  Valladolid  in 
1527.  He  was  married  in  succession  to 
the  Princess  Mary  of  Portugal  in  1543, 
and  to  Mary  of  England  in  1554,  the 
same  year  in  which  he  became  king  of 
Naples  and  Sicily  by  the  abdication  of  his 
father.  In  1555  his  father  resolved  to 
abdicate  the  sovereignty  of  the  Nether- 
lands in  Philip's  favor.  This  was  done 
in  public  assembly  at  Brussels  on  October 
25,  1555 :  and  on  January  16,  155C,  in  the 
same  hall,  he  received,  in  presence  of  the 
Spanish  grandoes  then  in  the  Netherlands, 
the  ci-own  of  Spain,  with  its  possessions 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  His  first 
act  was  to  propose  a  truce  with  France, 
which  waK  broken  almost  as  soon  as  con- 
cluded.   In   .1566  be   went   to   England, 


PhiUpn 


PhiUp  V 


wben  he  wu  refuMd  th*  ctremony  of  • 
eolouUon  and  the  troopa  that  bt  d«- 
mandcd  in  aid  of  bis  war  with  Franc*. 
TbcM,  however,  were  at  length  conceded 
to  him  by  Mary,  in  violation  of  her  mar* 
riafe  articles,  and  the  levy,  Joined  to  the 
army  of  Emanuel  Phillbert,  duke  of 
Savoy,  and  Count  Egmont,  assisted  to 
gain  the  battle  of  St.  Quintin,  August 
10,  1567.  On  the  death  of  Mary,  in 
1668,  Philip,  who  wes  still  prosecuting 
the  war,  made  proposals  of  marriage  to 
her  successor,  Elizabeth,  and  was  re- 
fused. In  1550  the  French  war  was  con- 
cluded by  the  peace  of  Catoau-Cambr^Mis 
anti  the  marriage  of  Philip  to  Elisabeth 
of  France,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  rhilip 
then  finally  left  the  Netherlands,  having 
appointed  his  half-sister  Margaret  sov- 
ereign of  the  provinces,  his  main  object 
in  retiming  to  Spain  being  to  checii  the 
prf^resa  which  the  Ueformation  had  made 


Philip  II    of  Spain. 

there.  On  his  arrival  in  his  native  coun- 
try he  had  the  setisf action  of  l>eing 
present  at  an  auto-de-f6;  and  a  few  yearr 
perseverance  in  similar  measures  extin- 
guished the  cause  of  the  Reformation, 
together  with  the  spirit  of  freedom  and 
enterprise  in  Spain.  The  cause  of  re- 
ligion in  France  was  also  a  constant 
subject  of  solicitude  with  Philip.  In 
Naples,  as  in  Spain,  his  zeal  led  him  to 
persecute  the  Protestants;  but  it  was  in 
the  Netherlands  that  his  tyranny  and  ob- 
stinacy had  their  most  disastrous,  though 
ultimately  fortunate,  results.  In  1556 
the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  began,  end- 
ing eventually  in  the  separation  of  the 
seven  northern  provinces  from  the  crown 
of  Spain,  and  their  formation  into  the 
Dutch  republic.  This  struggle  lasted 
about  thirty  years,  till  the  close  of  Phil- 
ip's reicn.    The  events  of  this  protracted 


atraggle  were  varied  in  1567  by  a  domaa* 
tic  tragedy  —  the  rebellion,  arreat,  and 
suspicious  death  of  Don  Carlos,  th*  son 
of  Philip  and  his  first  wife  Mary  of 
Portngal.    Shortly  afterwards  he  lost  the 

aueen  Elizabeth,  his  third  wife,  and 
tout  the  same  time  the  Moors  of  Gra- 
nada revolted,  whose  subjugation  was 
effected  in  1570.  In  1571  the  Arch- 
duchess Anne  of  Austria  became  his 
fourth  wife,  and  the  same  year  his  nat- 
ural 1  rother,  Don  John  of  Austria,  ob- 
tained the  great  naval  victorv  of  Lepanto 
over  the  Turks.  In  1580  hia  troops  un- 
der Alva  subdued  Portufal,  of  which, 
and  all  its  dependencies.  Philip  now  be- 
came sovereign.  Alxtut  this  time  be  found 
political  motives  for  intriguing  with  the 
Huguenots  in  France,  and  twice  in  1582 
made  offers  of  assistance  to  Henrv,  King 
of  Navarre.  In  1584  he  renewed  bis  alli^ 
ance  with  the  League,  in  order  to  oppose 
the  succession  of  Uenry  to  the  crown  of 
France.  In  1580  Philip  declared  war 
with  England.  The  year  1588  saw  the 
destruction  of  the  Armada  and  the  de- 
scent of  Spain  from  her  position  as  a 
first-class  power  in  Europe.  The  remain- 
der of  his  reign  was  occupied  with  war 
and  intrigues  with  France,  but  in  1508 
the  Peace  of  Vervins  was  concluded. 
Philip  showed  some  disposition  at  the 
same  time  to  make  peace  with  England 
and  the  Netherlands,  but  his  offers  were 
not  accepted,  and  he  died  in  1508  without 
recognizing  the  independence  of  the  latter 
country  or  being  reconciled  to  the  former. 
Before  his  death  he  had  bestowed  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
on  his  daughter  Isabella,  subject  to  the 
crown  of  Spain. 

Philin  V   o'  Spaix,  the  first  Spaaiik 
xmup    V,  ^jjjjj   ^j,   jjjg   Bourbon   dy. 

nasty,  was  bom  at  Versailles  in  1683: 
died  in  1746.  He  was  the  grandson 
Louis  XIV  of  France,  and  succeeded  to 
the  crown  of  Spain  by  the  will  of  Cbartes 
II,  who  died  without  direct  heirs,  as  the 
grandson  of  Charles'  elder  sister.  Ob 
the  death  of  Charles  in  November,  1700, 
Philip  was  immediately  proclaimed  king, 
and  was  generally  recognized  in  Spain, 
Naples,  and  the  Netherlands ;  but  the  suc- 
cession was  contested  by  the  Archduke 
Charles  of  Austria,  whose  claim  was  en- 
forced by  the  armies  of  England,  Holland, 
and  Austria  in  the  wars  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  which  began  in  1702.  By  tba 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  he  was  recog- 
nized as  King  of  Spain,  but  Gibraltar  was 
lost  to  Spain,  Minorca  was  also  ceded  to 
England,  Sicily  to  Savoy,  the  Nether- 
lands, Naples,  and  the  Milanese  to  Aus- 
tria. He  married  Elisabeth  Faroese, 
niece  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  in  171^ 


I 


li 


PhiUp 

And  Albermii,  tb«  mlottttr  of  tht  Dak* 
of  Parma  in  Spain,  btcam*  prima-min- 
iater.  Aa  PiiUip  liad  a  aon  by  hia  firat 
wifa,  tlM  daugbter  of  tba  Duke  of  Baroy, 
tlia  cliildren  of  Eliiabetli  could  not  aue- 
cacd  to  tlic  crown  of  Mpain.  Eliiabetli 
wiahcd  to  provide  for  them  in  Italy,  and 
tven  eoreted  tbe  reveraion  of  the  crown 
of  France.  Tbeae  pretvnaiooa  formed  tbe 
baaia  of  ■chemea  on  Alberoni'a  part  which 
alienated  France  and  led  to  the  Triple 
Alliance,  formed  in  1717  by  Qreat 
Britain,  France,  and  Holland  against 
Spam,  and  which  waa  aftcrwarda  merged 
by  tbe  acceaaion  of  Auatria  into  the 
Quadruple  Alliance.  The  invaaion  of 
Sp^in  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick  compelled 
Philip  to  accede  to  the  terma  of  the  alli- 
ance. In  1724  PhillD  resigned  the  crown 
of  Spain  in  favor  of  his  aon  Don  Lrfiuia, 
but  toe  death  of  Louis  a  few  montha  later 
induced  him  to  reaume  the  royal  power, 
lie  died  in  1740,  after  a  reign  of  forty- 
six  years.  Philip  was  constantly  gov- 
erned by  favorites,  and  his  constitutional 
melancholy  at  last  completely  incapaci- 
tated him  for  business. 
Philin  ^H*  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
jrmu|f,   ^^  ,^  J342,  was  the  fourth 

son  of  John,  king  of  France.  He  fought 
at  Poltiera  (135U),  where,  according  to 
Froissart,  he  acquired  the  surname  of  the 
Bold.  He  shared  his  father's  captivity  in 
England,  and  on  hia  return  his  father, 
whose  favorite  be  was,  made  him  Duke 
of  Touraine,  gave  him  he  Duchy  of 
Burgundy,  and  made  him  premier  peer  of 
France.  He  was  one  of  tbe  most  power- 
fnl  French  princes  during  the  minority 
of  Charles  VI,  during  whose  insanity  he 
acted  as  regent,  retaining  the  regency  till 
his  death  in  1404. 

Philin  I  (TnEMAOWAiaiiouB),Land- 
*  ^^*^  *  grave  of  Hesse,  born  in  1504. 
.  e  began  to  reign  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
and  introduced  the  Lutheran  religion  into 
Hesse  in  152U.  In  1527  be  founded  the 
University  of  Marburg,  subscribed  the 
protestation  to  the  Diet  of  Spires  in  1529, 
submitted  the  Confession  of  Faith  at 
Augsburg  in  1530,  and  in  1531  formed 
wi'h  tbe  Protestant  princes  the  Schmal- 
kaiden  League.  He  was  forced  to  sub- 
mit to  the  Emperor  Charles  V  in  1547, 
who  kept  him  a  prisoner  for  fiv3  years. 
After  bis  return  to  his  dominions  he  sent 
a  body  of  auxiliaries  to  assist  the  French 
Huguenots.     He  died  in  15<J7 


Philiphaugh  /."'te'ni'rtlg 

f«w.  of  Selkirk,  the  scene  of  Sir  David 
Leslie's  victory  over  the  Marquis  of  Mon- 
trose, September  13,  1645.  A  monument 
marks  the  field. 


PMlippiitet 

Philipperille   ('■'''^  /"V  •  .^*r  •»> 

provinc*  and  89^  mUea  if.MJi  of  Con- 
Btantina.  It  waa  founded  in  1887,  ia  well 
laid  out,  baa  stvtral  spacious  sqaaraa  and 
tine  atreeta;   la  connected   by   mil   with 

..""''fPH"*'  OB^  ****  conaiderabia  trad*. 
Pop.  (190U)  10,388. 

Philippi  (fl'-«P'J),  a  city  of  Mace- 
u  ,.L7.r  donia,  now  In  rulna.  founded 
by  Philip  of  Macedon  about  b.0.  85& 
Iha  two  battlen  fought  in  b.o.  42,  which 
resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  Brutua  and 
Cassiua  by  Antonv  and  Octaviua,  were 
fought  here.  Philippi  waa  viaited  on  aav- 
eiaf  occasions  by  the  apoatle  Paul;  who 
addressed  to  the  church  there  (ma  of  his 
opixtles. 

PhiliDDlani   (fl>-ip'i-«n«).    e^isim 

*  ~r*^',  .  .  TO  THE,  one  of  St 
Paul'a  epistles,  is  supposed  to  have  bean 
written  from  Rome  towards  the  close  of 
his  first  imprisonment  there,  about  A.D. 
03.  Some  authorities  suppose  it  to  have 
been  written  in  Csearea.  Tbe  genuine- 
ness of  this  epistle  has  lieen  little  que*- 
tioned.  It  ia  referred  to,  though  not 
quoted,  in  tbe  epistle  of  PoIyca:-p  and  by 
Tertullian  and  other  early  fathers. 
Lpophroditus,  who  conveyed  it,  was  the 
mesaenger  of  the  Philippians  to  Paul,  and 
had  been  ill  at  Rome,  which  had  been  a 
cause  of  anxiety  to  the  Philippians.  Paul, 
therefore,  hast«ned  his  return,  and  aent 
this  epistle  by  him. 

PMUddIcS  <  fi'-*P'*ka ) ,  the  name  given 
.^^*1*^  J  *®  f»>"'«  celebrated  ora- 
tlona  of  the  Greek  orator  Demoathenea 
against  Philip,  king  of  Macedon  (352- 
342  B.0.) .  This  name  was  also  applied 
to  Cicero's  fourteen  speeches  against  An- 
tony, and  it  has  hence  come  to  signify 
an  invective  in  general. 

PhiliDmnes  (fii''p-pfnz),  or  phiuf. 

±'l'*"v.o  p  I  J,  J.  Islands,  an  ar- 
chipelago under  United  States  control  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  northeast  of  Borneo, 
having  on  the  west  the  China  Sea,  on  the 
north  and  east  the  North  Pacific,  and  on 
the  south  the  Sea  of  Celebes;  area,  115,- 
026  square  miles;  pop.,  in  1903,  7,<S35.420. 
It  consists  of  about  1200  large  and  small 
islands.  Of  the  former  the  cbief  are 
Luzon,  Mindoro,  Snmar,  Panay,  Leyte, 
Cebu,  Negros,  Bohol.  Mindanao,  and 
Palawan  (Paragua).  Luson  is  the  oaly 
one  of  commercial  importance.  It  con- 
taina  the  capital,  Manila,  and  has  about 
half  tbe  population,  3.798.507.  The  shore 
linos  an«l  interna!  surface  of  the  larger 
inlands  are  extremely  rugged  and  irregu- 
lar. They  are  largely  of  volcanic  forroa- 
fon  and  are  traversed  by  irremilar  chains 
of  moantains,  trending  generally  ir.  and  a 


pliilippinM 


Th«  moontuia  rangM  ttn  clothed  with  « 

eiantie  aud  •▼er-tMining  veKctatioo,  and 
twecn   them   lie   extensive   bIoum   aud 
plains   of   the   richest   tropical    fmility, 
watered   by   numerous  lake*   and   rivers, 
which  afford  abundant  means  of  Irrin- 
tion  and  transport.     The  climate  on  the 
whole  Is  bcaltby,  but  hurricanes  are  com- 
mon.    Earthquakes     are     frequent,     and 
often    very    destructive.     The    principal 
ttgricultural  product  is  rice,  and  next  In 
importance  are  Huanr-cane,   tolincco,  nnd 
coffee.     Fibrous    plants    ore    also    abun- 
dtant,  and  uuiong   the  chief  of  these  are 
the  well-known  Manila  hea.p,  the  cotton- 
plant,  the  gomuti  palm,  ruuiee,  etc.     The 
pineapple  is  grown  both  for  its  fiber  and 
Its  fruit.     The  textile  protluctions  of  the 
Philippines,  the  work  of  the  native  irapu- 
lation,  are  considerable  in  number,  rang- 
ing from  the  delicate  and  costly  pina  mui- 
Una,  made  from   the  pineapple  fil>er,   to 
coarse  cottons.  Hacking,  and  the  mats  made 
of  Manila  hemp,  and    the    tiber    of    t'ae 
gomuti   palm.    The   Islands   are   rich   in 
minerals,    including   gold,   silver,   copper, 
lead,  iron,  quicksilver,  sulphur,  coal,  and 
i>etroleum,    but    they    are    little    worked. 
The  leading  industries  are  the  production 
and   manufacture   of   hemp,   tobacco  and 
cigars,     sugar,     copra,     distilling,     ship- 
building   and     lumbering.     The     foreign 
trade  Is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  foreign, 
especially  British  and  American,  mercan- 
tile  houses,   and   consists   principally    In 
the  export  of  sugar,  rice,   tol)nc<o,  Ma- 
nila hemp,  indigo,  coffee,  birds'-nests,  tre- 
pang,  sapan-wood,  dye-woo<l«.  hides,  rat- 
tans, mother-of-pearl,  gold-dust,  etc.,  and 
ir    Importing    wines    and    liquors,    food- 
stuffs, and  various  manufactured  articles. 
The   natives   are  of   diverse    origiu,   and 
represent    every    stage    of    development 
from  savagery  to  a  high  state  of  culture. 
Wild  tribes,  some  of  which  are  extremely 
ferocious,    still    haunt    the    mountaina 
The  chief   mountain  tribes  are  the    Ne- 
gritos, a  diminutive  negro-like  rar%   who 
nave  given  their  name  to  the  islarid  Ne- 
gros,  though  not  confine<l  to  it.     But  the 

?;reat  mass  of  the  inhabitants  ore  divided 
nto  the  Tagals,  Inhabiting  Luzon,  and 
the  Bisayans,  who  inhabit  the  other 
islands.  These  speak  respectively  the 
Tagal  and  BIsayan  tongues,  each  of  which 
has  a  variety  of  dialects.  Half-castes, 
Indo-European  and  Indo-Chinese,  en- 
gross much  of  the  business  and  wealth 
of  the  islands,  Spaniards  are  compara- 
tively few.  The  independent  tribes  are 
partly  Mohammedan  and  partly  heathen. 
The  largest  town  and  chief  seaport  as 
well  as  the  seat  of  government  la  Ma- 
nila. The  Phllinnines  were  discovered 
by  Muellan  in  1520-21.    In  1702  Ma- 


PhiUpi 

nlla  was  taken  and  for  a  si  .  ■     un*  held 
by  a  British  fleet.    On  May  1,  IMM,  dur- 
ing the  war   between   the   United   Htatea 
and  Spain,  an  American  fleet  under  (!om- 
mudore    Dewey    attacketl    and    destroyed 
the  Spanish  fleet,  and  on  August  13  the 
city  was   taken.     The   natives,   then    In 
revolt    against    Spain,    under   Aguinitldo, 
contlnue«l  In  arms  against  the  Americans 
and  a  war  resulte*!  which  continued  until 
March,  1001.   when   iVgulnaldo  was  c«p- 
turwl    and    the   native   troops    dispersed. 
The  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  had  left 
the  UiiitiHl   States  master  of  the  PhlU|»- 
pine    archipelago.      The    government    has 
fxerciswl  a  iir«it«>ctlvo  sovereignty  over  the 
iMlanclH,  with  a  view  to  their  ultimate  in- 
deiieiidcnce.     A  thorough  system  of  free 
Hcliools  has  been  introtluced,  railroads  are 
lielng  built  to  develop  the  resources  «)f  the 
UlundH.   and   free  trade  with  the  Unitwl 
States  has  been  granted.     In  addition  to 
this   a    Philippine  legislaturo   was  est.al>- 
lished  In  lOW.    And  in  1916  the  npiwint- 
ive  Philippine  Commission  of  nine  which 
had  formwl  the  upper  house  of  the  legls- 
lati'-e,   was   dlssoivetl   nnd   a    new   upper 
house  set  up  in  which  24  of  the  26  mem- 
bers are  chosen  by  th»'  electorate  of  elRhf 
or  nine  hundre<l  thousand  voters,  consist- 
ing of  all  males  able  to  write. 

PhilippOneS  <£|;'£;e«^e5  ln^^e 
seventeenth  century,  a  branch  of  the 
Koskolnicians,  and  ao  named  from  its 
founder,  Philip  Pustoswint.  They  de- 
cline to  serve  as  soldiers,  refuse  to  take 
oaths,  and  use  the  liturgy  of  the  ancient 
Ruaso-Oreek  Church. 

Phuippsburg  irasW'^ 

right  oank  of  the  Rhine.  16  miles  north 
of  Carlsruhe.  formerly  a  celebrated  im- 
perial fortress.  In  17a4  it  was  captnted 
by  the  French  under  the  Duke  of  Ber- 
wick  (who  loat  hia  life  here),  and  Its 
fortificationa  were  raxed  in  1800.  Pop. 
about  2500. 

Philina    «"'*p«).   Ambbojm,   a  poet 

x-xuups  g^j  dramatic  writer,  bom  of 
a  Leicester  family  in  1671 :  died  in  1749. 
*Ie  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
Jambridge,  and  subsequently  became  one 
of  the  wita  who  freouentra  '  Button's ' 
in  London.  As  a  Whig  politician  be  ob- 
tained various  lucrative  posts  tnm  the 
House  of  Hanover,  while  as  a  poet  be 
was  ridiculed  by  Swift  and  Pope,  receiv- 
ing the  nickname  of  '  Namby  Pamby 
(which  has  since  formed  a  naefnl  Eng- 
lish adjective).  He  wrote  six  pastorals 
and  three  tragedies:  the  Ditireat  Motktr 
(1712),  taken  from  Radne;  the  Briton 
(1722) :  and  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gtouct/i- 
tcr  (1723). 


FhiUpi 

PllilinB  John,  aa  English  poet,  born 
X-iUUpB,  ,n  Oxfordshire  in  1676;  died 
at  Hereford  in  1708.  He  was  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  pro- 
duced the  Splendid  Shilling,  a  burlesque 
poem  in  Milton ic  blank  verse.  He  sub- 
sequently  wrote  Blenheim,  a  poem  in 
celebration  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough's 
victory;  and  Cvder,  %  work  in  imitation 
of  Virgil's  Georgica. 

PhiliBtineS  (fi]:'s'"nz),  the  name  of 
a  Semitic  people  or  race 
who  inhabited  the  southern  part  of  the 
lowlands  of  Palestine,  from  the  coast 
near  Joppa  to  the  Egyptian  desert  south 
of  Gaza.  They  occupied  five  chir.f  cities 
(Ashdod,  Gaza,  Gath,  Askelon,  Ekron), 
and  these  formed  a  kind  of  confederacy 
under  five  lords  or  chiefs.  Mention  is 
made  of  this  people  in  Genesis  xxi,  xxvi, 
but  it  was  during  the  time  of  the  Judges 
to  Israel,  and  subsequently  in  the  reigns 
of  Saul  and  David,  that  the  Philistines 
attained  their  highest  power,  and  from 


PhiUstine  Prisoners. —  Sculptures  at  Medinet 
Haboo. 

the  latter  received  their  greatest  defeats. 
In  the  wars  between  Assyria  and  Egypt 
the  country  of  Philistia  was  subdued  by 
Tiglath-Pileser  (734  b.c.>,  but  the  Phil- 
istines Btili  intrigued  with  Egypt,  and 
made  various  revolts  agninst  Sargon  and 
Sennacherib  to  assert  their  independence. 
During  the  Babylonian  captivity  they 
avenged  themselves  on  their  old  enemies 
the  Israelites  (Ezekiel  xxv,  15),  but  sub- 
sequentlv  the  two  nations  seem  (Nehe- 
miah  xiii,  23),  to  some  extent,  to  have 
fraternized.  The  origin  of  this  race  has 
been  a  question  of  much  debate  by  Bib- 
lical critics. 

PhilliD  C^^'^P)'  John,  painter,  one  of 
«_!..  ,_  ,  *V®  greatest  colorists  of  the 
British  school,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1817 ; 
died  in  1867.  After  serving  his  appren- 
ticeship as  a  house-painter,  he  received 
some  slight  instruction  from  a  local  ar- 
tist.^ and  began  to  paint  portraits.  The 
merit  of  these  induced  Lord  Panmure  to 
aid  him  (1836)  in  going  to  London,  and 
in   attending  the  schools  of  the  Royal 


Phimps 

Academy.  Two  years  later  he  returned 
to  Aberdeen,  his  pictures  at  this  portion 
of  his  career  consisting  mainly  of  por- 
traits and  subjects  from  Scottish  life. 
In  1852  and  1856  he  visited  Spain,  and 
?S^/?**iSl.  re^irned  to  that  country  in 
1860.     While     resident     there     be     was 

greatly  influenced  by  the  works  of  the 
panish  masters,  and  especially  by  those 
of  Velasquez.  His  style  completely 
cnan?™,  his  subjects  became  Spanish, 
and  his  grasp  of  color,  composition,  and 
character  vastly  improved.  It  is  his  pic- 
tures of  Spanish  life  that  have  made  him 
famous.  Among  the  more  important  are 
Life  among  the  Gipaiea  at  Seville  (1853), 
The  Letter-writer  of  Seville  (1^4), 
Death  of  the  Contrabandiata  (1858),  A 
Spantah  Volunteer  (1862),  Agua  Ben- 
dtta  (1863),  Chat  Round  the  Braaero 
(1866).  In  1860  he  painted  for  Queen 
Victoria  The  Marriage  of  the  Princeaa. 
Many  of  his  works  have  been  engraved. 
PhilliDS  (fil''Pz)f  Adhaide,  singer, 
w  ,  f,  J??J™  "*  Stratford-on-Avon, 
England,  in  1833  died  in  1882.  She  was 
brought  over  to  Boston  at  7  years  of  age 
and  made  that  city  her  permanent  home. 
Her  voice  was  a  fine  contralto.  She  made 
her  d^but  at  the  Boston  Museum  in  1843 
as  Little  Pickle.     In   1850  she  went  to 

P*','Li®  "'"''y'  '"'°K  J°  opera  in  Milan 
in  1854,  and  subsequently  in  New  York 
and  elsewhere. 

Phillips.  P AVID  Graham,  novelist, 
looT  TT  \.  "°™  "*  Madison,  Indiana,  in 
1867.  He  became  an  author  in  1887  and 
produced  numerous  works,  beginning  with 
The  Great  God  Succeaa.  One  of  the  lat- 
est was  The  Hungry  Heart  (1909).  He 
was  shot  m  New  York  by  a  lunatic,  Jan- 
uary 21,  1911. 

Phillips,  &'^t£r^'°*VI^:*  ^^   '° 

i"  '  1800 ;  died  in  1874.  He  was 
instructed  in  geology  by  his  uncle,  Wil- 
liam Smith,  ♦  the  father  of  English  geol- 
ogy, and  spent  many  years  in  arranging 
museums  and  organizing  scientific  socie- 
ties in  Yorkshire  towns;  became  pro- 
fessor of  geology  in  Dublin  (1844)  and 
in  Oxford  (1856).  His  chief  works  are 
a  Guide  to  Geology  (1834),  Palaozoio 
Foaaila  of  Cornwall,  Devon,  and  Weat 
Somerset  (1841),  Manual  of  Geology 
(1855),  and  Life  on  the  Earth  (1801). 
PhillinS.  Stephen,  English  poet,  born 
*"  "J:"")  at  Somcrton,  near  Oxford, 
in  1868.  In  1897  his  Poema  were 
crowned  by  tlie  Academy.  His  plays  in 
elude  Paolo  and  Francesco  (1!^9). 
Herod  (1900).  and  Nero  (1906).  D.  191.^.! 
PhilliDS.  I'HOMAS,  an  English  por- 
^rrr'^^  trait-prJnter,  bora  in  ITiO; 
died  in  1845.  In  1792  he  exhibited  some 
historical  pieces,  but  soon  after  turned 


PhilHps 


Philology 


bis  attention  to  portrait-paintine.  In 
1808  he  became  a  member  of  the  Koyal 
Academy,  and  in  1824  succeeded  Fusell 
as  professor  of  painting.  He  published 
his  Lccture$  on  the  History  and  Prin- 
ciplet  of  Painting  in  1833. 

Pliillina  Wendexl,  orator  and  re- 
"""r'>  former,  was  bom  at  Bos- 
ton, Massachusetts,  in  1811;  died  in 
1884.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1834.  The  persecution  of  the 
early  abolitionists  roused  his  active  sym- 
pathy, and  in  1837  he  eloquently  took 
his  stand  in  favor  of  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  being  preSminently  the  orator  of 
the  movement.  From  that  date  until  the 
Civil  war  he  continued  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  the  abolition  cause,  dec:"  red  that 
the  Constitution  was  an  unrighteous  com- 
pact between  freedom  and  slavery,  and 
that  a  dissolution  of  the  Union  would  be 
the  most  effectual  mode  of  giving  freedom 
to  the  slaves.  He  was  also  for  many 
years  an  advocate  of  woman  suffrage,  pro- 
hibition, prison  reform,  and  a  greenback 
currency.  Collections  of  his  letters  and 
addresses  have  been  published. 

phiuipsburg,  ^x,°n/wTi«";; 

on  the  Delaware  River,  opposite  Eastpn, 
Pa.,  about  50  miles  w.  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  on  several  railroads.  It  has  ex- 
tensive iron  industries  and  inanufaoturea 
of    cement,    wood,    chemicals,    silk.    etc. 

Vhi^i^l^A»nt^  (ft'>»  ja-de'us).  an 
fniiO  JUaseilS    Alexandrian  Jew  of 

the  first  century,  of  whom  all  that  is 
known  is  that  he  belonged  to  a  wealthy 
family,  received  a  liberal  education,  and 
in  40  A.  D.  visited  Rome  as  one  of  a 
deputation  to  ask  the  Emperor  Caligula 
to  revoke  the  decree  which  compelled  the 
Jews  to  worship  his  statue.  His  verv 
numerous  writings  (which  are  in  Oreek) 
include  an  account  of  the  Mosaic  narra- 
tive of  the  creation,  allegorical  exposi- 
tions of  other  parts  of  Genesis,  lives  of 
Abraham,  Joseph,  and  Moses,  treatises 
on  the  Decalogue,  Circumcision,  Mon- 
archy, First-fruits,  Offerings,  and  other 

pSolOffV  (fil-ol'^J')'  <"•  OOMPABA- 
XOUUiu^jr  TivE  PiiiioLOGT,  a  term 
commonly  used  as  equivalent  to  the  sci- 
ence of  language,  otherwise  called  Lin- 
guintio  Science,  or  Linguistics.  Th\a 
science  treats  of  language  as  a  whole, 
of  its  nature  and  origin,  etc.,  and  of  the 
different  languages  of  the  world  in  their 
general  features,  attempting  to  classify 
and  arrange  them  according  to  such  gen- 
eral features,  and  to  settle  in  what  rela- 
tionship each  stand*  to  the  others.    The 


philologist  aa  such  does  not  study  Un> 
gaages  for  practical  purposes,  or  to  be 
able   to   read   and   speak   a   number  of 
them,  though  the  more  he  is  tolerably 
familiar    with    the    better.    He    rather 
studies  them  in  the  way  a  naturalist  stu- 
dies a  series  of  animals  or  plants,  as  if 
they  were  separate  organisms  each  with 
a    life   and    growth   of    its    own.    That 
every    language    has    such    a    life    and 
growth  is  true  in  a  sense,  for  languages 
are  continually  in  a  state  of  change ;  yet 
a  language  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an 
organism  like  a  plant  or  an  animal,  but 
rather,   to  quote  Professor  Whitney,  as 
an  institution,  an  outcome  of  the  needs 
of  human  beings  for  communication  with 
their  fellows.     A  Innguage  is  a  system  of 
vocal   sounds   through    which    ideas   are 
conveyed  from  person  to  person  in  virtue 
of  the  fact  that  certain  ideas  are  attached 
or  belong   to   certain   sounds   by   a   sort 
of  convention   or   general    understanding 
existing  among  those  who  use  the  lan- 
guage.   That   there  is  any  natural  law 
by  which  one  idea  belongs  to  one  vocal 
sound  rather  than  to  another  can  hardly 
be  affirmed  in  view  of  the  fact  that  if 
we   select   any   one    Idea   we   shall   find 
that  each  of  the  thousand  languages  of 
the  world  expresses  this  idea  by  a  dif- 
ferent  sound   or   group   of  sounds.    In- 
deed,   ideas   can   he   conveyed   otherwise 
than    by    vocal    sounds,    as    witness    the 
elaborate  sign-language  that  has  been  de- 
veloped in  some  communities,  as  also  the 
finger-language  of   the   deaf  and   dumb. 
We  can  even  conceive  that  a  language  of 
hieroglyphics   or   written   symbols   might 
exist  with  no  spoken  language  connected 
with  it    We  have,  however,  no  knowl- 
edge of  any  such  case,  and,  in  fact,  wher- 
ever man  exists  we  find  him  making  use 
of  speech,  which,  indeed,  is  one  of  his  most 
distinct  and  marked  characteristics.    As 
to  the  origin  of  language  nothing  is  really 
known,  although  few  doubt  that  it  is  an 
invention   or   acquisition   of  the   human 
race,   and   not    an    original    endowment. 
Any    one,    however,   may    believe    if   he 
pleases   that    man   was   created    with   a 
language  and  the  faculty  of  making  use 
of   it  already  in  his  possession.     If  the 
other  view  is  taken  we  must  suppose  that 
the   earliest    men    had    no    language    to 
start    with,    but    that    having    suitable 
organs   for  speech  they   devised  a   lan- 
guage among  themselves  as  a  means  of 
intercommunication,    and    we   may   con-- 
elude  that  the  earliest  attempts  at  speeck. 
were  either  in  imitation  of  the  different 
sounds  heard  in  nature,  or  that  they  were 
based  on  the  Inarticulate  utterances  or 
cries  by  which  human  beings  naturally 
{<ave    vent    to    different    emotions.    But 


Philology 

koweTer  lancuat*  oritinally  aroM.  It  la 
Tery^ccrtain  that  whatever  lanffuue  wt 
■^K  »>*•  to  be  acquired  fromothefa 
who  have  already  learned  to  apeak  it,  and 

that  thoae  others  have  Bimilarly  acquired 
it  from  their  predecenora.  and  ao  on 
backwards  into  the  darkness  of  the  re- 
motest ages.  Every  language  la  thua  at 
ourbirth  a  foreign  language  to  all  of  us. 
The  science  of  philology  is  quite  of 
modern  origin,  being  hardly,  if  at  all. 
older  than  the  19th  century.  Specula^ 
tlons  on  language  and  its  nature  were 
indulged  in  by  the  ancient  Greeks;  but 
as  the  Greeks  knew  little  or  nothing  of 
any  language  but  their  own,  they  had 
not  sufficient  materials  wherewith  to  con- 
struct a  science  of  language.  In  later 
times  materials  became  more  abundant 
as  scholare  studied  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Latin,  Arabic,  etc. ;  but  it  waa  the  intro- 
duction of  Sanskrit  to  the  western 
world,  and  its  observed  similarity  in 
•nany, respects  to  Greek  that  led  to  the 
establishment  of  philology  on  a  true  sci- 
entific basis,  an  achievement  which  waa 


Philology 

Bwadtah,  and  Ictlandic  Another  divi- 
sion ia  Into:  Btt  Oamanto,  includiu 
Oothfcs  and  ScandinavUn.  uodWeitUe?. 
wanKv  Including  the  others. 

The  evidence  that  all  these  Unguages 
are  closely  akin  ia  to  be  found  in  the 
great  number  of  worda  that  they  possess 
in  common,  in  the  aimilarity  of  their 
structure,  their  inflections,  their  manner 
of  compounding  words  — in  short,  in 
their  family  likeness.  This  likeness  can 
only  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  that 
these  languages  are  all  descended  from 
one  common  language,  the  primitive 
leutonic,  which  must  have  been  apoken 
at  a  remote  period  by  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  Teutonic  peoples,  there  being 
then  only  one  Teutonic  people  as  well  as 


Ja^el/  due  to  the  labors  of  Bopp,  Pott, 
Schleicher,  and  other  German  scholars, 
let  thou|(h  most  valuable  results  have 
been  obtained  and  a  large  number  of  lan- 
guages have  been  studied  and  classified, 
much  remains  to  be  done,  much  remains 
uncertain  and  must  always  remain  ao. 
One  great  difficulty  that  the  philologist 
has  to  grapple  with  is  the  want  of  his- 
torical documents  to  throw  light  on  the 
history  of  the  great  majority  of  lan- 
guages, as  only  a  very  few  possess  a  lit- 
erature dating  from  before  the  Christian 
-  era,  and  far  the  greater  number  have  no 
literature  at  all. 

1.  ^?!  *?*'?  ^^*^  °"'  <'^">  language  and 
its  kindred  tongues.  Philology  has  suc- 
ceeded in  showing  that  the  English  lan- 
guage is  one  of  a  group  of  closely  allied 
languages  which  are  known  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic 
tongues.  The  other  languages  of  the 
group,  some  of  which  are  more  closely 
connected  with  English  than  the  rest, 
■"^^R"*^,"'  German.  Danish,  Icelandic 
or  Old  Norse,  Swedish,  and  Gothic,  to 
which  may  be  added,  as  of  less  impor- 
tance and  having  more  the  character  of 
dialects,  Norwegian,  Frisian,  the  Platt- 
deutsch  or  Low  German  of  Northern 
Germany,  anJ  Flemish,  which  differs  lit- 
tle from  Dutch.  The  Teutonic  tongues 
are  often  divided  into  three  sections, 
based  on  closenesn  of  relationship:  the 
Htgh  Oerman,  of  which  the  modem 
classical  German  is  the  representative; 
ic5.  ,r*Uf ,  p^man,  includiag  English, 
*>otch.  Frisian.  Plattdeutsch,  and  Gothic; 
and  the  Bcandinovian,  including  Dtniah 


one  Teutonic  tongue.  In  their  earliest 
form,  therefore,  and  when  they  b^n  to 
be  differentiated,  these  languages  must 
have  had  the  character  of  mere  dialects, 
and  it  is  only  in  go  far  as  each  haa  had 
a  history  and  literature  of  its  own  that 
they  have  attained  the  rank  of  independ- 
ent languages. 

The  rise  of  dialecta  is  a  well-known 
pbanomenon,  taking  its  origin  in  the  per- 
petual change  to  which  all  languages 
are  subject  A  language  that  comes  to 
be  spoken  over  a  considerable  area  and 
by  a  considerable  number  of  persons  — 
more  especially  when  not  yet  to  soma 
extent  fixed  by  writing  and  literature  — 
te  sure  to  develop  dialects,  and  each  of 
:  i>?*S*y  in  course  of  time  become  unin- 
telligible to  the  persons  using  the  others. 
If  the  respective  speakers  have  little  in- 
tercourse with  each  other,  being  separated 
by  mountain  ranges,  arms  of  the  aea,  or 
merely  by  distance.  In  this  way  Is  the 
existence  of  the  different  Teutonic 
tongues  to  be  accounted  for.  A  aimilar 
instance  of  several  languages  arising 
from  one  IS  seen  in  the  case  of  Italian, 
French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese,  all  ol 
which  are  descended  from  the  Latin.  Of 
the  common  origin  of  these  we  have,  of 
co"™e,  direct  and  abundant  evidence. 

Ihe  Teutonic  tongues,  with  the  primi- 
tive  or  parent  Teutonic  from  which  they 
are  descended,  have  been  proved  by  the 
investigations  of  philologists  to  belong  to 
a  wider  group  or  family  of  tongues, 
which  has  received  the  name  of  the 
Aryan,  Indo-European,  or  (especially  in 
Germany)  Indo-Gtrmanic  family.  The 
chief  members  of  this  family  are  the 
Teutonic,  Slavonic  (Polish,  Russian, 
Bohemian).   Lithuanian,   Celtic    (Welah, 

Greek  (or  Hellenic),  Armenian,  Pewian! 
and  Sanskrit.  Just  as  the  Teutonic 
tongues  are  believed  to  be  the  offspring 
of  one  parent  Teutonic  tongue,  ao  this 


Philology 


nftrent  Teutonic  and  the  other  members 
of  the  Aryan  family  are  all,  believed  to 
be    descended    from    one    primitive    Ian- 
Kuage.     the    Aryan    or     lado-European 
parent-speech.    The    people    who    spoke 
this  primeval  Aryan   language,   the  an- 
cestors   (linguistically  at   least)    of  the 
Aryan    races   of    Uurope  and   Asia,  are 
believed  by  many  to  have  had  their  seat 
in  Central  Asia  to  the  eastward  of  th« 
ciouthem  extremity  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
TMs,  however,  is  very  problemotival,  and 
some  philologists  see  reason  to  think  that 
Europe  may  rather  have  been  tlie  original 
home  of  the  Aryans.     The  latter  view  is 
now  perhaps  Xh^  one  most  generally  held. 
How  remote  ihe  period  may  have  been 
when  the  aneesvors  ot  the  Teutons,  the 
Celts,    the    Slavs,    the   Greeks.    Romans, 
Persians,  and  Hindus  were  living  together 
and  speaking  a  commor   language  is  un- 
certain.    Yet    the    general    character    of 
their   language   is  approximately   known, 
and  philologists  tell  us  with  some  confi- 
dence  wlint   consonant   and   what   vowel 
sounds    the    Aryan    parent-speech    must 
have  possessed,  what  were  the  forms  of 
its    inflections,    and    what,    at    the    least, 
must  have  been  the  extent  of  its  vocabu- 
lary, judging   from   the   words   that  can 
still    be    traced    as    forming    a    common 
possession  of  the  sister  tongues  of  the 
family.  ,  ,        .    .    ..    ^ 

In  order  to  understand  how  it  is  tbat 
many  words  in  the  different  Aryan 
tongues  are  really  of  the  same  origin, 
though  superficially  they  may  appear 
very  different,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
something  of  Grimm's  Law.  This  law, 
which,  like  a  natural  law.  is  simply  a 
statement  of  observed  facts,  is  so  named 
from  the  great  German  philologist  who 
first  definitely  laid  it  down  as  the  result 
of  observation  and  comparison  of  the 
relative  linguistic  phenomena.  It  con- 
cerns the  so-called  'mute'  consonants  (», 
d,  th;  k.  g,  h  {ch)  ;  p,  b.  f),  and  takea 
effect  more  especially  when  these  are 
initial.  According  to  it,  in  words  and 
roots  that  form  a  common  possession  of 
the  Aryan  tongues,  being  inherited  by 
them  from  the  parent-speech,  where  In 
English  (more  especially  Anglo-Saxon) 
and  in  most  of  the  Teutonic  tongues  we 
find  t,  d,  or  th,  we  find  in  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Sanskrit  not  these  'etters,  but  r^ 
spectively  d  instead  of  t,  an  aspirated 
sound  instead  of  d.  and  t  instead  of  th. 
That  is.  an  English  t  corresponds  to  a 
Latin.  Greek,  and  Sanskrit  d,  as  is  seen 
In  tame;  compared  with  L.  dotnare,  Gr. 
damaein,  Skr.  dam,  to  tame:  an  English 
d  corresponds  to  Latin  f,  Greek  th, 
Sanskrit  dh,  as  in  E.  door,  L.  foret.  Or. 
thyra,  Bkr.  ivirt  (for  orifiaal  dhv*f)^ 


PhUology 

a  door:  an  Engliah  th  corresponds  to 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit  t,  as  in  thin, 
compared  with  L.  tenui;  Gr.  taiMos, 
Bkr.  tan«.  from  root  tan,  to  stretch.  If 
we  next  take  the  gutturals  we  find  tliat 
English  k  (or  c  hard),  g.  h.  correspond 


respectively    in   the   above   languages   to 
a,  h  {ch,  ah),  k,  as  is  seen  in  B.  ktn, 
L.  genua,  Gr.  geno$,  Skr.  janaa   (where 
;■  is  for  original  ff)  ;  E.  goote  (modified 
from  original  gant),  compared  with   L. 
an»er  (for  older  hanaer).  Gr.  chen,  Skr. 
hanaa;    E.    head    (A.    Sax.    heafod),!*. 
caput,   Gr.    kephale,   Skr.    kapala.     Sim- 
ilarly h  in   English  corresponds  to  /  in 
Latin,  ph  in  Greek,  and  bh  in  Sanskrit, 
as   in    brother  —  L.    /ro«cr,   Gr.   phrat€r, 
Skr.  bkrafrt,  a  brother;  /  in  English  to 
p  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  as  in 
father  =  L.  pater,  Gr.  patir,  Skr.  p»tri. 
father.     German   exhibits   certain    letter- 
changes  peculiar  to  Itself,  and  for  this 
reason  is  placed,  in  any  full  statement 
of  Grimm's   law.  apart  from  the  other 
Teutonic    tongues.     In    German,    for    m- 
stance.  t  takes  the  place  of  an  English 
d,  as  in  G.  tag,  E.  day.  G.  teU,  E.  deal; 
d  the  place  of  th,  as  in  G.  ding,  E.  thing. 
G.    drei,    E.    three,   etc.     In    some   cases 
the  law  does  r^t  operate  in  consequence 
of    the   influence   of  other    letters;    thus 
the  «  of  atand  prevents  the  t  from  be- 
coming th,  as  it  ought   to  do  to  repre- 
sent the   *  of  L.  atare,  to  stand.     Cer- 
tain   other    exceptions    to    the    law    are 
accounted    for   by   a   sul>sidiary   law   of 
more     recent     discovery     than    Grimm's 
law,  known  as  Vcrner'a  Law,  and  formu- 
lating certain  facts  connected  with  the 
original  accentuation  of  Aryan  words. 

The  Aryan  tongues,  ancient  and  mod- 
ern, are  entitled  to  claim  the  first  rank 
among  the  languages  of  the  globe,  both 
for  richness,  harmony,  and  variety,  and 
more  especially  as  embodying  a  series  of 
literatures  to  which  no  other  family  of 
tongues  can  show  a  parallel.  Next  m 
importance  come  the  Semitic  tongues  — 
Hebrew.  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  etc. 
These,  like  the  Aryan  tongues,  form  a 
w^ell-m&rked  family,  one  notable  pecul- 
iarity of  which  is  the  possession  of  '  tri- 
literal '  roots,  or  roots  of  which  three 
consonants  form  the  basis  and  give  the 
general  meaning,  while  inflection  or  modi- 
fication of  meaning  is  indicated  by  inter- 
nal vowel-change.  Thus  the  vowels  play 
a  subordinate  part  to  the  consonants,  and 
do  not,  as  in  the  Aryan  tongues,  awo- 
ciate  with  them  on  equal  terms.  Other 
important  linguistic  families  are  the 
Hamitic  which  includes  the  •ncient 
Egyptian,  the  Coptic,  Berber,  Oalia, 
Somali,  etc.;  the  Turanian  or  Ural-Al- 
taie,   which   includes   Turkiah,   Fiaoiilii 


Philomela 


PhiloMphy 


flannriaii,    Mongolian,    etc.;    and    tht 
Soutk-Eattwn    Atiotie,    which    inclndea 
Chinese,    Siamese,    etc.    The    Turanian 
languages  belong  to  the  type  known  as 
•galutkutte    or    agglutimtUng,    being    so 
calied  from  the  fact  that  the  root  alwars 
maintains  a  sort  of  independence  or  dis- 
tinctive  existence,  the  other  elemento  of 
the    word    being    more    or    leas    loosely 
Vglued'  or  stuclt   on,  as   it   were.    The 
Chinese  is  the  chief  of  the  monoayllabio 
languages,    so   called    from    their   words 
cpnsistmg     normally     of     monosyllables. 
Other    families    of    languages    are    the 
Malayo-Polynesian  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago and  Pacific;  the  Bantu,  a  great 
lamily  of  8.  Africa;  and  the  American 
Indian    languages,    the   latter   character- 
«ed  as  polytynthetic,  from   the  way  in 
which  they  crowd  as  many  Ideas  as  pos- 
sible into  one  unwieldy  expression.    All 
these  families  form  groups,  so  far  as  is 
known,   separate   from   and    independent 
of  each  other;  and  attempts  to  connect 
any  two  of  them,  as  Aryan  and  Semitic 
tot  mstance,  have  met  with  little  success. 
Formerly  etymologists  had  no  hesitation 
m  derivmg  English  words  from  Hebrew 
roots,  but  this  was  in  the  days  when  there 
was  no  science  of  comparative  philology. 
That  all   languages  are   descendants  of 
one   original   tongue,   as   is   believed   by 
many,     linguistic     science     can     neither 
affirm  nor  deny,  though  the  evidence  does 
not  sustain  it.     We  may  add  that  com- 
munity  of   language   Is   not   a    proof   of 
community  of  race,  since  it  Is  well  known 
that,  as  the  result  of  war  or  otherwise, 
races  have  given  up  the  language  that 
once  belonged  to  them  and  adopted  some 
other. 

Philomela  (fil-o-me'la),  in  mythology, 
• .  ,  ^  ^  ^  daughter  of  Pandion, 
king  of  Athens,  who  being  violated  and 
deprived  of  her  tongue  by  Tereus.  the  hus- 
band of  her  sister  Progne,  made  known 
her  wrong  to  the  latter  by  embroidering 
It  In  tapestry.  In  revenge  the  sisters 
murdered  Itys,  the  son  of  Progne  by 
lereus,  r]  served  him  up  to  his  father, 
xerei  ,  sued  them,  but  thev  were 
changt.  the  gods  into  birds,  Philomela 
and  Progne  into  a  nightingale  and  a 
swallow,  and  Tereus  into  a  lapwing. 
Philopoemen  (fi'-o-Pe'raen),  an  an- 
*^  cient  Greek  patriot 

and  commander,  born  at  Megalopolis,  fa 
Arcadia,  about  a.  c.  252.  Having  distin- 
guished himself  In  war  against  the  Spar- 
tans, he  was,  in  208  b.c.,  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  the 
Achaean  League.  He  reoreanizpd  the 
Achsean  army,  defeated  and  slew  with 
nis  own  hand  Machanidas,  tvrant  of 
Sparta,  and  subsequently  defeated  Nabis, 


tta«  snccessor  o(  Machanidas.  H«  in- 
duced the  Spartans  to  Join  the  Achaan 
League;  but,  soon  becoming  dissatisfied, 
thev  separated  from  the  confederacy,  and 
called  in  the  Romans  to  their  assistance. 
Philopoemen,  as  commander  of  the  Acbce- 
ans,  declared  war  against  Sparta,  and, 
having  taken  the  city, -treated  it  with  the 
greatest  severity.  The  Romans,  however, 
interfered,  and  Sparta  was  again  admit- 
ted into  the  confederacy  as  an  independ- 
ent state.  Messene  now  revolted,  and 
PhiloToemen,  though  broken  by  infirmity 
and  disease,  drove  back  the  insurgents, 
but  was  afterwards  taken  prisoner,  car- 
ried In  chains  to  Messene,  and  compelled 
to  drink  poison,  b.  c.  183. 

Philosopher's  Stone.  J[|^  ^'' 
Philosophy    (fi^"'".:^'  oTiek. 

wisdom),  a  term  first  brought  into  gen- 
eral use  by  Socrates.  Philosophy  is  the 
science  that  deals  with  the  general  prin- 
ciples which  form  the  basis  of  the  other 
sciences,  and  of  which  they  themselves 
take  no  cognizance.  It  follows  up  the 
data  of  experience  to  their  ultimate 
grounds,  regarding  each  particular  fact 
in  relation  only  to  a  final  principle,  and 
as  a  determinate  link  in  the  system  of 
knowledge.  In  this  view  philosophy  may 
be  defined  as  the  science  of  principles. 

For  all  practical  purposes  the  history 
of  philosophy   may   be  treated   as   com- 
mencing with  the  Greeks,  the  philosophic 
notions   of   the   inhabitants  of  the   East 
being  considered   merely  as   introductory 
to  the  Greek  philosophy,  in  which  many 
oriental  notions  were  incorporated.     The 
first  problem  of  Greek  philosophy  was  to 
explain  the  enigma  of  external  nature,  to 
solve  the  problem  not  of  the  soul  but  of 
the    world.    Thales     (about    600    ac.) 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  Ionian  school, 
which,  with  the  Eleatlc  school,  was  the 
chief      representative      of      speculative 
thought   in   pre-Socratic  times;   the   for- 
mer of  these  schools  being  characterized 
by  Aristotle  as  seeking  to  find  a  material, 
the  latter  a  formal  principle  of  all  things. 
The    material    principle    sought    by    the 
Ionian  school  was  assumed  to  be  water 
by  Thales,  a  primitive  infinite  but  unde- 
termined   matter    by   Anaximander,    and 
air  by  Anaximenes.     The  Pythagoreans, 
abstracting  from  the  quantitative  rather 
than  the  qualitative  character  of  matter, 
substituted   a  symbolic   principle  —  num- 
ber—7  for  the  sensuous  principle;  but  the 
Eleatics,  transcending  alike  the  sensuous 
principle  of  the  Ionics  and  the  quanti- 
tative   principle    of    the    Pythagorea  as, 
conceived  of  pure  being  as  the  one  sole 
substance,   the  phenomenal   world   being 


FhiloMphy 


Ti«wed     as     unreal.    The     three     gnat 
philowphers    of    this    achool    are    Xeno- 
phanea,    its    founder,    Parmenides,    and 
Zeno.    The   transition   from  abstract   to 
concrete  being,  from  the  Eleatic  princi- 
ple of  unity  to  the  world  of  phenomena, 
was  attempted  by  Heraclitus  (niraut  520 
B.C.),  who  asserted  for  an  absolute  prin- 
ciple the  unity  of  being  and  non-bein^  — 
becoming.     According   to   him   all    things 
are  in  constant  flux,  the  pro«luct  of  con- 
flicting  opposites,    of   the   One   at   once 
warring    and    harmonizing    with    itself. 
Empedocles  (440  B.  c),  in  attempting  to 
solve  the   reason  of   this   flux,   advanced 
the  theory  that  matter  was  the  principle 
of  permanent  being,  while  force  was  the 
principle   of   movement.    The   two   mov- 
ing forces  in  his  system  were  love  and 
hate.     According  to  the  Atomists,  on  the 
other  hand,  who  are  represented  by  Leu- 
cippus  and   Democritus    (460  B.C.K  the 
moving   forces   became   an   unintelligible 
necessity  giving  form  to  the  world.     An- 
axagoras  (bom  about  500)   asserted  rea- 
son as  the  principle,  and  though  he  did 
not   develop    his    theory   to   any    extent, 
the  mere  expression  of  a  spiritual  prin- 
ciple is  sufficient  to  mark  it  as  forming 
an  era  in  philosophy.     In  the  hands  of 
the  Sophists  this  principle,  in  the  sense 
of   individual    reason,    became    the   occa- 
sion of  their  denial  of  all  objective  real- 
ity.   In    Socrates    (470-399    b.c),    who 
united  scientific  method  and  a  high  eth- 
ical and  religious  spirit,  the  destructive 
teaching  of  the  Sophists  found  its  keen- 
est opponent.     What  are  called  the  minor 
Socratic  schools  —  the  Cynics,  Cyrenaics, 
and   Megarrians  — severally  professed   to 
regard    Socrates    as    their   founder,    the 
Cynics,  however,  dedning  the  end  "f  ac- 
tion as  self-sufficiency,  the  Cyrenaics  as 
pleasure,  and  the   Megarians  as  reason. 
With    Plato    (430-347)    philosophy    lost 
ita    one-sided     character.    Though    pro- 
fessedly a  disciple  of  Socrates  his  system 
of   idealism    is    his    own.    The    Platonic 
idea  is  the  pure  archetypal  essence,  which 
is  the  source   of   all   the   finite   nmlities 
that  correspond  to  it.    The  visible  world 
is  an  inferior  reproduction  of  the  world 
of  pure  ideas,  where  shine  in  all  their 
splendor  the  good,  the  true,  and  the  beau- 
tiful.    In  logic  Plato  brings  back  science 
to  general  ideas.     In  ethics  the  highest 
end  of  man  is  regarded  as  the  unity  of 
his  nature.     Plato's  ideal  theory  is  criti- 
cized by   Aristotle,   because  he  gives  no 
real   explanation   of   the  connection   be- 
tween   the    phenomenal    and    the    ideal. 
In  Aristotle's  own  system,  instead  of  he- 
ginning  with  the  general  and  the  abso- 
lute, as  Plato  had  done,  he  b^ins  vnth 
tine     particular     and     individual.    His 


Phiiosophy 

whole  pbiloaopby  ia  a  deacription  of  tba 

f'iven  anJ  empirical;  and  hia  method  ia 
nduction.    His  system  preaeata  ua  with 
a   number   of   coordinate  aciencea,   each 
having   ita    independent   foundation,   but 
no  highest  science  which  should  comrre- 
hend    them    all.    The    three    achool'    cf 
Greek    philosophy    which    followet    the 
systems  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  which 
mark  the  declining  days  of  Greece,  are 
those    o£    the    Stoics,    Epicureans,    and 
Skeptics.     Rome      had     no      philosophy 
properly  Us  own;  the  universal  charac- 
ter of  Roman  philosophizing  was  eclec- 
ticism,   of    which    Cicero    was    the    moat 
illustrious     representative.     In     Alexan- 
dria eastern  and  western  philosophy,  as 
also  Judaism,   Christianity,    and   Pagan- 
ism, came  into  contact.     Neo-Platonism, 
founded     by     Ammonlus     Saccas     (A.  D. 
193),  strove  to  combine,  in  opposition  to 
Christianity,  the  chief  elements  of  etas' 
sical   and   eastern   speculation.    Hellenic 
ideas  were  mingled  with  a  vague  symbol- 
ism, and   with   theories  of  ecstasy   and 
divine  union.    Christianity,  in  the  apolo- 
gists of  the  2d  century  and  the  Alexan- 
drine fathers,  related  itself  very  early  to 
the  philosophy  of  the  time,  but  not  until 
alH)ut  the  11th  century  did  there  begin 
to  manifest  itself  a  distinctive  Christian 
philosophy    in    scholasticism,    which,    as- 
suming the  dogmas  of  the  church  to  be 
absolutely    true,   sought  to   justify   them 
to  the  reason  in  abundant  tomes  of  oppo- 
site  opinions   of   little   philosophical   im- 
portance. ....  14.U 

Modern  philosophy,  which  begins  wltn 
the  15th  century,  is  characteriz»a  by  a 
freer,  more  independent  spirit  of  inquiry. 
First  the  scholastic  philosophy  was  at- 
tacked by  those  who  called  to  mind  the 
ancient  Greek  philosophy  in  its  original 
purity.  After  this  struggle  new  views 
were  presented.  Bacon  and  Locke  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Descartes  on  the  other, 
stand  respectively  at  the  head  of  the 
two  systems  —  empiricism  and  idealism, 
which  begin  modern  philosophy.  Bacon 
created  no  definite  system  of  philosophy, 
but  gave  a  new  direction  to  thought,  the 
empiricism  »  H  he  founded  finally  de- 
veloping into  .>ticism.  The  system  of 
Descartes  wf*  pi>osed  by  Gassendi.  and 
received  moditi»:ation8  at  the  hands  of 
others,  especially  Malebranche.  The 
most  important  successor,  however,  of 
Descartes  was  Spinoza,  who  reduced  the 
three  Cartesian  substances  to  unity,  t« 
one  infinite  original  substance,  the 
ground  of  all  things,  that  excludea  from 
itself  all  negation  or  determination,  ^md 
is  named  God  or  nature.  Locke  (1632- 
1704),  who  had  a  precursor  in  Hobbea 
(158»-1679),    the    mfluenca    of    whom. 


Fhiloiophy 


Philoiophy 


p. 


iMmerer,    chiefly   ooneenied   the   history 
of  political  Mience,  li  regarded  aa  the 
father  of  modem  materialiein  and  em- 
piriciim.    Aa  occupying  the  general  posi- 
tion of  Locke  mention  may  be  made  of 
laaac  Newton,  Samuel  Clarke,  William 
Wollaston,  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  and 
Francis  Hutcheson.    The   philosophy   of 
Locke  received  a  further  development  in 
France,   where  Condillac   sought   to   ex- 
plain  the  development  of   humanity    by 
the    simple    development    of    the    sensa- 
tions.   Hien  followed  the  materialism  of 
Helvetius,    d'Holbach,    LaMettrie,    and 
others,    including   several   of   the   Ency- 
clopedists.    In    opposition    to    this    ma- 
terialistic tendency  arose  the  idealism  of 
Leibnits  and  Berkeley.    The  theories  of 
Leibnits  were  syatematised  by  Wolff,  and 
from  bis  time  to  Kant  German  philoso- 
phy assumed  no  new  standpoint.    Berke- 
ley   {1G84-1753),    founding    on    Locke's 
principle  that  we  are  percipient  of  noth- 
ing but  our  own  perceptions  and   ideas, 
argued  that  the  existence  of  bodies  out 
of  a  mind  perceiving  them  is  impossible, 
and  a  contradiction  in  terms.     Granting 
the    premises    of    Berkeley,    his    conclu- 
sions could  not  be  refuted;  but  it  was 
reserved  for  Hume  to  trace  out  the  ulti- 
mate consequences  of  the  Cartesian  and 
Lockian    philosophy,    and    thus,    though 
unintentionally,  by  a  sort  of  reductio  ad 
ahturdum,   to   produce   the   great   meta- 
physical  revolution  of  which   Reld   and 
Kant  were  the  first  movtrs.    The  Scot- 
tish or  '  common  sense '  school  of  philoso- 
phy, with  Reid    (1710-96)    at  its  head, 
has  the   merit   of   having  first  strongly 
inculcated    the    necessity    of    admitting 
certain    principles    independent    of    ex- 
perience, as  the  indispensable  conditions 
of    thought    itself.     Reid     therefore    di- 
rected his  inquiries  to  an  analysis  of  the 
various    powers    and    principles    of    our 
constitution,    in    order    to    discover    the 
fundamental  laws  of  belief  which  form 
the    .  ronndwork    of    human    knowledge. 
Dugald    .Stewart,    with    some   deviations, 
fallowed  in  the  track  of  his  master;  but 
Thomas  Brown  departed  on  many  points 
of  fundamental  importance  from  Reid's 
philosophy.     The     same     occasion     that 
gave  rise  to  the  Scottish  school  also  pro- 
duced    the     philosophy     of     Immanuel 
Kant.    Kant   (1724-1S04).  who  may  be 
justly    regarded    as    the    father    of    the 
philosophy   of   the   19th  century,   sought 
to    bring    together    into    unity    the    one- 
sided endeavors  of  his  predecessors  in  the 
realistic  and  idealistic  schools.    He  took 
tip    a    critical    standpoiu),    and    from    It 
instituted  an   inquiry  Into  the  origin  of 
iHir      experience      or      cognition.     (See 
KuHt.)    The    ablest    opponent    of    tha 


Kantian  philoaophy,  Ja«obi,  took  the 
standpoint  of  faith  in  oppoaition  to  that 
of  cnticisffl,  in  order  to  give  theoretic 
ceruinty  to  the  postulates  of  the  prac- 
tical reason.  In  the  hands  of  Fichte  the 
critical  idealiam  of  Kant  becomes  abso- 
lutely subjective  idealiam.  'AH  that  is. 
is  ego';  this  is  the  principle  of  the 
Fichtian  system;  the  world  is  merely 
phenomenal,  consciousness  is  a  phe- 
nomenon, perception  is  a  dream. 
Fichte's  subjective  idealism  found  its 
continuation  in  the  objective  idealism  of 
Schelllng  and  the  absolute  idealism  of 
Hegel,  Schelllng  (1775-1854)  started 
irom  the  ego  of  Fichte,  and  by  a  com- 
bination of  the  doctrine  of  the  ego  with 
Spinozism  transformed  it  into  the  sys- 
tem of  identity.  Object  and  subject,  real 
and  ideal,  nature  and  spirit,  are  identi- 
cal in  the  absolute,  and  this  identity  we 
perceive  by  intellectual  intuition.  Schel- 
llng subsequently,  by  successively  incor- 
porating into  his  system  various  opin- 
ions from  Bruno,  B6hme,  and  others, 
developed  a  syncretistic  doctrine  which 
constantly  approximated  to  mjrsticism. 
Hegel  (1770-1831),  developed  this  prin- 
ciple of  identity,  created  the  system 
of  absolute  idealism.  In  his  philosophy 
he  aims  at  elevating  consciousness  to  the 
standpoint  of  absolute  knowledge,  and 
systematically  developing  the  entire  con- 
tents of  this  knowledge  by  means  of 
the  dialectical  method.  Schleiermacher 
(1768-1834)  promulgated  an  eclecti- 
cism to  which  Plato,  Spinoza,  Kant,  and 
Shelling  were  the  chief  contributors. 
Schopenhauer  (1788-1860)  developed  a 
doctrine  which  may  he  described  as  a 
transitional  form  from  the  idealism  of 
Kant  to  the  realism  at  present  prevalent. 
In  opposition  to  Fichte's  subjective 
idealism,  and  to  Schel  ling's  renewed 
Spinozism,  Herbart  (1776-1841)  devel- 
oped a  philosophic  scheme  on  the  basis 
of  the  realistic  element  in  the  Kantian 
philosophy,  as  also  of  Eleatic,  Platonic, 
and  Leibnitzian  doctrines.  After  the 
death  of  Hegel,  Feuerbach,  Richter, 
Strauss,  Arnold  Ruge,  and  others  devel- 
oped, in  an  extreme  manner,  Hegelian 
thought,  and  recently  Hegelianism  has 
counted  more  adherents  than  any  other 
system.  Next  to  it  has  stood  the  Her- 
bartian  school;  and  more  recently  the 
modification  of  systems  through  a  return 
to  Aristotle  or  Kant,  and  the  study  of 
philoaophy  upon  its  historic  side,  have 
occupied  the  larger  number  of  minds. 
While  resting  in  part  upon  the  basis  of 
the  doctrines  of  earlier  thinkers,  Trendel- 
enburg, Lotze,  and  others  have  ad- 
vanced in  new  and  |>eculiar  paths.  In 
franco  two  philosophical  tendencies  op- 


Philotophy 


Phlebotomy 


poMd  the  Mnnutlinn  and  nMterialinn 
M  unirerwl  at  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tun.  Of  theae  the  one  waa  tbeoaopliical 
and  tlie  other  found  ezpreaalon  in  the 
eclectic  and  apiritualiatic  achool  founded 
by  Royer-Coflard  aa  the  diaciple  of 
Reid,  and  further  built  up  by  Couain, 
who  incorporated  into  ita  body  of  doc- 
trinea  a  number  of  (Serman  philo- 
sophical notiona.  Jouffroy  attempted  to 
unite  the  pbiloaopby  of  hia  predecessor 
Maine  de  Biran  to  that  of  the  Scottish 
school,  and  became  associated  with  the 
gpiritualiatic  achool,  to  which  also  be- 
long the  names  of  Qarnier,  Janet, 
K^musat,  Franck,  Jules  Simon,  and 
others.  This  school  baa  contended 
valiantly  againat  the  pantheiatic  tenden- 
cies of  the  age.  Independent  systems  are 
those  of  Pierre  Lerouz,  Lamennais,  Jean 
Reynaud,  and  Bucbez.  Materialism  baa 
its  supporters  in  Cabanis,  who  aeea  in 
thought  only  a  secretion  of  the  brain, 
Broussois,  Gall,  and  others.  Positiv- 
ism, founded  by  Auguste  Comte,  num- 
bers not  a  few  followers. 

In  Great  Britain  the  Scottish  school 
bad  later  exponents  in  Sir  James  Mack- 
intosh (17(^1832)  and  Sir  William 
Hamilton  (1788-1856).  the  laat-named 
largely  influenced  in  some  points  of  hia 
psychology  by  Kant.  Mansel  may  t>e 
mentioned  as  a  disciple  of  Hamilton. 
Ferrier  (1808-64)  assumed  a  polemical 
attitude  towards  the  common-sense  school 
in  respect  of  its  fundamental  peculiarity, 
as  he  viewed  it,  of  absorbing  philosophy 
into  psychology,  aa  well  as  on  minor  de- 
tails of  the  system.  The  associational 
psychology  of  Hartley,  Priestley,  and  Dr. 
Darwin  found  representatives  in  the  19th 
century  in  James  Mill  (1773-1836)  and 
bis  son  John  Stuart  Mill  ( 1800-73) , 
who  make  the  principle  of  association 
the  sole  explanation  of  paycbical  phe- 
nomena. Bain,  Grote,  and  Lewes  fol- 
lowed more  or  less  in  the  same  track. 
Herbert  Spencer  attempted,  and  with 
much  success,  to  widen  the  general  prin- 
ciplea  of  science  and  philosophy  into  a 
universal  doctrine  of  evolution.  Among 
the  chief  leaders  of  philosophic  thought 
opposed  to  the  English  school  of  empiri- 
cism may  be  mentioned  the  names  of  the 
late  T.  H.  Green,  Hutchison  Stirling,  and 
Edward  Cairt'..  In  America,  as  in  Eng- 
land, philosophy  has  been  prosecuted 
more  as  an  applied  science,  and  in  ita 
special  relations  to  morals,  politics,  and 
theology.  Speculation  there  has  been 
widely  influenced  by  Scottish  philosophy. 
Amon^  the  liest-known  names  of  trans- 
atlantic philosophical  writers  are  thoae  of 
Jonathan  Edwards,  Ralph  Waldo  Elmer- 
•en,   Henry   P.   Tappan,  Franda    ffv 


land,  and  othera.  A  modified  acbolaa- 
ticiam.  mostly  Tbomism,  prevaila  in  th« 
Catholic  aeminariea  of  France,  Spain, 
and  Italy.  In  most  of  the  continental 
countries  German  pbiloaopby  baa  exerted 
no  small  influence.  In  Italy  a  peculiar 
phiioBophtcal  achool,  represented  by 
Kosmini,  Mamiani,  and  Gioberti,  flour- 
ished during  the  10th  century. 

Philostrattw  (fli-oo'tM-tns),  fla- 

Auuw»«Ac»v«w  VIU8,  a  Greek  writer 
bom  at  Lemuoa  about  the  middle  of  the 
2d  century  of  our  era.  He  taught  rhet- 
oric at  Athens  and  subsequently  at 
Rome,  where  he  obtained  the  favor  of  the 
emperor  Septimius  Severus,  and  be  ac- 
companied the  empress  Julia  Domna  in 
her  travels.  His  principal  work  is  his 
Life  of  Apolloniut  of  Tyana,  supposed 
by  some  critics  to  be  a  parody  on  the 
Gospela.  His  other  works  are  the 
Heroica,  a  history  in  dialogue  of 
the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war,  lAvea  of  the 
8ophi»t»,  Lettera,  etc. 
Philter  (fil't^^')*  &  potion  supposed 
^^  to  have  the  power  of  exciting 

love.  The  preparation  was  frequently 
associated  with  magic  rites,  and  the  in- 
gredienta  were  frequently  of  a  harmless, 
fanciful,  or  disgusting  kind.  At  times, 
however,  poisonous  drugs  were  em- 
ployed, the  death  of  Lucretius  and  the 
madness  of  Caligula  being  alike  ascribed 
to  philters  administered  by  their  wives. 

Phlebitis  (fle-^J'*'"'  ^^T"?'  ?''l'""' 

*"^"  "  phleboa,  a  vein),  inflam- 
mation of  the  veins.  It  may  affect  any 
of  the  veins  of  the  body,  but  more 
usually  manifests  itself  in  the  parts  of 
the  veins  in  the  vicinity  of  wounds. 
The  disease  is  indicated  by  great  ten- 
demeas,  tension,  acute  pain,  and  a 
knotted,  cord-like  swelling  or  hardness 
in  the  course  of  a  vein  or  veins,  some- 
times attended,  when  the  veins  are  super- 
ficial, with  discoloration.  In  many  in- 
stances the  inflamed  veina  secrete  pus. 
and  if  an  artificial  issue  is  not  given  to 
it  the  matter  makes  ita  way  into  the 
adjoining  cellular  tissue  and  forms  ab- 
scesses, when  it  is  peculiarly  dangerous. 
The  causes  of  the  disease  are  numerous, 
but  usually  consist  of  external  injuries 
of  various  kinds.  Women  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  this  disease  after  parturition. 

Phlebotomy  (flf-bofu-mi;  Greek. 
.kUAwwvwwuij    plflcpg^  phiehoa,  a  veto, 

and  temnein,  to  cut),  or  Venescction, 
the  act  of  letting  blood  by  openh^;  a 
vein:  a  method  of  treatment  formerly 
applied  to  almoat  all  diseases,  but  now 
chiefly  confined  to  cases  of  genera!  or 
local  plethora.  Another  mode  of  letting 
blood  ia  by  cupping  or  by  the  applica- 
tioM  of  leechaa.    It  baa  baas  ona  of  tha 


Phlegethon 


Thouiioia 


proctuM  of  the  medical  profeMlon  from 
the  earllert  time*.  .     .     ^,^ 

Phlegethon  i«?c,Vn 'mSt^holJiy.*': 

rim  o£  fir.  in  tbe  infernjl.'Jt'TpuiXG- 
PhlegmaSia   ioN.    in    medicine,   a 
diffuM   Inflammation    of   the    "ubcutane- 
ous  connective  tiwue  in  which  the  PU« 
has  a  tendency  to  spread  itself  through 
the      tissues.    The      name      phlegma$ia 
rfolen*    is    given    to    what    is    othervise 
known  as  lilk-leg,  an  ailment  occu"  ng 
In  women  after  delivery,  and  consisting 
in   a   very   painful   svireliing   of   the   leg 
accompanied  by  fever. 
VMA»4a4-ATi     (flu-jis'tun),  a  name  ap- 
rhlOg^StOIL    ^ued,  before  the  lime  of 
Lavoisier,    to    a    hypothetical    «>b8tance 
iUpposed   to   be    contained    1°    »"    ^o™: 
bustlblT  bodies,    and     constituting    the 
source  or  element  of  heat.  _.|j. 

tSvU^iI^t.      (flor-id'zin).  a  glucoside 
rniOnaZlIL     obtained   from   the   root 
of  the  apple,  pear,  cherry,  etc.    It  de- 
stroys   the     malarial     parasite    and     is 
r^mmended     as     an     antlpenodic     in 
3?S    but  its  chief  medical  use  is  in 
St  fng    the    functional ,  activity    of    the 
kidneys:  it  producing  glycosuria  of  renal 
origin.  In  addition  to  polyuria.     ^^^^,, 
VVIav      (floks),  a  genus  of  perennial 
Phlox     herbaceous  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Polemoniacea,  natives  for  tne 
most    part    of    North    America,    though 
rome  of  the  species  are  to  be  met  with 
iSAs?a.    The  flowers,  which  are  favor- 
kes  inlardens.  are  of  a  purple  or  violet 
color,    more   rarely   white  or    red,   with 
~  ialver-shaped   corolla,   and    a   narrow 
sub-cylindrical     tube     longer     than     the 
cSlyx!    The  trailing  kinds  are  excellent 
for  rock-work.  , 

PhOCa,    P«oc"*-    See  Scar. 


In  tb«  war  with  Pblllp  of  Mw^on  the 
Athenians  swit  Pbocion  with  aoms 
tiw^  to  EuboB*.  where  ha  obtained  a 
complete  victory  over  the  •nemy.  Some 
time  after  he  was  despatched  to  awlst 
Ih?  cities  of  the  Hellespont  aganst 
Philip,  whom  he  compelled  to  retire. 
According  to  Plutarch  he  was  nominated 
commander  forty-five  time,  without  once 


■DV<tAoa     (foltas).    a    Greek    emperor, 
rnOCaS     ^^^  in  the  6th  century,  a.  d.. 


of  obscure  parentage,  entered  the  army 
in  the  reign  of  Mauricius,  and  rose  to 
be  a  centurion.  At  the  head  of  a  muti- 
nous army  he  marched  from  the  Danube 
to  Ckjustantinopie.  and  on  the  flight  of 


applying  for  the  office.  ,  He  always  led 
a  simpfe   life,  and  cultivated   h\e  small 
farm  with  his  own  hands.    As  the  leader 
of  the  conservative  or  aristocratic  party 
be  opposed  Demosthenes  on  the  q"f«'<» 
of  war  with  Philip  of  Macedon.  his  ad- 
vice, according  to  Grote,  being  eminently 
mischievous  to  Athens.     He  ■ubsequently 
condemned  the  confederacy  a8;\n»t  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and.  after  Alexanders 
death    (323   B.C.),  the   war  with  Anti- 
SS.  ^On   each/ 'occasion   Phocion   was 
employed  to  make  terms  with  the  vkto- 
rious  Mace<lonians;  and  though  he  seems 
to  have  used  his  Influence  with  them  to 
mitigate  the  burdens  upon  his  country, 
his  conduct  readily  laid  him  open  to  a 
charge  of  betrayal.    He  was  according  y 
put   to  death  by  the  popular  party     n 
317  B.C.,  but  his  remains  were  shortly 
afterwards  buried  at  public  expense  and 
his  accusers  punished.         „,  ..  ..v    .  jt 
-DliA/tia    (fS'sis;  Greek,  PhOku),  a  dl- 
jrnOClB    yjaion   of   ancient   Greece,   on 
the  north  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth, 
between  Bocotia  on   the  east  and   Doris 
and     the    Locri    Ozoias    on    the    west. 
The  principal  rivers  were  the  Cephlssus 
and  ^iistus,  and  the  principal  mountain 
Parnassus,     on     which     was     situatea 
Delphi   with    its  celebrated   oracle,    pe 
country   is   mountainous   and   unprodpc- 
tive,  the  valley  of  the  Cephlssus  b«ng 
almost  the  only  fertile  tract  \n  ".    The 
Phocians  were  a  brave  and  industrious 
people,    and    subsisted    chiefly    by    agri- 
culture.    See  Phthiotif. 
PhcehnS.     SeeApoHo. 


■Dlimninia  (fe-nish'i-i),  in  ancient 
rnOemCia  geography,  a  country  on 
the  coast  of  Syria,  bounded  on,  the  east 
by  Mount  Lebanon,  and  containing  the 
celebrated  cities  Tyre  and  Sldon. 
Phoenicia  proper  was  a  tract  of  country 
stretching  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,  not  much  more  than  m 
miles  in  length,  and  little  more  than  1 
mile  in  average  breadth;  Sidon  being 
situated  near  its  northern,  and  Tyre  not 
far  from  its  southern  boundary.  In  a 
wider  sense  Phcenicia   was   regarded  as 


Mauricius  took  possession  of  the  throne. 
602  A.D.  The  subsequent  murder  or 
Mauriciu.  and  his  family  involved  him 
in  a  war  with  Persia.  He  was  captured 
and  put  to  death  in  610  by  Heraclius 
the  younger  and  Nicetas.  who  besieged 
Constantinople  at  the  head  of  an  expe- 
dition fitted  out  by  Heraclius,  exarch  of 
Africa. 


*. 


Tkouiioia 


milM  in  length,  and  rarely  more  than 
'JO  in  breadth.  It  ia  watered  by 
aeveral  streama  flowing  from  Lebanon 
to  the  sea,  auch  as  the  Eleutherua,  the 
Adonis,  the  Lycus,  the  Tamyraa,  the 
Leontefl.  The  country  is  fertile  in  tim- 
ber, com,  fruitM,  etc. ;  and  besides  the 
great  cities  of  Sidon  and  Tyre,  it  was 
anciently  studded  with  numerous  smaller 
towDd,  foriuing  almost  an  unbroken  line 
along  the  coast.  Among  these  towns  in 
earlier  timos  were  Arvad,  Accho,  Arka, 
TripoHs,  Berytus,  Sarepta,  Dora,  etc. 
Many  of  the  roadsteads  or  harbors  were 
excellent,  but  are  now  silted  up. 

The  question  as  to  the  original  seat  of 
the  Phcpniclans  has  re<-eived  no  satis- 
factory  solution ;  but  that,  like  the  Jews, 
they  were  Semites  by  race,  is  well  known. 
Th<>ir  immigration  to  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  belongs  to  prehistoric 
times.  The  settlement  of  Israel  in 
Canian  did  not  produce  any  great  or 
permanent  change  on  Phoenicia.  The 
tribes  of  Nuphtali,  Asher,  and  Dan,  to 
which  it  was  assigned,  did  not  conquer 
Plicenicin,  but  occupied  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  it ;  and  the  subsequent  relations 
of  Israel  and  Phoenicia  were  for  the 
most  part  those  of  amity,  intercourse, 
and  reciprocal  advantage.  The  wealth 
and  power  of  the  Ph(cnicians  arose  from 
their  command  of  the  sea,  and  it  was 
tlieir  policy  not  to  provoke  any  of  the 
nations  to  the  east  of  them,  and  not  to 
quarrel  unnecessarily  with  Israel,  which 
was  their  granary.  The  relation  be- 
tween Hiram  and  David  was  probably 
but  a  sample  of  such  international  treat- 
ies and  intercourse.  After  the  division 
of  the  Hebrew  kingdom  Phoenicia  would 
naturally  cultivate  alliance  w^ith  the 
Ten  Tribes  nearest  to  it,  and  Abab  mar- 
ried a  Phvcniciau  princess.  The  country 
was  afterwards. successively  incorporated 
in  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  Per- 
sian empires,  but  the  cities  retained  more 
or  less  their  independence.  It  was  next 
conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  &nd 
henceforth  simply  formed  part  of  Syria. 

B^rom  a  very  early  period  the  Phoeni- 
cians occupied  themselves  in  distant 
voyages,  and  they  must  speedily  have 
reached  to  a  style  of  substantial  ship- 
building. Xenophon  passes  a  high 
eulogy  on  a  Piioenician  ship;  and  they 
were  skilled  in  navigation  and  the 
nautical  applications  of  astronomy. 
Lebanon  supplied  them  with  abundance 
of  timber,  and  Cyprus  gave  them  all 
necessary  naval  equipments,  from  the 
keel  to  the  top-sails.  In  the  reign  of 
Pharaoh-Necho  these  daring  navigators 
even  circumnavigated  Africa,  and  the 
Phcenicians   furnished   Xerzet   with  300 

13-  U— 5 


PhanioU 


shins,  which  took  part  In  the  battle 
of  Balainis.  The  commerce  of  Tyre  ex- 
tended widely.  It  traded  in  the  pro- 
duce of  the  whole  known  world,  from 
the  ivory  and  '  bright  iron '  and  ebony 
and  cotton  fabrics  of  India  to  the  tin 
from  Cornwall  and  Devonshire.  Fish- 
ing was  also  an  important  industry,  and 
the  Tyrians  sold  fish  in  Jerusalem.  The 
Phoenicians  excelled  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  purple  dye  from  the  shell-fish 
tnuret,  abundant  on  its  coasts.  The 
glass  of  Sidon  was  no  less  famous  than 
the  Tyrian  dye.  Phoenicia  produced 
also  articles  of  silver  and  gold  as  well 
as  of  brass;  its  inhabitants  were  also 
skilled  in  architecture  and  in  mining. 

The  maritime  knowledge  and  experi 
ence  of  Phoenicia  led  to  the  plantation 
of  numerous  colonies  in  Cyprus,  Rhodes, 
and  the  islands  of  the  iGgean>— the 
Cyclades  and  Sporades  —  in  Sicily,  in 
Sardinia,  the  Balearic  Islands,  and  in 
Spain.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
Phoenician  colonies,  however,  was  Car- 
thage, in  Northern  Africa,  which  ex- 
tended its  s.vay  over  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula and  disputed  with  Rome  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Mediterranean. 

As  was  the  case  in  Canaan  at  the 
invasion,  each  Phoenician  city  was  gov- 
erned by  a  king  or  petty  chief.  A  pow- 
erful aristocracy  existed  in  the  chief 
towns,  and  there  were  also  elective  mag- 
istrates, called  by  the  Romans  tuifitet, 
a  disguised  form  of  the  Hebrew  aofet. 
Sidon,  and  afterwards  Tyre,  exercised 
a  he|;emonv  over  the  other  states.  The 
relation  of  Phoenicia  to  her  colonies 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  close. 
Their  religion,  however,  Iraund  the 
mother  country  and  the  colonies  in  a 
common  worship.  Carthage  often  sent 
presents  to  the  chief  Phoenician  god; 
so  did  Gades  and  other  settlements. 

The  religion  of  the  Phoenicians  was 
a  species  of  nature- worship,  the  objects 
of  adoration  l)eing  the  sun,  moon,  and 
five  planets;  or  in  another  form  it  was 
the  worship  of  male  and  female  repro- 
ductive powers  —  the  former  represented 
as  Baal  and  the  latter  as  Baalith, 
Astoreth,  or  Astarte.  The  god  called 
II,  a  sort  of  Phoenician  Cronos  or 
Saturn,  resembling  the  Moloch  or  Mil- 
corn  of  the  Ammonites,  had  human  sacri- 
fices oflFered  to  him.  Marine  deities  must 
have  held  a  prominent  place  in  their 
theogony  —  deities  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Kerens  and  Poseidon,  which  last 
was  worshiped  at  Berytus.  In  the  old- 
est temples  there  were  no  images,  but 
there  were  rude  fetishes  —  conical  or 
oblong  stones,  possibly  aerolites  *  fallen 
from     heaven,'    and    fossil     belemnitea. 


mrm 


Phflniooptoroi 


Pbonetioi 


Whll«  the  w«tUh  and  c«b"»«![««  .  «| 
PhwnicU  murt  have  broufht  art  ana 
Rflnement,  the  people  were  noted  for 
their  dlwwlutenewi.  Aa  a  people  the 
Pha?nltlane  early  ^obtained  a  repntatlon 
for  connlnj  and  falthleeenee^  They 
were  often  plratee;  they  were  certainly 
■lave-tradera.  They  purchwed  -lavea 
from  the  northern  shoree  of  the  Blnca 
Sea,  and  they  alec  kidnapwl  and  iiold 
the  children  of  Israel  —  a  pmctice  which 
broufht  upon  them  the  denunciatlona  of 
the  prophets,  and  a  juat  reUllatlon  waa 
predicted  to  fall  upon  them. 

The  language  of  ancient  Phoenicia  waa 
closely  akin  to  Hebrew.  The  famous 
passage  In  the  Popnulus  of  Plautus  Illus- 
trates the  assertion.  Of  ninety-four 
worda  on  a  tablet  discovered  at  Mar- 
wllles  in  1845  relating  to  the  sacrlbclal 
ritual  •  no  less  than  seventy-four  are 
found  In  the  Old  Testament,  Coins 
and  seals  also  disclose  the  same  affinity, 
as  do  the  numerous  inscriptions.  Proper 
names  can  all  be  explained  In  the  same 
way.  The  invention  of  letters  is  often 
ascribed  to  the  Phumiclans,  being  proba- 
bly derived  from  the  hieroglyphics  of 
Egypt,  some  of  which  were  alphabetic 
In  aignlficance.  The  Greeks  believed 
that  iPtters  had  been  brought  to  them 
from  Phcenicla  by  Cadmus.  The  so- 
called  tjaomean  letters  of  the  Greek  al- 
phabet are  A  B  r  A  E  F  I  K  L  M  NO 
n  P  2  T,  the  sixth  letter  P  being  the 
diaamma,  which  afterwards  disappeared 
from  the  Greek  alphabet.  The  names 
of  these  letters  have  no  meaning  in 
Greek,  but  they  have  each  a  signihcance 
In  Phopnician  or  Hebrew.  The  ammty 
of  the  old  Greek  letters  in  form  to  the 
Phuenicion  and  early  Hebrew  can  be 
easily  traced.  The  literature  of  Phteni- 
cia  has  perished.  See  also  Tifre,  Sidon, 
Carthage,  etc.  ^      „ 

PhoenicOp'temS.     ^ee  namingo. 

W/nTii'v      (fS'niks),  a  fabulous  Egyp- 
jrJl<£JUX     jjg„  uijj    about  ti,e  size  of 

an  eagle,  with  plumage  partly  red  and 
partly  golden.  Of  the  various  stones 
told  of  It  by  Herodotus  and  others,  the 
most  popular  Is  to  the  effect  that  the 
bird,  at  an  age  of  500  years,  conscious 
of  Its  approaching  death,  built  a  funeral 
pile  of  wood  and  aromatic  gums,  which 
It  lighted  with  the  fanning  of  its  wings, 
and   rose  from   the   flames  with  a  new 

PlirPTiiT  *-^^  scientinc  name  of  tne 
X^uisiLUk)  date-palm  genus. 
Vlt/niiiv  a  city  of  Arizona,  and  its 
rnoeniX,  capital  since  ISJX);  also  the 
eonnty  seat  of  Maricopa  Ca,  and  the 
eniter  of  the  S»U  River  Irrifation  Proj- 


ect It  ta  reached  hy  the  Boutf**™ 
Padllc  and  SanU  V*  railroads,  and  b^ 
"iiTof  Ita  dry.  mild  ^l'""***' »»,  » 'V;*: 
Ite  winter  r««>rt.  It  lathe  center  of  a 
mining  *r«u    Pop.  20.000.  ^     ^  _^    ^ 

PhoBnixviUe,  JolTp^nWaSTS 

the  Schuylkill  River  at  the  mouth  of 
French  Creek,  28  miles  K.w.  of  Phila- 
delphia. It  contains  Iron-works  of  great 
extent,  among  the  largest  In  the  LnlteU 
States.  They  produce  steel  bridges, 
architectural  and  structural  Iron,  rails, 
boUers,  etc.  There  are  also  wia^mius, 
onderwear  factories,  etc.  Pop.  10.»4d. 
PTinlftfl  (ffi'las),  a  genus  of  marine 
moxaB  Lamelllbranchlate  bivalves, 
forming  the  type  of  the  family  Pholadl- 
da".  In  which  the  shell  gapes  at  both  ends. 
The  shell,  which  Is  of  thin  white  texture. 
Is  studded  over  on  its  outer  surface  w:ith 
numerous  rasp-like  prominences  by 
means  of  which  the  animal  excavates, 
burrows  in  wood,  rocks.  Indurated  cUiy. 


PhoUdes  (PftoJo*  Daetylu*)  in  their  holei. 


etc.,  maintaining  communication  with 
the  outer  world  by  means,  of  long  breatU- 
ing-tubes  or  siphons  with  fringed  edges. 
They  are  popularly  known  as  pid- 
docks.'  and  are  eaten  on  many  parts  ot 
the  British  coasts.  These  molluscs  ap- 
pear to  possess  the  power  of  emitting 
a  phosphorescent  light.  P.  ,  J?oc'l"«'i 
the  common  species,  being  specially  noted 
on  this  account.  . ..    ^     ..         t 

PVinnetica  (fO-net'ikz),  the  science 
rnoneilCS  ^j,ich  treats  of  the  va- 
rious sounds  pertaining  to  human 
speech,  their  distinctive  characteristics, 
the  voice-mechanism  by  which  they  are 
uttered,  and  the  methods  by  which  they 
may  be  best  represented  to  the  eye. 
Any  system  of  writing  is  strictly  phonetic 
when  by  it  each  different  sound  is  repre- 
sented by  a  different  character,  and  the 
same  sound  always  by  the  same  charac- 
ter. 


FltOBodiieiiuitognipli 


PoOBomdiv 


7-  f 


FhonodnematogrRph  i5?jJffT 

ui  inttrament  which  combinea  tisht  niMi 
■ound  In  motion  picture*.  Alio  ca)l«d 
tiiifll«pA<m«  (q.  ▼.). 


Phonocinetnatognph. 

PhonOfirrauh  ^  f<i'nu-praf ) ,  an  Instru* 
. ,  .  "  ,*^  mt'Dt  by  means  of 
which  sounds  can  be  permanently  regis- 
tercd,  and  afterwarrls  reproduced  from 
the  register.  Jt  consists  essentially  of 
a  curved  tube,  one  end  of  which  is  f' 
with  a  mouthpiece,  while  the  othei 
(about  2  inches  in  diameter)  is  ck  i 
in  with  a  disk  or  diaphragm  of  excceu- 
ingly  thin  metal.  Connected  with  the 
center  of  this  dlaphraRm  is  a  steel  point, 
which,  when  the  sounds  are  projected 
on  the  disk  from  the  mouthpiece,  vibrates 
backwards  and  forwards.  This  part  of 
the  apparatus  is  adjusted  to  a  cylinder 
which  rotates  on  a  norisontol  axis.  On 
the  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  cut  a 
spiral  groove,  and  on  the  axis  there  is 
a  spiral  screw  of  .the  same  pitch,  which 
works  in  a  nut.  When  the  instrument 
is  to  be  used  a  piece  of  tin-foil  is 
gummed  around  the  cylinder,  and  the 
steel  point  is  adjusted  so  as  to  be  just 
touching  the  tin-foil,  and  above  the  line 
of  the  spiral  groove.  If  some  words  are 
now  spoken  through  the  mouthpiece,  and 
the  cylinder  kept  rotating  either  by  the 
hand  or  by  clock-work,  a  series  of  small 
indentations  are  made  on  the  foil  by 
the  vibratory  movement  of  the  steel 
point,  and  each  of  these  markings  has 
aa  mdividual  character  of  its  own,  due 
to  the  various  sounds  addressed  to  the 
mouthpiece.  The  sounds  thus  regis- 
tered are  reproduced  by  approaching 
the  diaphragm  aud  its  steel  point  to- 
wards the  tin-foil  at  the  point  where 
it  w^as  when  the  cylinder  originally 
started,  and  then^once  more  setting  the 
cylinder  in  motldn.  The  indentations 
previously    made   now   cauM    the   iteel 


pdat  to  ria*  or  fall  or  otbwwlat  _^ 
aa  the  markings  pass  under  it,  and  tbo 
result  is  that  the  diaphrafm  it  thrown 
Into  a  state  of  vibration  exactly  corrt- 
sponding  to  the  movements  induced  by 
the  markings,  and  thus  affect*  tbs  a^ 
around  so  as  to  produce  sounds,  and 
these  vibrations  being  exactly  similar 
to  those  originallv  made  by  the  voice, 
necesxarily  reproduce  these  sounds  to 
the  ear  as  the  words  at  first  spoken. 
These  marked  striiw  of  foil  may  be 
posted  to  any  person  with  whom  the 
speaker  Tvishes  to  correspond,  and  who 
must,  of  course  have  a  machine  similar 
to  that  of  the  sender.  The  contents  of 
the  strips  may  be  reproduced  at  any 
length  of  time,  and  repeated  until  the 
markings  become  effaced  In  Ekiison'a 
improved  phonograph,  tubes  of  wax  are 
used  instead  of  tin-foil,  the  tubes  fitting 
the  cylinder,  and  the  markings  being  made 
on  the  surface  of  the  wax  by  a  fine  steel 
point.  The  wax  cylinders  can  l>e  shaved 
by  a  small  tool  fitted  to  the  machine  and 
used  several  hundred  times.  The  ma- 
chine has  also  been  improved  by  fitting 
a  small  electric  motor,  with  a  delicate 
governing  device,  as  motive  i>ower.  In 
case  electric  current  is  not  available, 
spring  motors  of  ingenious  design  are 
used.  Machines  of  this  type  using  wax 
records  have  been  employe''  'i  signal 
success   in   business,    for  tho    ,  »  of 

taking  dictation  and  reporting^  >c- 

trptyping  and  other  processes.  It  i»  ,>o*. 
sible  to  repro'Ince  records  in  hard  rubber 
which  may  be  used  many  times  without 
injury.  This  method  is  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  records  of  music,  dialogues, 
etc.,  of  ^  which  duplicates  are  desired. 
Automatic  phonographs  are  to  be  found 
In  many  amusement  places,  equipped  with 
musical  records,  which  may  be  operated 
by  the  coin-in-the-slot  system.  Perhaps 
the  most  valuable  application  f  the 
phonograph  is  in  the  preservr/on  of 
sounds  impossible  to  duplicate,  .  .ich  as 
voices  of  great  singers,  and  lang  <es  of 
American  tribes  rapidly  becomina  extinct, 
and  the  wtinls  of  speakers,  faithful  in 
accent  and  individuality,  for  future  gen- 
erations. 

Phonography  iS^^tf" "i'ritm'g  X 

which  the  sounds  of  a  language  are 
accurately  represented.  The  name  is 
generally  applied  to  Pitman's  aystem  of 
shorthand.    See  Shorthand, 

Phonometer  (/f-^oi^'t^'J',  "   *•" 

strumentfor  ascer- 
taining the  number  of  vibrations  of  a 
given  sound  in  a  given  space  of  time.  Also 
an  instrument  for  showing  the  directkm  of 
signals,  devised  in  Idlfi, 


PbonniBX 


rhOTtaXnX    ^rwUn  lutt  or  lyrt. 

Phormittm.  s*.  *<•..  .v«c /••Ja.j. 

rnOfpnaie  ,\,  grneric  t#nn  for  tbt 
Mitt  formed  by  the  unloo  of  pboipborU: 
■nhydrUle  with  baaes  or  water  or  both. 
They  play  a  leading  part  In  the  chemla- 
try  of  aDinial  and  plant  life,  the  moat 
important  in  this  connection  being  the 
pboapbnte  of  aoda,  phoaphate  of  lime, 
and  the  boaic  phoaphnte  of  magneala. 
In  agriculture  the  adequate  aupply  of 
phoapbatea  to  planta  fn  the  form  ol 
manurea  become  a  matter  of  neceaalty 
in  all  JeplenUhi'd  toll*.  Ti.iM  phoa- 
phatic  manurea  conaiat  for  the  moat  part 
of  bowa,  ground  bonea,  mineral  phoe- 
pbatea  (apatite,  pboapUorlte,  coprolltea). 
basic  alag,  aupcrphosphatea  and  reduced 
Buperphoapbatea  (both  prepared  by 
treating  broken-up  Iwnea  with  vitriol), 
bone-a«b     and     phoaphatic     guano     "— 


^ _  Bee 

also  Manure:  „  ,      ,       ___  . 

Phosphate-rock,  ,^iif  ^^  ^^l 

pboapbnte.  Thia  material  hat  been 
found  in  large  quantitiea  in  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Florida,  and  ground  for  sale 
aa  a  fertilizer.  Though  mines  of  this 
rock  are  found  elsewhere,  thoee  named 
are  much  the  richer.  The  phoaphate-rocki 
belonga  to  the  Eocene  formation,  tliough 
found  in  post-pliocene  basiiw.  It  Is 
composed  of  the  remains  of  fosaillied 
animals,  is  rich  in  phosphates  and  forms 
an  excellent  fertilizing  material. 
PlinanliidM  (fos'fldz),  compounda  of 
rnOSpniaeS  phoapltorus  with  one 
other  element,  more  especially  with  the 
metals.  „      „ 

Phosphor-bronze.   »«« ^'•'"'«- 


Phoiphorui 

tb«  body  it  phoapboreactnt :  In  other 
omniaow  tb«  phoapboreactnt  property 
la  locnliiad  In  certain  organs,  at  in  the 
sea'pens,  certain  annelids,  the  glow- 
worms, firelilct.  etc.,  while  many  deep- 
sea  nahet  have  sbininK  bodlM  em- 
bedded In  the  skin.  The  plieniphorcs- 
eence  of  the  wa  Is  produced  by  the  win- 
iillatlng  or  phosplioresrent  llant  emitted 
from  the  bo«lies  of  certain  mirroHfo|iical 
marine  aninials,  and  is  well  seen  on  the 
surface  of  the  ocean  at  night.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  phospliorescence  is 
a  common  feature  in  the  deep-sen  nnl- 
mals,  which  dwell  in  complete  ilorkness 
except  to  the  extent  that  they  are  them- 
telvca  able  to  illuminate  their  place  of 
abode.  Piiosphorescence  in  animals  ap- 
pears to  be  a  vital  process,  consiKtlng 
essentially  in  the  conversion  of  nervoui 
force  (vital  en-rgy)  into  light;  just  as 
tlie  same  fon'e  can  be  converted  by  cer- 
tain fiabes  Into  electricity.     See  Fluoret- 

Phosphoric  Acid    i'S-.o'.T,  'il 

acid  usually  obtained  by  burning  phoa- 
phoreted  hydrogen  in  atmospheric  air  or 
oxygen.  It  is  also  produced  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  phosphorous  acid,  by  oxidizing 
phosphorus  with  nitric  acid,  by  the  de- 
composition of  apatite  and  other  native 
phosphates,  and  in  various  other  ways. 
It  is  used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of 
solution,  constituting  the  dilute  acid  of 
the  phannacop<Bia.  It  is  peculiarly 
suited  to  disordered  states  of  the  raucous 
surfaces,  and  also  to  states  of  debility, 
characterized  by  softenin?  of  the  bones. 
PliMTiliArite  (fos'lor-It),  a  species 
rnOSpnonie  ^^  calcareous  earth;  a 
tubapecies  of  apatite  (which  see).  It  la 
an  amorphous  phosphate  of  lime,  and  is 
valuable  as  a  fertilizer. 


Phosphorescence   [[T'%'T%"^rli  Phosphoroscope   i^''f-f{'r'ume?t'Sl^ 

*^         .      ...  '"T  _   K.^sLtlr    .\^^    tn   «hnw    the    nhosnliorescence   of 


which  certain  bodies  possess  of  becom- 
ing luminous  without  undergoing  obvious 
combustion.  It  is  sometimes  a  chemical, 
sometimes  a  physical,  action.  Certain 
mineral  substances  exhibit  the  phenome- 
non when  submitted  to  insolation,  to 
heat,  to  friction,  to  electricity,  or  to 
cleavage.  Rain,  wnler-spouts,  and  me- 
teoric dust  sometimes  present  a  self- 
luminous  appearance.  Several  vegeto- 
ble  organisms,  chiefly  cryptogams,  exhibit 
this  kind  of  luminosity;  but  the  most 
iuicresliuiS  cases  of  phosphorescence  (W- 
cur  in  tlie  animal  worl«l.  the  species  in 
which  the  luminous  property  lias  been 
observed  belonging  nearly  to  every  main 
group  of  the  zoological  series.  In  some 
of  the  lowest  life  forms  and  in  many 
of  the  jelly-fishet  the  whole  surface  of 


signed    to   show   the   phospliorescence   of 
certain   bodies    that    emit    light    but    for 
a  very  short  period.     By  its  means  many 
substances  hitherto  unsuspected  of  phos- 
phorescence   have    been    proved    capable 
of  retaining  light  for  very  short  periods. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  n  philosophical 
toy     for     showing     phosphorescent     sub- 
stances in  the  dark.  . 
PViAanlinniv     (fos'fo-rus),    a    soliu, 
rnOSpnOraS    non  -  metallic,      combus- 
tible   substance    ranking    as    one    of    the 
elements;   svmbol   P.  atomic   weight  31; 
specific  gravity  1.820.     It  occurs  chiefly 
in    combination    with    oxygen,    calcium, 
and    magnesium,    in    volcanic    and    other 
rocks,    whose    disintegration    constitutes 
very  fertile  soils.     It  exists  also  in  the 
plants  used  by  man  aa  food,  and  is  a 


Photphonu  Add 


Fhotognphj 


>=^i 


M. 


lMrt^faillnf  and  important  constitu- 
rat  In  animal  structurw  It  la  manu* 
(actund  from  boo«s,  w.  icb  conaiat  In 
part  of  pboapbatt  of  limt,  or  from  natlva 
mineral  pboapbtte  of  lime.  Common 
pboaphorua  when  pure  la  almost  trana- 
parent  and  colorless.  At  common  ttm- 
peraturea  It  is  a  soft  solid,  easily  eat 
witb  a  knife,  and  the  cut  surface  has 
a  waxy  luster;  at  108*  it  fuses,  and  at 
BoO*  is  converted  Into  rapor.  It  la  ei- 
ccedinxly  inflammable.  Exposed  to  tba 
air  at  common  temperatures  It  under- 
Koes  slow  combimtion,  emits  a  white 
vapor  of  a  peculiar,  alliaceoua  odor,  ap- 
pears luminous  in  the  dark,  and  Is  grad- 
ually cousumt'd.  On  this  account  phos- 
phorus should  alwaya  be  kept  undar 
water.  A  very  slight  degree  of  beat  Is 
sufficient  to  Inflame  phosphorus  In  the 
open  air.  Uentle  pressure  between  tba 
fingers,  friction,  or  a  temperature  not 
much  alwve  its  point  of  fusion,  kindles 
it  readily.  It  burns  rapidly  even  In  tba 
nir,  emitting  a  splendid  white  light,  and 
can-tog  intense  beat.     Its  combustion  Is 

fi-L  i'*  '■"P''*  '°  ?'y«S5  «"•  "nd  the 
llgii  far  more  vivid.  The  product  of 
the  i>erfect  combustion  of  phosphorus  is 
phosphorus  t-'otoxide  or  phospborle 
ouhydride  (P.O.).  a  white  solid  which 
readily  takes  up  water,  passing  into  phos- 
phoric acid  (which  sec).  Compounds  of 
phosnhoric  anhydride  with  basic  bodlea 
are  known  as  phosphatet  (which  see). 
Phosphorus  mav  be  made  to  combine 
with  moHt  of  the  metals,  forming  com- 
liounds  called  phoaphidet.  When  dis- 
ttolved  In  fat  oils  It  forms  a  solution 
which  is  luminous  In  the  dark.  It  la 
chiefly  used  in  the  preparation  of  luclfer- 
mntebcs,  and  also  In  the  preparation  of 
phosphoric  acid.  It  is  of  all  stimulants 
the  most  powerful  and  diffusijle,  but  on 
account  of  its  activity  highly  dangerous. 
It  can  be  safely  administered  as  a  medi- 
cine only  In  extremely  minute  dosea  and 
witb  the  utmost  possible  caution.  Phos- 
phorus presents  a  good  example  of 
allotropy,  in  that  It  can  be  exhibited 
In  at  least  one  other  form,  known  aa 
red  or  amorphoua  pkoaphorua,  present- 
ing completely  different  properties  from 
common  phosphorus.  This  variety  is 
produced  by  keeping  common  phosphorus 
a  long  time  slightly  below  the  boiling- 
point.  It  is  a  red,  bard,  brittle  anb- 
stauce,  not  fusible,  not  poisonoua,  and 
not  readily  inflammable,  so  that  It  may 
i>e  handled  witb  impunity.  When  heated 
to  the  boiling-point  it  changes  back  to 
common  phosphorus. 

Phosphorus  Acid  4'*>^A'V"*'' 

,.,.,.  HiPO«),    an 

•eld  pfodaoad  by  ezpoalnf  atteka  of  phoa- 


pboraa  tp^  moiat  air,  and  In  aavtral  othar 
waya.  Pboapborona  acid  tzlate  oaually 
in  tba  form  of  a  thick,  nDcrystalliaahM 
ayrup,  but  it  may  aiao  ba  obtoinad  cry*- 
talUaad. 

triciaa  partota  in  that  city  early  in  tba 
0th  cantury.  Hia  wealth  and  Intersat 
raiacd  him  to  tba  highest  offlcea  of  tba 
atate,  whilat  be  enjoyed  the  reputation 
of  being  tba  moat  universally  learned  and 
accompiiabcd  man  of  bis  age.  He  be- 
came secretatj  of  state  under  the  em- 
peror Michael  III,  and  contracted  an 
intimacy  with  the  minister  Bardas, 
uncla  of  tht  ampcroi.  On  tba  deposi- 
tion of  tba  patriarch  Ignatiua,  Bardaa 
perauaded  the  emperrr  to  raise  Pho- 
tlua  to  tha  patriarcha'  dignity.  Ttie  In- 
stallation waa  recognised  by  the  metro- 
polltana  of  the  patriarchate,  but  waa 
oppoaed  by  Pope  NIcbolaa  I,  whom 
Pbotiua  Boon  after  excommunicated, 
thereby  biylng  the  foundation  of  tha 
schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Weat- 
em  churcbee.  But  the  Emperor  Michael 
having  been  murdered  in  867  by  Baail, 
who  waa  ralaed  to  the  throne,  that  prbuca 
immediately  replaced  Ignatiua  In  hia 
office,  and  baniabed  Pbotiua,  who,  how- 
ever, resumed  bis  dignity  on  tba  death 
of  Ignatius  In  878.  On  the  accession  of 
Leo.  son  of  Basil,  to  the  Imperial  throna 
[n  886,  Pbotlus  waa  again  depoaed,  and 
banished  to  a  monaatery  in  Armenia, 
where  he  died  in  891.  Pbotiua  waa  an 
able  ecclesiastical  atateaman,  and  a  man 
of  great  intellect,  erudition,  and  llt*rary 
power.  His  chief  work  is  tha  ifyrfoMft- 
lion,  which  may  be  deacribed  aa  an  az- 
tenaive  review  of  ancient  Greek  litera- 
ture. 

Photo^nirravinflr.  •«>«»»<>«»  n«une 

r.  .  .  *  •'  "'•"7  Vtoe- 
esses,  in  which  tha  action  of  Ught  on 
a  sensitised  surface  ia  made  to  change 
the  nature  or  condition  of  tha  substance 
of  the  plate  or  iu  coating,  ao  that  it 
may,  by  processes,  be  made  to  aflFord  a 
printing  surface  corresponding  to  tha 
priginal  from  which  the  photocraphic 
image  was  derived. 
PhotOfiravhv     't^-tog'n-a;  Oreek, 

and  grapM,  I  writ  )  is  the  art  of  Uldnff 
representationa  of  objects  by  tha  action 
of  light  through  the  lenses  of  the  camera 
obscura  on  a  previously  prepared  surface. 
It  la  of  comparatively  recent  origin, 
tpougn,  aa  early  aa  the  commencement  of 
the  19th  century,  Mr.  Thomaa  Wedge- 
wood  had  diacovered  a  method  of  copying 
paintinga  on  glaas  and  of  making  pro&lea 
by  tba  aetlui  of  light  upon  altrata  of 


mmmim 


Photography 


Photography 


■liver.  About  1814  M.  NWphore  Ni«pc«, 
in  France,  discovered  a  method  of  pro- 
ducing, by  means  of  the  camera  obscura, 
pictures  on  plates  of  metal  coated  wlta 
asphaltum,  and  at  the  same  time  of  ren- 
dering them  permanent.  In  lodW  ua- 
Suerre  announced  the  discovery  of  the 
aguerreotype.  (See  Daguerreotype 
Procest.)     In    the    meantime,     however. 


Mr.   Henry   Fox  Talbot  had   discovered 
the  process  of  obtaining  pictures  in  the 
camera  by  the  agency  of  light  on  50  per 
coated  with  chloride  and  nitrate  of  silver, 
and  also  of  fixing  them  when  so  obtained. 
Mr.  Talbot  gave  the  name  of  calotype  to 
his  process   (from  kaloa,  fair,  and  tupot 
or    tvpos,    an    impression),    and    subse- 
quently introduced  various  improvements 
on  it,  and  took  out  several  patents,  the 
earliest  being  in  1841.     It  has  also  been 
called  after  him  talbotype,  in   the  same 
manner  a*  daguerreotype  from  Daguerre, 
Numerous   modifications  of  the  calotype 
were    introduced,    besides    various    new 
photograi)hic    processes,    the    most     im- 
portant being  those  of  M.  Niepce  de  St. 
Victor  and  Mr.  Scott  Archer,  the  former 
of  whom  introduced  the  use  of  albumen 
and  the  latter  that  of  collodion  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  paper,  'these  substances  being 
in  either  case  thinly  spread  over  a  plate 
of  glass.     Mr.  Archer  perfected  the  wet 
collodion     process,     and     published     full 
working  details  in   I80I.    Collodion  dry 
plates  were  intro<lnced  by  Dr.  liiU  Nor- 
ris  in  185G :  collodion  emulsion  dry  plates 
by  Messrs.  Sayce  and  Bolton  in  1864.    In 
1871  Dr.  R.  L.  Maddox  discovered  that 
glass  plates  could  be  coated  with  an  emul- 
sion consisting  of  bromide  of  silver  con- 
tained   in    gelatine.     This    gelatine    dry- 
plate  process  was  improved  by   Bennett 
in  1878.  and  came  into  general  use  about 
1880.     It  is  now  almost  the  only  process 
employed  in  ordinary  photography. 

Photographs  may  be  either  negatwe  or 
potitivc.  Negative  photographs  arc  pro- 
duced in  the  camera,  and  exhibit  the 
lights  and  shades  contrary  to  nature,  that 
is,  the  lights  dark  and  shades  white.  In 
order  to  obtain  prints  or  positives  several 
methods  are  used.  In  silver  printing  a 
paper  sensitized  by  being  floated  on  a 
solution  of  albumen  mixed  with  common 
salt,  and  then  on  a  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  is  placed  in  close  contact  with 
the  negative  in  a  printing-frame,  and  ex- 

Eosed  to  light  until  the  silver  compounds 
ave  become  sufliclently  darkened,  "is 
afterwards  toned,  fixed,  and  washed.  In 
the  platinotype  process  the  paper  is  sensi- 
tized by  ferric  oxalate  and  a  double  salt 
of  potassium  and  platinum.  The  latter 
process  requires  uo  toning,  and  produces 


In  1855  M.  Poitevln  d«Tit«d  a  procej* 
by  which  pictures  of  great  beauty  and 
permanence  were  obtained.     He  combined 
carbon  or  any  other  pigment,  in  a  hne 
state  of  division,  with  gelatine,  starch, 
or  gum,  applied   it  over  the  surface  of 
his  paper,  dried  it,  submitted  it  to  the 
action  of  light  under  a  photographic  nega- 
tive, and  so  first  produced  what  is  now 
usually  called  a  carbon  print     In  1804 
carbon-printing   was    brought   to   a   high 
state  of  perfection  by  Mr.  Swan,  of  New- 
castle, whose  plan  was  to  prepare  a  solu- 
tion of  gelatine  and  bichromate  of  potash 
(the  latter  being  the  sensiHzing  agent), 
mixed    with    some    black    pigment,    and 
apply  the  mixture  as  a  coating  to  a  sheet 
of  paper,  and  print  his  positives  on  the 
black  cake,  or  tissue  as  it  is  called,  thus 
produced.    One    of    the    most    important 
discoveries    in    connection    with    photo- 
graphic printing  was  that  of  Mr.  Walter 
Woodbury.     By  his  process  the  hardened 
tissue    is    brought    into    contact    with    a 
plate   of   type    metal    under   considerable 
pressure.    The  plate  takes  the  impression 
of   the   relief,    and   pictures   are   printed 
from  it  instead  of  from  the  raised  tissue. 
The   autotype   process,   invented   by    Mr. 
Johnson,    is    a    more    simple    and    ready 
method  of  carbon-printing  than  the  carbon 
process    proper,    but    the    principles    in- 
volved are  the  same.     It  is  used  for  book 
illustrations    and    picture    reprcKluction. 
Photolithography,    the   process   of   repro- 
ducing  copies   of   a   photograph    from    a 
lithoeraphic    stone,    was    discovered  _  by 
Asser,  of  Amsterdam,  in  1859.     Various 
modes   of  multiplying   photographic   pic- 
tures by  photolithography  have  been  suc- 
cessfully  tried.     A   common    mode   is   to 
take  a  print  on  paper  sensitized  with  gel- 
atine and  bichromate  of  notassiuin,  and  to 
ink  it  with  a  suitable  oily  ink.     This  ink 
adheres  to  the  pai-^^s  where  the  gelatine 
has  been  acted  on  by  light  and  has  be- 
come insoluble,  but  where  the  gelatine  is 
still  soluble  the  ink  can  be  easily  washed 
off.     It   is   then   transferred    to   a   litho- 
graphic   stone    in    the    usual    wa^.     In 
photozincography  the  process  consists  in 
projecting  an   impression  on  a  plate  or 
prepared  zinc  by   photography  and   then 
engraving   it   by   etching   with   acids,   so 
that  copies  can  be  printed  from  the  plate. 
In    1887    it    was    announced    that    Mr. 
Mayall  had  discovered  the  secret  of  tak- 
ing  photographs    in   natural   colors,   and 
since  then  much  progress  has  been  made 
in    this   direction.     While    colors   cannot 
be    directly    reproduced,    interesting    and 
effective  indirect  methods  have  been  dis- 
covered, and   the  problem  is  practically 
solved.     Brilliant  photographs  of  spectra 
kAT»  bMB  prodwM.  and  yhoMfwptV  hat 


Fhotoirrapliy 


PhotophoB* 


become  a  hl^ly  important  agent  in 
astronomical  research,  yielding  much  in- 
formation  not  obtainable  by  eyesight 
Since  the  introd.  tior  of  the  gelatine 
plate  the  art  of  photography  has  made 
immense  advances,  anc*  its  applications 
are  endless.  Hand  (sometimes  called 
detective)  came- 
;'as  in  all  shapes 
and  sizes  have 
been  introduced, 
some  of  which 
take  pictures  of 
i  and  i  plate 
size.  Slany  im- 
provemen  ts  have 
also  been  made  in 
instant  aneous 
shutters.  These 
are  now  so  care- 
fully adjusted  by 
mechanical  appli- 
ances that  they 
can  be  regulated 
to  a  small  frac- 
tion of  a  second, 
or  a  prolonged  ex- 
posure can  be 
given  to  any  part 
of  the  subject  at 
will.  These  in- 
stantaneous proc- 
scit^ntists  to  ana- 
lyze nlu^scular  movements  and  the  various 
modes  of  locomotion.  Remarkabb  re- 
sults have  also  been  attained  in  the  appli- 
cation of  photography  to  astronomy,  and 
pictures  or  the  mo3t  remote  parts  of  the 
heavens  are  now  common.    The  employ- 


Vertical  Photomicro- 
grapbic  Camera. 

38ses    have    enabled 


Hoving  Picture  Machine, 
a,  arc-lamp;  b,  rheostat;  e,  «,  film-holders;  a, 
objective;  e,  mechanism  for  moving  film  and 
operating  shutter. 

ment  of  photography  in  connection  with 
the  microsoopo  has  been  of  great  assist- 
ance in  chemistry  and  biology.  Its  ap- 
plication in  the  various  processes  of  book- 
illustration  has  also  been  very  successful. 
Photography  by  means  of  artificial  light 
has  also  been  brought  to  great  perfection. 


Photography  is  now  a  scientific  and 
fashionable  pastime,  and  men  and  women 
amateurs  in  many  cases  excel  profe*- 
sionals.  Photographic  societies  exist  in 
most  large  towns,  the  object  being  the 
advancement  of  photography  through  the 
experiments  and  research  of  members, 
who  include  the  leading  amateur  photog- 
raphers. A  rapid  succession  of  photo- 
graphs of  an  event  is  utilized  in  the 
popular  moving  pictures.  When  shown 
rapidly  they  yield  virtually  an  uninter- 
rupted reproduction. 

PhotoerraVTire  (ft'ta-gra-vUr).  a 
A  uvuugxav  u.x^>    pjojjggg  of  engraving 

in  which  by  the  aid  of  photography  sub- 
jects are  reproduced  as  plates  suited  for 
printing  in  a  copper-plate  press.  The 
process  known  as  Heliogravure  (which 
see)   is  essentially  the  same. 

Photoheliograph   <^V)fan'Vn'it^: 

ment  for  observing  transits  of  Venus  and 

other  solar   phenomena,  consisting  of  a 

telescope  mounted  for  photography  on  an 

equatorial  stand  and  moved  by  suitable 

clockwork. 

Photolithography.     See   Photogra- 

Photometer  (fO-tom'e-ttr),  an  in- 
f  uubuiucici  strument  intended  to  in- 
dicate relative  quantities  of  light,  as  in 
a  cloudy  or  bright  day,  or  to  enable  two 
light-giving  bodies  to  be  compared.  Pho- 
tometers depend  on  one  or  other  of  the 
two  principles,  that  the  eye  can  distin- 
guish whether  two  adjacent  surfaces  are 
equally  illuminated,  and  whether  two 
contiguous  shadows  have  the  same  depth. 
Benson's  photometer  is  based  on  the  for* 
mer  principle,  Rumford's  on  the  latter. 
The  common  unit  for  comparison  is  the 
light  emitted  by  a  sperm-candle  burning 
120  grains  of  spermaceti  per  hour,  other 
lights  being  said  to  have  the  intensity  of 
so  many  candles.  Improved  forms  of 
photometers  for  more  easily  obtaining  the 
illuminating  power  produced  by  coal-gas 
and  the  electric  light  have  recently  been 
introduced. 

Photophone  (f<^'to-f «''").  an,  JMtra: 

"*^"""**  ment  invented  in  1880 
by  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  which  resea* 
bies  the  telephone,  except  that  it  trans- 
mits sounds  by  means  of  a  twam  of  light 
instead  of  the  connecting  wire  of  the  tele- 
phone. The  success  of  the  instrument 
depends  upon  a  peculiar  property  of  the 
rare  metal  selenium,  that,  namely,  of 
offering  more  or  less  opposition  to  the 
passage  of  electricity  according  a«  it  Is 
acted  upon  or  not  by  light,  tin  its  sim- 
plest form  the  apparatus  consists  at  the 
receiving  end  of  a  plane  mirror  of  some 
flexible  material  (such  m  tUvered  mica) 


'»'W-Ji  1,111.  iiiT 


Photosphere 

upon  which  a  beam  of  light  is  concen- 
trated, and  the  voice  of  a  speaker  directed 
against  the  bacl:  of  this  mirror  throws 
the  beam  of  light  reflected  from  iu  sur- 
face into  undulations  which  are  received 
on  a  parabolic  reflector  at  the  other  end, 
and  are  centered  on  a  sensitive  selenium 
cell  in  connection  with  a  telephone,  which 
reproduces  in  articulate  speech  the  undu- 
lations set  up  in  the  beam  of  light,  by 
the  voice  of  the  speaker. 

Photosnhere    (fo'tu-sfsr),  the  lumi- 

ruubuspucrc  ao\i»  envelope,  sup- 
posed to  consist  of  incandescent  matter, 
surrounding  the  sun.     See  Sun. 

Photo-telegraphy  ^J^-^Sc 

transmission  of  facsimiles  of  photographs, 
drawings,  etc.;  facsimile  telegraphy. 


Phrenology 


physiologists  that  in  animals  a  certain 
character  and  intelligence  seemed  to 
accompany  a  certain  formation  and  size 
of  skull.  Lavater,  in  his  system  of 
physiognomy,  went  further  than  this,  and 
gave  to  particular  shapes  of  the  head 
certain  powers  and  passions:  the  conical 
head  he  terms  religioua;  the  narrow,  re- 
treating front,  iceak-minded ;  the  broad 
neck,  aalacioua,  etc.  But  it  was  reserved 
to  Drs.  Gall  and  Spurzheim  to  expand 
this  germ  of  doctrine  into  a  minute  sys- 
tem, and  to  map  out  the  whole  cranium 
into  small  sections,  each  section  being 
the  dwelling-place  of  a  certain  faculty, 
propensity,  or  sentiment.  Gall  first 
started  this  so-called  science;  but  to 
Spurzheim  it  is  mainly  indebted  for  its 
systerutic     arrangement,     and     tc     Dr. 


Photo-telegraphy. 
Kom's  apparatns  for  tranunittint;  pictures  by  telegraph,  nsing  a  seleniom  eell. 


Photozincography.  frJ'*"**"^'' 

PhraoTnitea  (frag-m»'t6").  a  genus 
ruraguuies     ^f  j^^gg  grasses  widely 

spread,  and  usually  known  as  reeds.  P. 
comtnilnia,  the  common  reed,  grows  from 
six  to  ten  feet  high,  on  the  borders  of 
lakes  and  rivers. 

X-nreuuiU^y  pftrt^.  mind,  logos,  dis- 
course), the  term  applied  to  the  psycho- 
logical theories  of  Gall  and  Spurzheim, 
founded  upon  (1)  the  discovery  that  the 
brain,  as  the  organ  of  the  mind,  is  not 
so  much  a  single  organ  as  a  complex 
congeries  of  organs;  and  (2)  observations 
as  to  the  existence  of  a  certain  corre- 
spondence between  the  aptitudes  of  the 
individual  and  the  configuration  of  his 
skull.  Phrenology  may  therpfore  be  re- 
garded as  a  development,  partly  scientific 
and  partly  empirical,  of  the  general  idea 
that  a  correspondence  exists  between  the 
physical  structure  and  the  psychical  and 
mental  traits  of  every  individual  man  or 
aaimal.    It   was   long  ago   observed  by 


Combe,  of  Edinburgh,  for  its  advocacy. 
Gall  commenced  giving  private  lecturer 
on  the  subject  in  179(5.  In  1800  he  wae 
joined  by  Spurzheim,  who  ccutinued  his 
colleague  till  1813,  both  conducting  theii 
researches  in  common,  and  traveling  to- 
gether from  place  to  place.  At  Paris 
their  theories  were  investigated  by  a  com- 
mission of  the  Institute  of  France,  the 
result  being  an  unfavorable  report  drawn 
up  by  the  celebrated  Cuvier.  In  1814 
Spurzheim  came  to  Britain,  where  his 
lectures  gained  many  disciples,  among 
others  George  Combe,  of  Edmburgh,  oi.e 
of  the  best  expounders  and  defenders  c<. 

ghrenology  which   it  can   boast.     Spurz- 
eim  eventually  went  to  America,  where 
he  died  in  1832. 

So  far  as  phrenology  was  scientific,  it 
undoubtedly  was  one  cause  whioh  led  to 
the  minute  anatomical  investigations  to 
which  the  brain   has  latterly   been  sub- 

Jected;  and  Gall  and  Spurzheim  have 
ligh  claims  to  be  regarded  as  anatomicai 
discoverers  nnd  pioneers.  Previous  to 
their  dissections  the  brain  had  geaarallj 


Phrygla 

been  regarded  aa  a  single  organ  rather 
than  a  complex  congeries  of  organs. 
Gall's  view  of  the  physiology  of  the  Itrain 
was,  that  the  couvolutiona  are  distinct 
nervous  centers,  each  having  its  own  spe- 
cial activity;  that  the  frontal  lobes  'ire 
occupied  by  the  perceptive  group  of  cen- 
ters ;  the  superior  lobes  by  the  moral  and 
esthetic  groups;  the  inferior  lobes  by 
.  the  group  mainly  concerned  in  the  nutri- 
tion and  adaptation  of  the  animal  to 
external  conditions;  and  the  posterior 
lobes  to  the  social  instincts.  To  a  con- 
siderable extent  these  views  have  been 
pronounced  to  be  well  founded  by  later 
specialists,  and  thus  the  leading  posi- 
tions of  Gall  and  Spurzheim  have  taken 
a  place  in  scientific  psychology  as  repre- 
sented by  Bain,  Carpenter,  Ferrier,  Wag- 
ner, Huschke,  and  others. 

The  empirical  side  of  phrenology,  some- 
times called  craniology,  rests  upon  the  as- 
sumption that  the  relative  development  of 
the  centers  of  the  brain  can  be  accurately 
determined  by  an  external  examination 
of  the  protuberances  and  depressions  of 
the  skull.  Craniology  is  admitted  to 
have  a  certain  degree  of  foundatir"  'a 
the  general  truths  of  physio'ngy,  out 
it  cannot  pretend  to  scientific  exao'  <ss 
or  well-reasoned  theory,  and  in  lie 
hands  of  those  who  know  it  best  it  usually 
makes  no  such  claim.  Its  conclusions, 
like  its  data,  are  uncertain  and  general, 
because  in  attempting  to  delineate  a  man 
mentally,  morally,  and  psychically,  there 
are  many  things  other  than  the  exter- 
nal shape  of  the  skull  which  have  to  be 
taken  into  account,  and  also  many 
things  of  essential  importance  of  which 
it  is  impossible  to  take  account.  For 
example,  the  cranium  may  be  small,  and 
yet,  owing  to  the  depth  of  the  furrows, 
the  cortex  or  thinking  membrane  of  the 
brain  may  be  large;  on  the  other  hand, 
owing  to  the  superHcial  nature  of  the 
furrows,  a  large  cranium  may  co-exist 
with  a  very  limited  development  of  cor- 
tex. Such  a  fact  as  this,  it  is  obvi- 
ous, is  unverifiable  in  any  special  in- 
stance, except  a  post  mortem  examination 
be  made. 

Fhrveria  (frU'i-4).  in  ancient  geog- 
•'^  raphy  a  region  comprising 
the  western  central  part  of  Asia  Minor, 
containing  the  cities  Apamea,  Laodicea, 
and  Colosss.  The  inhabitants  were  early 
civilized,  and  paid  much  attention  to 
grazing  and  tillage.  The  early  history 
of  Phrygia  is  mythological.  Several  of  ita 
kings  are  mentioned  of  the  names  of  Gor> 
dius  and  Midas.  On  the  death  of  Adraa- 
fus  (B.O.  6(K))  the  royal  family  of 
Phrygia  became  extinct,  and  the  kingdom 
became  a  proTince  of  Lydia.    It  after- 


Fhyllopoda 

wards  formed  a  part  of  the  Persian,  and 
still  later  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
PhTVne     (fri'nfi),    a    famous    courte- 
"^  san   of    Greece,   mistress   of 

Praxiteles,  who  employed  her  as  a  model 
for  his  statues  of  Venus.  She  offered 
to  rebuild  Thebes,  if  the  inscription 
'Alexander  destroyed  this  city,  and  the 
courtesan  Pl.ryne  restored  it,'  be  put 
upon  the  walls;  but  the  offer  was  re- 
jected. 

Fhthiotis    (thl-o'tls),  a  district  of  an- 
cient  Greece  in  the  south  of 
Thessaly,    now    forming    with    Pbocis    a 
nomarchy  Df  Greece.     Pop.  128,440. 
Phthisis    (I'lJ's's)'     See  (Jonaumption. 

PhvCOlOETV     (fi-koru-ji),  that  depart- 
jwvxvgj     jjjgjj^    ^j    botany    which 

treats  of  the  algie  or  seaweeds. 

PhylaCierV  (fi-'ak't^r-l),  among  the 
J  MVVV1.J  jg^,g  ^  gj|.|p  ^j  parch- 
ment inscribed  with  certain  texts  from 
the  Old  Testament,  and  enclosed  within  a 
small  leathern  case,  which  was  fastened 
with  straps  on  the  forehead  just  above 
and  between  the  eyes,  and  on  the  left 
arm  near  the  region  of  the  heart.  The 
four  passages  inscribed  upon  the  phylac- 
tery were  Ex.,  xiii,  1-10.  11-16;  Deut., 
vi,  4-9;  xi,  18-21.  The  custom  was 
founded  on  a  literal  interpretation  of  Ex., 
xiii,  ItJ ;  Deut.,  vi,  8 ;  xi,  18.  Phylacteries 
are  the  *  prayer-thongs  *  of  the  modern 
Jews.  In  their  origin  they  were  regarded 
as  amulets,  which  protected  the  wearer 
from  the  power  of  demons,  and  hence 
their  name,  which  is  from  the  Greek 
phulasaein,  to  guard. 
Phyllinm.     ®^  Leaf-insecU. 

Phyllodium    (fi-lS'di-um),  in  botany, 
/  the    name    given    to    a 

leaf-stalk  when  it  becomes  developed  into 
a  flattened  expansion  like  a  leaf,  as  in 
some  Australian  species  of  acacia  and 
certain  other  plants. 

Phyllopoda  ("-JP/ " - d* ;   ' >««': 

•'       *^  footed'),    an    order    of 

Crustacea  possessing  numerous  feet, 
numbering  eight  pairs  at  least,  the  first 
pair  being  natatory  in  character.  The 
feet  are  of  foliaceous  or  leaf-like  rtrue- 
ture,  and  are  provided  with  branchial 
appendages,  adapted  to  subser.e  the 
breathing  or  respiratory  function.  The 
carapace,  or  shelly  covering  protecting 
the  head  and  chest,  may  be  well  dereH 
oped,  or  the  body  may  be  destitute  of 
a  covering.  In  their  development  the 
Phyllopoda  pass  through  •  metamorpho- 
sis ;  and  in  their  earliest  state  the  embryo* 
appear  as  in  the  'nanpliua'  form  (ace 
VaufUut).  All  the  Phyllopoda  are  of 
aaall  aiie.    The  order  is  represented  by 


niylloitomida 


Physical  Oeography 


th*  familiar  'fairy  Bhrimps*  {CMnt- 
cepMlM),  met  with  in  fresli-water  ponds, 
and  ttic  curioua  'brine  nbrimps  (Ar- 
temia),  found  in  the  brine-paus  of  •ajt- 
worka.  and  in  the  salt  lakes  of  both  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds.  The  Phyllopoda 
are  of  high  interest  to  the  palaeontologist, 
on  account  of  the  affinities  they  present 
to  the  extinct  trilobites  (sec  Trilobite). 
The  Phyllopoda  themselves  are  repre- 
sented as  fossils  in  the  Palieozoic  rocks. 

PhyUostomidae  ifiSVeTS*>'„fS 

ily  of  insectiToroua  bats.    See    Vampire 

ftat 

PlivllnT^TA    (fll-ok-se'rA).  a  (fenuB  of 
rnyUOXera    ^innt-Uce.    famiry    Apii 
idc,  order  Remiptt-ra.    The  type  of  the 
genua    is   Phylloxera   quercut,   a   species 
which  lives  upon  oak-trees ;  but  the  I'hyl- 
lo9era  vaatatrix,  or  jjrape  Phylloxera,  a 
species  which  injuriously  afftTts  the  vine, 
has  attracted  30  much  attention  of  late 
years  that  it  has  come  to  be  known  as  the 
Phylloxera.     It    presents    itself    in    two 
types,  the  one  gall-inhabiting  IgaUicola), 
and  the  other  root-inhabiting  (radicola). 
Its  proper  home  is  North  America,  where 
it   was   known  early   in   the  history    of 
grape  culture,  and  where  it  doubtless  ex- 
isted on  wild  vines  from  time  immemo- 
rial.    It  was  discovered   in    England    in 
1863,  and  about  the  same  time  it  made 
its  appearance  in  France,  where  it  com- 
mitted great  ravages,  inflicting  ImDaense 
loss  upon  the  owners  of  vineyards.    W  id- 
ening  its  area  not  only  l)y  natural  means, 
but  also  by  commerce  in  vines  and  cut- 
*ing8.    it   was   carried    from    infected    to 
non-infected    districts,     and     spread     to 
Spain,    Portugal,    Switzerland,    Austria, 
Prussia,    and    to    all    the    grape-growing 
countries  of  Europe.     Only  where  the  soil 
was  of  a  sandy  nature  did  the  vineyards 
escape.     In  1885  its  presence  was  discov- 
ered in  Australia,  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,    and    in   Algeria;    and,    generally 
speaking,  it  has  now  obtained  a  foothold, 
at  least  in  restricted  loc-alities,  in  every 
country    where   the    grape-vine    is    culti- 
vated.    Vines  attacked  by  Phylloxera  gen- 
erally ahow  external  signs  the  second  year 
«rf  attack  in  a  sickly  yellowish  appearance 
of  the  fo'iage  and  in  stunted  growth,  and 
the  third  :^ar  they  frequently  perish,  all 
the  finer  iwots  having  decaye<l  and  wasted 
away.    Many    remedies    have   been    pro- 
posed, but  none  is  aniversally  practicable 
or  satisfactory. 
P)iv1ncr(>nv     (fi-loj'e-nl),  a  term  ap- 

rayiogeuy   p,.^  ^^  (j,^  evolution  or 

genaalogical  history  of  a  race  or  tribe.  It 
u  naed  in  contrast  to  ontogeny,  which 
•ifiUfici  tbt  davalopmaat  or  lite-hiatory  of 


Phytalia  Atlantiea 
( PortuKuete 
man-of-war). 


xujrBOAXA   mBfine    animals    of    the 
class   Uydrozoa,   of  the  subclass   Sipho- 
nophoru.     The  P.  At- 
lantUa   is   known    by 
the  name  of  the  Por- 
iugueve  man  -of  •  war. 
These     hydrozou     are 
characterized    by    the 
presence    of     one     or 
more     large     air-sacs, 
by    which    they    float 
on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.     Numerous  ten- 
tacles    depend     from 
the    undc>r    side,    one 
class    short    and    the 
other    long.    The 
shorter  are  the  nutri- 
tive individuals  of  the 
colony,    the    longer, 
which    in    a    Physalia 
5    or    G    inches    long 
are   capable   of   being 
extended  to  12  o"  18 
feet,  possess  a  rem  ..  .able  stinging  power, 
and  are  probably  ured  to  stun  their  prey. 

Physeter  i,T//e""'^'   ^"  *""■'"' 
Phyrical  Geog^raphy  ^-^races  the 

geography  which  treats  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  or  of  any  part  of  it  as  regards 
its  natural  features  and  conformation,  the 
changes  that  are  constantly  taking  place 
and   that  have  formerly  taken  place  so 
as  to  produce  the  features  now  existing; 
it  points  out  the  natural  divisions  of  the 
earth    into   land   and    water,   continents, 
islands,  rivers,  seas,  oceans,  etc. ;  treating 
of   tiie  external  configuration   of  moun- 
tains,  valleys,   coasts,   etc.;   and   of   the 
relation  and  peculiarities  of  different  por- 
tions of  the  water  area,   including  cur- 
rents, wave-action,  depth  of  the  sea.  salt 
and   fresh  water  lakes,   the  drainage  of 
countries,    etc.    The    atmosphere    in    its 
larger  features  is  also  considered,  includ- 
ing   the    questions    of    climate,     wlnda, 
storms,  rainfall,  and  meteorology  gener- 
ally.    Finally  it  takes  up  various  ques- 
tions connected  with  the  orpnnic  life  of 
the  globe,  more  especially  the  distribution 
of  animals  and  plants,  and  their  relation 
to  their  environment;   tracing  the  influ- 
ence of  climate,  soil,  natural  barriers  or 
channels  of  communication,  etc.,  upon  the 
growth  and  spread  of  plants  and  animals, 
including  in  the  latter  the  various  races 
of  man.    The  field  of  physical  geography 
is    thus   by   no   means   easy   to   confine 
within  strict  limits,  as  it  is  so  closely 
connecte.i  at  various  points  with  geology, 
mineralogy,   botany   and    zoniogy.    chem- 
istry, ethnology,  ato.    Tke  term  Physioal 


fbjtL^iMsm 


Fhyilologj 


fMcni 
npby 


■li 


iphy  It  often  Nplactd  by  Physioc> 
rtpBy  (which  mc). 

Phvaimana  Rotal  Collbob  or 
myuciaiu,  (  Lomdom  ) ,  a  body  which 
owes  itH  origin  to  the  exertions  of  Thomas 
Linacre,  one  of  the  physicians  of  Henry 
VIII,  who,  through  the  influence  of 
Cardinal  'tVolsey,  obtained  in  1518  from 
that  monarch  letters  patent  incorporating 
himself  with  certain  other  physicians 
named,  and  all  other  men  of  the  same 
faculty  in  London,  as  one  body.  Vari- 
ous privileges  were  accorded  to  them,  the 
chief  of  which  was  that  of  prohibiting 
any  one  from  practicing  as  a  physician 
in  London,  or  within  a  circuit  of  7  miles 
round  it,  unless  he  had  first  obtained  a 
license  from  this  corporation.  A  charter 
granted  four  years  later  confirmed  the 
privileges  of  the  body,  except  that  grad- 
uates of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  were 
permitted  to  practice  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  college  without  previously 
being  examined  by  it.  Various  charters 
have  been  granted  to  the  body  subse- 
quently, but  since  the  passing  of  the 
Medical  Act  of  1858.  the  license  of  the 
college  is  not  necessary  to  those  prac- 
ticing in  London  or  within  7  miles  round. 
Plfvaiplr  (fi»'ik),  Philip  Sino,  sur- 
f  u/aiOK.    gpon    ^3g  bojn  ^j  Philade'- 

phia,  Pennsylvania,  in  17(t8.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1785  and  in  171)1  was  licensed 
by  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  Lon- 
don. In  1805  he  jecame  Professor  of 
Surgery  in  the  TJuiversity  of  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  in  1825  was  elected  member  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  in 
183G  honorary  fellow  of  the  Roynl  Med- 
ical and  Chirurgical  Society  of  Lindon. 
One  of  his  most  brilliant  operations  was 
that  of  enterotomy  on  Chief-Justic*.-  Mar- 
shall, which  reisulted  in  the  removal  of 
over  1000  calculi  and  a  perfect  cnr-t.  He 
introduced  numerous  valuable  instru- 
menta  and  improved  modifications  of 
others,  and  applied  novel  methods  of 
treatment.  Hi':^  slcill  brought  him  the 
title  of  the  '  father  of  American  sur- 
gery.' He  died  in  1837. 
PyivniA-TiTit  "he  seed  of  the  Curcat 
rnySlw  nUl,  p^^gant  {Jatrdpha  pur- 
gar.al,  or  the  plant  itself,  a  shrub  belong- 
luc;  to  the  natural  order  Euphorbiacee,  a 
native  of  intertropical  countries,  princi- 
pally the  East  and  West  Indies.  The 
seeds  have  acquired  tha  name  in  virtue 
of  their  strong  emetic  and  purgative 
properties,  due  to  a  fixed  oil  which  resides 
principally  in  the  embryo.  This  oil  i> 
expressed  and  used  in  medicine  >  :ider  the 
name  of  Juiropka-oU,  for  the  same  pur- 
poses •^a  croton-oil,  although  it  is  leas 
powerful     The  name  of  Frenah  or  Spaa- 


kh  phyale-Duu  is  giTta  to  tba  wtds  tt 
anot^ier  member  of  the  same  gniua.  tb* 
Curcat  muUifidu$,  a  natiTS  of  tb«  aame 
regions.  The  oil  ezpresaed  from  it  ia 
called  Oil  of  Pinhoen,  and  ia  siicilar  io 
its  properties  to  Jatropha-otl. 
Phvaies  (from  Greek,  phyii*,  nature), 
AujMbo  jjp  Natobal  Phiuwopht,  Is 
the  BtudT  of  the  phenomena  of  the  mate- 
rial world,  or  of  the  laws  and  properties 
of  matter:  more  restrictedly  it  treats  of 
the  properties  of  bodies  aa  bodlea,  and 
of  the  phenomena  produced  by  the  action 
of  the  various  forces  on  matter  in  the 
mass.  It  thus  has  as  its  chief  branches 
the  subjects  dynamics,  hydrostatics,  heat, 
light,  sound,  electricity,  and  magnetism. 
(See  the  different  articles.) 

Physiognomy  i^^;\\^f',Tl'W^ 

teaches  the  means  of  Judging  of  character 
from  the  countenance.  Aristotle  is  the 
first  who  is  known  to  have  made  any 
attempts  in  physiognomy.  He  obserred 
that  each  animal  has  a  special  predomi- 
nant instinct;  as  the  fox  cunning,  the 
wolf  ferocity,  and  so  forth,  and  he  thence 
concluded  that  men  whose  features  re- 
semble those  of  certain  animals  will  have 
similar  qualities  to  those  animals.  Bap- 
tista  della  Porta,  in  his  work  De  Humana 
Phj/tiognomia  (1586),  revived  this  the- 
ory and  carried  it  out  further.  The 
theory  was  adopted  and  illustrated  by  the 
French  painter  Lebrun,  in  the  next  cen- 
tury, and  by  Tischbein,  a  German  painter 
of  the  18th  century.  The  physiologist 
Camper  sought  new  data  in  a  comparison 
of  the  heads  of  different  types  of  the 
human  species,  and  in  attempting  to  de- 
duce the  degree  of  intelligence  belonging 
to  each  type  from  the  size  of  the  facial 
angle.  Lavater  was  the  first  to  develop 
an  elaborate  system  of  physiognomy,  the 
scope  of  which  he  enlarged  so  as  to  In- 
clude all  the  relations  between  the 
physical  and  moral  nature  of  man.  (See 
Lavater.)  It  is  a  subject  of  great  inter- 
est, but  one  must  be  on  his  guard  against 
a  general  application  of  the  rules  which 
experience  seems  to  have  furnished  blm. 

Physiography  /e^m-'X";!^  .5 

equivalent  to  physical  geography  (which 
see)  ;  but  otherwise  used  to  embrace  the 
aggregate  of  information  necessary  to  \y» 
acquired  as  a  preliminary  to  the  thorough 
study  of  physical  geography,  or  aa  an 
introduction  to  the  study  of  natm.  and 
its  forces. 

Phyriologtu,  sj'b";^,?:;.""'- 
Physiology  .^r'^'VoliS,.":^: 

ence,   the   department  of  taqaiiy  whkh 


Phyiiology 


Fiaoenza 


I    e 


InTcsticatet  the  functiont  of  liTiBg  be- 
ings. In  its  wide  sense  the  living  func- 
tions of  both  animals  and  plants  come 
within  the  scope  of  physiology,  this  divi- 
sion of  the  subject  being  comprehended 
under  the  terms  comparative  phytiology 
and  animal  and  vegetable  phytiology. 
When  more  specially  applied  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  functions  in  man  the 
appellation  human  phy$iology  is  applied 
to  the  science.  The  importance  of  physi- 
ological inquiry  in  connection  with  the 
observation  of  diseased  conditions  cannot 
be  overrated,  llie  knowledge  of  healthy 
functions  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
perfect  understanding  of  diseased  condi- 
tions; and  the  science  of  pathology,  deal- 
ing with  the  causes  and  progress  of  dis- 
eases, may  in  this  way  be  said  to  arise 
from,  and  to  depend  upon,  physiological 
inquiry.  Physiology  in  itself  thus  forms 
a  link  connecting  together  tlic  various 
branches  of  natural  history  or  biology  and 
those  8cieno'>8  which  are  more  specially 
included  within  a  medical  curriculum. 
The  history  of  scientific  physiology  may 
be  said  to  begin  with  Aristotle  (384-322 
B.C.),  who  attamed  no  mean  knowledge 
of  the  aubject.  The  Alexandrian  school, 
flourishing  about  280  b.c.  under  the 
Ptolemies,  and  represented  by  Erasistra- 
tus,  Herophilus,  aud  others,  obtained 
greater  opportunities  for  the  acquirement 
of  physiological  knowledge  through  the 
investigation  of  the  bo<lie8  of  criminals 
who  bad  been  executed.  Erasistratns 
thus  threw  much  liglit  on  the  nervous 
system  and  its  physiology;  whilst  He- 
rophilus made  important  observations  on 
the  pulse,  and  in  addition  discovered  the 
lacteal  or  absorbent  vessels  and  the  de- 
pression in  the  back  of  the  skull  formed 
by  the  blood  sinuses  of  the  brain  and 
called  the  torcular  Herophili,  or  '  wine- 
press of  Herophilus.' 

After  this  there  was  a  period  of  decline, 
but  Galen,  living  in  the  2d  century  after 
Christ,  again  raised  the  science  to  a  re- 
spectable position,  and  effected  a  vast  ad- 
vance and  improvement  in  physiologiial 
knowledge.  The  systems  which  succeeded 
Galen  and  his  times  consisted,  until  al)Out 
1543,  of  absurd  speculations  and  theories, 
conducive  in  no  respect  to  the  advance  of 
true  knowledge.  In  1.'543  Vesalius  paved 
the  way  towards  the  more  scientific  epochs 
of  modern  times  by  his  investigations  into 
the  anatomy  and  structure  of  the  human 
frame.  In  lOlfl  Harvey,  the  *  father  of 
modern  physiology,'  discovered  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood.  Since  this  time  the 
history  of  physiology  has  gone  hand  in 
hand  with  the  general  history  of  anatomy 
(which  see).  One  noteworthy  peculiarity 
of  modem  physiological  research  consists 


hi  the  introduction  and  extensive  use  of 
the  experimental  mode  of  investigation 
in  physiology;  and  of  elaborate  and 
delicate  instruments  and  apparatus,  such 
as  the  aphygmograph,  or  pulse-recorder; 
the  ophthalmoscope;  the  laryngoscope; 
and  the  microscope.  The  different  de- 
partments of  physiology  may  be  enumer- 
ated as  comprehending  the  investigation 
<~>f  the  three  great  functions  which  every 
living  being  performs,  namely  (1)  nutri- 
tion, including  all  that  pertains  to  diges- 
tion, the  circulation,  and  respiration;  (2) 
innervation,  comprising  the  functions  per- 
formed by  the  nervous  system;  (3) 
rt^roduction,  which  ensures  the  continu- 
ation of  the  species  and  includes  also  the 
phenomena  of  development.  See  the  ar- 
ticles Digestion,  licapiration.  Skin,  Eye, 
Ear,  Larynx,  Tongue,  etc. 

Phvtolfl.GGfl.  (fl-to-lak'ka),  a  genus  of 
A  *» J  vvAnvva  tropical  or  subtropical 
herbaceous  plants,  type  of  the  nat.  order 
Phytolaccacew.  One  species  is  the  Amer- 
ican pokeweed  (which  see). 

Phytopathology   i?te?«Jt4l 

OLOOT,  the  science  of  the  diseases  of 
plants,  comprising  knowledge  of  the  symp- 
toms, course,  causes  and  remedies  of  the 
maladies  which  threaten  the  life  of  plants 
or  which  result  in  undesirable  abnormali- 
ties. In  its  systematised  form,  as  a 
branch  of  botanical  study,  it  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  date.  The  subject  first 
received  special  attention  about  1850, 
though  references  to  blights  and  mildevra 
occur  in  the  Bible  and  other  early  litera- 
ture. Phytopathology  covers  several 
branches  of  study :  (1)  The  observation 
and  description  of  symptoms  \Diagno»i»)  ; 
(2)  the  study  of  causes  of  disease  (Aeti- 
ology) ;  (3)  the  practice  of  prev  •  tive  or 
curative  measures  (Therapeutics). 
PiaCenZa  (iX^f.-chen'tsa,  anc.  Pitt. 
_  centia),  a  town  of  North 
Italy,  capital  of  a  province  of  same  name, 
nearly  equidistant  from  Parma  and 
Milan,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Trebbia 
witli  the  Po.  Being  a  place  of  strategio 
importuuee,  it  has  long  been  fortified, 
and  is  still  surrounded  by  walls  with 
hastious  and  fosse,  outside  which  are  a 
series  of  detached  forts.  The  principal 
edifices  are  the  cathedral,  in  the  Lombard- 
Roniauesqne  style  (mostly  built  between 
1122  and  1233)  and  other  churches;  the 
town-house,  of  the  13th  century,  one  of 
thi'  finest  structures  of  its  kind ;  and  the 
Palazzo  Farncse  (now  used  as  barracks). 
Piacenza  is  an  important  railway  center 
with  manufactures.  It  was  orif^nally  a 
Roman  colony  and  was  founded  in  218 
B.C.  Between  997  and  1036  it  was  gov- 
erned by  its  bishops.     In  1447  it  was 


Pia  Mater 


Pianhi 


(•nptured  and  snoked  by  Fnuict'sco 
Sforxa;  and  in  1545  it  wan  united  with 
I'arina  to  form  an  luTPditary  duchy  for 
rierluigi  Farnesp,  8on  of  1»oim«  i'uul  III. 
Pop.  39,«58. — The  province  b<'l<)nEH  to 
the  basin  of  the  Po,  and  is  generally 
fertile;  area,  0C5  sq.  miles;  pop.  245,120. 

Pia  Mater    A"''"  mft't*r)..one  of 

thv-  membranes  investing 
the  brain.     See  Brain, 

Plana  dei  Greci  (p«:»'°&   de-i-gra'- 

che),  a  town  in 
Sicily,  in  the  province  and  10  miles 
8. 8.  w.  of  the  city  of  Palermo.  Pop. 
8285. 

Piano     (P'-an'O;    Italian),    soft,    low; 
""^    used  in  music  in  contradistinc- 
tion  to   forte.     Pianissimo,   the   superla- 
tive of  piano. 

Pianoforte    ^fr"°'"-'«'-*«>'.  °^ 

Piano,  a  musical 
stringed  instrument,  the  strings  of  which 
are  extended  over  bridges  rising  on  the 
sounding-board,  and  are  made  to  vibrate 
by  means  of  small  felted  hammers,  which 
are  put  in  motion  by  keys,  and  where  a 
continued  sound  is  not  intended  to  be 
produced  have  their  sound  deadened  im- 
mediately after  the  touch  of  the  keys  by 
means  of  leathern  dampers.  Its  name  is 
compounded  of  two  italian  words  sig- 
nifying soft  and  strong,  and  it  was  so 
culled  in  contradistinction  to  the  harpsi- 
chord, the  instrument  which  it  super- 
seded, and  which  did  not  permit  of  the 
strength  of  the  notes  being  increased  and 
diminished  at  will.  The  mechanism  by 
which  the  movement  of  the  keys  is  con- 
veyed to  the  strings  is  called  the  action, 
and  there  is  no  part  of  the  pianoforte  in 
which  the  variations  are  more  numer- 
ous. There  are  usually  three  strings  in 
the  pianoforte  for  each  note  in  the  Iiigher 
and  middle  octaves,  two  in  the  lower,  and 
one  in  the  lowest  notes.  The  strings  are 
of  steel  wire.  The  lowest  notes  have 
their  strings  wound  round  with  a  double 
coil  of  brass  wire,  and  those  nest  above 
with  a  single  coil.  Pianofortes  are  either 
in  the  form  of  the  grand  piano,  in  which 
the  strings  lie  in  the  direction  of  the 
keys,  or  they  have  the  strings  stretched 
vertically  perpendicular  to  the  keys,  which 
is  now  the  most  common  form,  and  con- 
stitutes the  uprigiit  piano.  Recently  a 
variety  called  the  upright  grand  has  also 
been  introduced.  Grand  nianos  are  used 
ns  concert  instruments,  and  have  the 
greatest  con.pass  and  strength.  The 
common  compass  of  the  piano  at  present 
is  six  and  seven-eighths  or  seven  octaves. 
The  invention  of  the  pianoforte  can 
scarcely  be  ascribed  to  any  one  man  in 
particular.  The  first  satisfactory  hain- 
mer-nction  appears  to  have  been  invented 


by  an  Italian  of  Padua,  named  Barto- 
lommeo  Cristofali,  about  1711.  Amon( 
the  principal  improvers  of  the  pianoforte 
,  are  Sebastian  Krard,  the  founder  of  the 
celebrated  firm  still  in  i-xistence;  Roller 
et  Blanchet,  the  French  tirni  which  intro- 
duced the  upright  piano;  and  others  of 
later  date. 

PiaristS  (Pi'a-ristz),  a  Roman 
Catholic  religious  order, 
devoted  to  the  gratuitous  instruction  of 
youth,  instituted  at  Itonie,  about  the  end 
of  the  lUth  century.  The  Piarists  re- 
semble the  Jesuits  in  their  costume,  and 
in  their  devotion  to  the  service  of  the 
church  and  to  education;  but  they  do 
not  meddle  in  political  matters.  Italy, 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Spain  have  been 
the  chief  seats  of  thoir  activity. 
PiaSSaba  (Pi-as-sa'ba),  or  Piassa'va, 
a  strong  vegetable  fiber  im- 
ported from  Brazil,  and  largely  used  for 
making  brooms.  It  is  chiefly  obtained 
from  palms  such  as  Attalfa  funifira  and 
Leopoldinia  piassaba.  The  fiber  pro- 
ceeds from  the  decaying  leaves,  the 
petioles  of  which  separate  at  the  base 
into  long,  coarse,  pendulous  fringes.  It 
was  first  utilized  in  England,  and  the 
consumption  is  now  large.  Other  Euro- 
pean countries  also  consume  considerable 
quantities. 

Piastre  (?•-**''*'■)'  «  name  first  ap- 
plied  to  a  Spanish  coin, 
which,  about  the  middle  of  the  IGth  cen- 
tury, obtained  almost  universal  currency. 
The  Spanish  piastre  had  in  later  year* 
the  value  of  about  96  cents.  The  Turk- 
ish piastre,  originally  worth  about  84 
cents,  has  now  declined  in  value  to  about 
4  cents  in  Turkey  and  5  cents  in  Egvpt. 
Piatra  (py&'trA),  a  town  in  Rou- 
mania,  on  the  Bistritsa,  53 
miles  southwest  of  Jassy.     It  carries  on 

?  JSJ?*  ^^^^^  *°  srain  and  timber.     Pop. 
17,391. 

Piatt  ^P'V.^  •  John  James,  poet,  bom 
at  Milton,  Indiana,  in  1835. 
He  engaged  in  journalism,  became  clerk 
of  the  United  States  Treasury  and  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  was 
consul  at  Cork,  Ireland,  1882-94.  He 
published  Poem*  by  Two  Friends  (with 
u.    D.   Ho  wells).   Poems  of  Heart   and 

Home,    and    other    volumes    of    verse. 

Sarah  M.  B.  Piatt,  his  wife,  bom  in 
xventucky  in  1830,  was  also  a  poet  of 
merit,  and  publisl  d  A  Woman's  Poems, 
A  Voyage  to  the  Fortunate  Isles,  etc. 
Piauhi  ,(p6-ou-e'),  or  PiAUHT,  a  prov- 
ince of  Brazil,  bounded  by  tht 
Atlantic  and  the  provinces  of  Cearfl, 
Peraambuco,  Bahia,  and  Maranbao,  from 
which  latter  it  is  separated  by  the  Far- 
nahyba ;  area,  116,523  square  miles.    It> 


Pioheffru 


«OMt-llM  l«  not  aboT*  10  nilw  in  kiigth. 
Th«  •oil,  gOMraliy  compoMd  o£  alluTiuni, 
b  of  «mt  natural  ferUlltr;  but  there 
ii  T«ry  ilttlo  agriculture.  The  rearing  of 
cattle,  eeteemed  the  beet  in  Braill.  eon- 
■titutM  the  principal  source  of  wealth. 
OapiUl,    Thereaina;    port,    Pamahyba. 

wir^'^Jpi-"'*:  Italian),  in  archl- 
»*"*■  tecture,  is  a  'V*^,  »'  «*,&?' 
open  apace  surrounded  by  buildings.  The 
term  is  frequently,  but  improperly,  used 
to  signify  an  arcaded  or  colonnaded  walk. 

Pi»B»-Ameri'na,  fuij^rsicii^! 

mrovince  of  Galtanlssetta.  and  18  miles 
m.B.K.  of  the  town  of  Caltanlssetta,  Mid 
to  have  been   founded  by   Greeks  from 
Plaaea.    Pop.  (1910)  32,070. 
IMavvi     OicscppB,  an  Italian  astron- 
******>   omer,  bom   in   1746;   died  in 
1820.     In  1780  he  became  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Palermo,   where  he  pro- 
moted the  establishment  of  an  obserTatory 
and  compiled  his  Catalogue  of  the  Start, 
January  1,  1801,  he  discovered  the  planet 
or  asteroid  Ceres,  which  opened  the  way 
for  the  discovery  of  so  many  others. 
Pibroch     (P«'brofc).,  a  wild,  irregular 
Xiuxvuu     species  o£  music  peculiar  to 
the  Highlands  of   Scotland.    It  is  per- 
formed  on   a   bagpipe,   and   adapted   to 
excite  or  assuage  passion,  and  particu- 
Uirly  to  arouse  a  martial  spirit  among 
troops  going  to  battle.    The  pibroch  pro- 
duces by  imitative  sounds  the  different 
phases  of  a  battle  —  the  march,  the  con- 
flict,   the    flight,    the    pursuit,    and    the 
lament  for  the  fallen.  ,  ^     , 

Pi  A  A     (pi'ka),  the  name  of  a  standard 
*****    siae  of  type.    See  Printing. 
Pica     the   generic   name   of   the   mag- 

*  pies. 
IMao  a  depraved  form  of  appetite. 
**«»>  See  Appetite. 
VinarA  (pi-ltttr) ,  Jean,  a  French 
ncara  astronomer,  bom  in  1G20;  died 
in  1682.  In  1055  he  became  Gassendl's 
successor  in  the  chair  of  astronomy  in  the 
Boyal  College  of  France.  The  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  is  the 
work  by  which  Picard  is  now  chiefly 
Imown  —  a  measurement  historically  !m 


portant  in  the  science  of  astronomy,  as  it 
furnished  Newton  with  the  means  of  veri- 
fying his  theory  of  gravitation. 
PiAarH  Louis  Bknoet,  a  French 
f  xvnxu)  writer  of  comedies,  bom  m 
17eQ;  died  in  1828.  Before  he  was  quite 
eighteen  he  became  an  actor,  and  almost 
as  early  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage, 
his  first  play  being  Le  Badinage  Danger- 
eum  (1780).  On  account  of  his  skilful  de- 
lineation of  character,  he  was  caiied  by 
flwFNiMbJb«p«««if*MrK    ttawaatta* 


author  of  more  than  serenty  larger  and 
smaller  pieces,  besides  several  romances. 
Pinanlv    (plk'ar-di).  formerly  a  prov- 
ncaray    ^^  ^f  France,  in  tte  north- 
ern part  of  the  kingdom,  lying  between 
the  British  Channel,  Normandy,  i       Ar- 
tois,  now  divided  among  the  departments 
of  Paa-de-Calais,  Bomme.  Aisne,  Oise.  and 
Nord.    The  capital  was  Amiens. 
Pinmni    (pJt-che'n«),  Nicooto,  an 
jnvouu    imiinn  musical  composer,  born 
in   1728;   died   in   1800.    He   composed 
comic  and  serious  operas,  chiefly  for  the 
stages  of  Rome  and  Naples,  with  such 
success  that  for  many  years  he  was  with- 
out a  rival  in  Italy.     In  1770  he  accepted 
an  invitation,  on  very  favorable  terms, 
from  the  French  court,  and  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  engaged  in  the  famous  mustoil 
contest   with   Gluck.     (See   Oluck.)     In 
his  later  years  he  fell  into  misfortunes. 
He  wrote  over  150  operas,  besides  nu- 
merous oratorios  and  cantatas. 
Pinnnln    (pik'u-l6;    Italian,    little),    a 
nCCOiO   small    flute   having   the   same 
compass  as  the  ordinary  flute,  but  pitched 
an  octave  higher. 

Pi/tAAlnTnini    (pik-u-lom'i-ni).   a   dis- 
jnCCOiOinim  {i^guished    Slennese 
family,  still  flourishing  in  Italy  in  two 
branches.    The     two     most     celebrated 
members  are:  — 1.  iBNEAS   Sylvius 
BiJiTBOLOM^us,    afterwards   Pope    Pius 
II.     (See  Fope  Piua  II.)  —2.  Octavio. 
a    grand-nephew    of    the    first,    born    in 
1590:  di«I  in  Vienna  in  1656.    He  served 
in  the  armies  of  the  German  emperor, 
and  became  one  of  the  distinguished  gen- 
erals in  the  Thirty  Years'  war.     He  was 
a  favorite  of  Wallenstein.  who  entrusted 
him  with  a  knowledge  of  his  projects, 
when  he  purposed  to  attack  the  emperor. 
In  spite  of  this  he  made  himself  the  chief 
instrument    of    Wallenstein's    overthrow, 
and  after  the  lattcr's  assassination  ( 1634) 
was    rewarded    with    a    portion    of    his 
estates.     He  is  one  of  the  principal  char- 
acters in  Schiller's  drama  of  Wallenttetn, 
to  the  second  part  of  which  he  gives  the 
title.     His  son  Max,  who  appears  in  the 
same  play,  is  an  invention  of  the  poets. 
PipA     (pis),  a  small  East  Indian  coin, 
*•'•*'*'     value  about  J  cent. 
PinViAfrrn      ^p€8h-grU),  Chables,  a 
XXt/UCgi  u    T.  fench    general,    born    at 
Arbols,    department    of    Jura,    in    1761. 
He   was   for  some  time  a   tutor   at   the 
College  of  Brienne.  but  soon  exchanged 
this    profession    for    that    of    a    soldier. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution he  rose  rapidly;  was  commander- 
in-chief   of    the   army    of    the    Rhine    m 
1793,  and  of  the  army  of  the  north  In 
1794:    subjugated    Holland,    and    entered 
fa  JaBVMr,  HOik    PMMgra 


fitklmilA 


Titfift 


wai  now  at  tb*  height  of  hit  f«m«,  and 
was  honored  by  the  convention  with  the 
title  of  aavior  of  his  country;  but,  dis- 
gusted with  the  anarchical  state  of  aifalra 
then  prevailing  in  the  capital,  be  entered 
into  negotiations  with  the  Bourbons,  and 
became  the  soul  of  the  party  hostile  to 
the  Revolution.  Having  been  proscribed 
in  consequence  of  the  events  of  the  18tb 
Fructidor  (September  4,  1707),  he  was 
transported  to  Cayenne,  but  the  year  fol- 
lowing escaped  to  England,  where  he 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  George 
Cadoudal  to  assassinate  Napoleon.  Hav- 
ing gone  to  Paris  for  this  purpose,  he 
was  captured  by  the  police,  and  commit- 
ted to  the  Temple  priBon,  where  he  was 
found  strangled  on  the  Gth  of  April, 
1804. 

PicMncha  if^^S^rJVn  ?he^t^T 
ern  Cordillera,  nortliwest  of  Quito :  height, 
15,500  feet.  It  gives  name  to  a  provmce 
of  Ecuador;  capital,  Quito. 

Fichnrim  Beans.   ^^  puchurim. 

FicidflB   (pi'si-dS) ,  the  woodpecker  fam- 
ily,   so  named   from   vhe  chief 
genus  PicuB.     See  Woodpecker. 

Pickerel  ^pf  *„'^)„.  t\r^X!  *fn 

the  United  States  the  name  is  given  to 
some  of  the  smaller  kinds  cf  pike. 
Pinkpriilfy  (pik'6r-ing),  a  market 
XlQ&ermg  town  of  England,  in 
North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  32  miles 
northeast  of  York.  It  is  a  town  of  great 
antiquity.  Its  castle  was  the  prison  of 
Richard  II  in  1399.  Pop.  3674. 
Pinlrfkriiiv  Timothy,  statesman, 
XlC&enn^,  ^om  at  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1745 ;  died  in  1829.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Lexington,  served  in 
the  Continental  army  as  adjutant-general 
and  as  quartermaster  of  the  army,  and 
after  the  war  united  with  Patrick  Henry 
and  Alexander  Hamilton  in  opposing  the 
measure  that  drove  the  Tories  into  exile. 
He  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  Iroquois 
Indians  in  1791,  was  appointed  Postmas- 
ter-general in  Washington  '<}  cabinet  and 
later  was  Secretary  of  Stai>;,  serving  un- 
der Washington  and  Adams.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  in  1804,  and  from 
that  time  continued  actively  in  politics. — 
John  PicjtERiNa,  his  son  (1777-1845), 
philologist,  held  many  important  posi- 
tions, was  president  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  a 
nun  ber  of  other  learned  societies,  and 
published  many  pamphlets  on  philological 
and  other  subjects. —  Chakles  Pickeb- 
INQ.  his  grandson  (1806-78),  physician 
and  ethnologist,  wrote  The  Racea  of  Men 
gnd     their     Owgraphical     Dittrihtttion, 


Chronoloffieal  EUtwry  of  PhnU,  tte.— 
Edward  Cuabucs  Piokeumo,  his  grM^ 
gnndson,  bom  at  Boston  in  1840,  wu 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  186B,  became 
professor  of  astronomy  and  geodesy  at 
Harvard,  and  was  director  of  its  observa- 
tory after  187U.  He  made  the  study  of 
the  light  and  spectra  of  stars  special  fea- 
tures of  his  work  and  established  an 
auxiliary  station  at  Arequipa,  Peru,  for 
the  observation  of  southern  stars.  He  is 
a  member  of  many  learned  societies,  and 
author  of  Elementa  of  Phi/tioal  Manipu- 
lation and  many  volumes  of  Harvard 
Observatory  annals. —  William  Haibt 
PiCKERiNO,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom 
at  Boston  in  1858,  also  became  an 
astronomer,  and  was  appointed  assistant 

Srofessor  of  the  Harvard  Obserratorr. 
[e  conducted  several  expeditions  to  ob- 
serve several  solar  eclipses,  and  had  the 
honor  of  discovering  two  new  satellitea  of 
Saturn,  Ph<pbe,  the  ninth,  and  Themis, 
the  tenth.  He  established  astronomical 
stations  in  Arisona  and  Jamaica,  and 
has  been  an  expert  in  mountain  climbing, 
ascending  more  than  100  peaks.  He  Is 
the  author  of  a  number  of  astronomical 
and  other  works. 

PipWs  (pik'elz),  vegetables  and  cer- 
f  ib&ics  ^^.^    f^y.^g    gpg^    steeped    in 

strong  brine,  and  then  preserved  in  close 
vessels.  Wood  vinegar  is  often  used,  but 
malt  or  wine  vinegar  produces  the  best 
pickles.  Owing  to  the  corroding  effects 
of  brine  and  vinegar,  the  use  of  metallic 
vessels  should  be  avoided  in  making 
pickles.  To  give  a  green  color  to  pickles 
verdigris  or  other  poisonous  compounds 
of  copper  are  sometimes  employed  by 
manufacturers. 

Pickett  Geobob  Edwabd,  soldier, 
riVKCJ.if  ^^^^  ^j  Richmond,  YirAa^m, 
in  1825;  died  in  1875.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1840,  served  In  the  Mex- 
ican war,  and  in  1861  joined  the  Con- 
federate army  as  brigadier-general,  being 
made  major-general  in  1862.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  main  battles  in 
Virginia,  and  led  his  divisitm  in  tht 
famous  Pickett's  charce '  at  Gettysburg. 
Pico  (P^'^<^)<  one  of  the  Azorsa,  con- 
sisting  of  a  single  volcanic  moan- 
tain,  which  terminates  in  a  peak  (Bl 
Pico)  7613  feet  high,  that  emits  smoke 
and  lava.  It  is  fertile  and  well  wooded, 
andproduces  an  excellent  wine,  of  which 
25,000  pipes  are  exported  annnalhr. 
Area,  254  sq.  miles;  pop.  about  180,000. 

Pico  della  Mirandola.    SJ^£<- 

PiCOtee'.     ^**  Camation. 


Picquet.    SeeP<««e«. 


Piorio  Acid 


PierT« 


Picric  Acid.    ^^  carb^'otio  aou. 

jnOlOu  Brituh  general,  born  In  Pem- 
brokeahire  in  1758;  entered  the  army  In 
1771,  and,  after  lervlng  In  the  \VeBt  In- 
diet,  rows  to  the  ranlt  of  colonel,  and 
became  governor  of  Trinidad  in  171»7.  Ilia 
next  aervice  waa  the  capture  of  Fluslilng, 
of  which  he  was  appointed  goviTnor  in 
1800.  He  afterwards  distinguiHhed  hira- 
aelf  in  the  Peninsular  war  at  Iladajoz, 
Vittoria,  Ciudad  Rodrlgo,  etc.  He  waa 
killed  at  Waterloo.  1815.  ,    .    . 

'Pi/t^Aii  «  port  of  entry  and  capital  ol 
X-ltiliUU,  prjnce  Edward's  county,  On- 
tario, Canada,  40  miles  s.  s.  w.  of  Kings- 
ton. It  haa  canning  and  packing*  indus- 
tries.    Pop.  3008. 

Pin+Ati  n  commercial  town  and  sea- 
xici>uu,     pQ,j  jQ  jj,e  norlhern  part  of 

Nova  Scotia,  on  a  safe  and  commodious 
harbor.  Bituminous  coal  is  mined  and 
largely  exportwl.  and  a  Iwnutiful  sand- 
stone is  quarried.  Pop.  .TJSo. 
Pinta  (piktz),  the  name  given  to  the 
*  *'''  ancient  Caledoninns,  who  inhab- 
ited North  Britain  till  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century,  usually  regarded  as  a 
Celtic  race,  though  some  consider  them 
to  have  been  not  even  Aryans,  but  Tu- 
ranians.    See  Scotland. 

Picts'  Houses.    ^^  ^'"■'*  ''"''"^• 

Pinni  (pik'ul),  in  China,  a  weight  of 
**"'"  133i  lbs.  It  is  divided  into  100 
catties  or  1600  taels.  . 

Pinna  (pi'kus).  an  old  sylvan  deity  In 
f  i(«UB  Italy,  who  was  represented  with 
the  head  of  a  woodpecker  (Latin.  n»ctt«», 
and  presided  over  divination.  This  is 
also  the  scientific  name  of  a  genus  of 
woodpeckers. 
Piddock.     SeePfto/a,. 


P{»(1»P-nPfifa     (pi-ft-de-kfl-es't&),    a 

neaecuesxa  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  republic  of 

Colombia,  on  the  Rio  de  Oro,  with  a  uni- 
versity. In  a  coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco 
region.  Pop.  about  12.000. 
Pi^rlmnilt  (ped'mont;  Italian,  Pie- 
fiCOUiUUi/  monte),  a  department  or 
territorial  division  of  Italy,  between 
Switzerland,  Lombardy,  Liguria,  and 
France;  area,  11.340  square  miles;  pop. 
3,407,493.  It  forms  the  upper  valley  of 
the  river  Po,  and  derives  its  name,  sig- 
nifying 'foot  of  the  mountain,'  from  its 
sUuation  at  the  ba»p  of  the  loftiest  ranges 
of  the  Alps,  by  which  it  is  enclosed  on 
all  sides  except  towards  the  liombard 
plain.  It  forms  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  fertile  portions  of  Europe,  com- 
mencing on  the  north,  south,  and  west  in 
majestic  mountains,  and  thence  descend- 


ing in  magnificent  terracw  and  finely 
undalating  alopea  to  the  rich  plains  of  the 
Po,  to  tb«  baain  of  which  it  all  belongs. 
It  ia  divided  into  four  proTincea  —  Turin, 
Aleaaandria.  Cuneo,  ^and  Npvara.  The 
chief  town  in  Turin.  See  Sardinia  ( King, 
dom  of),  8»voji  (Hou»9  of),  and  Italy. 
Vi»r  CP*f :  Fr.  Pierre,  a  atone),  in  ar- 
****  cbitecture,  ia  the  name  applied  to 
a  mass  of  masonry  between  openings  in 
a  wall,  such  at  doora,  windowa,  etc.  The 
solid  support  from  which  an  arch  springs 
or  which  Buataina  a  tower  la  also  called 
a  pier.  The  term  ia  also  applied  to  a 
mole  or  jetty  carried  out  into  the  ae», 
intended  to  aerve  aa  an  embankment  to 
protect  vetaela  from  the  open  sea,  and  to 
form  a  harbor.        _  ,      .      ^u 

PiAfKA      (pfira) ,  Fbankun,  fourteenth 
nerce     president  of  the  United  States, 
was  born   at   Hillsborough.   New   Hamp- 
shire, in  1804 :  died  in  1800.     He  gradu- 
ated  at    Bowdoin   College,   studied    law, 
and   began   practice   in    1827.     He   waa 
electe<l   to  Congreaa  by   the   Democr.:tic 
party  in  1833  and  served  in  the  House 
till  1837,  when  he  was  elected  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Senate.     He  resigned  in  1842, 
and  in  1840-47  served   in  the  Mexican 
war    as    a    brigadier-general.    He    was 
nominated    for    the    Presidency    in    1K»2 
and  was  elected  by  a  very  large  majority 
of    electoral    votes.     Hia    influence    waa 
used  in  favor  of  the  proslavery  party, 
and  in  1803  be  spoke  againat  the  coer- 
cion of  the  seceded  states. 
Piarian     (pi-6'ri-an),  an  epithet  c^yen 
x^iciittu    to    the    Pierides    or    Mnaea, 
from  the  district  of  Pieria  in  Tbeasaly, 
which  was  sacred  to  them. 
ViA'n.A     BEBNARom    DE    Saint.    See 
nerre,    Saint-Pierre.  ,.    .  ,     . 

PiA-PTA  (Pi-ftr),  St.,  a  small  island 
fxciic  jjpjij,  tjjg  southern  coast  of 
Newfoundland,  forming  with  the  adja- 
cent island  of  Miquelon  a  colony  of 
France.  The  inhabitants  subsist  entirely 
by  the  cod-fisheries  and  the  industries 
connected  with  them.  The  Islands  of  St. 
Pierre  and  Miquelon  were  first  acquired 
by  the  French  in  17C3;  and  were  finally 
confirmed  to  them  at  the  general  Peace 

PiArrA  a  city,  capital  of  South  Da- 
x^xciic,    ^Qtjj     gQj     county     seat     of 

Hughes  Co.,  is  situated  on  tht  Mi«0ouri 
River,  opposite  Fort  Pierre.  It  in  the 
seat  of  a  government  industrial  school  for 
Indians  and  is  the  leading  live-stock  cen- 
ter of  the  state.  It  is  an  active  bumness 
point  for  central  Dakota  and  the  Black 
Hills  region.     Pop.  3656. 


PiATTA  (pi-arr  St.,'  a  town  in  the 
nerre  \y^g^  indies,  capital  of  the 
Island  of  Martinique,  on  the  notthwan 


Pierrefondt 


Tigeon 


cMit.  It  had  fine  churcbcB.  a  boUnical 
garden,  add  waa  well  fortided^ut  waa 
totaUy  destroyed,  with  iu  3U,000  Inhab- 
itants, by  an  eruption  of  Mt.  I'elee,  May 
8.  1902 

Pierrcfondi   i^ii^l;  ,%/'SfS 

near  Compiegne,  remarkable  for  its  castle, 
founded  in  131K)  and  recently  restored. 
Pop.  (1900)   1482.  c      «  .  , 

Pierre-les-Calais,  ^t.  s^  caiau. 

Vim-rrnf  (pl-er-rO),  a  comic  character 
f  iCAiub  Q^  j|,g  yronch  stage,  dressed 
nice  a  harle<juin,  ami  pluyiug  the  part  of 
a  cunning  but  cowardly  rogue. 
Pi*Tr#T»ont  (pSr'Pont),  EDWABD8, 
ficixcpvub  Btntesman,  wan  born  at 
North  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1817;  died 
in  1892.  He  studied  law  and  became 
eminent  in  his  profession,  was  made  a 
judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  New 
York  in  18.'>7,  and  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States  in  1875.  In  1870  he 
was  appointed  United  States  Minister  to 
Great  Britain. 
PieW  Plowman,     ^ee  langlande. 


Pi'nfjL  (pe-fl-tfc'),  in  painting  and 
***"'«*  sculpture,  a  representation  of 
the  Virgin  embracing  tlie  dead  Christ. 
In  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  is  a  Pietft  by 
Michael  Angelo. 

Pictermaritzburg  il^.Vutf);";ap: 

ttal  of  Natal,  4.5  miles  inland  from  Dur- 
ban, with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
railway.  It  was  founded  in  1843,  and 
named  after  two  of  the  Boer  leaders, 
Pieter  Uetlef  and  Gertz  Maritz.  It  Js 
reRularly  built,  with  wide  streets  planted 
with  trees,  contains  the  governor  s  resi- 
dence and  government  buildings,  etc 
I'op.   (1911)   .TH.-nSJi. 

PiA+ia-m  (pi'e-tizm),  in  German  the- 
.ticbiaiu.  oiogy  tiie  religiou.s  views  of 
the  pietiata,  a  name  originally  applied 
in  derision  to  some  young  teachers  of 
theology  at  Leipzig,  who  began  in  1»>89 
to  deliver  ascetic  lectures  on  the  New 
Testament  to  the  students  and  citizens. 
The  idea  of  imparting  theological  instruc- 
tion in  a  popular  way  came  from  their 
friend  and  teacher  Spener  (the  German 
Feneion).  who  bad  held  religious  meet- 
ings in  Frankfort  from  the  year  1«70, 
at  which  the  laity  prayed,  and  were 
allowed  to  ask  questions,  etc.  The  Leip- 
zig lectures  were  put  a  stop  to  as  being 
hostile  to  good  government,  but  the  influ- 
ence of  the  pietists  led  to  the  foundation 
(lfi95>  of  the  University  of  Halle,  which 
became  the  center  of  evangelical  religion 
in  Oermnny.  The  leading  adherent's  of 
Spener  wei-e  appointed  its  irat  professors, 

14— r-« 


among  them  Francke,  the  founder  of  the 
celebrated  Waisenhaus  or  orphanage  at 
Halle.  The  pietists  were  noted  for  their 
preference  of  practical  as  opposed  to  do«:- 
trinal  religion,  but  they  never  formed  a 
separate  sect.  The  Jansenism  and  Qui- 
etism of  France  and  the  Methodism  ut 
England  sprang  from  sources  similar  U 
those  of  the  German  pietism. 
Pi^frft.dnrii.  (P>-ft f"  do'ra),  a  kind 
neira-aura    ^f  mosaic    executed    In 

Italy,  and  especially  at  Florence,  in  hard 
stones,  such  as  topazes,  garnets,  came-, 
lians,  rubies,  etc. 

Pi»70TneteT  (pl-e-wmVttr),  an  In- 
XiezuiUCbcr  gtrument  for  measuring 
the  compression  of  water  and  other  liquids 
under  pressure.  In  Oersted's  piezometer 
the  pressure  is  gauged  by  tlie  manometer, 
and  the  amount  of  compression  indicated 
by  mercury  in  a  glass  *ube. 

Piff.     ^*^  ^^^' 

IHirafAffa  (pfi-ga-fet'a),  AUTORIO, 
X^ij^ttiCbbH  jjo^Q  at  Vicenza  towarda 
the  end  of  the  15th  century,  accompanied 
Magellan  in  the  first  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe  (1519-22).  He  kept  a  jour- 
nal of  the  voyage,  of  which  a  complete 
edition  was  first  publishet^  only  in  1800. 
PicyAATi  (pij'un).  the  common  name  of 
Xigcuu  a  group  of  birds,  forming  in 
some  svstems  a  section  of  the  order  of 
rasorial  or  gallinaceous  birds,  in  others  a 
distinct  order.  The  pigeons  or  doves  as 
a  group  have  the  upper  mandible  arched 
towards  its  apex,  and  of  homy  consist- 
ence; a  second  curve  exists  at  its  base, 
where  there  is  a  cartilaginous  plate  or 
piece  through  which  the  nostrils  pass. 
The  crop  is  of  large  size.  The  pinsons 
are  generally  strong  on  the  wing.    They 


are  mostly  arboreal  in  habits,  perching 
upon  trees,  and  building  their  nests  in 
elevated  situations.  Both  sexes  incubate; 
and  these  birds  generally  pair  for  life; 
the  loss  or  death  of  a  mate  being  in  many 
cases  apparently  mourned  and  grieved 
over,  and  the  survivor  frequently  refus- 
ing to  be  consoled  by  another  mate.  The 
song  consists  of  the  well-known  plaintive 
cooing.  The  pigeons  are  distributed  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe,  but  attain 
the  greatest  luxuriance  of  plumage  in 
warm  and  tropical  regions.  The  pigeon 
family  is  divided  into  various  groups. 
The  true  pigeons  or  Columbldffi  are 
represented  by  the  stock-dove,  the  com- 
mon wild  pigeon,  from  which,  it  waa  once 
supposed,  most  of  the  beautiful  varieties 
of  the  Columhida,  which  in  a  state  of 
domestication  are  dependent  upon  man, 
derived  their  origin:  but  it  Is  now  be- 
lieved the  rcick-dove  is  the  parent  stock. 
The  passenger-pigeon  was  formerly  very 


«l(9Mi"b§npjf 


fftt 


•bundaat  la  North  ABtric*.  Th«  noa' 
hm  that  MMaetiaiM  mored  tontbtr  wtrt 
Taat  bajond  conceptioa.  AlilUooa  of 
tbeM  pigcona  aiaoclatwl  toc«tb«r  ia  a 
■ingle  rooat.  Thejr  wen,  however,  da- 
■troyfd  by  hiinien  m  indiicrinilnatrly 
that  thejr  nara  entirely  diuppeareO.  The 
houae-pigeons,  tuntlera,  fantaili,  poutera, 
carrierm^  and  Jarobtne  are  the  chief  vari- 
etiea  of  the  roclt-pigeon,  and  have  been 
employed  bv  Darwin  (we  hia  Origin  of 
Speeict  and  his  Animalt  mndrr  Domcttt- 
cation)  to  illustrate  many  of  the  pointa 
involved  in  his  theory  of  '  descent  by  nat- 
ural selection.'  Other  spei'ioH  of  pigeons 
are  the  rreronida  or  fruit-pigeons  of  In- 
dia, the  Eastern  Archi|>eiago,  and  Aua- 
tralia ;  the  Qourida  or  ground-pigeona, 
the  largest  of  the  group,  including  the 
crowned  pigeon  (Ooaro  coron&ta)  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago.  Bee  also  Carrier 
Pigeon,  Turtle-dove,  etc. 

Pigeon-berry.   ®'"°'  *■  ^o^^^^^^- 
Pigeon  English,  Tfim^^'^us^ 

new  Engiish,'  a  conglomeration  of  Kng- 
lich  and  Portuguese  words  wrapped  in 
a  Chinese  idiom,  used  by  English  and 
American  residents  in  China  in  their 
intercourse  with  the  native  traders. 

Piireon-nea.  ^•'^  '"""J*  2'^*''?  legumi- 

o  4»vH.,    mjyg  nhrub  Cajanut  In- 

dicut,  a  native  of  India,  but  now  cuiti- 
vated  in  tropical  Africa  and  America.  In 
India   the  pigeon-poa    forms  a   pulse  of 

feneral  use.    Called  also  Angola  Pea  and 
'onjfo  Pea. 
Pig-iron,     ^ee  iron. 

Pigment-cell,   SifSteng^^oTJl 

ing  matter,  as  in  the  choroid  coat  of  the 
eye. 

Piements  (Pig'mentz),  materials 
B  wMKo  yg^  jjjy  imparting  color, 
especially  in  painting,  but  also  in  dyeing 
or  otherwise.  The  coloring  substances 
used  as  paints  are  partly  nrtiflcial  and 
partly  notural  productions.  They  are  de- 
rived principally  from  the  mineral  liins- 
dom:  and  even  when  animal  or  vexetable 
substances  are  used  for  coloring  tlicy  are 
nearly  always  united  with  a  mineral  sub- 
stance (an  earth  or  an  oxide).  In  paint- 
ing the  colors  are  ground,  and  applied  by 
means  of  some  liquid,  which  dries  up 
without  changing  them.  The  difference  of 
the  vehicle  used  with  the  method  of  employ- 
ing it  has  given  rise  to  the  modes  of  paint- 
ing in  water-colors,  oil-colors,  in  fresco,  in 
distemper,  etc.  For  oil-painting  mineral 
substances  are  more  suitable  than  lake$ 
prepared  with  minerals,  because  the  latter 
become  durker  by  being  mixed  with  olL 


Ttaa  Uka  cdora  luiva  tin  or  alum  for 
their  baaia,  and  owe  their  tint  to  animal 
or  vetetabla  cotorlnc  aabatancaa.  Indigo 
la  a  purely  vegetable  color,  aa  la  also 
blue-black,  which  ia  obtained  from  burned 
Tine-twiga.  Ivory  black  is  a  purely  ani- 
mal color,  being  nothing  else  than  burned 
ivory.  In  staining  porcelain  and  glass 
the  metallic  colors  which  are  not  driven 
oS  by  heat  and  are  not  aaaiiy  changeable 
are  used. 

Pigmy.   ^**  ^^9^*' 
Pignerol.   swW'wro/o. 

Pi       it.    ^^  Eartknmi. 

pjl^a  (pfka).  the  calling-hare  ILa- 
AAAM  «omy«),  an  animal  nearly  allied 
to  the  nares,  and  forming  the  family 
Lagomydos.  It  is  found  in  Russia, 
Hiberia,  and  North  America,  and  ia  re- 
markable tr  r  the  manner  in  which  it 
stores  up  its  winter  provision,  and  also 
for  its  voice,  the  tone  of  which  so  much 
resembles  that  of  a  quail  as  to  be  often 
mistaken  for  it. 

PilrA  (Plh),  a  genus  of  flshea  belong- 
**'^^  ing  to  the  order  Teleostel,  and 
included  in  the  Maiacopterous  division 
of  the  order.  The  pikes  form  the  types 
of  the  family  Esocidc,  in  which  group  the 
body  is  lengthened,  flattened  on  the  back, 
and  tapering  abruptly  towards  the  tail. 
One  dorsal  nn  exists,  this  structure  being 
riln"-'!  far  ba^k  on  the  body,  and  oppo- 
xitfc  t  jf;  anal  iiu.  The  lower  Jaw  projects. 
Teeth  are  present  in  plentiful  array,  and 
are  borne  by  almost  every  bone  entering 
into  the  composition  of  the  mouth.  The 
common  pike  (Etox  lactwii)  occurs  in  the 
rivers  of  Europe  and  North  Amer'ca. 
It  is  fished  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  ita 
flesh,  which  is  accounted  exceedingly 
wholesome.  The  pikes  are  very  long- 
lived,  and  form  the  tyrants  of  their 
sphere,  being  the  most  voracious  of  fresh- 
water fishes.  When  fully  grown  the  pike 
may  attain  a  length  of  5  or  6  feet,  and 
there  are  numerous  instances  on  record 
in  which  these  fishes  have  greatly  ex- 
ceeded that  length.  The  sea  pikea  {Etom 
helone),  also  known  as  garpiiies,  are  also 
included  in  the  family  EW-ids.  (See 
Garfiah.)  The  saury  pike  (8combere$om 
laurua)  resembles  the  garpike  in  general 
conformation,  but  possesses  the  dorsal 
and  anal  fins  in  the  shape  of  a  number  of 
divided  '  finlets.'  The  bony  pike  (Lepi- 
doateua  oaaeut)  of  North  American  lakes 
and  rivers  belongs  to  an  entirely  diflfe<«nt 
order  of  fishea  —  that  of  the  Ganoidet. 
See  Bony  Pike. 

PJlrA  a  sort  of  lance,  a  weapon  much 
^""'f    oMd  in  the  middla  agea  aa  an 


Pfkt 


l^«KJ]llftJO 


am  for  infutry.  It  wm  from  16  to 
18  fatt  long,  mm)  eonslatad  of  ■  polt  with 
an  iron  point.  For  wm*  tlmt  tvtry 
cmniNUiy  m  th*  amiiN  of  Europe  con* 
■iatad  of  at  Itaat  two-tl>irds  piliemcn  and 
one-third  li>i<^ueba«len.  Uuauvua  Adol> 
phua  omitted  the  piliemeo  In  lome  reci- 
menta  entirely.  The  invention  of  toe 
bayonet  drove  the  pike  out  of  uae. 
pjV*  Albert,  poet,  waa  bom  at  Bo»- 
*»»•»  ton.  MaaaachuaetU,  In  1800;  di«>d 
in  1801.  He  aettlcd  in  Arkanaaa,  became 
fe  lawyer,  and  waa  attorney  for  tlie 
Cherokee  Indiana.  He  aerved  in  'be 
army  during  the  Mexican  war,  and  organ- 
ised  aome  Indian  reglnienta  during  the 
Civil  war,  leading  them  In  the  battle  of 
Pea  Ridge  and  Elkborn.  After  the  war 
he  waa  for  a  time  editor  of  the  Tdemphia 
Appeal.  In  \h39  be  publlahed  Uymtia 
of  the  Godt,  and  aubaequently  other 
poema.  He  alao  wrote  worka  on  Ma- 
aonry.  .,, 

p{Vi»  ZEBtnjON  Moirroounr,  aeldler 
***'»  and  explorer,  born  at  Lambar- 
ton.  New  Jeraey,  in  1770.  He  entered 
the  army,  and  in  1806  led  an  expedition 
■ent  by  the  Kovernment  to  trace  the  Mia- 
aiaaippi  to  its  aource.  and  aubaequently 
made  expeditiona  in  the  Weat,  diacover- 
ing  Pikea  Pealc.  and  reaching  the  Rio 
Orande.  He  waa  appointed  brlgadler- 
geueral  In  1813,  bnd  on  April  13  of  that 
year  waa  killed  during  an  attack  on 
York  (now  Toronto)  in  Canada. 

Pike-perch    </'fi«.t5Xlly".iif"" 

tb*"  perch,  out  showing  a  resemblance  to 
the  pik»>  in  ita  c'.ongatcU  u>dy  and  bead. 
Like  the  pike,  it  la  a  dangerous  enemy 
to  other  freah-water  fishes,  but  the  flavor 
of  Ita  flesh  is  excellent.  In  Europe  it 
occurs  in  two  speciea.  It  also  occurs  in 
the  fresh  waters  of  the  United  Stataa, 
Buch  aa  the  great  lakes,  the  Upper  Mia- 
aiasippi,  and  the  Ohio. 
Pilra'a  P^olr  0°^  of  the  higheat 
ruie  B  XCKii.)  Bummits  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  (14,134  feet),  in  the  center 
of  the  atate  of  Colorado.  It  was  diacov- 
ored  by  Oeneral  Z.  M.  Pike  in  1806.  It 
abounds  in  rich  gold-bearing  quarts,  and 
has  a  meteoroloKical  observatory.  A 
rackrail  line  of  railway.  9  miles  Imig,  to 
top  of  mcun*.nia,  is  operated  during  the 
summer  months. 
Piknl.     SaePicnI. 

pilaqtfr  (pi-la"'t^r),  a  aguare  piliar 
***'*  '''^  projecting  from  a  pier  or  a 
wall  to  th'i  extent  of  from  one-fourth 
to  oot-lhird  of  its  breadth.  Pilastera 
oric/fin(i«i  in  Grecian  architecture.  In 
Rounn  *.bey  were  aometimes  tapered  like 
wliHaM  aad  fioMiad  with  mgmlm  m>d> 


Pilattar— 
Oortathlan. 


•lad  aftar  tha  ordtr  with 
which  thty  ware  oaad. 
Bee  Column. 

""*»^'  Tiua.  the  aixth 
Roman  procurator  <rf  Ju- 
diea.  He  auccecded  Va- 
teriua  Qratua  in  A.D.  26. 
Nothing  la  known  of  bla 
early  hlatorr.  He  waa  a 
narrow-minded  and  im- 
politic  governor,  and  at 
the  ''err  l>eginning  of  bla 
term  of  office  led  to  com- 
motiona  among  the  Jnwa 
at  Jerusalem.  When 
Christ  bad  been  con- 
demned to  death  by  the 
Jewish  priests,  who  had 
no  power  of  inflicting 
capital  punishments,  he 
was  carried  by  them  to 
Pilate  to  be  executed. 
Yielding  to  the  clamors  of 
the  Jews  the  Roman  gor* 
emor  ordered  Jesus  to  be  executed,  but 
permitted  Jos«ph  of  Arimathea  to  take  bis 
body  and  bury  It.  Pilate  was  afterwarda 
removed  from  bis  ofllce  by  Vltellius,  pre- 
fect of  Syria  (a.d.  36).  and,  according 
to  tradition,  was  banished  by  Caligula  to 
Vienna  (Vienne).  In  Gaul,  where  he  la 
aaid  to  have  died  or  committed  auicide 
some  yeare  after. 

Pilftfna  (p^lU'tOs),  Mount,  a  moun- 
x^iiatUB  j^j„  ,„  gwltxerland,  on  the 
borders  of  the  cantons  of  Lucerne  and 
Unterwalden.  Its  loftiest  peak,  the  Tom- 
lisborn,  attains  a  height  of  7110  feet 
It  is  almost  as  great  a  favorite  with 
mountain  climbers  as  the  Rigi  on  acconnt 
of  the  Imposing  views  of  the  Bemeae 
mountain  scenery  obtained  from  varloua 
pointa.  A  railway  to  the  aummit  waa 
opened  in  1880. 

PUchard  jei;'?'-;^;  V^'.W.'Tt 

flahes  included  in  thp  family  and  genua 
of  the  herrings   (Clupeidse),  which  they 
much    resemble,    though    rather    smaller. 
The    usual    spawning    time    la    October. 
They   are    found   in   greatest   plenty   on 
the    southern    coasts    of    England,    the 
Cornwall    pilchard   fisheries   being   those 
best    known    and    most    celebrated.     Pil- 
cbarda   are   chiefly   consumed   in    Spain, 
Italy,  and  France  during  Lent  and  other 
ferting  seasons.    Many  of  the  commer- 
cial '  s:  rdines '  are  in  reality  young  pil- 
chat     ,    the   saidiue    (which   see)    neing 
also  .iciuded  In  the  herring  genua. 
PilfiimAvn    (pel-k5-mil'y6),  *  river 
niCOmayO    loath    America,   whii 
riaes  in  Bolivia,  on   the  eastern  dacli. 
U.  tba  AHhm  mmk  Mta  Into  «te 


Piles 


'Pillar-Saints 


m 


Paraguay,  near  Asuncion,  after  forminf 
the  boundary  between  Paraguay  and  the 
Argentine  Uepublic.  Its  entire  length  is 
between  1500  aud  1000  miles.  On  ac- 
count of  its  Bhallownesa  during  the  dry 
season  and  the  great  current  in  its  narrow 
parts  it  does  not  appear  likely  to  become 
usefully  navigable. 
Piles       ®^*  Uemorrhoids. 

Pil^a  (pilz),  in  works  of  engineering, 
fiicB  j^jg  yggj  either  for  temporary 
purposes  or  to  form  a  basis  for  perma- 
nent stiactures.  In  the  former  case 
they  are  usually  squared  logs  of  wood 
sharpened  at  the  point,  which  is  some- 
times protected  with  an  iron  shoe  to 
enable  it  to  penetrate  the  harder  strata 
which  it  may  meet  with  in  being  driven 
into  the  ground.  The  most  usual  pur- 
pose to  which  piles  are  applied  in  tem- 
porary structures  is  to  make  coffer- 
dams. The  permanent  purposes  for 
which  piles  are  employed  are  various. 
In  many  cases  the  object  is  to  secure 
a  firm  foundation  in  a  loose  or  swampy 
soil.  In  these  cases  the  piles  used  are 
now  often  of  cast-iron,  sometimes  solid 
and  sometimes  hollow.  Piles  are  driven 
in  by  a  heavy  block  raised  and  let  fall 
alternately,  this  in  extensive  works  being 
accomplished  by  means  of  steam  ma- 
chinery. 
PileWOrt.      ^^  celandine. 

Pilgrimage  of  Grace,    ^"elTo": 

ary  movement  in  the  north  of  England, 
in  153tHJ7,  subk^'tjuent  upon  the  pro- 
ceedings of  Henry  VIII  in  regard  to  the 
church.  The  insurgents  demanded  the 
fall  of  Cromwell,  redress  to  the  church, 
and  reunion  with  Rome.  Mustering  to 
the  number  of  30,000.  they  marched  upon 
York,  and  within  a  few  days  were  mas- 
ters of  England  north  of  the  Ilumber. 
Henry  temporized,  promising  a  free 
parliament  at  York ;  but  when  the  in- 
surgents returned  home  all  concessions 
were  revoked,  and  a  renewal  of  the  re- 
volt was  suppressed  with  great  rigor. 
Many  perished  by  the  block,  the  gibbet, 
and  the  stake. 
Pil^rimn^e     (pil'gri-mij),  a  journey 

practice  of  making  pilgrimages  to  places 
of  peculiar  sanctity  is  as  ancient  as  it 
is  widespread.  The  ancient  Egyptians 
and  Syrians  had  privileged  temples,  to 
which  worshiper*  came  from  distnnt 
parts.  The  chief  temples  of  Greece  and 
Asia  Mirsor  swarmed  with  strangers. 
But  it  is  in  Christianity  and  Moham- 
medanism that  the  practice  has  attained 
its  greatest  development.    The  first  Chris- 


tian pilgrimagea  were  made  to  the  grave* 
of  the  martyrs.  By  the  end  of  the 
fourth  aud  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
the  custom  had  become  so  general  as  to 
lead  to  abuses.  Throughout  the  middle 
ages,  and  especially  about  the  year  1000, 
the  religious  fervor  of  the  people  man- 
ifested itself  in  numerous  pilgrimages, 
especially  to  Jerusalem.  The  outrages 
inflicted  on  the  Christian  pilgrims  bv 
the  Saracens  led  to  the  Crusades,  which 
were  themselves  nothing  else  than  gi- 
gantic armed  pilgrimages.  The  shrine 
of  Our  Lady  of  Loretto,  near  Rome, 
that  of  St.  James  of  Compo3tella  in 
Spain,  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours  in  France, 
were  all  sacred  spots  to  which,  from 
the  tenth  to  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
even  much  later,  pilgrims  resorted  in 
innumerable  crowds ;  and  from  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century  the  shrine  of  St. 
Thomas  A  Becket  at  Canterbury  had  the 
same  honor  in  England.  After  the 
Reformation  the  practice  of  making  pil- 
grimages fell  more  and  more  into  abey- 
ance, and  the  spirit  which  led  to  it  seems 
almost  to  have  become  extinct  among 
Christians,  although  there  are  still  oc- 
casional outbursts  of  it  among  the 
Roman  Catholics,  as  in  the  modern  pil- 
grimages to  Paray-le-ilonial,  Lourdes, 
lona,  and  Holy  Island.  In  the  Greek 
church  Mount  Athos  is  the  chief  shrine 
of  pilgrimage.  For  Mohammedans  the 
great  place  of  pilgrimage  is  Mecca,  which 
was  the  resort  of  Arabian  pilgrims  long 
before  the  time  of  Mohammed.  Among 
the  Hindus  and  the  Buddhists  also  the 
practice  of  performing  pilgrimages  largely 
prevails. 

Pilgrim  Fathers,   ^n.^Tmyllt^ 

who,  in  order  to  escape  from  religious 
persecution,  sailed  from  Southampton  in 
the  Mayflotcer,  landing  at  what  is  now 
Plymouth  in  Massachusetts,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1620,  thus  colonizing  New  England. 
They  numbered  100  men,  women,  and 
children. 

PiliT^Viit    (p6-le-bet').  a  town  in  India, 
f  iixuuib    jjj  (jjg  district  of  Bareilly,  in 
the  Northwest  Provinces,  30  miles  north- 
east of  Bareilly  city,  on  the  Desha  River, 
the  entrepot  for  an  extensive  traffic  be- 
tween   the    upper    and    lower   countries. 
The  most  important  industry  is  sugar  re- 
fining.    In    1740   it    was   seized    by    the 
Rohilla  leader.  Hfifiz  Rahmat  Kh&n,  who 
.nade  it  his  capital.     In  the  western  out- 
■'  '•ts  stand  his  cathedral-mosque  and  the 
mains  of  bis  palace.     Pop.  about  35,000l 
'illK  '       ^*®  Column. 

Pilki-Saints.  See  atvute,. 


Pillau 


Pile  i 


Pillan  (Pil'oo).  a  fortified  seaport  of 
f  lUKu  g-^g^  Prussia,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Frishea  Haff,  25  miles  w.  a.  w.  of 
KOnigsberg,  with  which  it  forms  one 
port.  Large  vessels  for  KonigsberK  are 
partially  unloaded  at  Pillau.  Pop.  7374. 
Pillorv  (P>l'u-ri),  a  frame  of  wood 
**  luxjf  erected  on  posts,  with  mov- 
.ib*v  boards,  and  holes  through  which 
;yere  pur,  ti""  ^"ad  and  hands  of  a  crimi- 
nal for  puTii  ament.  In  this  manner 
y  isona  wtc  formerly  exposed  to  public 


Pillory. 

view,  and  generally  to  public  insult. 
It  was  a  common  punishment  in  Britain 
for  forestallers,  users  of  false  weights, 
those  guilty  of  perjury,  forgery,  libel, 
seditious  writings,  etc.  It  was  abolished 
in  1837. 

Pills  (P'lz^'  medicines  made  up  in 
*****  globules  of  a  convenient  size  for 
swallowing  whole,  the  medicine  being  usu- 
ally mixed  up  with  some  neutral  substance 
such  as  bread-crumbs,  hard  soap,  ex- 
tract of  liquorice,  mucilage,  syrup, 
treacle,  and  conserve  of  roses.  The 
coverings  are  liquorice  powder,  wheat 
flour,  fine  sugar,  and  lycopodium.  In 
many  cases  pills  are  now  enameled  or 
silvered,  which  deprives  them  of  most 
of  their  unpleasantness.  Pills  are  a 
highly  suitable  form  for  administering 
medicines  which  operate  in  small  doses, 
or  which  are  intended  to  act  slowly  or 
not  to  act  at  all  until  they  reach  the 
lower  intestines,  and  in  wme  othor  rases. 
Pilot  (pi'lut),  a  person  qualified  to 
****"'  navigate  a  vessel  within  a  par- 
ticular district.  By  the  existing  law, 
oversea  vessels  must  employ  a  pilot  in 
those  parta  of  the  voyage  where  a  pilot 


is  employed  by  regulation  or  usage.  A 
master  refusing  to  take  a  pilot  vitiates 
the  insurance  on  the  vessel ;  while  -  a 
pilot  refusing  to  perform  the  duty  for 
which  he  is  licensed  renders  himself  lia- 
ble to  penalties.  The  master  or  owner 
of  a  vessel  is  not  responsible  for  damage 
caused  by  the  fault  or  incapacity  of  any 
qualified  pilot  where  the  employment  of 
such  pilot  is  compulsory;  but  the  pilot 
must  not  be  interfered  with  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties.  Pilotage  fees  de- 
pend on  the  distance  and  the  draught  of 
water  of  the  vessel  piloted.  Masters  and 
mates  passing  the  requisite  examination 
are  entitled  to  pilotage  certificates  to 
conduct  their  own  vessels.  Laws  regu- 
lating pilotage  have  been  enacted  by  th^ 
several  maritime  states  —  this  power  be- 
ing controlled  by  Congress.  The  pilot 
laws  of  the  states  are  different,  some 
being  unjust  and  burdensome,  especially 
as  to  sailing  vessels;  while  others  are 
fair  and  equitable.  A  sailing  or  steam- 
vessel  engaged  in  foreign  trade  must  pay 
for  a  pilot  even  when  one  is  not  em- 
ployed. The  compulsory  pilotage  sys- 
tem is  being  abolished  in  many  large 
foreign  seaports,  without  detriment  to 
the  general  safety  of  navigation. 
Pilnf.-fiali  (Naucritea  or  Scomber 
ruoi  nsn  ^^ctor),  a  genus  of  Tele- 
ostean  fishes  included  in  the  Scorn- 
beridse  or  mackerel  family,  and  some- 
times included  in  the  same  genus 
(Scomber)  as  the  mackerel  itself.  The 
pilot-fish  was  formerly  supposed  to  act 
as   a   pilot   to   the  mariner,   and   is  still 


Pilot-flih   (NauerSte*  duetor). 

supposed  to  act  as  such  to  sharks.  It 
often  follows  in  the  wake  of  ships  for 
long  distances,  associating  with  sharks 
and  devouring  the  refuse  thrown  over- 
board. The  average  length  is  about  12 
inches.  In  general  form  it  resembles  the 
mackerel. 

Pilot V  (P^l^^'tOi  Karl,  a  Ctermao 
*  painter,  born  at  Munich  in 
1826;  died  in  1886.  He  studied  at  the 
Academy  of  Munich,  and  gained  fame 
by  his  picture  of  The  Founding  of  the 
ffatkoUc  League  (1854K  In  1856  he 
was  appointed  a  professor  in  the 
Munich  Academy  of  Arts.  He  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  historical  aubjects,  and 
among  his  works  are :  Seni  &y  the  Dead 
Body  of  WaUenttetn;  Nen  nmong  th9 


Pilpay 

AkIim  of  Rome;  Mary  Queen  of  Boot- 
land  receiving  her  Death  Bentenee;  r*« 
Murder  of  Vwnar;  Thuanelda  %n  the 
Triumph  of  Germanicue;  The  Wtse  and 
Fooliah  virgins:  The  Death  of  ^le»- 
ander  the  Great.  Piloty  ifl  reckoned  the 
most  remarkable  representative  of  the 
realistic  school  of  Germany. 

Pilpay.    s**^****"*- 

"PilaATi  (pil'sen),  a  town  in  Western 
XUSCU  uohemia,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Mies  and  Badbusa,  53  miles  south- 
west of  Prague.  It  consists  of  the  town 
proper,  with  promenades  on  the  site  of 
the  old  ramparts,  and  of  three  suburbs. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  church 
(1292),  town-house,  real-school,  and 
theaters.  The  chief  article  of  manufac- 
ture and  commerce  is  beer.  Coal,  iron, 
alum,  etc.,  are  worked  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  second  town  of  Bohemia, 
Pilsen  dates  from  1272.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  it  was  for  a  time 
the  headquarters  of  Wallenstein.  Pop. 
(1010)  81,K!5. 
Pilnm.     SeeJatjrfin 


Pimplnrliiq  (pim-i-l6'dus),  a  genus 
nmeiOauS  of  malacopterygian  ab- 
dominal fishes,  found  chiefly  in  South 
America,  the  Nile,  and  some  of  the 
eastern  rivers,  and  supposed  to  abound 
in  subterranean  h  ^es  as  one_  species 
(P.  cydopum),  6  inches  long,  is  some- 
times ejected  in  thousands  from  tne 
craters  of  volcanoes.  .„     •  ^ 

Pimen'tO  **'  Pimenta.    See  AlUp*ce. 

K«M-»A-miAl  (pim'p6r-nel;  Anagallia), 
mpernel  l\enxxa  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  na I.  order  of  Primulace«.  The 
Anagallia  arvenia,  or  field  nimpemel,  a 
beautiful  annual,  is  commonly  known  in 
England  (where  the  scarlet -flowered  va- 
riety is  by  far  the  most  common)  as  the 

•  shepherd  s  or  poor  man's  weather-glass, 
from  the  fact  that  its  flowers  do  not  open 
in  rainy  weather.  The  blue  and  lilac  va- 
rieties of  the  Anagallia  colllna,  originally 
a  native  of  South  Africa,  have  been  intro- 
duced into  gardens,  where  they  have  a 
fine  effect.  The  water  pimpernel  is  the 
Veronica  Anagallis;  the  yellow  pim- 
pernel, Lytimachia  nemorum. 

PimpincUa.    see  A««e. 

Pin      *  piece  of  wire,  generally  brass, 

*  *"»  sharp  at  one  end  and  with  a  head 
at  the  other,  chiefly  used  by  women  m 
fastening  their  drew.  By  the  old  meth- 
ods of  manufacture  by  hand,  the  distinct 
processes,  from  the  straightening  of  the 
wire  to  the  spinning  and  hammering  of 
the  head,  were  usually  said  to  be  four- 


Pinoliot 

t«ai.  Among  th«  moat  important  im- 
provemenu  introdnced  in  tb«  fabrication 
of  pins  ai-e  the  machines  by  which  the 
head  is  formed  from  the  pin  itseif,  and 
the  machine  for  sticking  the  pins  in  pa- 

SgP  —  both  American  inventions.     Solid- 
eaded  pins,  now  universally  used,  were 
first  made  in  1824.    The  consumption  of 
pins  in  the  Unite^.  States  is  estimated  at 
thirty  millions  a  jay. 
PiTio    P.lftfh    (p€'nya),  a  costly   fab- 
rina   l/iOin    Pic  made  in  Manila  from 
the  unspun  fibers  of  the   leaves  of  the 
cultivated     pineapple    plant     {Ananasta 
aativa).    Its  color  is  almost  white,  but 
has  a  slight   tinge  of  yellow   in   it._   In 
spite  of  the  delicacy  of  its  texture  it  is 
remarkably  strong.     Its  chief  use  is  for 
making  ladies'  pocket  handkerchiefs,  but 
it  is  sometimes  also  used  for  dresses.     It 
is  frequently  adorned  with  exquisite  em- 
broidery. _  .   , 
Pinannflifklr       <>'    PiNAKOTHEK     (pi- 
rmaCOTneK,     na-kS-thek';  Gr.  pina- 
koihCkS),   a  name  sometimes  applied   in 
Germany    to   galleries   of   art,   especially 
collections    of     paintings.     The     Pinaco- 
thek  formed  by  Louis  I  of  Bavaria  at 
Munich  is  particularly  famous. 
Pinov  AtA  Pin    (pfi-nftr'  del  rS'6), 
ifinar  ttei  lUO    ^^  ^^^^    westerly 

province  of  Cuba,  boiiering  Havana 
province  on  the  east.  It  is  mountainous 
N.  and  w..  low  tnd  marshy  on  the  coast. 
Rivers  and  lakes  are  numerous,  some  of 
the  rivers  flowing  underground.  This 
province  contains  the  fertile  Vuelta 
Abajo  district,  in  which  grows  the  fin- 
est tobacco  in  the  world.  Sugar-cane, 
coffee,  rice,  sea-island  cotton,  corn, 
fruits,  and  fine  woods  are  produced. 
Stock  raising  and  fishing  are  also  impor- 
tant industries.  ,  ,.  ,  « 
PiTinr  At^\  B.io      *    ^^^^'    capital    of 

rmar  aei  xuo,  ^jj^^g  province,   it 

is  95  miles  w.  b.  w.  of  Havana,  is  in  the 
center  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  district,  and 
has  an  active  trade  in  tobacco.  Its 
seaport  is  Coloma,  at  the  mouth  of 
Coloma  River,  on  the  s.  coast  14  miles 
away.     Pop.  8880. 

Pi  11 /til  nf  GiFFOED,  forester,  bom  at 
riucnut,  gimsbury,  Connecticut,  in 
1865.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1889,  studied  forestry  in  Europe,  was 
made  a  member  of  the  National  Forest 
Commission  in  1896,  and  was  chief  for- 
ester  of    the    United    States.    1898-1910. 


In  the  latter  year  he  was  dismissed  by 
President  Taft  as  a  result  of  the  Bal- 
linger  controversy  concerning  the  Alaskan 
coal  deposits.  He  has  been  professor  or 
forestry  at  Yale  since  1903  and  president 
of  the  National  Conservation  AssociatiOB 
since  Juiuary,,  1910. 


Finokney 

T>iTin1rn#v  (pink'ni),  Chables  Cvteb- 
fxuu&ucjr  wOBTH,   statesman,    was 
bom  at  Charleston,   South  Carolina,  in 
1746.     In    the    Revolutionary     war    he 
displayed  resolution  and  intrepidity,  and 
for  two  years  suffered  rigorous  confine- 
ment    In  1787  he  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  that  framed  the  Constitution. 
Washington    in    1795    offered    him    the 
place  of   Secretary  of   War,  and   after- 
wards   that    of    Secretary    of    State,    in 
his  cabinet,  both   of  which  he  declinwi. 
He  was  sent   to   France   as  minister  in 
1796,   and   met   a   suggestion  of   obtain- 
ing  certain   advantages    for   his  country 
by   bribery   with    the   striking   utterance, 
•  Millions   for  defense,  but  not  one  cent 
for  tribute.'     He  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  about  1798  and  was  a  candidate 
of  the  Federal  party,  with  John  Adams, 
for  the  presidency  in  1800,  but    /as  de- 
feated.    He  died  in  1825. 
Pin<1ar      (pin'd&r;  Pin'dabos),  the 
f  xuuax     greatest  of  the  lyric  poets  of 
Greece,    bom    in    Boeotia,    in    or    near 
Thebes,   of   a  noble    family,   about   522 
B.C.    At  an  early  age  he  was  instructed 
in   U'USJc   and   poetry;    and   for   the  de- 
velopment of  his  poetical  talent  he  was 
sent    to    Athens,    where    he    became    the 
pupil  of  Lasus  of  Hermione,  the  founder 
of   the   Athenian    school    of   dithyrambic 
poetry.     In    after-life    he    showed    him- 
self a  great  admirer  of  Athens  and  the 
Athenians,    who    rewarded    him    for    the 
honors  he  paid  to  them  by  making  him 
a    public   guest    of   the    city    and    giving 
him  a  present  of  10,000  drachmas,  and 
after  hw  death  erected  a  statue   in   his 
honor.     He  was  held  in  great  honor  by 
many  princes  of  Greek  states,  for  whc.^ 
he  composed  choral  songs,  and  had  close 
relations  with  Delphi.     Little   is   known 
with  certainty  of  his  life;  even  the  date 
of    his    death    is    doubtful.     The    most 
probable  account  appears  to  be  that  he 
died  at  the  age  of  eighty,  in  which  case 
his  death  would  fall  about  442  B.C.     He 
practiced   all   kinds  of   lyric  poetry,   and 
excelled  equally   in  all.     His   works  em- 
braced hymns  to  the  gods,  paeans,  dithy- 
rambs, dancing  and  drinking  songs,  dirges, 
panegyrics  on  princes,  and  odes  in  honor 
of  the  victors  in  the  great  Grecian  games, 
but   the   only   poems  of   his  which   have 
come  down  to  us  entire  belong  to  the  last 
class,    the    Epinicla.     Forty-five    of    the 
epinician  odes  of  Pindar  are  still  extant. 
Fourteen  of  these  are   in  celebration  of 
Olvmpic     victors,     twelve     of     Pythian, 
eleven    of   Nemaan,   and   eight   of    Isth- 
mian. 
p{j.  jgj    Pkibb.     See  Wolcott. 


Pine 

PinilflrcM  (pia'da-rte;  that  la,  freo- 
ruiUHiCCB  lootert),  the  name  given 
in  British  India  to  the  hordes  of 
mounted  robbers  who  for  several  years 
after  1812  infested  Central  India.  They 
were  descended  mostly  from  the  caste 
of  Mohammedan  warriors,  which  for- 
merly received  high  pay  from  the  In- 
dian princes,  and  they  were  secretly 
excited  by  the  Indian  tributaries  to  at- 
tack the  company.  In  1817  the  British 
governor-general,  the  Marquis  of  Hast- 
ings, determine^,  on  the  destruction  of 
^hese  robbers,  whose  force  was  estimated 
at  40,000  horse.  Attacked  on  all  sides, 
i:hey  were  conquered  and  dispersed.  Gar- 
■<8ons  were  placed  in  some  fortresses,  and 
the  native  states  of  the  infested  district 
were  formally  taken  under  British  pro- 
tection. 

Pind  Dadan  Khan,    ^o^'meSi 

town,  Jhelum  district,  Punjab,  British 
India,  near  the  north  bank  of  the 
Jhelum  River,  with  a  trade  in  salt.  Pop. 
13  770. 

Pi'iirl'Tia  (pin'dus),  the  ancient  name 
fiuuuB  jj£  jjjg  principal  mountain 
range  of  Northern  Greece,  forming  the 
watershed  of  the  country  and  the  boun- 
dary between  Thessaly  and  Epirus.  It 
was,  like  Helicon  and  Parnassus,  a  seat 

'  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 

"  ia  (pJn),  the  popular  name  of  trees 
***  of  the  genus  Pinua,  natural  order 
Coniferse,  which  is  divided  into  two 
suborders,  namely,  1.  Abietinew,  the  fir 
tribe;  and  2.  Cuprestinew,  the  cypref  j 
tribe.  The  pines  belong  to  the  former 
section,  and  are  distinguished  from  the 
spruce,  larch,  fir,  cedar,  etc.,  chiefly  by 
having  persistent  leaves  in  clusters  of 
two  to  five  in  the  axils  of  membranous 
scales.  All  the  European  species,  ex- 
cept P.  Cembra,  have  only  two  leaves  in 
a  sheath ;  most  of  the  Asiatic,  Mexican, 
and  California  kinds  have  three,  four, 
or  five  leaves,  and  those  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  have  generally 
three.  The  cones  also  afford  an  im- 
portant ready  means  of  distinction  and 
classification.     The    Scotch    pine    or    fir 

(P.  $ylvegtris)  is  a  tall,  straight,  hardy 
tree,  from  60  to  100  feet  high;  a  native 
of  most  parts  of  Europe,  flowering  in 
May  and  June,  and  having  many  vari- 
eties. There  are  extensive  forests  of  it 
in  Russia,  Poland,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Germanv,  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and 
the  Vofiges.  In  Scotland  it  grows  at  the 
height  of  2700  feet  on  the  Grampians. 
The  Corsican   pine    (P.   Larieio)    grows 

to  a  height  of  from  80  to  100  feet,  and 

in   tha  island  of  Corsica  it  it  said  to 


Pine 


Pine  Bluff 


reach   nn   altitude   of   140  to   150   fe3t. 
The     pinaster,     or     cluster     pine     (P. 

finaater),  is  indigenous  to  the  south  of 
Europe,  to  the  west  of  Asia,  the  Hima- 
layas, and,  it  seems,  even  to  China.  It 
is  a  large,  handsome,  pyramidal  tree, 
varying  from  40  to  (10  feet  in  height. 
Its  cones  point  upwards,  in  star-Tike 
clusters,  whence  the  name  of  pinaster 
or  star  pine.  In  France,  especially  be- 
tween Bayonne  and  Bordeaux,  it  covers 
immense  tracts  of  barren  sand,  in  which 
it  has  been  planted  to  prevent  the  sand 
from  drifting.  The  stone  pine  (P. 
pinea)  is  a  lofty  tree  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  where  it  is  a  native;  its  spread- 
ing head  forms  a  kind  of  parasol;  the 
trunk  is  50  or  (K)  feet  high,  and  clear  of 
branches.  Sabine's  pine  (P.  Sabini- 
ana)  was  discovered  in  California  in 
1826.  The  leaves  are  in  threes,  rarely 
in  fours,  from  11  to  l4  inches  long;  the 
trees  are  of  a  tapering  form,  straight, 
and  from  40  to  120  feet  high,  with 
trunks  from  3  to  12  feet  in  diameter. 
The  Cembran  pine  (P.  Cembra)  is  a 
native  of  Switzerland  and  Siberia.  The 
red  Canadian  pine  (P.  reainosa),  or 
yellow  pine,  inhabits  the  whole  of 
Canada  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pa- 
cific, and  is  also  found  in  the  northern 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States. 
The  trunk  rises  to  the  height  of  70  or 
80  feet  by  about  2  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its 
uniform  size  for  two-thirds  of  i,ts 
length.  The  wood  is  yellowish,  com- 
pact, fine-grained,  resinous,  and  durable. 
The  true  yellow  pine  (P.  variabilis) 
abounds  in  the  Atlantic  states  from  New 
Jersey  to  Virginia,  and  rises  to  the 
height  of  50  or  00  feet,  by  15  or  18 
inches  in  diameter  at  base.  The  cones 
ure  small,  oval,  and  armed  with  fine 
spines.  The  timber  is  largely  used  in 
shipbuilding  and  for  house  timber.  The 
white  pine  (P.  atrobua)  abounds  chiefly 
from  lat.  43°  to  47°  and  southward  to 
the  Alleghanies.  The  timber  is  not 
strong,  but  is  easily  wrought  and  dura- 
ble, and  its  timber  is  consumed  in  much 
greater  quantity  and  for  a  wider  variety 
of  purposes  than  any  other.  The  de- 
mand for  it  has  been  so  great  that  the 
former  great  white  pine  forests  are  al- 
most denuded.  The  Labrador  or  Banks's 
pine  (P.  Bankaiana)  is  usually  a  low, 
straggling  tree,  growing  among  barren 
rocks  to  a  height  of  from  5  to  8  feet, 
but  may  attain  three  times  that  height. 
The  cones  are  recurved  and  twisted, 
and  the  leaves  are  regularly  distributed 
over  the  branches.  In  Nova  Scotia  and 
the  state  of  Maine  it  is  known  as  the 
scrub  pine,  and  in  Canada  as  the  gray 


Sine.    The  other  American  pines  a.e  the 
ersey    •'•"'•    (P.   inopa),   the    trunk   of 
which  i  small  to  be  of  any  utility  ir 

the  ai  the  pitch  pine  (P.  rigida), 
which  i»  most  abundant  along  the  Atlan- 
tic coast,  and  the  wood  of  which,  when 
the  t:ee  grows  in  a  dry,  gravelly  soil,  is 
compact,  heavy,  and  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  resin;  the  loblolly  pine  (P. 
tada),  the  timber  of  which  decays  speed- 
ily on  being  exposed  to  the  air;  the 
long-leaved  pine  (P.  paluatria),  which 
abounds  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Caro- 
linas,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  furnishing 
resin,  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,  and 
timber  which  is  hardly  inferior  to  the 
white  oak  in  naval  architecture;  and 
Lambert's  pine  (P.  Latnbertiana) ,  which 
grows  between  the  fortieth  and  forty- 
third  parallels  of  latitude,  and  about 
100  miles  from  the  Pacific.  It  is  of 
gigantic  size,  the  trunk  rising  from  150 
to  upwards  of  200  feet,  and  being  from 
7  to  nearly  20  feet  in  diameter. 

Pineal  Gland  iP^'l:''P'J5,*/tf*: 

omy,  IS  a  body  (not 
properly  a  gland)  forming  part  of  the 
brain.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and 
is  connected  with  the  cerebrum  at  its  base 
by  four  peduncles  or  stalks  and  by 
some  few  cross-fibers.  Its  function  is  not 
known.  It  was  considered  by  the  an- 
cients to  be  the  seat  of  the  soul. 
Pi n Ao Ttnl A  (■A.nanaaaa  aativa) ,  a  xAsLut 
f  lucappic  belonging  to  the  nat.  order 
of  Bromeliacese,  much  esteemed  for  its 
richly-flavored  fruit, 
which  somewhat  re- 
sembles a  pine-cone. 
A  native  of  tropical 
America,  it  is  now 
naturalized  in  many 
hot  countries,  is 
grown  in  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  also 
cultivated  in  hot- 
houses. It  is  largely 
grown  in  Hawaii 
and  exported  in  the 
canned  state  to  the 
United  States.  The 
common  pineapple 
plant  yields  the  fiber 
of  which,  in  Manila, 
the  beautiful  pifia 
cloth  is  made.  (See 
Piila  Cloth.)  The 
fiber  Is  also  used  for 
textile  purposes  in 
China  and  India. 

Pine  Bluff  *  ^^^y-  capital  of  Jeffer- 
J-inc  Aiun,    g^,^  county,  ArkanwiB,  ia 

situated  on  the  Arkansas  River,  71  miles 


Pineapple  fruit. 


nne-chafer 


Pink 


aboT«  its  month.  It  i«  in  the  hMrt  of  th* 
principal  cotton  section  of  tht  state  and 
has  a  large  trade  in  cotton,  also  large 
railroad  soops,  woodworlcing  industries, 
iron  works,  etc.    Pop.  17,060. 

nne-cnaier,   jo,fc4p„,  pinipm-ia), 

a  species  of  beetle  which  infests  Scotch 

pines.    It  feeds  on  the  yonng  shoots  of 

these  trees   and   eats   its   way    into   the 

heart,  thus  eooTarting  the  shoot  into  a 

tube.  ,    , 

PlTlP-fiTlpTl  •'  Pine  -  GROSBEAK  (P<- 
rme-imcn,   ^-^^i^   ^j.    Pprrh&la   enu- 

cledtor),  a  genus  of  couiroatral  perching 
birds  or  Insessores,  belonging  to  the 
subfamily  of  the  bullfinches  (Pyrrhu- 
Una).  It  is  of  larger  size  than  the 
common  bullfinch,  and  measures  from 
8  to  9  inches  in  length.  It  occurs  in 
the  Arctic  and  northern  regions  of  both 
Old  and  New  Worlds.  It  is  more 
rarely  found  in  the  temperate  portions 
of  Europe.  Its  song  notes  are  agreea- 
ble, and  its  flesh  is  esteemed  in  Russia. 
Pi  tip!  (pS'nel),  Philippe,  the  Howard 
f  xuci  jjf  ^jjg  insane,  was  born  in  1745, 
at  St.  Andr«,  in  the  French  department 
of  Tarn,  and  studied  at  Toulouse  (where 
he  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1773)  and 
Montpellier.  In  1778  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  in  1791  came  into  notice  by  his 
treatise  8ur  I'Aliination  Mentale.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  made  directing 
physician  at  the  Bic€tre  and  in  1704  at 
SalpCtrifere.  By  his  writings  and  by  his 
management  of  these  two  asylums,  in 
which  he  introduced  the  humane  treat- 
ment of  the  insane,  Pinel  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  great  reform  that  has  been 
"ffected  in  treating  mental  diseases.  He 
<Jied  at  Paris  in  1826.  . 

Pin*  'TAaiii  a  i^csin  contained  m  the 
xiuc  icsiu,  jyjpg  ^hich  exudes  from 
pines,  firs,  and  other  coniferous  trees. 
These  resins  generally  contain  oxygen 
with  TOlatile  oils,  and  sometimes  acid 
bodies.  _. 

PiTiprn  (pi-n«'r5),  Arthttb  Wing, 
f  xiicxu  gptop  and  dramatist,  son  of  a 
solicitor,  was  born  in  London  in  1855, 
and  made  his  Mhut  upon  the  stage  at 
Edinburgh  in  1874,  subsequently  join- 
ing the  Lyceum  and  Haymarket  com- 
panies. He  is  the  author  of  several 
successful  plays,  including  The  Squire, 
Sweet  Lavender,  The  Second  Mrs. 
Tanqueray,  The  Princesa  and  the 
Bntt(^}!y,  etc. 

PiTiprnlft  (p6-na-r8'l6;  French,  Pig- 
rinerOiO  „grol),  an  ancient  city  of 
Italy,  province  of  Turin,  21  miles  south- 
west of  the  city  of  that  name,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Val  Clusone.  It  has  a 
eatliedral,  bishop's  palace,  lyceiim,  tecb- 


■iMl  Mhool,  etc.  The  mannfactnree  u« 
eUeiy  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  goods. 
It  belonged  to  Savoy  from  1042,  but  the 
French  held  it  for  a  series  of  years  on 
several  occasions ;  and  its  citadel  was  at 
one  time  the  prison  of  the  Man  with  the 
Iron  Mask.    Pop.  12,608. 

PiTiAxr  Tollftw  c*We^  '^'^  Malabar 
nney  laUOW,  tallow,  is  a  fatty 
substance  resembling  wax,  obtained  by 
boiling  with  water  the  fruit  of  the  Vate- 
ria  Indicfi,  a  tree  common  on  the  Malabar 
coast.    It  forms  excellent  candles. 

Piney  Varnisli,  \,^l^^  --^bu^ned 

from  two  trees  of  S.  India  and  Ceylon, 
Vateria  Indica  and  V.  acuminata.  It  is 
known  also  as  piney  resin,  white  dam- 
mar, and  Indian  coral,  and  is  got  by 
making  incisions  on  the  bark  of  the  tree 
•r  into  its  substance.  It  is  soluble  in 
turpentine  and  drying  oils. 
ViTicy  PA-no>  table  lawn-tennis,  in tro- 
nng  ron^,     ^^^^  fj^n,  England  to 

the  United  States  in  the  early  twentieth 
century  and  for  a  time  very  popular.  It 
is  played  in  a  room,  but  resembles  the 
regular  game  of  tennis. 

"Pineree     (p^o'er*):   Hazen   s.,   re- 

fXU^icc  former,  bom  at  Denmark. 
Maine,  in  1842 ;  died  in  1901.  He  served 
in  the  Civil  war;  engaged  in  the  shoe 
business  in  Detroit,  and  became  very 
Bua-essful.  Elected  mayor  of  Detroit  in 
1880.  on  the  Reform  ticket,  he  excited 
much  attention  by  his  opposition  to  street 
railway  methods,  and  instituted  an  inter- 
esting plan  for  employing  applicants  for 
charity.  He  was  elected  yovemor  of 
Michigan  in  1807,  and  again  in  1898. 

PiTumimlft  (pin-gwik'Q-la),  a  genus 
rm^UlCUia     ^^  p^^jg  ^j  ^^^  natural 

order  Lentibulariace«,  with  rosettes  of 
fleshy  radical  leaves,  and  solitary  purple, 
violet,  or  yellow  flowers.    See  Butterwort. 

Pi-no'-VaTio'  a  to'wn  o'  Korea,  on  the 
ring-  Xan^,     Ta-tong  River,  36  miles 

.nbove  its  mouth.  It  is  of  ^reat  antiquity 
and  is  surrounded  by  an  imposing  wall, 
but  is  open  to  trade.  Its  population  has 
latelv  much  increased,  and  is  now  about 
146,"'»00. 

Pin  inn  (pin'ynn),  in  machinery,  a 
miiLvu.  gmall  wheel  which  plays  in 
the  teeth  of  a  larger  one,  or  sometimes 
only  an  arbor  or  spindle  in  the  lx>dy  of 
which  are  several  notches  forming  teeth 
or  leaves,  which  catch  the  teeth  *4  a  wheel 
that  serves  to  turn  it  round. 
Pinir  (Dianthus),  a  genus  nf  plants 
^'■"■^  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Caryophyllace*.  More  than  1^0  species 
are  "known,  all,  with  perhaps  one  or  two 
exceptions,  natives  of  the  northern  and 


Piofliortoa 


IfiBooIe 


temperate  parts  of  the  European  conti* 
nent  Their  roota  are  annual  or  peren* 
Dial;  the  items  herbaceous  and  jointed; 
the  leaves  opposite  and  entire,  and  the 
flowers  terminal,  aggregate,  or  solitary, 
and  always  beautiful.  The  clove  pink  or 
carnation,  and  the  garden  pink,  of  which 
there   are   many   varieties,   are   familiar 

Pinkerton  <  PinTtftr-tun  ) ,  Aixan,  de- 
X-iimeriiUU  jgctive,  born  at  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  in  1819 ;  died  in  1884.  He  mi- 
grated to  Canada  in  1840  and  went  to 
Chicago  in  1850,  where  he  joined  the 
detective  department.  He  subsequently 
organised  the  detective  agency  which 
bears  his  name.  He  wrote  interesting 
stories  of  his  experiences  as  a  detective. 

PiiilrAr+r'.i  JOHN,  a  Scottish  anti- 
riUKSTl'iU.f    qji^jy^  j^p„  ^^  Edinburgh 

in  1758.  He  was  articled  to  a  writer 
to  the  signet,  but  in  1780  went  to  Lon- 
don to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and 
by  his  Letters  on  Literature  obtained  the 
acquaintance  of  Horace  Walpole.  His 
more  valuable  publications  are:  Ancient 
Scottith  Poems,  from  the  Manuscript 
Collection  of  Sir  Richard  Maitland  of 
Lethington,  with  Notes  and  a  Glossary 
(1786)  ;  inquiry  into  the  History  of 
Scotland  preceding  the  Reign  of  Malcolm 
II  or  1036  (1790),  containing  a  curious 
discussion  of  the  *  Pictlsb  question  *;  The 
Medattio  History  of  England;  Scottish 
Poems,  reprinted  from  scarce  editions; 
and  a  General  Collection  of  Vcyages  and 
Travels  in  19  large  volumes.  He  died 
at  Paris  in  1826. 

Pin.TnnnPir  b>^  annual  sum  of  money, 
rUL  money,  sometimes  provided  for 
in  a  marriage  settlemeut,  to  be  paid  by 
the  husband  to  the  wife  for  her  separate 
use,  and  to  be  applied  in  the  purchase 
of  apparel,  ornaments  for  her  person,  or 
for  private  expenditure. 
PiiiTin.  (pii^'a)*  or  WiNo  Shell,  a 
AAuiia  genus  of  Lamellibranchiate  Mol- 
lusca  included  in  the  family  Aviculidae. 
The  genus  is  ^presented  by  the  Pinna 
peotin&ta  of  the  British  coasts,  by  the 
P.  nobilis  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  by 
the  P.  bulMta,  P.  rudis,  P.  nifirlna,  and 
by  other  species.  Some  species  attain 
large  dimensions,  being  as  much  as  2 
feet  long.  The  'byssus,'  by  which  they 
adhere  to  rocks,  is  remarkably  long,  and 
of  strong,  silky  texture,  and  is  capable 
of  being  woven  into  cloth  upon  which  a 
very  high  value  is  set.  This  manufacture 
was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  still 
practiced  in  Italv  to  some  extent. 
Pintianck  (pin as),  a  small  vessel  used 
X-ianabe    ^j  ^^^      ^  53  equipped  with 

ttila  and  oars,  and  also  has  two  or 
^mt  maatt  wnich  ara  scbooner-risged. 


Pinnacle,  Trin- 
ity Church, 
Cambridge. 


One  of  tb«  boats  of  a  man- 
of-war,  used  to  carry  the 
oflBcers  to  and  from  the 
shore.  Is  also  called  the 
pinnace.  It  is  usually  rowed 
with  eight  oars. 

Pinnacle  ^p'WV  '° 

*  architecture, 

any    lesser   structure    that 
rises  above  the  roof  of  a 
building,  or  that  caps  and 
terminates  the  higher  parts 
of  angles  or  of  buttresses. 
The  application  of  the  term 
is    now    generally    limited 
to  an   ornamental  pointed 
mass    rising    from    angles, 
buttresses,    or    parapets, 
and   usually  adorned   with 
rich    and    varied    devices. 
They  are  usually  square  in 
plan,    but    are    sometimes 
octagonal,  and  in  a  few  in- 
stances hexagonal  and  pen- 
tagonal.   The  tops  are  gen- 
erally crocketed,  and  have 
finials  on  the  points. 
PinnatA     (pin'&t),  in  botany,  formed 
Xmuaie     jN^^    ^    feather.    A    pinnate 
leaf  is  a  species  of  compound  leaf        M 
wherein  a  single  petiole  has  sev-     ^  y 
eral  leaflets  or  pinnules  attached    ^  ^ 
to  either  side  of  it.  ^  ^ 

Pinnated  Grouse,  ^°own  ^^ 

the  prairie  hen,  or  prairie 
chicken,  a  common  game  bird  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  north  of 
Louisiana.  The  male  is  remark- 
able as  possessing  two  erectile  pinnate 
tufts  in  the  nape,  and  aa  air  Leaf, 
bladder  (connected  with  the 
windpipe,  and  capable  of  inflation)  on 
each  side  of  the  neck,  in  color  and  shape 
resembling  small  oranges;  general  plum- 
age brown,  mottled  with  a  darker  shade. 
PinniflTftdft  (Pin-i-gra'da),  or  PiN- 
rmm^raua,  uipedia,  a  section  of  the 
carnivorous  order  of  mammals,  in  which 
the  fore  and  hind  legs  are  short,  and  are 
expanded  into  broad-webbed  swimming 
paddles.  The  section  comprises  the  seals 
and  walruses. 

Pinocle  Pinochle  (pin'o-kl),  a  card 
■*  >    game  resembling  the  French 

game  of  bezique,  of  late  years  very  pop- 
ular in  sections  of  this  country.  It  is 
usually  played  with  parts  of  two  packs 
of  cards,  from  the  nir  es  to  the  aces,  or 
more  recently  from  the  sevens.  The  val- 
ues range  as  follows:  Ace,  ten,  king, 
queen,  knave,  and  nine.  Game  is  counted 
by  marriages  (king  and  queen  of  one 
suit),  fours  (aces,  kings,  etc.),  pinocle 
^oueen    of   spades    and    Knave    ol   dU' 


Finof 


PiolTeen 


monds),  deuce  (nine  of  trumps),  and  by 
trump  sequence  (knave  to  ace).  Bach 
of  tneee  counts  has  its  special  value. 
Game  is  also  counted  from  triclis  takeu, 
eacli  ten,  ace,  and  king  counting  ten 
points.  When  played  by  three  or  more 
players,  the  melds  or  counts  are  declared 
before  the  play  begins. 
PinOS     ^^^^  "'^    ^^  ^'^  ^  PinoB, 

Pin  sir  ^  t*'^''  o'  Western  Russia,  in 
fxusa,,  the  government  of  Minsk,  on 
the  navigable  river  Pina.  It  stands 
among  marshes,  and  is  built  of  wood.  It 
has  an  active  transit  trade.  Pop.  28,028. 
—  The  Pinsk  Marshes,  which  cover  an 
immense  extent  of  country,  are  now  in 
process  of  being  drained. 
Jii-nf  (pint),  a  measure  of  capacity 
**"•'  used  for  both  liquids  and  dry 
goods;  it  is  the  eighth  part  of  a  gallon, 
or  34.G5925  cubic  inches.  The  Scotch 
pint  was  equal  to  3.0065  imperial  pints. 
Pintado.      ^*«  Ouinea-fowl. 

PiTi+ftil  "DnpTr  *  ^enus  of  ducks,  so 
rmiaii  XTUCK,    named  from  the 

elongated  form  of  the  tail-feathers.  In 
size  the  common  pintail  duck  (Daflla 
acuta)  is  equal  to  the  mallard.  These 
birds  are  common  to  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  and  they  occur  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coasts,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  in 
the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  in  Africa. 
They  breed  in  confinement,  and  the  flesh 
is  savory.  ^  _ 

"PiTitft  (p6n't5),  Majob  Sebpa,  a  Por- 
f  xubu  tuguese  traveler,  born  in  1846, 
rnd  educated  at  the  Royal  Military  Col- 
lege, Lisbon;  entered  the  Portuguese 
army  in  1863.  In  1877-79  he  crossed 
Africa  from  Benguela  to  Durban,  and 
described  his  journey  in  a  work  entitled 
How  I  Created  Africa  (London,  1881), 
which  procured  him  many  honors,  espe- 
cially from  geographical  societies.  He 
has  led  several  exploring  expeditions, 
and  his  proceedings  m  the  Zambesi  dis- 
trict led  in  1890  to  a  vigorous  and  suc- 
cessful protest  by  Britain  against  the 
claims  of  Portugal  in  that  quarter. 

PintnriccMo  fP'^fi^StS'^),  ?^ 


frMcoea  by  him  In  the  Buffallni  Cbapd 
of  the  Church  of  St.  Maria  in  Araccli, 
Rome.  He  left  many  exquisite  altar- 
pieces  and  other  works  in  tempera;  be 
never  painted  in  oiL 
Pinna.     SeeWne. 

Pinzon  (P*n-thon'),  a  family  of 
f  AUAUii  spaniah  navigators,  natives  of 
Palos,  who  were  associated  with  Colum- 
bus in  tne  discovery  of  America. —  Mar- 
tin Alfonso,  the  eldest,  was  of  great 
assistance  to  Columbus  in  fitting  out  his 
fleet,  and  in  the  voyaae  commanded  the 
Pinta. —  Vicente  Yanbz,  bis  brother, 
commanded  the  NiHa  in  the  first  voyage 
of  Columbus. —  Francisco  Martin,  the 
third  brother,  was  pilot  of  the  Pinta  in 
the  first  voyage  of  Columbus.  From 
him  descended  the  noble  Spanish  family 
of  Pinzon. 

PinmhiTin  (p«-«m-be'no),  a  town  of 
nomomO  l^^  province  of  Pisa,  on 
the  seacoast  opposite  the  island  of  Elba. 
It  has  old  fortifications,  a  good  harbor, 
and  manufactures  of  Bessemer  steel  and 
military  projectiles.  Pop.  5979.  Piom- 
bino  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  small 
principality. 

PinmhA  (p8-om'b6),  Sebastiano 
nomOO  iJ^ciANi  del,  a  celebrated 
painter,  born  at  Venice  in  14&5.  He 
studied  under  Giovanni  Bellini  and  Gior- 
gione,  whose  fine  coloring  he  imitated. 
Coming  to  Rome  about  1512,  he  was 
induced  by  Michael  Angelo  to  enter  into 
rivalry  with  Raphael.  When  Raphael 
painted  his  celebrated  Traiufiguratum, 
Sebastiano  attempted  to  surpass  it  bv 
painting  the  Raising  of  Lazaru$,  which 
is  considered  bis  greatest  work,  and  is 
now  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 
Other  important  works  are  The  Soourg- 
ing  of  Our  Lord,  and  A  Holy  FamUv. 
His  chief  merit,  however,  lay  in  single 
figures  and  portraits,  such  as  his  Clement 
VII.  He  was  high  in  favor  with 
Clement,  who  created  him  keeper  of  the 
papal  seals.  From  this  circumstance  he 
derived  his  surname  Del  Piombo,  the 
seals  attached  to  the  papal  bulls  being 
at  that  time  of  lead  (.ptombo).  He  died 
in  1547.  He  preferred  oil  painting  to 
fresco,  and  some  of  his  later  works  are 
executed  on  slate. 


eminent  Italian  painter  of  the  Umbrian 

school,   whose   real   name   was    Bernab- --  ,  w..    _    _♦ 

WNO  Di  Betto,  was  bom  at  Perugia  in  PioneerS  (P^j"-*»*'*  ''  laborers  at- 
1454;  died  at  Siena  in  1513.  He  ■^A""««*'»  tached  to  an  anny  for  the 
lived  for  a  time  at  Rome,  and  while 
there  was  ensaged  on  the  frescoes  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel,  being  at  this  time 
under  the  influence  of  Perugino.  His 
chief  work  was  a  series  of  mural  paint- 
ings illuatrating  the  life  of  Pope  Pius 
II  (JSneas  Silvius),  in  the  cathedral 
libnsy  at  Siena.    Tban  aw  •!«>  fia* 


makmg  and  repairing  of  roads,  digging 
trenches,  and  preserving  cleanliness  in 
the  camp  when  stationary,  etc.  A  num- 
ber of  men  are  now  attached  to  each 
corps  as  a  permanent  l>odv  of  pioneers. 
In  a  general  sense  the  worn  is  applied  t« 
all  those  who  precede  others  in  any  tn- 
tecpriM. 


Piotrkov 


Pipe 


PfftfrlrAT*    (pyotr'kttf),  a  town  of  Roi- 
jnOirKOV    ;^'n  Poland  In  the  govern- 


l!       i 


f 


ment  of  same  name,  one  of  the  oldeat 
towns  of  Poland.  It  waa  at  one  time 
the  Beat  of  the  Poligh  diet,  and  the  kinn 
were  elocteil  here.  Pop.  41jl81. — The 
overnment  haa  an  area  of  4729  aq.  mllea. 
_t  is  moderately  fertile,  and  has  couaid- 
erable  manufactures  of  cottons  and  wool- 
ens. Pop.  1.400,051. 
PiA77i  (p^oa'e)>  Hester  Ltnch  Sai.- 
*******  U3BURY,  an  English  authoress, 
the  daughter  of  John  Salusbury  of  Bod- 
ville,  Carnarvonshire,  was  probably  born 
in  1741;  died  at  Clifton  in  1821.  Early 
in  life  she  was  distinguished  by  her 
beauty  and  accomplishments.  In  17(S3 
she  was  married  to  Henry  Thrale.  a 
wealthy  brewer  of  South wark,  London, 
which  borough  he  then  represented  in 
parliament.  Roon  after  her  marriage 
she  gathered  round  her  a  brilliant  circle, 
including  above  all  Dr.  Johnson,  who 
lived  with  the  Thrales  for  sixteen  years. 
Mr.  Thrale  dying  in  1781,  his  widow, 
who  was  the  mother  of  four  daughters, 
married  in  1784  Pio/zi,  a  Florentine  mu- 
sic-master, then  resident  in  Bath.  This 
alliance  was  keenly  resented  by  all  her 
friends,  and  Johnson  entirely  gave  up  her 
society.  Her  Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Johnson 
appeared  in  178U,  and  her  Letters  to 
and  from  Dr.  Johnson  in  1788.  She 
also  wrote  a  few  poems,  an  autobiog- 
raphy, etc. 

Pina  (Pl'P<i)<  a  genus  of  toads,  of 
**r*"'  which  tlie  best  known  species  is 
the  Pipa  Americana  of  Surinam  and 
Brazil,  popularly  designated  the  Surinam 
toad.  The  tongue  and  teeth  are  wanting 
in  this  family.    The  pipa  is  one  of  the 


Pipa  Toad  (P.  surinatnensis), 

most  repulsive  looking  of  the  toads,  and 
is  noted  as  exemplifying,  in  the  case  of 
the  female  animals,  an  anomalous  mode 
of  developing  the  eggs  aud  young.  A 
number  of  pits  or  depressions  termed 
'  dorsal  cells '  appear  to  be  formed  on 
the  back  of  the  female  pipas  at  the  breed- 
ing season.  In  each  cell  an  egg  is  de- 
posited, the  eggs  l>eins  fii'st  deposited  by 


the  female  in  water  after  the  usual 
method,  and  being  impregnated  by  the 
male,  who  then  collects  the  eggs  and 
places  them  in  the  female's  back.  Eacli 
cell  appears  to  be  cIoHed  by  a  lid-like 
fold,  aud  within  the  cells  the  eggs  are 
hatchod  and  the  young  pass  their  tad- 
pole state. 

Pine  (P'P^>  ^  wint  meafi're,  usually 
*  "^  containing  very  nearly  105  im- 
perial or  120  wine  gallons.  Two  pipes 
or  210  imperial  gallons  make  rf  tun.  In 
practice,  however,  the  size  of  the  pipe 
varies  according  to  the  kind  of  wine  it 
contains.  Tlius  n  pipe  of  port  contains 
(about^  138  wine-gallons;  of  slierry,  130; 
of  Madeira,  110,  etc. 
PlTIP  •*  *"'•*  ^°^  *''®  conveyance  of 
■'*r^>  water,  steam,  gas,  or  other  fluid, 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes  in 
the  arts  and  in  domestic  economy.  The 
materials  of  which  pipes  are  made  are 
also  very  various,  wood,  stone,  earthen- 
ware, iron,  lend,  copper,  leather,  gutta- 
percha, etc.,  being  nil  employetl.  Drain- 
age and  sewerage  pipes  of  great  strength 
and  size  (measuring  from  1  or  2  up  to 
54  inches  in  diameter)  are  now  usually 
made  of  fire-clay,  glazed  on  their  outer 
and  inner  surfaces.  Large  iron  pipes 
are  usually  cast,  and  are  used  for  the 
supply  of  water  and  gas. 
pi«p  Tobacco,  a  bowl  and  connecting 
x^i^ic,  tube,  made  of  baked  clay,  wood, 
stone,  or  other  material,  and  used  in 
smoking  tobacco.  The  chief  processes  in 
the  manufacture  of  clay  pipes  are  mold- 
ing and  baking.  Finer  and  more  expen- 
sive pipes  are  made  of  meerschaum,  a 
somewhat  plastic  magnesian  stone  of  a 
soft,  greasy  feel.  Meerschaum  pipe  mak- 
ing is  carried  on  to  the  greatest  extent 
by  the  Ge.-mans,  and  Vienna  may  be  said 
to  be  the  ceuier  of  the  manufacture. 
Sometimes  the  bowl  alone  (which  is  fre- 
quently artistically  carved)  is  of  meer- 
schaum, the  stem  being  of  wood,  the 
best  sorts  of  which  are  got  from  the 
young  stems  of  the  Mahaleb  cherry, 
grown  near  Vienna,  the  mock  orange  of 
Hungary,  and  the  jessamine  sticks  of 
Turkey.  The  stem,  whetlier  of  the  same 
material  as  the  bowl  or  of  wood,  is 
usually  proiided  with  a  mouthpiece  of 
ivory,  silver,  ov  amber,  the  last  being 
preferred.  Briar-root  pipes,  with  the 
bowl  and  stem  of  one  piece  of  wood,  and 
provided  with  amber,  ivory,  or  bone 
mouthpieces,  are  now  very  common. 
They  are  made  of  the  roots  of  a  large 
i. variety  of  heath  (Fr.  hruy^re).  Corn-coO 
pipes,  made  trom  the  ears  of  maize,  have 
attained  wide  popularity  in  America. 
Pipes  with  painted  porcelain  bowls  arc  fa- 
vorites iu  northern  Europe.    The  Eastern 


Pipe-clay 


Pipit 


botAah  it  a  pip«  of  treat  sise,  th«  bowl 
of  which  U  Mt  upon  an  air-tight  vew«I 
partially  filled  with  water,  and  has  a 
■mall  tube  which  passes  down  into  the 
water.  The  long  flexible  smoking-tube  is 
inserted  in ,  the  side  of  the  vessel,  and 
the  smoke  is  made  to  pass  through  the 
water,  being  thus  cooled  and  deprived 
of  some  noxious  properties.  lTi>on  the 
American  continent  pipes  hnve  been  in 
use  from  a  very  remote  poriml.  Indian 
pipes,  with  elaborately  carved  soopstone 
bowls  and  ornamented  wooden  stems,  or 
entirely  of  baked  clay,  have  been  found 
in  the  ancient  mounds  of  the  West,  to- 
gether with  other  relics  of  an  unknown 
race.     See  Calumet. 

piTVA.n1aY  '^  '^"^  white  clay  which  is 
*  i^  ''  used  for  making  tobacco 
pipes  and  articles  of  pottery,  also  for 
cleaning  soldiers'  belts,  etc.  See  Clay 
and  Pipe  (Tobacco). 
Pipe-fishes  (/*wngno*fttt»).  a  genus 
•r*"  "•»•"*'»  of  fishes  included  in  the 
suborder  Lophobranchii  and  nearly  allied 
to  the  curious  little  fishes  popularly 
known  as  '  sea-horses  '  ( see  Hippocam- 
put).  They  are  distinguished  by  a  long 
and  tapering  body,  and  by  jaws  united 
to  form  a  tube  or  pipe,  bearing  the  mouth 
ot  the  tip.  The  Syngnaihui  ncnn  is  one 
of  the  most  familiar  species.  It  averages 
2U  inches  in  length.  The  largest  of  the 
pApe-fishes  is  said  to  attain  a  length  of 
3  feet.  A  very  remarkable  circumstance 
in  connectiun  with  the  pipe-fishes  consists 


Great  Pipe-fish  {Syngnalhu*  oe«*). 


in  the  males  of  some  species  possessing  a 
pouch-like  fold,  situated  at  the  base  of 
the  tail,  in  which  the  eggs  are  contaiued 
after  being  extruded  from  the  body  of  the 
females,  and  in  which  the  young,  after 
hatching,  continue  to  reside  for  a  time. 
The  name  pipe-fish  is  also  applied  to  the 
members  of  the  genus  Fiatularia,  included 
in  the  Acanthopterous  division  of  the 
Teleostei.  The  bones  of  the  face  are  pro- 
longed to  form  a  tubular  structure,  at 
the  extremity  of  which  the  mouth  o^ens. 
The  Fistularia  tabacaria  of  the  Antilles, 
averaging  about  3  feet  in  length,  repre- 
sents this  genus. 

Piperaceee  (pi-p^r-a'se-s),  the  pep- 

*  r***  *'*'**'  pers,  a  natural  order  ■ot 
shrubby  or  herbaceous  exogenous  plants, 
inhabiting  the  hottest  parts  of  the  globe, 


particularly  India  and  Sooth  America. 
The  general  propertlM  of  the  order  are 
aromatic,  pungent,  and  atimolant.  The 
dried  unripe  fruits  of  Piper  nigrum  con- 
stitute black  pepper.  {See  Pepper.) 
The  fruit  ef  Cubeba  offiotnAlit,  a  climb- 
ing plant  of  Java  and  other  Indian 
islands,  is  the  Cubeb  pepper.  (See 
CubebB.)  The  leaves  and  unripe  fruit 
of  Piper  anifUBtifoUum  constitute  the 
aromatic,  fragrant,  and  astringent  sub- 
stance called  matico  or  matica,  which  has 
l)een  recommended  for  checking  hemor- 
rhage. The  leaves  of  Piper  Bctlc  (C*o- 
vica  Betle)  are  chewed  in  the  East  as 
a  means  of  intoxication.  (See  Betel.) 
The  root  of  Maorop\per  methytUcum  is 
the  kttva  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders,  and 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  stimu- 
lating beverage. 

Pinette    (P>'P®t')>  i^°  instrument  used 
^  by    chemists,    druggists,    etc., 

consisting  of  a  glass  tube  with  a  bulging 
expansion  about  the  middle,  into  which  a 
certain  quantity  of  li(|nid  may  be  sucked 
by  the  mouth  or  a  rubber  bulb,  so  as  to 
be  transferred  from  one  vessel  to  another. 

PiniTiir  fIrft'WT  *  bird  of  New  South 
ripiajs  v.ruw,  ^^,       remarkable  for 

its  musical  powers,  and  for  its  power 
of  mimicing  the  voices  of,  other  nirda. 
It  is  the  Barita  tibicen.  and  by  some 
naturalists  is  placed  among  the  shrikes 
(Laniidae),  by  others  among  the  crows 
(Corvidse). 

Pimatrelle  (plp-ls'trel;  Te$pcrtaio 
X-ipiSircue  piplgtreUa),  the  familiar 
little  bat  which  makes  its  appearance 
and  flits  about  during  twilight.  It  is 
of  small  size,  and  possesses  a  mouse-like 
body  covered  with  hnir,  from  which  re- 
semblance its  popular  name  of  Flitter- 
mouse  has  been  derived.  It  passes  the 
winter,  like  most  other  bats,  in  a  state 
of  torpidity;  but  appears  to  hibernate 
for  a  shorter  period  than  other  and 
larger  species. 

Pimt  (P»P''0,  or  TiTLABK  (Anthut), 
t^  "  a  genus  of  perching  birds  pos- 
sessing striking  affinities  with  the  larks, 
which  they  resemble  in  the  large  size 
of  the  binder  claw,  but  commonly  classed 
with  the  wagtails,  which  they  closely 
resemble  in  their  habits  of  running 
swiftly  on  the  ground.  The  meadow 
pipit  or  titlark  (Anthua  pratensia)  is 
the  commonest  British  species.  The 
shore  pipit,  or  rock  lark  (A.  petrdtua), 
fretjuents  the  sea-beach,  and  feeds  on 
molluscs  and  Crustacea.  The  tree  pipit 
or  titlark  (Anthua  arboriua)  is  a  sum- 
mer visitant  only  in  the  British  Isles. 
All  the  pipits  build  their  nests  en  the 
ground.  The  song  in  all  caasists  of  a 
cleav,  simple  note.    The  Anthut  ludori- 


Pippin 


Piranesi 


flfCMM,    6    t»    T   llMhM    l«Bf,    te   eOWBtOO 

In  North  Ajneriea. 

Piirain      (p1p''»).  tl>«  name  given  to 
*^*^  a  certain  class  of  dessert  ap- 

ples,   probably    because    the   trees    were 
raised  from  the  pips  or  seeds,  nod  bore 


the  apples  which  save  them  celebrity 
without  grafting,  llie  Ribston,  Golden, 
and  Newton  pippins  are  favorite  varie- 
ties,  well   Itnown   in  the  United  States. 

Pippin.   ***«  ^^p*"- 

Pinra  (P'p'ra).  a  genus  o^  passerine 
**F*»  birds  which  inhabit  South 
America.  See  Manaki». 
Piana  (pik'wA),  a  city  of  Miami 
**'!•»»  county,  Ohio,  on  Miami  River, 
and  Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  00  miles 
northeast  of  Cincinnati.  It  has  manu- 
factures  of  flour,  shafts,  furniture,  sheet- 
steel  and  tin-plate,  corrugated  iron,  straw 
board,  etc.  Pop.  13,388. 
Pianet  (p'-^et').  a  game  at  cards 
*  played    between    two    persons 

with  thirty-two  cards,  all  the  plain  cards 
below  seven  being  thrown  aside.  In 
piaying,  the  cards  ranlc  in  order  as  fol- 
lows: the  ace  (which  counts  eleven), 
the  king,  queen,  and  knave  (each  of 
which  counts  ten),  and  the  plain  cards, 
each  r,f  which  counts  according  to  the 
numb.-c  jf  its  pips.  The  player  who  flrst 
reaches  100  has  the  game.  The  score  is 
made  up  by  reckoning  in  the  following 
manner :  —  Carte  blanche,  the  point,  the 
sequence,  the  quatorze,  the  cards,  and 
the  capot.  Carte  blanche  is  a  band  of 
twelve  rlain  cards,  and  counts  ten  for 
the  player  who  holds  it.  The  point  is 
the  suit  of  highest  value,  the  value  being 
determined  by  the  number  it  makes  up 
when  the  cards  held  are  added  together. 
The  sequence  is  composed  of  a  regular 
succession  of  cards  in  one  suit.  i?he 
quatorze  is  composed  of  four  aces,  four 
kings,  four  queens,  four  knaves,  or  four 
tens,  and  counts  fourteen.  The  winner 
of  the  greatest  number  of  tricks  counts 
ten  in  addition  (the  '  cards  ')  ;  if  he  holds 
all  the  tricks  he  counts  forty  in  addition 
(the  capot').  If  a  player  scores  twen- 
ty-nine in  hand  and  one  for  the  card  he 
leads,  t)efore  his  opponent  counts  any- 
thing, he  at  once  adds  thirtv  to  his 
score;  this  is  called  'pique.'  Should  a 
player  score  thirty  by  the  cards  in  his 
hand,  by  scores  that  reckon  in  order 
before  bis  adversary  can  count,  he  ob- 
tains the  •  repique,*  which  enables  him 
to  add  sixty  to  his  score.  The  scores 
are  recorded  according  to  the  followine 
table  of  precedence :  1,  carte  blanche ;  2, 
point;  3,  sequences;  4.  quatorzes  and 
tri(»;  0,  points  made  in  play;  and  6,  the 
cards.    If  one  player  scores  a  buadred 


btfort  ths  ether  obttiaa  fifty  h«  wins 
•  doabla. 

Pian^-work  Z^.^*')*  •  ^n*  ^'"^  <>' 

r  vt  r  ,  \'  *°'*'<'  wo'k,  resembling 
buhl-work  (which  see),  but  much  more 
expensive  and  elaborate,  the  inlay  being 
minute  pieces  of  gold,  silver,  and  other 
costly  materials. 

PiraOV    (P''™-"I).   those  acts   of  rob- 
. ,  /^  ^    bery  and  depredation  upon  the 
high  seas,  or  other  places  where  the  ad- 
miralty has  jurisdiction,  which,  if  com- 
mitted upon  land,  would  have  amountet! 
to  felony  only.     This  is  substantially  the 
definition  of  this  offense  by  the  law  of  the 
nations,    which,    on   conviction,    is   pun- 
ished with  death  in   the  United  States, 
and  generally  in  other  civilized  countriee 
It    is   an   offense  against   the    universal 
law  of  society,  a  pirate  being,  according 
to  Coke,   hoatia  humani  generit.     Piracy 
in  the  common  sense  of  the  word  is  dis- 
tinguished from  privateering  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  pirate  sails  without 
any  commission,  ana  under  no  national 
flag,  and  attacks  the  subjects  of  all  na- 
tions alike;    the  privateer  acts   under  a 
commission    from    a    belligerent    power, 
which  authorizes  him  to  attack,  plunder, 
and   destroy   the  vessels   which   ne  may 
encounter  belonging  to  the  hostile  state. 
Piracy   has   existed    from   a   very    early 
period,  being  considered  a  reputable  pur- 
suit by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Phoeni- 
cians.   It  continued  until   the  last  cen- 
tury,  when    it   was   commonly    practiced 
by  the  Algerians  and  other  north  African 
sea-rovers.     It   now   exists   only   in   Chi- 
nese and  Malayan  waters. 

PirsenS     (P'-re'us;    Greek,    Peiraieut), 
,  the  principal  port  of  both  an- 

cient and  modem  Athens,  is  situated 
about  6  miles  from  that  city,  on  a  pen- 
insula. It  has  three  harbors:  two  on 
the  east  side,  anciently  named  Zea  (now 
Stratiotiki)  and  Munychia  (now  Pha- 
nari),  and  one  on  the  west  side,  called 
simply  Pineus,  or  the  Harbor,  the  largest 
of  the  three.  The  Piraeus  was  anciently 
connected  with  Athens  by  walls  known 
ns  the  Long  Walls.  When  Greece  was 
liberated  from  Turkish  rule  the  Pirseus 
was  merely  a  scene  of  ruins.  Since  then 
a  flourishing  industrial  and  trading  town 
has  grown  up,  which  is  connected  with 
Athens  by  a  railway.  Pop.  42,107. 
Pirai  "  Pirata  (pl-ra'ya),  the  8er- 
'  ragaltno  Piraya,  a  voracious 
fresh-water  fish  of  iroijieal  America.  It 
is  3  or  4  feet  in  length,  and  its  jaws  are 
armed  with  sharp,  lancet-shaped  teeth, 
from  which  cattle  when  fording  rivers 
sometimes  suffer  terribly. 
Piranesi  ip*-n-U.'a»),  Giovanni 
"  "   BAMWTA,  tax  Italian  arcbi- 


Pirano 


I 


tect,  engrawr,  and  tntiquarr,  waa  bom 

nt  Venice  in  1720,  hut  paswd  the  grsater 

part  of  tiis  life  at  Rome.     His  chief  work, 

the  Antiquitiei  of  Rome,  waa  in  20  Tola., 

with    about    2000    copper    platen    givinx 

viewa  of   Rome  and   its  buildinga.     Ilia 

repreaentations  arc  not  nlwaya  faithful, 

on  account  of  the  Rcope  which  he  gave  to 

hi*  imagination.     He  died  in  1778. 

PirB.no  (P^ril'nA).  an  Auittrinn  aea- 
ciiauw    pQpj  |,j   igtrin^  nenr  ti,e  head 

of  the  Adriatic,  13  miJea  aouthwcst  of 
Trieste.  There  is  good  anchorage  for  the 
largest  vessels  in  the  weil^sheltered  road- 
stead.  The  principal  objects  of  com- 
nerce  are  wine  and  olive-oil.  Pop. 
13,380. 

P{rTnfi.«»Tii>  (p*r'mii-sena),  a  town  of 
rirmaBeUB  Bavaria,  in  the  Paiati- 
aate,  22  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  Landau.     It  is 


Optra,  and  bla  flnt  piece  tc^s  Arl^win 
DeneaUon,  compoaed   in  two  days.    Hhi 


anccesa  induced  bim  to  persevere,  and 
after  writing  several  pieces,  he  produced 
in  1738  his  jUcJ-d'auvre,  JUitromanie,  a 
comedy  which  Lahurpe  elm raot crises  as 
excelling  in  plot,  style,  humor,  and  vivac- 
ity almost  every  other  composition  of 
the  kind.  Piron  afterwards  wrote  F^- 
nand  I'ortea,  a  tragic  drnma,  and  some 
otiier  pieces,  which  obtained  some  success. 
He  died  in  1773. 

PlBA  (P^'zA;  the  ancient  I'ita),  a 
**••  town  of  Northern  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  0 
miles  from  thn  Mediterranean,  and  44 
miles  west  of  Florrnee,  on  both  banks  of 
the  Arno,  here  crossod  l)y  three  mtone 
bridges  for  general  traffic,  and  one  carry- 
ing  the   railway.     It    is   surrounded    by 


Baptisterjr,  Cathedral,  and  Campanile,  Pita. 


well  built,  has  a  good  town-house  and 
manufactures  of  shoes,  musical  instru- 
ments, leather,  machinery,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)  38.4*53. 

PiTTia  (P*rna>,  a  town  of  Saxony,  10 
til  iio.  miiea  ffoni  Dresden,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Elbe.  It  has  manufactures 
of  stoneware,  chemicals,  cigars,  beer,  etc., 
and  a  eonaiderable  trade  on  the  Elbe. 
Pop.  (1910)  21,035. 

Piron  (P^f09),  Alexis,  a  French  wit, 
AXAvu  pogj^  j^jj^  dramatist,  bom  at 
Dijon  in  1689.  He  studied  law  at  Be- 
sancon;  but  having  gone  to  Paris  he 
wrote    for    the    Thaater   ot    tbe   Oomio 


walls  and  ditches,  and  defended  by  a  cita- 
del, the  fortified  circuit  having  a  length 
of  nearly  6  miles,  much  of  the  spare 
inclosed  being  unoccupied.  The  river  is 
lined  by  handsome  quays  on  both  sides 
(known  as  the  Lungamo)  ;  the  streets 
are  spacious  and  well  paved;  and  the 
houses  are  remarkable  for  the  profusion 
with  which  marble  has  been  employed  in 
their  construction.  In  the  northwestern 
part  of  tbe  city  is  a  remarkable  group 
of  buildings  consisting  of  the  Duomo  or 
Cathedra],  the  Baptistery,  the  famous 
•Leaning  Tower,'  an4  tbe  Campo  Santo. 
The  Oatbadnl.  begun  in   HNB,   ooase- 


PiM 


Piidoiiltim 


!'*■• 


crated  in  1118.  i«  od«  of  th«  noblMt  eocl^ 
•iMticiiI  Ktructures  of  Italy,  built  of 
nurblc,  in  the  form  of  h  basilica,  with 
•  rick  facade  aud  a  dome  of  t)«<.'uiiar 
■bapo;  the  Baptistery,  begun  in  IIK)  and 
liniabed  in  1278,  it  a  larico  rotunda, 
adorned  externally  by  a  tt^riea  of  arcudea 
with  decorated  cauuniea,  aud  crowned  by 
a  dome  of  pei-uliur  Jeaign,  lUO  feet  high: 
the  Campanile,  or  '  Leaning  Tower,'  ia  of 
cylindrical  abapc,  built  of  white  uiarble, 
and  baa  the  whole  exterior  enriched  by 
a  auGceasion  of  arcades  extending  from 
baae  to  aummit:  its  height  is  17l>  feet, 
and  it  deviates  13  feet  from  the  per- 
pendicular. The  CamiM)  8nnto,  or  ceme- 
tery, is  the  most  remarkable  structure  of 
the  kind  in  exiiitcnce,  consisting  of  a 
court  surrounded  by  arcadoM  of  white 
marble,  adorned  with  ttculpturea  und 
freacoes,  by  the  earlier  Italian  uiastorf, 
and  full  of  remarkable  monumentfc. 
Other  eilifices  are  the  town-houxe  (Pa- 
lazzo del  Commune)  ;  the  courthouse 
(Palazzo  Prctorio)  :  and  the  university, 
ancieutly  famous,  and  still  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  Italy.  The  manufac- 
tures consist  chiefly  of  silk,  woolen,  and 
cotton  gooilfl.  The  populni  )n,  which 
reached  150,(KM»  —hen  the  .  ,ty  was  in 
ita  zenith,  is  now  only  )Mi.4.'12.  The 
province  of  Pisa  has  an  area  of  1180 
twiuare  miles,  and  a  population  of  320,- 
820. —  Pisa  wan  an  ancient  Etrurian  city, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  con- 
federation. In  180  &o.  it  became  a 
Roman  colony.  About  the  beicinning  of 
the  Christian  era  it  was  a  flourhihing 
city.  On  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire it  was  pillaged  by  the  Goths,  and 
afterwards  subjected  by  the  Longobarda. 
In  the  tenth  century  it  had  succeeded 
in  taking  a  lead  among  the  Italian 
states;  but,  after  protracted  and  unauc* 
cessful  wars  with  Genoa  at  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth,  and  with  Florence  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  finally 
compelled  by  famine  to  submit  to  the 
Florentines  (June  8,  1500),  and  thus 
ceased  to  be  independent.  On  the  ruins 
of  Pisa  was  founded  the  power  of  the 
Grand-duchy  of  Tuscany. 
piaa  Council  of,  a  special  council  of 
**»»»  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  held 
to  consider  the  pretensions  of  the  rival 
popes  of  Avignon  and  of  Rome,  opened 
March  25,  1409.  The  rival  popes,  Bene- 
dict XIII  (of  Avignon)  and  (Gregory 
XII  (of  Rome)  were  summoned  to 
appear  within  a  stated  period,  but  re- 
fused to  comply.  After  mature  delib- 
eration both  j)opes  were  formally  de- 
posed, and  Cardinal  Pietro  Philargi, 
Archbishop  of  Milan,  was  elected.  The 
aathority  of  the  council  was  not,  bow- 


ever,  generally  recognised,  and  it  waa  not 
until  1417  that  the  acbiam  cao  be  said 
to  have  terminated. 

Pisano  (P^eA'nO),  Niccou),  an  Ital- 
**  i  a  u  sculptor  and  architect, 
born  at  Pisa  about  12U5  aud  spent  the 
most  of  bis  life  there :  died  in  1278.  He 
lioldH  an  impurtuut  place  in  the  history 
uf  Italian  art,  iuuHmuch  as  bis  works 
prenented  a  sudden  and  new  development 
and  far  surpassed  thoae  of  bis  immediate 
preiU cesHors.  Among  his  famous  worlu 
ore  the  reliefs  of  the  baptistery  of  Pisa, 
tlie  choir  of  the  cathedral  of  niena,  and 
the  beautiful  sarcoplmKUs  of  8t.  Dominic 
in  BoloKna.  His  chief  architectural 
works  nre  churches  in  Pisa,  Pistoja,  and 
Volierra. 
Pisces    °'  FisitEH.    See  Ichthyology. 

Pisces  (pia'^z:  the  Fishes),  a  sign  of 
tlie  zodiiif,  which  is  entered  by 
the  sun  about  the  lOtb  of  February.  The 
constellation  which  occupies  the  zodiacal 
region  correspondV.g  to  the  sign  baa  the 
same  name ;  it  contains  some  Interesting 
double  stars. 

Pisciculture  i?i:l{."Ua7i'nV.  ir^^ 
ervation,  feeding,  and  fattening  of  fish 
by  artilicial  means.  Pisciculture  has 
been  practiced  from  very  remote  ages, 
having  been  in  use  in  ancient  Egypt, 
and  followed  in  China  in  early  times  on 
a  very  large  scale.  The  art.  so  far  as  the 
perfecting  of  natural  conditions  under 
which  fisb  live  and  thrive,  without  inter- 
fering directly  with  the  ordinary  proc- 
esses of  nature,  lins  thus  always  been 
more  or  less  practiced.  But  the  recent 
discovery  that  the  ova  of  fish  can  be 
taken  from  the  body  of  the  female  par- 
ent, impregnated  with  the  male  milt  and 
hatched  in  tanks,  has  led  to  a  great  ex- 
tension of  the  art.  One  great  point  in 
modem  pisciculti^re  is  the  propagation 
and  rearing  of  young  fixli  m  artificial 
ponds  with  the  view  of  introducing  fish 
into  some  locality  where  they  were  not 
previously  found.  The  art  has  now  come 
into  general  favor  and  is  widely  followed, 
very  many  rivers  having  on  their  banks 
breeding  and  rearing  establishments  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  the  stock  of 
fish  in  the  streams.  The  American  Fish 
Commission  has  successfully  introduced 
into  various  waters  the  whitefsb,  the 
California  trout,  the  brook  char,  the 
shad,  and  various  other  fishes,  and  pisci- 
culture ou  a  large  scale  ia  piHcticed  both 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  -i  also 
in  the  leading  countries  of  Europe.  The 
artificial  culture  of  oysters,  mussels, 
lobsters,  and  other  crustacea,  is  also  re- 
ceiving its   due  pbare   of  attention;   so 


PiMidift 


PiitU 


tbat  altogether  the  art  la  «very  ywur 
attaining  a  greater  deve!  •iDunt,  and 
proniaM  to  become  uu  impL  .ant  depart- 
meDt  of  commercial  luduatry.  Jianjr 
milllona  of  youug  HmIi  are  planted  year- 
ly,  and  aa  a  reault  the  evila  of  over-tiab- 
log  have  been  in  conalderable  meaaure 
obviated. 

Piseidia.  (pl«-»Wl-a),  a  genua  of 
x^iBUiiun    pfant,,    „at.    order    Leguml- 

nowK,  tbe  api'iit-a  being  Weat  Indian 
trees.  Tbe  lurk  of  tbe  root  of  P.  Ery 
thrina  (dogwood  tree)  ia  a  powerful  nar- 
cotic, and  ia  ui(«*d  aa  a  aubatitute  for 
opium,  and  also  for  (loiaoning  Hab.  Tbe 
timber  makes  excellent  pilea  for  docka 
and  wbarfa,  being  beavy,  reainous,  and 
almoat  imperlHbabie. 
Piaoi'no     (pi-8l'na),  a  nicbe,  generally 

in  cburcboH,  containing  or  baving  at- 
tached a  stone  basin  or  trough,  with  a 
channel  leading  to  tbe  ground.  It  ia 
URed  to  bold  the  water  in  which  the  priest 
washes  his  bands,  and  for  rinsing  tbe 
chalice. 

Pise  (pfi'sa),  material  for  forming  the 
walls  of  cottages,  agricultural 
buildings,  etc.,  consisting  of  stiff  clayey 
materials  usually  mixed  with  gravel  well 
rammed  into  a  frame,  and  when  dry 
forming  a  good  strong  wall.  These  walls 
are  thicker  at  bottom  than  nt  top.  They 
must  not  be  built  too  rapidly. 
Pia^lr     (p^sek'),  a   town   of   Bohemia, 

tawa,  52  miles  south  by  west  of  Prague. 
It  is  surrounded  by  an  old  and  lofty  wall, 
flanked  with  numerous  towers;  is  well 
built,  and  contains  the  remains  of  a 
royal  castle.  Pop.  13,008. 
Piaidia.  (Pi-8>a''-a),  in  ancient  geog- 
"  raphy,  a  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  situated  between  Phrvgia,  Cilicia, 
Pamphylia,  Lycia,  and  Carta.  The  in- 
habitants were  mountaineers,  and  were 
never  really  subdued  by  the  Romans,  be- 
ing protected  by  the  mountains  ;.nd 
ravines  which  intersect  the  country. 

PisiBtratna  iP' "  "** '  *•■* '  *"■ '  Greek. 
riSlSiraiUS    Peitistratoa) ,     •  tyrant* 

of  Athens,  was  descended  from  Godrus, 
the  last  kirg  of  Athens,  and  was  bom 
not  later  than  612  b.o.  He  was  rich, 
handsome,  and  eloquent,  and  being  by 
nature  ambitious  he  soon  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  one  of  the  three  parties 
into  which  Attica  was  then  divided.  By 
patting  himself  forward  as  the  patron 
and  benefactor  of  the  poor,  and  by  advo- 
cating civil  equality  and  a  democratic 
constitution,  he  was  able  (notwithstand- 
ing the  opposition  of  Solon)  to  seise 
upon  the  acropolis  (citadel)  in  660  ao., 
nnd  thus  to  make  himself  master,  or,  as 

15— U— « 


the  Greeks  termed  It,  'tyrant'  of  tha 
city.  But  though  a  tyrant  in  the  Ureek 
aenae,  bia  uae  of  power  waa  by  no  menna 
tyrannical.  He  made  no  attempt  to 
abolUb  tbe.  wise  lawa  of  Holon,  but  coo- 
Urmed  and  extended  their  authority.  He 
waa,  however,  twice  driven  frmn  Athens: 
but  in  the  eleventh  year  of  bis  second 
bauiitbmeut  succeeded  in  making  himself 
master  of  tbe  sovereignty  for  the  third 
lime.  PlMistratuM  erected  splendid  public 
buildinga  at  Athena,  eatabluhed  a  public 
library,  and  collected  and  arranged  the 
lHK>m8  of  Homer,  and  conducted  uimaelf 
with  BO  much  prudence  and  clemency 
that  bis  country  scarcely  ever  enjoyed  a 
lunger  term  of  peace  and  prosperity.  He 
died  527  B.C.,  leaving  two  sons,  Hippiaa 
and  Hipparchus,  to  inherit  his  power. 
They  were  not,  however,  able  to  preserve 
it.  See  Uippiat. 
Pi'SOlite.     ^**  Peaitone. 

Pistachio    (pl»-tfl'«l>l-o),    a    tree    of 

several  species,  of  the  genua 

Piaiacia,  nat.  order  Anacardiacec,  grow- 


yielding    a 


Piitsehio   (Piatoeia  v*ra). 

ing  to  the  height  of  15  to  20  feet.  F, 
vera  yields  the  well-known  pistachio-nat, 
which  contains  a  kernel  of  a  pleasant 
taste,  resembling  that  of  the  almond, 
wholesome  and  nutritive, 
pleasant  oil.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  Western  Asia,  but 
is  much  cultivated  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  The 
gum  named  mastic  is  ob- 
tained from  P.  lentMcuf, 
as  well  as  from  P.  At- 
lantico.    See  Mtutio, 

or  coitral  seed-bearing  or- 
gan  of   a   phanerogamous 


Pista. 
•,  style :  K 
atlgi 


Pistillidinm 


Pitoairn  Iiland 


flower,  conaistiag  of  one  or 
more  ottrpel$  or  modified  leaves. 
There  may  be  only  a  single 
pistil  or  several  in  the  same 
flower.  It  consists  essentially 
of  two  parts,  tb"  ovatif,  con- 
taininc  the  ovules  or  young 
aeetb,  and  the  ttigma,  a  cellu- 
lar aecretinr  body  which  is 
either  seated  immediately  on 
the  ovary  (as  in  the  tulip  and 
poppf),  and  is  then  called  sea- 
Hie,  or  is  borne  on  a  stalk 
called  a  »tyle  interposed  be- 
tween the  ovary  and  stigma. 
It  is  on  the  stigma  that  the 
pollen  falls  by  which  fecunda- 
tion takes  place,  after  which 
the  ovule  develops  into  the  seed. 
See  Placenta,  Botany. 

Pistillidinm   ( pis-tn-idM- 

— — .  um),  an  organ 
of  cryptogamic  plants,  which 
■eems  to  have  functions  anal- 
Mous  to  those  of  the  pistil  of 
of  a  phanerogamous  flower.  It 
is  the  young  spore-case. 


Piston   and  Oy!- 
iniet. 


Ptila  of 
Tobacco. 


^toja  i^tTr^oVi'SgriL^iS'JJSl: 

ince  of  Florence,  and  20  miles  north- 
west of  the  city  of  that  name,  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ombrone.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  walls,  contains  a  Ro- 
manesque cathedral  (twelfth  to  thir- 
teenth centurv)  and  other  notable 
churches  and  buildings,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  iron  and  steel  goods,  firearms, 
linen,  etc.  Pistols  were  first  made  here, 
and  received  the)r  name  from  the  town. 
Pop.  (1911)  67,653. 
Pistol      (pis'tul),  a  small  firearm  with 

a  curved  stock,  discharged  with 
one  hand,  named  from  the  town  of  Pfai- 
toja,  where  it  was  first  made.  Pistols 
were  introduced  into  England  in  1521. 
Mention  is  made  of  their  use  in  1544. 
The  'dag'  mentioned  by  the  Elizabethan 
writers  was  a  kind  of  clumsy  pistol. 
Pistols  are  made  of  various  sises,  rang- 
ing from  6  inches  (the  saloon  and  pocket 
pistol)  to  18  and  even  24  inches  (the 
holster  pistol).  They  have  been  remark- 
ably developed  in  effectiveness,  and  the 
modem  pistol  is  a  formidable  weapon  in 
close-liaiid  fighting.  See  Revolver, 
Pistole    (piB-t&r) ,  a  gold  coin  met  with 

in  several  parts  of  Euroi>e, 
more  especially  in  Spain,  value  about 
$4.00,  but  not  now  coined.  It  was  origi- 
nally a  Spanish  coin,  and  was  equivalent 
to  a  quarter  of  a  doubloon. 
Piston    (Pi"'tiin)>  1°  machinery,  a  mov- 

able  piece,  generally  of  a  cylin- 
drical form,  so  fitted  as  to  occupy  the 
•ectitmal  area  of   a   tube,   such  as  the 


barrel  of  a  pump  or  the  cylinder  of  a 
steam-engine,  and  capable  of  being 
driven  alternately  in  two  directions  by 
pressure  on  either  of 
its  sides.  One  of  its 
sides  is  fitted  to  a  rod, 
called  the  piiton-rod, 
which  it  either  moves 
backwards  and  for- 
wards, as  in  the  steam- 
engine,  where  the  motion 
given  to  the  piston- 
rod  is  communicated  to 
the  machinery;  or  the 
piston  is  itself  made 
to  move  by  the  rod,  as 
in  the  pump.  The  pis- 
ton is  usually  made  to 
fit  tightly  by  some  kind 
of  material  used  aa 
packing,  the  piston-rod  being  also  made 
similarly  tight  by  material  closely  packed 
in  the  Mtufing-bo»  (s  s). 
pi^  in  horticulture,  the  name  applied 
*  to  an  excavation  below  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  generally  covered  by  a  glazed 
frame   for  protecting   plants. 

Pita  nemn    (P^'taK  *   °a™e  k*^™ 

or  American  aloe.  See  illoe. 
Pitfl.Tr9.1  (pit-a-val),  Fbanqois  Oatot 
AXbuvcM  jjjj^  j^  French  jurist-consult 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  bom  at  Lyons 
in  1673;  died  in  1763.  He  was  succes- 
sively abb4,  soldier,  lawyer,  and  man  of 
letters.  The  most  important  and  best 
known  of  his  works  is  a  collection  of 
criminal  trials  —  Cau»e»  Cilibrea  et  In- 
Oreuantet  (1734r43,  twenty  vols.). 
PitPftim  Tslft-nd    (pifk^m),  an  isl- 

Pacific,  belonging  to  the  Low  Archipelago, 
lat.  25"  5'  8.;  Ion.  130»  5'  w.;  length, 
21  miles;  breadth,  about  1  mile.  It  was 
discovered  by  Carteret  in  1767.  Its  coast 
is  almost  perpendicular  throughout  its 
whole  extent,  fringed  with  formidable 
rocks  and  reefs,  accessible  only  at  two 
points,  and  not  at  all  in  stormy  weather. 
It  rises  to  the  height  of  1100  feet,  and 
the  soil,  naturally  fertile,  yields  good  pas- 
ture, potatoes,  yams,  plantain  and  bread- 
fruit, pineapples,  and  other  tropical  fruits. 
The  island  is  chiefiy  remarkable  as  the 
home  of  the  descendants  of  the  Bountf 
mutineers,  nine  of  whom,  together  with 
six  men  and  twelve  women,  natives  of 
Tahiti,  landed  here  in  1790.  Violent  dis- 
sensions soon  arose  and  at  the  end  of 
ten  years  the  only  survivors  were  John 
Adams,  an  Englishman  (whose  rcstl  name 
was  said  to  have  been  Alexander  Smith), 
the  females,  and  nineteen  children.  Thej 
were  found  in  1808  by  the  American, 
Ckptain   Folger,   who  reported   the  dia- 


Pitch 


Pitney 


^ 


corery  to  the  British  government.  The 
interest  thus  aroused  soon  brought  other 
risitors  to  the  island,  all  of  whom  dilated 
with  enthusiasm  on  the  virtuous,  sober, 
and  industrious  life  led  by  the  inhab- 
itants. They  became,  however,  too  nu- 
meroo*  to  subsist  comfortably  on  this 
small  island,  and  they  were  transferred, 
to  the  number  of  194,  to  Norfolk  Island 
in  1856,  but  about  40  soon  returned.  In 
ISSl  the  inhabitants  numbered  OU,  and 
in  1900,  130.  Whalers  and  trading  ves- 
sels occasionally  call  and  exchange  the 
products  of  civilization  for  the  produce 
of  the  island.  See  Norfolk  Itland. 
V'if/tli  (pich),  th-3  residuum  obtained 
rilCn    1^^  boiiing  t^j  tin  the  volatile 

matter  is  driven  off.     It   is  extensively 
used  for  caulking  the  seams  of  ships,  for 
preserving  wood  and  ironwork  from  the 
effects    of    water,    fcr   making   artificial 
asphalt,  etc.  ,        , 

Pitnli     the  acnteness  or  crsTity  of  mj 
fiiivu,   particular  musical  sound,  which 
is  determined  by  the  number  of  air-vibra- 
tions in  a  given  time  —  the  greater  the 
number,  the  higher  the  note.    In  stringed 
instruments   the   pitch   is  dependent   on 
the  length,  thickness,  and  de^ee  of  ten- 
sion of  the  string;  in  wind  instruments, 
such  as  the  flute  or  organ,  chiefly  on  the 
length  of  the  column  of  air  set  in  mo- 
tion.    (See  Mutic.)     The  tuning-fork  is 
in  common  use  to  assist  in  giving  some 
desired  pitch.  .....       , 

Pi4-/t'li'klATifl0  a  mineral  chiefly  found 
ntCnDienae,  j^  gaxony  and  Corn- 
wall, composed  of  80.5  oxide  of  uranium, 
2.5  black  oxide  of  iron,  galeua,  and  silex. 
In  color  it  varies  from  brown  to  black, 
and  occurs  globular,  reniform,  massive, 
disseminated,  and  pulverulent.  Specific 
gravity,  7.5.  It  generally  accompanies 
uranite  and  is  the  chief  source  of  the 
newly  discovered  element,  radium. 

Pitcher- Plant  if^'li' 3%v%%"a1 

plants  from  their  pitch- 
er-shaped leaves,  the 
best  known  of  which  is 
the  Nepenthes  diatUla' 
toria,  a  native  of  China 
and  the  East  Indies, 
and  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Nepen- 
thacee.  It  is  a  herlw- 
ceous  perennial,  and 
grows  In  marshy  sit- 
uations. The  leaves  are 
sessile,  oblong,  and  ter- 
minated at  the  extrem- 
..  itiea    by    a    cvlindrical 

Pltditr-plaiit  (y«-  hollow  Teasel  resem- 
ptntkM  autOth  bling  a  common  waters 
tort»h  pitcher,  which  cootain 


a  fluid  secreted  by  the  plant  itself.  Th* 
pitcher  is  furnished  with  a  lid  which  geo- 
etally  <q>ens  in  the  day  and  shuts  at 
night,  and  which  is  regarded  as  the  true 
blade  of  the  leaf.  Wonderful  curative 
powers  are  ascibed  to  the  fluid  in  the 
pitcher  and  to  the  leaf  and  the  root  of 
this  plant,  by  the  natives  of  the  Enrt 
Indies  and  Madagascar.  There  are  nu- 
merous other  pitcher-plants,  varying  in 
shape  and  the  proportions  of  their  parts, 
and  found  in  all  barts  of  the  world. 

Pitch-pine.   »«ep,»e. 
Pitchstone,  f.,.*''"S'^  ?'*^'i  ^\^ 

AAwvusvvuv)  jjjjg  volcanic  rock.  It  is 
found  chiefly  in  the  Hebrides,  Southen 
Europe,  South  America,  and  Mexico,  in 
veins  and  in  dykes  or  bosses,  sometimes 
forming  whole  mountains.  Specific  grav- 
ity, 2.29-2.64. 

Pitchnrim-beans  (pJch'a-rim).  *« 

A  AvwuuAuu  wwuB  name  given  to  the 
lobes  of  the  drupe  of  Nectandra  puekurif, 
a  South  American  species  of  laurel,  uaed 
by  chocolate  makers  as  a  substitute  for 
vanilla. 

Pith  ^^^  cylindrical  or  angular  column 
*•*■''**»  of  cellular  tissne  at  or  near  the 
center  of  the  stem  of  a  plant,  also  called 
the  medulla.  It  is  not  usually  continued 
into  the  root,  but  is  always  directly  con- 
nected with  the  terminal  bud  of  the  stem. 

Pithecanthropus  Erectns  ^j^JJJ: 

tlirO'pus),  the  name  given  to  the  fossil 
remains  of  an  animal  found  in  Java  in 
1891.  The  portion  of  a  craninm  found 
is  midway  in  size  and  form  between  those 
of  man  and  the  gorilla,  and  the  femur 
is  like  that  of  man. 

Pitman  (^-^  T^^^  2 

Trowbridge,  England,  in  1822;  died  in 
1910.  lie  settled  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio; 
was  a  government  reporter  of  state  trials, 
1862-65,  and  liecame  an  instructor  in  the 
University  of  Cincinnati.  He  published 
various  text-books  of  phonography. 
"Pitman  Sib  Isaac,  bom  at  Trow- 
XlimaU)  bridae,  Engknd,  in  1813: 
died  in  1897.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
the  modern  system  of  phonographic  short- 
hand writing,  also  of  one  of  the  httt 
systems  of  phonotypy.  He  pnbUabed  a 
number  of  works  on  shorthand. 
Pitnpv  Mahlon,  an  American  Jurist, 
riwey,  bom  at  Morristown,  New 
Jersey,  February  5,  1868.  He  was  a 
mrmJjer  of  Congregg,  189IM890,  «sd  of 
the  state  senate,  1890-19(0.;  Msodate 
justice  of  tile  New  Jersey  saprnte  ooort, 
1901-1906;  and  chanceStor  of  tiie  state. 
1908-1912.  In  1912  he  was  appointed 
Associate  Justice  of  the  Bajj^eme  Conrt 


PitoB-bark 


^  I 


Fittibnrgh 


Piton-bark,   "*"®  *■  Caribbee-bark. 

Pitt.  %?L<*'  Chatham.  See  Chatham 
1.  *  iF<«<«m  Pitt,  Earl  of). 
Pitt  WnxiAM,  second  son  of  the  Earl 
,  **?'  Chatham,  bora  in  1759;  died 
in  1806.  He  possessed  a  remarlubly 
precocious  intellect,  but  his  physical 
powers  were  weak.  He  was  educated 
privately  till  his  fourteenth  year,  when 
be  entered  Cambridge.  He  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1780,  and  entered  parlia- 
ment the  following  year  as  member  for 
Appleby.  His  success  in  ihe  house  was 
of  unparalleled  rapidity.  He  supported 
Burkes  financial  re'orm  bill,  and  spoke 
in  favor  of  parliamentary  reform;  be- 
came chancellor  of  the  exchequer  at 
twenty-three,  under  the  Earl  of  Shel- 
burne,  and  in  the  following  year  attained 
the  position  of  prime  minister.    Although 


William  Pitt. —  From  the  statue  by  Chantrey. 


strongly  supported  by  the  sovereign,  he 
stood  opposed  to  a  large  majority  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  a  dissolution 
took  place  in  March,  1786.  At  the  gen- 
eral election  which  followed  the  voice 
of  the  nation  appeared  decidedly  in  his 
favor,  and  some  of  the  strongest  aris- 
tocratical  interests  in  the  country  were 
defeated,  Pitt  himself  being  returaed  by 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  His  first 
measure  was  the  passing  of  his  India 
Bill,  establishing  the  board  of  control, 
which  was  followed  by  much  of  that 
fiscal  and  financial  regulation  that  gave 
so  much  6clat  to  the  early  period  of  his 
administration.  The  establishment  of  the 
delusive  scheme  of  a   sinking   fund    fol- 

l%o2^  'Su^'^§?'  »°^  *"'■»  Regency  Bill  in 
1788.  The  French  revolution  now  broke 
on^  and  in  1798  war  arose  between  Great 
Britain  and  France,  a  conflict  which 
brootht  a  heavy  reapoudbtlity  on  Pitt, 


and  immense  aacrificea  and  burdeu  on 
his  country.     In    1800   the   Iriab   union 
was  accomplished.     In  1801  the  oppod- 
tion  of  the  kmg  to  all  further  concession 
to    the    Irish   Catholics   caused    Pitt    to 
resign  his  post.    The  Peace  of  Amiens 
succeeded,  and  Pitt  for  a  time  supported 
the  Addington  administration  which  con- 
cluded it,  but  afterwards  joined  the  op- 
position.   The   new    minister,    who    bad 
renewed  the  war,  unable  to  maintain  bis 
ground,  resigned:  and  in  1804  Pitt  re- 
sumed his  post  at  the  treasury.     Return- 
ing   to    power    as    a    war   minister,    he 
exerted  all  the  energy  of  his  character 
to    render    the    contest    successful,    and 
found   means   to   engage   the   two   great 
military  powers  of  Russia  and   Austria 
in  a  new  coalition,  which  was  dissolved 
by  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.    This  event 
he  did  not  survive  long ;   for  his  consti- 
tution, weakened  by  persisent  gout,  rap- 
idly yielded  to  the  joint  attack  of  disease 
and  anxiety.     Biographers  naturally  differ 
as  to  his  merits  as  a  statesman:  some 
assign   him   a  most  exalted   place,   while 
others  represent  him  as  entirely  destitute 
of  great  ideas,  as  a  man  of  expedients  in- 
stead of  principles,  as  a   lover  of  place 
and    royal    favor.     It   is,    however,   uni- 
versally granted   that   he  was  a  distin- 
guished  orator,   eVen   amongst   the   very 
eminent  speakers  of  that  period,  and  that 
he  was  a  man  of  strict  personal  honor. 
A    public    funeral    was    decreed    to    his 
r?S*^'-.^''y    parliament,    and    a    grant    of 
£40,000  to  pay  his  debts. 
Pitta.     ^^«  Ant-thruah. 

PittaCUS  (P.it'a-kus),  one  of  the  so- 
called  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece,  born  about  B.c.  652;  died  509, 
at  Mitylene,  on  the  island  of  Lesbos. 
He  was  highly  celebrated  as  a  warrior,  a 
statesman,  a  philosopher,  and  a  poet. 
In  589  the  citizens  raised  him  to  the 
dictatorship,  an  office  which  he  filled  for 
ten  years. 

Pittsbursr  /P'tz'burg),  a  city  of 
o  Crawford  county,  Kannas, 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  ¥6, 
and  other  railroads.  It  has  railroad 
shops,  zinc  smelters,  manufactures  of 
sewer-pipe,  pottery,  etc.  Coal  i>  the  prin- 
cipal industry.  Pop.  17,320. 
Pittsburgh,  a  city,  capital  of  Alle- 
.  »    '    gheny  county,   Pennsyl- 

vania, in  the  angle  between  the  Monon- 
gahela  and  the  Allejthenv  rivers  where 
thev  unite  to  form  the  Ohio,  260  miles 
w.  by  N.  of  Philadelphia,  and  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  ar-l 
other  railroads.  It  is  admirably  situ- 
ated for  trade,  having  ample  river  and 
railway  connection  with  the  great  com- 


Pittsfield 


Fins  XI 


mercial   empori'ima  of   the   East,    West, 
and    South,    while    in    the    neighborhood 
there  are  immense  and  cheaply-obtainable 
coal  supplies.     These  exceptional  advan- 
tages have  made  Pittsburgh  the  chief  cen- 
ter of   the  American   iron  and  steel   in- 
dustry;    smelting     furnaces,     foundries, 
rolling-mills,    etc.,    being    numerous    and 
on    a    very    large    scale.    The    pig-iron 
product  is  about  one-fourth  of  that  of 
the  whole  country  and  the  steel  product 
more    than    one-half.     The    glass    manu- 
factures of  Pittsburgh  also  rank  first  in 
imiwrtance  in  the  United  States;  cotton 
goods,    leather,   earthenware,   white   lead, 
soda,  tobacco,  beer,  and  spirits  are  largely 
produced ;    but    the    chief    products    are 
iron  and  steel,  hardware  and  machinery, 
electrical  appliances,  railroad  brakes,  cars 
and  locomotives,  steel  bridges,  aluminum, 
glass,    coal,    and    coke.     In    addition    to 
coal,  this  city  is  the  center  of  an  exten- 
sive   petroleum    and    natural    gas    field. 
Pittsburgh  consists  of   the   town   proper 
and  of  several   large  suburbs,   and   with 
those   that   are   on   the   opposite  side  of 
the  rivers  the  connection  is  kept  up  by 
numerous  bridges,  comprisii  _,  some  very 
excellent    examples    on    the    suspension 
principle.     Of  the  adjacent  places,  which, 
though  separately  incorporated,  were  long 
regarded   as   suburbs   of   Pittsburgh,   the 
most  important  is  Allegheny,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Allegheny  River,  a  favorite 
residence  with  the  wealthier  classes.     It 
has  now  become  a  corporate  part  of  Pitts- 
burgh   and    the    combined    cities    possess 
many   fine  t)ublic   buildings  and   institu- 
tions.    Among   these  may  be  named  the 
Carnegie  Library  and   Institute  building 
(with    a    large    library,    music-hall,    art 
gallery  and  natural  history  museum),  the 
amply-endowed  Carnegie  Schools  of  Tech- 
nology,   the    Pliipps    Conservatory,    the 
United  States  Arsenal,  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh,  the  Pennsylvonia  College  for 
Women,    the    Exposition    buildings,   the 
Roman    Catholic   and    St.   Paul's  cathe- 
drals,   various    municipal    buildings    and 
charitable    institutions,    etc.      Pittsburgh 
occupies    the    site   of    n    fort    called   Du 
Quesne,  which  was  built  by  the  French 
in  1754.     It  was  afterwards  captured  by 
the  British,  in  1758,  and  named  in  honor 
of  William  Pitt.    Allegheny  was  joined  to 
it  by  act  of  the  legislature,  sustained  by 
a  decision  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  in  1907.     Its  population  in  1900 
was  321,616 ;  that  of  Allegheny  129,896 ; 
making    451,512.      In    1910    the    popu- 
lation   of   the    consolidated   city    totaled 
B8S,905. 

MaMadiiuettB,  on  the  HouMtomic  BiT«r, 


151  miles  w.  of  Boston.  It  ia  situated 
in  the  Berkshire  Valley,  1010  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  is  surrounded  by  mounJ^ 
tains.  It  has  large  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton and  woolen  goods,  knit  goods,  shoes, 
paper,  machhiery,  etc.     There  are  a  num* 

ber  of  interesting  institutions,  among 
them  the  white  marble  courthouse  and 
the  Berkshire  Atheneum,  which  sUnd  in 
the  public  green  in  the  center  of  the 
city,  and  are  known  as  the  '  Heart  of 
Berkshire.'  Pop.  32,121. 
Pittston      (Pitz'tun),    a    city    of    Lu- 

.     „  seme  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  on 

the  Susquehanna  River,  in  the  Wyoming 
Valley,  9  miles  n.e.  of  Wiikes-Barre. 
Here  are  extensive  anthracite-coal  indas^ 
tries,  planing,  knitting,  paper,  and  silk 
mills,  iron  and  terra-cotta  works,  brew- 
eries, etc.  The  St.  John's  Academy  is 
located  here.  Pittston  is  the  business 
center  of  a  populous  surrounding  dis- 
trict.    Pop.  16,267. 

Pituitary  Body  JJi^Sli'-^^y^'  o? 

the  size  of  a  small  bean  found  in  the  tOXa 
turcica,  a  saddle-shaped  cavity  of  the 
sphenoid  bone  in  the  floor  of  the  cavity 
of  the  skull.  Its  function  appiar^  to  be 
related  to  that  of  the  thyroid  ^laad. 
Pityriasis  (Pit-i-rt'a-sls),  a  chronic 
and  non-contagious  inflam- 
mation of  the  skin,  manifesting  itself  in 
red  spots  or  patches  on  which  minute 
scales  are  produced,  thrown  off  as  soon 
as  formed,  and  as  quickly  renewed.  It 
may  affect  any  part,  and,  though  seldom, 
many  parts  of  the  body  at  the  same  timeV 
Tu  *  the  commonest  is  the  P.  capitU,  on 
the  head,  when  the  scales  are  popularly 
known  as  scurf  or  dandruff.  Mild  forms 
generally  yield  to  warm  bathing  and  a 
light  diet,  if  persevered  in;  but  more 
obstinate  cases  can  only  be  thoroughly 
cured  by  a  radical  change  in  the  system, 
produced  by  suitable  regimen  and  trnl- 
ment. 

Piura    ip^^'rk),  a  town  of  Northern 
i'eru,  capital  of  province  of 
same  name,  connected  by  railway  with  its 
port,  Payta.     Pop.  about  12,000. 
Pius  H    <P''"8:  iEwEAs  St  I,  VI  XT  8 

1405;  died  in  1464.  He  was  descended 
from  an  illustrious  Tuscan  family,  and 
studied  at  the  University  of  Siegu.  He 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Oapranica. 
and  the  Council  of  Basel  in  1481 :  to  tba 
anti-pope  Felix  V  in  1439,  and  to  Fred- 
erick  III  of  Germany  ia  1442.  The  em- 
peror sent  him  ns  an  imperial  ambassador 
to  a  diet  at  Ratisbon,  and  in  1446  to 
Pope  Eugenius  IV  to  negotiate  tbe  sab- 
mission  of  Germany.  He  gained  the  fa- 
vor of  Eugenius,  whom  he  had  fomwrly 


Pius  V 


PiuiIZ 


opposed,  and  by  his  succenor  was  created 
buibop  of  Trieste  in  1447,  and  cardinal 
h  1466.  He  racceeded  Caliztus  III  as 
pontiff  in  14B8.  In  1460  be  published  a 
bull  condemning  the  doctrine  be  had  in 
former  years  so  vigorously  defended :  the 
snperiority  of  a  general  council  to  the 
pope.  I*ias  II  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  age,  and  left  some 
valuable  and  interesting  historical  works, 
orations,  nnd  letters. 
Pina  V  (MiciiELE  Ghibuebi),  pope, 
•^*"  '  bom  in  1504;  died  in  15T2. 
He  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate  by  Paul 
IV  in  1557,  appointed  inquisitor  in  Lorn- 
l(srdy,  then  inquisitor-general,  and  chosen 
pope  in  1565.  He  chiefly  distinguished 
himself  by  bis  seal  for  conversion  of 
Protestants  and  Jews;  the  bull  in  Ccena 
Domini  was  renewed  by  him,  and  the 
authority  of  the  Indea  Expurgatoriut 
enforced.  In  1570  he  excommunicated 
Elizabeth  of  Englatd.  He  lent  his  influ- 
ence and  assistanct;  to  Charles  IX  of 
France  against  his  Protestant  subjects, 
and  to  the  Venetians  and  Spaniards  in 
their  war  against  the  Turks.  He  was 
canonized  by  Clement  XI. 
Pins  VI  (CllOVANNI  AN6BI,0 
Bbasoui),  pope,  bom  at 
Cesena  in  1717;  died  at  Valence  in  1799. 
He  held  imporlaut  offices  under  several 
pontiffs,  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate 
by  Clement  XIV  and  succeeded  him  in 
1775.  Several  beneficent  reforms  were 
introducid  by  him  in  the  finance  depart- 
ment; be  also  improved  the  Vatican 
Museum,  drained  the  Pontine  marshes, 
reconstructed  the  port  of  Ancona,  and 
embellished  Rome.  The  French  revolu- 
tion, however,  hastened  the  decay  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  holy  see.  In 
1791  Avignon  and  the  county  of  Venais- 
sin  were  reunited  to  France;  by  the 
treaty  of  Tolentino  (1797)  he  lost  the 
Romagna,  Bologna,  and  Ferrara;  and  on 
the  15th  of  Febraary,  1798,  General  Ber- 
thier  established  the  Roman  republic,  de- 
prived the  pope  of  his  authority,  and 
conveyed  him  as  a  prisoner  to  France, 
where  he  died  the  following  year. 
Pina  VII  (Obegorio  Babnaba 
Chiabamonti)  ,  pope, 
bora  at  Cesena  in  1742;  died  in  1823. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  received  into 
the  order  of  Benedictines,  served  as 
teacher  in  several  abbeys,  and  subse- 
quently became  professor  of  philosophy 
in  Parma,  and  of  theology  in  Rome. 
Plus  VI  created  him  bishop  of  Tivoli, 
cardinal  and  bishop  of  Imola;  and  bis 
friendly  attitude  towards  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  secured  him  the  favor  of 
Prance,  and  the  election  to  the  papal 
chait  ui  1800.    After  his  accession  he 


aimed  at  re-astabliahing  the  old  order  of 
things,  and  to  gain  it  he  tried  to  concil- 
iate Napoleon  by  attending  his  corona- 
tion. He  aroosed  the  open  enmity  of 
the  emperor  by  refusing  to  be  preacnt 
at  the  coronation  in  Milan,  and  to  recog- 
nize his  brother  Joseph  as  king  of  Na^ 
pies ;  the  results  being  another  occupation 
of  Rome  by  French  troops  (February 
2.  1808),  the  incorporation  of  the  papal 
cities,  and  shortly  after  of  Rome  itself, 
with  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  and  the  arrest 
of  the  pope  (July  6,  ISOd)  and  his  con- 
finement in  Savona  and  afterwards  at 
Fontainebleau.  In  1814  he  was  released 
and  restored  to  the  possession  of  all  the 
papal  territories  except  Avignon  and 
Venaissin  in  France,  and  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  beyond  the  Po.  His  subsequent 
govemment  was  politically  and  eccleai- 
asticaLy  of  a  reactionary  character. 
Pins  IX  (QiovAWNi  Mabia  MastaI 
~"~  Febbktti),    pope,    bora    in 

1792,  was  destined  for  a  military  careor, 
and  on  the  restoration  of  Pius  VII  en- 
tered the  Guardia  Nobile  of  the  Vatican, 
but  soon  after  adopted  the  clerical  pro- 
fession. He  held  various  ecclesiastical 
offices  under  Leo  XII,  who  appointed 
him  Archbishop  of  Spoleto  in  1827,  and 
to  the  see  of  Imola  in  1832.  Here  he 
acquired  much  popularity  by  his  liberal 
tendencies.  He  further  showed  hl^ 
benevolent  nature  during  a  mission  tr 
Naples  at  the  time  of  a  cholera  epidemic, 
when  he  sold  his  plate,  furniture,  and 
equipage  to  relieve  the  sufferers.  Al- 
though raised  to  the  cardinalate  in  1840, 
be  resided  in  his  diocese  until  his  election 
to  the  pontificate  in  1846.  His  accession 
was  signalized  by  the  release  of  2000 
political  prisoners,  followed  by  a  com- 
plete amnesty;  and  Italy  was  to  be  free 
and  independent  under  a  liberal  consti- 
tution. But  the  Italians,  who  wanted 
to  be  free  of  the  Austrians,  flocked  under 
the  banner  of  Charles  Albert,  i^nd  Pio 
Nono,  as  pontiff,  found  himself  obliged 
to  interfere.  Disaster,  bloodshed,  and 
anarchy  followed,  and  he  had  himself  to 
seek  safety  in  flight.  A  Roman  republic 
was  proclaimed  (Feb.,  1849),  with  Mas- 
zini  at  its  head.  Louis  Napoleon,  presi- 
dent of  the  French  republic,  sent  an 
expedition  to  Rome,  which  defeated  the 
Italian  patriots  under  Garibaldi,  and 
occupied  the  city  (July  3).  The  pope 
returned  in  April,  1850,  but  be  left  th« 
direction  of  state  affairs  principally  In 
the  hands  of  his  secretary  of  state.  Car- 
dinal Antonelli.  On  the  death  of  that 
distinguished  prelate,  Pio  Nono  agafai 
bestowed  his  whole  attention  on  tha 
church.  He  recalled  the  Jesuits,  canon- 
ized saints,  countenanced  miraoM,  and 


FiiuX 


Plaoenta 


defined  new  dogmaa.  The  immaculate 
conception  of  the  Virgin  was  settled  by 
a  papal  decree  in  1854,  and  the  dogma  of 
papal  infallibility  was  eitablished  by  the 
ecumenical  council  of  1870.  By  this  time 
the  pope's  dominions  bad  been  greatly 
reduced,  and  what  remained  of  the  tem- 
poral power  was  secured  by  the  presence 
of  French  troops  at  Rome.  But  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon  III  caused  their 
withdrawal;  the  Italian  troopu  took  pos- 
session, and  the  political  rule  of  the  holy 
see  was  at  an  end.  The  Vatican  was 
left  to  the  pope,  and  his  independence 
inaured.  The  later  years  of  hii  'e^p* 
tivity '  were  cheered  by  the  proofs  of 
reverence  displajred  by  Ituman  Catholic 
Christianity,  which  accorded  him  mag- 
nificent ovations  as  his  period  of  jubilee 
began  to  fall  due.  The  twenty-fifth  anni- 
versary of  his  pontificate  was  celebrated 
with  great  splendor  in  1871;  for  he  waa 
the  first  pope  to  reach  the  traditional 
•  years  of  Peter.'  He  died  in  February, 
1878. 

FinsX  <Gnj8KPra  Sabto),  pope, 
was  born  of  humble  parents 
at  Biese,  -near  Venice,  in  1835.  He 
studied  at  Treviso  and  Padua  and  was 
ordained  priest  in  1858,  being  soon  after 
made  chancellor  of  the  diocese  and  vicar 
of  the  chapter  of  Treviso.  Leo  XIII 
appointed  him  bishop  of  Mantua  in  1884. 
and  cardinal  and  patriarch  of  Venice 
in  1893.  The  papal  nomination  to  this 
office  waa  for  a  time  disputed  by  the 
Italian  government,  which  claimed  the 
right  to  nomination.  But  the  new 
patriarch's  simplicity  of  life,  vigorous 
repression  of  abuses,  and  sympathy  with 
the  poor  endeared  him  to  the  people, 
and  on  the  death  of  Leo  '^^XI  in  1903 
he  was  a  prominent  candi  e  for  the 
papacy.  He  was  elected  in  August,  1903. 
As  a  pope  he  was  distinguished  rather  for 

f»iety  and  administrative  activity  than  for 
earning.  His  term  of  service  was  one 
long  lealous  effort  to  combat  the  doc- 
trines of  modernism,  at  which  the  encyc« 
Heal  known  as  Paacendi  of  September  8, 
1907,  was  especially  directed.  Further 
condemnation  of  modernism  and  the  pre- 
scrfption  of  the  duty  of  the  teaching 
dergy  to  oppose  heretical  tendencies  were 
published  by  him  from  time  to  time.  H« 
died  August  20.  1914. 
Pinte.  ?f  Paixtte  (pl-Ot)  Indians, 
^*  the  name  of  a*  small  tribe  of 
southwestern  TTtah,  but  generally  eiven  to 
a  number  of  Shoshone  tribes  of  Utah, 
Nevada,  Arisona  and  southeast  California. 

Pizarro  0*^'".'°)'  f»ancisco,  • 

Spanish  adventurer,  the  dis- 
coverer and  conqueror  of  Peru,  was  bom 
in  1471,  the  illegitimate  son  of  a  SpanlA 
ofltotTp    OBder   wImnd    be   served   m  • 


soldier.  The  spirit  of  adventure  which  at 
that  time  pervaded  Spain  prompted  him 
to  seek  fortune  in  the  newly-found  con- 
tinent of  America,  where  be  participated 
in  various  military  and  trading  expedi- 
tions. While  resident  near  Panama  he 
became  associated  with  two  other  ad- 
venturers, Hernando  Lugue,  or  de 
Lugues,  and  Diego  de  Almagro.  In  1524 
they  jointly  fitted  out  an  expedition  with 
a  view  to  exploration  and  conquest,  and 
on  their  second  voyage  discovered  Peru; 
but  finding  their  force  inadequate  for  con- 
quering the  country,  Pizarro  returned  to 
Spain  for  assistance.  He  arrived  in  Se- 
ville in  1528,  was  granted  the  necessary 
powers  and  a  small  force,  and  recroned 
the  Atlantic  in  1531.  The  following  ynr 
he  arrived  'u  Peru  during  a  civil  war, 
treacherously  seized  the  person  of  the 
reigning  inca  at  a  friendly  interview,  and 
after  extorting  an  immense  ransom,  put 
him  to  death.  The  whole  empire  was 
gradually  conquered  without  much  oppo- 
sition, but  its  settlement  was  long  in 
abeyance  owing  to  a  feud  between  Pizarro 
and  Almagro.  Hernando  Pizarro,  a 
brother  of  the  general,  strangled  Almagro 
in  1537.  This  ac<:  was  avenged  in  1541, 
when  a  son  of  Almagro  murdered  Fran- 
cisco Pizarro  in  his  palace  at  Lima. 
Lima  was  founded  by  Pizarro  in  1535, 
and  his  remains  are  interred  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  that  city,  also  founded  by  him. 
Pizarro  C  o  w  z  a  l  o ,  half-brothf>r  of 
^~r  '  the  preceding,  was  bom  in 
IswZ.  His  brother  appointed  him  gov-' 
ernor  of  Quito  in  1540,  and  after  the 
assassination  of  Francisco,  he  raised  an 
army  against  the  new  viceroy,  Blasco 
Nufiez,  and  the  latter  was  defeated  and 
slain  near  Quito  in  1546.  But  Pisarro 
did  not  long  enjoy  his  success,  being 
beaten,  taken  prisoner,  and  beheaded  In 
1548. 

Placenta    (pla-sen'ta),    the    structure 

malia,  connects  the  foetus,  or  unborn  em- 
bryo, with  the  circulation  of  the  mother, 
thus  providing  for  its  due  nutrition.  In 
its  most  typical  form  it  is  only  met  with 
in  the  higher  Mammalia,  which  are  there- 
fore called  placental  mammals,  while  the 
lower  Mammalia  are  termed  tmplacental 
or  apUicental,  from  their  wanting  a 
placenta ;  the  latter  include  only  the  two 
orders  Monotremata  and  Marsopialla. 
Certain  analogous  structures  also  exist 
in  connection  with  the  development  of  the 
young  of  some  species  of  sharks  and 
dogfishes.  The  human  placenta  presents 
the  most  perfect  type,  and  is  a  special 
growth  on  the  rart  both  of  the  womb 
and  the  ovum.  By  the  ead  of  pregnancy 
It  forms  a  disk-like  mass,  measuiing  7} 


Plaoento 


Flagne 


inches  aeroM,  f  inch  thicli,  and  about 
20  01.  in  weight.  Connected  with  it  near 
the  middle  is  the  umbilical  cord,  by  means 
of  which  the  crowing  embryo  is  at- 
tached to  the  placenta.  Through  the  pla- 
centa and  the  umbilical  cord  the  blood 
of  the  embryo  comes  into  close  communi- 
cation with  the  blood  of  the  mother,  by 
means  of  which  its  purity  and  nourish- 
ing qualities  are  maintained,  and  the 
requisite  supply  of  material  furnished  for 
the  embryo  s  continued  life  and  growth. 
At  the  end  of  pregnancy  the  placenta  is 
thrown  off  as  the  after-birth,  after  the 
child  itself  has  been  expelled. 
Plan^nfa  ^  botany,  a  development 
xiaceuia,  ^f  cellular  tissue  at  the  in- 
ner or  ventral  suture  of  a  carpel,  to 
which  the  ovules  or  seeds  are  attached 
either  immediately  or  by  umbilical  cords, 
as  in  the  pod  of  the  pea.  The  placenta  is 
formed  on  each  margin  of  the  carpel,  and 
is  therefore  essentially  double.  When  the 
pistil  is  formed  by  one  carpel  the  inner 
margins  unite  in   the  axis,  and  usually 

TrsnsTerM  and  Vertical  Sections  to  show 
Placenta. 

1,  Central  Placenta.     2,  Axile  central  Pla- 
centa.    3,   Parietal   Placenta,     a  a,  Placentas. 

form  a  common  placenta.  When  the  pis- 
til is  composed  of  several  carpels  there 
are  generally  separate  placentas  at  each 
of  their  margins.  The  terra  parietal  pla- 
centa is  applied  to  one  not  projecting  far 
inwards,  or  one  essentially  constituted  of 
the  wall  of  the  seed-vessel.  The  form  of 
placentation  forms  an  im]>ortant  distinc- 
tion between  the  various  orders  of  plants. 

Placentalia  (Pla-sen-ta'll-a),  the 
.» wv^/uvMUM    placental    mammals. 

See  Placenta. 

PlaCCntia.     ^**  Pifcema. 

Placentitis  iPjf!;r";f"'.\!'^'  i'°^T" 

mation  of  the  placenta, 
a  disease  which  occurs  acute  or  chronic, 
more  frwjuetitly  the  latter.  It  may  re- 
sult from  a  blow,  fall,  fright,  sudden  and 
violent  emotion,  and  other  serious  shocks 
to  the  system.  The  foetus  is  injuriously 
affected,  and  may  be  destroyed  by  it: 
abortion  frequently  results,  and  at  almost 
any  stage  of  nregnancy. 


PlaCOid  (pl«koid),  a  term  used  to 
*^^  **  designate  a  variety  of  scales 
covering  the  bodies  of  the  Elasmobran- 
chiate  fishes  (sharks,  skates,  rays,  etc.), 
the  Placcidei  of  Agassis.  These  struc- 
tures consist  of  detached  bony  grains, 
tuberoles,  or  plates,  of  which  the  latter 
are  not  uncommonly  armed  with  spines. 
Plasral  (P'&'Kal),  in  music,  the  name 
*  given  by  Gregory  the  Great 
to  the  four  collateral  scales  which  he 
added  to  the  four  authentic  scales  of 
Ambrose.  (See  Gregorian  Tone:)  The 
term  plagal  is  now  applied  to  melodies 
in  which  the  principal  notes  lie  between 
the  tifth  of  the  key  and  its  octave.  The 
plagal  cadence  consists  of  the  chord  of 
the  subdominant  followed  by  that  of  the 
tonic.     See  Uutic. 

Plaeriostomi  (pl«-KJ-os'to-mi;  Or. 
flH^iUSbUJUl   pj^^io,^  oblique;  ttoma, 

mouth),  a  suborder  of  fishes  of  the  order 
Elasmobranchii,  distinguished  by  the  bod- 
ies of  the  vertebr»  being  either  b<my 
or  at  any  rate  containing  osseous  ele- 
ments; the  skull  gristly  or  cartilaginous; 
the  mouth  a  transverse  slit,  situated  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  head;  and  the 
teeth  numerous.  The  Plagiostomi  in- 
clude three  groups:  the  Cestraphori, 
represented  solely  by  the  Ceatracion 
PhilUpi  or  Port-Jackson  shark;  the 
Selachii  (sharks  and  dogfishes)  ;  and  the 
Batides,  represented  by  the  skates,  rays, 
and  sawfishes. 

Plaerilim.    (Plft'J>-«™).   in   the   Soman 
o  law,   is   the   crime  of  steal- 

ing the  slave  of  another,  or  of  kidnaping 
a  free  person  in  order  to  make  him  a 
slave.  By  Scotch  law  the  crime  of  steal- 
ing an  adult  person  (plagii  crimen)  was 
punishable  with  death,  and  the  same  pun- 
ishment has  been  applied  to  the  stealing 
of  children. 
PlfLcmp     (pl&g)>     n     contagious     and 

characterized  by  entire  prostration  of 
strength,  stupor,  delirium,  often  nausea 
and  vomiting,  and  certaiu  local  symp- 
toms, as  buboes,  carbuncles,  and  livid 
spots  {petechia).  Like  all  other  malig- 
nant fevers,  the  plague  has  its  various 
stages,  but  most  frequently  runs  its 
course  in  three  days,  although  death  may 
ensue  a  few  hours  after  its  appearance. 
If  the  patient  survive  the  fifth  day,  he 
will,  under  judicious  treatment,  generally 
recover.  There  is  no  specific  remedy 
against  the  disease,  and  a  variety  of  treat- 
ment has  been  adopted  on  different  occa- 
sions and  by  different  medical  men.  The 
plague  appeared  in  the  most  ancient 
times,  although  historians  have  used  the 
terms  indiscriminately  for  other  epidem- 
ics.    The  first  recorded  visitation  of  the 


fktoe 


Flanoli^ 


j£ 


plum  to  Europe  la  that  at  Athena 
(tfO  B.O.),  deacribed  by  Thucydidea; 
Joaephna  rektea  that  of  Jeruaalem,  a.d. 
72.  Among  the  most  di-aatrooa  placuea 
of  antiottitjr  are  those  of  Rome  in  262, 
when  5000  persons  are  said  to  have  died 
daily;  and  of  Constantinople  in  544. 
From  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  to  the 
twelfth  century  it  ravaged  at  intervals 
varioua  parts  of  Europe,  particularly 
France  and  Oermany.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  it  was  brought  to  modem  Europe 
by  the  Crusaders,  and  from  1347  to  1350 
it  traversed  all  Europe,  and  was  then 
called  the  black  death.  The  scourge 
again  claimed  its  victims  in  the  succeed- 
ing centuries,  and  in  1593  it  was  -brought 
to  England  by  an  army  returning  from 
the  Continent.  Before  the  true  nature  of 
the  disease  became  known  it  had  gained 
•,fi™  footing  in  London,  and  there  were 
11,508  deaths.  London  lost  by  the 
plague  36,2(»  lives  in  1003;  35,500  in 
19&;  13,480  in  1636;  and  68,600  in 
1666.  The  plague  in  Marseilles  in  1720 
caused  the  death  of  over  60,000  in  seven 
months,  and  in  Messina  (1743)  of  43,000 
in  three  months.  In  1771  it  nearly  swept 
off  the  whole  population  of  Moscow. 
Subsequently  it  appeared  locally  in 
Europe  at  a  number  of  points.  Its  last 
appearance  in  Europe  was  in  1878-79, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Volga  (As- 
trakhan and  neighborhood).  An  epi- 
demic of  plague  broke  out  in  the  Bom- 
bay Presidency,  India,  in  1896,  and  long 
«>ntinued,  thoukh  with  lessened  virulence. 
Recent  research  has  traced  the  disease  to 
the  effect  of  a  micro-organism,  and  dis- 
covered that  rats  are  subject  to  it  and  that 
fleas  convey  it  from  rats  to  men.  On  its 
recent  appearance  in  San  Francisco  an 
fctive  crusade  against  rats  and  squirrels 
in  California  went  far  to  prevent  its 
spread. 

PlfiiCC  (P'*8;  Phuronectet  or  Pla- 
•  n.  ^^  *eua),  a  genus  of  so-called 
Flat-fishes.'  The  common  plaice  (Phu- 
ronectet plateaaa  or  Plateata  vulgirU), 
,a  well-known  food  fish,  attains  an  aver- 
Jage  length  of  12  or  18  inches.  The 
dark  or  upper  side  is  colored  brown, 
spotted  with  red  or  orange;  the  body  is 
comparatively  smooth;  the  ventral  fins 
are  situated  on  the  throat,  and  are  thus 
jugular  in  position;  the  mouth  is  of 
■™"."  ?i?*'  *"**  provided  with  small 
teeth.  These  fishes  are  all  'ground- 
fishes,  that  is,  feed  and  swim  near  the 
wpttom  of  the  sea.  They  are  caught 
cniefly  by  means  of  trawl-nets. 
Plain  (Pl*°).  a  tract  of  country  of 
nearly  uniform  elevation; 
kaown  also  as  tteppe*,  twnnaa,  pniriit. 


pampat.  Elevated  plains  are  called  jri«- 
<ea««  or  tabMan4M. 

Mainfleld  fflj;f^!;«A  j2S„5 

the  base  of  the  Watchung  Mountaiaa* 
24  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  New  York.  It 
baa  printing  press,  tool,  automobile  and 
aearcnlight  industries;  and  is  a  reatden- 
tlal  city  for  many  New  York  bnainaaa 
men.    Pop.  20,550. 

Plainfield  ■  village  of  Windham  Co. 
X-lunneia,  Connecticut,  in  PlainfielS 
township  (town),  16  miles  v.n.t.  of 
Norwich,  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
and  Hartford  railroad.  Tlie  town  baa 
manufactures  of  cottons,  woolens,  yarns, 
etfc.    Pop.  6719. 

Plain-sonfiT    ^^^  o*^™*  ifiytm  to  tb* 

XAaiUBon^,  ^,^  ecclealaatical  chuit 
in  its  most  simple  state,  and  without 
harmonic  appendages.  It  consiata  largaly 
of  monotone,  and  its  inflectiona  aeldom 
exceed  the  range  of  an  octave.  Ambroaa 
of  Milan  and  Gregory  the  Great  intto> 
duced  certain  reforms  into  the  church 
music  of  their  day,  regarding  whidi  sc« 
Oregorian  Tone*. 

Plaintiff  (f'Sn'tlf),  in  law  courts, 
the  person  who  conuncncea 
a  suit  against  another  in  law  or  equity. 
Plan  !"  architecture,  a  drawing  show- 
""'  ing  the  design  of  a  building,  a 
term  chiefly  used  in  reference  to  hori- 
zontal sections  showing  the  disposition 
of  the  walls  and  various  floora  of  the 
building,  and  of  the  doors  and  windowa, 
etc.;  but  also  applied  to  elevations  and 
vertical  sections.  A  geometrical  plan  is 
one  wherein  the  several  parts  are  repre- 
sented in  their  true  proportions.  A  per- 
tpfctwe  plan  is  one,  the  lines  of  whicb 
follow  the  rules  of  penpective,  thus  re- 
ducing the  sizes  of  the  more  distant  parts. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  draught 
or  representation  on  paper  of  any  pro- 
jected work,  as  the  plan  of  a  city  or  «f 
a  harbor. 

Planarida  (P'an-ar'l-da),  the  PU- 
a  ^  .^^  ,.  ?*"an8,  a  suborder  of 
flat,  soft-bodied  annelids,  of  the  order 
Turbellaria,  mostly  oval  or  elliptical  in 
shape,  and  not  unlike  the  foot  of  a  gaa- 
teropodous  mollusc.  They  are,  for  the 
naost  part,  aquatic  in  their  habits,  occnr- 
ring  in  fresh  water  or  on  the  seashore, 
but  are  found  occasionally  in  mi^ 
earth.  The  male  and  female  organs  an 
united  in  the  same  individual,  and  the 
process  of  reproduction  may  be  either 
sexual,  by  means  of  true  ova,  or  non- 
sexual, bv  internal  gonmation  or  trans- 
verse fission. 

Planch^  (plang'sha),   Jaku    BoBur- 
"^^'^^  aoN,    an    Bnglidi    dramatic 


flanelwtte 


Tlaiat 


Md  ■taetlluMOM  writer,  wu  bom  in 
ITM;  dkd  in  1880.  Ht  cum  forward 
Mrijr  •■  •  writer  of  piecM  for  tlw  theater, 
•ad  aitw  occupied  himaelf^witli  arch»- 


_  ',  heraldry,  etc.,  being  apnointed  a 

CreolvaBt  in  the  heralde*  collefe,  and 
tcrijr  Somenet  herald  (186H).  He 
wrote  a  vast  number  of  eztraTaganiaa, 
paatOBlaiea,  and  other  litht  piecei,  while 
among  hie  more  eerioae  production!  were : 
HUUrf  of  Britkk  Cottume;  Introdve- 
Men  io  HtruUrp;  The  Punuivant  at 
Anna,  a  treatise  oo  heraldry;  Aecolteo- 
Kem  and  ReHeetiona;  Tk9  Conqueror  and 
hi$  Companion*;  The  Cyclopttdia  of 
Cottwme. 

Kancliette  iP,l?r:K>'i„".p/5?Sr- 

iatic     ''aneee.    It   coneists   of   a   heart- 
ahapeu    board,    with    wheels    under    its 
^1  broad  end,  and  a  hole  at  the  pointed  end 

through  which  a  pencil  may  be  thrust. 
It  mores  readily  when  the  fingers  of 
seasitiTes  are  placed  on  it,  and  often 
writea  freely,  many  long  and  often  very 
eurioaa  communications  l>eing  thus  re- 
ceived. 

Plui6  (P'i^)!  '  joiner's  tool,  consist- 
*«Hkv  ing  of  a  smooth-soled  solid 
block,  through  which  passes  obliquely  a 
piece  of  edged  stMl  forming  a  kind  of 
diiael,  nsed  In  paritw  or  smoothing  boards 
m  wood  of  any  kind.  Planes  are  of 
varioos  Unda,  as  the  jttek  plane  (about 
17  iachea  long),  osed  for  taking  off  the 
roughest  and  most  prominent  parts  of 
the  wood;  the  infing  plane,  which  is 
used  after  the  jack  plane ;  the  tmoothing 
plane  (7}  inches  long)  and  block  plane 
(12  inches  long),  chiefly  used  for  clean- 
ing off  finished  work,  and  giving  the 
utmost  degree  of  smoothness  to  the  sur- 
face of  tie  wood;  the  eompoM  plane, 
wliich  has  its  under  surface  convex,  its 
oae  being  to  form  a  concave  cylindrical 
snrface.  There  is  also  a  species  of  plane 
called  a  rehaie  plane,  being  chiefiy  used 
for  making  rebates.  The  ploutfh  is  a 
plane  for  sinking  a  channel  or  groove  in 
a  snrface,  not  close  to  the  edge  of  it. 
Ifoldtnp  planet  are  for  forming  mold- 
ings, and  must  vary  according  to  the  de- 
nffB.  Planes  are  also  used  for  smooth- 
ing metal,  and  are  wrought  by  machinery. 
See  PlanMM  Machine. 
VlanA      in   geometry,   a  surface   such 

are  joined  by  a  straight  line  the  line  will 

lie  wholly  witliin  the  surface. 

P|im«     iHOUirao.   See  Inclined  Plane. 

Plane-tree    (^^<dn<w),  a  genus  of 

Mcc  ^g^^  natural  order  Pla- 
P.  ceeUenmie,  the  American 
or  batttmwood  (the  airoaaiora 


or  eoMon-frea  of  the  Waat),  abooada  ia 
American  foreMs,  and  oa  the  banks  of  the 
Ohio  atUlns  sometimes  a  diaaeter  of 
from  10  to  14  feet,  riaing  00  or  70  feet 
without  a  branch.  The  bark  is  pale 
green  and  smooth,  and  its  epidemis  de- 
taches in  portions:  the  fresh  reota  are  a 
beautiful  red;  the  leaves  are  alternate, 
palmated,  or  lobed;  and  the  flowers  are 
united  in  little  globular,  pendant  balls. 
The  wood  in  searaning  takes  a  dull  red 
color,  is  fine  grained,  and  susceptible  of 


OrianUl  PUne-tree  (Platanv  trUmttlU). 

a  good  polish,  but  speedily  decays  «i  ex- 
posure to  the  weather.  The  oriental 
(P.  ortenfOlM).  resembles  the  preceding, 
and  is  plentiful  in  the  forests  of  West- 
ern Asia.  The  P.  orienWia  and  P.  aeeri- 
folia,  from  being  able  to  withstand  the 
deleterious  influences  of  a  smoky  atmos- 
phere, are  among  the  trees  most  suitable 
for  planting  in  towns.  Tlie  Acer  Peemdo- 
platinue,  the  common  sycamore  or 
greater  maple,  is  called  in  Scotland  the 
plane-tree. 

Planet  (?'.«>n'et).  a  celestial  body 
which  revolves  about  the  sun 
as  its  center  (primary  planete),  or  a 
body  revolving  about  another  planet  as 
its  center  {$econdarif  planeta.  eatellitet, 
or  moona).  The  known  ma)or  planets 
are,  in  the  order  of  their  proximity  to 
the  sun,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Eartli, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Nep- 
tune. Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
and  Saturn  were  known  to  the  ancients. 
Uranus  was  accidentally  discovered  by 
Herschel  in  1761,  while  the  discovery  of 
Neptnne  was  the  result  of  pure  Intel- 
lectual work,  the  calculating  of  Leverrier 
and  Adams  (1846).  The  pbinetoids  or 
asteroids  are  small  bodies  diseorar«d 
since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
cmtnry  between  the  orbits  of  Man  and 
Jupiter.    The  nomber  of  these  aitaioida 


Tkittariiiiii 


PlaatagiBMi 


if  uiBaalljr  iaeiMMd  by  frcdi  dlacor* 
•rlas;  ovtr  700  an  now  known.  Mmt- 
ewry,  Tanw.  Um  Earth,  and  Man  doatiy 
iwimbln  each  other  in  many  respects. 
They  are  all  of  moderate  she,  with  great 
deositiea;  the  earth  weighing  as  much 
aa  flre  *nd  a  half  times  an  equal  balk 
of  watw.  They  shine  only  by  reflected 
sunlight  Jnpiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and 
Neptune,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  enor- 
mous sis&  of  small  densities,  some  of 
th«OB  weigning  less  than  an  equal  bulk  of 
water,  and  probably  exist  at  a  high 
temperature,  and  give  out  in  addition  to 
reflected  sunlight  a  considerable  amount 
of  light  and  heat  of  their  own.  Nearly 
all  the  planets  are  attended  by  moons, 
varying  from  one  to  ten  in  number.  The 
most  colossal  of  the  planets  is  Jupiter; 
its  volume  exceeds  that  of  the  earth  about 
1200  times.  Saturn  is  next  in  size. 
Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Nep- 
tune, being  outside  the  earth's  orbit,  art 
sometimes  called  the  auperior  planeU; 
Venus  and  Mercury,  being  within  the 
earth's  orbit,  are  called  inferior  planeit. 
The  family  of  major  planets  has  also  been 
subdivided  into  intra-asteroidal  planets 
—  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars; 
and  emtra-Mieroidal  planets  —  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune,  the  char- 
acter of  the  two  being  very  different  as 
above  described.  The  planet  which  ap- 
proaches nearest  to  the  earth  is  Venus, 
the  least  distance  in  round  numbers 
being  23  millions  of  miles;  the  most 
distant  is  Neptune,  least  distance  2829 
million  miles.  We  give  here  a  compara- 
tive table  of  the  planets;  see  also  the 
separate  articles. 


naning  Maehine,  LTfiTSi'?! 

wood  or  metal.  For  the  former  pnrpoM 
the  usual  form  oas  cutters  on  a  onnB 
rotating  on  a  horixontal  axis  over  tba 
board  which  is  made  to  travel  ondei^ 
neath.  The  cutter-drum  may  be  repeated 
underneath  and  at  the  edges,  so  as  to 

Elane  all  sides  simultaneously.  In  plan- 
ig  metals  the  object  to  be  planed,  fixed 
on  a  traversing  table,  is  moved  against 
a  relatively  fixed  cutter,  which  has  a 
narrow  point  and  removes  only  a  fine 
strip  at  each  ctit. 

pianktnn  (plank'tun),  a  name  given 
riailKXOn  ^^  ^j^^  ,„„,„  anj^g^  of  the 

ocean  or  other  waters,  taken  collectively. 
Plant.     ®**  Botany. 

Plantagcnet  iSLTSilf'Sipid"^ 

Geoffrey,  Count  of  Anjou,  and  said  to 
have  originated  from  his  wearing  a 
branch  of  broom  (plante  dn  m«4<)  in  his 
cap.  This  name  was  borne  ny  the  four- 
teen kings,  from  Henry  II  to  Biduurd 
III,  who  occupied  the  English  throne 
from  1154-1485.  In  1400  the  family 
was  divided  into  the  branches  of  Lan- 
caster (Red  Rose)  and  York  (White 
Rose),  and  from  their  reunion  in  1486 
sprang  the  House  of  Tudor.  See  Bn§- 
land. 

Fkmtasrinese  ipJM-ta-jin'e-i),  or 

plantains,  a  small  nat.  order  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  monopetalous  ex<venoaa 
series.  It  consists  of  herbaceous,  rarriy 
Buffrutescent,  plants,  with  alternate  <» 
radical,  rarely  opposite,  leaves,  and  in* 


Mean  Dis- 
tance from 

Distance  from  the  Eartli. 

Time  of 
Bevolation 

Time  of 
Rotation 

round  the 

the  Sun. 

Greatest. 

Least. 

Sun. 

on  Axis. 

Milei. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Mean  Solar 
Days. 
87-9692 

h.    m.    a. 

Merenry    . . 

85,393,000 

185,681,000 

47,229,000 

t 

Venni     . .  . 

6«,131.000 

159,551,000 

28,809,000 

224-7007 

28  18J19T 

The   Earth . 

91,430,000 

•    •   •    • 

•    ■    >    • 

865-2568 

28  56     4 

U«ra 

139,312,000 

245,349,000 

62,889,000 

686-9784 

24  87  28 

Jupiter   .  . . 

475,693,000 

591,569,000 

408,709,000 

4332-5848 

9  55  28 

Saturn    . . . 

872,135,000 

1,014,071,000 

881,210,000 

10759-2197 

10  39  17 

U'anua   . . . 

1,753,851,000 

1,928,666,000 

1,745,806,000 

30686-8205 

1 

Keptnne    . . 

2,746,271,000 

2,863,183,000 

2,629,860,000 

60126-722 

1 

Planetarium,   ^'^omm. 

Plftnimeter    (Pla-nim'e-t6r),  an  in 
riauuueivr    gtrument    by    means    «< 


of 


conspicuous  flowers  on  scapes  arisiag 
from  the  lower  leavM.  The  rib-grass  or 
ribwort  (Piantikgo  lanceoUta),  the  ro«t 
and  iMves  of  which  were  formorly  used 


which  the  area  of  a  plane  figure  may  be   in  medicine  as  astringoitB,  is  a  eomiMW 
measured.    It  is  employed  by  surveyors   type  found  all  over  Siniop&    See  alM 


In  finding  areas  <m  maiis,  etc. 


next  article. 


p 


Plantain 


Plattirinf 


Plantain  te.'.*"'",?.'  ''•SJ^,.?!-  *!»•  wi»oi« -ou  of  ti»  foot  i.  .ppiud  to 

. |or),  or  OMAT^PiAiiTAiH,  tb*  croand  la  walkiat.    Thta  Mcrion  In- 

cindM  th«  bMn,   neeooBs,  eoatto,  aad 
badgen.    Canlron     which,     Uko     th« 


a  eenjMm  WMd,  th«  Imtm  of  which  are 
•11  ndkaL  oval,  and  pctiolate,  and  from 
amouat  than  aria*  leraral  lone  cylin- 
difcal  apikea  of  crMoiah,  incMiapicaoaa 
Bowora.  Tha  root  and  aeed  are  atlll  oc- 
outonaliy  employed  in  the  treatment  of 
flUarrhflM,  dyaentery,  and  external  eorea: 
the  aeeda  are  alao  collected  for  the  food 
of  birda. —  The  name  la  alao  fiven  to  an 
entirely  different  plant  See  next  arti- 
cle. 

Plantain,  5^?J7*'"T™'«,*''«„*^ 

»  of  the  nat.  order  Muaa- 
cam.  JfMM  jMradwIdea,  a  native  of  the 
Eaat  Indiea,  la  cultivated  in  moatly  all 
tropical  countriea.  The  atem  ia  aoft, 
herbaceouB,  IS  to  20  feet  hiah.  with 
leavea  often  more  than  6  feet  long  and 
nearly  2  broad.  The  fruit  growa  In 
cloatera.  ia  about  1  inch  in  diameter  and 
8  or  9  inchea  ions.  The  atem  diea  down 
after  fmiting;  but  the  root-itock  ia 
perennial,  and  aenda  up  numeroua  freah 
ahoota  annualir.  It  ia  easily  propagated 
by  Buckers.  The  banana  (which  we)  is 
a  cloaely-allied  variety  or  species.  Their 
fruits  are  among  the  most  useful  In  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  form  the  entire 
aoatenanee  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  of 
tropical  climatea.  A  dwarf  variety,  M. 
MMien«<«,  produces  a  fruit  in  European 
hothooaea.  The  fibera  of  the  leaf-atalks 
of  M.  temtUit  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
rappllea  Manila  hemp  or  abaca,  from 
which  cordage  of  the  strongest  character 
la  made,  the  finer  fibers  being  used  in 
making  cloth. 

Plantain-eaten,  LfwEi^'f*'^!" 

Musophagldn.  The  genus  Muaophiga  of 
tropical  Africa  includes  the  most  typical 
fwma.  These  birds  chiefly  feed  upon 
the  fruit  of  the  banana  and  plai  tain-tree. 
The  base  of  the  bill  appears  as  a  broad 
plate  covering  the  forehead.  The  plu- 
mage exhibits  brilliant  coloration.  The 
members  of  the  genus  Corythaim  or  Tou- 
rmco*  possess  a  bill  of  ordinary  aize  and 
conformation,  and  feed  on  insects  in  ad- 
dition to  fruits. 

Plantation  1p!!,°;*,*'*°L^'  »  *•"" 

formerly  used  to  debig- 
nate  a  colony.  The  term  was  later 
applied  to  an  estate  or  tract  of  land  in 
the  Southern  Statea  of  America,  the  West 
Indies,  etc.,  cultivated  chiefly  by  negroes 
or  other  non-European  laborers.  Ia  the 
»oathem  States  the  term  planter  is  spe- 
cially applied  to  one  who  grows  cotton, 
angar,  rice,  or  tobacco. 

Pantigrada  i^^^f^^'^"^'  .^^^• 

",        . .  TI0BADK8,  carnivorous 
uiaala  ia   which   the  whole  or  nearly 


Plantifnda  —  Foot  of  Polar  Bear, 
a,  Femnr  or  thigh,     h,  Tibia  or  leg.     e,  Tar 
■na  or  foot,     d,  CaU  or  htol.     «,  Plants  e< 
aolo  of  foot.    A  Oigiti  or  toos. 

weasels  and  clveta,  use  only  part  of  the 
aole  In  walking,  are  termed  aemiplmM- 

ffTCdo, 

Plant-lice.   seeAp»t». 

Plasenoia  (Pl«-«*n'thi-a),  a  walled 
t  ,     "   town    in   Spain,    Estiema- 

dura,  almost  surrounded  by  the  river 
Yerte,  120  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  Madrid.  Itn 
cathedral,   episcopal   palace,    and    ruined 

J?^"2LJir«  *••*  «»le'  objecta  of  intereat. 
Pop.  796S. 

Plasma    (plu'ma),  a  siliceous  mineral 

<  ••  .  ?'  *  ?"*°  co'o'»  ''>>>«•>.  ««Po- 
cially  in  ancient  times,  waa  uaed  for  orna- 
mental purposes. 

PlaSSey  (Pia*'**)'^  ^'""««  '«>  Bengal. 
_T^f  on  the  Hooghly.  80  milea 
north  of  Calcutta.  Here  on  June  28. 
1757,  Colonel,  afterwards  Lord  Clive, 
with  900  Europeans  and  2100  sepoys, 
defeated  Suraja  Dowla  with  an  army 
consisting  of  50,000  foot  and  18,000 
horse,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
British  Empire  in  India. 
Plasterine  (p'a^'t^r-lng)  is  the  art 
o  of  covering  the  surface 
of  masonry  or  woodwork  with  a  plastic 
material  in  order  to  give  it  a  smootii  and 
uniform  surface,  and  generally  in  in- 
terlora  to  fit  it  for  painting  or  decorations. 
In  plastering  the  interior  of  houses  a 
first  coat  is  generally  laid  on  of  lime, 
thoroughly  slaked,  so  as  to  be  free  from 
any  tendency  to  contract  moisture,  and 
mixed  with  sand  and  cows'  hair.  For 
the  purpose  of  receiving  this  coat  the 
wall  is  generally  first  covered  with  latha 
or  thin  strips  of  wood,  with  narrow  in- 
terstices between.  The  face  of  the  first 
coat,  which  should  be  of  considerabla 
thickness,  is  troweled,  or  indented  with 
cross  lines  by  the  trowel,  to  form  a  key 
for  the  finishing  coats.  The  second  coat 
is  applied  to  thia  when  it  it  thoronghli 


Platter  of  Ptili 


PUto-mariu 


diML  It  b  rabbtd  in  with  a  flat  board 
M  aa  tboroufh*/  to  fiii  th«  indenutions 
and  covor  tiio  unaquai  aarface  of  the  first 
coat  with  a  amootii  and  arm  one.  In 
plaataring  walla  great  care  muit  be  talien 
to  have  the  surface  perfectly  vertical. 
The  aettinc  coat,  whicE  ia  of  pure  lime, 
or  for  ntofdings  or  finer  work  of  piaster 
of  Paria  or  stucco,  is  applied  to  the  sec- 
ond coat  before  it  is  quite  dry.  A.  thin 
coating  of  plaster  of  Paris  is  frequently 
applied  to  ceilings  after  the  setting  coat. 

Platter  of  Farii,  »^*  "°*  !lT~ 

to  gypsum 
(which  see)  when  ground  and  used  for 
taking  caata,  etc.  If  one  part  of  pow- 
dered gypsum  be  mixed  with  two  and  a 
half  parts  of  water  a  thin  pulp  is  formed, 
which  after  a  time  sets  to  a  bard,  com- 
pact mass.  By  adding  a  small  quantity 
of  lime  to  the  moistened  gypeum  a  very 
hard  marble-like  substance  is  obtained  on 
setting. 

piaitem  *>^  applications  of  local  rem- 
*  "   edies  to  any  part  of  the  sur- 

face of  the  body  by  means  of  a  supporting 
texture  of  leather,  silk  or  other  cloth,  or 
merely  of  paper.  Plasters  may  be  in- 
tended to  give  protection,  support,  or 
warmth,  or  they  may  be  actively  medic- 
inal. (See  Blitten.)  The  materials 
most  frequently  used  in  plasters  are  bella- 
donna, cantharides,  galbanum,  isinglass, 
lead,  mercury,  opium,  pitch,  resin,  iron, 
and  soap,  and  their  aduesive  property  is 
generallv  due  to  the  comblnatioo  of 
oxide  of  lead  with  fatty  acids. 

Plaitio  Clay,  l^  «~'°":v/«#°"»'S! 

» '    given    to   one  of  the 
beds  of  the  Eocene  period  from  its  being 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery.     It 
is  a  marine  deposit. 
Plata    ^'  United  Pbovhtces  or.  See 

»  Argentine  Republic. 
Plata  (p'a'tA).  Rro  de  la  (River  of 
Stiver),  or  Riveb  Plate,  runs 
for  more  than  2(X)  miles  between  the 
Argentine  Republic  and  Uruguay,  and  is 
not,  strictly  speaking,  a  river,  but  rather 
an  estuary,  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  great  rivers  ParanA  and  Uruguay 
(which  see).  It  flows  into  the  Atlantic 
between  Cape  Bt.  Anwnio  and  Cape  St. 
Marv,  and  has  here  a  width  of  170  miles. 
On  its  banks  are  the  cities  and  ports  of 
Montevideo  and  Buenos  Ayres.  Naviga- 
tion is  hampered  in  some  parts  of  the 
river  by  shallow  water  and  sand  banka. 
It  was  discovered  in  1515  by  Juan  Diaz 
de  Soils,  and  called  Rio  de  Soils ;  it  owes 
its  pres«it  name  to  the  famous  navigator 
Cabot. 

Flataea  (pi*-"'*).  »  city  o*  ancient 
7  *""7**»  Graece,  it  Ba»tia.  now  whoUy 
in  ruioa.    It  haa  a  permanent  place-  ia 


history  oo  aoooant  of  the  groat  battia 
which  waa  fought  in  its  Tieinitr  In  Bm- 
tember,  479  %o.,  whao  1()0,()00  Oradtt 
under  Pauaaaiaa  defeated  aboat  tbriea 
that  numbar  of  Paraiaaa  uodar  MardMiliia. 
Platalea.    SeefipooaWU. 

Platanilta  (Pla-tan-la'u),  a  tttih 
xiuwuuMvn  ^  ,  t ,  ,  dolphin,  diffarinf 
chiefly  from  the  true  Delphinida  in  ita 
blowhole  being  a  longitudinal  faiatead  of 
transverse  fissure.  It  is  represented  by 
a  single  species  (P.  aongetica),  which  in- 
habits the  estuary  of  the  tiangea.  An 
allied  form  Unia  Belivieiuit)  inhabitd 
the  rivers  of  Bolivia. 

Platanna  (Plat'a-nus),  the  plane- 
*  **"    tree  genus,  type  of  the  or- 

der  Platanacea,    which   conaista  of   tbb 
one  genus.     See  Plane-tree. 
Plate.     ^^  Plate-mark: 

Plateau    (p"*-**')-  »«  raWeiaiMi. 
Plate  Olati.   s««  <"«••• 
Plate-marks,  ITrftl^nra^t'ri'eiif 

marks :  hall-mark,  sovereign's  mar! ,  name- 
mark  (first  letter  of  Christian  and  aur- 
name  of  maker),  and  date  mark  (a 
variable    letter),    legally    atamped    upon 

f;old  and  silver  plate  as  an  index  to  qoal- 
ty,  name  of  maker,  date  and  place  of 
manufacture.  The  duty  of  assaying  and 
stamping  gold  and  silver  wares  is  per- 
formed oy  the  Goldsmiths'  Company  of 
London.  Their  marka  are  a  leopard'a 
head  crowned,  and  a  lion  paaaant  aa  the 
sovereign's  mark.  Affiliated  with  Gkild- 
smiths'  Hall  are  the  following  aaaay 
offices,  each  of  them  having  a  diatinctive 
mark :  Birmingham,  an  anchor ;  Cheater, 
three  garba  (or  sheaves)  and  a  dagfar; 
Exeter,  a  castle  with  three  towers;  New- 
castle, three  castles:  Sheffield,  a  crown; 
Edinburgh,  a  thistle;  Glasgow,  tree, 
fish,  and  bell;  Dublin,  a  harp,  crowned. 
Plate,  whether  of  British  or  foreign 
make  (the  latter  bears  in  addition  to 
the  usual  marks  the  letter  r  in  an  oval 
escutcheon),  must  be  of  one  of  the  stand- 
ards prescribed  by  law,  and  hall-marked, 
before  it  can  be  dealt  in,  or  even  expoaad 
for  sale.  Forfeiture  and  a  fine  of  £10 
for  each  article  are  the  penalties  attached 
to  breaches  of  this  law.  The  atandarda 
are:  gold,  22,  18,  15,  12,  and  9  carats 
(24  carats = pure  gold)  ;  silver,  ahnoat 
invariably  11  ozs.  2  dwts.  per  lb.  troy. 
Foreign  plate  of  an  ornamental  charac- 
ter mannfactured  before  1800.  Jewelry 
with  atone  settings  or  ao  richly  cbaaed 
that  it  could  not  be  atamped  without 
injury,     ailver     chaina,     ne^leta,     and 


^te-p«wd0r 


PUtiBllll 


Mkiti.  and  a  vartoty  e(  souU  faacr  ar* 
tldaa  aia  nvmvt  from  haU-aarkinf. 
QoM  plat*  la  ltal>l«  to  a  duty  o(  171. 
Mr  oa.,  ailTtr  plat*  U.  94.  per  oi.;  this 
iMj  la  payabl*  at  the  aarMjr  oflkiaa  before 
tbt  aMayad  and  ataaped  goods  are  re- 
nuraed.  A  rebate  of  1th  in  groaa  weight 
la  allowad  If  articles  are  seat  ia  an  nn- 
flalabad  atate.  All  pta^a  rings,  of  what- 
ever weight,  are  considered  as  weiiimg 
rings,  and  liable  to  duty,  while  rings 
ekaaed  or  Jeweled  are  tnt.  For  deal- 
ing In  plat*  of  gold  above  2  dwts.  and 
oader  2  oaa.  in  weight,  or  of  siWer  above 
6  dwta.  and  under  80  ois.  per  article, 
a  plat*  llccns*  of  £2,  6«.  (renewable  8U« 
BMlly)  la  required;  for  heavier  wares 
til*  anoont  of  annual  license  is  £5,  15«. 

Plate-powder,   ?ieaX^,l"  .'SI 

aUver  plat*,  comtnonly  made  of  a  mix- 
tars  of  roage  and  prepared  chalk. 
Plating  <plAt'lng),  the  coating  ot  a 
**•*"*»  meullic  article  with  a  thin 
fllm  of  some  other  metal,  especially  gold 
or  silver.  As  regards  plating  with  pre- 
ckHM  metals,  electrodeposltion  has  en- 
tirely superseded  the  old  Sheffield  method, 
whioi  consisted  in  welding  plates  of 
▼arlous  metals  at  high  temperatures. 
This  welding  process  is  now,  however, 
tersely  employed  in  plating  iron  with 
nieiel  for  cooking  vessels,  iron  with 
twass  for  stair-rods  and  other  furnishing 
and  domestic  requisites,  and  lead  with 
thi  for  pipes,  etc.  See  Eleetro-metallurav. 

Flatiniim  (p>»t'in-^'n).  »  "•»»}>  ^jf- 

^^^^^^  covered  in  America  In  the 
16th  century.  Platinum  occurs  mostly  In 
small,  irregular  grains,  generally  contains 
a  little  iron,  and  is  accompanied  besides 
by  iridium,  osmium,  rhodium,  palladium, 
ruthenium  (hence  called  the  'platinum 
metals'),  and  also  sometimes  by  copper, 
chromium,  and  titaniuu.  It  was  first 
obtained  in  Peru,  and  has  since  been 
found  in  various  other  localities,  such  as 
Canada,  Oregon,  California,  the  West 
Indies,  Brasil,  Colombia,  Borneo,  etc., 
bat  the  chief  supply  of  platinum  ore 
comes  from  th'e  IJral  Mountains  in 
Siberia.  It  was  there  discovered  in  l>eds 
of  auriferous  sands  in  1823,  and  has  been 
worked  by  the  Russian  government  since 
IffitS.  Pure  platinum  is  almost  as  white 
as  silver,  takes  a  brilliant  polish,  and  is 
highly  ductile  and  malleable.  It  is  the 
heaviest  of  the  ordinary  metals,  and  the 
{east  expansive  when  heated;  specific 
gravity  21.53  rolled,  21.15  cast  It  un- 
dergoes no  change  from  the  combined 
agency  of  air  and  moisture,  and  It  may 
be  exposed  to  the  strongest  heat  of  a 
nnith's  forge  without  sufFering  either  oxi- 
datioa  or  fusion.    Platinum   is  not   at- 


tacked by  any  of  tb*  pun  adda.  Ita 
only  solvents  ar*  chlorine  and  nitre- 
muriatic  acid,  which  act  upon  it  with 
8 renter  diOkulty  than  oa  gold.  In  a 
nely  divided  state  It  has  the  power  of 
absorbing  and  condensing  large  qoaatlties 
of  gases.  On  account  of  its  mat  infmi- 
bllity,  and  its  [.-.rer  generally  of  with- 
standing the  action  of  chonical  reagents, 
platinum  is  much  used  as  a  material  for 
making  vessels  to  be  used  in  '.he  chemkal 
Uboratory.  As  a  platinum  loco  or  needl* 
it  is  much  used  in  bacteriological  labora- 
tories. Crucibles,  evaporating  dishes,  etc., 
are  very  often  made  of  platinum;  so 
also  the  Isrge  stills  used  for  the  evapora- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid.  The  useful  alloys 
of  platinum  are  not  numerous.  With 
silver  it  forms  a  tolerablv  fusible  white 
alloy,  malleable  and  brilliant  when  pol- 
ished ;  but  it  scales  and  blackens  by  work- 
ing. Gold,  by  a  forge  beat,  combines  with 
platinum,  and  the  alloys,  in  all  propor- 
tions, are  more  fusible  than  the  latter 
metal.  In  the  proportion  of  38  grs.  to 
1  OS.  it  forms  a  yellowish-white,  ductile, 
hard  alloy,  which  is  so  elastic  after  ham- 
mering that  it  has  been  used  for  watch- 
springs;  but  the  favorable  results  ex- 
pected from  them  have  not  been  realised. 
Alloyed  with  Iridium  (a  raro  metal  of 
the  same  group)  it  possesses  an  excellent 
and  unalterable  surface  for  fine  engrav- 
ing, as  In  the  scales  of  astronomical  in* 
Btruments,  etc.  This  alloy  has  also  been 
adopted  for  the  construction  of  interna- 
tional standards  of  length  and  weight 
Mercury,  by  trituration  with  spongy 
platinum,  forms  an  amalgam  at  first 
soft,  but  which  soon  becomes  firm,  and 
has  been  much  used  in  obtaining  mallea- 
ble platinum.  A  coating  of  platlnam  can 
be  given  to  copper  and  other  metals  by 
applying  to  them  an  amalgam  of  spongy 

Jtlatinum  and  5  parts  of  mercury;  the 
atter  metal  is  then  volatilised  by  beat 
Lead  combines  with  platinum  readily; 
and  iron  and  copper  in  like  manner. 
The  last  mentioned,  when  added  in  the 
proportion  of  7  to  IG  of  platinum  and 
1  of  zinc,  and  fused  in  a  crucible  onder 
charcoal  powder,  forms  the  alloy  called 
artificial  gold.  Steel  unites  with  plati- 
num in  all  proportions,  and,  especially 
in  the  proportion  of  from  1  to  3  per 
cent,  of  platinum,  forms  a  tough  and 
tenacious  alloy,  well  adapted  for  cutthig 
instruments.  Arsenic  nnltM  easily  with 
platinum,  and  is  sometimes  employed  for 
rendering  the  latter  metal  fusible.  An 
alloy  of  platinum,  iridium,  and  rhodium 
is  used  for  makiiq;  crucibles,  etc.  It  is 
harder  than  pure  platinum,  u  less  easily 
attacked  by  chemical  reagenti^  and  bears 
a  higher  temperature  without  fnaing. 


Pkto 


Fkto 


Plato 


Plato. —  AntlqM 


(plA'tft),  an  •ncieat  Grtck  phi- 
lo8«>i  h«r,  founder  of  ont  of  tbt 

KMt  whools  of  Greek  pbilowpb/,  wu 
m  at  Atheu  in  b.c.  420:  die<*  H 
B.O.  847.  Few  partlculara  of  bii 
art  knowB;  bat  it  ia  beyond  doubt 
be  waa  well  connected  and  carefully  eon- 
Mted.  About  bit  twentieth  jrear  be  came 
directly  under  tbe  influrnre  of  Socralea, 
and  from  thii  tinM 
he  lave  bimielf  en- 
tlrelj  to  pblloeopby. 
Until  tbe  death  of 
Socratea  (b.c.  899) 
he  appeara  to  have 
been  bis  conetant 
and  favorite  pupil : 
but  after  that  event 
Plato  is  auppoaed  to 
have  left  Athena  with 
a  view  to  improving 
hli  mind  by  travel. 
He  la  aald  to  have 
visited  Gyrene  (in 
North  Africa),  Low- 
er Italy,  and  Sicily. 
Varioua  other  jour- 
neys are  attributed 
to  him,  but  without 
BuiBcient  authority.  About  &c.  380  or 
888  Plato  returned  to  Athens  and  began 
to  teach  bis  philosophical  system  in  a 
gymnasium  known  as  the  Academy,  his 
subsequent  life  twinp  unbroken,  except 
by  two  visits  to  Sicily.  He  appears  to 
have  had  a  patrimony  sufficient  for  his 
wanta,  and  taught  without  remunera- 
tion.    One  of  bis  pupils  was  Aristotle. 

The  reputed  works  of  Plato  consist  of 
Dialoamet  and  Letters,  the  latter  now  re- 
garded as  spurious;  but  the  genuineness 
of  most  of  the  DialoaucM  is  generally  ad- 
mitted. The  chronology  of  the  latter  is 
a  matter  of  uncertainty.  The  first  at- 
tempt at  a  critical  arrangement  was  made 
by  Bcbleiermacher,  who  adopted  an  ar- 
rangement into  three  divisions,  according 
to  the  leading  doctrines  he  believed  they 
were  intended  to  inculcate.  The  chief 
works  in  the  first  section  are  Phedrua, 
Protagoras,  Parmenides,  Lysis,  Laches, 
Charmides,  Euthvphron;  in  the  second, 
The«tetU8,  Sophistes,  Politicus,  Ph«do, 
Philebus,  Gorgias,  Meno,  Euthydemns, 
Cratylus,  Symposium;  in  the  third,  tbe 
Republic,  Timeus,  Critias,  and  the 
Leges  or  Lawa.  Hermann  baa  attempted 
to  make  out  a  chronological  arrangement, 
and  other  scholars  who  di£fcr  from 
Scbleiermacher  have  attt  ^ted  various 
theories  of  constructive  arrangement. 
Tlieae  schemes  in  general  proceed  on  the 
assumption  that  each  ■."ialogue,  being  an 
artistic  whole,  forma  a  link  in  a  chain. 
Grote  atid  otmrs,  however,  do  not  admit 


tkat  Plato  foilowad  aay  vl»m  dtbar  artla- 
tie  or  didactic.  Apart  froai  tbalr  pkllo- 
aophicat  tcacbisf  tbt  diakfiiw  of  rkta 
are  admirabla  aa  worka  of  Utaratova,  a*- 
pacially  for  tbtir  diamatlc  tmtlifalMH, 
•nd  exhibit  Gretk  proaa  la  ita  higlMat 
perfection.  In  all  of  tham  BocmtM 
(idealised)  appears  aa  on*  of  tba  apaak* 
era.  They  contain  alao  lively  and  ac- 
curate accounta  of  pravioua  ayatema  of 
Greek  philosophy  and  tlieir  teacbeia.  In- 
troduced not  merely  for  blatorical  par- 
posea,  but  aa  incidental  to  tba  analyata  of 
their  opinlona.  There  ia  ao  exoallant 
English  translation  of  tba  wbola  by 
Jowett. 

The  phlloaophy  of  Plato  mnat  ba  ra- 
garded  aa  one  of  tba  grandeat  efforta  artr 
made  by  the  human  mind  to  compaaa  tba 

Eroblem  of  life.  After  tba  axampla  of 
ocratea,  be  held  tbe  great  end  of  pbik>- 
Bophlc  teaching  to  be  to  lead  tba  mind 
of  the  inquirer  to  tbe  dbKovcnr  of  trath 
rather  than  to  impart  it  dogmatically,  and 
for  this  end  he  held  oral  teaching  to  m  aa- 
perior  to  writing.  Tbia  preference  ap- 
pears to  have  determined  tba  converaa- 
tional  form  givm  to  moat  of  hia  worka. 
I'lato  originated  the  distinction  of  phlloao- 
phy into  the  three  branchea  of  etlilca, 
physics,  and  dialectics,  although  tbeaa 
names  were  first  applied  by  hia  diaciple 
Xenocrates.  The  cardinal  principle  of 
Plato'a  dialectical  system  ia  tbe  doctrine 
of  ideas.  True  science,  according  to  bin, 
waa  conversant,  not  about  those  matwiai 
forms  and  imperfect  intelligences  which 
we  meet  with  In  our  daily  intercoaraa 
with  men;  but  it  Investigated  tlie  nataia 
of  those  purer  and  more  perfect  pattema 
which  were  the  modela  after  which  all 
created  beinga  were  formed.  Theoe  per- 
fect types  he  supposes  to  have  eziited 
from  all  eternity,  and  he  calhi  them  the 
ideaa  of  the  great  original  Intelliganoa. 
As  these  cannot  be  perceived  by  the 
human  senses,  whatever  knowledga  wa 
derive  from  that  source  is  unaatianctory 
and  uncertain.  Plato,  therefore,  main- 
tains that  degree  of  skepticiam  which 
denies  all  permanent  authonty  to  the  avi- 
dence  of  sense.  Having  dwcovered  or 
created  the  realm  of  ideaa,  he  aarveyed  It 
throughout.  He  defined  ita  moat  ex- 
cellent forms  as  beauty,  Justice,  and 
virtue,  and  having  done  so  be  detarminad 
what  was  the  supreme  and  dominant 
principle  of  the  whole.  It  ia  tba  Idaa  ^ 
the  Good.  The  harmony  of  iatelligCTCa 
throughout  ita  entire  extent  with  good- 
neas:  this  ia  the  highest  attainment  of 
Plato'a  philoa<q[ihy.  Hb  ethical  ayatam 
waa  in  direct  dependence  npon  hia  dia- 
lectics. He  believed  that  the  Ideaa  of  all 
eziatlnc  thlnga  were  orifinally  contained 


Platoff 


Plattemee 


in  God.  These  ideu  were  each  the  per* 
fection  of  ite  kind,  and  aa  sncb  were 
viewed  by  Qod  with  approvai  and  love. 
Ood  himself  being  infinitely  good  was  the 
object  of  all  imitation  to  intelligent  be- 
ings; hence  the  ethics  of  Plato  had  a 
dooble  foundation,  the  imitation  of  Qod 
and  the  realisation  of  ideas,  which  were 
in  each  particular  the  models  of  perfec- 
tion. To  his  cosmical  theories  he  attrib- 
uted only  probability,  holding  that  the 
dialectical  method  by  which  truth  alone 
could  be  discovered  was  applicable  only  to 
ideas  and  the  discovery  of  moral  prin- 
ciples. The  most  valuable  part  of  Plato's 
cosmogony  is  its  first  principle,  that  God, 
who  is  without  envy,  planned  all  things 
that  they  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible 
like  himself.  Plato's  political  treatises 
are  the  application  of  his  ethical  prin- 
ciples to  sccial  organization.  His  genius 
was  more  adapted  to  build  imaginary  re- 

Eubiics  than  to  organize  real  ones;  hence 
is  judgment  of  statesmen  is  also  faulty 
and  often  unjust,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
case  of  Pericles  and  Themistocles.  He 
was  guided  by  one  grand  principle,  which 
is  mentioned  in  several  of  his  writings, 
that  the  object  of  the  education  and  ui- 
struction  of  young  people,  as  well  as  of 
the  government  of  nations,  is  to  make 
them  better;  and  whoever  loses  sight  of 
this  object,  whatever  merit  he  may  otlier- 
wise  possess,  is  not  really  worthy  of  the 
esteem  and  approbation  of  the  public. 

The  followers  of  Plato  have  been 
divided  into  the  Old,  Middle,  and  New 
Academies ;  or  into  five  schools :  the  first 
representing  the  Old,  the  second  and  third 
the  Middle,  and  the  fourth  and  fifth  the 
New  Academy.     In  the  first  are  Speusip- 

Sus,  Xenocrates,  Heraclides,  and  others. 
•f  these,  the  first  reverted  to  pantheistic 
principles,  the  second  to  mysticism,  and 
the  last  was  chiefly  distinguished  as  an 
astnmomer.  In  the  Middle  Academy,  of 
which  were  Arcesilas  and  Cameades,  the 
founders  of  the  second  and  third  school, 
skeptical  tendencies  began  to  prevail. 
The  New  Academy  began  with  Philo  of 
Larissa,  founder  of  the  fourth  school.  Its 
teachings,  however,  deviated  widely  from 
IdM  views. 

Platoff  (plA'tof),  hetman  of  the  Cos- 
sacks  and  a  distinguished 
Russian  cavalry  oflScer,  bom  about  17^- 
66;  died  181&  He  successfully  fought 
the  Turks  in  Moldavia,  and  largely  con- 
tributed to  the  great  disaster  which  befell 
the  French  army  retreating  from  Moscow 
in  1812. 

Platonic  Love  ^Jp'iif'l'*^^'  ■  *«"" 

by  which  is  generally 
understood  a  pure  spiritual  aflFection  be- 
twaen  the  aexet  unmixed  with  carnal  de- 


sires, and  regarding  the  mind  only  and 
ita  excellences. 

Platoon  (Pl*-tO«>'),  in  military  Ian- 
,,  ^\.  fuage,  meant  formerly  a 
small  body  of  men  in  a  battalion  of  foot, 
etc.,  tliat  fired  alternately.  The  term  is 
now  applied  to  two  files  forming  a  sub- 
division of  a  company ;  hence  also  plaloon- 
finnff,  firing  by  subdivisions. 
Piatt.  Thomas  Coixieb,  political. 
""»  leader,  born  at  Oswego.  New 
York,  in  1833;  died  in  1910.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1873  and  to  the 
Senate  in  1881,  but  resigned  the  same 
year,  with  his  colleague  Conkling,  from 
opposition  to  President  GarfieldTs  civil 
service  policy.  In  1880  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  Express  Com- 
pany. His  time  was  largely  devoted  to 
political  management,  and  for  years  he 
was  the  autocrat  of  the  Republican  party 
in  New  York.  He  was  re-elected  to  the 
Senate  in  1896  and  again  in  1903. 

Plattdentsch   ffi'f?»'i'^'eS 

guage  of  the  North  German  Lowlands, 
from  the  borders  of  Holland  to  those  of 
Russian  Poland.  The  Dutch  and  Flem- 
ish languages  also  belong  to  the  Low 
German  dialects,  but  being  associated 
with  an  independent  political  system,  and 
liavhig  a  literature  of  their  own,  are  reck- 
oned as  distinct  languages.  The  Low 
German  dialects  agree  in  their  consonan- 
tal system  not  only  with  Dutch  and  Flem- 
ish, but  also  with  English  and  the  Scan- 
dinavian tongues.  (See  Philolooy.)  Un- 
til the  Reformation  Low  German  waa 
the  general  written  language  of  the  part 
of  the  continent  above  mentioned ;  but 
from  that  time  Low  German  works  lie- 
came  gradually  fewer,  owing  to  the  posi- 
tion now  taken  by  the  High  (or  modern 
classical)  German.  Even  as  a  spoken 
language  High  German  has  ever  since 
been  slowly  superseding  the  Low.  In 
recent  times,  however.  Low  German  lit- 
erature has  received  a  new  impetus  from 
Klaus  Groth  and  Fritz  Renter.  Lin* 
guistically  the  Low  German  dialects  hava 
received  a  good  deal  of  attention,  and 
many  valuable  lexicographical  works  have 
appeared. 

Platte  iP'?*)'  ■  ^^^  o'  the  western 
\^  «  United  States,  which  rises  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  by  two  branches, 
called  respectively  the  North  and  South 
Forks  of  the  Platte.  The  united  stream 
falls  Into  the  Missonrl  after  a  coarse  of 
about  1600  miles.  It  is  from  1  mile  to 
3  miles  broad,  shallow,  encumbered  with 
islands,  has  a  rapid  current,  and  is  thwe- 
fore  not  navigable. 

Pkttensee   (?[•*'*«>-««).  see  Bem. 

ton. 


FUttner 


Flayfair 


I 

; 


I 


ri»nuci  ^  Geman  metallurgUt,  born 
in  1800;  died  in  1858.  From  1842-57 
he  held  the  professorship  of  metallurgy 
at  Freiberg,  and  taught  and  experimented 
with  great  success.  He  is  best  Icnown 
for  his  application  of  the  blowpipe  to  the 
quantitative  assay  of  metals. 

Plattsburg  i?S.n»2!'co"«ir«2t 

of  Clinton  Co.,  on  Cumberland  Bay,  Lake 
Champlain,  at  the  mouth  of  Saranac 
River,  168  miles  M.  by  B.  of  Albany.  It 
is  a  lake  port  of  entry,  with  a  good  har- 
bor ;  lumber,  iron,  pulp,  paper,  automobile 
engines,  and  grain  being  the  chief  articles 
of  export.  The  river  supplies  water 
power,  and  iron,  flour,  sewing  machines, 
pulp,  paper,  etc.,  are  manufactured. 
Plattsburg  is  a  military  post,  with  one  of 
the  largest  barracks  in  the  United  States. 
Near  here,  on  Sept.  >1,  1814,  Commodore 
McDonough  gained  a  victory  over  the 
British  lake  fleet,  and  an  army  which  had 
attacked  the  town  was  also  repulsed. 
Pop.  11,138. 

Plattsmouth,  hof'ik.^&'L'^e 

Missouri  River,  22  miles  s.  of  Omaha. 
A  steel  bridge  2900  feet  long  here  crosses 
the  riv<  .  There  are  railroad  shops,  flour 
mills,  etc^  and  a  trade  in  grain  and  cattle. 
Pop.  4287.  _ 

XXaiyCilUia.  norms'),  a  division  of 
the  class  Scolecida.  They  are  repre- 
sented by  the  tapeworm,  '  flukes,'  etc. 

Platypos  il^2r^'  «-  ^•'"**'^ 
Platyrhina  ig^!-''''"'^-  ®^  ^""■ 

PlanATi  (plon'en),  a  thriving  mann- 
xiliucu  facturing  town  in  Saxony, 
circle  of  Zwickau,  in  a  beautiful  valley 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elster,  60  mUea 
8.  ot  Leipzig,  78  miles  w.  s.  w.  o£  Dres- 
den. It  is  walled  and  has  a  castle.  Man- 
ufactures machinery,  paper,  leather,  cali- 
<'«»e8,  and  extensively  all  kinds  of  em- 
broidered goods.  Pop.  (1910)  121,272. 
Pla-nfna  (plft'tus),  Trrus  Maccius, 
riauiUS  ^ne  o'  the  oldest  and  best 
Roman  comic  writers,  and  one  of  the 
founders  of  Roman  literature,  bom  at 
Saraina,  m  Umbria,  about  b.c.  254;  died 
B.C.  184.  We  have  few  particulars  of 
his  life.  He  is  said  to  have  been  first 
connected  with  a  dramatic  company  at 
Rome;  then  to  have  engaged  in  businesa, 
but  losing  his  means  was  at  one  time 
tn  a  very  destitute  condition,  and  com- 

Klled  o  earn  his  Uvelibood  by  turning  a 
ker's  liandmiU.  At  tbia  period  he 
became  a  successful  writer  of  comedtca. 
Tha  parity  of  his  langoafa,  hia  gmaim 

1«_U— 5 


humor,  and  his  faithful  portrayal  of  mid- 
dle and  lower  claaa  Roman  life  made  him 
a  great  favorite  with  the  Roman  public; 
and  his  plays  successfully  held  the  stage 
for  some  centuries.  He  was  much  ad- 
mired by  Cicero  and  Varro.  For  his 
characters.  ploU,  scenes,  etc.,  he  was 
chiefly  indebted  to  the  poets  of  the  new 
Attic  comedy,  but  the  language  was  his 
own.  Some  twenty  of  his  plays  have 
been  preserved  to  us,  a  few  of  them  more 
or  less  mutilated.  ^ 

Plairfair  (plft'fftr).  John,  a  Scot- 
**"'J •*■*""*■  tish  natural  philosopher  and 
mathematician,  born  in  Forfarshire  in 
1748;  died  at  Edinburgh  in  1819.  He 
entered  the  University  of  St.  Andrews 
at  fourteen,  where  he  soon  displayed  spe- 
cial talent  for  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy.  Having  entered  the  church 
he  held  a  living  for  some  years.  In  1786 
he  was  chosen  assistant  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. In  1802  appeared  his  lUuatrO' 
tiont  of  the  Huitonian  Theorp  of  the 
Earth,  and  in  the  following  year  a  Bio- 

rphical  Account  of  Dr.  James  Button. 
1805  he  obtained  the  chair  ot  natural 
Shilosophy  in  Edinburgh  University, 
'he  Royal  Society  of  London  elected  him 
a  member  in  1807.  He  paid  a  visit  to 
the  continent  in  1815,  and  spent  some 
seventeen  months  in  Trance,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy.  lie  published  Elementr  of 
Euclid  and  Outlines  of  Natural  PkUo$' 
ophy,  and  contributed  many  valuable  pa- 

Sers  to  the  Trantactiona  of  tho  Royal 
ociety  of  Edinburgh,  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  and  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
His  writings  are  models  of  composition 
and  argument. 

Plairfair  Sib  Lton,  a  British  sci^ 
x-iHyiiUir,     ^^jjgj   a^^   politician,  «oa 

of  Dr.  Q.  Flayfair,  inspector-general  of 
hospitals  in  Bengal,  was  l>orn  at  Meemt, 
Bengal,  in  1819.  and  educated  at  St  An- 
drews and  Edinburgh  universities.  Ha 
studied  chemistry  under  Graham  in  Qlas- 
gow  and  London,  and  under  Liebig  at 
Oiessen.  His  able  reports  on  the  sani- 
Ury  condition  of  the  large  towns  of 
Britain,  and  his  valuable  services  as  roe- 
cial  commissioner  at  the  London  Exhwi- 
tion  of  1851  first  brought  him  promi- 
nently before  the  public.  He  became 
connected  with  the  science  and  art  da- 
partment  at  its  establishment  in  1888, 
inspector-general  of  government  moseaiiM 
ana  schoois  of  science  in  1^6,  and  was 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, 1858-69.  Besides  hta  scientific 
memoirs  be  published  numenwa  important 
papers  on  political,  social,  and  educa- 
tional aabjects.  Moat  of  these  economical 
essays  haw  recently  been  collected  and 


Playing  Cardf 


Pledonnnu 


iHiblMied   under    the   title   Bmbieott   of 
8<nM  WOfan,    He  died  in  18e& 

Playing  Cards.  ^^  <^«"* 
Plebeians   (pifi*'"*).  ©r  pubs,  in 

ancient  Rome,  one  of  tlie 
■reat  orders  of  the  Roman  people,  at 
first  excluded  from  nearly  all  the  rights 
of  citisensbip.  The  whole  government  of 
the  state,  with  the  enioymeot  of  ail  its 
coices,  belonged  exclusively  to  the  Patri- 
dans,  with  whom  the  Plebeians  could  not 
even  intermarry.  The  civil  history  of 
Rome  is  to  a  great  extent  composed  of 
the  straggles  of  the  Plebeians  to  assert 
tlieir  claim  to  the  place  in  the  common- 
wealth to  which  their  numbers  and  social 
importance  entitled  them,  and  which  were 
crowned  with  complete  success  when 
(B.O.  286)  the  Lex  Hortensia  gave  the 
jMeMsctto,  or  enactments  passed  at  the 
plebeian  asr:mblies,  the  force  of  law. 
From  tlUs  time  the  privileges  of  the  two 
classea  may  be  said  to  have  been  equal. 
Plebiscite  (pleb'i-»"),  a  vote  of  a 
A««wMVAi,c   ^^jj,^  nation  obtained   by 

universal  suffrage,  a  form  of  voting  intro- 
duced into  France  under  the  Napoleonic 
regime,  and  named  after  the  Roman 
pUbi»oit€k  (See  above  article.)  The 
term  is  also  used  in  a  more  general  sense. 

Pleotolrnathi  <pJ*i****>4i'.*'*'^'  * 

^Avvwv^uMMu  suborder  of  Teleoetean 
fishes,  distinguished  by  the  maxillary  and 
intermaxillary  bones  on  each  side  of  the 
jaw  being  firmly  united  together  by  bony 
onion.  The  head  is  large,  and  the  union 
of  its  Iranes  firmer  tlian  In  any  other  Tele- 
ostean  fishes;  the  body  generally  short, 
skin  homy,  fins  small  and  soft.  As  ex- 
amples of  the  chief  fishes  included  in  this 
Owe  may  cite  the  trank-fishes,  the 
hes,  the  globe-fishes,  the  sun-fishes, 
etc. 

Pledsre  (P'e^J).  or  pawn,  in  law,  is 
vw^v  g  species  of  bailment,  being 
the  deposit  or  placing  of  goods  and  chat- 
tels, or  any  other  valuable  thing  of  a 
perMMial  nature,  as  security  for  the  pay- 
ment of  money  Irarrowed,  or  the  fulfill- 
ment of  an  obligation  or  promise.  If 
the  money  is  not  paid  at  the  time 
stipulated  the  pawn  may  be  sold  by  the 
pawnee,  who  may  retain  enough  of  the 
proceeds  to  pay  the  debt  intended  to  be 
secured.    See  Pawnbroker. 

Pleiades   /p»I'*-<»««).   .the    so-called 
A*v;x«»u«;s    i^^^a  stars'  in  the  neck  of 

the  constellation  Taurus,  of  which  onlv 

six  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye  of  most 

persons.    They  are  regarded  by  M&dler 

as  the  central  group  of  the  Milky  Way. 

Ancient  Greek  legends  derive  their  name 

from  the  sev«i  daughters  of  Atlas  and 

tbe  oyapb  Pleiona,  tabhi  to  have  been 


placed  as  stars  in  the  sky,  and  tba  loss 
of  the  seventh  was  varioosly  aceonated 
for.  In  reality  the  cluster  consists  of 
far  more  ttum  seven  stais. 

Pleiitocen.  lil-^SS^-^'JSS: 

recent),  in  geology,  the  lower  division  of 
tbe  Post-tertiary  formation.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  Qiacial  Ststbm,  and  rests 
upon  the  Pliocene,  being  tbe  latest  of  the 
fossil-bearing  formations.  The  fossil  re- 
mains belong  almost  wholly  to  existing 
species.  The  Pleistocene  moUusca  all  be- 
long to  still  living  species,  but  its  mam- 
mals include  a  few  extinct  forms.  It  is 
also  known  as  the  'glacial'  or  'drift' 
period,  owing  to  the  great  prevalence  of 
glaciers  and  Icebergs  at  that  period.  See 
Pliocene. 

Plenipotentiary  <,f  °;i-P<i;Sg22: 

dor  appointed  with  full  power  to  negotiate 
a  treaty  or  transact  other  business.  See 
if  mister*. 

Pleonasm  .(Pl«'«-n««n>),  in  rhetoric, 
*,'*""'  is  a  figure  of  speech  by 
which  we  use  more  words  than  seem  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  convey  our  meaning, 
in  order  to  express  a  thought  with  more 
grace  or  greater  energy;  it  is  sometimes 
also  applied  to  a  needless  superabundance 
of  words.  ' 

Plesiosanms  if'*  -  "*  - « - «» /  rus) ,  » 

genus  of  extinct  am- 
phibious animals,  nearly  allied  to  :he 
Ichthyosauras.  The  remains  of  this 
curious  genus  were  first  brought  to  light 
in  the  Lias  of  Lyme  Regis  in  1822,  bat 
over  twenty  species  are  now  known,  and 
they  have  formed  the  subject  of  important 
memoirs  by  Owen  and  other  palaeontolo- 
gists.   Its  neck  was  of  enormous  length. 


Flesiounmi,  partially  reatored. 

exceeding  that  of  its  body;  it  possessed 
a  trunk  and  tail  of  the  pronortioos  of  an 
ordinal?  quadruped ;  to  thne  were  added 
the  paddles  of  a  whale.  The  neck  ver- 
tebne  n(iml>ered  forty  or  fewer.  From 
twenty  to  twenty-five  dorsal  s^rments  ex- 
isted; and  two  sacral  vertebra  and  Trom 
thirty  to  forty  csodal  Mfmenta  cmapleM 


!n«ihora 


Flenro-pneumonia 


the  spine.  No  dlatinct  breastbone  was 
Jeveloped.  The  head  was  not  more  than. 
l-12th  or  l-13th  of  the  length  of  the  body ; 
the  snout  of  a  tapering  form;  the  orbits 
large  and  wide.  The  teeth  were  conical, 
slender,  curved  inwards,  finely  striated  <m 
the  enameled  surface,  and  hollow  through- 
out the  interior.  These  animals  appear 
to  have  lived  in  shallow  seas  and  estu- 
aries, and,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  they 
swam  upon  or  near  the  surface,  having 
the  neck  arched  like  the  swan,  and  dart- 
ing it  down  at  the  fish  within  reach. 
Some  of  the  Plesiosauri  were  upwardu  of 
20  feet  long.  Their  remains  occur  from 
the  Lias  to  the  Chalk  rocks  inclusive, 
these  forms  being  thus  exclusively  of  the 
Mesozoic  age. 

VU^Yinra    (pleth'u-ra),   in   medicine, 
ifietnora    l^  excess  of  blood   in  the 
human  system.    A  florid  face,  rose-colored 
skin,  swollen  blood-vessels,  frequent  nose- 
bleeding,  drowsiness  and  heavy  feeling  In 
the  limbs,  and  a  hard  and  full  pulse  are 
symptoms  of  this  condition,  habitual  in 
many  persons,  and  which,  if  not  actually 
a  disease,  yet  predisposes  to   inflamma- 
tions,    congestions,     and     hemor-hages. 
Plethora  may,  however,  develop  in  per- 
sons of  all  conditions  and  ages  as  the 
result  of  too  much  stimulating  food  (as 
an  excessive  meat-diet),  overeating,  large 
consumption     of     malt     and     spirituous 
liquors,   residence    in   northern   and   ele- 
vated regions  with  sharp,  dry  air,  want 
of  exercise,  too  much  sleep,  ampu.atlon 
of  a  limb  —  in  short,  of  any  action  tend- 
ing  to   unduly   increase   the   volume  of 
blood.     Plethora  of  a  mild  form  may  be 
reduced  by  copious  draughts  of  dUuents, 
a  vegetable  diet,  and  plenty  of  exercuw; 
but    in    cases    requiring    prompt    relief 
leeches  or  bleeding  must  be  resorted  to. 
Planra    (pl3'ra),  the  serous  membrane 
JTieura.   iJnlng  the  cavity  of  the  thorax 
or  chest,  and  which  also  covers  the  lungs, 
fiach  lung  is  invested  by  a  separate  pleura 
or  portion   of   this   membrane.    In   the 
thorax  each  pleura  is  found  to  consist  of 
a  portion  lining  the  walls  of  the  chest, 
this  fold  being  named  the  panetal  laver 
of  the  pleura.    The  other  fold,  reflected 
upon  the  lung's  surface,  is  named  incon- 
tradistinction  the  vitceral  layer.    These 
two  folds  inclose  a  space  Imown  as  the 
pltural  cavity,  which  in  health  contains 
serous  fluid  in  just  suiBdent  quantity  to 
lubricate  the  surfaces  of  the  pleur»  as 
they  glide  over  one  another  in  the  move- 
ments   of    respiration.    The    disease    to 
which   the  pleuras   are  most   subject   is 
tiewity  (wnich  see).  ,  ^ 

IDI^ifinwir  {pie'ri-«i>.  the  Inflammation 
rieuniy  l\  ^he  pUara.  It  may  be 
acuta  or  dtsonic,  simple  or  complicated 


with  eatarrh  and  pneumonia.    Qenerally 
part  only  of  the  pleura  is  aitected,  but 
sometimes   the   inflammation   extends   to 
tlw   whole,    and    even    to    bo  ^.    plenno 
(double  pleurisy).    Acute,  it    i  a  very 
common  complaint,  due  to  a     ^ety  of 
causes,   but   most   frequently   u   sodden 
chills.     It     invariably    craunences    with 
shivering,  its  duration  and  intensity  gen- 
erally  indicating  the  degree  of  severity  of 
the  attack ;  fever  and  its  attendant  ivmp* 
toms    succeed    the    shivering.    A    iharp, 
lancinating  pain,  commonly  called  stitch 
in  the  side,  is  felt  in  the  region  affected 
at  each  inspiration.    A  short,  dry  conch 
also   often   attends   tliis   dhwase.    WhiM 
the  inflammation  continues  its  progress  a 
sero-albuminous  eCFusion  takes  place,  and 
when  this  develops  the  febrile  symptonu 
subside,   usually    from   the   fifth   to   the 
ninth  day.    Acute  pleurisy  is  seldom  fatal 
unless  complicated  with  other  diseases  of 
the  lungs  or  surrounding  parts,  and  manj 
patienta  are  restored  simply  by  rest,  mod- 
erate sweating   in  bed,  spare  and  lint 
diet,  mild  and  warm  drinks,  and  the  anm- 
cation  of  hot  mustard  and  linseed-meal 
poultices  to  the  afCected  part    Opiates  to 
relieve    pain    are    often    needtuL     When 
acute  pleurisy  is  treated  too  late  or  insuf- 
ficiently it  may  assume  the  chnmic  condi- 
tion, which  may  last  from  six  weeln  to 
over  a  year,  and  result  in  death  from 
gradual  decay,  as  in  the  case  (A.  consump- 
tives, or  from  asphyxia.    Chronic  pleorisy 
is  characterized  by  effusion,  which  accam' 
ulates   in  the  pleural   cavity,  and  mob 
tends  to  produce  lesions  and  c<HnpItea* 
tions  in  the  surrounding  organs.    BssidM 
local  treatment  purgatives  and  diorraeo 
are  used,  but  if  the  disease  does  not  yim 
to  these   remedies,   the   liqnid   most   bo 
evacuated  by  operation.    Pleurlay,  agate 
and  chronic,  sometimes  also  appears  wit» 
out  accompanying  pain;  it  is  tlwn  caUao 
latent  pleurisy.  „      „    ,    -  . 

Plcnrisy-root.  ^Butter^vw^^ 
Plenroneoticte  t^Pe^^r^o't'^i 

idfclnded  in  the  section  Anacanthini  of 
that  order,  and  represented  by  the  soles, 
flounders,  brill,  turbot,  halibot,  pl«i9. 
etc.  The  scientific  name  Pleuronectidc 
therefore  corresptmds  to  the  popnlar  ltoo> 
ignation  of  '  Flat-fishes '  appUed  to  tbcM 
lorms.  ^ 

Pleuro-pneumonia  SJgf?*S£ 

of  pneamonia  peculiar  to  tfee  bovlae  sseo. 
It  to  highly  contagions,  md  lurovw  rap- 
idly fatal  It  first  mairifssN  itn^  hi  a 
morbid  condition  of  tho  wmtnX  sfftMs; 
but  its  seat  is  in  the  langs  and  the  bieora, 
where  it  canaaa  an  abundant  inflamma* 


Plevna 


PUooene 


tory  exudation  of  thick  plastic  matter. 
The  luncs  become  rapidly  filled  with  thia 
matter,  and  increaae  greatly  in  weight. 
Whether  pleuro-pneumonia  ia  apecifiauly 
a  local  or  general  disease  is  disputed,  as 
also  the  manner  of  treatment.  On  the 
one  hand,  bleeding  and  mercurial  treat- 
ment,  as  in  pleurisy  and  pneumonia,  are 
recommended.  On  the  other,  evacuating 
remed!<>s,  maintaining  the  strength  of  the 
animal,  and  promoting  the  action  of  the 
akin,  bowels,  and  kidneys,  are  employed. 
PleVnA  (plev'n"»),  the  chief  town  of 
one  of  ihe  new  districts  hato 
which  the  principality  of  Bulgaria  is 
divided.  It  lies  a  little  over  3  miles  east 
of  the  Vid,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube, 
and  commands  a  number  of  important 
roads,  being  hence  of  some  strategetical 
importance.  It  is  noted  for  the  gallant 
resistance  of  its  garrison  under  Ostnan 
Nubia  Pasha  during  the  last  Uusso  Turk.- 
ish  war.  Pop.  (1910)  23,049. 
Plevel  (plu'el),  Ignaz,  composer,  was 
*"J''*  bom  in  Austria  in  1757;  died 
at  Paris  in  lyril.  He  studied  under 
Haydn,  and  rapiuly  created  a  reputation 
in  Italy,  France,  and  England.  He 
founded  a  musical  establishment  at  Paris, 
wliich  became  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Europe,  and  edited  the  Bibliothique 
Muticat'i,  in  which  he  inserted  the  best 
worts  of  the  Italian,  German,  and  French 
composers.  Bis  own  works,  chiefly  in- 
strumental pieces,  are  light,  pleasing,  and 
expressive. 

Plica    Polonica    (P>«P^apo-lon'i-ka), 
w-    *  vAvuAwo,  Qp  Trichoma   (trl- 

kOma),  a  disease  peculiar  to  Poland  and 
the  immediately  adjacent  districts,  but 
which  at  one  time  was  also  common  in 
many  parts  of  Germany.  The  roots  of 
the  hair  swell,  a  nauseous,  glutinous  fluid 
is  secreted,  and  the  hair  oecomes  com- 
pletely matted.  It  is  generally  conflned 
to  the  bead,  but  other  parts  of  the  l>ody 
covered  with  hair  may  also  be  affected; 
and  sometimes  the  nails  become  spongy 
and  blacken. 

Plim'soll   Samuel,  known  as  'the 

bom  at  Bristol,  England,  in  lffi4.  In 
ISA  he  started  business  in  the  coal  trade 
in  London,  and  shortly  afterward  began 
to  interest  himself  in  the  sailors  of  the 
mercantile  marine,  and  the  dangers  to 
which  they  were  exposed,  especially 
through  overloading,  and  the  employment 
of  unseaworthy  ships.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1868,  and  succeeded  in  getting 
ptMed  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  in 
1876.  In  1890  the  fixing  of  the  load  line 
was  taken  out  of  the  owner's  discretion 
and  made  a  duty  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
He  died  in  1888. 


Plinth.    *"  arehltactnre,  the  lower 

'^"^  aqnare  mamber  of  the  baae  of 

a  column  or  pedestal.     In  a  wall  the  term 

Citta  ia  applied  to  the  plain  projecting 
d  at  its  lowest  part. 

Pliny  ^P*'"'^)'  tJAius  Pumus  S«- 
v  CUNDua,  a  Roman  writer,  com- 
monly called  Plinjf  the  Elder,  was  bom 
^n.  23,  probably  at  Ck>mum  (Como). 
He  came  to  Rome  at  an  early  age,  and 
having  means  at  his  disposal  availed  him- 
self of  the  best  teachers.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  field,  and  after  having 
been  made  one  of  the  augurs  of  Rome, 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Spain. 
Every  leisure  moment  that  he  could  com- 
mand was  devoted  to  literature  nnd  sci- 
ence, and  his  industry  was  so  gieat  that 
he  collected  an  enormous  mass  of  notes, 
which  he  utilized  in  writing  his  worlu. 
He  adopted  his  nephew,  Pliny  the 
Younger,  a.d.  73,  and  perished  in  the 
eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  which  over- 
whelmed Pompeii  and  Hcrculaneum  iii 
79.  The  only  work  of  Pliny  which  i» 
now  extant  is  his  Natural  Hittory,  it 
work  containing  a  mass  of  information 
on  physics,  astronomy,  etc.,  as  well  an 
natural  history  proper,  fable  and  fact  be- 
ing intermingled. 

Plinv  Caius  Puniub  C^ciuus  Se- 
*""J>  CUNDUB,  the  Younger,  a 
nephew  of  the  former,  was  bom  aj).  61 
at  Comum  (Como).  Having  lost  his 
father  at  an  early  age,  he  was  adopted 
by  his  uncle,  and  inherited  the  latter's 
estates  and  MSS.,  and  also  his  industry 
and  love  of  literature.     He  filled  i>>>veral 

?nblic  offices,  and  was  consul  in  a.i>. 
00.  In  A.D.  103  he  was  appointed  pro- 
pnetor  or  governor  of  the  province  of 
Pontica,  which  office  he  administered  for 
almost  two  years  to  the  general  satisfac- 
tion. He  was  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished and  besc  men  of  his  age.  The 
time  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  it  is 
supposed  that  he  died  about  the  year  115. 
As  an  author  he  labored  with  ardor,  and 
attempted  both  prose  and  poetry.  Of  his 
writings  only  a  collection  of  letters  in 
ten  books,  and  a  panegyric  on  I^ajan, 
remain. 

Pliocene  •jPlI'a-»«°;  Or.  pZeioii,  more; 
katnaa,  recent),  a  geological 
term  applied  to  the  most  modem  of 
the  divisions  of  the  Tertiary  epoch.  The 
Tertiary  series  Sir  0.  Lyell  divided 
into  four  principal  groups,  namely,  the 
Eocene  and  the  Miocene  (which  see), 
the  Older  Pliocene,  and  the  ^eicer  Plio- 
cene or  P{et«toceii«,  each  characterised  l«r 
containing  a  very  different  proportion  of 
fossil  recent  (or  existing)  species.  The 
Newer  Pliocene,  the  latest  of  the  four, 
cmtains  from  90  to  86  per  cmt.  of  r«c«it 


flook 


Flover 


foHilt ;  the  Older  Pliocene  contains  fnna 
86  to  SO  per  cent,  of  recent  fowiii.  The 
Newer  Plwcene  period  i>  tliat  which  im- 
giediateljr  preceded  the  recent  em;  and 
by  the  latest  system  of  classification  it 
has  been  removed  from  the  Tertiary  and 
placed  in  the  Post-tertiary  or  Quaternary 
epoch.  The  Pliocene  period  proper,  or 
the  Crag  period,  is  that  which  intervened 
betwem  the  Miocene  and  the  Newer  Pli- 
ocene. Both  the  Newer  and  the  Older 
Pliocene  exhibit  marine  as  well  as  fresh- 
water deposits. 

PlnrV     Plotzk  (plotsk),  capital  of 
xiwik,    the    government    of    the    same 
name  in  Russian   Poland,  on  the   right 
hank  of  the  Vistula.  78  miles  N.w.  of 
Warsaw.     It  has  a  haudsooie  cathedral, 
dating    from    the    tenth    century,    and    a 
bishop's    palace.     Its    manufactures    are 
unimportant,   but   it   has   a   large   trade. 
Pop.  30,771. — The  province  has  an  area 
of  3674  square  miles,  mostly   level,  and 
marshes  and   lakes  abound.     Fully  on^ 
third  of  the   area   is  forest.    Com  and 
potatoes  are  the  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, and  sheep  and  cattle  are  extensively 
reared.     Pop.  (liKKJ)  019,000. 
PlAtittTia    (pld-tl'nus),    the   systematic 
riOUnUS   founder    of    Neo-Platonism, 
bom  in  205  a.d.,  et  T.ycopolis,  in  Egypt ; 
died  in  the  Campagna,  Italy,  270.     Little 
is  known  of  his  early  life.     In  his  twen- 
ty-eighth year  the  desire  to  study  philos- 
ophy   awoke    in    him,    but    he    got^  no 
■atisfaction  from  his  teachers  till  a  friend 
led  him  to  Ammonius  Saccas  (which  see). 
He  spent  eleven  years  near  this  excellent 
master,,    and     the     knowledge     he     had 
acquired  created  an  ardent  desire  in  liim 
to  Imow  also  the  teachings  of  the  Persian 
and  Indian  philosophers.     For  this  pur- 
pose he  joined  the  expedition  of  the  Em- 
peror Gordian   to  the   East   in  242,  but 
after  the  latter's  death  he  reached  An- 
tioch    with    difficulty    and    retumed    to 
Rome,  where  he  subsequently   lived  and 
taught    At  first   he  taught  orally,  but 
after  ten  years   he   was   prevailed   upon 
to  commit  his  doctrines  to  writing,  and  he 
composed  twenty-one  l)ooks,  which   were 
only  put  into  the  hands  of  the  initiated. 
About    262-204    Porphyry    became    his 
pupil,  and  during  his  six  years*  stay  in 
Rome,   twenty-four  books    were    written 
by   Plotinus,   and    nine   more   after   Por- 
phyry had   left   for   Sicily.     On   account 
of  the  weakness  of  his  sight  Plotinus  left 
the  correction  of  his  works  to  Porphyry, 
who  also  was  his  literary  executor,  and 
has  arranged  his  works  in  six  EHneada, 
which  form  the  bible  of  the  New  Platw- 
ists.    Hia  teaching  secured  him  great  re- 
spect and  popularity  among  the  Komans. 
Be  wa«  held  to  be  w  wiat  lMi4  Tirtowu 


that  parents  left  their  children  to  bfai 
care.  He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  Em- 
peror Gallienus,  and  he  even  succeeded 
u  inspiring  the  fair  sex  with  a  desire  to 
study  philosophy.  The  writings  of  Ploti- 
nus are  often  obscure  and  even  incompre- 
hensible, but  on  the  whole  they  exhibit 
a  fertile  and  elevated  mind  and  close 
reasoning.  His  system  depends  less  upon 
the  intrinsic  truth  it  contains  than  upon 
its  historical  value,  which  is  great  both 
in  its  antecedents  and  consequents.  Plo- 
tinus was  well  acquainted  with  the  older 
Greek  philosophy,  with  the  Ionian  and 
the  Eleatic  schools,  with  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle and  other  founders  of  systems,  and 
according  to  the  eclectic  tendencies  of 
his  day  he  believed  there  was  a  funda- 
mental unity  in  these  various  systems. 
It  was  to  Plato,  however,  that  Plotinus 
looked  as  his  great  authority.  He  be- 
lieved himself  a  strict  follower  of  Plato, 
and  his  own  system  a  legitimate  develop- 
ment of  the  principles  of  that  great  phi- 
losopher. 

P1nv«r  (pluv'er),  the  common  name 
f  luvci  q(  several  species  of  gralla- 
torial  birds  belonging  to  the  genus  Cha- 
radriua.  They  inhabit  all  parts  of  the 
world.  They  are  gregarious,  and  anost  of 
them  are  partial  to  the  muddy  Iwrders  of 
rivers  and  marshy  situations,  subsisting 
on  worms  and  various  aquatic  insects; 
but  some  of  them  affect  dry  sandy  shores. 
Their  general  features  are :  bill  long,  slen- 
der, straight,  compressed;  nostrils  basal 
and  longitudinal;  legs  long  and  slender. 


Golden  Plover  (Chtiradriiu  pluviiUt). 

with  three  toes  before,  the  outer  con- 
nected to  the  middle  one  by  a  short  web; 
wings  middle-sized.  Most  of  them  molt 
twice  a  year,  and  the  males  and  Tanales 
are  seldom  very  dissimilar  in  appear' 
ance.  The  various  species  pass  so  impei^ 
ceptibly  into  one  another  that  their  cUnsf* 
fieation  is  often  attended  with  dffficaHy. 
All  nestle  on  the  ground.  Tbey  ran  much 
on  the  soil,  patting  it  with  their  feet  to 
brine  out  the  worms,  etc.  The  golden 
plover  (Charadriua  pluviUit),  also  called 
yellow  nod  whistling  jlktfw,  is  the  bast 


Mow 


nui 


fenowa.  and  its  il«h  and  iti  oUTe-green, 
daric-«pott«d  «gg$  an  oMwidcnd  a  deli- 
mej  b7  epiearM. 

Plow    iPloo)*  *°  implement  drawn 
•*"        by  animal  or  ateam  power,  by 
which  the  anrface  of  the  aoil  ii  cut  into 
loacitndinal  alice*,  and  theae  auocessively 
nuMd  np  and  tamed  over.    The  object 
of  the  operation  is  to  expose  a  new  sur- 
nce  to  the  action  of  the  air.  and  to  ren- 
der the  soil  fit  for  receiving  the  seed  or 
(or    other     operations     of     agricnlture. 
Plows  drawn  by  horses  or  oxen  are  of  two 
ehief  kinds:  those  without  wheels,  com- 
monly called  ticinff^UMo$,  and  those  with 
one  or  more  wheels,  called  v>keel-plo%o: 
The  essential  parts  of  both  kinds  of  plows 
are,  the  beam,  by  which  it  is  drawn ;  the 
■tilts  or  handles,  by  which  the  plowman 
caides  it;  the  coulter,  fixed  into  the  beam, 
by  which  a  longitudinal  cut  is  made  into 
the  groand  to  separate  the  slice  or  portion 
to  be  turned  over ;  the  share,  by  which  the 
bottom   <rf   the   furrow-slice   is   cut  and 
nised  up;   and   finallv.   the   mold-board. 
by  which  the  furrow-slice  is  turned  over. 
The  wheel-plow  is  merely  the  swing-plow 
with  a  wheel  or  pair  of  wheels  attached 
to  the  beam  for  keeping  the  share  at  a 
miiform    distance    beneath    the    surface. 
Besides  these  two  kinds  there  are  tabaotl- 
MOfM,    dHO-pIowa,   draining   plowt,   etc. 
nrery  part  of  a  plow  of  the  modem  type 
is    made    of    iron.    Double    mold-board 
plows  are  common  plows  with  a  mold- 
board  <m  each  side,  employed  for  making 
a  large  furrow  in  loose  soil,  for  earthing- 
op  potatoes,  etc.    Tum-iereat  ploto$  are 
pfows  fitted  either  with  two  mold-boards, 
one  <m  each  side,  which  can  lie  brought 
into    operation    alternately,    or    with    a 
mold-board  capable  of  being  shifted  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  so  that,  beginning 
at  one  side  of  a  field,  the  whole  surface 
may  be  tumed  over  from  that  side,  the 
furrow  being  always   laid   in   the  same 
direction.    One  of  these  plows  with  two 
mold-boards  is  so  constructed  as  to  be 
dragged   by   either   end   alternately,   the 
liorses  and  plowmen  changing  their  posi- 
tion at  the  end  of  every  furrow.     Such 
plows  are  useful  in  plowing  hillsides,  as 
the  furrows  can  all  be  turned  towards  the 
hill,  thus  counteracting  the  tendency  of 
the  soil  to  work  downwards.     In  the  most 
Improved  style  of  wheel-plow  there  are  a 
larger  and  a  smaller  wheel,  the  former  to 
run  in  the  furrow,  the  latter  on  the  land. 
These  have  also  a  second  or  skim  coulter, 
for  use  in  iea  plowing,  to  turn  over  more 
effectually  the  grawy  surface.     What  is 
called  a  ^sa^-ploio  is  essentially  a  number 
c«  plows  combined,   four,  six,   or  eight 
HHUca  being  fixed  in  one  wheeled  frame. 
Ma  dragged  by  »  ■ofident  nnmber  of 


horaea,  aoeh  plows  being  oaed  on  vary 
large  farms. —  Bttmm-phiet  on  variooa 
principles  have  also  been  adofrted.  Soma 
are  driven  by  one  engine  remaining  sta- 
tionary on  the  headUnd,  which  winda  an 
endless  rope  (generally  of  wire)  passing 
round  paUeys  attached  to  an  apparatus 
called  tlM  '  anchor,'  fixed  at  the  opposite 
headland,  and  round  a  drum  connected 
with  the  engine  itself.  Others  are  driven 
by  two  engines,  one  at  either  headland, 
thus  superseding  the  *  anchor.'  Aa  steam- 
plowing  apparatus  are  usually  beyond 
both  the  means  and  requirements  of  single 
farmers,  companies  have  been  formed  for 
hiring  them  out  In  steam-plowhig  it  ia 
common  to  use  plows  in  which  two  sets 
of  plow  bodies  and  coultera  are  attached 
to  an  iron  frame  moving  on  a  fulcrum, 
one  set  at  either  extremity,  and  pointing 
different  ways.  By  this  arrangement  the 
plow  can  be  used  without  turning,  the 
one  part  of  the  frame  being  raised  ont  of 
the  ground  when  moving  in  one  direction, 
and  the  other  when  moving  in  the  opposite^ 
It  is  the  front  part  of  the  frame,  or  that 
farthest  from  the  driver,  which  is  ele- 
vated, the  plowing  apparatus  connected 
with  the  after  part  beinc  inserted  and 
doing  the  work.  Generally  two,  three, 
or  four  sets  of  plow  bodies  and  coulters 
are  attached  to  either  extremity,  so  that 
two,  three,  or  four  furrowa  are  made  at 
once.  In  addition  to  the  stationary  en- 
gine, gasoline  motors  have  been  mtro* 
duced  to  draw  plows,  one  of  theae  taking 
the  place  of  a  considerable  number  o? 
horses.  The  plow,  as  originally  used,  waa 
a  very  rude  and  ineffective  inatmmoit. 
and  plows  of  this  imperfect  character  are 
still  in  use  even  in  parts  of  Bnnqie. 
Small  plows  are  made  for  hand-plowing. 
Plow-land    ^^   '^^   equivalent   exprea- 

It  Is  defined  as  containing  as  much  land 
as  may  be  tilled  in  a  year  and  a  dayby 
one  plow.  It  was  fixed  by  7  and  8  Wil- 
liam III  cap.  xxix.  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
pairing highways,  at  an  annual  value  of 
£50.  The  quantity  contained  in  a  plow- 
gate  appears  to  differ  in  different  char- 
ters. 

Plow  Monday,  ^l^^Jeit^'^' 

On  Plow  Monday  the  plowmm  in  the 
northern  part  of  England 'used  to  draw 
a  plow  from  door  to  door,  and  beg  money 
for  drink. 

Plnm  (P^n*'),  a  genus  of  plants  be* 
...^luu  lon-ing  to  the  natural  order 
Rosaceee,  suborder  Amygdaleae.  About  a 
doaen  species  are  known,  all  inhabiting 
the  north  temperate  regions  of  the  gloJka. 
They  are  small  trees  or  shraba,  witii  alt^ 
nata  leaves  and  white  fiowers,  either  soil* 


ftnmbaginaoMB 


Plnnlity 


taiT  or  dispoMd  In  faacicles  in  the  aslto 
of  the  Imtm.  The  common  garden  plum 
IP.  iometiie*),  introduced  from  Asia 
Minor,  is  the  moat  ezteniiTcly  cnltivated, 
and  its  frait  is  one  of  the  moat  famiiiar 
of  the  atone-fruita.  The  varietiea  are 
rtnj  numerous,  differing  in  aixe,  form, 
color,  and  taste.  Some  are  mostly  eaten 
fresh,  aome  are  dried  and  sold  as  prunes, 
others  again  are  preserved  in  sugar,  alco- 
hol, sirup,  or  vinegar.  They  make  also 
excellent  jama  and  jellies,  and  the  sirup 
from  stewed  plums  forms  a  refreahing 
Mak  for  invalids,  and  a  mild  aperient 
for  children.  Perhaps  the  most  esteemed 
of  all  varieties  is  the  green  gage.  (See 
Qreen  Oage.)  A  very  popular  and  easily 
grown  sort  is  the  P.  damatcena  or  dam- 
son. The  wood  of  the  plum-tree  is  hard, 
compact,  traversed  with  reddish  veins, 
susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  and  la  ffe- 
quently  employed  by  turners  and  cabinet- 
makers. The  sloe  or  black-thorn  (P. 
tpinCta)  Im  a  species  of  wild  plum  bear- 
ing a  small,  round,  blue-black,  and  ex- 
tremely sour  fruit.  Its  juice  is  made 
hito  prune-wine,  which  is  chiefly  employed 
by  dutillers,  wine  and  spirit  merchants, 
etc.,  for  fining,  coloring,  purifying,  and 
mellowing  spirits. 

PlumbaginacesB  .<f.',T-^iiJii: 

out'b^  a  nat.  order  of  exogens,  con- 
sisting of  (chiefiy  maritime)  herbs,  some- 
what shrubby  below,  with  alternate 
leavea,  and  regular  pentamerous,  often 
blue  or  pink  flowers.  As  garden  plants 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  order  is  much 
prized  for  beauty,  particularly  the  Stat- 
UN».  The.  common  thrift  or  sea-pink 
(Armeria  maritima),  with  grass-like 
leaves  and  heads  of  bright  pink  flowers, 
is  a  familiar  example.  The  type  of  this 
order  is  the  genus  Plumhago.  It  consists 
of  perennial  herbs  or  undershrubs,  with 

rtty  blue,  white,  or  rose-colored  flowers 
spikes  at  the  ends  of  the  branches. 
P.  Europwa  is  employed  by  beggars  to 
raise  ulcers  upon  their  bodies  to  excite 
pity.  Its  root  contains  a  peculiar  crys- 
tallizable  substance  which  gives  to  the 
skin  a  lead-gray  color,  whence  the  plant 
has  been  called  leadteort. 
Plumbago  (Pl»«°-ba'go).   See  Oraph- 

Plummet  (?»""'«♦).  TJ-^^^V^',^ 

AAiuiuu««w  ijgjgn  Qf  other  weight  let 
down  at  the  end  of  a  cord  to  regulate 
any  work  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the 
horiaon,  or  to  sound  the  depth  of  any- 
thing. Masons,  carpenters,  etc.,  use  a 
plumb-line  fastened  on  a  narrow  board 
or  plate  of  brasa  or  iron  to  Judge  whether 
waila  or  other  objecta  are  peneetly  .per- 
pu^lcBlar,  or  phtmi,  as  the  artificers 


call  It  Near  •  range  of  hi^  monntalag 
the  plumb-line,  aa  can  be  shown  by  ^f 
dal  arrangemmta,  ia  not  perfectly  tro^ 
bat  inclinea  towards  the  monntaina j  and 
officers  in  charge  of  the  United  Btatea 
Coaat  and  Geodetic  Survey  among  tka 
Hawaiian  Islands,  have  recently  observed 
that  the  deviation  of  a  plumb-Una  tnm 
the  vertical  is  greater  in  the  eaae  of 
mountains  in  an  island  than  fat  that  of 
continatal  mountains,  and  greater  in  the 
neighboriiood  of  extinct  volcanoea  than 
in  that  of  active  volcanoea.  In  glvan 
localities  the  plumb-line  also  variea  ao* 
cording  to  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide. 
PlnmntrA  (plump'ttr),  Edwabd 
rinmpire  ^j^^a.  Dean  of  Wella, 
bom  in  1821.  He  wns  graduated  from 
Oxford,  appofaited  chaplain  at  Kfaig'a 
C<ollege,  London,  and  was  mide  professor 
of  pastoral  theologv  in  1853.  He  held 
various  pastoral  positions,  and  aa  an  able 
theologian  and  preacher  waa  ehoaen  a 
member  of  the  Old  and  New  Teetament 
Revision   Companiea   in   England,  aalect 

greacher  at  Oxford  (several  timea),  Boyle 
>cturer,  1866-67,  and  Grinfield  lecturer, 
1872-74.  He  wrote  a  number  of  valuable 
worka  on  theology,  and  we  have  from  hia 
pen  several  translationa,  includfaig  Stqth- 
ocles  (1866),  JGschylus  (1870),  Dante 
(1887).    He  died  in  1891. 

into  the  stem  and  axis  of  the  future 
plant  In  the  seeds  of  the  bean,  iKMrse- 
chestnut,  etc.,  the  plumule 
is  distinctly  visible,  but  in 
plants  generally  it  is  scarce- 
ly perceptible  without  the 
aid  of  a  magnifying  glass, 
and  in  many  it  does  not  ap- 
pear until  the  seed  begins 
to  germinate.  The  first  in- 
dication of  development  is 
the  appearance  of  the  plumule,  whkh  is  a 
collection  of  feathery  fibers  bursting  tiom 
the  enveloping  capsule  of  the  germ,  and 
which  proceeds  immediately  to  eztoid  it- 
self vertically  upwarda. 
Plnrfllitv  (pl»-ntn-ti),  in  eocleaiaa- 
riurauiy    j,^,     ,j^^    '.ignifiea     tb* 

holding  by  the  same  person  of  two  or 
more  benefices.  Plurauties  were  forbid* 
den  by  the  canon  law,  but  the  blAopa 
and  the  pope  assumed  the  right  of  grant- 
ing dispensations  to  hold  them,  tba 
were  prohibited  by  the  Conndla  of  ChAH 
cedon  (461),  Niciea  (787).  and  Lataraa 
(1215).  In  England  pluralitta  ia  the 
church  are  forbidden  cx6q>ttec  la  pi^ 
ticolar  cases,  aa,  for  inataacst  where. two 
livings  are  within  three  miles  vi  each 
other,  and  the  value  and  pt^olatlon  of 
each  befaicsaBalL 


p,  Ploaiuls. 


niu 


HyxAmi^ 


Pins  (1^1  uort),  ia  mttbematica,  ilf 
'^*"*  oifiw  Bdditton :  tb*  ■Ign  bjr  whkh 
It  ia  indicated  ia  -f  :  thna  A  -f  B,  which 
ia  read  A  pl««  B,  denotaa  that  tha  «nan- 
tltjr  A  ia  to  be  added  to  tha  qoantitT  B. 
Ploa,  or  iu  aign  +,  ia  alao  oaed  to  indi* 
cate  a  poaitiTe  magnitade  or  relation,  in 
oppoaition  to  mttiiM  — ,  which  indicatea 
a  negatire. 

Plnih  *■  fabric  aimilar  to  velvet,  from 
**"■"»  wh'ch  it  differa  only  in  the 
lenirth  and  denaitjr  of  the  nap.  The  nap 
may  be  formed  either  in  tne  warp  or 
woof,  tlw  one  in  which  it  ia  beinr  double, 
there  being  a  warp  and  a  woof  for  the 
body  of  the  cloth,  and  a  warp  or  a  woof 
for  the  nap.  Plushea  are  now  made 
almoat  ezduaively  of  ailk.  The  cheaper 
qoalitiea  have  a  cotton  backing.  Some 
of  the  fineat  dreaa  pluahea  are  produced 
in  London,  pluahea  for  gentlemen'a  hata 
come  chiefly  from  Lyona,  while  common 
or  imitation  pluahea  are  largely  manufac- 
tured in  Oermanv.  Pluah  ia  now  alao 
eztenaively  used  in  upholatery  and  dec- 
orative worli. 

Plntaroh  (Pl»'t*rit;  Greek,  Plou- 
x^AUMurvu  T^uiCHOS),  a  learned  Greek 
writer,  bom  at  Cheronsa  in  Boeotia, 
where  he  alao  died.  Neither  the  year  of 
Ilia  birth  nor  that  of  his  death  ia  accu- 
rately known,  but  it  ia  generally  held 
that  lie  lived  from  the  reign  of  Nero  to 
that  of  Adrian  (54r-117  A.D.).  He  ap- 
peaia  from  hir.  writings  to  have  visited 
Italy,  lectured  there  on  philosophy,  and 
stayed  aome  tfme  at  Rome,  where  he 
eatabliahed  a  achool  during  the  reign  of 
Domitian.  Hi^.  Parallel  Livea  of  lUut- 
trio—  Greeka  nni  Bomatu  ia  the  work  to 
which  he  owes  his  fame.  The  lives  are 
nearly  all  written  in  pain,  one  Orcek  and 
one  Roman,  followed  by  a  comparison  of 
the  two,  and  are  models  of  biographical 
portraiture.  We  have  numerous  editions 
and  translations  of  them.  Plutarch'a 
other  works,  about  sixty  in  number,  are 
generally  cloisscd  as  If oralta^hough  some 
of.  them  are  narrative.  His  writings 
show  that  he  waa  well  acquaineJ  with 
tlie  literature  of  hia  time,  and  with  his- 
tory, and  that  be  must  have  had  access 
to  maay  booka. 

Pinto  (PlS'td),  in  classical  mythology, 
**""  the  god  of  the  infernal  regions, 
the  ruler  of  the  dead.  He  was  a  son  of 
Cronna  id  Rhea,  a  brother  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter;  and  Poseidon  (Neptune),  and 
to  him,  on  the  partition  of  the  world,  fell 
the  kingdom  of  the  shades.  He  married 
Persephone  (which  aee).  By  the  Greeka 
he  waa  generally  called  Hades  and  by  the 
Romans  Orcus,  Tartarus,  and  Dis  Pater. 
Aa  ia  the  case  with  all  other  pagan  dei- 
tiaa.   the   accounta  of  Pluto   vary   with 


dllwaot  writan  and  pariodi,  and  in  latii 
afaa  ha  waa  coafoandad  with  Plutuh. 
Tha  woc^p  <tf  Pluto  waa  aztaaaivaly 
apraad  among  the  Oreaka  and  Bomaaa. 
Tha  mtraaa,  the  box,  tba  narciaaua,  and 
the  plant  adiantnm  (maidan-hair)  ware 
aacred  to  him;  oxen  and  goata  ware  aao* 
rificed  to  him  in  tlie  aliadea  of  nii^t,  and 
hia  prieata  were  crowned  with  cypr 


Ha  w  repreaented  in  gloomy  majeaty,  hia 
forehead  ahaded  bv  hia  hair,  and  with  a 
thick  beard.    In  hia  liand  he  hoMa  a  two- 


forked  acepter,  a  atalf,  or  a  key;  by  lib 
aide  ia  Cerberua.  He  ia  often  accom- 
panied by  hia  wife. 

Plntonio  Bocks  iSSui^'^Si^SS; 

line  roclca,  auch  aa  granitea,  greenatonea, 
and  othera,  of  igneoua  origin,  formed  at 
great  dratha  from  the  aurface  of  the 
eAth.  They  are  distinguished  from  thoae 
called  volcanic  rocka,  although  t^3y  are 
both  igneoua;  plutonic  rocka  naving  b«nt 
elaborated  in  the  deep  receaaea  of  the 
earth,  while  the  volcanic  are  aolidified  at 
or  near  the  surface. 
Plntna     (plO'tus),  in  Greek  mythology, 

struck  him  blind  because  he  confined  hia 

fifta  to  the  good ;  and  he  thenceforth  con- 
erred  them  equally  on  the  good  and  the 
bad.  Hia  residence  waa  under  the  earth. 
Plntua  is  the  aubject  of  Ariatophanea'a 
comedy  of  the  aame  name. 
Plnviose  (pUi'vi-Oa),  the  fifth  month 
f  xuviuBC  ^f  ^^^   p^j^j.^   Republican 

calendar,  extending  from  January  20  to 
February  18  or  19.     See  CaleiMiar. 

Plymouth  ffi;t'in*i5^sa.;' 

at  the  head  of  Plymouth  Sound,  between 
the  eatuariea  of  the  Plym  and  Tamar 
Taken  in  ita  largest  aenae,  it  comprehenda 
what  are  calledf  the  'Three  Towna,'  ov 
Devonport  on  the  west,  Stonehouse  in 
the  center,  and  Plymouth  proper  on  the 
east.  Plymouth  proper  covers  an  area  of 
about  1  square  mile,  the  aite  being  unevm 
and  aomewhat  rugged,  consisting  of  a  cen- 
tral hollow  and  two  considerable  emi- 
nences, one  on  the  north,  forming  tha 
suburbs,  and  the  other,  called  the  Hoe, 
on  the  south,  laid  out  aa  a  promenade 
and  recreation  ground.  The  old  Eddy- 
stone  Lighthouse  has  been  re-erected  In 
Hoe  Park,  which  also  contains  a  hand- 
some statue  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  by 
Boehm.  The  top  of  the  Hoe  ofFers  mag- 
nificent Und  and  aea  viewa.  The  older 
parts  of  the  town  consist  of  narrow  and 
irregular  atreets  devoid  of  architectural 
beauty,  but  the  newer  parta  and  auburba 
diaplay  an  abundance  of  elegant  buildinga. 
The  guild-hall,  a  Gothic  building,  ia  the 
fineat  modem  edifice  (187(^-74).  and  haa 


I 


flymoitth  Brtfhm 


nymoiith  _^ 

i   *«-»   nMriv  200   (Mt   hiih:   auonc  canTM  factories,  also  irraworin,  ratton. 


lie*  in  its  posi 
tion  as  a  naval 
station.   Thanks 
to  extensive  and 
sheltered  har- 
bors,   Plymouth 
rose  from  a  mere 
fishing  village  to 
the  rank  of  fore- 
most   port    of 
England  under 
Elisabeth,  and  is 
now  as  a  naval 
port  second  only 
to     Portsmouth. 
To   secure   safe 
anchorage  in  the 
Sound  a  stupen- 
dous   breakwa- 
ter   has    been 
constructed  at  a 
cost  of  about 
£2,000,000.  The 
Western   Har- 
bor, or  the  Ha- 
moase    (mouth 
of  the  Tamar), 
is   specially   de- 
voted   to    the 
royal  navy,  and 
here  (in  Devon- 
port,  which  see) 
are  the  dock 


10,996. 

Plymontli 

.  town  (town- 
ship) in  Litch- 
field county,  Con- 
necticut. It  baa 
various  mana- 
factures,  includ- 
ing  lumber, 
hardware,  etc. 
Pop.  6021. 

Plymouth 
Brethren, 

Pltmouthites, 
a  sect  of  Chris- 
tians who  first 
appeared  at 
Plymouth,  Enf- 
land,  in  1830. 
but  have  since 
considerably  ex* 
tended  oyer 
Great  Britain, 
the  Uniteo 
States,  and 
among  the  Prot- 
estants  of 
France,  Switaer^ 
land,  Italy,  etc 


vard  and  Keyham  steam-yard;  the  vie-  They  object  to  national  churches  a«  being 
tulllnrvard  marine  barracks,  knd  naval  too  lax,  and  to  dissenting  churches  as  too 
KitolblfngiTstonchouM:  Themercan-  sectarian,  recopiaing  all  as  brethnm  who 
«S  fMriMU  awommoda^  in  the  East-  believe  in  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit  as 
•™  mrbS^r  thl^aTwitter  (200  acres),  or  his  Vicar.  They  acknowledge  no  !onn  of 
t5?u^^f  the  P^rand  in  Sutton  Pool,   church  government  nor  any  oflfce^of  tJ» 


rtructed    by    Sir    Francis    Drake.    Pop.  Darbyitea,  after  Mr.  .I>arby»  «rw™«*j^„^ 

nami^Ott  barrister,   anbeegnently   a  c»««yn»«»«' 

4m          -iiu      a  seatwrt  of  Massachu-  the  Church  of  England,  to  who*  eftorta 

Plymouth,     Lt??f£  ^t  ofpfym-  thelr^  origin  and  the  dlffo.l«of  tbrfr 

oath  county,  37  mUes  s.  a.  K.  of  Boston.  Prindplw  aw  much  to  be^Mcrtted.    ^e 

It  to  situated  in  a  capadoos  bot  shallow  Plymooth    Brethren    pr««MMdly    mo^l 

biyVandbM^itenslvrfiAwles,  rope  and  themselTes   npoo   the   primkiTe   cbur**, 


Plyiiomth  Souid 


PMuutio  Tools 


—-at  u  motif  staf*  of  tkt  aorugwat 
«•*•  «*•  •  tMd«n<7  towtrdi  tb«  adop- 
tMNi  of  ttw  prladi^  of  eoMmnalty  of 
VDote.^  Tbojr  abo,  in  gMMral,  bold  mil- 
bBMurlui  Titwi,  and  Darby  i«  •zoeedlncljr 
aUBoU  In  camring  oat  tbo  aOegotlaabi- 
tarpratatkm  of  tbe  eercmoDialjuid  otbcr 
flforattTe  parts  of  tbe  Old  '^tament. 
Hie  interpretation  <a  propbccr,  aa  UlUnf 
ap  in  detail  tbe  entire  r«le  of  bistorr,  ia 
a  feature  of  tbe  Tiewa  of  Darby  and  tbe 
nymoutbista.  Tbey  baptise  adults  and 
administer  tbe  sacrament,  wbicb  each 
takes  for  bimself,  eacb  Sunday.  At  tbeir 
meetinca  a  pause  of  unbroken  silence  en- 
wsa  wben  no  one  is  moved  to  spealL  They 
b^  both  dril  goTemments  and  ecclesi- 
astical organisations  to  be  under  divine 
reprobation,  tbe  former  as  atheistic,  the 
J*tjw  M  in  »  state  of  apostasy.  Tbeolog- 
leal  nfferences  early  caused  a  split  among 
«M  Plympnthists,  and  even  darinK  the 
Ufetime  of  Darby  there  were  three  distinct 
Avisiona 

Kymonth  Sound,  J^,  ITti^e'lJ^^. 

west  coast  of  England,  between  the  coun- 
oea  of  Devon  and  C!omwalL  It  is  about 
3  miles  wide  at  its  entrance,  bounded  by 
elevated  land,  which  descends  abruptly  to 
tbe  sea.  It  contains  Drake  Island,  wbidi 
»  fortified,  and  tbe  celebrated  Plymouth 
Breakwater.    Bee  Plymoaf*. 

Pneumatio  Appliances    ^S!)!^^}; 

of  wide  variety,  ranging  from  simple'  air- 
fllled  cndiions  to  engines.  Compressed  air 
waa  first  used  as  a  motive  power  by  Den- 
nis Papin  in  England  about  1700.  It  was 
first  used  successfully  on  a  large  scale  in 
1861  in  connection  with  the  construction 
of  tbe  Mont  Genis  Tunnel.  In  1867,  A.  E. 
Beadi,  an  American,  constructed  a  work- 
ing model  of  an  atmospheric  railroad,  but 
all  attempta  at  pneumatic  street  traction 
in  America  foiled.  In  1886  J.  O.  Pohle, 
MArisona,  applied  compressed  air  to  the 
Ufting  of  water,  a  method  frequently  used 
in  eonnection  with  Artesian  wells. 

The  foundation  for  docks  and  the  piers 
for  bridges  are  often  sunk  to  the  required 
depth  by  means  of  cylinders  from  which 
water  is  excluded  by  compressed  air ;  and 
ne  same  method  is  used  in  tiuneling.  Air 
is  uso  used  in  pumping  water  for  supply 
or  drainage :  in  regulaUng  temperature  in 
steam-beatad  buildings,  and  in  a  wide 
variety  of  apparatus  in  which'  a  simple 
mechanical  push  or  puU  is  required.  For 
use  aa  a  motive  power  iu  lovumotives  and 
automobiles  air  is  stored  at  high  pressure 
in  a  steel  reservoir  carried  on  tbe  car, 
and  is  thence  admitted  into  the  driving 
ejrlinder.  Tbe  force  of  suction  ot>taiaed 
nr  ezbansting  tbe  air  in  a  confined  space 
ft  xmi  ip  fraio  deratQr*.   Suction  puapa 


are  also  wtddy  nssd  in  tba  coanran 
booa^U  TMmw  deanw  (wkleb  see). 
8«e  alao  Air-hrmk9,  Air-§mih  tta 

Pneumatio  IMspatoli  :^<^' 

cela  tbrougb  a  eonparatlTe]'-  oarrow  taba 
br  meana  of  compressed  air.  In  the  United 
States,  where  tbe  circuit  aystem  is  am- 
^oyed,  grMt  progress  baa  been  made  in 
the  use  of  pneumatic  power  for  pust* 
pfllce  work.  B.  0.  Batdieiler  invented  an 
improved  aystem  which  baa  found  very 
extended  use.  It  cMisists  of  double  tubes 
(of  cast  iron  m'^de  in  12-ft  lengths)  run- 
ning parallel  U>  eacb  other.  At  th*.  coi- 
trai  station  a  steam-engine  compresses  tbe 
air  and  forces  it  into  one  of  the  tubes, 
along  which  it  ruabes,  returning  by  tbe 
other,  a  constant  current  being  k(,pt  up. 
The  tubes  are  worked  at  a  pressure  of 
rtx  pounds  per  square  Inch,  and  for  a 
diatance  of  4S0O  feet  require  about  90 
horsepower,  the  transit  speed  being  about 
30  miles  per  hour.  The  system  was  first 
tried  in  Phibidelpbia  in  1888,  tbe  tubes 
used  being  six  inches  in  diameter.  Eight- 
inch  tubes  are  most  common. 

In  the  European  system,  as  distinct 
from  the  American,  the  carriers  being 
propelled  from  tbe  central  office  by  pres- 
aure  and  drawn  in  tbe  opposite  direction 
by  »  ▼acuum.  In  London,  Paris,  Berlin, 
and  Vienna  it  ia  employed  for  the  ddivery 
of  post-office  telegrama  In  London  fifty 
of  these  main  tubes,  2^  in.  in  diameter, 
averaging  nearly  one  mile  in  length,  radi- 
ate from  the  central  station.  Different 
offices  in  tbe  same  building  are  also  com- 
monly connected  by  a  numl>er  of  rirart 
tubes,  the  whole  system  being  suiqdied 
with  power  from  one  main  station. 

Pneumatic  Onn,  fi,E'°,r^*<*  *•- 

'  rives  ita  power 
from  compressed  air.  It  is  fired  by  poU- 
ing  a  lanyard,  which  releases  the  air. 

Pnenmatios,  tJL'^^^,^^^.  'o'  ft** 

'  branch  of  physics  which 
treata  of  the  properties  of  gases.  See  Air, 
Atr^pamp,  Atmoaphere,  Barometer,  Que, 
Pump,  etc. 

Pneumatic  Tools,  *bi?-S.eSLS?A- 

appliances  operated  by  compressed  air. 
The  motor  is  self-contained,  and  they  are 
generally  worked  by  the  hand.  Tbey  are 
of  two  types — percussion  and  rotary.  In 
the  fwmer  the  work  is  accomplished  by 
rapidly  repeated  blows,  and  in  tbe  latter 
by  a  boring  action.  They  are  used  for  a 
great  variety  of  mechanical  operations 
permitting  the  actions  of  percussion  and 
rotation,  such  as  drilling,  ramming,  ham- 
mering, riveting,  caulking,  boring,  screw- 
ing, expanding  boiler  tubes,  and  carving. 
A  good  representative  of  tbe  percussion 
to9bi  if  tbe  pneumatic  iMUomar,    It  «ob- 


fatttnoiiiA 


rists  of  •  cjfUadtr  in  wWch   a  plrton 
works  with  a  redprocatiiif    (back   and 
fortk)  actkw,  actoatod  by  comprawed  air 
admlnad  to  and  axhauated  from  the  cyV- 
inder  by  raltably  arranged  openings.    A 
loose-fittinf  tool  (auch  a»  a  riret-Bct,  in 
caae  the  appliance  is  employed  an  a  riv- 
eter) is  inserted  in  the  front  end  of  the 
cyHttder  to  whidi  the  comprewMd  air  is 
conTeyed  by  flexible  hose  connections,  and 
throng  the  handle  at  the  rear.    To  oper- 
ate ihe  device  is  held  by  the  handle  and 
the   tool   is   pressed   firmly   against   the 
work.    The  operator  then  admits  the  air- 
pressore  into  the  cylinder  by  presmng  on 
the  throttie  lever,  and  starts  the  recipro- 
cating hammer,  which  strikes  the  toolpr 
rivet-set  at  each   forward   stroke.     The 
action  is  similar  to  that  of  driving  a  chisel 
with  a  mallet  or  hammer,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  successive  strokes  are  de- 
Uvered  with  great  rapicUty,  at  a  rate  of 
f"^  as  iiigh  as  20,000  blows  per  minute, 
tite  eflkiency  of  the  appliance  being  due  to 
the  frequency  of  the  strokes  rather  than 
to  th«  power  of  each  individual  stroke. 
Pneumatic  percussion   tools,   in   general, 
ar«  made  small  enough  to  be  operated  by 
hand,  and  they  are  adapted  for  various 
uses  by  simply  replacing  the  tool  piece  at 
the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  bv  tools  spe- 
ciidly  shaped  to  fit  the  particular  kind  of 
work.  ,  .    ^ 

Pneumonia  ^S?;"  ^  ltAou.*di«SSS 

associated  with  coneolidation  of  portions 
of  the  lung  tissue.  Formerly  the  disMse 
was  divided  into  three  varieties:  (1) 
Acute  croupous  or  lobar  pneumtmU;  U) 
Ggtnrrhal  or  broncho-pneumonia;  io) 
Interstitial  or  chronic  pneumonia. 

Acute  croupous  or  lobar  pneumonia 
(pneumonia  fever)  is  now  classed  as  an 
acute  infective  disease  of  the  lung,  d»ar- 
acterized  by  fever  and  toxemia,  running  a 
definite  course  and  being  the  direct  result 
of  a  specific  micro-organism  or  micro- 
ornnisms.  „  ,, 

The  symptoms  are  gensMOly  weU 
marked  from  the  beginning.  The  attack 
is  usually  ushered  in  by  a  rigor  (or  in 
chUdren  a  convulsion),  and  the  speedy 
develomnent  of  the  febrUe  condition,  Uie 
temperature  rising  to  a  conrideraWe  de- 
ne^lOl  to  104  or  more.  The  pulse  is 
quickened,  and  there  is  a  marked  disturb- 
ance in  the  respiration,  whidi  is  wipid, 
shallow  and  difficult,  the  rate  ^ng 
usuaUy  accelerated  to  some  two  or  nree 
times  its  normal  amonnt.  The  lips  are 
livid,  and  the  face  has  a  dusky  flu^  Pain 
in  the  side  is  felt,  especially  should  any 
amount  idvitmiaj  be  present,  as  is  often 
the  ease.  The  term  '  brondio-pneumonia 
la  used  to  denote  a  widecpiwd  catarrhal 


IniMBatkm    of    tba    smaUer    ^f?^ 
which  spraMls  la  plaMS  to  tl»  alveoli  and 
produeea    consolidation.      All    forms    of 
bronefao-pneumoBla  depend  on  ,th«  In^- 
sion  of  the  lung  by  microK>rganlwas.    No 
on*  organism    nas,   howaver,   bean   coa* 
sUntly  found  which  can  be  said  to  ba 
spedflc,  as  in  lobar  pneumonia :  thaUifla* 
ensa    bacillus,    micrococcus    catarrtalla. 
pneumoccoccus.  Friedlander's  baeUla  aiMl 
various  sUphylocoocI  having  bsM  found. 
The  symptoms  duracterising  the  onsaC 
of  catarrhal  pnenmonia  in  Its  more  mom 
form  are  the  occurrence  during  an  a^a 
of  brondiitis  or  the  convaleseence  ^n 
measles  or  whooping  cough,  of  a  •oAMn 
and  marked  elevation  of  tempemtore.  to- 
gether with  a  quickened  pulse  and  In- 
creased difficulty  in  breathing.    Thacoiupi 
becomes  short  and  painful,  and  thwa  la 
little  or  no  expectoration.    The  phnleai 
■igns  are  not  distinct,   being  mixed  up 
with  those  of  the  antecedent  broncfaios: 
but,  should  the  pneumonia  be  atenslve 
there  may  be  an  impaired  percnsafcm  note 
with  tubular  breathing  and  some  bna- 
chopany.    Dyspnoea  may  be  present  in  a 
marked  degree:  and  death  frequently  oc- 
curs from  paralysis  of  the  heart. 

Chronic  interstitial  pneumonia  («drrbo- 
sis  of  the  lung)  is  a  flbroid^diange  in  the 
lung,  chiefly  affecting  the  fibrous  stroma 
and  may  be  either  local  or  dUTuse.  'Om 
chaiiges  produced  in  the  lung  by  this  dis- 
ease are  marked  chiefly  by  the  growth  <m 
nudeated  fibroid  tissue  around  the  wuls 
of  the  bronchi  and  vessels,  and  In  the  In- 
tervesicular  septa,  which  proceeds  to  ai^ 
an  extent  as  to  invade  and  obliterate  the 
air  cells.  The  symptoms  are  wtrjmmmr 
to  those  of  chronic  phthisis  (see  T«ber««- 
lotit).  The  malady  Is  usually  of  long  du- 
ration, many  cases  remaining  for  years  la 
a  stationary  condition  and  even  UBOW^ 
going  temporary  improvement  in  miw 
weather,  but  the  tendency  is  on  the  WWM 
downward. 


ViiAmi  I'A-nli     (p'nnm  pen'),  the  chief 
Ifnom-'^nn    \^^   of  Cambodla,   at 

the  apex  of  the  delta  of  the  Mekong.  Pop. 
about  00,000. 

Va  (p<^;  anciently  Paiut  or  SrUAmu), 
*"  the  largest  river  of  Italy.  It  rises  «i 
!he  confines  of  France  and  Piedmont  m 
Mount  Viso.  one  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  and 
receives  durbf  Ito  long  course  to  the  Adri> 
atlc  (about  4o0  miles)  a  larm  number  of 
tributory  streams.  It  divi^  the  great 
plain  of  Lombardy  into  two  nenrl];^  aggU 
parts  and  is  the  grand  rewutacw  tof  tm 
streams  flowing  south  from  taa  Alpa^  i^ 
for  the  leaser  watera  Ihmt  flow  nortii 
from  a  part  of  the  Apamlae  rw«k  Ite 
principal  afloento  are,  oa  tha  wtt,  taa 


PM 


iMltw,  iMta,  TMml  Add*  Md  MtaMde: 
M  tte  itekt.  Urn  ftawoi  Trtbto  awl 
Pwwro.    Tin  Po,  la  ipiM  of  «akuik< 


_„  Po,  la  q^tt  «•   ,...■■„, 

■MBU,  tte.,  k  tho  eaoM  ^  fnqnwt  iaoa- 
datioM,  wpodallj  oMr  Ita  mooth.  la 
MOO  Pkum,  owtac  to  tba  site  canrkd 
down,  Its  chaatMl  fai  now  raiaad  abovo  tba 
cooBtn  throuf  It  which  It  flowa.  Fiah  aiw 
plaatiftil  la  It,  iacludliif  tht  ahad,  aalaoa, 
aad  avaa  atargaoa. 
POU,    8aa  M9Uow9r—$, 

"^HtMhhut  ,(POc>>'l<>f).  the  trtapaaa- 
*  ^"•y-**^  inc  on  anothar'a  proparty 
for  tha  pnrpoaa  of  killinf  or  steallof  gama 
•r  Oah.  For  tb«  law  relating  to  tha 
poaching  of  game  see  Oaaie  La«M.  Ac- 
eordinc  to  the  law  of  EnglaiKl,  when  a 
paraona  land  adjoins  a  stream  where 
there  ia  no  ebb  and  flow  that  peraon  ia 
aaaumed  to  ha?e  an  ezclualre  right  to 
fiah  in  the  atream  as  far  as  his  land 
extends,  and  up  to  the  middle  of  tha 
stream ;  and  so  also  when  a  person's  land 
Incloaea  a  pond,  the  fish  in  that  pond 
belong  to  him.  Where  several  proper- 
tlea  are  contiguous  to  the  aame  lake  the 
right  of  fishing  in  that  lake  belonga  to 
the  proprietors,  In  proportion  to  the  value 
of  their  respective  titles.  Exclusive  right 
of  fishing  in  a  public  river,  that  b,  one 
In  which  there  ia  ebb  and  flow  up  to 
the  tidal  limit,  or  a  portion  of  the  aaa,  ia 
held  hy  aome  proprietora  by  virtue  of 
royal  franchlsea  granted  prior'  to  the 
Uagna  Cbarta.  Any  person,  not  an 
angler,    found    flab-poaching   <m    private 

Smerty  is  liable  to  a  maximum  fine  of 
In  addition  to  the  value  of  *he  fiah: 
an  angler's  fine  does  not  excecu  £2.  If 
tha  act  ia  committed  on  land  belonging 
to  the  dwelling-house  of  the  owner  It 
becomes  a  miademeanor,  and  such  a  fiah- 
poachen  when  caught  in  the  act,  may  be 
arrested  by  anvbody.  Anglers  cannot  be 
arrested,  even  in  the  latter  case,  but  the 
penalty  extends  to  £5.  The  owner  or  his 
Mrvant  may  deprive  the  angler  of  his 
fishing  gear  in  Ifeu  of  a  fine.  The  same 
law  appliea  also  to  Ireland.  In  Scotland, 
aa  •  general  rule,  the  right  of  catching 
fiah  other  than  salmon  belonga  to  the 
owner  of  the  land  on  the  banks  of  the 
watera.  Aa  to  property  in  salmon  fish- 
iaga,  that  ia  held  to  be  originally  vested 
in  the  crown,  not  only  for  the  rivers  of 
Scotland  but  also  for  the  coasts,  and  no 
person,  accordingly,  fa  allowed  to  fish  for 
salmon  unless  be  poaaesses  a  grant  or 
charter  from  the  crown  enabling  him  to 
•*?.  K-  TM  .'■<'*,  *?•  however,  that  nearly 
ail  the  chief  landed  proprietors  do  possess 
such  rights.  The  punuhment  for  poach- 
ing salmon  In  Scotland  ia  a  fine  not 
laaa  than  10*.  nor  mora  than  £5,  togethar 


Poobird 

with  tha  fdrafdtnra  of  tha  flah  takaa,  aad 
tha  boat,  tacktau  ate.,  amployad  by  tha 
poacher,  if  tha  abarif  or  Justka  thiak  fit 
Anyone  not  aa  aaglar^ppaehiag  trout  or 
an*  other  freah-watar  flah  raadara  Uasalt 
liabla  to  a  paaaltJ  of  16.  baaidsa  forfait- 
Ing  the  fiah  caught.  If  ha  ha  caught  in 
the  act  of  uaing  a  net  for  peaehlag  such 
fish  ha  may  be  arrested,  bat  not  ualaaa: 
but  avaa  when  he  may  not  ba  arrested 
hia  boat  and  fiahlng  ImplaaiaBta  may  ba 
seised.  A  person  who  merely  anglaa  for 
trout  in  placea  where  ha  baa  not  got 
leave  to  fiah  ia  only  liable  to  an  actmi 
at  law.  Poaching  In  the  Britiah  iaUada 
w*»  formerly  much  more  aeverely  poa- 
I't''??^*^*"  •*  *•»•  Pwoont  dajr.  In  tha 
United  Statea  game  lawa  are  of  compara- 
tivalT  recent  adoption  and  fiahlng  aad 
hunting  are  largely  free. 

Pooanontai    (PO-ka-hm'taa),  daogh. 
vvMtvuMM    j^p  ^,   Powhatan,   a 

celebrated  Amerkian-lndian  warrior  of 
Virginia,  born  about  the  year  1666. 
Some  romantic  Incidenta  are  told  of  her 
life,  but  there  seem  to  be  considerable 
doubta  as  to  their  truth.  She  is  said  to 
have  abown  a  great  friendship  for  the 
English  who  colonised  Virginia,  and  to 
have  rendered  them  snbsUntlal  aervicca. 
In  1607  aha  prevailed  on  her  father  to 
spare  the  life  of  Captain  John  Smith, 
hia  prisoner,  and  two  yearn  later  frus- 
^tcd  a  plot  to  deatroy  him  and  hia  party. 
After  CapUin  Smith  bad  left  tha  eokmy 
aha  waa  kept  as  a  bostam  by  an  Engliah 
expeditionary  force  (1612).  During  thia 
detention  she  married  Mr.  Rolfe,  an  Bhig- 
liahman,  who  in  1616  took  her  on  a  viait 
to  England,  where  she  was  baptised  and 
assumed  the  name  of  Rebecca.  She  died 
the  following  yean  and  left  one  son,  who 
waa  educated  in  London,  and  whoae  de- 
scendanta  are  said  to  exist  still  in  tha 
State  of  Virginia. 

pocatcuo  i^t''o'f*i!i>iocVS:/irhS; 

177  miles  rt.  of  Salt  Lake  City.  It  has 
railroad  shops  and  other  indnstries,  good 
schools,  aoaflPmiPH,  and  a  government  ex- 
periment station.     Pop.  12,000. 

Pochard   <pJ '.'=''■??=  ^"i*^*/f^'  * 

*^  aubfamily  of  Anatidc  or 
ducks,  inhabiting  the  Arctic  regiona. 
They  migrate  southwards  in  winter  to 
the  coasts  of  Europe  and  North  Amer- 
ica; and  they  even  occur  in  Asia  and  in 
tha  southern  hemisphere.  They  are  ma- 
rine in  habits,  and  feed  upon  crustaceana, 
worms,  moHoses,  and  aquatic  plants. 
There  are  numerous  species,  and  the  fleah 
of  aeveral  is  much  prised  as  food.  A 
typical  form  and  one  of  the  best  known 
is  the  F.  ferina,  the  common  pochard, 
fariooaly     called     dnnblrd,     rad-headcd 


Pmo 


Voditbnid 


peiwr.  nd-bMikd  widfaoa  or  dwsk.  Tho 
bMd  and  oack  art  bflfiit  cfaMtoat;  ay« 
nd:  Mil  long:  •  broMi,  tnuMvcnu.  and 
dara-Mn*  band  oa  Um  npp«r  maadtMa : 
iMftk  10  to  17  :«icbM:  w«lfbt  1  to  2 
Iba.  Otbtr  fami  f  vanttica  an  tb«  F. 
tl»el4U»t  or  Iob«  .IM  duck :  tiM  Maup 
pocbard  IF.  m*rUm) ;  tb«  tnfttd  pocbard 

JF.  or(M«<a);  and  th«  canvaa-backad 
uck  of  North  Aaorica  (F.  VaH«N«Ha), 
■o  bifbly  Mtacmad  bj  epicurta. 
Paao  (PO'kA:  Italian  for  'a  little'), 
*^'***'  a  term  need  in  moaic  in  aocb 
pbraaea  ae  poeo  forU  {p.f.),  ratber  loud: 
poM  tmimatOt  with  aor"  animation;  and 
■0  brtb. 

PAAAflk  (pOlMir'  ...w  rfo,  an  Ent- 
fVOUVA    ,^,1,  (,.(,,,;, ^    Kholar      ;"ti  at 

Oxford  in  1004:  ie«l  ..  ;  .."..  lie  m 
graduated  from  ^^\'-t<i,  uad  wtu  oi  t  '    d 

Erieat  in  1028      >:i-      «t  t..c  u  .■.'••>.-   ' 
e  acquired  a  • 'si    f.  >  ori  nt«t'.  lite;  tti  • 
wbicb  he  we?  'o  t,  uiy  i  «  -hap' 

DUO       x'''^J 


to  the  Bngi'i! 


.  )r>    nv   .\    ppo 


30.  Laud  e-ifLge-^  i -a?  t:.  collo*  mi  ■  »- 
■cripta  an€  ..u»  f  i  tt.o  'Jni  •  s-uy  of 
Oxford,  ani  '":  itsr  <i>u-'  hin-.  lo  all  he 
newly-founded  /^^a^  •  ,*  aVi.'orsbip  at 
that  unlveralty.  Ta»' .  a. .  Ni  ve'-n  iv531 
and  40  he  spent  nt  CVns»aPtli"v...  u'udj- 
ing  and  collecting  a  '  muuMsc  ipta. 
Although  a  man  cc  .ite  v'^vs  in 

church  and  state  m«>iUi4,  be  nuifered 
fnmi  the  troubles  of  his  times.  He  waa 
appointed  to  the  Hebrew  chair  at  Ox- 
ford in  1648,  together  with  the  rich 
canonrr  of  Christ  Church;  but  from 
1660-00  be  was  deprived  of  his  church 
preferment.  His  works  are  of  great  value 
to  oriental  and  biblical  students. 
p^  in  botany,  a  general  term  ap- 
**'**>  plied  to  various  forms  of  seea- 
vessels  of  planta.  such  as  the  legume,  the 
loment,  the  siliqua,  the  silicle,  the  follicle, 
the  capsule,  etc. 

VnAturriL  (po-dag'ra),  that  species  of 
rvun^KU,  J  ^,,1^.1,  recurs  at  reg- 
ular intcrvau,  goierally  in  spring  or 
autumn,  attacking  the  joints  of  the  foot, 
particularly  of  the  great  toe,  attended 
with  a  sharp,  burning  pain,  and  rendering 
the  whole  foot  so  sensitive  that  the  slight- 
est pressure,  or  even  the  agitation  occa- 
sioned by  a  strong  draught  of  air,  causes 
torture.  The  pam  can  be  assuaged  by 
reducing  the  inflammation,  promoting  the 
secretion  of  the  gouty  matter,  and  by 
suitable  diet  and  mode  of  living.  See 
Govt. 

Podarsnu  (p<Hia''r").  »  *«^  «« 

*v«MM0tu  Auatraiasian  nocturnal 
birds  of  the  goatsacker  family.  Like  the 
goatsuckers,  their  mouths  have  a  very 
wide  gape.  By  day  they  are  axcearivaiy 
drowsy.    There  art  aaveral  iv«eiaa,  ona 


•f  wkkk,  CuTtar'a  podargoa  (J*.  Cuviari), 
ia  kaowa  aaioac  tbt  AnatraliaB  atttltia 

a  the  naoM  of  'more  pork'  from  Ita 
»ngt  cry. 
PA<liMt^        >-dea'ta),  an  Italian  word 

t9»f»,  power,  eauivalent  >>  iu  original 
meaning  to  a  bolder  of  v-  ••'  or  author- 
ity. In  tbt  middle  agea  the  podaatk 
wielded  almost  dicutorial  power  in  many 
of  the  Italian  cities.  In  the  nMxkm  king- 
dom of  Italy  he  is  the  chief  oOcial  of  a 
commune,  corresponding  to  tiM  Fraaeb 
mairt, 

Podgoritea  i^SS^nlro'^^^S 

againat  Montenegro,  bi*:  ineonwrattd 
with  that  principality  siact  ISSO.  It 
Ilea  about  86  mileo  north  <A  Scutari,  at 
the  foot  of  a  range  of  mountaina.  Pop. 
7000. 

Podioepi.   f^ort^' 

Podiehrad  (pod'ya-brAd),  Qbobob, 
roaiepnia    J^   ^^   Bohemia,   bom 

in  14^ of  a  noble  family;  died  In  1471. 
When  a  mere  youth  he  entered  int'  tbt 
Hnaaite  movement.  In  the  war  a  <nat 
Albert  V  of  Austria  be  rendered  «Bi- 
nent  serviciM,  and  aecured  the  higbast 
eateem  of  the  Calixtlnea  or  Utraqulata. 
In  1444  he  was  chosen  head  of  the  party, 
became  one  of  the  two  govtmon  of  Bo- 
hemia during  the  minority  of  Ladislaa, 
AllMrt'a  poHthumoua  son,  then  king  of  tlw 
country,  and,  after  overcoming  the  Cath- 
olic opposition,  sole  regent  ia  1461. 
Ladislaa  died  in  1467,  and  Podiebrad  waa 
elected  to  the  arone  in  -tbt  folkmiag 
year,  and  crowned  by  the  Catholic  biiriioM 
in  1469.  He  inaugurated  hia  rtliB  Of 
the  introduction  of  variooa  btntfletat 
lawa,  wise  adminiatration,  and  a  policy 
of  conciliation  towarda  the  Catboiica ;  bat 
he  waa  not  allowed  to  earnr  out  hia  re- 
forms in  i>eact.  Tbt  pope,  Paul  II,  pab- 
llcly  denounced  bim  aa  a  heretic  in  1408, 
excommunicated  bim,  and  hia  lentc  aocm 
produced  a  rising  among  the  CatltollcB. 
A  German  crusade  waa  formed  againat 
r  ^hemia  in  1400,  but  the  invadera  were 
«  <>ated  in  aeveral  placea.  Matthlaa 
(  vinus,  king  of  Hungary  and  aon-in- 
lav/  of  Podiebrad,  at  the  inatigation  <^ 
the  pone  and  tite  Emperor  Frederick  in- 
vaded Aloravia;  but  Podiebrad'a  general- 
ship  waa  again  aoecesaful,  and  in  1408  ht 
hemmed  in  tbt  Hungarian  army  at. 
Willemow.  In  order  to  secure  the  aid 
of  the  P<dea  be  assembled  a  dl«t  at 
Prague,  and  declared  the  soeccaaor  to  tbt 
throne  of  Poland  to  be  lib  own  aoectaaar, 
while  hia  aona  ahould  tmly  ivbtrtt  tbt 
family  eatataa  (1408).  Tha  Polaa  wtrt 
thna  inuBedlataly  drawn  to  hia  aUk;  tbt 


Podium 


Foe 


: 


Emperor  Frcdcriek  alio  declared  in  hia 
favor;  and  Ua  Catbolk  aabJecU  became 
reconciled  to  bim.  Shortly  after  be  de- 
atrojred  tbe  infantry  of  the  Hongariana, 
whidi  had  again  taken  tbe  field,  and  Mat- 
tbiaa  Corrinua  baatily  fled  with  bis  cav- 
alry. He  thus  aaw  himself  at  last 
completely  secured  in  bis  kingdom;  but 
no  sooner  was  this  accomplished  than  he 
died;  being  sncceeded  by  Ladislas,  eldest 
son  of  Casimir  IV,  king  of  Poland,  who 
thus  malted  tbe  two  crowns. 
Podimn  (PO'di-nm),  in  architecture, 
^^^^  a  long  pedestal  supporting  a 
series  of  columns.  It  is  called  a  t/yto- 
bate  when  tbe  columns  stand  on  project- 
ing parts  of  it. 

Podolifi  (po-dftli-a),  a  govemment  of 
"**  Southwestern  Uussia;  area, 
164224  aq.  miles.  The  country  is  mostly 
flat,  but  a  low  branch  of  the  Carpathians 
extends  through  it  in  an  easterly  direc- 
tion. The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Dniester  and  the  Bug.  The  climate  is 
temperate  and  salubrious,  the  soil  gener- 
ally very  fertile;  in  fact,  Podolia  forms 
one  of  the  most  valuable  agricultural 
possessions  of  tbe  Russian  Empire. 
Manufactures  are  spreading  rapidly,  and 
beet-sugar,  spirits,  flour  and  tobacco  are 
produced  in  great  quantities.  The  trade 
with  Germany,  Austria  and  Odessa  is  ex- 
tensive.    Capital,  Kamenets.     Pop.  3,543,- 

'Podophthalmata  i^-.Jffkw): 

a  division  of  the  Crustacean  clasa! 
primarily  distinguished  by  compound  eyes 
supported  upon  movable  stalks  termed 
pedundea.  This  division  includes  tbe 
orders  Stomapoda  and  Decapoda,  the  for- 
mer of  which  is  represented  by  the 
'  locust,'  '  glass '  and  '  opossum  '  shrimps, 
while  the  latter  includes  the  familiar 
crabs,  lobsters,  common  shrimps,  hermit 
crabs,  and  their  allies.  See  also  C'ras- 
tecea.  Crab,  Lob»ter,  Shrimp,  etc. 
Podophyllin  (Pod-«-firin),  a  resin 
•t^  •'^^  obtained  from  the  root- 
stocL-  of  the  May  apple  (Podophyllum 
veltatum.  See  Ifoi;  apple).  It  is  of  a 
browniab-yellow  color,  dissolves  readily 
in  alcohol,  and  has  been  admitted  to  the 
pharmacopoeias  of  many  countrira  as  a 
purgative;  it  is  particularly  beneficial  in 
cases  of  sluggish  liver,  having  much  the 
some  effect  as  mercury,  but  in  some  cou- 
stitutlons  produces  severe  griping. 
PodnridS  (PO^O'-WO,  a  family  of 
.7^7.  apterous  (wingless)  in- 
sects belonging  to  the  order  Thysanura, 
distinguished  by  the  possession  of  an 
elastic  forked  caudal  appendage,  which 
la  folded  under  the  body  when  at  rest, 
and  by   the  sudden  extension  of  which 


they  are  enabled   to  effect  considerable 
leans;  hence  their  popular  name  of  spring- 
talb.    Their  scales  are  favorite  test  ob- 
jects for  microscopes. 
Poe    ^P^^'  BoQ^B  AiXAN.  poet  and  ro- 
"'^    mantle   writer,    bom   at    Boston. 
Maasacbusiicta,  in  1809;  died  at  Baltimore 
in   1M8.     His  father  and   mother  were 
actors,  and  being  left  an  orphan  when  a 
mere  child  he  was  adopted  by  Mr.  Allan, 
a     wealthy     Richmond     merchant    Hia 
early    education    he    received   at    Stokc- 
Newington,  London,  1816-21,  and  on  hia 
return  to  America  attended  a  school  at 
Richmond,   Virginia,  and  finally  entered 
the  University  of  Charlottesville.    Here 
he  displayed  extraordinary  talents,   but 
also  contracted   a   taste   for  faat   living 
which  occaaioned  quarrels  with  his  bene- 
factor, and  caused  bim  to  quit  America 
for  Europe.    He  took  part  in  the  strug- 
gles of  tha  Greeks  for  Independoice,  and 
for  a  fe*Oears  led  an  erratic  life  on  the 
contment.     In  1829  be  returned  to  Amer- 
ica, a  reconciliation  with  Mr.  Allan  took 
place,  and  he  was  sent  as  cadet  to  the 
military  academy  at  West  Point.    Fur- 
ther irregularities  brought  about  a  com- 
plete rupture  with  Mr.  Allan,  and  Poe 
enlisted  as  a  private  soldier,  however  only 
to  desert  later  on.    Hia  literary  career 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  1835,  when 
he  gained  the  prize  oflTered  by  the  Balti- 
more Baturday   VitUor  for  a   tale  and 
a   poem.    He   then   became  successively 
editor    of    tbe    newly-founded    Southern 
Ltterary    Mettenger   at    Richmond,    con- 
tributor to  tbe  'Neva  York  Review  at  New 
York,  and  editor  of  Burton't  Oentleman't 
Magazine    and    Cfraham'a    Magazine    at 
Philadelphia.    For    these    periodicals    he 
wrote  a   number  of   tales,   exhibiting  a 
weird   yet    fascinating   imagination.    He 
also  added  to  his  reputation  by  poems  of 
striking  originality  and  rhythmic  power. 
While  at  Richmond,  in  JS36,  he  married 
his  cousin,  Virginia  Clemm,  a  beautiful 
and    amiable   girl.     The    great    event    in 
Poe's  life   waa  the  publication   at   Ne  •• 
York  in  1845  of  his  poem.  The  Raven, 
which    spread    his    fame    to    the    whole 
English-speaking    world.    For    this     re- 
markable production  Poe  is  said  to  have 
received  $10.     He  was  subsequently  con- 
nected with  The  Home  Jovrnal  and  The 
Broadway   Journal.     In    1848    his    wife 
died.    Passing     through     Baltimore     in 
1849,  on  his  way  to  New  York  to  make 
preparation   for  a   second   marriage,   he 
was  led  to  excessive  drinking,  and  died 
from   its  effects  at   the   hospital.     Poe's 
career  is  sdd  enough,  and  his  faults  were 
sufficiently  numerous,  but  until  John  H. 
Ingram  in  1874  publiahed  a  biography  of 
him,    based    on    documents    and    ascer- 


Poe-bird 


Point 


talBcd  facta,  the  pablic  were  generaUr 
led  to  believe  by  Rnfus  Orisvold,  bia 
%at  biographer,  tliat  bia  cb&racter  waa 
very  much  blaclcer  than  it  really  aeema 
to  have  been.  He  has  won  an  endaring 
reputation  alike  for  his  weird  and  strik- 
ing tales  and  his  rare  and  musical 
poema,  while  aa  a  critic  he  also  showed 
fine  taate  and  judgment  Many  regard 
him  as  the  most  original  genius  America 
has  produced. 
Poe-bird.  see  Eoney-eater. 


roeriU  j^^  atatesman,  born  at  Naples 
in  1803;  died  at  Florence  in  1867.  He 
opposed  the  actions  of  the  Bourbon  kini^ 
of  Naples,  and  frequently  devoted  his 
talents  as  an  advocate  to  the  cause  of 
poUdcal  offenders.  •  He  thus  became  a 
suspect,  and  from  1837-48  suffered  vari- 
ous terms  of  imprisonment  The  revolu- 
tion of  the  latter  year  released  him  from 
prison  and  placed  him  at  the  Iwad  of  the 
Neapolitan  police,  and  of  the  ministry  of 
public  instruction,  but  finding  it  impM- 
eible  to  get  the  Bourbons  to  fulfill  their 
promises,  he  resigned.    He  sat  in  the  new 

fArliament  and  acted  with  the  opposition, 
n  July,  1849,  he  was  arrested  and  con- 
demned without  defense   to   twenty-four 
years'     imprisonment       The     barbarous 
treatment  he  received  in  prison  gave  oc- 
cadon  to  Gladstone's  famous  Two  Lettert 
to  Lord  Aberdeen,  written  in  ISol  from 
Naples.     In  1859  his  sentence  was  com- 
muted to  transportation  to  South^  Amer- 
ica; but  he  and  his  companions  in  mis- 
fortune effected  a  landing  at  Cork  in  Ire- 
land,  and   thence   proceeded   to    London. 
In  1861  he  was  elected  vice-president  of 
the  lUlian  chamber  of  deputies,  and  re- 
mained till  his  death  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  constitutional  liberal  party. 
PftA+rv    (po'et-ri;      from     poet,     the 
XOfShty      Greek    poietea,    a    maker    or 
creator),  that  one  of  the  fine  arts  which 
exhibits  its  sper^ial  character  and  powers 
^j  means  of  language;  or,  according  to 
Aytoun,  the  art  which  has  for  its  object 
the  creation  of  intellectual  pleasures  by 
means  of  imaginative  and  passionate  lan- 
guage, and  of  language  generally,  though 
not  necessarily,  formed  --ito  regular  num- 
bers.    It   has  also   been   defined   as  the 
concrete   and   artistic   expression   of  the 
human  mind  in  emotional  and  rhythmical 
language.     It  is  the  earliest  form  of  lit- 
erature, and  also  the  final  end  ideal  form 
of    all    pure    literature;    its    true    place 
lying   between   music,   on  the  one  hand, 
and    prose    or    loosened    speech    on    the 
other.     The  two  great  classes  of  poetry 
are  dramatic  and  lyric.    Partaking  of  the 
character  of   both  is  epic  or   narrative 


poetry.  (See  Bpie.)  To  the  **«*'^ 
claai  belong  tragedy  and  comedy;  to  Um> 
lyric  belong  the  aong,  hjrmn,  ode,  anthem, 
elegy,  sonnet  and  ballad,  though  the  hurt- 
named  frequently  baa  a  kind  of  epic 
character.  Poetic*  ia  the  theory  of 
poetry — that  branch  of  criticism  which 
treats  of  the  natun  and  laws  of  poetry. 

Poggio  Bracciolini  <£?j;Ra);'T£ 

Italian  scholar  and  prolific  writer,  norn 
in  1380;  died  in  1459,  He  came  early 
under  the  influence  of  the  revival  <rf  lit- 
erature in  Italy.  About  1402  he  became 
writer  of  the  apostolic  letten  under  Boni- 
face IX,  and  for  fifty  yeara  remained 
connected  with  the  papal  curia. 


"Dnirtoori    (pwan-ki-ra'),       Hbnbi, 
xoiubuxc    ]f«rench  mathemadcian  and 


fi 


Lihysicist,  born  at  Nancy  in  KM;  di«I 
in  1912.  He  was  professor  at  the  Uni- 
vereity  of  Paris  and  made  original  con- 
tribunons  in  pure  mathematics,  in  celes- 
tial mechanics,  and  in  the  mathematics 
of  physics.  He  has  been  called  the  great- 
est mathematician  since  Archimedes. 
His  works  include  Coura  de  pkifttque 
mathimatique  (1890),  Eleotrioiti  et  optt- 
que  (1890-91),  ThermodynotM9»« 
(1892),  Lea  metkodea  nouvellea  de  «» 
m^canique  ciUate  (1892-99),  TMone 
dea  turbiUona  (1893),  Lea  oaotttattona 
^leotriquea  (1894),  Capillariti  (1896), 
Calcul  dea  probabilitia  (1896),  La 
acience  et  hypothiae  (1902),  etc. 
VAiYinoWl  Ratmokd,  a  celebrated 
XOlUblirt;  French  author  and  stotes- 
man,  a  member  of  the  French  Academv, 
born  August  20,  1800,  at  Bar-le-Duc.    He 

gracticed  as  a  lawyer  in  Paris  and  began 
is  public  career  by  entering  the  C!hamber 
of  Deputies  in  1887.  After  that  time  he 
filled  various  offices,  as  minister  of 
finance,  minister  of  public  instruction, 
etc.  In  1912  he  assumed  the  post  of  prem- 
ier, and  on  January  17,  1913,  waa 
elected  to  the  presidency.  Hia  publica- 
tions include  Idiea  eontemportunea, 
Etudea  et  figurea  poUtiqvea,  Cauaea  Ut- 
t^airea  et  artiaquea. 

Poinsettia  (poin-»ep:a). .»  fo™*' 

a.  vuun.«i>Aa,  gpn„g  of  American  apeta- 
lous  plants  of  the  order  Euphorbiacee. 
The  Jiiuphorbia  pulcherrima,  a  plant  aa': 
tive  to  South  America  and  Mexico  and 
much  cultivated  in  conservatoriea,  ia  c»n- 
spicuous  for  the  large  scarlet  floral  leaves 
surrounding  its  small  green  flower-heads. 
PAint  in  geometry,  is  a  quantity  which 
*"*"*»  has  no  parts,  or  which  ia  in- 
divisible,  or  which  has  porition  without 
magnitude.  Points  may  be  regarded  aa 
the  ends  or  extremities  of  lines.  If  a 
point  ia  supposed  to  be  moved  in  any 
way,  it  will  by  its  motion  describe  «  Una, 


Pointe-lt'pitre 


Poiion  Ivy 


Pointe-k-nitre    (pwint-i-pe-tr).    the  both  Unda,  as  the  common  foxglove,  and 

«    w  jr*M«   principal  port  of  the  the  monkshood  or  aconite.    An  alkaloid 

French  W.  Indian  island  Uoadeloupe,  on  is  extracted  from   the  latter,  Ath  of  a 

the   southwest   coast    of   Qrande   Terre,  grain   of   which   has   proved   fatal.    An- 

and  one  of  the  most  important  comm«r^  other  class  of  poisons  suddenly  and  en- 

cial   towns   of  the  Antilles.    The  town,  tirely  cause  a  cessation  of  some  fuuctiou 

5"*  .y  ^2AU  "'  *'°<^'  "*■  tlestroyed  br  necessary  to  life.    To  this  class  belong 

fire  in  1780,  by  an  Mrthquake  in  1843,  ail  the  kfaids  of  gas  and  air  which  are 

and  again  by  fire  in  18<1.    Pop.  16,500.  irrespirable,   suffocating   vapors,   as  car 

Pointed  Architeotnre.  ?  ^*?i®  ''®°'<^  "<^'^  «"•  ^"™**'  '^^  sulphur  and 

.....  '  for  Gothic  charcoal,  etc.  Many  preparations  of 
iwnicn  see;.  ,  ,  ,^^  .  ,.  ^  .  le"^,  as  acetate  or  sugar  of  lead,  car- 
POinter  Doir  (pointer),  a  breed  of  bonate  or  white  lead,  etc.,  are  to  be 
,,,  .  ,  ^  "  sporting  dogs,  nearly  counted  in  this  cluss.  The  effects  of 
allied  to  the  true  hounds.  The  original  poisons  materially  depend  on  the  extent 
Dreed  is  Spanish,  but  a  cross  with  the  of  the  dose,  some  of  the  most  deadly 
foxhound  is  now  generally  used.  It  is  poisons  being  useful  remedies  in  cer- 
smootb,  short-haired,  generally  marked  tain  quantities  and  circumstances.  An- 
Dlack  and.  white  like  the  foxhound,  but  tidotes  naturally  vary  with  the  different 
occasionally  a  uniform  black.  It  derives  kinds  of  poisons.  They  sometimes  pro- 
its  name  from  its  habit  of  stopping  and  tect  the  body  against  the  operation  of  the 
pointing  with  the  head  in  the  direction  of  poison,  sometimes  change  this  last  in 
game,  discovered  by  a  very  acute  sense  of  such  a  manner  that  it  loses  its  injniriuus 
smell.  The  dog  once  having  pointed  re-  properties,  and  sometimes  remove  or 
mains  perfectly  quiet.  This  faculty  in  remedy  its  violent  results.  Thus  in  cases 
the  pointer  is  hereditary,  but  is  better  de-  of  poisoning  by  acrid  and  corrosive  sub- 
veloped  by  training.  stances  we  use  the  fatty,  mucilaginous 
Poison  (PO''">)>  ti°7  agent  capable  of  substances,  as  oil,  milk,  etc.,  which 
producing  a  morbid,  noxious,  sheathe  and  protect  the  coats  of  the 
dangerous,  or  deadly  effect  upon  the  ani-  stomach  and  bowels  against  tlie  operation 
mal  economy,  when  introduced  either  by  of_  the  poison.  Against  the  metallic 
cutaneous  absorption,  respiration,  or  the  poisons  nubstances  are  employed  which 
d^estive  canal.  Poisons  are  divided,  lorm  with  the  poison  insoluble  com- 
with  respect  to  the  kingdom  to  which  pounds,  such  as  freshly  prepared  hydrated 
they  belong,  into  animal,  vegetable,  and  oxide  of  iron,  or  dfalyzed  iron  for 
mineral;  but  those  which  proceed  from  arsenic,  albumin  (white  of  egg)  for 
animals  are  often  called  venomt,  while  mercuij;  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts  for 
those  that  are  produced  by  disease  have  lead.  Lime,  chalk,  baking  soda,  and  mag- 
the  name  virut.  With  respect  to  their  nesia  are  the  best  remedies  for  the  power- 
effects  they  have  been  divided  into  four  'ul    acids.    For    cantharides,    mucilage. 


classes,  namely,  irritant,  narcotic,  nar- 
cotico-acrid,  and  septic  or  putrescent. 
Many    poisons    operate   chemically,    cor 


gruel,  and  barley-water  are  employed. 
We  onpose  to  the  alkaline  poisons  the 
weaker  vegetable  acids,  as  vinegar.    Prus- 


roding  the  organized  fiber,  and  causing  sic  acid   is  neutralized   by  alkalies  and 

inflammation  and  mortification.    To  this  freshly   precipitated   oxide  <rf   iron.    To 

class  belong  many   metallic   oxides   and  arouse  those  poisoned  by  opium,  we  use 

salts,  as  arsenic,  one  of  the  most  deadly  coffee  and  ammonia,  and  belladonna  as 

poisons;    mgn^    preparations   of    copper,  an   antagonistic   drug,   the   person   being 

mercury;    antimony,    and    other   metals;  kept  walking.     Chloral-hydrate  poisoning 

the  mineral  and  vegetable  acids;  the  sub-  is   similarly   treated   by   the   drug   moi- 

stance  derived  from  some  plants,  as  the  tinned ;  and  for  strychnia  or  nux  vomica, 

spurges  and  mezereon;  and  cantharides,  animal   charcoal   in    water   and   chloral- 

from  the  animal  kingdom.    Other  poisons  hydrate  arc  used.    Poisoning  was  a  com- 

exercise    a    powerful    action    upon    the  mon    crime    in    ancient    Rome,    and    in 

nerves  and  a  rapid  destruction  of  their  France  and  Italy  during  the  seventeenth 

energy.     These     are     the     sedative     or  century.     See  Aqua  Tofana,  Briiivillier$. 

stupefying  poisons,   and   he\ong  for   the  PAigATi  J-%rv     or  Poison  Oak   (Rhua 

most    part    to    the    vegetable    kingdom.  *"*»«"  -l-^y*    «o<woode««fron),    a    spe- 

Upium,     hemlock,    henbane,    belladonna,  ciea  of  sumach  which  bears  three  leaflets 

are  the  best-known  forms  of  this  poison,  and  usually  has  the  climbing  habit.    It 

Prussic    acid,    a    poison    obtained    from  is  very  irr.toting  to  sensitive  skins,  pro- 

the  kernels  of  several  fruits,  the  cherry-  ducing  an  itching  eruption  which  is  highly 

Jaurel,   etc.,   is   one   of   the   most   ftpid  annoying.    Another  species,   Rhua  vene- 

destioyers  of  life.    Among  plants  there  nata,    the    Poison-ash,    Poison-elder,    or 

•re  manv  which  unite  the  properties  of  Poison-sumach,  is  still  more  poisonous. 


Poiion-nut 

It  is  a  handaome  tree,  but  fortunately  is 
largely  confined  to  marshes. 
PniaAn.Tinf     *    °*™«    '**'    8trifchno$ 
XOlSUu-iiUi')  nuw-vomica,  &n  evergreen 

tree  of  the  nat.  order  Loganiaces,  the 
seeds  of  which  yield  strychnine.  (See 
Nu»  vomica.)  Also  a  name  for  the 
Tanghinia  venenifera,  of  the  nat.  order 
Apocynaces,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a 
drupe'  enclosing  a  kernel  extremely  poi- 
sonous. It  used  to  be  employed  in  Mada- 
gascar as  an  ordeal-test  of  guilt  or  inno- 
cence, the  result  generally  being  the  death 
of  the  suspected  person. 
Vni^iAfa  (pwA-tya),  or  PoiCTlERS.  a 
f  OllieiTS  to^u  of  France,  on  the  Clam, 
formerly  capital  of  the  province  of 
Poitou,  at  present  of  the  department  of 
the  Vienne.  The  town  occupies  a  large 
space,  the  houses  being  often  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  and  orchards;  the 
streets  are  narrow   and    ill   paved.     The 

grincipal  edifice  is  the  cathedral,  founded 
y    Henry    II    of    England    about    1162. 
Pi'.tiera  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns 


Facade,  Church  of  N6tre  Dame,  Poitiers. 


of  France,  and  the  vestiges  of  a  Roman 
palace,  of  Roman  baths,  of  an  aqueduct, 
and  an  amphitheater  still  remain.  .Two 
famous  battles  were  fought  in  its  vicinity, 
that  in  which  Charles  Martel  defeated  the 
Saracen  army  in  732,  and  that  between 
the  French  under  their  king  .Tohn  II 
and  the  English  under  Edwam  the  Black 
Prince  in  1356.  The  manufactures  are 
unimportant,  b"*  there  is  a  large  trade. 
Pop.  U'J*"'     3i,T8o. 


]^olacoa 

I    I  — ■ — 

'PAitiA'ra     DlAKA   OF.    See  Diana   of 

roiuen,    po»*wrt. 

Pnifnn     (pwA-ta),  one  of  the  old  prov- 
rOlIOU    j^u^gg  of  i'.^nce,  between  Brit- 
tany and  Anjou  on  the  north,  Beriy  on 
the  east,  the  Atlantic  on  the  west,  and 
Angoumois  and  Saintonge  on  the  south. 
The  departments  of  Vienne,  Deux-Stvres 
and  Vendue  have  been  formed  out  of  this 
province.     Henry  II  of  England  acquired 
possession  of  Poitou  by  his  marriage  with 
Eleanor,    heiress    of    the    last    Duke    of 
Aquitaine.     Philip  Augustus  conquered  it. 
Pftlrpr    (pO'kir),  an  American  game  of 
f  UA.CX    cards  for  two  or  more  persons, 
originally  played  witli  only  twenty  cards, 
all    below   the   tens   beiiig   excluded,   but 
now  played  with  the  full  pack.     It  is  a 
popular  gambling  game,  the  motle  of  play- 
ing   being    to    bet    on    the    comparative 
strength  of  the  cards  held  by  the  players. 
PnlrATi/APil     (pOk'wed),      the      Phpto 
rOKeweea    ,„^p„    decandra,   a    North 
American    braucliing    herbaceous    plant,, 
nat.  order  Phytolaccacese,  which   is  nat- 
uralized   in    some   parts   of    Europe   and 
Asia.     Its  root  acts  as  a  powerful  emetic 
and  cathartic,  but  its  use  is  attended  with 
narcotic  effects.     Its  berries  are  said  to 
possess  the  same  quality ;   they  are  em- 
ployed   as    a    remedy    for    chronic    and 
syphilitic    rheumatism,    and    for   allaying 
syphiloid     pains.     The     leaves     are     ex- 
tremely   acrid,    but    the    young    shoots, 
which    lose    this    quality    by    boiling    in 
water,   are   eaten,    in   the    United    States 
as  a  substitute  for  asparagus. 
Pnltt      (po'la>,  a  town  on  the  Adriatic, 
*"*•*     the  principal  naval  port  of  Aus- 
'tria-Hungary,  55  miles  south  of  Trieste. 
It   is  an  ancient  place,   and   was   for  a 
lengthened  period   the  principal  town  of 
Istria.     Its    former    importance    is    well 
attested   by   architectural    remains,   chief 
among    which    are    a    colossal   and   well- 
preserved  amphitheater  and  two  temples. 
Pola    had   sunk   to   the   level   of   a   mere 
fishing-place   with   some   SiiO  or  900  in- 
habitants, when  the  Austrian  government, 
tempted    by    excellent    harbor    accommo- 
dation,   selected    it    as    its    chief    naval 
station;    and    by    the    erection    of    dock- 
yards, of  an  arsenal,  barracks,  and  other 
government   establishments,    infused   new 
life  into  it.     The  entrance  to  the  harbor 
is   narrow,   but   the   water   is   deep,   and 
within    it    expands    into    a    large    basin, 
landlocked  and  safe.     Forts  and  batteries 
on  hills  forming  the  bockground  protect 
the     harbor.     Pop.,     including    garrison, 
45  052. 

Pnlarca.  (po-lak'a),  or  Poiacwe,  a 
f  UiH.t'i'a  three-masted  vessel  used  in 
the  Mediterranean.  The  masts  are 
usually  of  one  piece,  so  tbat  they  have 


Polacoa 


Polftad 


ndtber    topa,    capi,    nor    croaatreet.    It 
carries  a  fore-and-aft  aail  on  the  miuen- 
maat,  and  square  sails  on  the  mainmast 
and  foremast. 
FolaOCa.     ^**  Polonaite. 

PoIatiiI  (pd'land),  an  eztenstve  terri* 
xuMuu  jQpy  ^f  Central  Europe,  which 
existed  for  many  centuries  as  an  inde- 
pendent and  powerful  state;  but  having 
fallen  a  prey  to  internal  dissensions,  was 
violently  seized  by  Austria,  Prussia  and 
Russia  as  a  common  spoil,  partitioned 
among  these  three  powers,  and  incorpo- 
rmted  with  their  dominions.  In  its  great- 
eat  prosperity  it  bad  at  least  11,000,000 
inhabitants,  and  an  area  of  350,000  square 
miles,  and  immediately  before  its  first 
partition  bad  an  area  of  about  282,000 
square  milrs,  stretching  from  the  fron- 
tiers of  Hungary  and  Turltev  to  the  Bal- 
tic, and  from  Germany  far  east  into  Rus- 
sia, forming  one  compact  kingdom.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Carpathians,  forming 
its  southwestern  boundary,  and  a  ridge  of 
moderate  elevation  penetrating  into  it 
from  Silesia,  the  country  presents  the 
appearance  of  an  almost  unbroken  plain, 
composed  partly  of  gently-undulating  ex- 
panses, partly  of  rich  alluvial  flats,  partly 
of  sandy  tracts,  and  partly  of  extensive 
morasses.  Its  principal  streams  are  the 
Vistulp,  the  Niemen  and  the  Dwina, 
all  belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Baltic; 
and  the  Dniester,  South  Bug  and 
Dnieper,  with  its  tributary,  Pripet,  be- 
longing to  the  basin  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  pnysical  configuration  of  the  coun- 
try makes  it  admirably  adapted  for  agri- 
culture. Next  to  grain  and  cattle  its 
most  important  product  is  timber. 

The  Poles,  like  the  Russians,  are  a 
Slavonic  race,  and  are  first  spoken  of  as 
the  Polani,  a  tribe  or  people  between  the 
Vistula  and  Oder.  The  country  was 
divided  into  small  communities  until  the 
reign  of  aiieczyslaw  I  (962-992)  of  the 
Piast  dynasty,  who  renounced  paganism 
in  favor  of  Christianity,  and  was  a  vas- 
sal of  the  German  emperor.  He  wns 
succeeded  by  Boleslaw  tne  Great  (992- 
1025),  who  raised  Poland  into  an  Inde- 
pendent kingdom  and  increased  its  terri- 
tories. In  succeeding  reigns  the  country 
was  involved  in  war  with  Germany,  the 
heathen  Prussians,  the  Teutonic  knights, 
and  with  Russia.  The  last  of  the  Piast 
dynasty  was  Casimir  the  Great  (13B4- 
70),  during  whose  reign  the  material 
prosperity  of  Poland  greatly  increased. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Louis 
of  Anjou,  king  of  Hungary,  whose 
daughter,  Hedwig,  was  recognized  as 
'king'  in  1384,  and  having  married 
Jafulo,   prince  of   Lithuania,   thui  es- 


tabliabed  the  djaaatT  of  the  Jagcllom. 
which  lasted  from  1386  to  1572.    Dnrioi 
tbia    period    Poland    atUined    its    moS 
powerful    and    flourishing  conditiim.     In 
1672   the   Jagellon   dynasty    became  ex- 
tinct in  the  male  line,  and  the  monarchy, 
hitherto  elective  in  theory,  now  became 
so  in  fact.     The  more  important  of  the 
elective  kinga  were  Sigismund  III  (1687- 
1637),  Wladislaw  or  Ladislaus  IV  h682- 
48),  John   Caaimir    (1648^),   and   the 
Polish    ffeneral    Sobieaki,    who    became 
king  under  the  title  of  John  III  (1674- 
96).     He    was    succeeded    by    Augustus 
II,  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  got  entangled 
in  the  war  of  Russia  with  Charles  XII, 
and    had    as    a    rival    in    the    kingdom 
Stanislaus      Lesczynski.    Augustus      III 
(1733-63)    followed,  and  by  the  end  of 
his  reign  internal  dissensions  and  other 
causes  had   brought  the  country  into  a 
state    of    helplessness.     In    1772,    under 
the  last  feeble  king,  Stanislaus  Augustus 
(1704-95),   the  first  actual   partition  of 
Polanc*  took   place,   when  about  a  third 
of  its  territories  were  seized  by  Prussia, 
Austria      and     Russia,     the     respective 
shares  of  the  spoil  being  Prussia  13.415 
square  miles,  Austria  27,000  square  miles, 
and  Russia  42,000  square  miles.     What 
remained  to  Poland  was  completely  under 
Russian  influence.    Another  partition  in 
1793  gave  Russia  nearly  97,000  square 
miles  and    Prussia   22,500  square   miles. 
A  third  partition  took  place  in  1795  aftei 
the  heroic  attempt  of  Kosciusko  to  save 
his  country,  and  the  last  king  of  Poland 
became    a    pensionary    of    the    Russian 
court     The     successive    partitions    gave 
Russia  upwards  of  180,000  square  miles. 
Austria  about  45.000  square  miles,  and 
Prussia  57,000  square  miles.     From  1815 
to  1830  Russian  Poland  was  a  constitu- 
tional   monarchy    with    the    emperor    as 
king,   but   the   Poles,   taking  occasion   of 
the  French  revolution,  at  the  latter  date 
rashly  engaged  in  an  insurrection,  which 
only   hastened  their  complete  absorption 
in     Russia.    The     name     Kingdom     of 
Poland  was  retained,  but  ail  Qie  ante- 
nomic  institutions  retained  by  the  people 
were  swept  &w&^,  the  whole  country  be- 
ing rapidly  Russified.    ^Following  the  Eu- 
ropean war  (q.  v.),  1914-18,  Poland  was 
erected  into  a  separate  state.     The  Poles 
had  fought  gallantly  against  the  Germans, 
buoyed  up  by  the  promise  of  separate  na- 
tionality.   Polish  representatives  in  Paris 
kept  this  hope  alive  through  the  days  of 
fighting,   and  following   the   armistice  of 
November  11,  1918,  expected  to  take  con- 
trol of  the  Polish  government.    But  home 
forces  had  already  taken  control  and  for  a 
time  there  was  a  deadlock.     Peace  came 
with    the    appointment    of    Paderewski 
(q.  v.),  as  premier  in  January,  iSlA 


folur  Bear 


Polarization  of  light 


The  country  was  laid  waste  during  the 
w«r,  and  great  loss  and   suffering  cam* 
to  the  people.     The  Polish  literature  is 
older  than  any  other  Slavonic  language 
except  the  Bohemian.     The  oldest  monu- 
ments consist  of  warlike,  historical,  poli- 
tical   and    religious    poems,    more    espe- 
cially  the   latter    class;    but   the    Latin 
language,   fostered    by   the  church,    was 
used   exclusively   by   Polish   writers   for 
several  centuries.    The  'golden  age 'of 
Polish  literature  was  from  1521  to  1G21. 
To  this  period  belong  Nicolas  Rej   (died 
1568)     and     Jan     Kochanowski      (died 
1584),   who   both   attained   eminence  as 
poets,    the    former    in    satire,    allegory, 
didactic    poetry,    etc.,    the    latter    as    a 
lyrist  of  the  highest   rank.     Among  the 
other     poets     of     the     century      were 
Szaraynski    (died    1581),    and   Szymono- 
wicz     (Simonides),     author     of     Pohth 
Idyllt.     It  was  in  the  sixteenth  century 
also  that   the   first   histories  In   the  lan- 
guage of  the  people  were  written.     This 
flourishing    period    of    Polish    literature 
was    followed    by    a    period    of    J««iilt 
supremacy    and    literary    decline,    which 
lasted  till  about  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.     About  that  time  the  in- 
fluence   of    the    French    civilization    was 
A'idely  felt  in  Poland,  and  prepared  the 
jvay  for  the  revival  of  letters.     The  most 
iMstinguished  authors  of  the   latter  part 
o!   the  eighteenth   century   are   Narusze- 
w  icz,  who  wrote  odes,  idylls,  satires,  etc., 
at  id     Krasicki     (1734-1801),     who     also 
di  itinguished    himself    in    various    fields. 
Anong    modem     Polish    poets    may    be 
acted  Michiewicz  (1798-1855),  Krasinski 
(•812-59),   Slowacki    (1801M9),   Zaleski 
(:  802-86).     Kraszewski,  novelist  and  po- 
lit'cal  and  historical  writer,  is  one  of  the 
most    prolific   of    present-day    Polish   au- 
thors.    Most    departments    of    literature 
have  been  successfully  cultivated  by  mod- 
ern Polish  writers,  but  comparatively  few 
have  attained  a  European  reputation. 

Polar  Bear.   seeBe«r. 

Polar  Circles,  S  S'^tSrea^S 

parallel  to  the  equator,  the  one  north 
and  the  other  south,  distant  23°  28'  from 
either  pole.     See  under  Arctic. 

Polar  Coordinates.  J^/''"'^*'*- 
Polar  Distance,  S^e^of  airA 

on  a  sphere  from  one  of  its  poles;  more 
especially  the  angular  distance  of  a 
heavenly  body  from  the  elevated  pole  of 
the  heavens.  It  Is  measured  by  the  inter- 
cepted arc  of  the  circle  passing  through 
it  and  through  the  pole,  or  by  the  corre- 
sponding   angle    at    the    center    of    the 


sphere.  According  as  the  north  or  south 
pole  is  elevated  we  have  the  wtrtk  polar 
dktance  or  the  $outh  polar  duHnce. 

Polar  Expeditions.  J*^,  ^^^^^ 

iition$  and  South  Polar  Emptditiotu. 

Polar  Forces,   {'L.P^^J^'d'eveiotSd' 

and  act  in  pairs  with  opposite  tendencies, 
as  in  magnetism,  electricity,  etc. 
Pnlarift    (po-lar'is),    the   pole-atar, 

Pn1ariapnn»    (po-lar'is-kop),  an  oi»- 
rOianSCOpe    jj^^i    ingtrument,   va- 
rious kinds  of  which  have  been  contrived, 
for  exhibiting  the  polarization   of   light, 
or  for  examining  transparent  media  for 
the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing their  polarizing  power. 
The  important  portions  of 
the    instrument    are    the 
polarising   and   analysing 
plates     or     prisms,     and 
these  are  formed  either  of 
natural  crystalline  struc- 
tures,   such    as     Ireland 
spar  and  tourmaline,  or  of 
a  series  of  reflecting  sur- 
faces,   artificially    joined 
together.    The  accompany- 
ing   figure    shows    Malus' 
polariscope.    A  and  B  are 
the     reflectors,     the     one 
serving   as   polarizer,   the 
other   as    analyzer,    each 
consisting    of    a    pile    of 
glass  plates.    Each  reflec- 
tor can   be  turned  about 
a  horizontal  axis,  and  the  upper  one,  or 
analyzer,  can  also  be  turned  about  on  a 
vertical  axis,  the  amount  of  rotation  be 
ing  measured  on  the  horizontal  circle  o  O. 
8^  Polarization  of  Light. 
Polftritv     ( P«-Jar'i-ti ) ,  that  quality  of 

peculiar  properties  reside  in  certain 
points  called  poles;  usually,  as  iu  elec- 
trified or  magnetized  bodies,  properties  of 
attraction  or  repulsion,  or  the  power 
of  taking  a  certain  direction;  as,  the 
polarity  of  the  magnet  or  manietie 
needle,  whose  pole  is  not  that  of  the 
earth,  but  a  point  in  the  polar  regions. 
A.  mineral  is  said  to  possess  polaritp 
when  it  attracts  one  pole  of  a  magnetic 
needle  and  repels  the  other. 

Polarization  of  Light,  f  ,f f^ 

produced  upon  light  by  the  action  of  cer- 
tain bodies  by  which  it  is  made  to  change 
its  character.  A  common  ray  of  light 
exhibits  the  same  properties  (m  all  sides, 
but  any  reflected  or  refracted  ray,  or 
a  ray  transmitted  through  certain  media, 
exhibits  different  properties  on  differert 


PoUri  scope. 


PolAiiattioii  of  Light 


Polarizatioii  of  light 


I 


ddML  and  1«  mid  to  be  polarised.    The 
poUrintlon  of  light  may  be  effected  in 


▼ariotu  ways,  but  chiefly  in  the  follow 

™f|— •(!)  By    reflection    at    a    propet 

anglt  (the  'polarizinc  angle')  from  the 


rarfacea  of  traniinarent  media,  as  glaaa, 
water,  etc.  (2)  By  transmission  through 
crystals  poaatessing  the  property  of 
doable  refratrtion,  as  Iceland  spar.  (3) 
By  tranamiaaion  through  a  sufficient 
number  of  transparent  uncrystallized 
plates  placed  at  proper  angles.  (4)  By 
trusmusion  through  a  number  of  other 
bodies  imperfectly  crystallized,  as  ngate, 
mother-of-pearl,  etc.  The  knowledge  of 
this  singular  property  of  light  has  af- 
forded an  explanation  of  some  interest- 
ing phenomena  in  optics.  A  simple  ex- 
ample of  polarization  may  be  illustrated 
ny  two  slices  of  the  semitransparent 
mineral  tourmaline  cut  parallel  to  the 
axi^  of  the  crystal.  If  one  is  laid  upon 
the  other  in  the  positions  a  b  (see  fig.  be- 
low) they  form  an  opaque  combination. 
If  one  is  turned  round  upon  the  other 
at  various  angles  It  will  be  found  that 
greatest  transparency  is  produced  in  the 


Polariiation  of  Light 


position  corresponding  with  a  b  (which 
rraresents  the  natural  position  they 
(iriginally  occupied  in  the  crystal),  an 
itemediate  stape  being  that  shown  at 
«  *•  The  light  which  has  passed 
Jf«»"8h  the  one  plate  is  polarized,  and 
it».  ability  to  pass  through  the  other 
plate  is  thus  altered.  Reflection  is  an- 
other very  common  cause  of  polarization. 
The  plane  of  polarisation  is  that  particu- 
lar plane  m  which  a  ray  of  polarized 
light  incident  at  the  polarizing  angle  is 
most  copiously  reflected.  When  the  po- 
larization is  produced  by  reflection  the 
plane  of  reflection  is  the  plane  of  po- 
larization. According  to  Fresnel's  theory, 
which  is  that  generally  received,  the 
vibrations  of  light  polarized  in  any  plane 
are  perpendicular  to  that  plane.  The 
vibrations  of  a  ray  reflected  at  the  po- 
larizing angle  are  accordingly  to  be  re- 
fara,  d  as  perrendlcular  to  the  plane  of 
mcidence  and  reflection,  and  therefore  as 
parallel  to  the  reflecting  surface.  Polar- 
ised light  cannot  be  distinguished  from 
common  light  by  the  naked  eye;  and  for 
all  axperimeDts  in  polarization  two  pieces 


of  apparatos  mast  b«  employed  —  on* 
to  produce  polariiation,  and  the  othet 
to  show  It.  The  former  is  called  a 
polariaer,  the  latter  an  •nalpatr:  and 
every  apparatus  that  serves  for  one  of 
these   purpoecs   will   also  serve  for  the 

?k  '"^Ui  ,  •«"?*^*'.  «PP«»tu«  !•  "hown  in 
the  article  Poktnteope.  The  usual  proc- 
ess In  examining  light  with  a  view  to 
test  whether  It  is  polarised,  consists  In 
looking  at  it  through  the  analyser,  and 
observing  whether  any  change  of  bright- 
ness occurs  as  the  analyser   is  routed. 

?S?o"    M"fu*''?    Po^t'o'".    differing    by 
180  ,   which   give  a   minimum   of  Tight, 
and    the   two  positions  intermediate  be- 
tween  these  give  a   maximum   of  light. 
The  extent  of  the  changes  thus  observed 
18  a  measure  of  the  completeness  of  the 
polarization     of     light.     Very     beadtirul 
colors  may  be  produced  by  the  peculiar 
action  of  polarized  light :  as  for  example, 
if  a  piece  of  seienite    (crystallised  gyp 
sum)    about    the   thickness   of   paper  14 
introduced    between    the    polarizer    and 
analyzer  of  any  polarizing  arrangement 
and  turned  about  in  different  directions 
it  will  in  some  positions  appear  brightlj 
colored,    the    color    being    most    decidec 
when    the   analyzer    ij    in   either   of   "h* 
two  critical  positions  which  give  respec 
tively  the  greatest  light  and  the  greatear; 
darkness.     The   color    is   changed    to   Iti 
complementary  by  rotating  the  analyze" 
through  a  right  angle;   but  rotation  o»' 
the    seienite,    when    the   analyzer    is    iv 
either   of   the   critical    positions,   mereh 
alters    the    depth    of    the    color    without 
changing  its  tint,  and  in  certain  critical 
positions  of  the  seienite  there  is  a  com- 
plete absence  of  color.     A  different  class 
of    appearances    is    presented    when    a 
plate,   cut   from   a    uniaxial   crystal    by 
sections    perpendicular    to    the    axis,    is 
inserted   between    the   polarizer  and   the 
analyzer.     Instead  of  a   broad   sheet  of 
uniform  color,  there  is  exhibited  a  system 
of  colored   rings,   interrupted   when   the 
analyzer  is  in   one  of  the   two   critical 
positions  by  a  black  or  white  cross.     Ob- 
servation of  this  phenomenon  affords  in 
many  oases  an  easy  way  of  determining 
the  position  of  the  axis  of  the  crystal, 
and  IS  therefore  of  great  service  in  the 
study   of  crystalline  structure.     Crvstals 
are     distinguished    as    dextrogyrate    or 
Isevogyrate,    according    as    their    colors 
ascend  by  a  right-handed  or  left-handed 
rotation    of    the    analyzer    horizontally. 
Glass  m  a  state  of  strain  exhibits  colora- 
tion when  placed  between  a  polarizer  and 
analyzer,  and  thus  we  can  investigate  the 
distribution  of  the  strain  through  its  sub- 
stance.   Unannealed  glass  is  in  a  stat*  of 
permanent  strain.    A  plate  of  ordlaaty 


Poldtr 


PoluBioi 


glttM  BWjr  Im  strained  by  a  force  applied 
to  ita  cdgea  by  means  of  a  ui-rew.  The 
state  of  strain  may  be  varied  during  Um 
examination  of  the  plate  by  polarised 
light.  A  plate  of  quarU  (a  uniaxial 
crystal)  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  optic 
axis  exhibits,  when  placed  between  an 
analyser  and  polarizer,  a  system  of 
colored  rings  like  any  other  uniaxial 
crystal;  but  we  find  that  the  center  of 
the  rings,  instead  of  having  a  black 
cross,  is  brightly  colored  —  red,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  etc.,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate.  , 

PnlH^r  (P<il'd*').  the  «»•««>«  «*'"»  ^ 
f  Uiuci:    ^jjg  Netherlands  to  an  area  of 

land  reclaimed  from  the  sea,  a  marsh,  or 
a  lake  by  artificial  drainage,  protected  by 
dykc3,  a-d  brought  under  cultivation. 
The  polders  were  for  the  most  part 
formerly  permanently  submerged  areas. 
The  usual  method  of  procedure  in  the 
formation  of  a  polder  is  to  enclose  the 
portion  to  be  reclaimed  by  an  embank- 
ment, and  construct  a  channel  having  its 
bed  sufficiently  high  to  caufe  a  current 
towards  the  sea  or  river.  The  water  is 
then  pumped  into  thh  canal  by  means 
of  apparatus  driven  by  steam  or  other- 
wise. See  Netherlands. 
Pn1»  (pol).  the  name  given  to  either 
**'*^  extremity  of  the  axis  round  which 
the  earth  revolves.  The  northern  one  is 
called  the  north  pole,  and  the  southern 
the  touth  pole.     Each  of  these  poles  is 


90°  distant  from  every  part  of  the 
equator.  In  astronomy,  the  name  _  is 
given  to  each  of  the  two  points  in  which 
the  axis  of  the  earth  is  supposed  to  meet 
the  sphere  of  the  heavens,  forming  the 
fixed  point  about  which  the  stars  appear 
to  revolve.  In  a  wider  sense  a  pole  is 
a  point  on  the  surface  of  any  sphere 
equally  distant  from  every  part  of  the 
circumference  of  a  great  circle  of  the 
sphere;  or  a  point  90°  distant  froas  the 
plane  of  a  great  cirt-le.  astd  in  a  line 
passing  perpendicularly  through  the  cen- 
ter, called  th*  axis.  Thus  the  senith 
and  nadir  are  the  pole»  of  the  harison. 

50  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic  are  two  points 
of  the  sphere  whose  <fcstance  from  the 
poles  of  the  world  is  equal  to  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic,  or  they  are  90° 
distant  from  every  part  of  the  eclip- 
tic. Pole,  in  physics,  is  o«e  of  the 
petBts  <rf  a  body  at  which  its  attract- 
ive or  repulsive  energy  is  concentrated, 
as  the  pole*  of  a  maxnet,  »he  north  pole 
of  a  acedia,  m  in  tiw  compaas,  er  the 
pc^es  of  a  battcvy. 
Prtl-i  PowH.  or  B0m,  a  aM«rare  ^ 
roWf    length    eonteiaBng    Mi    feat    or 

51  yards.    Sometimes  tut  term   is   used 
as  a  uvt9&t»dml  aMasoas,  a  aqoacr  pole 


dtnoting   Bix5i    ysrda,    or   dOk    sftiMit 

VaIa    BniitALD,  cardioa}  and  stata» 
'^OiC)   jatLU,    born    in    SuSordabira    ia 
1500;   died   In   155&    He   waa   the  aon 
of   Sir  Richard   Pole,   Lord  Montacata, 
cousin    to    Uenry     VII,    by    Margaret, 
daughter    of     the    Duke    of    Claranca, 
brother   to    Edward    IV.    He   was   ado- 
cated  at  Oxford,  and  had  several  bene- 
fices conferred  on  him  by  Benry  VIII, 
with  whom  he  was  a  great  favorite.     In 
1519  he  visited  Italy,  and  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Padua.    He  returned  to  Eng- 
land  in  1525,   but  about   1531   lost  the 
favor  of  Henry  by  his  opposition  to  »e 
divorce  of  Queca  Catherfne.     He  retired 
to    the    continent    for    safety,    was    at- 
tainted, and  his  mother  and  brother  were 
executed.    On    the    accession    of    Mary 
(1553)  be  retcrned  to  England  as  papal 
legate,  and  on  the  death  of  Cranmer  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  was 
at   the  same  time   elected  chancellor  of 
the    univ«nities    of    Oxford    and    Qua- 
bridge.    He  died  in  Lambeth  Pahice  the 
day   after   Mary's   death.     He  seema  to 
have  been  noted   for  bis  mildness,  tea- 
eroaity,  and  comparative  moderation,  m 
an    age    when    persecution    waa   deemed 
lawful  on  all  sides. 

VaIa  ova  an  axe  attached  to  a  pole 
JTOie-a^e,  ^^  handle  of  which  the 
length  varies  considerably.  It  was 
formerly  used  by  mounted  soldien,  and  in 
the  navy  for  boarding  purposes. 
VaIaao^'  (pol'kat),  a  name  common  to 
rOiecai  Several  species  of  digitigrade 
carnivora  of  the  weasel  family  (Mus- 
telidss).  The  common  polecat  iMuttHa 
putoritu  or  Putoriua  fatidtu)  is  found 
m  most  parts  of  Europe.  Its  body  is 
about  17  inches  long,  and  the  tall  6 
inches.  The  color  is  dark  brown.  It  is 
a  nocturnal  animal,  sleeping  during  ttie 
day  and  searching  for  its  prey  at  night. 
It  k  espectaliv  destructive  to  poultry, 
rabbits,  and  gasM.  w  pheasants,  so  that 
ia  Britain  it  »  h<*ing  rapidly  extermi- 
nated br  gamekee«ers,  farmers,  and 
others.  Frog*,  toacb,  aewts,  and  fish 
are  mltmm  stored  as  food  by  this  vora- 
ciow  nnasaL  It  has  glands  aecreting  a 
fetid  iqaor.  smnewhat  like  that  ol  ^^ 
American  akunk.  which  it  ejects  w*^ 
irritated  ur  alaraned.  The  name 
*  Foumart '  ia  ala*  applied  to  the 
cat;  snd  its  fur.  whkfa  ia  impoT- 
large  qvantities  from  Northern  L 
is  known  as  that  of  the  'Fitch.* 
h^mm  ttrm   s   aaperior   load  of  aal 


(pd-lem'iks),    the   aR    or 
praetiee  of  disputatia*  cen- 
ff  hot  in  %  aped^  saaae  that  bnach 


MmoBiaoMi 

?L**B?i'*'**'  l««rnlot  which  pertalat  to 
the  htotory  or  coadact  of  ecclMiaatkal 
eootiOTeny. 

PolemoniaoeflB  (p<>i-«-">«»-i:«'«M), 

.  a   utaral  order  of 

mmiopetaious  ezogeu  with  a  trifid 
■tinna,  three-celled  fruit,  and  seeds  at- 
tached to  an  azile  placenta,  the  aobryo 
lyinc  in  the  midst  of  albumen.  They 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  gay-flowered, 
berbaceous  plants,  natives  of  temperate 
countries,  and  particularly  abundant  in 
the  northwestern  parts  of  America.  They 
are  of  no  economical  importance.  Some 
are  cultivated  for  their  beauty,  the  well- 
known  phlox  beinf  one. 

PolemOSOODe    (po-'em'u-skOp) ,  a  sort 
,  '^      of  stand  or  frame  high 
enoufb  to  rise  above  a  parapet  or  other 
similar  object,  having  a  plane  mirror  at 
top  so  fitted  as  to  reflect  any  scene  upon 
anofher  mirror  below,  and  thus  enable  a 
person  to  see  a  scene  in  which  he  is  in- 
terested without  exnoslng  himself. 
Polenta     (Ptj-'^n  <«).  a  preparation  of 
either  semolina,  Indian  com, 
or  chestnut-meal,  made   into  a   porridge 
and  variously  flavored:  a  common  article 
?'  ^i«t  *P  .Jta'y  and   France.     It  Is  al- 
lowed to  boil  until  It  thickens,  and  is  then 
poured  into  a  dish,  where  it  becomes  firm 
enough  to  be  cut  into  slices. 
Pole-star.  J*"*,  "^ll  *  <»'  *he  constel- 
»^  r,.^*>"<"!  ^"*  Minor,  situated 
about  1"  ar  f rom  the  north  celestial  pole, 
round   which  It   thus  describes  a   small 
c|rc'e-     It   is  of  the  second   magnitude, 
and  is  of  great  use  to  navigators  in  the 
northern   hemisphere.    Two  stars  called 
the  pointers,   in   the  constellation    Ursa 
Major  (the  Great  Bear,  commonlv  called 
the  Plow),  always  point  in  the  direction 
of  the  pole-star,  and  enable  it  to  be  found 
readily. 

PoliantheS  (po'-i-nn'thus),  a  genus 
i  J  .  °*  plants  belonging  to  the 
nat.  order  Amaryllidaceje.  They  are  na- 
tives of  the  East  Indies  and  S.  America, 
and  mostly  require  the  aid  of  artificial 
heat,  under  shelter  of  frames  and  glasses, 
to  bring  them  to  flower  in  perfection. 
The  P.  tuberota  or  tuberote  is  well  known 
for  its  delicious  fregrance.  See  Tube- 
rote. 

Police  (Po-'««'),  the  system  instituted 
...  ,°y  a  community  to  maintain 
public  order,  liberty,  and  the  security  of 
life  and  property.  In  its  most  popular 
acceptation  the  police  signifies  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  municipal  laws  and 
regulations  of  a  city  or  incorporated 
town  or  borough.  The  primary  object  of 
the  police  system  is  ihe  prevention  of 
crime  and  the  pursuit  of  offenders;  but 
it  ia  also  subserrisnt  to  other  purposes, 


roch  as  the  anpprMalpn  of  mendicancy, 
the  preservation  of  ordar,  the  ramovtl  of 
olMtructicas  and  nuisances,  and  the  an- 
forctng  of  those  local  and  general  laws 
which  relate  to  the  public  health,  order, 
safety  and  comfort  The  term  is  alwi 
applied  to  the  body  of  mm  by  which  the 
laws   and   regulations   are   enforced.    A 

S>uce  force  may  be  either  open  or  secret, 
y  an  open  police  is  meant  officers  dressed 
in  their  aonistomed  uniform,  and  known 
to  everybody ;  while  by  a  secret  police  is 
meant  offrers  whom  It  may  be  difficult  or 
impossible  to  distinguish  from  certain 
classes  of  citixens,  whose  dress  and  man- 
ners they  may  think  It  expedient  to 
assume,  in  order  that  they  may  the  more 
easily  detect  crimes,  or  prevent  the  com- 
mission  of  such  as  require  any  previous 
combiuation  or  arrangement.  Thli  latter 
class  of  officer  is  termed  in  Britain  and 
America  a  d'tective.    See  Conttabh, 

Police  Bni^h.   ^^  ^'"^«'*- 
Policinello.  ®**  ^«'»c*»««mo. 


Policy  of  Insurance.  ^^  '"*«*■- 

_-   _,  ,     .  .  once. 

Pollflmao     (PoHn-y*k).    Juues    Au- 
t.„^  *S«™.    Abmand     Marie. 

Fbince  de,  a  French  statesman,  belong- 
ing to  an  Mcient  French  famHy,  born  at 

f£f^  *?*."*>i  •"«•  ■*  St.  Germain  in 
ISfl.  After  the  restoration  he  was  ap- 
pointed adjutant-general  to  the  king,  and 
entered  the  chamber  of  peers.  In  1820 
he  obtained  from  the  pope  the  title  of  a 
Su?."°  Pfince.  In  1^  he  succeeded 
Chateaubriand  as  ambassador  at  Lon- 
don; but  after  the  accession  of  Charles 
X  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in 
Fans.  He  was  successively  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  and  president  of  the  coun- 
cil. At  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was 
apprehended  and  condemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment.  He  remained  in  the  for- 
tress of  Ham  till  the  amnesty  of  1886 
allowed  him  to  take  up  his  residence  in 
England.  He  was  ultimately  permitted 
to  return  to  France.  He  was  the  author 
of  Con«td^atton«  PoUtiquet  (1832). 
Several  other  membera  of  the  family  were 
men  of  some  note. 

Poli&manO  (PO-'«-°ya'no),  an  Italian 
.u  .?  ,  .  \.i°^"'  province  of  Bari,  on 
the  Adriatic,  26  miles  e.  s.  e.  of  Bari.  on 
the  Bari-Brindisi  railway.  There  is  a 
trade  in  lemons  and  oranges.  Pop  8341 
Polillo  (P6-18'>°)'  o°e  of  the  Philip- 
,  .u  o/P'°®..  I«'ands,  E.  of  Luzon ; 
^ngth,  30  miles;  breadth,  20  miles. 
Rice,  maize,  sesame,  cotton,  hemp  end 
timber  are  produced. 

Polishing    (poJ'»»h-ing)    is  the  name 
~^**o   given    to    the    process    by 


PoUtiMa  leoaomy 


trMdi  tk»  tariacc  ot  •  material  Is  aadt 
to  aaMBM  a  pcrfactbr  mnooth  and  iloMy 
wDBMMBca.  iMttaUi  by  friction.  Tbe  ar- 
%T»~M~bc  poUahcd  muit  first  bt  made 
amoolk  and  even,  after  wbich  tb«  pollsb- 
inc  begins.    In  the  case  of  wo<^  ibe  proc- 

Fg  It  commonly  effected  by  rabbins  witn 
rsncb  polish  (which  <>ce).  In  metslH, 
by  poUsbing-steel  or  blooditme.  or  by 
wood  covered  .^ver  with  leatli'^r,  and  on 
which  pulverised  tripoli.  chullt.  tin-putty, 
etc.,  is  sprinkled.  In  «'«»a  •'>?,.  P'^'o?" 
stones,  by  tin-putty  and  lead  sift  tags:  la 
marble,  by  tin-putty  nnd  tripoli;  In  gran- 
ite and  other  hard  stones,  by  tripolf  and 
Jnicklime.  ^_...»i^„ 

>oli8liing.powder,  ;,  PjrS'b?,!^ 

for  polishing  iron  articles;  also  a  com- 
position variously  made  up  for  cleaning 
told  and  silver  plate.     See  PUite-povier. 

PoUshing-riate,  f«h«rte."coCSd 

of  microscopic  infu»?«"ia,  found  in  the 
coal-measures  of  Bohemia  and  In  Au- 
vergne.  and  used  for  polishing  glass, 
marble  and  metals.  ..„„«   *« 

-DaIUiovi    (po-lish'e-an),  Awano  AM- 
f  Olltian    iS^iNi,  an  Italian  stholat, 
known  alito  as  PoUziano  or  ^o'«<«<»«««« 
born  In   1454;  died  In^  1404.    The  first 
production  which  brought  him  Into  notice 
wa»  a  Latin  poem  on  tbe  tournament  oi 
GiuUo  de  Medici.    He  aMumed  the  eccle- 
siastical habit,  and  a<l""«^  'H/'*^?^^! 
Lorenso  de*  Medici,  who  made  him  tutor 
to  his  children,  and  presented  him  with 
a  canonry  in  the  cathedral  of  Florence. 
In  1484  he  visited  Rome,  and  after  l^is 
return  to  Florence  he  lectured  with  dis- 
tlnculsbed    success    on    the    La*>o.  ,■'1° 
Griek  languages,  and  likewise  on  philos- 
ophy.   He  wrote  an  ilccosn*  of  the  Con- 
Bpiracy  of  the  Pizza;  a  Latin  translation 
of  Herodian;  and  a  collection  of  Greek 
Epigrams;   besides  Lntin  «Jes  and  epi- 
grams, and  a  Latin  poem  entit  cd  Ru$tu 
lu$.    be  also  contributed  greatly  to  the 
correction  and   illustration  of  the  Pan- 

PoUtical  Economy,  Z  "^Tafor- 

dertag  of  wealth,  or  the  science  which  has 
as  its  aim  the  investigation  of  the  social 
conditions  regulating  the  production,  dis- 
tribution, exchange,  and  consumption  or 
wealth,  the  term  wealth  being  understood 
to  mean  all  articles  or  products  possessing 
value  in  exchange.  While,  however,  po- 
litical economy  Is  susceptible  <«  wide 
definition  on  these  lines,  the  exact  scope 
of  the  science  within  the  terms  of  the 
definition  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
confused  debate.  From  the  nature  of  the 
factual  conditions  of  tbe  productlor  and 


mniatloB  of  wealth,  •«»*  *%•  J^?^*^ 
systematic  examfnatloa  o£  thm  •■  fsjjjit- 
mental  to  a  larftr  .science  iBveatliatliit 
ths  natural  laws  of  the  formation  and 
progreM  of  clvlllied  communities  It  is 
impossible  to  sunder  it  «»t>r«lL  !5?" 
phnical.  Intellectual,  and  »•»»  ««S*!r: 
ations  tending  to  enlarge  Indefinitely  its 
■cope.  The  varying  extent  »<>  ^^ich  thm 
elements  have  entered  into  the  treatatnt 
of  tbe  subject  by  economists  has  fivea 
rise  to  controversy  not  only  as  to  wlietner 
economics  Is  to  be  considered  as  a  physico- 
mental  or  a  purely  mental  telenet,  nut 
even  as  to  lU  claim  to  be  considered  an 
independent  science  at  all.  By  most  econ- 
omists It  is  urged.  »«»•»*•  "'•]:?f,'^'S^ 
and  systematic  statement  of  a  particular 

class  of   facts   It  may   rifkt^y.f'i*™,,*? 
be  considered  a  science,  while,  *■  .a«*»jj}f 
with   Inanimate  things  only  bicldentally 
as  the  measure  of  motives  of  desire,  it  is 
to  be  classed  with  the  moral  or  social 
sciences.    Of  more  importance,  as  affert- 
ing  the  whole  histury  of  pe  science,  have 
been    the    questions    arising    from    tho 
method    employed    In    economic    inqnlnr^ 
The  modern  English  school  of  economists, 
including    the    names    of    Adam  pnjltn, 
Ricardo.  Mill,  Calms,  Fnwcett  and  Mar- 
shall,  have  been   mainly   guided  by   the 
deiluctlve  method.  Its  more  extreme  rep- 
resentatives,   such    as    Senior,    asserting 
this  method  to  be  the  only  one  applicable 
to  the  science.     In  point  of  fact  political 
economy  has  necessarily  availed  itseli  pt 
both  methods.     It  l):is  been  deductive  in 
so  far  as  It  has  assumed  at  the  outset 
certain    hypotheses,    and    derived    from 
these  by  a  dialectical  process  the  guiding 
prlLclples  of  the  science;  but  even  tb* 
older  economists,  working  under  the  ta^ 
mediate    Influence    of    the    mathematl«»- 
physical  sciences  chiefly,  cannot  be  JuW 
accused  of  having  overlooked,  though  tney 
tended  to  underestimate,  the  necessity  ol 
supplementing    deduction    by    Induction. 
The   hypothesis   on  which   the  economic 
system    was   founded,    was   that    in   the 
economic  sphere  tbe  principal  motive  of 
human  action  was  individual  self-interest, 
leading  men  to  seek  to  obtain  the  greatwjt 
amount  of  wealth  with  the  least  expendi- 
ture of  effort ;  this  hypothesis  being  fol- 
lowed out  to  its  logical  conclusions,  under 
assumed  conditions  of  perfectly  free  com- 
petition, in  connection  with  the  facts  or 
the  limitations  of  the  earth's  extent  and 
productiveness,  and  the  theory  of  a  tend- 
ency in  the  race  to  multiply  to  an  incal- 
culable extent  In  the  absence  of  natural 
or  artificial  obstacles.     On  thUi  b«sls  the- 
ories of  value,  rent,  and  population  were 
formed  having  the  ch««racter  of  laws,  bnf 
of  laws  which  were  hypothetical  merely 


PoUtiMa  iMBMiy 


-7  tTM  Mi7  UBdtr  tiM  Miuincd  condltioBS 
4$  M  nvTraiuMBt  la  wbick  coapMlttoa 

Kl  ft**  UMl  frictlMiwi,  ttobMiiwnd  by 
rtMM,  tenonoM.  rtttrtetiir*  cuatOBu, 
•fl  Um  like.    In  (Mi  miwct  tb«  netbod 
•WptMl  and  tlw  NMitlta  arrlrad  at  found 
■atlofjr   In   tboM  phyaical   KiencM   tht 
«»•   of   whicb   an   only   applicable   in 
•ctfal    fact    radar    largt    and    variable 
BMdiaaitioo.    Tbere  was,  however,  an  in- 
dlapotable    tendency   amonc   the   earlier 
feoBOflUc  writers  to  regard  tbeee  hypo- 
tbttieal  laws  aa  la  a  greater  degne  rep- 
NMOtatlTa  of  actuaflact  than  they  were, 
•M  tTMi,  when  the  actual  facts  fell  abort 
of  Ua  tntoretic  cooditioni,  to  regard  tbeaa 
as  nrescrlptive  and  regulative.    The  eth- 
ical nrotest  againat  thia  tendency  found 
a  atroBg  anpport  in  the  development  of 
the  gronp  of  biological  aciencea,  opening 
up  aaw  conceptions  of  organic  life  and 
growth;  and  as  the  result  of  these  and 
otbw  inauencea  the  old   rigidity  in  the 
aMwation    of    theory    has    largely    dis- 
appeared.    Where     the    older    economist 
tended  to  look  upon  the  subject  matter 
of  economics  as  more  or  less  constant  and 
furnishing  laws  of  universal  application, 
tM  modem  economist,  having  regard  to 
the  complexity  and  variability  of  human 
Motives  and  the  development  of  the  race 
Mtk  in  the  matter  of  character  and  insti- 
tatioM  has  come  to  recognize  that   the 
iriMtract  conception  of  a  frictionless  com- 
petitive atmosphere,  in  whicb  self-inter- 
eated    motives    worlced    with    mechanical 
regularity,  can  never  bear  other  than  a 
qoalified  application   to  actual   sconomic 
conditlona,  and  that  laws  relating  to  the 
economic  aspects  of  life  at  one  stage  of 
bnman  development  seldom  applv  at  an- 
other   without     large    mo<1ificat!on.     He 
realiaea  clearly  what  the  older  economista 
only  imperfectly  perceived,  and  even  more 
imperfectly    expressed,    that    the    system 
they  were  elaborating  was  to  be  consid- 
ered  rather   as  an   instrument   to   assist 
in  the  discovery  of  economic  truth  than 
a  body  of  truths  representing  any  actual 
or  deairabie  social  state.     When  regarded 
in  thia  light  —  as  a  means  to  assist  in  the 
disentanglement  of   the  complex   motives 
operative  in  actual  economic  relniions  — 
the  isolation  of  one  set  of  economic  forces, 
and  the  tracing  of  the  logical   issues  of 
these  become   of   the   highest   value,   de- 
spite the  danger  in  careless  use  of  neg- 
lecting   necessary    modiGcation    and    of 
translating  its  hypothetic  statements  into 
orescriptions  for  conduct  and  social  or- 
ianization.     It  has  l)een  this  neglect,  the 
aaaumption  of  didactic  authority,  and  the 
extent  of  the  modifications  often   neces- 
■"7  in  the  practical  application  of  theory 
WPich  have  tended  to  bring  the  older 


aebool  iato  diaertdit  at  tkt  haada  al 
Comta.  cut  LaaUt.  kaakla,  and  a  b»ia 
noBbtr  of  forttgn  acoocmlaU  —  aooM 
complaining  wItbComtt  of  tba  teadancy 
to  Tlciotta  abHractiona,  and  tba  Iropoaal- 
billtT  of  Uwlating  to  any  naeful  aad  the 
apjBclal  phmomena  of  ccmtcailci  froai 
other  Bf)cial  phenonwDa;  aooM,  Ilka  tka 
Qerinan  ^nd  Amerleaa  hlatorlc  achoote. 
arguing  tuat  it  ia  deairabl*  and  aaccaaary 
to  reasoti  direct  from  hiatorlo  facta  to 
facta  Without  the  intervention  of  any 
formal  economic  theory.  80  far,  how- 
ever,  the  oppoiienta  of  the  oMar  aMtkod 
of  dealing  with  economic  problana,  tboagk 
tbay  have  accompliahad  an  admlrabla 
work  In  clearing  the  older  acononlcs  of 
many  confuaiona  and  miaapprahanaioiia, 
have  failed  to  supply  a  superior  method  of 
analysing  tii»  phenomena  conatituting  tba 
aubject  matter  of  the  acience,  while  many 
of  them  have  not  acrupled  to  avail  tbtni- 
aeivea  largely  of  the  results  arrived  at 
by  the  .iiethod  tliey  condemn.  On  tba 
grounds  of  ditference  in  method,  and  in 
conception  of  the  scope  of  the  science 
the  ecouomists  of  to-doy  may  be  classifiad 
aa  forming  four  principal  groupa:  — 

1.  The  modern  orthodox  philoaophlc 
achool,  working,  as  indicated  above,  on 
th«  baais  of  a  body  of  hypothetical  prin- 
ciplea,  conatituting  the  staMca  of  ax- 
change  and  distribution,  deductlVbly 
arrived  at  by  the  consideration  of  tba 
operations  of  motives  of  self-interest  in 
an  environment  of  free  and  frictionleaa 
competition  —  princlplea  imperfectly  rep- 
resenting actual  economic  conditiona,  but 
of  assistance,  under  due  precautiona,  in 
the  accurate  analysis  of  these. 

2.  A  group  of  mathematical  economiata 
allied  to  the  philosophic  school  aa  work- 
ing on  the  deductive  basis,  and  largely 
engaged  in  translating  philoaophlc  theory 
into  symbolic  formuls  for  retranalatlon 
into   theory. 

3.  The  historical  school,  denying  the 
value  of  deductive  economics,  and  aeek- 
ing  to  confine  the  work  of  the  economiat 
to  the  description  of  the  various  stages 
of  economic  civilization  aa  they  hava 
arisen,  and  the  indication,  under  oue  con- 
ditions of  time,  place,  and  natural  devel- 
opment, of  such  relative  principlea  aa  may 
be  discoverable  in  them. 

4.  A  group  of  economic  atndents  who 
approach  politicol  economy  from  the  point 
of  view  of  a  previous  training  In  'the 
sciences  of  inorganic  and  vital  nature' 
(physics  and  biology  as  opposed  to  meta- 
physics), and  who  wish  to  include  within 
the  scope  of  economica  the  conaideration 
of  wealth  aa  measured,  not  bv  subjective 
emotions  and  desli-ea,  but  by  the  objective 
utility  of  things,  the  part  played  by  tbaip 


MitiMl  looBomy 


Politioal  looiiMij 


la  tbt  owintMiUK!*  mod  •volution  of  wicl- 
tlT,  tho  doAnlttly  dctcrminabla  catwcltiM 
th«r  BMjr  IKMMM  of  aupplyioi  phyBJcal 
•Mrgy  and  Improving  tbe  phyaiologlcal 
ooamtnUon  of  the  race.  From  tlila  iralnt 
•C  vtaw,  aconomicv  b  to  be  regarded  aa 
*tka  dirwt  atudy  o(  Uie  way  in  wbicb 
•odoty  baa  actually  aUdreaaea  itaelf.  and 
■ew  addreaaca  itaelf,  to  ita  own  coniwrva- 
tMB  and  evolution  througb  tbe  aupply  of 
Ita  material  wanU'  (Ingram)  —a  atudy. 
therefore,  inaeparable  from  tbe  atudy  of 
aociology  aa  a  wbole,  and  to  be  followed 
np  unoer  tbe  immediate  guidanre  or  bias 
of  a  moral  ayntbeaia  and  a  tberapeutic 
tin. 

Tbe  general  acope  of  the  acience  from 
tbe  neo-ortbodox  standpoint  may  be 
broadly  indicated  under  four  heada :  — 

I.  Production:  dealing  with  tbe  requi- 
aitM  of  productiou  —  Land  (natural 
agenta).  Labor,  and  Capital;  the  law  of 
fertility  of  land  (Law  of  Diminisbing 
Retnma)  ;  the  lawa  of  the  growth  of 
population  and  capital;  the  organization 
of  induatry,  division  of  lalwr,  etc. 

IL  Tbe  pure  theory  of  values  or  theory 
of  normal  (natural)  values,  t.  e.,  of  valuea 
aa  they  would  arise  in  a  mnrlcet  wliere 
competition  was  free  and  undisturbed. 
Under  tbia  head  aie  discussed  the  rela- 
tions of  value  and  utility;  the  laws  of 
supply  and  demond ;  cost  and  expenses  of 
production;  the  law  of  rent  and  the  rela- 
tion of  rent  to  value;  the  considerations 
determining  the  normal  share  of  the  vari- 
ous claaaea  of  producers  in  the  value  of 
the  pro<luct;  the  laws  of  supply  and  de- 
OMnd  in  relation  to  skilled  and  unskilled 
labor  and  to  capital;  the  laws  of  wages 
and  earnings,  etc. 

III.  The  application  of  the  pure  the- 
ory of  values  under  the  conditions  of 
actual  trade —  internal  and  inti<rnntional : 
treating  of  the  medium  of  exchaugc;  the 
influence  of  changes  in  the  purchasing 
power  of  money ;  influence  of  mwiern 
credit  syatems;  the  influence  upon  prices 
and  wages  and  profits  of  local  customs, 
monopolies,  comb  nations,  trades  unions, 
cooperation,  etc. ;  the  conditions  of  for- 
eign exchange;  the  competition  of  differ- 
ent countries  in  tbe  same  market,  and 
the  like.  ,  ,  . 

IV.  The  economic  functiona  and  influ- 
ence of  government :  dealing  with  Taxa- 
tion, direct  and  indirect ;  the  opposing 
principles  of  Protection  and  Laisser-faire, 
etc. 

In  tbe  last  diviaion  the  treatment  inevi- 
tably takes  tbe  form  not  merely  of  setting 
forth  what  ia,  but  of  discussing  what 
ought  to  be;  in  other  words,  tbe  method 
ia  no  lonxer  that  of  a  science  aiming  at 
the  systematized  representation  of  facts. 


bat  >ather  that  «f  as  art.  Mak  ng  t»  pn- 
aeribe  and  regulate  for  ethical  and  pm* 
dentlal  reaaooa  tha  Induatry  and  coM> 
merae  of  nations.  In  this  raapect  a  larM 
portion  of  tbe  diacuaaiona  usually  ranfad 
under  this  head  might  well  be  conaklerad 
aa  forming  with  certain  other  praaatng 
problems  of  economic  reform  a  diatlnet 
branch  of  tha  subject,  which  may  be  pro- 
visionally  described  as  preM;riptlva  or 
regulative  or  tberapeutic  economica.  To 
this    branch    would    belong    tbe    variojw 

Sroblems  touching  the  fair  shara  of  tha 
liferent  productive  claaaes  In  tbe  valoe 
of  tbe  product,  and  indeed  tbe  investiga- 
tion of  tbe  wbole  question  of  property 
in    relation    to   the    various   schemes   of 
distribution  —  individualistic,      Mtcialistic 
and  communistic.    Tbe  frequent  mistura 
of  these  considerations  of  practical  ec(H 
nomic    reform   with    tbe   non-moral    and 
indifferent   aystematization  of  contempo- 
rary economic  fact  has  t>een  a  moat  fertile 
source  of  confusion  and  misunderatandlng. 
Aa   a    separate   scheme   of   knowledge 
meriting  tbe  title  of  a  acience,  political 
economy   is   little  more   than  a  century 
old,  but  the  germa  of  modern  economic 
doctrines  are  to  be  traced  long  previous. 
In  Greece,   Plato,  Xenophon    and  Aria- 
totle    alike    conducted    investigations    in 
economics  from  an  ethical  point  of  view 
and  in  subordination  to  the  theory  of  the 
state,  the  last,  however,  showing  a  per- 
ception  of   the   difference   between   value 
in  use  and  value  in  exchange,  of  tbe  ad- 
vantages of  division  of  lalrar,  of  the  func- 
tions of   money   as  a   measure   of   value 
and   an   instrument   of  exchange,   of  the 
desirability  of  maintaining  a  proportion 
between    population    and    territory.     The 
Romans     followed,     without     advancing 
upon,     tbe     economics    of    tbe    Greeks. 
Cicero  opposed  manufacturea  and  trade, 
upholding,    in   the  main,   like   Cato  and 
Varro,    an    agrarian    ideal;    Pliny    con- 
demned  the  effects  of  servile  labor  and 
tbe  exportation  of  money,  and  discussed 
some    of    tbe    problems    connected    with 
value.     After  the  fall  of  Rome  it  is  not 
till  the   latter  part  of  the  middle  agea 
that    we    find    the    emancipation    of    the 
towns  and  the  development  of  the  burgher 
class  admitting  of  industry  and  commerce 
on  a  wide  scale.     In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury   St.   Thomas   Aquinas   paraphrased 
the  doctrines  of  Aristotle  on  money  and 
interest,  establishing  on  them  a  condem- 
nation of  interest.     His  influence  lasted 
into  the  next  century,  among  the  principal 
writers  of  which  were  Bartolo  dl  Sasso- 
ferrato,     Jean     Buridan      and     Nicolas 
Oresme,    the    latter   the    author   of    the 
fullest  treatise  on  money  written  up  till 
his  time.    Gabriel  Biel,  F.  Patrlnil,  and 


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Political  liconomy 


PoUtical  Partiei 


Diomede  Caraffa  are  the  chief  namea  of 
the  fifteeoth  century,  the  study  of  eco- 
nomica  being  chiefly  pursued  by  ecclesi- 
astic* until  the  collapse  of  medievalism 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  main  eco- 
nomic topics  continued  to  t>e  the  nature 
and  functions  of  money,  the  legitimacy 
of  usury,  institutions  of  credit,  and  monti 
di  pietA.  Chief  among  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury writers  are  the  names  of  Jean  Bodin 
in  France,  and  in  EnKland  the  writer 
W.  S.  (probably  William  Stafford), 
who  worlied  in  part  from  Bodin,  Sir 
Waiter  Raleigh,  Gilbert,  Hacliluyt  and 
Pecliliam.  The  characteristic  doctrines 
deyeloped  at  this  time  came  to  be  Itnown 
as  the  mercantile  system,  or  Coll)ertism, 
and  found  expression  in  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  and  l>eginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth centuries  chiefly  in  the  writings 
of  Antonio  Serra  in  Italy,  Antoine  de 
Montchr^tien  in  France,  and  Thomas 
Mun  in  England.  They  were  opposed  by 
a  few  early  advocates  of  free  trade,  in- 
cluding Em^rique  de  Lacroix  in  France 
and  Alberto  Struzzi  in  Spain.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century 
considerable  advancement  was  made  by 
Hobbes,  Locke,  Sir  Joshua  Child,  Sir 
William  Petty  and  Sir  Dudley  North, 
and  the  foundation  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land gave  rise  to  much  controversy  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  leading  to  more 
enlarged  conceptions  of  the  operations 
•f  credit.  In  France  Boisguillebert  and 
VaulMin  opposed  Coll)ertism,  and  Mon- 
tesquieu endeavored  to  work  out  the 
economics  of  government  finance.  The 
foundation  of  the  physiocrat  ic  school  by 
Quesnay  was,  however,  the  chief  eco- 
nomic movement  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury in  France,  among  its  exponents 
lieing  the  elder  Mirabeau,  De  la  Rivi&re, 
Bandeau,  Le  Trosne,  Dupont  de  Nemours, 
Oournay,  and  especially  Turgot,  the 
greatest  of  the  group.  It  made  some 
little  way  in  Italy  and  Germany;  but  its 
direct  influence  wax  not  marked  in  Eng- 
land, where  Hume's  Economic  Essays 
were  followed  by  Adam  Smith's  epoch- 
making  Wealth  of  Nations,  directed 
against  mercantilists  and  physiocrats 
alike.  New  elements  were  introduced  by 
the  population  theory  of  Malthus,  and 
the  theory  of  rent  enunciated  by  Ricardo 
on  the  lines  indicated  by  Anderson  and 
West;  and  the  statistical  side  was  devel- 
oped by  Thomas  Tooke.  In  re(hicing  tlie 
teaching  of  Adam  Smith  to  system,  the 
French  economist  Say  played  an  influen- 
tial part,  and  the  work  was  advanved 
still  further  by  the  labors  of  Torrens, 
James  Mill,  McCuUoch,  Whately,  Senior, 
•nd  other  minor  writers.  No  work,  how- 
ever, after  the  Wetitk  of  Nations  exer- 


cised so  wide  an  influence  as  that  of 
Joun  Stuart  Mill,  who  despite  the  signs 
of  revolt,  to  which  allusion  has  been 
made,  still  dominates  popular  economic 
thought  for  ^ood  and  ill.  The  names  of 
Longe,  Leslie,  Thornton,  and  Cairnes 
may  be  noted  among  the  earlier  critics 
or  commentators  of  Mill ;  while  IMarshall, 
working  on  the  basis  of  Mill,  has  more 
accurately  defined  the  limitations  of  the 
deductive  method  in  seeking  to  formu 
late  and  apply  a  pure  theory  of  values 
Among  other  recent  writers  of  impor 
tance  have  been  W.  Stanley  Jevonf 
(mathematical  and  statistical  group)i 
Carl  Marx  (Socialist),  Roscher  (histor- 
ical), Sidgwick  (eclectic),  and  Ingram 
( Positivist ) .  The  Socialistic  and  An- 
archistic hypotheses  are  two  modem 
views  concerning  the  distribution  of 
wealth  and  ownership  of  property  which 
are  (especially  the  former)  attracting 
wide  attention. 

Political  Offenses,  VeU'^'^onM. 

ered  injurious  to  the  safety  of  the  state, 
or  such  crimes  as  form  a  violation  of 
the  allegiance  due  by  a  subject  to  the 
recognized  supreme  authority  of  bis  coun- 
try. In  modern  times  the  crimes  consid- 
ered political  offenses  have  varied  at  dif- 
ferent periods  and  in  different  states.  In 
Britain  the  most  serious  political  offenses 
are  termed  treason  (see  Treason  and 
Treason-Felony),  and  those  of  a  lighter 
nature,  which  do  not  aim  at  direct  and 
open  violence  against  the  laws  or  the 
sovereign,  but  which  excite  a  turbulent 
and  discontented  spirit  which  would  likelj 
produce  violence,  are  termed  sedition. 
(See  Sedition.)  Political  offenders  of 
foreign  countries  are  by  English  law  not 
included  in  extradition  treaties.  In  the 
United  States  also,  and  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe,  the  extradition 
treaties  do  not  include  the  giving  up  of 
political  offenders. 

Political  Parties,  ''ivisions  of  peo- 

marked  off  by  the  particular  views  they 
hold  as  to  the  public  policy  to  be  pur- 
sued in  the  best  interests  of  the  people 
at  large.  In  the  United  States  the  chief 
political  parties  at  present  are  the  Dent- 
Qcrats  and  Republicans,  the  former  favor- 
ing a  tariff  for  revenue  only,  the  latter 
a  tariff  for  the  protection  of  industries. 
Various  minor  parties  have  from  time  to 
time  arisen,  but  the  principles  advocated 
by  the  two  parties  named  have  been 
prominent  throughout  nearly  the  wboia 
history  of  the  country. 

In  the  normal  condition  of  British  poli- 
tics there  are  but  two  political  parties, 
the    Liberal    and    the    Conaervaiivtt   or 


Politiof 


PolleB 


Toti0$.  The  fonner  are  dietioetively 
advocates  of  progresaive  reform,  and  are 
■abclassed  as  W/kigt  or  Radieala,  accord- 
ing as  their  views  are  moderate  or  ad- 
vanced. The  Irish  question  has  for  the 
S resent  created  two  other  parties  by  a 
ivision  or  different  lines,  Home  Rulers 
and  Vnioniats,  that  is,  tliose  advocating 
an  Irish  legislature  for  home  affairs,  and 
those  opposing  this  view.  French  polit- 
ical parties  are  broadly  divided  into  Re- 
puWcan$  and  Reacttonatiea,  both  of 
which  are  subdivided  into  numerous  an- 
tagonistic sections,  the  latter  including 
Bonapartitts  and  ilonarchiata,  or  those 
who  favor  a  restoration  of  the  old  mon- 
archy. In  German  politics  there  are  the 
Vltramontanea,  the  Contervativea,  the 
Reichspartei  or  Imperialitta,  the  NaUonal 
Liherala,  the  Progretaistt,  the  aoctal 
Democratt,  the  VolkaparM  or  Democrata, 
etc* 

Pnlifins  (pol'i-tiks),  in  its  widest  ex- 
f  UXXMI/B  jgQj^  jg  both  the  science  and 
the  art  of  government,  or  the  science 
whose  subject  is  the  regulation  of  man 
in  all  his  relations  as  the  member  of  a 
state,  and  the  application  of  this  science. 
In  other  words,  it  is  the  theory  and  the 
practice  of  obtaining  the  ends  of  civil 
society  as  perfectly  as  possible.  In  com- 
mon parlance  we  understand  by  the  pol- 
itics of  a  country  the  course  of  its  gov- 
ernment, more  particularly  as  respects  its 
relations  with  foreign  nations. 
PoUzianO.     see  PoZi^an. 

PaITt  (pok),  James  Knox,  president 
*"^^  of  the  United  States  from  1845- 
49,  was  born  in  1795  'n  North  Carolina ; 
died  at  Nashville  in  1849.  He  studied 
law  and  entered  Congress  as  representa- 
tive of  Tennessee  m  1825.  He  was 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
from  1835  to  1839,  when  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  Tennessee,  but  was  defeated 
for  this  office  in  1841.  His  advocacy  of 
the  annexation  of  Texas  led  to  his  nomi- 
nation by  the  Democratic  iiarty  for  the 
Presidency  in  1844,  Henry  Clay  being 
the  Whig  cMididate.  The  contest  was  a 
rery  close  one,  but  Polk  was  elected.  The 
annexation  of  Texas,  the  Mexican  war, 
the  acquisition  of  Upper  California  and 
New  Mexico,  and  the  settlement  of  the 
Oregon  boundary  were  the  chief  events 
of  his  term  of  ofBce. 
PaIItq  (pSl'ka),  a  species  of  dance  of 
xui&Hi  Bohemian  origin,  but  now  uni- 
versally popular,  the  music  to  which  is 
In  i  time,  with  the  third  quaver  accented. 
There  are  three  steps  in  each  bar,  the 
fourth  beat  being  always  a  rest. 

Pollack  is'h'ii'oifr'c^'iS: 

9-9 


ily.  The  pollack  belongs  to  the  sua* 
genus  as  the  whiting  (M.  VKlyftrw);  the 
members  of  this  genus  possessing  three 
dorsal  fins  and  two  anals.  The  lower 
jaw  is  longer  than  the  upper  jaw,  and 
the  tail  is  forked,  but  not  very  deeply. 
It  inhabits  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  is 
common  on  all  the  British  coasts,  as  well 


Pollack  literlanffut  poUaehiut). 

as  on  the  shores  of  Norway.  The  north- 
em  coasts  of  Britain  appear  to  be  those 
on  which  these  fishes  are  most  abundant. 
The  pollacks  are  gregarious  in  habits, 
and  swim  in  shoals.  They  bite  keenly  at 
either  bait  or  fiy,  and  afford  good  eating. 
Called  in  Scotland  Lythe. 
Pnllan  (pol'an),  the  'fresh-water  her- 
X-QUan  rtjjg,  (^coregdnua  PoUan),  a 
species  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  Sal- 
monidffi.  It  is  an  Irish  species,  and  is 
found  in  Lough  Erne.  Lough  Neagh,  and 
Lough  Derg.  It  is  generally  about  9  or 
10  inches  in  length.  There  is  a  Scotch 
species  in  Loch  Lomond  known  as  the 
Powan;  another  in  Lochmaben,  the  Fen- 
dace. 

Pollanarmft  (pol-la-na-m'a),  a 
rouanarraa  ^^i^^^  ^Ity  and  for- 
merly capital  of  Ceylon,  situated  about 
60  miles  it.  B.  of  Candy.  There  are 
numerous  large  stone  figures  of  Buddha, 
and  remains  of  temples  and  other  build- 
ings. It  flourished  from  the  eighth  to 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Called  also  Topare. 
Pnllaril    (pol'ard),  the  name  given  to 

been  lopped  off  about  8  or  10  feet  from 
the  ground,  in  order  to  induce  it  to  send 
out  Dushy  shoots,  which  are  cut  period- 
ically for  basket-making,  fuel,  fencing, 
or  other  purposes. 

PaIIati  (pol'en),  the  male  element  in 
f  uucu  lowering  plants ;  the  fine  dust 
or  powder  which  by  contact  with  the 
stigma  effects  the  fecundation  of  the 
seeds.  To  the  naked  eye  it  appears  to 
be  a  very  fine  powder,  and  is  usually  in- 
closed in  the  cells  of  the  anther;  bat 
when  examined  with  the  microscope  it  is 
found  to  consist  of  hollow  cases,  nsaally 
spheroidal,  filled  with  a  fluid  in  whietaarfl 
suspended  drops  of  oil  from  the  20,000th 
to  the  80,000th  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  grains  of  starch  five  or  six  times  as 


Polleiua 


Polo 


Urgv.    Imprefnation  is  bronght  about  by 
meuu  of  tabe*  (pollen-tube*)  which  inoe 


■ 


PoUen  —  Orain  of  Picea  Excelu. 

A,  CommeBccment  of  germination.  B,  Further 
stage,  showing  pollen-tube.  C,  more  advanced 
atage. 


from   the  pollen-grains  adhering  to   the 

■tigna,  and  penetrate  through  the  tissues 

•  -     *jt^     until  they  reach  tho 

ovary.  The  cut  shows 

the    pollen-grains    of 

(1)    manna-ash 

PoUm  Grains   (mar    (FrawJnut  ornua) , 

nifled).  (2)    clove    (Caryo- 

phylua    aromaticut ) , 

(3)    strong-scented   lettuce   {Lactica  vi- 

riSttt). 

PnllAiiva  (pol  -  yen '  thft) ,  a  town  of 
X-OUeuKK  Spain,  in  the  island  of  Ma- 
jorca, 28  miles  northeast  of  Palma.  It 
has  a  fine  Jesuit  college,  partly  ruinous; 
and  manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen 
cloth.    Pop.  8368. 

Pollio  (Pol''5-o).  Caius  Asinius,  a 
Roman  of  plebeian  family,  bom 
B.O.  76;  died  a.d.  4.  He  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  civil  war,  and  accom- 
panied Julius  Caesar  to  Pharsalia,  and 
then  to  the  African  and  Spanish  wars. 
After  obtaining  the  consulship  he  com- 
manded in  Illyria  and  Dalmatfa,  and  for 
hia  yictories  was  honored  with  a  triumph 
B.O.  39.  He  afterwards  devoted  most  of 
his  time  to  literary  pursuits,  but  acted 
both  as  a  senator  and  an  advocate.  His 
works,  consisting  of  speeches,  tragedies, 
and  a  history  of  the  civil  war  in  seven- 
teen books,  nave  all  been  lost.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Virgil  and  Horace,  and 
founded  the  first  public  library  in  Rome. 
PoUok  (pol'lok),  ROBKBT,  a  Scottish 
Avuvxk.    p^j   ^^^  jj^jpjj  gj  Muirhouse, 

in  the  parish  of  E<afflesham,  Renfrewshire, 
in  17W;  died  at  Soatbampton  in  1827. 


He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  Univenity, 
■tndied  divinity,  and  was  licensed  as  a 
preacher  by  the  Associate  Presbytery  ot 
Edinburgh  in  the  spring  of  1827.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  series  of  Tale$  of  the 
Covenanter$,  and  a  blank  verse  poem,  The 
Courie  of  Time,  which  in  spite  of  many 
faults  has  enjoyed  a  wonderful  popuhir- 
ity  both  in  Britain  and  America.  He 
died  of  pulmonary  disease  soon  after  the 
publication  of  his  poem. 

PoUokshaWS  ofet'la"Jl,''L"ntrof 
Renfrew,  a  little  to  the  southwest  of 
Glasgow,  on  the  White  Cart.  The  inhab- 
itants are  principally  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  fabrics,  iron-found- 
ing, engineering,  papermaking,  etc.  Pop. 
11,183. 

Poll"tajr  (ptil'taks),  a  tax  levied  per 
head  in  proportion  to  the 
rank  or  fortune  of  the  individual ;  a  capi- 
tation tax.  This  tax  was  first  levied  in 
England  in  1377  and  1380,  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  French  war;  its  collec- 
tion in  1381  led  to  the  insurrection  of 
Wat  Tyler.  In  the  United  States  a  poll- 
tax  (varying  from  25  cts.  to  $3  annually) 
is  levied  in  about  half  the  states,  as  a 
requirement  lor  the  suffrage. 
Pollux.     ®®*  Caator  and  Pottux. 

PoUnx  (Pol'laks),  JuLTUS,  a  Greek 
sophist  and  grammarian,  bom 
at  Naucratis,  Egypt,  aliout  the  year  135 
A.D.  He  went  to  Rome  during  the  reign 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  appointed  him 
one  of  the  preceptors  of  his  son  Com- 
modus.  He  wrote  several  works,  all  of 
which  have  perished  except  his  OnomiU' 
ticon,  dedicated  to  Commodus,  and  there- 
fore published  before  177.  This  work  is 
of  great  value  in  the  study  of  GteeV 
antiquity. 

Polo  (P^'l<>)>  a  S<i°ie  St  ball  reaem- 
A  WAV  biing  hockey.  The  pleyen  are 
mounted  on  ponies,  and  wield  a  '  mallet  * 
4  feet  4  inches  in  length  (a  hickory  rod 
with  a  mal'ethead  at  the  end).  It  is 
played  by  sides,  and  the  object  is  to  drive 
the  ball  from  the  center  of  the  ground 
through  either  of  the  goals,  the  side  gain- 
ing the  most  goals  being  the  winner. 
Pnin  Caspar  Gil;  a  Spanish  poet, 
*"*"'  born  at  Valencia  about  1617; 
died  in  1572.  His  reputation  was  estab- 
lished by  his  Diana  Enamorada.  a  pas- 
toral romance,  partly  in  pruse  and  oartly 
in  verse.  Cervantes  excepts  the  Dtano  of 
Polo  from  his  list  (in  Don  Quixote)  of 
works  condemned  to  be  burred.  It  has 
been  translated  into  French,  English  and 
Latin. 

PaIa  Mabco.  a  Venetian  travder,  was 
■^"*"»    bom  about  the  year  1256.    Hi« 


Polonaiie 


Polyandria 


bither,  Nkolo,  wu  the  wa  of  Andraa 
Polo,  •  patriciui  of  Venice.     Shortly  be- 
fore   Marco'*    birth,     Nicolo    with    hii 
brother  Matteo  set  out  on  a  mercantile 
expedition,    and    ultimately    arrived    at 
Kemenfu,    on    the    frontiers    of    China, 
where  they  were   favorably   received   by 
Kubilai,  the  grand-kban  of  the  Mongols. 
In  12U6  the  kban  sent  the  brothers  on  a 
misaion  to  the  pope,  and  they  arrived  in 
Venice   in   1269.    Two  years  later  they 
agabi   set   out   for   the   East,   this    time 
accompanied  by  the  young  Marco.    After 
reaching    the    court    of    Kubilai,    Marco 
rapidly  learned  the  language  and  customs 
of  the  Mongols,   and   became  a   favorite 
with   the   khan,    who   employed   bim   on 
various     missions     to     the     neighboring 
princes.    Soon  afterwards  he  was  made 
governor     of     Yang-tcbou,     in     Eastern 
China,  an  appointment  he  held  for  three 
years.     In  i2&2  the  three  Polos  accom- 
panied an  escort  of  a  Mongolian  princera 
to    Persia.    After    arriving    at    Teheran 
they  heard  of   Kubilai's  death,  and   re- 
solved   to    retuA    home.    They    reached 
Venice  in  1295.     In  the  following  year 
Marco  Polo  took  part  in  the  naval  battle 
of  Cursola,  in  which  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner.    During   his   captivity   he   dictated 
to  a  fellow-prisoner,  Rusticbello  or  Rus- 
ticiano  of  Pisa,   an   account   of  a'l  his 
travels,    which    was    finished    in    1298. 
After  his  liberation  he  returned  to  Ven- 
ice, where  he  died  in  1323.     His  book  — 
known   as    the   Book   of   Marco   i'olo  — 
created  an  immense  sensation  among  the 
scholars  of  his  time,  and  was  regarded 
by  many  as  pure  fiction.     It  made  known 
to  Europeans  the  existence  of  many  na- 
tions of  which  they  were  formerly  totally 
ignorant,  and  created  a  passion  for  voy- 
ages of  discovery.     It  has  gone  thiough 
numerous  editions  in  the  various   Euro- 
pean languages,  but  the  best  is  that  of 
Col.  (Sir  Henry)  Yule,  accompanied  with 
a    great    amount    of    learned    elucidation 
and  illustration.     It  was  originnlly  writ- 
ten   in    French,    but    Latin    and    Italian 
MSS.  of  it  are  more  common. 
PnlnnaiflA     (pO-lu-nflz';    Italian.    Fo- 
rOiOnaiSe    j^^^^)  jg  ^  poush  national 

dance,  which  has  been  imitated,  but  with 
much  variation,  by  other  nations.  The 
Polonaite,  in  music,  is  a  movement  of 
three  crotchets  in  a  bar,  characterized 
by  a  seeming  irregularity  of  rhythm,  pro- 
duced by  the  syncopation  of  the  last  note 
In  a  bar  with  the  first  note  of  the  bar 
following,  in  the  upper  part  or  melody, 
while  tlie  normal  time  is  preserved  in 
the  baM. 

PAlnninm  (P«-Wni-nm),  the  name 
rOiOniUia    ^^^   ^   radio-activ«   aub- 

itance  diacoTered  by  Madame  Curie  in  the 


researches  which  led  to  the  diacovery  of 
radium.  So  named  from  Poland,  her  na> 
tive  country.     „      ^,  ^  ,      „ 

DaIa^vIt  (poloUk),  a  town  in  Bna- 
f  OlOtZK  l^^  government  of  Vitebsk, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Polotka  and  the 
Dwina.  The  most  remarkable  edifices 
are  a  dilapidated  castle  built  by  Stephen 
Batbory,  King  of  Poland,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  the  old  Jesuit  convent  and 
college.  It  has  an  increasing  trade,  espe- 
cially with  Riga,  in  com,  flax,  linseed, 
etc.,  and  tanning  is  carried  on  to  some 
extent.  A  battle  took  place  here  between 
the  Russians  and  the  French  in  1812,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated.  Pop. 
20,751.  ,  _ 

PnltAVfl.  (pAl-ta'v*),  or  PuiTAWA,  a 
XOXbavUi  government  of  Russia, 
bounded  by  Czemigov,  Kharkov,  Ekate- 
rinoslav,  Kherson  and  Kiev ;  area,  19,265 
sq.  miles.  It  consists  of  an  extensive  and 
somewhat  monotonous  flat,  watered  by 
several  tributaries  of  the  Dnieper.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  fertile  and  best  cultivated 
portions  of  the  Russian  Empire,  and 
grows  large  quantities  of  grain.  Live 
stock  and  bee  rearing  are  important 
branches  of  the  rural  economy.  Both 
manufactures  and  trade  are  of  very  lim- 
ited extent.  Education  is  much  neglected. 
Pop.  3,312,400. —  Poltava,  the  capital, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Poltava  with  the 
Worskla,  has  straight  and  broad  streets, 
a  cathedral,  important  educational  insti- 
tutions, etc.  As  a  place  of  trade  Poltava 
derives  importance  from  the  great  fair 
held  on  July  20th  each  year.  Wool  is 
the  great  staple  of  trade.  Horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep  are  likewise  bought  and  sold 
in  great  numbers.  It  contains  a  monu- 
ment to  Peter  the  Great,  who  here  de- 
feated Charles  XII  in  1709.    Pop.  58,080. 

Polyadelphia  i^^^^i^V  S^l 

nseus  to  the  eighteenth  class  of  his  sexual 
system,  in  allusion  to  the  stamens  being 
collected  into  several  parcels. 

Polyandria   K^i-S^f'-fdreS 

polv»,  many,  and  an&r,  andros,  i  man) 
denotes  the  custom  of  one  woman  having 
several  husbands  (generally  brothers)  at 
one  time.  This  system  prevailed  among 
the  Celts  of  Britain  in  Caesar's  time,  and 
occurs  yet  in  Southern  India,  in  Til)et, 
among  the  Eskimo,  the  Aleutians,  some 
tribes  of  American  Indians,  and  in  the 
South  Seas.  The  practice  is  believed  to 
have  hnd  its  origin  in  unfertile  regions 
in  an  eiideavor  to  check  the  undue  pres- 
sure of  population  on  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence. 
PnlvATiflriii.    i°  botany,  the  name 

roiyanona,  ^^^^  ^y  Linasus  to  • 


Polyanthvi 


Gsrdtn  Pol7«nthai. 


cIam  of  hermaphrodite  plants  having 
ouuiy  stamens,  generally  more  than  twen- 
ty,  arising  immediately  from  below  the 
ovary. 

Polyanthus  tW^'S^'&ri'te'^vS: 

riety  of  the  common  primrose  (Primila 
«H(^rw),  a  native  of  most  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, growing 
in  wooHs  and 
copses  in  a 
moist,  clayey 
soil.  The  leaves 
are  obovate,  ob- 
long, toothed, 
rugose,  and  vil- 
lous beneath. 
The  flowers  are 
in  umbels  on  a 
scape  or  flower- 
stalk  3  to  6 
inches  or  more 
in  length.  In 
addition  to  prop- 
agating from 
seeds  polyan- 
thuses may  also  be  readily  increased  by 
division.  The  seeds  should  l>e  sown  in 
June.  The  plants  should  be  potted  in 
August.  Some  will  show  flowers  the 
same  autumn,  and  many  in  the  following 
spring.  The  plants  are  venr  hardy,  and 
require  to  be  transplanted  every  two 
years. 

Polybasic  Acids  ie^iSi-^iV^i: 

sess  more  than  <me  hydrogen  atom  capable 
of  being  replaced  by  a  .letal  equivalent. 
Polvbins    (po-Ub'i-us),   a    Greek    his- 
'  torian,   was   born    at   Meg- 

alopolis, in  Arcadia,  abrut  201  b.c.  ; 
died  in  122.  His  father,  I.ycortas,  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Achaean  League, 
and  the  confidential  friend  of  Philopoe- 
men.  Educated  for  arms  and  political 
life,  he  entered,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four 
years,  into  the  military  and  political 
service  of  the  League.  After  the  subju- 
gation of  Perseus,  king  of  Macedonia,  by 
the  Bomans  (168),  Polybius  found  him- 
self among  the  lOCb  Acbseans  summoned 
to  Rome  to  answer  before  the  senate  why 
the  League  had  not  aided  the  Roman 
army  in  Macedonia.  While  in  Italy  he 
formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Scipio 
iBJmilianus,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his 
African  campaign,  and  witnessed  the  de- 
struction of  Carthage.  He  returned  to 
Greece  in  146,  just  after  the  fall  of 
Corinth,  and  exerted  himself  successfully 
to  obtain  moderate  terms  from  the 
Bomans  for  his  countrymen.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  his  Hittory  of  Rome,  in 
forty  books,  from  220  to  146  b.c.,  with 
tn  introduction  giving  a  sketch  of  the 


Polyohromy 

— ■ ■ ■'   ■ 

rise  of  the  city  from  its  fonqneet  by 
the  Gauls  to  the  outbreak  of  the  second 
Punic  war.  Only  the  first  five  books  and 
fragmenM  of  the  rest  are  extant 
Polveam  (pol'l-karp),  one  of  the 
X^Oiycarp  christUn  fathers,  and.  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  a  disciple  of  the 
apostle  John,  was  bom  probably  in 
Smyrna  about  69  or  70;  martyred  156 
or  156.  According  to  a  legendary  frag- 
ment ascribed  to  a  writer  named  Pionius, 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  his  native 
city  by  St.  John.  During  the  persecu- 
tion under  Marcus  Aurelius,  Polycarp 
was  seized  and  brought  before  the  Roman 
proconsul  at  Smyrna.  Having  refused  to 
renounce  his  faith,  he  was  condemned  to 
the  flames.  He  wrote  several  letters, 
which  were  current  in  the  early  church, 
but  all  have  perished  except  one  addressed 
to  the  Philippians,  which  appean  to  have 
been  written  about  115,  and  is  valuable 
for  its  quotations  from  the  apoetolic 
writings. 

Polychrome  Printing.  |"„S^ 

Polvchromv    (Pol'I-krO-mi),    th'w 

of  decorating  works  of  sculptur<i  and 
architecture  with  different  colors.  The 
custom  of  painting  statues  is  as  ancient 
as  sculpture  itself;  the  Egyptians,  Assyr- 
ians, Phoenicians,  Babylonians,  and  Per- 
sians all  painted  their  statues  in  varioun 
colors,  especially  in  red.  Polychromy, 
however,  only  reached  the  dignity  of  ii 
real  art  among  the  Greeks.  Instead  of 
employing  colors,  the  sculptors  of  the  ago 
of  Pericles  generally  used  marbles  of 
different  colors  fitted  together,  and  the 
ornaments  of  their  statues  were  made  oih 
various  metals  and  of  ivory.  •  Thus  the 
nude  parts  were,  in  some  cases,  of  Persian 
marble,  the  draperies  of  streaked  onyx,  the 
eyes  of  gold  or  ivory,  the  shields  and  other 
arms  of  bronze,  and  so  forth.  Archi- 
tectural polychromy  may  be  divided  into 
natural  polychromy,  in  which  the  mate- 
rials employed  produce  certain  effects  by 
their  natural  colors;  and  artificial  poly- 
chromy, which  is  simply  the  application 
of  coats  of  paint,  whether  on  the  exterior 
or  interior  parts  of  the  edifice.  Both 
natural  and  artificial  polychromy  were 
used  by  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Baby- 
lonians, and  Persians.  Polychromy  was 
cultivated  by  the  Romans  in  a  much 
more  restricted  style.  In  the  public 
buildings  of  the  later  Romans  gold  dec- 
orations and  facings  of  variegated  stone 
were  used  instead  of  mere  colors.  In 
the  middle  ages  polychrome  architecture 
was  adopted  by  the  Arabs  and  Bysan- 
tines.  A  fine  example  of  Bysantine  archi- 
tecture in  polychrome  style  is  the  Palatini 


jroiyoiotut 


Polyglot 


Chapel  at  Palermo,  erected  In  1232.  On  der  Polygal*c«B.  The  HMcIm  •bound  hi 
the  eatablishment  of  Gothic  architecture  milky  juice,  and  are  found  in  moat  puts 
polychromy  was  intro'luced  into  the  in-  of  the  world.  The  root  of  i**  ,o«<*fV* 
tenor  of  churches.  This  practice  waa  (senega  or  seneca  root  or  Virginian 
maintained  throughout  the  middle  ages,  snake-root)  is  a  stimatating  diuretic,  oae- 
1>AlvAlA4'iia  (poi-i-kle'tus)  of  SiCYON,  ful  in  pneumonia,  asthma,  and  rheuma- 
XOiyOiebUS  ^^  Greek  sculptor  aud  ar-  tism.  P.  vulgiru,  the  common  milkwort, 
chitect,  who  flourished  about  452-412  is  a  beautiful  plant,  found  in  dry  paa- 
ao.    His   most   celebrated   statues   were  tures.  ,     ,  ,         ,,,       ,v 

the  Doryphorua  ('Spear-bearer'),  to  PoWoMlg^QeSe  ^*?*"  i**"i*  "Vt'-ii 
which  the  name  of  canon  or  model  was  ■t"*aB»*»^»'«;  natural  order  of  herb* 
given;  and  Lis  statue  of  Uera  (Juno)  or  shrubs,  with  alternate,  ezstipuUte, 
in  the  temple  between  Argos  and  Mycenae,  simple  leaves ;  irregular  hermaphrodite 
As  an  architect  he  also  distinguished  him-  flowers ;  diadelphous  or  monadelpbooa 
gelf  stamens;  anthers  opening  at  the  apex  by 


bryos .  .... 

■eed-lobes.     Instances  occur  in  plants  of  or  astringent 
the  cruciferous  order,  and  in  coniferous  PolvfiramV    (PO-li«  a-mi)   conilats  in 
plsQtg  *wxjr5«.iiijr    g^    man's    having    mora 

PAlxrnratffs  (pol-ik'ra-tfe),  a  Greek  than  one  wife  at  the  same  time,  to 
j:OiyurH.i<CS  tyrant  or  absolute  ruler  ancient  times  polygamy  waa  practiced  by 
of  Samoa  during  the  time  of  the  elder  all  the  Eastern  nations,  and  was  sane- 
Cyrus.  He  made  himself  master  of  the  tioned  or  at  least  tolerated  by  their 
island  by  •violence,  and  having  secured  religions.  It  was  permitted  to  aome  ex- 
absolute  sway  seized  upon  several  of  the  tent  among  the  Greeks,  but  entirely  dis- 
neighboring  islands  and  some  towns  upon  appeared  with  the  later  develoi>ment  of 
the  mainland.  In  522  b.c.  the  Persian  Greek  civilization.  To  the  ancient  Bo- 
satrap  Oroetcs  treacherously  invited  Poly-  mans  and  Germanic  races  it  was  un- 
crates  to  his  palace,  and  there  cruci-  known.  It  prevailed  among  the  Jewish 
fied  him.  Polycrates  seems  to  have  had  patriarchs  both  before  and  under  the 
much  taste  for  learning  and  the  arts.  Mosaic  law.  But  in  the  New  Testament 
and  greatly  promoted  the  refinement  of  we  meet  with  no  trace  of  it.  Polygamy 
the  Samians.  bas   never   been   tolerated   am<mg  Cbris- 

VAlvniraWno  (poH-sis-t6'na),  a  group  tians,  although  the  New  Testament  am- 
XOiycysuUtt  ^f  protozoa,  division  tains  no  injunction  against  it.  It  is, 
Rhizopoda,  order  Badiolaria,  consisting  however,  practiced  by  the  Mohammedans 
of  minute  organisms  alli -d  to  the  Forami-  and  was  common  among  tlie  Monnous  oi 
nifera,  but  their  shells  are  of  siliceous  early  days,  though  now  prohibited  by  law. 
matter,  while  those  of  the  latter  are  cal-  See  Mormons.      ,,,    ,  ^     _      .  , 

careous.  The  bodies  of  the  Polycystma  Polvfirlot  (Po' >-«•<>*:  Greek,  polys, 
are    composed    of    a    brownish    sarcode-  **'«'0  inany,    and   glCtta,    Ian- 

matter  apparently  containing  yellow  glob-  guage),  a  work  which  contains  the  same 
ules,  which  protrudes  in  the  form  of  matter  in  several  languages.  It  is  more 
elongated  filaments  (pseudopodia)  through  narticularly  used  to  doiote  a  copy  of  the 
apertures  in  the  shells.  The  Polycyslina  Holy  Scriptures  in  which  two,  three,  or 
inhabit  the  sea-depths,  and  are  abun-  more  translations  are  given,  with  or  with- 
dantly  represented  as  fossil  organisms,  as  out  the  original.  The  first  great  work 
in  the  '  infusorial  earth  '  of  Barbadoes.  of  the  sort  is  the  CompIsten«Min  mamot. 
PnliTilATinAa  (pol-i-du'sez),  or  PoLT-  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal 
roiyaeuces  oEURgs,  the  Greek  name  Ximenes,  and  splendidly  printed  (1614- 
See  Cattor  and  Pollux.  17),    in    6   folio   volumes,    at    Alcala   de 

Latin    Complutum, 


of  Pollux. 


term  Hehares,    called    in 

whence  the  name  of  the  work. 


It  con- 


Pnlvilinfiin.   (pol-i-dip'si-a),     a 

roiyoipsia  applied  to  diabetes.  ^    ^     ^,^  „^ 

PAlir»nilii>irnTiir  (pol-i-em'bri-o-ni),  tains  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Teita- 
jrOiyemDryony  J^  botany,  a  phe-  ment,  with  the  Vulgate,  the  Septwagint, 
nomenon  occurring,  sometimes  regularly  a  literal  Latin  translation,  and  a  Chaldee 
and  sometimes  abnormally,  in  the  develop-  paraphrase  (which  is  also  aceompanMd 
ment  of  the  ovules  of  flowering  plants,  by  a  Latin  translation).  Another  CMfr 
consisting*  in  the  existence  of  two  or  more  brated  polyglot  is  that  of  Antwerp,  »Il«d 
embryos  in  the  same  seed.  the  Rofat  Bible,   because  Philh>   II  of 

PftlvcMla  (po  -  Hg '  a  -  la),  a  genos  of  Spain  bore  part  of  the  cost  of  pubHeation. 
jroiy^ua   pKotg  <4  the  wtoral  or-  It  wa»  wBWctwl  by  th©  Iwroeq  Spanisb 


Polygnotni 


Folymorphiim 


th«olofl«n,  BmwUct  AriH  Mootanug, 
■nist«d  by  other  acholan.  It  appeared 
at  Antwerp  in  8  folio  Tolomes  (15%-72). 
The  Puria  pohglot  appeared  in  16M.  In 
10  folio  Tolamea.  The  London  or  WoU 
ton'$  polvclot,  in  teo  teLguagea,  appeared 
in  6  TOlumes  folio,  with  two  supple- 
mentary volumes  (London,  1054-57).  It 
was  conducted  under  the  care  of  Bryan 
Walton,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Chester, 
and  contains  all  that  is  in  the  Pari»  poly- 
giot,  but  with  many  additions  and  im- 
provements. It  contains  the  original  text 
according  to  several  copies,  with  an  Ethi- 
opic  and  a  Persian  translation,  and  the 
Latin  verrions  of  each.  Bagater't  poly- 
glot (folio,  London,  1831)  gives  eight 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  and  nine 
of  the  new. 

PolVflmotns  (Po'-lg-nO'tus),  a  Greek 
*"*'»"*"'"*  painter,  who  flourished 
from  450  to  410  B.c.  He  was  a  native 
of  the  Island  of  Thasos.  and  was  in- 
structed in  his  art  by  his  father,  Agla- 
ophon.  Gimon,  the  rival  of  Pericles, 
brought  Lim  to  Athens  and  employed  him 
to  decorate  the  Stoa  Popcile,  or  painted 
portico,  at  Athens.  His  worlca  were 
probably  on  wood.  Poiygnotus  is  repre- 
sented as  being  the  first  who  made  paint- 
ing independent  of  sculpture. 
Polvsron  (Pol'i-«on;  Greek,  polyt, 
"  J^'^*^  many,  g6nia,  an  angle). 
In  geometry,  a  plane  figure  of  many 
angles  and  sides,  or  at  least  of  more  than 
four  sides.  A  polygon  of  five  sides  is 
termed  a  pentagon;  one  of  six  sides,  a 
kewagon;  one  of  seven  sides,  a  heptapon, 
and  so  on.  Similar  polygona  are  those 
which  have  their  several  angles  equal 
each  to  each,  and  the  sides  about  their 
equal  angles  proportional.  All  similar 
polygons  are  to  one  another  as  the 
squares  of  their  homologous  sides.  If 
the  sides,  and  consequently  the  angles,  are 
all  equal,  the  polygon  is  said  to  be  reg- 
ular; otherwise,  it  is  irregular.  Every 
regular  polygon  can  be  circumscribed  by 
a  circle,  or  have  a  circle  inscribed  in  it. — 
Polygon  of  forcet,  in  mechanics,  the  name 

fiven  to  a  theorem  which  is  as  follows :  — 
f  any  number  of  forces  act  on  a  point, 
and  a  polygon  be  taken,  one  of  the  sides 
of  which  is  formed  by  the  line  represent- 
ing one  of  the  forces,  and  the  following 
sides  in  succession  by  lines  representing 
the  other  forces  in  magnitude,  and  par- 
allel to  their  directions,  then  the  line 
which  completes  the  polygon  will  repre- 
sent the  resultant  of  all  the  forces. 

Polveronacese  (poi-««-o-na'se-6),  a 

<.vAjgvua^«cc  natural  order  of  her- 
baceous plants,  with  trigonal  fruit,  and 
nsnally  with  stipules  united  into  a  tube 
or  ocnrea,  through  which  the  stem  passes. 


They  have  astringent  and  acid  propertlaa; 
Bome  are  purgative,  and  a  few  are  acrid. 
Among  the  best-known  species  are  rhu- 
barb, the  docks,  and  the  sorrels.  B«« 
Poly^onttm. 


Polvfironnni  (pol-i«'o-num),  a  genns 
«.w«jBvuiuu  q£  herbaceous  plantb, 
natural    order    Polygonacen.    They    are 


found  in  the  temperate  regions  of  Elurope, 
Africa,  North  America,  and  Asia.  They 
are  herbaceous,  rarely  shrubby  plants, 
with  alternate  stipulate  or  exstipulate 
leaves,  and  spikes  of  small,  pink  flowers. 
Several  British  species  are  known  by  the 
name  of  persicarlas.  See  Bi$tort,  Buck- 
wheat, Knot-gnua. 

Polvmmia.  (pol-i-jin'I-a),  one  of  the 
*"V6J*"»  orders  in  the  fifth,  sixth, 
twelfth,  and  thirteenth  classes  of  the 
Linnaean  system,  comprehending  'those 
plants  which  have  flowers  with  many 
pistils,  or  in  which  the  pistils  or  stym 
are  more  than  twelve  in  numt>er. 
Polvhedron  (Pol-l-hS'drun),  in  ge- 
.KTUi^rjieuruu  ©metry,  a  body  or  solid 
bounded  by  many  faces  or  planes.  When 
all  the  faces  are  regular  polygons  similar 
and  equal  to  each  other  the  solid  becomes 
a  regular  body.  Only  five  regular  solids 
can  exist,  namely,  the  tetrahedron,  the 
hexahedron,  the  octahedron,  the  dodeca- 
hedron, and  the  icosahedron. 

Polyhymnia  ipoi-i-him'ni-a),  « 

«w«jujuuua  Poltm'nia.  among  the 
Greeks,  the  muse  of  the  sublime  hymn, 
and  according  to  some  of  the  poets,  in- 
ventress  of  the  lyre,  and  of  mimea.  She 
is  usually  represented  in  art  as  covered 
with  a  white  mantle,  in  a  meditative  atti- 
tude, and  without  any  attribute. 

Polymerism  (po'.-»m'ev**™^  *■  \ 

*    ^  particular    instance    of 

isomerism  (which  see).  Polymerization 
is  a  name  given  to  the  process  by  which 
a  chemical  compound  is  transformed  into 
another  having  the  same  chemical  ele- 
ments combined  in  the  same  proportions 
but  with  different  molecular  weights :  thus 
the  hydrocarbon  amylcne,  CnHio,  when 
acted  on  by  strong  sulphuric  acid,  is  con- 
verted into  the  polymer  paramylene, 
CioH,,. 

Polymorphism  J[p°':':?°'^^'°>'  *^ 

•'  *  property  possessed 

by  certain  bodies  of  crystallizing  in  two 
or  more  forms  not  derivable  one  from  the 
other.  Thus,  mercuric  iodide  separates 
from  a  si  ition  in  tables  belonging  to  the 
dimetric  ystem;  if  these  crystals  are 
heated  they  sublime  and  condense  in 
forms  belonging  to  the  monoclinic  system ; 
carbonate  of  calcium  exists  as*  caicspar, 
which  crystallizes  in  rhombohedral  forms, 
and  as  aragonite,  which  crystallises  in 
trimetric  forms. 


Pdynemiif 
Polynemni.   ««•  if  •-^o-zu*. 

PnlvTiMift    (poM-a«'ii-a;   Greek, 

land),  a  general  name  for  a  number  of 
distinct  arcbipelagoea  of  small  Ulanda 
Mattered  over  the  Pacific  Ocean,  extend- 
inc  from  about  lat.  35°  N.  to  35^  b.,  and 
from  long.  135°  E.  to  100°  w.,  the  Phil- 
ippinea.  New  Guinea.  Australia,  and  New 
ZMland  being  excluded.  (See  Oceania.) 
The  islands  are  distributed  into  numerous 
groups,  having  a  general  direction  from 
«.  w.  to  8.  E.  The  groups  north  of  the 
equator  are  the  Pelew,  Ladrone  or  Mari- 
anne, Caroline,  Marshall,  Gilbert  or 
Kingsmill,  Fanning  and  Hawaii  or  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  South  of  the  eauator 
are  New  Ireland.  New  Britain,  Solomon 
Islands.  New  Hebrides,  Fiji,  New  Cale- 
donia, Navigator.  Friendly,  Cook's  or 
Harvey  and  the  Society  Islands,  the  Low 
Archipelago,  the  Marquesas  Islands,  and 
the  isolated  Easter  Island.  The  term 
Polynesia  is  sometimes  restricted  to  the 

f roups  most  centrally  situated  in  the 
'acinc;  the  New  Hebrides,  Solomon 
Islands,  New  Britain,  New  Ireland  (Bis- 
marck Archipelago),  etc.,  being  classed 
together  as  Melanesia,  whereas  tlie  Caro- 
lines, Ladrones.  Marshall  Islands,  etc., 
form  Micronesia.  The  islands  may  be 
divided  into  two  chief  classes,  volcanic  and 
coral  islands.  Some  of  the  former  rise 
to  a  great  height,  the  highest  peak  in 
the  Pacific,  Mauna  Kea,  in  Hawaii,  reach- 
ing 13,895  feet.  The  principal  groups  of 
these  are  the  Friendly,  the  Sandwich,  the 
Marquesas,  and  the  Navigator  Islands. 
The  coral  islands  comprise  the  Carolines, 
Gilbert,  and  Marshall  Islands  on  the 
northwest,  and  the  Society  Islands  and 
Low  Archipelago  in  the  southeast,"  in 
both  of  which  groups  the  atoll  formation 
is  very  common,  besides  numerous  other 
groups  where  coral  reefs  occur.  The  ele- 
vations of  these  groups  do  not  exceed  500 
feet.  Polynesia  has  a  comparatively  mod- 
erate temperature,  and  the  climate  is 
delightful  and  salubrious.  The  predomi- 
nating race,  occupying  the  central  and 
eastern  portion  of  Polynesia,  is  of  Malay 
origin,  with  oval  faces,  wide  nostrils,  and 
large  ears.  The  heir  and  complexion 
vary  greatly,  but  the  latter  is  often  a 
light  brown.  Their  language  is  split  up 
into  numerous  dialects.  The  other  lead- 
ing race  is  of  negroid  or  Papuan  origin, 
with  negro-Iike  features  and  crisp,  mop- 
like hair.  They  are  confined  to  tVestem 
Polynesia,  and  speak  a  different  lan- 
guage, with  numerous  distinct  dialects. 
Ghrlitianlty  has  been  introdnced  into  a 
great  many  of  the  islands,  and  a  large 
number  of  them  are  under  the  control 

18— U— 6 


Poiyj^earat 

oC  on*  or  otbar  of  the  Enropaaa  potros. 
Many  atrocitkt  hava  baan  pnctlcad  oa 
the  natlvea  in  recent  timea  in  ceonectkn 
with  the  Inrint  or  kidnaping  of  thein 
to  work  in  the  European  ■ettlemanta. 
The  commer'iial  products  conaiat  chiefly 
of  cocoanuts,  cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  fmlts, 
pearls  and  trepang.  The  Ladronea  ww* 
discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521,  the  Mar- 
quesas by  Mendafla  in  1G9S,  but  it  was 
not  until  1767  that  Wallia,  and  sabae- 
quently  Cook,  explored  and  described  the 
chief  ialands.  Since  the  natives  came  in 
contact  with  the  whitea  their  Dambeta 
have  greatly  decreased.  For  further  in- 
formation see  articles  on  the  individual 
groups  and  islands. 
Folyni'OeS.     ^*«  EteoOe: 

Polvn  (Pol'ip)'  f^  t«"°  ^li'ch  haa  bMB 
AVAjy  ^jpy  variously  and  indiscrim- 
inately applied  to  different  animala.  It 
haa  thua  been  used  to  designate  any  ani- 
mal of  low  organisation,  such  as  the  sea- 
anemones,  corals,  and  their  allies;  or  it 
haa  lieen  employed  to  indicate  animala 
which,  like  the  coelenterate  soophytea  or 
Hydrozoa,  and  the  molluscoid  Polyioa, 
bear  a  close  resemblance  to  planta.  It 
is  now  generally  applied  to  any  single 
member  of  the  class  Actinoioa,  repre- 
sented by  the  sea-anemones,  corals,  and 
the  like;  or  any  member  (or  aoSid)  of 
a  compound  organism  belonging  to  that 
class.  The  term  polypide  is  employed  to 
designate  each  member  or  soOid  of  the 
compound  forms  included  in  the  Polysoa. 
The  name  polypidon  appliea  to  the  entire 
outer  framework  or  skin-system  of  a 
compound  form  such  as  a  hydroaoan 
aoorhyte.  The  word  polypite  refers  to 
each  separate  zoOid  or  member  of  a  com- 
pound zoophyte  or  hydroaoOn.  The 
polppary  of  a  hydrozoOn  specially  refoa 
to  the  norny  or  chitinous  sUn  aecreted 
by  the  Hydrozoa. 

PolvnliemilS  (poU-ft'mua),  in  Gredt 
rOiypuemuB  mythology,  the  moat 
famous  of  the  Cyclops,  who  is  described 
as  a  cannibal  giant  with  one  eye  in  hia 
forehead,  living  alone  in  a  cave  of  Monnt 
^tna  and  feeding  his  flocks  on  that 
mountain.  Ulysses  and  his  companions 
having  l>een  driven  upon  the  shore  by  a 
storm,  unwarily  took  refuge  in  his  cave. 
Polyphemus,  when  he  returned  home  at 
night,  shut  up  the  mouth  of  the  cavern 
with  a  large  stone,  and  by  the  next  morn- 
ing had  eaten  four  of  the  strangers,  after 
which  he  drove  out  his  flocks  to  paatnre, 
and  shut  in  the  unhappy  captives. 
Ulysses  then  contrived  a  plan  for  their 
escape.  He  intoxicated  the  monater  with 
wine,  and  as  soon  as  he  fell  aaleep  bored 
out  hia  one  eye  with  the  biasing  end  of  • 


Mjphoaio 


PolytlMiiB 


italM.  H«  tlNB  tM  UmMlf  and  hk  ooa> 
ptaloas  aodM  tlit  btUiM  of  tb«  shMp, 
m  whl^  maimer  tbey  pMMd  Mftbr  out 
lo  Um  momlaf .  PolntbcmiM  wm  too  d«- 
^iMd  tovtr  of  Um  armpb  UaUtca. 

Polyphonic  iffi'-K^i'„:,i:rc;^: 

poaition  in  two  or  mor*  parts,  each  of 
wbkh  forms  an  independent  theme,  pro- 
cressing  simultaneously  according  to  the 
mws  of  counterpoint,  ss  in  a  fucue,  which 
is  tlu»  best  exampie  of  compositions  of  the 
poljrpbonic  ciass. 

rolypodiaceflB  (pow-p«-d«-a'«e;*).  a 

*  w«/j|rwuAaw«a2  natural  order  of 
ferns,  which  may  be  talcen  as  the  type 
of  the  whole.  They  constitute  the  highest 
order  of  acrogenous  or  cryptogamic  vege- 
tation, and  are  regarded  as  approaching 
more  neariy  to  cycadaceous  gymnosperms 
than  to  any  other  group  of  the  vegetable 
liingdom.  They  are  usually  herbaceous 
plants  with  a  permanent  stem,  which 
either  remains  buried  or  rooted  beneath 
the  soil,  or  creeps  over  the  stems  of  trees, 
or  forms  a  scarcely  movable  point  of 
growth,  round  which  new  leaves  are  an- 
noaiiy  produced  in  a  circle,  or  it  rises  into 
the  air  in  the  form  of  a  simple  stem, 
bearing  a  tuft  of  leaves  st  its  apex  and 
sometimes  attaining  the  height  of  40  feet, 
as  in  the  tree-ferns. 

Polypodinm    <  poi-«-p«'di-um ) ,  a 

»*^^^^  genus  of  ferns,  the 
largest  of  all,  comprising  over  460  species. 
Including  plants  of  different  modes  of 
crowth,  and  from  almost  all  climates. 
Thtj  bear  spore-cases  on  the  back  of 
the  frond,  distinct,  ring-shaped,  in  round- 
ish tori,  destitute  of  tnduaium.  P. 
ealaffuala,  a  native  of  Peru,  possesses 
important  medicinal  properties,  solvent, 
deobstruent,  sudorific,  etc. 
PolVDOmS  (Po-Hp^or-us) ,  a  genus  of 
Av*j|>v*uB  parasitical  fungi.  The  P. 
ieufrmctor  is  one  of  the  pests  of  wooden 
constructions,  producing  what  is  some- 
times  termed  dry  rot,  although  the  true 
dry  rot  is  a  different  plant  {Mer%liu» 
teorymans).  P.  igniariut  is  known  by 
the  name  of  amadou,  touchwood,  or  spunk. 
PolTDtemS  (po-j'P'ter-us) ,  a  genus 
«»     «  .      °'   fl*«8   inhabiting    the 

Nile,  Senegal,  and  other  rivers  of  Africa, 
and  included  in  the  Ganoid  order  of  the 

?.'■■■•,.  i'*?^  'o"™  *yP*"  o'  »  "peciai  fam- 
ily, the  Polypteridn.  Their  most  singular 
characteristic  is  the  structure  of  the  cforsal 
fin,  which  Instead  of  l>eing  continuous  is 
separated  into  twelve  or  sixteen  strong 
spines  distributed  along  the  back,  each 
bordered  behind  by  a  small  soft  fin.  In 
tte  young  there  is  an  external  gill.  The 
Pohipttnt,  Uohir  attalw  to  a  length  of 

♦  fWte 


PoItDIU  (pol'l-pt»),  in  BMdklBt,  a 
7  •'  name  given  to  tumors  chisfly 
fonnd  In  the  mncoos  membranes  of  the 
nostrils,  throat,  ear,  and  uterus;  rarely 
in  the  stomach,  bladder,  and  intestines. 
Polypi  diifer  much  in  sise,  number,  mode 
of  adhesion,  and  nature.  One  species  is 
the  mscoiM,  toft,  or  vestealar,  because  Ita 
substance  consists  of  mucous  membrane 
with  ita  embedded  glands;  another  Is 
called  the  Aard  polypus,  and  conslsta  of 
fibrous  tissue.  Polypi  may  be  malignant 
in  character,  that  Is,  of  the  cancerous 
type.    The  form  polyp  is  also  used. 

Polyiyndeton  (.i>o«-i-«Jn'de-tpn),  is 

w.^.^Mwwwvu  jIj^  tiuat  given  to 
a  figure  of  speech  by  which  the  con 
Junctive  particles  of  sentences  are  accu- 
mulated, contrary  to  usual  custom,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  greater  emphasis  to  the 
terms  connected  by  them,  as  when  Schiller 
says, '  And  it  waves,  and  boils,  and  roan, 
and  hisses.' 

Polysynthetic  Langnagei.  ^j^^" 

Mogy, 

Polyteohnio  School.   JVii/feoft 

Mtgne. 

Polythalamia  i^l;!;;'^}-^^;;^!!' 

occupying  compound  chambered  cells  of 
microsc<n>ical  sise.  In  some  instances 
each  cell  of  the  common  shell  presents 
only  one  external  opening,  but  more  com- 
monly it  is  punctured  with  numeroui 
minute  pores  or  foramina,  through  which 
the  animal  can  protrude  filaments.  Their 
remahis  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  chalk 
and  tertiary  limestone.  See  Foramini- 
fern. 

Polytheism  (PoW-the'lam;  Greek, 
^'    .  polyt,    many;     thtot, 

god),  the  belief  in  and  worship  of  a 
pluralitv  of  gods ;  opposed  to  monotheism, 
the  belief  in  and  worship  of  one  n>d. 
It  is  still  a  matter  of  debate  whether 
polytheism  is  a  primary  form  of  human 
belief  or  the  degeneration  of  an  original 
monotheistic  idea.  It  is  argued,  on  the 
one  hand,  that  the  sense  of  personal  de- 
pendence, the  feeling  that  there  was  an 
undefined  power,  a  mysterious  tomething 
around  and  above  him,  did  not  primarily 
present  itself  to  the  mind  of  man  except 
under  a  form  of  unity.  His  earliest  re- 
ligion would  therefore  be  of  a  monothe- 
istic character,  but  of  a  highly  unsta- 
ble nature,  and  eminently  liable,  ajiong 
races  of  rnds  faculties  and  little  power 
of  abstraction,  to  assume  a  polytheistf 
form,  tho  idea  of  one  Sapreme  Beinfk 
being  readilv  obscured  by  the  multiplidts 
of  the  visible  operations  of  that  being  on 

mrtb.   Those  wbp  ftftna  that  poiTtbtiMs 


PolyMft 


fnML 


WM  •  prkury  fonn  of  rallgiow  htXM 
(usat  tut  man,  ignonnt  of  tM  natan  m 
kit  own  lift,  and  of  the  naturt,  origin, 
and  proportiM  of  otiier  objacta,  coulo  at 
lint  onlT  attribata  ragueiy  to  all  viiibla 
thing!  tM  aame  kind  of  conaciooa  ezlat- 
tnct  aa  that  which  belonged  to  himaelf. 
Thua  the  aun,  moon,  and  atari  would  all 
ba  liTing  beings;  and  their  influence,  from 
th^  abaence  of  any  idea  of  a  natural 
order,  would  be  aeen  in  the  working  of 
the  material  world  and  in  all  the  acci- 
daota  of  human  life.  Sa  being  beyond 
human  control,  and  aa  Lffecting  the  con- 
dition of  men,  they  would  be  loved  or 
faared;  and  with  the  growth  of  the  idea 
that  they  might  be  propitiated  or  ap- 
peaaed  the  ayatem  of  polytheiam  would 
be  complete.  Bee  Monethei^m  and  i/y- 
iholot% . 

fUA/BWH  g^on,  animal),  a  claaa  of 
Molluacoida  or  Lower  Molluacat  generally 
known  by  the  popular  namea  of  'aea- 
moaaea'  and  'aea-mata.'  Thty  are  in- 
Taruibly  compound,  forming  aaaociated 
growtha  or  coloniea  of  animala  produced 
By  gemmation  from  a  aingle  primordial 
individual,  and  inhabit  a  polifzoarium,  or 
aggregate  of  cella,  corresponding  to  the 
polypldom    of    the    composite    hydioida. 


A  Polysoon    WugUa  avicularia). 

I,  Nstnrsl  tize.     2,  Portion  of  Mme  manii' 

Sad.     s,  Celli.     h,  Ovieellt.     e,  ATicuUris. 

The  polypide,  or  individual  polyzoBn,  re- 
sides in  a  separate  cell  or  chamber,  lias 
a  distinct  alimentary  canal  suspended 
freely  in  a  body  cavity,  and  the  repro- 
ductive organs  contained  within  the  body. 
The  body  is  enclosed  in  a  double-walled 
sac,  the  outer  layer  {ectocyai)  of  which 
is  chitinoos  or  calcareous,  and  the  inner 

iendooyai)  a  delicate,  membranona  layer. 
•n  the  ectocyst  are  seen  certain  peculiar 
proccaaaa  called  'bird'a-head  proceaaea,' 
or  avicuUuri*,  from  theiz  ahap^  the  nae 


o£  whleh  is  mknowB.  Tha  mantktjfm 
inff  at  tba  upper  part  9t  aaeh  ean  w 
aurrounded  by  a  etrdat  of  boUow,  eiliatid 
tantaclea,  wnkb  parfom  the  ftwetloB  «C 
raapiration,  and  are  aupportad  m  tba 
lopAopAore;  and  tba  cell  may  ba  ekaad 
by  a  aort  of  valve  called  tba  agfataaia. 
All  the  Polyioa  are  bemaphrodlta.  la 
many  caaea  there  are  ovUM$  or  aaca  lata 
which  the  fertilised  ova  paaa.  Froa 
tbeae  proceed  free-awimming  ciliated  aat- 
bryoa  which  develop  into  polypidaa.  Con- 
tinuoua  gemmation  exiata  in  all.  Tba 
rolysoa  are  ciaaaed  into  three  groapa: 
Ectoprocta,  Bntoprocta,  and  Aapldoph- 
ora.  The  Ectoprocta  are  divided  into 
two  ordera  of  PJkyfaetotomala,  with  a 
creacentic  lopbophora  and  an  epiatMna; 
and  Oymnotoniata,  or  Infnndibulata, 
with  a  cirrular  lopbophora  and  no  epl- 
atome.  They  are  all  aquatic  in  their 
habita,  the  marine  Poljioa  being  com- 
mon to  all  aeaa,  but  tba  fraan-water 
genera  are  moatly  confined  to  the  nortli 
temperate  aone. 

PnmftAAfli  (po-mi'ae-C),  or  V&uxM,  n 
romacen  ^f^,|on  of  the  natural  or 
der  RoaacesB,  to  wbkh  the  apple,  pear, 
quince,  and  medlar  belong.  It  diffent 
from  Rosaceie  proper  in  having  an  in 
ferior  ovary.  The  fruit  ia  alwaya  ii 
pome,  with  a  cruataceoiu  core  or  bon], 
stonea. 

PoTnlml  (pom-b&r),  Skbastiao  Jost 
AwiuwAA  Cabvalho,  MABQVia  of,  n 
Portuguese  ata  teaman,  bom  in  ItiOO :  died 
in  1782.  After  studying  law  at  Coim- 
bra,  Pombal  served  for  some  time  in  th«> 
army.  In  1739  be  was  appointed  am- 
banador  in  London.  He  was  recaltoil 
in  1745,  and  the  queen  sent  bim  ta 
Vienna  to  act  aa  mediator  lietweaB  the 

nt  and  Maria  Tbereaa.  Under  jear|»(* 
e  became  secretary  of  stats  for  fer. 
eigo  affairs.  He  soon  rendered  the  kttag 
entirely  subject  to  his  influence,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  the  accomplishment  of  his  fa- 
vorite objoicts  —  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits,  the  humiliation  of  the  greater 
nobles,  the  restoration  of  Portugal^  proa- 
perity,  and  the  absolute  command  of  the 
state  in  the  name  of  the  monarcb.  He 
deprived  the  leading  nobles  of  their 
princely  possessions  in  the  colonies,  and 
abridged  the  powers  of  the  prelacy.  In 
1757  he  deprived  the  Jesuits  of  the  place 
of  confessors  and  ordered  them  to  retire 
to  their  colleges.  A  conspirscv  againat 
the  life  of  the  king  afforded  him  oppoiw 
tanity  to  banish  the  whole  order  « 
Jesuits  from  the  kingdom  in  17B0. 
Pombal  reorganized  the  army,  and  waa 
active  in  hla  efforts  to  improve  the 
country  in  every  relation;  he  wild  m^ 
ticolar  •ttentkm  to  edncstioa.    Joeepb  I 


FonMSiAiuite 


Pomptdou 


dtod  In  1777,  ud  wm  ■uccMdad  bj  hki 
teofbter,  Maria  1.  who  imiMdiattV  da- 
prlvad  Pombal  of  bia  oflkta. 

JPomerrtnate  <^f-"ii/«^!S: 


i),  a  daoaa,  ■piny  ■hrab,  from  8  to 
20  faat  bifb,  aappotcd  to  bavc  bcloogad 
orifiaally  to  tb«  north  of  Africa,  and 
anbaaqiMntly  introduced  into  Italy.  It 
waa  callad  oj  tba  Romana  malum  P«n<> 
oam,  or  Oaruaginlan  apple.  The  leavea 
art    oppoalte,     lanceolate,     entire,     and 


PoBegnuwte   (Puniea  ^'andtum), 

mooth;  the  flowers  are  large  and  of  a 
brilliant  red;  the  fruit  is  as  large  as  an 
orange,  having  a  hard  rind  filled  with  a 
■oft  pulp  and  numerous  red  seeds.  The 
palp  is  more  or  less  acid  and  slightly 
aatringent.  The  pomegranate  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  throughout  Southern 
Lorope,  and  Rometimes  attains  a  great 
sise.  Another  species  (P.  nana)  inhabits 
the  West  Indies  and  Quiana. 

Pomerania  (Pom-*-ra'nl-a;  Germm, 
Pcmmem),  a  province  of 
P  -uaaia,  bounded  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  Meck- 
leiibnic,  Brandenburg,  and  West  Prussia ; 
arta,  11,622  square  miles.  The  coasc  is 
low  and  sandy  and  lined  by  numerous 
lagoons.  The  chief  islands  along  the 
coast  are  Riigen,  Usedom,  and  Wollin. 
The  interior  is  flat  and,  in  parts, 
marshy.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Oder,  Persante,  and  Btolpe.  The  soil  is 
generally  sandy  and  indiffpi-ent,  but  there 
are  some  rich  alluvial  tracts,  producing 
8  quantity  of  grain.  Flax,  hemp,  ana 
tobacco  are  also  cultivated.  Domestic 
animals  are  numerous.  The  forests  are 
of  large  extent.  Fish  are  abundant. 
There  are  few  minerals.  Manufactures 
inclade  woolen  and  other  fabrics.    A  con- 


■idarabla  faaaral  and  ..anait  trade  la 
carrlad  oo.  Tha  center  of  trada  la 
Stettin,  which  ranks  aa  one  of  tba  chief 
commercial  cities  of  Prussia.  Pmna- 
rania  appears  to  have  been  originally  in- 
habited by  Ootbs,  Vandals,  and  BlaTS. 
The  first  mention  of  it  in  history  is  in 
1140.  It  long  remains]  an  independent 
duchy,  and  in  1U37,  on  the  extinction  of 
the  ducal  family,  it  was  annexed  to 
Sweden.  On  the  death  of  Charlea  XII 
it  was  ceded  to  the  electoral  bouae  of 
Brandenburg,  with  the  exception  of  a 
part  which  subsequently  was  also  ob- 
tained by  Prussia.  For  administrativi 
purposes  it  is  divided  into  three  goveniv 
menu,  Stett*n,  KiSelin,  and  Stralauad. 
Pop.  (190B)  1,684,125. 
Pomfret  (pom'fret),  Johh,  an  Ent- 
romirei    j^,^  J^^  ^om  in  1607;  died 

in  1703.  He  was  rector  of  Maulden  in 
Bedfordshire,  and  published  a  volume  of 
Poema  in  lOTO,  one  of  which,  Tha  Okoica, 
was  long  very  popular. 
Prtmnna  (lK>-mO'na),  among  the  Bo- 
romona  ^.^^  the  goddei?  of  fruit, 
and  wife  of  Vertumnus. 
PnmATitt  ■  ("ity  of  IxM  Angeles  Co., 
romona,  California,  88  milei  «.  of  Loa 
Angeles.  Its  industries  include  fruit  rais- 
ing, canning,  pipe,  planing,  and  iron 
works,  and  the  manufactore  of  well 
pnmps,  etc.     Pop.  10,207. 

PnTnATift  0'  MAiwhiMD,  the  largest 
x-omoua,  ^^^  JJ^^^  populous  of  tha 

Orkney  Islands;  length  from  northwest 
to  southeast.  23  miles;  extreme  breadth 
about  15  miles;  area  150  sauare  miles; 
pop.  17,166.  It  is  extremely  irregular 
in  shape,  and  on  all  sides  except  the  west 
is  deeply  indented  by  bays  and  creeks. 
The  surface  is  covered  in  great  part  by 
moor  and  heath,  but  good  pasture  is 
also  to  be  found,  and  in  the  valleys  a 
good  loamy  soil  occurs.  The  principal 
towns  are  Kirkwall  and  Stromneaa.  See 
OvlcHdi 

PoTn-nadonr  (poo-pA-der),  Jeaioob 
rumpaaour  Antoinette  Poisson, 
MABQinsB  DE,  the  mistress  of  Louis 
XV,  was  born  in  1721,  and  was  said  to  be 
the  daughter  of  the  farmer-genera'  Lenor- 
mand  de  Toumehem,  who  at  hia  death 
left  her  an  immense  fortune.  In  1741 
she  married  her  cousin,  Lcnormund 
d'Etiolles.  A  few  years  later  she  suc- 
ceeded in  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
king,  and  soon  entirely  engrossed  his 
favor.  In  1745  she  appeared  at  cOurt 
aa  the  Marquise  de  Pompadour.  Here 
she  at  first  posed  as  the  patronesa  of 
learning  and  the  arts,  but  with  the  decay 
of  her  charms  she  devoted  her  attention 
to  state  affairs.  Her  favorites  filled  the 
most  important  offices,  and  she  is  said 


Vomiwii 


To^pdi 


now  proi*cuted,  and  In  1786  »b«  taphl* 
theater,  theater,  and  other  |>arta  wm 
cleared  out.  IJnder  the  Boarbens  tM 
eieavatlone  were  carried  out  on  a  ?er» 
io«  luiwvu.     -  .,  ,v         ancient  city   un«iti«f«ctory    plan.    Sutuea   and   arti- 


to  have  broucbt  about  the  war  with 
rrederick  11.  She  died  In  1764.  at  the 
•n  o(  forty-four,  bated  and  reviled  by 
the  nation. 


tho  Bay  of  Naples,  about  12  milea  aouth* 
caat  from  the  city  of  that  name,  and  at 
th«  baae  of  Mount  Veeuvlua  on  Ita 
■outbem  aide.  Before  the  cloae  of  the 
republic,  and  under  the  early  emperors. 
Pompeii  became  a  favorite  retreat  of 
wealthy  Romana.  In  a.d.  03  a  fearful 
cnrthqoaite  occurred,  which  deetroyed  a 
great  part  of  the  town.  The  work  of 
rebuilding  was  loon  commenced,  and  the 
new  town  had  a  population  of  aome 
80,000   when   it   waa  overtaken   by   an- 


decay  or  were  covered  up  aialn.  To  tM 
abort  reign  of  Murat  (1809-15)  wa  art 
Indebted  for  the  excavation  of  the  Fpmmi 
the  town  walla,  the  Street  of  Tomba, 
and  many  private  bouaes.  Recently  tM 
government  of  Victor  Emmanuel  aaalgnad 
llSJJOO  annually  for  the  proaecntlon  ol 
the  excavations,  and  a  regular  plan  baa 
been  adopted,  according  to  which  tb« 
ruina  are  aystematically  explored  aBd 
carefully  preaerred.    The  town   i*  built 


Pompeii  — Honse  of  the  Trsfio  Poet,  soMllcd. 


other  catastrophe  on  August  24,  a-d.  79. 
This  consisted  in  an  eruption  of  Mount 
Vesuvius,  which  suddenly  belched  forth 
tremendous  showers  of  ashes,  red-hot 
pumice-stone,  etc.  These  overwhelmed 
the  city  nnd  buried  it  to  a  considerable 
depth.  The  present  superincumbent 
mass  is  about  20  feet  In  thickness.  A 
portion  of  this  was  formed  by  subsequent 
eruptions,  but  the  town  had  been  buried 
by  the  first  catastrophe  and  entirely  lost 
to  view.  Pompeii  was  lost  in  oblivion 
during  the  middle  ages,  and  it  was  not 
until  1748,  when  a  peasant  in  sinking 
a  well  discovered  a  painted  chamber  with 
statues  and  other  objects  of  antiquity, 
that  anything  like  a  real  interest  in  the 
locality  waa  excited.    Bxcavatiooa  were 


in  the  form  of  an  irregular  oval  extend- 
ing from  east  to  west.  The  circumfer- 
ence of  tae  walla  measures  2925  yards. 
The  area  within  the  walla  is  estimated 
.t  1(K)  acres;  greatest  length,  2  mH^: 
greatest  breadth,  i  mile.  There  nre 
eight  gates.  The  streets  are  straight  and 
narrow  and  paved  with  large  polygonal 
blocks  of  lava.  The  houses  are  slightly 
constructed  of  concrete,  or  occasionally 
of  bricks.  Numerous  staircasea  prove 
that  the  houses  were  of  two  or  three 
stories.  The  ground  floor  of  the  larger 
houses  was  generally  occupied  by  shopa. 
Most  of  the  larger  houses  are  entered 
from  the  street  by  a  narrow  PMsaga 
(ve$tihulum)  leading  to  an  internal  ball 
latrknn),  which  provided  the  anrround- 


Pompey 


Pompey'i  Pillar 


I 


lag  cbamben  with  light  and  wu  th« 
medium  of  communication;  beyond  the 
latter  is  another  large  public  apartment 
turned  the  ttlmUnum.    The  other  portion 


Honsa  of  Pan«a, 
Pompeii. 


of  the  house  com- 
prised  the    private 
rooms  of  the  fam- 
ily.   All  the  apart- 
ments  are   small. 
The   shops   were 
■mail    and    all    of 
one  character,  hav- 
ing  the   business 
part  in   front  and 
one   or   two   small 
chamberf  behind, 
with  a  iiingle  large 
opening  serving  for 
both  door  and  win- 
dow.    The    chief 
public    buildings 
are    the    so  -  called 
Temple  of  Jupiter, 
the  Temple  of  Ve- 
nus,   the    Basilica, 
the  Temple  of  Mer- 
cury,   the    Curia, 
and    the    Pantheon 
or  Temple  of  Au- 
,  ,  ,        .  .gustus.     There  are 

several  interesting  private  buildings  scat- 
tered through  the  town,  including  the 
villa  of  Diomedes,  the  house  of  Sallnst, 
and  the  house  of  Marcus  Lucretius.  The 
Museum  of  Naples  owes  many  of  its 
most  interesting  features  to  the  orna- 
ments, etc.,  found  in  the  public  and  pri- 
vaie  edifices  above  mentioned.  The  site 
of  the  city  has  been  largely  cleared.    Much 

J?'*u^.9/"'  *"''!°  ^°^  t^«  preservation  of 
the  buildings  and  tueir  contents,  which  are 
kept  in  place  where  found. 
PomDey  Xpo^'pO,  in  full  Chuus 
**  I  V  f  JPoMMros  Maonttb,  a  dis- 
tinguished   Roman,   bom   ao.   106,  was 

the  son  of  Cne- 
ius  Pompeius 
Strabo,  an  able 
general.  In  B.O. 
89  he  served 
with  distinction 
under  his  fa- 
ther in  the  war 
against  the  Ital- 
ian allies.  In 
the  struggle  be' 
tween  Marius 
and  Sulla,  Pom- 
pey raised  three 
legions  to  aid 
the  latter,  and 
regained  all  the 
territories  of 
_  .    ,       —  Africa  which 

Pss^pey.— Antique  Gem.     had   forsaken 


the  interest  of  Sulla.    This  snoceas  excited 
the  jealousy  of  Sulla,  who  recalled  him  to 
Borne.    On  his  return  Sulla  greeted  him 
with  the  surname  of  Magnus   (Great). 
Pompey  demanded  a  triumph,  to  which 
Sulla  relucUntly  consented.    He  entered 
Borne  in  triumph  in  September,  81,  and 
was  the  first  Roman  permitted  to  do  so 
without  possessing  a  higher  dignity  than 
that  of  equestrian  rank.    After  the  death 
of  Sulla,  Pompey  put  an  end  to  the  war 
which  the  revolt  of  Sertorins  in  Spain 
had  occasioned,  and  in  71  obtained  a  sec- 
ond triumph.     In  this  year,  although  not 
of  legal  age  and  having  no  official  expe- 
rience,    he     was     elected     consul     with 
Crassus.    In  67  he  cleared  the  Mediter- 
ranean  of  pirates,   and   destroyed   their 
strongholds  on  the  coast  of  Cilicia.     In 
four  years,  65-62,  he  conquered  Mithri- 
dates,  Tigranes,  and  Antiochus,  king  of 
Syria.    At  the  same  time  he  subdued  the 
Jews  and  took  Jerusalem  by  storm.     He 
returned  to  Italy  in  62  and  disbanded  his 
army,  but  did  n  t  enter  Rome  until  the 
following    year,    when    he    was    honored 
with  a  third  triumph.    He  now,  in  order 
to  strengthen  his  position,  united  his  in- 
terest with  those  of  Caesar  and  Crassus, 
and    thus   formed    the   first   triumvirate. 
This   agreement    was   concluded    by    the 
marriage  of  Pompey  with  Csesar's  daugh- 
ter Julia;  but  the  powerful  confederacy 
was   soon   broken.    During   Ciesar'i   ab- 
sence in  Gaul  Pompey  ingratiated  him- 
self with  the  senate,  was  appointed  sole 
consul,,  and    the    most    important   state 
offices  were  filled  with  Coesar's  enemies. 
Through   his   infiuence   Csesar  was  pro- 
claimed an  enemy  to  the  state,  and  his 
rival  was  appointed  general  of  the  army 
or  the  republic.    Cesar,  alarmed  by  this, 
marched  to  Italy,  crossed  the  Rubicon  in 
49   (see  Casaar),  and  in  sixty  days  was 
master  of  Italy  without  striking  a  blow. 
Pompey  crossed  over  to  Greece,  and  in 
this  country,  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalia. 
occurred  the  decisive  battle  the  result  of 
which  made  Ca>sar  master  of  the  Roman 
world.    Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he 
hoped  to  find  a  safe  asylum.    The  minis- 
ters  of  Ptolemy   betrayed    him,   and  he 
was   stabbed  on   landing  by  one  of  his 
former  centurions  in  B.O.  48. 
Pompey's  Pillar,    •  celebrated  col- 
7  ..     .  VoL  ^°">' ««nding  on 

an  eminence  abont  18(X)  feet  to  the  sonth 
of  the  present  walls  of  Alexandria  in 
Egypt.  It  consists  of  a  Corinthian  capi- 
tal, shaft,  base,  and  pedestal.  The  totol 
height  of  the  column  is  104  feet:  the 
shaft,  a  monolith  of  red  granite,  is  67 
feet  long,  and  9  feet  in  diameter  below 
and  not  quite  8  at  top.  It  is  named  from 
tk»     Boican     prefect     Pompetm,,    wktk 


Pomponiiu  Mela 


/onta-Delgada 


erected  it  in  lionor  of  Diocletian  about 
or  aoon  after  30^a.o. 
Pomponiiu  Mela,     ^ee  ilela. 

PnTianA  (pd'n&-pa),  one  of  tlie  Care- 
XOUape    i^„g  Islande  (wliicli  eee). 

Ponce  de  Leon   (pon'thedeie^on'). 

*vuv«  *»w  Mbvu  Juan,  one  of  the 
early  Spanish  discoverera  in  America, 
bom  about  1460;  died  in  Cuba  in  1521. 
He  accompanied  Columbus  on  bis  second 
expedition  in  1493,  and  was  sent  by 
Ovando  to  conquer  the  island  of  Por- 
to Rico.  Having  there  amassed  great 
wealth,  and  received  information  of  an 
island  situated  to  the  north,  which  he 
was  made  to  believe  contained  the 
'Fountain  of  Youth,'  a  fa' led  fount 
capable  of  conferring  perpetual  youth, 
he  organised  an  expedition  and  dis- 
covered the  country,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Florida,  though  be  failed 
to  find  the  fountain.  Ponce  returned 
to  Spain  in  1513,  and  was  appointed 
by  Ferdinand  governor  of  the  island  of 
Florida,  as  he  called  it,  on  condition  that 
he  should  colonise  it.  In  1521  he  em- 
barked nearly  all  bis  wealth  in  two 
ships,  and  proceeded  to  take  possession 
of  his  province.  He  was,  however,  met 
with  determined  hostility  by  the  natives, 
who  made  a  sudden  attack  upon  the 
Spaniards,  and  drove  them  to  their 
ships.  In  the  combat  Ponce  de  Leon  re- 
ceived a  wound  from  wbich  he  soon  after- 
wards died. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  p."'  ".  Spanish 

1527,  probably  at  Granada ;  died  in  1591. 
He  entered  the  order  of  St.  Augustine 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  sacred  literature  at  Salamanca. 
He  translated  the  Song  of  Solomon  into 
Castilian,  for  which  he  was  brought 
before  the  Inquisition  at  Valladolid 
(1672)  and  thrown  into  prison.  At  the 
end  of  five  years  he  was  liberated  and 
reinstated  in  all  his  offices,  and  was 
elected  head  of  his  order.  His  original 
productions  are  chiefly  of  a  religious 
character. 

PnTinlin  (pon'chd),  a  kind  of  cloak 
roncno    „jy^^    ^^^^    ^y    the    South 

American  Indians,  and  also  by  many  of 
the  Spanish  inhabitants.  It  is  a  piece  of 
thick  woolen  cloth  of  rectangular  form, 
from  5  to  7  feet  long  and  3  to  4  feet 
broad,  with  a  hole  in  the  center  for  the 
head  to  pass  through. 

Pondicherry  'p^^^^'- ^^^^^ 

capital  of  the  French  East  Indian  set- 
tlement of  the  same  name,  on  the  east 
or  Coromandel  coast,  85  miles  south-  by 
wast  from  Madnuu    Its  territory  is  sur- 


roonded  on  the  land  aide  by  the  Britisb 
district  of  South  Arcot,  and  has  an  are* 
of  115  square  miles;  pop.  about  200,000. 
The  town,  with  a  pop.  of  47,872,  stand* 
on  a  sandy  beach,  and  consists  of  two 
divisious  separated  by  a  canal.  Tba 
*  Wliite  Town,'  or  European  quarter,  on 
the  east,  facing  the  sea,  ia  very  regularly 
laid  out,  with  well-built  houses.  Tba 
'  Black  Town,'  or  native  quarter,  on  the 
west,  consists  of, houses  or  huts  of  brick 
or  earth,  and  a  few  pagodas.  There  is 
an  iron  pier,  and  railway  communication 
with  the  South  Indian  system  was  opened 
in  1879.  The  settlement  was  purcbaaed 
by  the  French  from  the  Bejapoor  rajah 
in  1G72  and  has  been  repeatedly  in  the 
hands  of  the  British. 
PoTidoliiTid  (pon'dO-land),  a  mari- 
ronaoiana  ^^j^g  territory  of  8.  Af- 
rica, between  Gape  Colony  and  Natal, 
measuring  about  90  miles  from  N.  B.  to 
s.  w.,  and  about  50  from  N.  w.  to  s.  ■. 
Pop.  about  200,000.  It  was  the  last  rent- 
nant  of  independent  Kaffraria,  and  bo- 
came  a  British  protectorate  in  1884. 
Pondweed.     ^*®  Potamogeton. 

Poniatowsici  (pc-ne-a-tov'aks),  an 
JTOmaiOWSKl  iii;;;itrious  PoIUh  fam> 
ily.  STAmsiAUS,  Count  Poniatowaki, 
bom  in  1678;  died  in  1762,  is  known  for 
his  connection  with  Charles  XII,  whom 
he  followed  into  Turkey.  He  wrote  R*- 
marquea  d'un  Seigneur  Polonait  iur 
I'Hiatoire  de  Charlet  XII,  par  Voltaire 
(Hague,  1741). —  His  eldest  son,  8. 
Stanisiavs  Augustus,  born  1732J  the 
favorite  of  Catharine  II,  was  elected  King 
of  Poland  in  1764. —  Jozef,  the  nephew 
of  King  Stanislaus,  bom  in  1762,  served 
against  the  Russians  in  1702,  and  in 
1794  joined  the  Poles  in  their  attempt 
to  drive  the  Russians  out  of  the  countryr 
and  commanded  a  division  at  the  aiegesr 
of  Warsaw.  In  1809  he  commanded  the 
Polish  army  against  the  superior  Aus- 
trian force  which  was  sent  to  occup5' 
the  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  compelled 
it  to  retire.  In  1812  he  led  the  Polish 
forces  against  Russia.  During  the  battle 
of  Leipsig  Napoleon  created  him  a  mar- 
shal. 

Ponsard  lP<>9-«*r),  Fbanqoib,  a 
X-OUSara  j^ench  dramatist,  bom  at 
Vienne,  in  Dauphin^,  in  1814;  died  in 
18U7.  His  first  success  was  his  Laor^oc, 
produced  in  1843,  and  welcomed  as  a 
return  to  classicism.  Among  his  other 
pieces  are  Agnia  de  M^anie^  Charlotte 
(Jordan,  L'Honneur  et  I'Argent,  etc.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  in 
1856. 

Ponta-Ddjiada  <fWii*.'i£^£I: 


Font-k-Monason 


Pontine  Xanhet 


•  Maport  on  the  soath  aide  of  the  island 
of  St.  Michael,  one  of  the  Azorea.  It 
la  built  with  conaiderable  regularity,  and 
tlie  houaea  are  aubatantial.  A  recently 
zonatmcted  breakwater  haa  much  im- 
proyed  the  anchorage,  and  it  has  now  au 
excellent  harbor.  The  chief  exports  are 
wheat,  maiae,  and  oranges.     Pop.  17,675. 

Pont-i-Monsson  ifr'orFri: 

dep.  of  Menrthe-et-Moselle,  16  miles 
northweat  of  Nancy,  oh  both  sides  of 
the  Moaelle,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge. 
It  has  a  handsome  Gothic  church  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Martin:  the  old  abbey  of 
St.  Mary,  now  converted  into  a  semi- 
nary: a  college,  etc    Pop.  (1906)  12,282. 

Pontchartrain  !r'"f'Si2iU 

reaching  within  5  miles  of  New  Orleans, 
about  40  miles  long  from  east  to  west, 
and  nearly  25  in  breadth.  It  is  from 
12  to  14  feet  deep,  and  communicates 
with  Lake  Borgne  on  the  east,  with  Lake 
Maurepas  on  the  west,  and  by  means 
of  a  canal  with  New  Orleans  on  the 
aouth. 

Pante-Corvo   iFr^rj^i^i'^S'S? 

Caaerta,  20  milea  southeast  of  Frosinone, 
in  an  isolated  territory  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Garigliano.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  haa  manufactures  of  macaroni 
and  plastic  ware,  and  the  whole  diatrict 
ia  rich  in  Roman  remains.  It  was  the 
capital  of  a  principality  created  by  Na- 
poleon I,  and  from  which  Bemadotte 
had  hia  title  of  Prince  de  Ponte-Corro. 
Pop.  10,618. 

Pontedera  ipon-ta-da'ra),  a  town  of 
*"*  '**^  *•  Italy,  provmce  Pisa,  on 
the  Era,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  on  the 
Arno:  manufactures  cotton  goods.  Pop. 
7409. 

Pontefract  iPO™'fret,  or  pon'te- 
.bvuvexAawu    fjajjt)^  J^  municipal  and 

parliamentary  liorough  of  Englnnd,  in 
the  county  and  24  miles  s.  s.  w.  of  York, 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Aire  and 
Calder.    Pop.  (1911),  l.'i.OfiO. 

Pontevedra    ^.^°"1^L*k'^'"*1'  a^town 

i>,wu»vvvux»  jj^  Northwest  Spam, 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.  22,806. — The  province  produces  in 
abundance  maize,  rye,  wheat  and  millet, 
flax,  fruit  and  wine,  and  rears  great  num- 
bers of  cattle.  Area,  1730  square  miles: 
pop.  457,262. 

Pnnfiftn  (pon'ti-ac),  chief  of  the  Ot- 
XUUUau  j^^g  Indians  (1720-69), 
bom  on  the  Ottawa  River.  On  the  alli- 
ance of  the  Chippeways,  Pottawattomies 
and  the  Ottawas,  he  became  chief  of  the 
three  tribes.  He  attempted  to  drive  out 
the  English  and  recover  the  country  for 


the  Indiana.  For  several  months  he  be- 
sieged Detroit  and  captured  many  forta. 
In  1766,  at  Oswego  (q.  v.),  he  entered 
into  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Sir  William 
Johnson  (q.  v.).  He  waa  murdered  in 
1769  by  a  Kaskasia  Indian  who  was 
bribed  with  liquor  and  money.  Onsult 
Parkman's  '  History  of  tho  Gonsniracy  of 
Pontiac  and  the  War  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Tribes  against  the  English  Colonies.' 
Pnntion  a  city,  county  seat  of  Oak- 
rouiiac,     ,g^^   county,   Michigan,   26 

miles  N.  N:  w.  of  Detroit  in  the  center  of  a 
beautiful  lake  region.  It  is  an  important 
industrial  city.  Among  the  manufactures 
are  automobiles,  gas  engines,  tractors, 
farm  machines,  foundry  products,  wagons, 
paints,  vnmishes,  etc.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  wool  and  farm  produce.  It  was 
named  in  honor  of  the  Ottawa  Indian 
chief  Pontiac  (q.  v.),  settled  in  1818, 
chartered  as  a  city  1861.  EiStimated  pop. 
18,000. 

Pnnfia/t  a  city,  capital  of  Livingatou 
x-UUiiac,  Q^  Illinois,  on  the  VermiJ 
ion  River,  93  miles  s.  8.  w.  of  Chicago. 
It  has  manufactures  of  shoes,  feed  gri'id- 
ers  and  droppers,  etc.  Here  ia  a  Si.^... 
Reform  SchooL    Pop.  6090. 

Pontianak  }^'^it\^^S^tc^^„^^l 

menta  on  the  w.  coast  of  Borneo,  at  me 
confluence  of  the  Landak  and  Kapuas, 
almost  on  the  equator.  It  has  some 
trade  in  gold  dust,  diamonds,  sugar,  rice, 
coffee,  cotton,  and  edible  birda'-neats. 
Pop.  18,000. 

Pontifex  (PO°'ti-feks),  among  the  an- 
cient  Romans  a  priest  who 
served  no  particular  divinity.  The  Ro- 
man pontifices  formed  the  most  illustrioua 
among  the  great  colleges  of  priests.  Their 
institution  waa  ascribed  to  Numa,  and 
their  number  varied  at  different  periods 
from  four  to  sixteen.  The  pontifex  mam' 
imus,  or  chief  pontiff,  held  his  office  for 
life,  and  could  not  leave  It.ily.  The  em- 
peror afterwards  assumed  this  title  until 
the  time  of  Tbeodosius,  and  it  subse- 
quently became  equivalent  to  pope. 

Pontine  Marshes,   Siars^VrSct  ^1 

land  in  Italy,  in  the  8.  part  of  the  Roman 
Campagna,  extending  along  the  shores  ol 
the  Mediterranean  for  about  24  miles,  with 
a  mean  breadth  of  7  miles.  The  Romans, 
by  the  construction  of  the  Appian  way 
and  by  means  of  canals,  laid  a  consider- 
able part  of  them  dry,  and  many  of  the 
popes  engaeed  in  the  drainage  and  re- 
claiming of  the  marshes.  In  1899  the 
Italian  government  set  aside  $1,400,000 
for  the  purpose  of  draining  these  marshes 
— a  work  estimated  to  occupy  24  years. 
The  vast  tract  is  inhabited  by  «  acantf 


Fontoise 


Poole 


popalatioo  of  husbandmen  and  shepherds, 
who,  if  possible,  spend  only  a  part  of  the 
year  here. 

PnntoiM  ( pop -t was),  a  town  In 
jTUUbUXBO  J" ranee,  department  of 
8eine-et-Oise,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Viosne  with  the  Oise.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  chemical  products,  hosiery,  etc. 
Pop.  (1906)  7963. 

Pontoon  (pon'tiln'),  in  military  en- 
roUlOOU  gfneering,  a  flat-bottomed 
boat,  or  an^  light  framework  or  floating 
body  used  in  the  coDstruction  of  a  tem- 
porary bridge  over  a  river.  One  form 
of  pontoon  is  a  hollow  tin-plate  cylinder, 
with  hemi8i>herical  ends,  and  divided  b^ 
several  longitudinal  and  transverse  parti- 
tions to  act  as  braces  and  to  prevent 
sinking  if  pierced  by  a  shot  or  by  acci- 
dent. Another  is  in  the  form  of  a 
decked  canoe,  and  consists  of  a  timber 


Pontoon  and  Pontoon  Bridge. 
a.  Pontoon,  external  and  internal  structure. 
b  h.  End  of  same,  supporting  the  roadway. 
<!,  Plan  of  bridge,  d  d,  Pontoons.  «, 
Rafters  for  supporting  the  roadway.  /, 
Boadway  complete. 

frame  covered  with  sheet  copper.  It  is 
formed  in  two  distinct  parts,  which  are 
locked  together  for  use  and  dislocated  for 
transportation,  and  is  also  divided  into 
air-tight  chambers.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  a  water-tight  structure  or  frame 
placed  beneath  a  submerged  vessel  and 
then  filled  with  air  to  assist  in  refloating 
the  vessel ;  and  to  a  water-tight  structure 
which  is  sunk  by  filling  with  water  and 
raised  by  pumping  it  out,  used  to  close 
a  sluice-way  or  entrance  to  a  dock. 
Pontonnidan    (pon-top'pe-dan), 

roaioppiaau  ^^j^  „  Danish  writer, 
bom  in  1698;  died  in  1764.  He  became 
preacher  to  the  court  in  1735,  and  soon 
after  professor  of  theology  in  Copen- 
hagen. In  1747  he  was  made  bisiiop  of 
Bergen,  and  1755  chancellor  of  Copen- 
hagen University.  Pontoppidan  wrote 
several  works  of  historical  and  scientific 
interest,    includinf   Natvrai   Ektory   of 


Norwav,  AnnoU  of  the  Donith  Okwrtik, 

etc. 

PAnfna  (pon'tns),  a  kingdom  in  Asiii 
ronilU  jjfimjj  (Bo-called  from  the 
Pontus  Euxinus,  on  which  it  lay),  which 
extended  from  Halys  on  the  west  to 
Colchis  on  the  east,  and  was  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Euxine  Sea,  and  on 
the  south  by  Galatia,  Cappadocia  and 
Armenia  Minor.  The  first  kin^  was 
Artabazes,  son  of  Darius.  The  kingdom 
was  in  its  most  flourishing  state  under 
Mithridates  the  Great.  But  soon  after 
his  death  (b.o.  63)  it  was  conquered  by 
Caesar,  and  made  tributary  to  the  Roman 
Empire.  In  1204  Alexius  Comnenus 
founded  a  new  kingdom  in  Pontus,  and  in 
1461  Mohammed  II  united  it  with  his 
great  conquests. 

Pontus  Euxi'nns,  grthfai^k 

Sea  (which  see). 

Pontvnool  (Pon'ti-pSl),  a  town  and 
rouiypvvi  important  railway  center 
of  England,  in  the  county  and  15^  miles 
southwest  of  Monmouth.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  population  is  employed  in 
ironworks  and  forges  and  works  for  mak- 
ing tin-plate.     Pop.  6126. 

Pontyprydd  KnT^^kVo"^- 

morganshire,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ithondda  with  the  Taff.  It  has  rapidly 
increased  in  recent  times  owing  to  the 
adjacent  coal  and  iron  mines.  Pop. 
(1911),  43,215. 

Ponv  (P*^'°')>  '^  t^*^™  applied  to  the 
*-vu.y  young  of  the  horse  and  also  to 
several  subvarieties  .or  races  of  horses, 
generally  of  smaller  size  than  the  ordi- 
nary horses,  and  which  are  bred  in  lane 
flocks  and  herds  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  chiefly  for  purposes  of  riding  and 
of  lighter  draught  work.  Among  well- 
known  breeds  are  the  Welsh,  Shetland, 
Iceland,  Canadian,  etc. 
Poodle  (po'dl),  a  small  variety  of 
*  w*****  dog  covered  with  long,  curling 
hair,  and  remarkable  for  its  great  intelli- 
gence and  affection.  The  usual  color  is 
white,  but  black  and  blue,  if  good  in  other 
points,  are  highly  valued. 
Pnnlp  (P^l),  a  seaport  of  England, 
xuuic  county  of  Dorset,  on  the  north 
part  of  Poole  Harbor,  an  ancient  place. 
The  old  town  is  being  surrounded  by 
handsome  suburbs  ai  a  ropid  rate,  and 
there  are  many  fine  public  buildings. 
The  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of 
cordage  and  sail-cloth ;  there  are  also 
putiei'ies,  large  fiour-miiis,  and  two  iron 
foundries.  The  harbor  is  large  and  com- 
modious, with  excellent  quays  and  ex- 
tensive warehouses.  The  chief  exports 
are  clay  for  the  Staffordshire  potteries, 


Poole 


Poor 


and     nuurafactond    clay     goodi.    Pop. 

88.886W 

Poole    Mattbcw,  the  eompilar  of  the 

»  Bynopfit  Oritieorum  BiUhorum, 
wae  born  at  York  about  1624;  died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1679.  He  etudied  at  Em- 
manuel CoUeKe,  Cambridfe,  and  took 
orders.  In  16(32  he  was  ejected  by  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  from  bis  church  of 
St.  Michael-le-Queme  in  London,  and 
subsequently  retired  to  Holland.  He 
devoted  ten  years  to  his  8ifnopai»,  which 
is  an  attempt  to  condense  into  one  work 
all  biblical  criticisms  written  previous  to 
his  own  times. 
Poole    WiLLiAU  Fbedebick,  blbliogTa- 

'  pher,  was  bom  at  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1821 :  died  in  1894.  He  was 
a  librarian  in  Cincinnati,  Boston,  and 
Chicago.  His  chief  work  is  bis  very  use- 
ful Indet  to  Periodical  Literature. 
PoonfliO  (pt^'Duh),  the  substance  left 
after  cocoanut  oil  is  expressed 
fttMn  the  nuts,  used  as  manure  and  for 
feeding  stock. 

PAnnn.}!  (p8'na),  or  Puna,  a  city  and 
f  UUIUUL  ^/itrict  of  Hindustan,  in  the 
presidency  of  Bombay.  It  is  about  110 
miles  east  of  Bombay  by  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsular  Railway.  The  city  is 
well  built,  and  has  the  Deccan  college 
for  classics,  mathematics,  and  philoso- 
phy, and  a  college  of  science  with  special 
training  in  civil  engineering,  also  train- 
ing college,  female  normal  school,  and 
other  schools,  public  library,  hospital, 
arsenal,  barracks,  etc.  It  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Peishwa,  oi  head  of  tne 
Mahratta  confederacy.  It  is  a  health 
resort,  and  for  part 'of  the  year  the  seat 
of  the  Bombay  government.  Manufac- 
tures incliide  gold  and  silver  jewelry, 
small  ornaments  in  brass,  copper,  and 
ivory,  and  silk  and  cotton  fabrics.  It 
is  an  important  military  station  (the 
cantonments  lying  to  the  north  of  the 
town),  and  good  roads  connect  it  with 
Bombay,  Ahmednagar,  Sattarah,  etc. 
Pop.  163  "•V),  of  whom  30,129  are 
in  the  -  ;  nents. —  The  district  has 
an  area  48  sq.   miles,   and  a  pop. 

of  995,330.  It  is  an  elevated  table- 
land, watered  by  the  Bhima  and  its 
tributaries,  and  abounding  in  isolated 
heights,  formerly  crowned  with  very 
strong  fortresses.  The  inhabitants  chiefly 
are  Mahrattas. 

Poon  (P*").  «*"  PooNA  Wood,  is  the 
*""*  wood  of  the  poon  tree  (Calophvl- 
turn  inophyUum  and  Calophvllum  angua- 
ttfoliutn),  a  native  of  India.  It  is  of  a 
lii^t,  porous  texture  and  is  much  used 
in  the  East  Indiea  in  shipbuilding  for 
planks  and  spars.  The  Calcutta  poon  is 
preferred  to  tj^f  qt  ot^er  districts,    p^oii 


seed  yields  an  oil  called  dilc,  poon-wMd 
oil,  etc. 

Poon    (P3p),  the  aftermost  and  higb- 
*  *^r    est  part  of  the  hull  in  large  ves- 
sels;  or,  a  partial  deck  in  the  aftermost 
part  of  a  ship  above  the  deck  proper. 
Poor     ^^'^  >  those  who  lack  the  means 

*^*  necessary  for  their  subsistence. 
At  no  period  in  the  history  of  the  worl<i, 
and  among  no  people,  can  there  be  said 
to  have  existed  no  poor,  and  probably  in 
all  civilized  communities  some  provision, 
however  inadequate,  has  been  made  for 
their  support.  In  Rome,  in  its  earlier 
days  ^  at  least,  the  contest  between  the 
plebeians  and  patricians  partook  very 
much  of  the  nature  of  a  struggle  between 
poverty  and  riches,  and  in  later  times 
corn  or  bread  was  often  doled  out  free 
to  needy  citizens.  During  the  middle 
ages  the  great  majority  of  the  people 
were  maintained  in  a  state  of  bondage 
by  their  feudal  superiors,  and  many 
freemen,  in  order  to  avoid  destitution, 
surrendered  their  liberty  and  became 
serfs.  In  all  the  countries  of  modem 
Europe  laws  have  been  enacted  relative 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  poor.  In 
England,  up  to  the  time  of  Henry  VIII, 
the  poor  subsisted  entirely  on  private 
benevolence.  Numerous  statutes  were 
passed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  and 
following  reigns  to  provide  for  the  poor 
and  'impotent,'  but  these  were  far  »om 
sufficient  and  other  measures  were 
adopted,  overseers  of  the  poor  being  ap- 
pointed in  1601  in  every  parish.  Their 
chief  duties  were:  first,  to  provide  for 
the  poor,  old,  impotent ;  and,  secondly,  to 
provide  work  for  the  able-bodied  out  of 
employment.  For  these  purposes  they 
had  power  to  levy  rates  on  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  parish.  This  Elizabethan  act 
is  the  basis  of  the  present  English  poor- 
law  system.  The  statute  of  1601  was 
modified  by  a  law  of  Charles  II  in  1662 
and  from  this  period  till  1834  the  admin- 
istration of  relief  was  entrusted  to  the 
church  wardens  and  inspectors.  The 
working  of  these  laws  was  attended  with 
numerous  abuses,  and  in  1834  the  Poor 
Law  Amendment  Act  was  passed,  which 
with  some  more  recent  statutes  forms 
the  legislation  in  actual  operation  at  the 
present  day. 

A  legal  claim  to  relief  exists  in  most 
of  the  northern  European  countries,  but 
in  others  uo  such  edict  as  a  poor  law 
exists.  Poor  laws  in  the  United  States 
are  of  local  enactment.  General  laws 
have  been  passed  by  some  of  the  states, 
but  town  authorities  usually  adopt  regu- 
lations for  the  care  of  the  poor.  Several 
states  have  passed  what  are  called 
'traipp  l4WSi'  maUpf  H  «  cr|iD|iiM  of- 


Pooree 


Pope 


- 

I 


feme  for  the  clan  of  panpen  fenenUIy 
styled  '  tramps '  to  wander  through  the 
state  without  '  risible  means  of  sup- 
port' In  some  states  the  farming  out 
of  the  town  poor  to  the  lowest  bidder  is 
still  practiced.  The  town  in  which  a 
pauper  has  legal  settlement  is  required 
to  support  him. 

PnATPfk  (pO're),  or  Pubi,  commonly 
xwAw  called  Juooebnaut,  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Orissa  (India).  The 
town  is  250  miles  s.  w.  from  Calcutta, 
and  505  miles  n.  of  Madras.  It  contains 
the  shrine  of  Juggernaut,  to  whose  wor- 
ship crowds  flock  from  every  part  of 
India.  Pop.  about  30,000. 
PnnrA  iP^^h  Benjamin  Perlet, 
*""*''  journalist,  was  bom  near  New- 
buryport,  Massachusetts,  in  1820.  His 
lifework  was  that  of  Washington  cor- 
respondent. His  letters  to  the  Boston 
Journal  and  to  other  papers  gained  him 
a  national  reputation  by  their  trust- 
worthy character.  He  was  an  industri- 
ous collector  of  histcical  matter,  and 
Eublisbed  several  works,  some  of  which 
ad  large  circulation.  In  1867  he  began 
to  edit  the  Congre$aional  Directory; 
brought  out  the  annual  abridgment  of 
the  public  documents  for  many  years; 
also  made  a  compilation  of  United  States 
treaties  with  different  countries.  He 
died  in  1887. 

Pnna-uflTi  (pO-pa-yftn'),  a  citv  of  Co- 
xupttjrau  lombia,  and  capital  of  the 
state  of  Cauca,  situated  near  the  river 
Cauca,  and  228  miles  8.  w.  of  Bogot&. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a 
university,  a  cathedral,  a  hospital,  and 
other  public  buildings.  In  1834  it  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  Pop. 
(1906  estimate)  10,000. 
PnnA  (pop;  Latin  papa,  Greek,  pap«M, 
*"i"'  father),  the  title  given  to  the 
head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy. 
It  seems  to  have  i)een  used  at  first  in  the 
early  church  as  a  title  of  reverence  given 
to  ecclesiastics  generally,  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  it  is  applied  in  the  Greek  Church 
to  all  priests.  In  the  early  Western 
Church  the  title  of  pope  was  ultimately 
bestowed  upon  the  metropolitan  bishops, 
but  in  the  struggle  for  pre-eminence  the 
claim  to  be  recognized  as  the  only  pope 
was  enforced  by  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 
"Ihis  claim  of  preeminence  was  founded 
on  the  belief,  supported  by  the  early  tradi- 
tions of  the  church,  that  the  Apostle 
Peter  planted  a  church  in  Rome,  and 
that  he  died  there  as  a  martyr.  This 
tradition,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
alleged  preeminence  of  Peter  among 
Christ's  disciples,  came  to  be  regarded  as 
Buflicient  reason  for  the  primacy  of '.^the 
Bishop  of   Borne  in   the  churcn.    Oon- 

10—8 


Mqaently  frwa  the  very  earUcit  timM 
the  Biahop  of  Rom*  was  the  fint  aatou 
the  five  patriarchs  or  miptrior  biihopa  of 
Ohristendom.  A  decree  of  the  oapwor 
Valentian  III  (446)  acknowledged  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  as  primate,  bat  vaxw 
the  eighth  century  many  measuree  of  the 
popes  met  with  violent  opposition.  Leo 
the  Great  (440-461)  did  not  faU  to 
base  his  claims  to  the  prinMcy  on  dlTine 
authority  by  appealing  to  Matt.,  xri,  18; 
and  he  did  much  to  establish  the  theory 
that  bishops  in  disputes  with  their 
metropolitans  had  a  right  of  appeal  to 
Rome.  The  Eastern  Church  early  re- 
sisted the  see  of  Rome,  and  this  nudnly 
occasioned  the  schism  that  in  1064 
divided  Christendom  into  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches.  Non-Catholics  allege 
that  several  circumstances  contribnted 
to  open  to  the  popes  the  way  to  snpreme 
control  over  all  churches.  Among  these 
they  cite  the  establishment  of  missionary 
churches  in  Germany  directly  under  Rome, 
the  pseudo-Isidorian  decretals,  which  con- 
tained many  forged  documents  support- 
ing the  general  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  the  gradations  of  ecclesiastical 
rank,  and  the  personal  superiority  <x 
some  popes  over  their  contemporaries. 
Leo  the  Great  (440-461),  Gregonr  I, 
the  Great  (590-604),  and  Leo  III  (796- 
816),  who  crowned  Charlemagne,  all  in- 
creased the  authority  of  the  papal  title. 
Much  violence  and  politics  marked  papal 
elections  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  coi- 
turies.  In  1059  the  dignity  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  papal  chair  were  height- 
ened by  the  constitution  of  Nicolas  II. 
placing  th%  right  of  election  of  the  pope 
In  the  hands  of  the  cardinals.  In  1073 
Gregory  VII,  at  a  Roman  council,  form- 
ally prohibited  the  use  of  the  title  of 
pope  by  any  other  ecclesiastic  than  the 
Bishop  of  Rome;  he  also  enforced  a 
celibate  life  up<m  the  clergy,  and  pro- 
hibited lay  investiture.  The  reign  of 
Innocent  III  (1198-1216)  raised  the 
papal  see  to  the  highest  degree  of  power 
and  dignity;  and  having  gained  almost 
unlimited  spir''  il  dominion,  the  popes 
now  began  t-  Ttend  their  temporal 
power   also.  dominions    under   the 

pope's  temporal  rale  had  at  first  con- 
sisted of  a  territory  granted  to  the 
papal  see  by  Pepin  m  754,  which  was 
subsequently  largely  increased.  The 
popes,  however,  continued  to  hold  to 
some  extent  the  position  of  vassals  of  the 
German  Empire,  and  until  the  twelfth 
century  the  emperors  would  not  permit 
the  election  of  a  pope  to  take  place  with- 
out their  sanction.  Innocent  III,  how- 
ever, largely  increased  his  territories  at 
the  expenee  of  the  empire,  and  the  power 


VopA 


Fopt 


of  the  MBperoni  over  Rome  and  the  pope 
BMur  BOW  be  uld  to  have  come  to  an 
ead.  Favonble  citcamiitancea  had  ai- 
readjr  made  several  kingdoma  tributary 
to  tne  papal  see,  which  had  now  ac- 
qoired  each  power  that  Innocent  III  was 
enabled  both  to  depoM  and  to  proclaim 
kinn,  and  put  both  France  and  England 
under  an  interdict.  France  was  the  first 
to  resist  successfully  the  papal  authority. 
In  Philip  the  Fair  Boniface  VIII  found  a 
political  superior,  and  his  successors  from 
1S07  to  1377  remained  under  French  in- 
fluence, and  held  their  courts  at  Avignon. 
Their  dignity  sunk  still  lower  in  1378, 
when  two  rival  popes  appeared,  Urban 
TI  and  Clement  VI  I,  causing  a  schism 
and  scandal  in  the  church  for  thirty- 
nine  years.  This  schism  did  much  to 
lessen  the  influence  of  the  popes  in 
Christendom,  and  it  subsequentiv  re- 
ceived a  greater  blow  from  the  Reforma- 
tion. During  the  reign  of  Leo  X 
(1513-25)  Luther,  Zuinglius  and  Cal- 
vin were  the  heralds  of  an  opposition 
which  separated  almost  half  the  West 
from  the  popes,  while  the  policy  of 
Charles  V  was  at  the  same  time  dimin- 
ishing their  power,  and  from  this  time 
neither  the  new  support  of  the  Society  of 
Jesuits  nor  the  policy  of  the  popes 
could  restore  the  old  authority  of  the 
papal  throne.  The  national  churches  ob- 
tained their  freedom  in  spite  of  all  op- 
position, and  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
il648),  bringing  to  pu  end  the  Thirty 
ears'  war  and  the  religious  struggle  in 
Germany,  gave  public  legality  to  a  sys- 
tem of  toleration  which  was  in  direct 
contradiction  to  all  earlier  conduct 
The  bulls  of  the  popes  were  now  no 
longer  of  avail  beyond  the  states  of  the 
church  without  the  consent  of  the  sov- 
ereigns, and  the  revenues  from  foreign 
kingdoms  decreased.  Pius  VI  (1775-09) 
witnessed  the  revolution  which  not  only 
tore  from  him  the  French  Church,  but 
even  de^trived  him  of  his  dominions.  In 
1801,  and  again  in  1809,  Pius  VII  lost 
his  liberty  and  possessions,  and  owed  his 
restoration  in  1814  to  a  coalition  of 
temporal  princes,  among  whom  were  two 
heretics  (English  and  Prussian)  and  a 
schismatic  (the  Russian).  Nevertheless 
he  not  only  restored  the  Inquisition,  the 
order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  other  religious 
orders,  but  advanced  claims  and  princi- 
ples entirely  opposed  to  the  ideas  and 
resolutions  of  his  liberators.  The  same 
spirit  that  actuated  Pins  VII  actuated 
in  like  manner  his  successors,  Leo  XII 
(1823-29).  Pius  VIII  (1829-30),  and 
above  all  Gregory  XVI  (1831-46).  The 
opposition  of  the  latter  to  all  changes  in 
toe  civil  relations  of  the  papal  dominions 


contribatcd  greatly  to  tin  ravolutioo  of 
1848,  which  obliged  his  socceMor.  Pint 
IX,  to  flee  from  Rome.  Tkt  ttmperal 
power  of  the  papacy  was  further  weak- 
ened by  the  events  of  1859,  1800,  and 
18(10.  And  after  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  troops  from  Italy  in  1870,  King 
Victor  Emmanuel  took  possession  ot 
Rome,  and  since  that  time  the  pope  has 
lived  in  almost  complete  seclusion  in  the 
Vatican. 

By  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican  C!ouncil 
of  1870  the  pope  has  supreme  power  in 
matters  of  discipline  and  faith  over  all 
and  each  of  the  pastors  and  of  the  faith- 
ful. It  is  further  taught  by  the  Vatican 
Council  that  when  the  pontiff  spaaka 
ea  cathedra,  that  is,  when  he,  in  virtue 
of  his  apostolic  oflice,  defines  a  doctrine 
of  faith  and  morals  to  be  held  by  the 
whole  church,  he  possesses  infallibility  by 
divine  assistance.  The  pope  cannot  an- 
nul the  constitution  of  the  church  as  or- 
dained by  Christ.  He  may  condemn  or 
prohibit  books,  alter  the  rites  of  the 
church,  and  reserve  to  himself  the  canon- 
ization of  saints.  A  pope  has  no  power 
to  nominate  his  successor,  election  being 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  cardinals,  who 
are  not  bound  to  choose  one  of  their 
own  body.  The  papal  insignia  are  the 
tiara  or  triple  crown,  the  straight  crosier, 
and  the  pallium.  He  is  addressed  as 
*  Your  holmess.' 

We  subjoin  a  table  of  the  popes,  ac- 
cording to  the  Roman  Notizie,  with  the 
dates  of  the  commencement  of  their  pon- 
tificates. The  names  printed  in  italics 
are  those  of  anti-popes :  — 


St. 

Peter   .  .a.d. 

42 

St.  Msreellinni. 

St. 

Linus 

66 

A.D. 

296 

St. 

Anacletui  . . 

78 

(See  vacant  8 

St. 

Clement  I   . 

91 

yeara  and  0 

St. 

Evaristui  . . 

100 

montha.) 

St. 

Alexander  I 

108 

St.  Marcellua  I. 

808 

St. 

Sixtua  I  . . . 

119 

St.  Eusebiua    . . 

810 

St. 

Telegphorus. 

127 

St.  Melchiadea  or 

St. 

Hyginus  . . . 

139 

Mirtiadea    ... 

811 

St. 

Piua  I   

142 

St.    SylTeater    I 

314 

St. 

Anicetna  . . . 

157 

St.    Marcua    .  . . 

33« 

St. 

Soterua  

168 

St.   Juliua  I    . . 

337 

St. 

Elentheriua. 

177 

Liberiua 

852 

St. 

Victor  I  . . . 

193 

St.       Felix       11 

St. 

Zephirinus  . 

202 

(  aometimea 

St. 

Callixtug  I  . 

217 

reckoned      an 

St. 

Urban  I  . . . 

223 

Autipope)    . . 

855 

St. 

Pontianus  . . 

230 

St.  Damaana  I  . 

866 

St. 

Anterua   . . . 

235 

St.   Siricins    .  . . 

384 

St. 

Fabian 

236 

St.  AnaataaiuB  I 

898 

St. 

Comeliua  . . 

250 

St.  Innocent  I  . 

402 

St. 

Lucius    I — 

St.  Zoaimna  . . . 

417 

Novatianut  .  . 

252 

St.  Boniface  I — 

St. 

Stephen  I  . . 

258 

Eulaliut    

418 

St. 

Siztus  n  . . 

257 

St.  Celeatin*  I  . 

432 

St. 

Dionyaint  . . 

259 

St.  Sixtus  UI  . 

482 

St. 

Felix  I 

209 

St.    Leo    I    ths 

St. 

Entyeliisnus. 

275 

Great    

440 

St. 

Oaios 

288 

Bt  Hilary  .... 

4«1 

Vope 


Bops 


•t  BlBpUdos  . 

8t  Felix  III  . . 

8t  OtUtttna  I  . 
It.  AiiMtMias  II 
8t  Brmmaebat. 
8t  HonnlBdas.. 
8t.  John  I.... 

8t  TMl  TV.. 
Boniface   II... 

John  II 

8t.  Agapetne  I . 

St.  811verlue  .. 

VigiUM 

reltglai  I  . . . . 

John  III  

Benedict    I 
(Bmiosne)  .• 

Pelaglaa  II  . . . 

St.    Gregory    I 
(The    Great) 

Hablnlanna  .... 

Boniface  III . . . 

Bt  Boniface  IV 

St  Deusdedlt. . 

Boniface  V.... 

Ilonoriua  I . . . . 
(Bee  vacant  1 
year  and  7 
months.) 

Severlnua   .... 

John  IV  

Theodoms  I... 

St.  Martin  I... 

St  Bueenlua  I . 

St   Vitalianua. 

Adeotatua  .... 

Domnna  I  . . . . 

St  Agatho  ... 

St  Leo  ir. 

Bt  Benedict  II 

John  V 

Conon  

8t  Serglna  I.. 

J«An  VI   

John  VII 

Sislnnlua 

Constantine    . . 

St  Oregorj  II. 

8t  Gregory  III 

Bt  Zadiary... 

Stephen  II  (died 
before  conse- 
cration)   

Stephen   III .  • . 

St  Paul  I 

Stephen  IV.... 

Adrian  I 

St  Leo  III..    . 

Stephen  V 

Bt  Paschal  I . . 

Eagenloa  II . . . 

Valentlnua    . . . 

Gregory  IV  . . . 

Bergina  II  

8t  Leo  IV. . . . 

Bentflct   III.. 

8t  Nleholas  I. 

Adrtan  II  .... 


468  John  VIII  ...  872  Gelaalna  11— _  _^^ 
48S  Martin  H....  882  Qrtgon/ Yltl  U18 
492  Adrian  III....  S84  CaliUtua  11...  111» 
4M  Stephen  VI...  885  Honoriua  II  ..  1124 
408   Formosus    ....     891    Innocent     II — 

614  Boniface        VI  AnacUtmill; 
628        (reigned  only  Victor  IV  . .  1130 
620        18    days)...     896    Celestlne    IL..   1143 

630   Stephen  VII...     808    Lucius  II 1144 

632    Romanua    897    Eugenlus  ill..   1146 

53.5    TbeodoruB    II.     898    Anastasiua    IV.  1153 

636  John  IX 898   Adrian       IV 

637  Benedict    IV...     900        (Nicholas 

655    Leo  V 903       Breakspear, 

600   Christopher    ..     903        an     English- 

Serglus    III...     904        man)     1164 

574    Anastasiua    III     911    Alexander  III — 
678    LandoniuB    ...     913        Victor  V;Paa- 

John  X 914        ehal  III   ...   1169 

690    Leo  VI    928    Lucius    III 1181 

604    Stephen   VIIL.     929   Urban     III 1185 

607  John  XI   931    Gregory    VIII .   1187 

608  Leo  VII    936   Clement  III   . .   1187 

615  Stephen  IX  ..  0^9  Ccleatine  III..  1191 
619  Martin' III  ...  943  Innocent  III..  1198 
625    Agapetua  II   ..     946    nonoriua  III..   1216 

John  XII    955    Gregory    IX...   1227 

Benedict  V  ...     964    Celestlne    IV..   1241 
John  XIII    ...     965        (See vacant  1 
640   Benedict   VL..     972  year  and  7 

640   Domnus   II —  months.) 

642  Boniface  VIT  974  Innocent  IV...  1243 
649    Benedict  VII..     973    Alexander    IV.   1254 

654    .Tohn  XIV 983    Urban  IV 1261 

657    John  XV    985    Clement   IV...   1266 

672   Gregory  V —  (See  vacant  2 

676        Joh»   XVI..     996  yeors  and  9 

678    Silvester  II    ..     999  months.) 

682    John     XVI    or  Gregory   X 1271 

684        XVII   1008    Innocent  V 1276 

686    John    XVII    or  Adrian  V .1276 

686  XVIII    1008   Ylcedomlnus  . .   1276 

687  Serglus  IV  ...   1009    John  XX  or 

701    Benedict   VIII .   1012       XXI   1276 

705   John  XVIII  or  Nicholas    III..   1277 

708       XIX    1024    Martin   IV 1281 

708    Benedict   IX  nonoriua   IV..   1285 

715        (deposed)     ..  1038    Nicholas    IV...   1288 
731    Gregory    VI...   1045        (See vacant 2 
741    Clement  II  . . .  1046  years  and  3 

Damasus  II   . .  1048  months.) 

St    Leo  IX...  1049    St  Celestlne  V  1294 

752    Victor  II    1065    Boniface  VIII .   1294 

752    Stephen  X—  Benedict   XI..,   1303 

757  Benedict  X.  106T  Clement  V  (pa- 
768  Nicholas  I  ...  1058  pacy  removed 
772    Alexander  II —  to  Avignon).  1305 

705       Honoriua  II.  1061        (See  vacant  2 

816  Gregory        VII  years  and  8 

817  (Hildebrand)  months.) 
824       — Clement                  John  XXII— 

827       ///    1078       ViohoVu  V  at 

827        (See     vacant  Jtome    1316 

844  1  year.)  Benedict   XI  . .  1334 

84T   Victor  III    ...  1086   Clement  VI  {at 

8B5   Urban  II 1088       Avitmon)  ...  1842 

868   Paachal  II  ...   1090   Innocent  VL..  1352 
««T  Urban  V   1862 


Gregory  ZI 
(throne  re- 
stored   to 

Borne)    1S70 

Urban  VI— 

CTIement    VII  1878 
Boniface    IX^ 
Benedict  XIIl 
at  Avignon..  1889 
Innocent  VII..   1404 
Gregory    XII . .  1406 
Alexander    V..   1409 
John    XXIIL..   1410 
Martin  V — Clem- 
ent VIII  ...  1417 
Eugenlus    IV— 

Fellm  r 1481 

Nicholas  V...  1447 
Callixtus  III..   1450 

Plus  II   1458 

Paul  II 1464 

Sixtus  IV  ...  1471 
Innocent  VIII .  1484 
Alexander  VI..  1492 

Plua  III   1508 

Julius  II    ....  150S 

Leo  X 1618 

Adrian  VI  ...  1522 
Clement  VII  . .  1523 

Paul  III   1534 

Julius  III  ...  1560 
Marcellus    II..  1555 

Paul   IV   1555 

Plua  IV 1559 

St  Plua  V 1566 

Gregory   XITL.   1572 

SUtua  V 1585 

Urban  VII  ...  1590 
Gregory  XIV..  1590 
Innocent  IX. .  1591 
Clement  VIII..  1092 

Leo  XI   1606 

Paul  V   1605 

Gregory  XV  . .  1621 
Urban  VIII  ..  1623 
Innocent  X  . .  1644 
Alexander  VII.  1655 
Clement  IX...  1667 
Clement  X  ...  1670 
Innocent  XI..  1676 
Alexander  VIII  1680 
Innocent  XII..  1691 
Clement  XI...  1700 
Innocent  XIII.  1721 
Benedict  XIII  1724 
Clement  XII..  1730 
Benedict  XIV.  1740 
Clement  XIII.  1708 
Clement   XIV..  1769 

Pius  VI    1775 

Pius   VII    1800 

Leo  XII    1823 

Plus  VIII 1820 

Gregory    XVL.  1831 

Plus  IX    1846 

Leo  XIII 1878 

Plus  X   1903 

Benedict   XV..   1014 


?  1 


fmjfisje 


PuiiA     AuacAHDot,  a  celebrated  Ssf- 

,     '[ZL  "■**  !*•*?  **■  •»"'  •*  London 
la  168&    His  fatber  waa  a  London  mer- 
diaat  and  a  devout  GatlwUe.    Soon  after 
his  eon's  birtli  the  fatber  retired  to  Bin- 
field,   near    Windsor.    Pope   was   small, 
delicate,  and  mnch  deformed.    His  educa- 
tion was  a  desultonr  one.    He  picked  up 
the  rudiments  of  Greek  and  Latin  from 
the  family  priest,  and  was  auccessiVelj 
sent  to  two  schools,  one  at  Twvford,  the 
other  in  London.    He  was  taken   home 
at    the    age    of    twelve,    received    more 
priestlT  instruction,  and  read  so  eagerly 
that  his  feeble  constitution  threatened  to 
break  down.     Before  he  was  fifteen  he 
attempted  an  epic  poem,  and  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  his  Pattonlt  procured  him  the 
notice   of    several    eminent    persons.     In 
1711  he  published  his  poem  the  Etaay  on 
CHItowm,   which   was   followed   by   The 
Rapt  of  the  Look,  a  polished  and  witty 
narrative  poem  founded  on  an  incident 
of  fashionable  life.    His  next  publications 
were  The  Temple  of  Fame,  a  modernisa- 
tion and  adaptation  of  Chaucer's  Houte 
of  Fame:    Windeor   Forest,   a   pastoral 
poem  (1713)  ;  and  The  Spittle  of  Eloiaa 
to  Abdard  (1717).    From  1713  to  1726 
he  was  engaged  on  a  poetical  translation 
of  Homer's  works,  the  Iliad  (completed 
in  1720)  being  wholly  from  his  pen,  the 
Odifuey  only  half,    llie  pecuniary  results 
of  these  translations  showed  a  total  profit 
of  nearly  |46,0(X>.    In  1728  he  published 
his  Dundad,  a  mock-heroic  poem  intended 
to  overwhelm  his  antagonists  with  ridi- 
cule.   It  is  distinguished  by  the  excessive 
vehemence  of  its  satire,   and  is  full  of 
coarse,  abuse.    This    was    followed    by 
Imttatumt  of  Horace   (among  the  most 
ori^al   of   his   works),   and  by   if  oral 
Bptatlet  or  F,aaay$.    His  fissoy  on  Man 
was    published    anonymously    in     1733, 
and  completed  and  avowed  by  the  author 
in  the  next  year.    This  work  is  distin- 
ffuished  by  its  poetry  rather  than  by  its 
reasonings,  which  are  confused  and  con- 
teadictory.     In  1742  he  added  a  fourth 
book  to  his  Dundad,  in  which  he  attacked 
CoIleT    Gibber,    then    poet-laureate.    He 
died  in  1744,  and  was  interred  at  Twick- 
enham.   Pope    was    vain    and    irascible, 
and   seems   to   have   been   equally   open 
to  flattery  and  prone  to  resentment;  yet 
he  was  kindhearted  and  stanch  to  his 
friends,  among  whom  he  reckoned  Swift, 
Arbuthnot,  and  Gay.    His  great  weakness 
was  a  disposition  to  artifice  in  erder  to 
acquire  reputation  and  applause.    As  a 
poet,  no  English  writer  has  carried  fnr- 


thw  correctness  of  Tersificatlea.  A  large 
number  of  his  letters  were  publlsksd  m 
his  own  lifetime.  There  are  variow  edi- 
tions of  Pope's  works,  the  best  being  ^t 


by  the  Bev.  W.  BIwin  and  W.  J.  Court- 
hope. 

PODe.   £P^">  Midler,  bom  at  Louisville, 

*  »'1^»  Kentucky,  la  1822:  died  in  1882! 
He  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in 
1842,  served  in  Florida  and  in  the  Mex- 
ican war,  and  was  appointed  brigadier- 

{eneral  of  volunteers  in  the  Civil  war. 
le  captured  New  Madrid  and  Island  No. 
10  in  the  spring  of  1802,  and  in  June 
was  given  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac.  His  army  suffered  a  severe 
defeat  by  Lee  and  Jackson  August  29 
and  80,  18G2.  He  resigned  his  command, 
and  was  afterwards  employed  against  the 
Indians  in  Minnesota.  After  the  war  he 
was  put  in  command  of  several  military 
departments. 

PoperinSrhe  iPS-per-"?).  a  town  in 
r  -B—V  Belgium,  province  West 
Flanders,  with  some  trade  in  hops  and 
hemp.  It  has  manufactures  of  woolens, 
lace,  linen,  pottery,  etc.  Pop.  11,552. 
PODish  Plot,    an  i  m  a  « i  n  a  r  y  con- 

*  ^  "  xxwi,,  gpirg^jy  ^Yiic\i  Titus 
CHjtes  pretended  to  have  discovered  in 
1678,  and  by  which  he  succeeded  in  de- 
luding the  mind  of  the  nation  over  a 
space  of  two  years,  and  causing  the  death 
of  many  innocent  Catholics.  Oates  al 
leged  that  the  plot  was  formed  by  the 
Jesuits    and    Boman    Catholics    for   the 

rurpose  of  murdering  the  king,  Charles 
I,  and  subverting  the  Protestant  religion. 
Godfrey,  a  justice  of  the  peace  to  vvhom 
Oates  gave  evidence,  was  found  dead  in 
a  ditch  (Oct.  17,  1678),  and  the  papists 
were  accused  of  his  murder,  though  noth- 
ing transpired  to  substantiate  the  charge. 
Parliament  met  soon  afterwards,  and  the 
Commons  passed   a   bill  to   exclude  the 
Catholics   from   both   houses.     Oates   re- 
ceived   a    pension,    and   this   encouraged 
Bedloe.  a  noted   thief  and  impostor,  to 
come  forward  and  confirm  Oates's  state- 
ments.    He   also   accused   several   noble- 
men by  name  of  a  design  to  take  up  arms 
against  the  king.    Coleman,  secretary  to 
the  Duchess   of   York,   a   Jesuit   named 
Ireland,  and  others  were  tried,  condemned, 
and  executed  on  the  testimony  of  Oates 
and  Bedloe.     In  1680  Viscount  Stafford 
was   impeached   by    the   Commons,    con- 
demned by  the  Lords,  and  executed  (Dec. 
29)  as  an  accomplice  of  the  plot,  on  the 
evidence  of  Oates  and  two  of  his  asso- 
ciates.   Soon  after  the  accession  of  James 
II    (1686)    Oates  was  convicted  of  per- 
jury and  other  crimes.     See  Oatee. 
Povlar  ^Pop'lar;    PopiUu),    a    well- 
-■^r     *    known  genus  of  hardy  decidu- 
oos    trees,    nat    order    Salicaceas,    with 
both  barren  and  fertile  flowers  in  catkins, 
stamens  four  to  thirty,  leaves  alternate, 
broad,  with  long  and  sloider  foot-stalks 


Poplar  Bluff 


FopnktlMi 


flattened  wrtlcally,  the  leaves  havinf 
Ceoerally  more  or  lees  of  a  tremulous 
motion.  About  eighteen  species  have 
been  observed,  natives  of  Europe,  Central 
and  Northern  Asia  and  North  America. 
Some  of  the  poplars  are  the  most  rapid 
growers  of  all  hard^  forest  trees.  They 
thrive  under  a  variety  of  conditions  as 
regards  soil,  etc.,  but  do  best  in  damp 
situations.  The  timber  of  the  poplar  is 
white,  light,  and  soft,  and  not  very  valu- 
able. P.  faatigiita,  the  common  Lorn- 
bardy  poplar,  is  well  known  as  a  tall 
tree  with  slender  branches  almost  up- 
right; it  reaches  a  height  of  100  to  160 
feet.  P.  nigra  i«i  the  common  black  pop- 
lar. P.  tremila  is  the  aspen.  P.  alba, 
the  white  poplar,  often  attains  a  height 
of  100  feet.  P.  baUamifiro  is  the  bal- 
sam-poplar or  tacamabac  of  the  United 
States:  P.  monilifira,  the  cottonwood  of 
the  United  States ;  P.  caniiean$,  the  On- 
tario poplar.  ^    ^ 

Poplar  Blnff,  Liffi  ^^o"%i'S?uA! 

7.3  miles  s.  w.  of  Cairo,  Illinois,  on  trunk 
line  of  Iron  Mountain  Route.  It  has 
large  stave  works,  adding-machine  fac- 
tory, and  other  industries.  Pop.  6910. 
PnTilin  ^pop'lin),  a  kind  of  finely 
f  upuu  ^oven  fabric,  made  of  silk  and 
worsted.  In  the  best  poplins  the  warp 
is  of  silk  and  the  weft  of  worsted,  a 
combination  which  imparts  peculiar  soft- 
ness and  elasticity  to  the  material;  in 
the  cheaper  makes  cotton  and  flax  are 
substituted  for  silk,  which  produces  a 
corresponding  deterioration  in  the  appear- 
ance of' the  stuff.  The  manufacture  of 
poplin  was  introduced  into  Ireland  from 
France  in  1775  by  Protestant  refugees, 
and  Ireland  is  still  famous  for  its  pro- 
duction. .      „ 

Popocatepetl   .teaV'lzTi!'  po- 

poca,  to  smoke,  and  tepetl,  a  mountain), 
an  active  volcano  in  Mexico,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Puebla ;  Ion.  98"  33'  w. ;  lat  18" 
36'  N.  Its  heieht  has  been  estimated  at 
17,884  feet,  'ftie  crater  is  3  miles  in 
circumference  and  1000  feet  deep.  For- 
ests cover  the  base  of  the  mountain,  but 
its  summit  is  mostly  covered  with  snow. 
Pn-n-n-ir  (pop'i),  the  common  name 
£U|i|ijr    for   plants    of   the   genus   Pa- 

?&ver,  type  of  the  order  Papaveraceae. 
'he  species  of  poppy  are  herbaceous 
plants,  all  bearing  large,  brilliant,  but 
fugacious  flowers.  The  white  poppy  (P. 
tomniferum)  yields  the  well-known  opium 
of  commerce.  (See  Opium.)  Most  of 
the  species  are  natives  of  Europe.  They 
often  occur  as  weeds  in  fields  and  waste 
places,  and  are  frequently  also  cultivated 
la  gardens  for  ornamoat.    Tha  aetda  ef 


lb*  white  poppy  yield  a  fixed  hannkw 
oil  employed  for  culinary  purpoaea;  aad 
th«  oil-cake  is  oaed  for  feedinc  cattto. 
The  roots  of  the  poppy  are  annual  or 
perennial;  the  calyx  is  compoaed  of  two 
leaves,  and  the  corolla  of  four  petals; 
the  stamens  are  numerous,  and  the  cap- 
Bule  is  one-celled,  with  several  lonn* 
tudinal  partitions,  and  containa  a  multl- 
tude  of  seeds.  _. 

PATknlatiAn     (pop-Q-U'shun).     Tb« 
jropuaUOn    ^^,  ^,  propagation  In- 
herent in  all  organic  life  may  be  regarded 
as  practically  infinite.    There  is  no  on* 
species   of    vegetable   or   animal   which, 
under  favorable  conditions  as  to  space, 
climate,  and  food  (that  is  to  say,  if  not 
crowded  and  interfered  with  by  others), 
would  not  in  a  small  number  of  yean 
overspread  every  habitable  region  of  the 
globe.    To  this  property  of  organised  b«- 
ings  the  human  species  forms  no  excep- 
tion.   And  it  is  a  very  low  estimate  of 
its  power  of  increase  if  we  assume  oulf 
that,    under    favorable    conditions,    each 
generation  might  be  double  the  number 
of    the    generation    which    preceded    it. 
Taking  mankind  in  the  mass,  the  indi- 
vidual desire  to  contribute  to  the  increase 
of  tho  species  may  be  held  to  be  universal, 
but  the  actual  growth  of  population  is 
nowhere  left  to  the  unaided  force  of  this 
motive,  and  nowhere  does  any  community 
increase  to  the  extent  of  its  theoretical 
capacity,  even  though  the  growth  of  pop- 
ulation  has  come   to  be  commonly  con- 
sidered as  an  indispensable  sign  of  the 
prosperity    of    a    community.     For    one 
thing,  population  cannot  continue  to  in- 
crease beyond  the  means  of  subsistence, 
and  every  increase  beyond  actual  or  Im- 
mediately attainable  means  must  lead  to 
a  destruction  of  life.    But  if  population 
is  thus  actually  limited  by  the  means  of 
subsistence,   it   cannot   be   prevented   by 
these  means  from  going  further  than  these 
means  will  warrant;  that  is  to  say,  it 
will  only   be  checked  or  arrested  after 
it  has  exceeded  the  means  of  subsistence. 
It  becomes  then  an  inquiry  of  great  im- 
portance by  what  kind  of  checks  popula- 
tion is  actually  brought  up  at  the  point 
at   which   it   is   in   fact   arrested.    Thib 
inquiry   was  first  systematically  treated 
in  an  EM»ap  on  the  Principle  of  Popu- 
lation, published  in  1798  by  the  Rev.  T. 
R.    Malthus.     (See    Malthui.)     Malthua 
points  out  that  population  increases  in  a 
geometrical  while  the  means  of  subsist- 
ence   increase    only    in    an    arithmetical 
ratio.    And  in  examining  the  bearing  <m 
each  other  of  the  different  ratios  of  in- 
crease of  human  life,  and  of  the  moans 
of  supporting  it,  he  has  deduced  a  law 
to  the  proof  of  which  a  c<msidenble  por- 


population 

tioB  of  bit  work  it  devoted.  Thta  law 
to  tliat  tbo  enernr  ©£  reproduction  rises 
•bovo  all  the  ordinary  acvideota  of  ha- 
man  life,  and  the  inevitable  restraints 
unposed  by  the  various  orcanisatioas  of 
human  society,  so  tbst  in  all  ibe  various 
countries  and  climates  in  which  men  have 

'  T.I  L  *?^  ^'^'  *"  ^^*  constitutions  by 
which  they  have  been  sovemed,  the  nor- 
mal  tendency  of  population  has  always 
been  to  press  continuously  upon  the  means 
of     subsistence.      Malthus     divides     the 
checks  on  the  increase  of  population  into 
two  classes,  preventive  and  positive;  the 
one  consisting  of  those  causes  which  pn^ 
rent  possible  births  from   tailing  place, 
the  other  of  those  which,  by  abbreviating 
life,  cut  off  actual  excesaes  of  iwpula- 
tion.     In    a    further    analysis    of    these 
checks  he  reduces  them  to  three  —  vice, 
misery,  and  moral  restraint.    The  proof 
of  hM  main  position  is  historical  and  sta- 
ttttical.     In  regard  to  the  subsidiury  in- 
quiry,   the  most   striking   point   brought 
out  is  the  rarity  of  moral  restraint  and 
the  uniform  action,  in  innumerable  forms, 
of  vice  and  misery.     In  order  that  the 
latter  should  be  weakened  in  their  action, 
and  the  former  strengthened,  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  the  general  standard  of  living 
in  a  community  raised  as  high  as  pos- 
sible, and  that  ail  may  look  to  the  attain- 
ment  of   a   position   of  comfort    by   the 
exercise  of  prudence  and  energy.     In  an 
article  read  before  the  Acad^mie  des  Sci- 
ence* of  Paris  ic  1887,  by  M.  Levasseur, 
the  following  figures  were  quoted  show- 
ing the  density  of  population  in  the  great 
divisions  of  the  world :  — 


forteaiar 


Area  in 
tliou  sands 
of  sq.  miles. 

0.-3 

P 

Europe    

Africa     

Asia    

Oceania 

N.  America    . . 
S.    America    . . 

3,861 
12,124 
16,217 
4.247 
9,035 
7,066 

347 
197 
789 

38 
100 

32 

90 

16 

47 
9 

8-8 
4-6 

It  may  be  stated  that  the  conclusion 
reacned  by  Malthus  has  been  vigorously 
contested,  on  various  grounds,  and  still 
more  important  is  the  fact  that  the  story 
of  the  human  race,  since  his  period,  do^ 
not  sustain  his  argument.  The  restraints 
upon  increase  Imposed  by  human  society 
are  much  greater  in  effect  thah  he  estl- 

™#"lu  'Li'  *'"5®  *•'*'*  ^^^  population 
of  the  earth,  and  especially  of  Europe, 
has  made  a  very  great  increase  within 
n  century  past,  reaching  by  the  opting 


of  tht  twaatiitth  ccntary  th«  grMt  total 
of  tbout  1W).000,000.  Tho%Srtr«^ 
war,  Mstitooct  and  tamina  have  bMn  van 

h'-7*6Li*"'"*"'?'!.  ■»«'  "»•<"«•»  ■««"« 
ment  that  com  far  to  remove  ooa  of 
the  grMt  checka  to  IncrMua  of  popata- 
Hon.  But  this  arowth  in  numben  has 
been  accompanied  by  a  grmUr  increase 
in  the  means  of  subsistence  and  the  peo- 
ple of  to-day  live  in  superior  comfort 
and  security,  and  with  a  considerably 
louger  span  of  life,  than  their  ancMton 
of  a  century  ago.  Moreover,  the  food- 
raising  capacity  of  the  earth  is  Increas- 
ing at  an  encouraging  rate,  and  no  one 
can  predict  to  what  a  high  level  it  may 
reach  in  the  future.  Despite  this,  how- 
ever, the  limit  of  comfortable  life  would 
certainly  be  reached  and  passed  were 
there  not  a  falling  off  in  fecundity  as 
a  result  of  modern  conditions  of  society. 
that  seems  likely  to  operate  as  an  effective 
check  to  a  serious  overplus  of  population. 
In  recent  decades  the  birth-rate  has  been 
falling  off  in  all  progressive  countries 
in  a  very  significant  manner.  This  is 
Indicated  in  various  parU  of  Europe,  and 
in  France  has  reached  such  a  level  that 
tnere  is  an  actual  decrease  of  population. 
A    similar    condition    exists    elsewhere 

J^7    is   H?!S?'^'";'*"!'    '","    1888    to 
1887,    the    birth-rate   of   native  married 
women  was  only   five-ninths  of  that  of 
women  of  foreign  birth,  a  fact  due  probably 
to  their  superior  condition  of  life.     Several 
causes  lead  in  this  direction.     It  is  well 
known   that  any  stratum  of  population 
that  is  hopeless  of  bettering  its  condition 
is  very  apt  to  breed  recklessly,  and  this 
}  ^°??  ''^P'  '^^^  countries  as  China 
and  India  at  or  near  the  starvation  limit 
for   generations    past.     But    where   com- 
fort exists  through  the  great  bulk  of  a 
population  and  the  prospect  of  better  con- 
ditions leads  to  the  exercise  of  prudence 
and  restraint,  there  is  sure  to  be  a  fail- 
ing   off    in    the    birth-rate.     In    this    the 
opening  of  widespread  industrial  careers 
to    women    aids.     Later    marriages    take 
place,  celibacy   increases,   care  Is  taken 
to  prevent  the  birth  of  an  undue  number 
of  children,   and  other  influences  act  to 
reduce  the  birth-rate.     For  these  reasons 
it    would   appear   that,    when    prosperity 
extends   widely   over   the  earth,   the   in- 
crease of  population   seems  sure  to  de- 
cline, while  the  development  of  the  food 
supply  promises  a  steady  enhancement  of 
the    conditions    of    human    comfort    and 
prosperity. 

Porbandar  ipor"*"""'"?"'^*  *  ^wn  of 

.India,  chief  town  <rf  a 
native  state  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
political  agency  of  Kattyawar.  Bombay 


forbetfflt 


Ponmpittt  wood 


^f 


It  is  bnllt  OD  •  crMk  on  tht  ■.w.  eoMt 
of  Uajtnit,  and  nwlnuina  a  couldunibto 

adt  with  Bombay  and  Malabar.    P<^ 
1180. 

Porbeagle  iS£^lli,!i/S.t& 

Thn*  speciM  have  been  described;  the 
beat  known  ia  Lomna  atrnubiea,  which 
ocean  in  the  North  Atlantic.  It  attain* 
to  a  length  of  10  feet,  and  feeds  chiefly 
on  fishes.  The  porbeagle  has  two  dorsal 
fins,  a  wide  mouth,  lanceolate  teeth,  and 
▼cry  wide  gill-openings. 

Porcelain  l^r?'Z')'ou!^V.  ''"^ 
Porcelain  Crab  ^^^^rt^'^il^l 

Crustacea,  typical  of  the  family  PorceN 
lanidie,  small,  itmooth  crabs,  of  which  two 
are  British :  P.  ptatycheiea,  the  haky,  and 
P.  longicorni$,  the  minute,  porcelain  crab. 
Pnrnh  (P<i>^h).  an  exterior  appendage 
f  viuJi  jQ  ^  building,  forming  a  covered 
approach  to  one  of  its  principal  door- 
ways. The  porches  in  some  of  the  older 
churchct*  are  of  two  stories,  having  an 
upper  apartment  to  which  the  name 
parcit  is  sometimes  applied. —  The  Porch 
m&d  a  public  portico  in  Athens  (the  8toa 
PoikUe),  where  the  philosopher  Zenr, 
taught  his  disciples.  Hence  The  Po'  > 
is  equivalent  to  the  School  of  the  8tc. 
PAi>ma  ( pOr'slie-a ) ,  an  ancient  Komt 
XOruiH  i^jy  ^  daughter  of  Cato  oi 
Utica.  She  first  married  M.  Bibulus, 
Cesar's  colleague  in  the  consulship  (d.c. 
69),  by  whom  she  had  three  children. 
Bibulus  died  in  B.C.  48,  and  in  B.C.  45 
she  married  M.  Brutus,  who  afterwards 
became  the  assassin  of  Ciesar.  After  the 
death  of  Brutus  she  put  an  end  to  her 
life. 

Pnrniinino  (por'ka-pin),  a  name  of 
rorcnpine  ^^^famiiy  of  rodent  quad- 
rupeds, the  beat-known  species  of  which 
belong  to  the  genus  Uyitria.  The  bodT 
is  covered,  especially  on  the  back,  with 
the  so-called  quilU,  or  dense  solid  spine- 
like structures,  intermixed  with  bristles 
and  stiff  hairs.  There  are  two  incisors 
and  eight  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  which 
continue  to  grow  throughout  life  from 
permanent  pulps.  The  muzzle  is  gener- 
ally short  and  pointed,  the  cars  short  and 
rounded.  The  anterior  feet  possess  four, 
and  the  hinder  feet  five  toes,  all  provided 
with  strong,  thick  nails.  The  common  or 
crested  porcupine,  Hyatrim  ori$t&ta,  found 
in  Southern  Ei\rope  and  in  Northern 
Africa,  is  the  best-known  species.  When 
fully  grown  it  measures  nearly  2  feet 
in  length,  and  some  of  its  spines  exceed 
1  foot.  Its  general  color  is  •  griszled, 
dusky  black.  The  spines  in  their  nsnal 
poaitl<m  lie  neuiy  flat,  with  their  points 


dlMcted  baekwarde;  bat  wh«i  dM  nbrni 
is  excited  they  are  capable.^  btiag  nimd. 
The  quilla  are  looeely  inserted  in  tlM 
skin,  and  may,  on  beiM  violeotiy  abaken, 
bccMne  detached  —  a  clreamstance  wbieb 
may  probably  have  given  rise  to  the 
purely  fabaloua  statement  tliat  tlie  animal 
possessed  the  power  of  actoally  eicetinff 
Its  quills  like  arrows  or  darta  at  an  en- 
emy. These  animala  burrow  during  the 
day,  and  at  night  search  for  food,  which 
consists  chiefly  of  vegetable  matter.  Of 
the  American  species,  the  Canadian  or 
North    American    porcupine    (XrefMeen 


Porcutilne  (JByslH*  ertOif). 

ionata)  is  the  best  known.  It  is  about 
2  feet  long,  and  of  slow  and  sluggish  hab- 
its. The  quills  in  this  specie'^  ire  shon, 
and  are  concealed  among  tli  Tne 

ears  are  short,  and   biduen  by  <r. 

The  tail  is  comparatively  shori.  >e 
genus  CercolabcB  of  South  America  pos- 
sesses a  distin>  tive  feature  in  the  elon- 
gated prehensile  tail,  adapting  it  for 
arboreal  existenca  These  latter  forma 
may  thus  be  termed  *  tree  porcupinea.' 
In  length  the  typical  species  of  this  genus 
averages  1V&  feet,  the  tail  measuring 
about  10  inches. 

Porcupine  Ant-eater,  ^g***" 
Porcupine  Crab  {^V.^JI?  li'Si 

crab  covered  with  spines,  found  -T  the 
coasts  of  Japan.  It  ia  dull  and  ~  .wggiah 
in  its  movements. 

Porcupine  Fish  i^^^^^  \l':^h^ 

Plectognathi,  found  in  the  tropical  seas. 
It  is  about  14  inches  long,  and  is  cov- 
ered with  spines  or  prickles. 

Porcnpine  Grass  {J,r5i,,- >''«t 

brittle  Australian  grass  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  utilize  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper. 

Porcupine  Wood,  tJSS°ofSiS5: 

coanut  palm. 


Boffflijny 


^^\  f?.!"*^."'.  "•  ■•  o(  VMk*.  It  k 
§  wyiWwUt,  idrrUif  piMt.  with  bmuio- 
maum  of  Ubw,  coppmr  ottairils,  paper 
Kt  tS?'    ""^    *    CQiMliitnUt    tisaa. 

hta  trua  bmm  btiiif  QiovaDni  /ntoolb 

Pjtetar  of  tha  VtMtiaB  acbool.  born  ah^ 
14AL  Ha  tsaeated  many  works  for  hia 
Uttva  jNtca:  soma  slso  for  Mantua. 
Vkmsa,  and  Ganon;  but  bit  graataat 
••**.'^A<»  Y*"***-  Ha  di«d  at  Pai^ 
mim  ta  1040.  Specimens  of  bis  works 
•(•to  bs  found  in  many  of  tha  principal 

fiUariaa  of  Bnropa. 
Orsie    liP?''ib  P^tr**  •rgPnpt),  a 

^^^K  •"  ?y<»f  •»<»<•>'•  ■«''J'  cheeto,  and 
«>•  (WiMl  fin,  found  off  the  coasts  of  tha 
United  Butes.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
importwit  food  fishes,  and  attains  a 
jfOfth  of  18  inches  and  a  weight  of  4 
jba.  The  name  is  also  given  to  the  Men- 
haden, which  see. 

Porifera  M;'"'*;"?  'pore-bear- 

,  .  ,  '?«.)»  •  *•>•«">  occasionally 
MBpIoyad  to  deaignata  the  sponges. 
Poriun  (P*'''"»)»  ■  name  given  by 
^  .1.  •S*^?'*  gwm-ters  to  a  class 
of  mathamaticai^propoaitions  having  for 
their  object  to  ahow  what  conditions  will 
H?"?',  ^Sl^'".  problems  indeterminate. 
P»jfalr  defined  a  porism  thus:  'A  prop- 
•rirton  •arming  the  possibility  of  finding 
MRh  conditions  as  will  render  a  certain 
problem  indeterminate,  or  capable  of  in- 
■asMrsble  solutions.' 
Pork.   ^^^  fl^h  of  swine,  is  one  of  tha 

"»  most  important  and  widely- 
used  tpecita  of  animal  food.  Pork  is 
coarser  and  ranker  than  beef  or  mutton, 
but  when  of  good  quality  and  well  cured 
it  develops  a  richness  and  delicacy  of 
flavor  in  marked  contrast  with  the  dry- 
BMs  and  insipidity  of  other  salted  meat. 
Tte  abundance  and  digestive  quality  of 
to  Ut  render  it  a  suitable  diet  for  cold 
climates.  The  swine  was  forbidden  to 
"•-l*!*?  °K  ***f  Mosaic  law,  and  is  re- 
garded by  the  Jews  as  especially  typical 
of  the  unclean  animals.  Other  Eastern 
oationa  had  aimiiar  opinions  as  to  the 
use  of  pork.  Pork  contains  less  fibrin, 
albuminoua  and  gelatinous  matter  than 
beef  or  mutton.  It  is  krgely  produced 
la  the  United  States  and  exported  in 
great  qnsatitieo  to  Europe. 
PorOSitv    ( l>6-«»'i-ti ) ,  the  name  given 

.n  iwwii-  .  *°  *  property  possessed  by 
•u  bodiea,  in  consequence  of  which  their 
m<daeala«  are  not  immediately  c<mtig«- 


•M    to    OM    _ 

by  iBtwveBiaff 


hm  f  tttmnfti 


hf  iBtamoiat  apMaa  or  pom. 

taelndiiv  the  P.  JkyaatolAtoaa  (parpla  w 
hyaciBthlM  gallinale).  a  bird  loDBd  ia 
Europe.  Asia  and  Africa  and  nmuk- 
able  for  the  stmcture  of  its  beak  and  the 
length  of  ita  lags.    It  fseds  on  aseda  aad 


Farfkyrto  hyctnMmu  (Purple  GaUiosIs). 
other  hard  substancea,  and  Uvea  in  the 
neighborhood  of  water,  its  long  toes  en- 
al>ling  it  to  run  over  the  aquatic  planta 
with  great  facility.  It  ia  about  18  bchea 
lou.  of  a  beautiful  blue  color,  the  bill 
and  feet  red. 

PorDhyrV    ^P®*"  '■■'•),  originally  the 

*  ^  \..  "■"/  f''«°  *»  •  ▼•nr  hard 

atone,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  granite, 
ausceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  and  conse- 
auently  much  need  for  sculpture.  In  the 
fine  arta  it  is  known  as  Rouo  Antimto, 
and  by  geologists  aa  Red  SpenMo  Par- 
f*y>Y>  It  consists  of  a  homogeneous 
felspathic  base  or  matrix,  havhig  ciyatab 
of  roae-colored  felspar,  called  ollgoclaae. 
with  aome  plates  of  blackish  hornblende, 
•pd  grams  of  oxidised  iron  ore  embedded, 
giving  to  the  msss  a  speckled  complexion. 
It  is  of  a  red  or  rather  of  a  purple  and 
white  color,  more  or  less  variegated,  the 
shadea  being  of  all  gradations  from  violet 
to  a  claret  color.  Egypt  and  the  Eaat 
furnish  this  material  in  abundance.  It 
aiao  abounds  in  Minorca,  where  it  ia  of 
a  red-lead  color,  variegated  witJi  black, 
white,  and  green.  Pale  and  red  porphyry, 
variegated  with  black,  white,  and  green, 
is  found  in  separate  nodules  u  Germany, 
England,  and  Ireland.  The  art  of  cutting 
porphyry  aa  practiced  by  the  ancients 
appears  to  t>e  now  quite  lost.  In  geology 
the  term  porphyry  Is  applied  to  any  nn- 
atratified  or  igneous  rock  in  which  de- 
tached crystals  of  felapar  or  aome  other 
mineral  are  diffused  through  a  baae  of 
other  mineral  composition.  Porphyry  is 
known  aa  felsparpwphyry,  claystaie  poi^ 
phyry,  porphyritk  graalta^  and  vnfi^' 


Mfpikyiy 


Itel 


Moebtad  with  »«.  ^koww  tai  ItlT  Brinolt  lMd«£ 

1M..    .       1    .PuloMplMr   of    tbt    Nflo-   1725  bt  wtot  to  Vitnaa,  aod  •ubnaoMtlv 


natoake  wiiool  ctlebntwl  m»  aa  aataa* 
oatet  of  Cbrtetiaaity.  ten  aboat  888  a!d. 
Ho  ttadied  nadtr  Loofiaui  at  Athens, 
•ad  at  the  aie  of  thirt/  placed  bioMelf 
onder  tbe^tMchiof  of  Ptotlaiw  at  liooie. 
Aboat  2ti8  he  went  to  Sicily,  where  be 
M  Mid  to  hare  written  hla  treatise  against 
the  Cbriatians,  which  was  pnbllcly  burned 
by  the  Emperor  Tbeodoelus,  and  is  only 
known  from  rragments  in  the  authors 
who  hars  refuted  him.  Porphyry  recog- 
niaed  Christ  as  aa  eminent  pbilosopber. 
but  he  charted  tbe  Christians  with  cor- 
mpting  his  doctrinea.  He  was  a  volumi- 
noos  writer,  but  few  of  bis  works  are 
extant.  The  most  important  are  his 
H»e8  of  Plotinns  and  Pythacoras.    Por- 

Sbyry  died  about  804  or  30& 
'OrDOiM  (Por'pus),  a  genus  of  ceta- 
,.  f  „  cesn  mammalia.  beSonging  to 
tbt  family  DelphlDida  (dolphins,  etc.). 
'r'  rommon  porpoise  (Phwxena  com- 
mu  <)  Is  tbe  smallest  end  most  familiar 
of  .1  Cetacea,  and  occurs  plentifully  in 
tbe  Atlantic.  It  attains  an  average 
ength  of  6  feet.  The  front  of  l^ie  bead 
is  convex  in  form,  and  has  tbe  spiracle 
or  blowhole  in  the  middle  line.  Tbe  eyes 
and  ears  are  small.  The  caudal  fin  is 
horisonul    and    flattened.    The   neck   is 


iraThe  went  to  Vieua.  and  •ubasnaatlF 
paid  professional  visits  to  Bom, ^mMl 
andl^rewkn.  la  1729  a  partertaliaBte 
which  was  discoo tented  with  HlaiJd' 
opened  a  second  opera  booas,  and  eaUsi 
I'orpora  to  take  tbe  direction  of  It.  For* 
pora  was  successful,  aad  HIadai  aftar 
a  heavy  pecuniary  loss  gavt  ap  tbt  tba- 
ster,  and  devoted  himself  to  oratoria. 
Porpora  afterwards  returned  to  tba  eaa> 
Unent,  ■n<l„dled  in  great  povtrty  at 
Naples  in  1787. 
FonennA    iPo^scn'a),  or  Poa'atirA, 

Etrurian  city  Clusiuir,  accordUig  to  tha 
legend  narrated  b»  LI  v.  who  rseai\  id  tlM 
Tarqulns  when  they  were  expelled  fraai 
Rome,  and  after  in  vain  endcavorlai  la 
effect  their  lestoration  by  nMOtiatfoBTai- 
vanced  with  an  army  to  Rone.  Tha  las 
endary  atory  is  that  he  was  cbaekad^ 
Horatius  Codes,  who  defended  tha  brita 
over  the  Tiber. leading  to  Rove,  liodtflr 
critics  have  held  that  Roma  was  com 
pletely  conquered  by  bim. 

Forson   <;»<"«?  ^  Richa«d,  critle  and 
*      r*,     classical  scholar,  profeaaoi  a* 


PorpoiM  (Pkocmnm  e«mmmnt§). 


Tery  short.  The  forelimbs  project  from 
the  body.  No  hind  limbs  are  developed. 
The  teeth  are  small  with  blunted  crowns. 
The  stomach  is  in  three  portions.  No 
olfactory  nerves  exist  The  porpoise  feeds 
a'most  entirely  on  herrings  and  other 
fish,  and  herds  or  •  schools^  of  porpoises 
follow  tbe  herring-shoals,  among  which 
they  prove  very  destructive.  An  allied 
species  is  the  round-headed  porpoise,  or 
•Main*  whale'  of  the  Shetlaaders. 
Th«e  lattot  meesnre  from  20  to  24  feet 
in  length,  and  are  hunted  far  tbe  sake 
of  the  oiL  See  Coatesr  WAafa.. 
ForOOra   ivn^vo-n),  Niooia,  an  Ital- 

Nuha  ■*««tia86.  aadwaa  tba  favorite 
mipO    of    8c«ttettL    ma    ilm    o^aia. 


Greek  in  the  University  of  CaaibridM^ 
was  bom  in  1750,  at  Bast  BastooTw 
Norfolk,  where  hla,  father  waa  pariak 
clerk:  and  died  at  London  In  ISOaT  la 
1777  he  entered  Trinity  College.  Ctm- 
bridge,  where  he  highly  dlstTngoiahad 
himself  in  classics,  and  in  1782  twA  tha 
degree  of  B.A.  and  was  chooen  to  i  fal' 
owship.  This  he  Ksigned  in  1798,  alnca 
it  could  no  knifer  be  held  by  a  layaMS. 
and  Porson  declined  to  take  holy  mdam 
Soon  after  he  was  unaaimeoaly  aiaetai 
Greek  profeaaor,  a  poat  which,  howtvar. 
brought  him  an  income  of  only  ^00  a 
year.  He  edited  and  annotated  aevaral 
Greek  works,  especially  four  of  tha 
dramas  of  Bnripides,  and  uijoyed  tba 
reputation  of  being  cme  of  the  best  Qraak 
scholara  and  critics  of  the  age,  notwldi- 
standing  which  be  experienced  little  pat- 
ronage, a  circumstance  partly  attrlte- 
table  to  his  intemperate  habits.  In  1805 
he  was  appointed^  librarian  to  tba  Lon- 
don Inititutlon.  le  was  familiat  wtth 
English  literatur  and  wrote  for  aoaM 
of  the  chief  periodicals  of  the  day. 
Fort,  •  *'»«  •'  wine.    See  Port  Wfaa. 

Fort.  *..?•*<*  9'  haven,  or  place  where 
*•>  ships  receive  and  diachaMa  eaiio. 
A  fro0  oort  Is  one  at  wUeb  the  goo^ 
imported  are  exempted  fran  tba  payment 
of  any  cMtoms  or  duties,  aa  leiMLas  tb«y 
MO  Bot  convayed  into  thajjiifaor  of 


Fort 


Port  Elizabeth 


Pnrf  the  oame  given  to  the  left  side 
**'*"'>  of  a  ship  (loolting  towarda  the 
prow),  aa  diatinguiabed  from  the  star- 
board or  right  side.  Formerly  larboard 
waa  uaed  inatead  of  port. 
Pnrt  A<1»1ai<1p    (v<irt  ad'e-I&d),  a 

ron  Aaeiaiae  geVport  of  south 

Australia,  the  port  of  the  city  of  Adelaide, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway 
of  7}  miles.  It  is  on  the  estuan'  of  the 
Torrens,  which  enters  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Vincent,  and  is  the  chief  port  of  S.  Aus- 
tralia. The  harbor  accommodation  has 
been  recently  greatly  improved,  extensive 
wharves,  piers,  etc.,  have  been  provided, 
but  the  entrance  is  still  partly  obstructed 
by  bars.  Pop.  24,015. 
PnTtftdnixm  (POrt-a-doun'),  a  market 
X-urbltUUWU    to^n^    Ireland,    in   the 

county  and  9  miles  northeast  of  Armagh, 
on  the  bann,  which  is  nnvigable  to  ves- 
sels of  90  tjns.  Pop.  10,092. 
Portasre  (port'aj),  a  city,  capital  of 
o  Columbia  Co.,  Wisconsin,  on 
the  Wisconsin  River,  at  head  of  naviga- 
tion, 30  miles  N.  of  Madison.  It  is  on 
the  ship  canal  that  connects  the  Wis- 
consin and  Fox  Rivers,  and  has  hosiery 
and  knitting  mills,  plow  factory,  etc.,  and 
considerable  trade.  Pop.  5440. 
Pnrfair^  &  (^■'Qi  applied  in  the  United 
f  urba^,  States  and  Canada  to  a 
break  in  a  chain  of  water  communica- 
tion, over  which  goods,  l)oat8,  etc.,  have 
to  he  carried,  as  from  one  lake,  river, 
or  canal  to  another;  or,  along  the  iianki 
of  rivers,  round  waterfalls,  rapids,  etc. 

Portage  la  Prairie,  ^,  JKcan! 

ada,  56  m.  w.  of  Winnipeg.  It  has  rail- 
road shops,  grain  elevators.      Pop.  6892. 

Portal  Circtdation,  J^rt '^of^'hl 

Tenons  circulation,  belonging  to  the  liver, 

in  which  the  blood  makes  an  additional 

circuit   before    it   joins    the   rest    of   the 

Tenous  blood.    The  term  is  also  applied 

to  an  analogous  system  of  vessels  m  the 

kidney. 

Port  Arthur,    a^„?faP-t  ^of    Man- 

extremitT  of  Liao  Tung  peninsula,  with 
a  splendid,  nearly  landlocked  harbor,  ice- 
free  for  nearly  the  whole  year.  It  is  of 
special  interest  for  its  history.  Forti- 
fied and  made  the  chief  naval  station 
of  China  in  1891,  it  vea  taken  in  1894 
by  the  Japanese,  who  destroyed  its  for- 
tifications. Japan  was  obliged  to  restore 
it  to  China,  and  in  1898  il  was  leased 
to  Russia,  which  country  fortified  it  and 
made  it  a  great  naval  station,  and  the 
chief  terminus  of  the  Transsiberian  Rail- 
way. Though  apparently  well-nlgh  im- 
prsffMble,  it  waa  taken  by  the  Japanese 


in  1905  aa  a  resalt  of  war  with  Bawla, 
and  is  held  by  them. 

VnTt  Arflinr  >i  city  and  seaport  of 
rorXArinnr,  jeSeion  Co.,  Texas, 
on  Sabine  Lake,  12  miles  from  the  Oulf 
of  Mexico,  which  is  reached  through  a 
ship  canal  270  feet  wide  and  27  feet  deep. 
It  is  an  oil  center  and  shipping  point. 
Pop.  13,204. 

Pnrf  Arflinr  '^  city  and  harbor  at 
rOTlUnaUXf  ^jj^  northwestern  ex- 
tremity of  Lake  Superior,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, on  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  Can- 
adian Northern  railways.  It  has  mining 
and  lumbering  interests  and  a  large  ship- 
ping trade.     Pop.   (1913)   18,000. 

Port-an-Prinee    <  por-to-pra^s ) ,  cap- 

X-uri,  au  xnuce  j^^,  ^^  ^^^^  Republic 
of  Hayti,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
island,  at  the  southeast  extremity  of  the 
bay  of  the  same  name.  It  is  built  in  a 
low  and  unhealthy  spot,  consists  chiefly 
of  wooden  houses,  and  contains  an  un- 
gainly palace,  a  senate-house,  a  Roman 
Catholic  church,  a  custom-house,  mint, 
a  hospital,  lyceum,  etc.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  mahogany  and  red-wood,  coffee, 
and  cocoanuts.  Pop.  about  60,000. 
Pnrt  r.1i»af»r  a  summer  resort  of 
ron  UneSier,  Westchester  Co.,  New 
York,  on  Long  Island  Sound,  26  miles 
N.  E.  of  New  York  city.  It  has  large 
planing  mills,  laundries,  shirt  and  sheet 
factories,  and  stove  and  iron  l)olt  works. 
Pop.   12,809. 

Portcullis  (pOrt-kul'is),  a  strong 
^^^^^^^  gratmg  of  timber  or  iron, 
resembling  a  harrow,  made  to  slide  in 
vertical  grooves  in  the  jambs  of  the  en- 
trance-gate of  a  fortified  place,  to  protect 
the  gate  in  case  of  assault. 

Port  Darwin  ^t^hl'Sirthe^n  ^ 

of  Australia,  the  chief  harbor  of  the 
Northern  Territory  ot  South  Australia, 
about  2000  miles  from  Adelaide.  The 
port  town  is  Palmerston. 

Port  Dnrnford  itZ^'^\^,'^^^, 

coast  of  Equatorial  Africa,  in  lat  1°  13' 
s.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wabuski  River. 
Porte  iP^i^t),  Ottoman,  or  Sublime 
POBTE,  the  common  term  for  the 
Turkish  government.  The  chief  office  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  is  styled  Babi  Ali. 
lit.  the  High  Gate,  from  the  gate  (bab) 
of  the  palace  at  which  jnstice  was  admin- 
istered; and  the  French  translation  of 
the  term  being  SubUme  Porte,  this  has 
come  into  common  use. 

Port  Elizabeth,  *  !«*?®'J^  '"^  A^? 

ony,  on  Algoa  Bay.  It  contains  many 
fine  baildings,  inclnding  a  town-hoase, 
cnstom-hooae,  hocidtal^  etc,  and  is  the 


forter 


Port  Hope 


treat  emporium  of  trade  for  the  eastern 
portion  of  tlie  colony  aa  weli  as  for  a 
great  part  of  the  interior,  being  the  ter- 
minus of  railways  that  connect  it  with 
Kimberley  ant'  othrr  important  inland 
towns.  It  is  ^ov  a  greater  center  of 
trade  than  Cape  ToFn.  Pop.  32,U39. 
Porter    (port'er),  AsjiA  Maria,  was 


and  he  was  found  not  guilty  and  was 
reinstated  as  colonel  in  1880.    He  waa 


police  commissioner  of  New  York  in 
1884-88,  aud  held  other  positions  thai*, 
dying  in  laOl. 

Porter  <Iai(>>  an  English  novelist. 
Jivi.wif    ^.^^  jj^j^  ^j  Durham  in  1776; 

died  in  1850.     Her  Tkaddeut  of  Waramp 
and  Scottiah  Chief i  were  long  {lopuiar. 
Porter     Noah,  philosopher  and  writer, 
""*»    bom     at     Farmington,     Con- 

_ necticut,   in    1811.     Graduating  at   Yale 

Porter,    ^a""-  »>«'»'  officer,  was  bom   College  in  1831,  he  was  ordained  pastor 
,-o«      J    °^.  «08ton.    Massachusetts,   in    of  the  Congregational  Church,  New  Mil- 
ford,  Conn.,  in  1830,  and  in  1843  settled 
at  Springfield,  Mass.     Returning  to  Yale 
m  1846  as  professor  of  metaphysics  and 


born  about  1781.  She  pro- 
duced a  number  of  ntv.'ls,  whfch  enjoyed 
considerable  popularity  in  their  day. 
Died  in  1832, 


1780.  Entering  the  navy,  he  was  put  in 
command  of  tlie  frigate  Essex  in  1813, 
and  captured  the  Britisli  war  vessel  Alert 
and  a  number  of  niercbantmen.  In  1813 
he  cruised  in  the  Pacific  and  took  a  large 
number  of  prizes.  In  March,  1814,  the 
Essex  was  attacked  at  Valparaiso  by  two 
British  war  vessels  and  was  captured 
after  a  long  and  desperate  resistance. 
He  was  naval  commissioner  1815-23, 
charge  d'affaires  at  Constantinople  in 
1831,  and  minister  in  1839.  He  died  m 
1843. 
Porter     ^*"d    Dixon,    navnl    officer, 

'  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  in  1813. 
He  entered  the  United  States  navy  as 
midshipman  in  1829.  He  served  during 
the  Mexican  war,  and  was  in  every  action 
on  the  coast.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  war  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  steam-frigate  Powhatan.  In  com- 
mand of  a  mortar  fleet  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  reduction  of  Forts  Jackson 
and  St.  Philip  on  the  Mississippi;  also 
aided  in  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  and 
Arkansas  Post.  For  these  services  he 
was  made  rear-admiral.  In  18G5  he 
aided  General  Terry  in  the  capture  of 
Fort  Fislier.  In  18(56  he  was  promoted 
vice-admiral,  and  in  1870  appomted  ad- 
miral, the  highest  rank  in  the  navy.  He 
died  in  1891. —  His  brother,  William  D. 
(1809-64),  also  served  in  the  navy  in  the 
Civil  war,  destroyed  the  iron-clad  ram 
Arkansas  in  1862,  and  was  promoted 
commodore. 
Porter      Fitz-John,  soIdler,  was  born 

»  in  New  Hampshire,  and  was 
graduated  from  West  Point  in  1843.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1856  and  a  colonel 
in  1861.  For  his  courage  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Gaines's  Mill  and  Malvern  Hill 
in  1862  he  was  appointed  major-seneral 
of  volunteers.  Though  present  with  his 
corps  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
he  took  no  part  in  the  contest,  and  was 
accused  of  delinquency  by  General  Pope, 
tried  by  court-martial,  and  dismissed  from 
the  service.  The  charges  against  him 
were  re-examined  under  President  Hayes 


moral   philosophy,   he  was  elected   presi- 
dent   in    1871,    and    continued    to    hold 
that  position  till  1886.     Among  his  works 
are    Historical   Discourses,    The   Human 
Intellect,  Books  and   Reading,   The  Sci- 
ence of  Nature  versus  the  Science  of  Man, 
The  Elements  of  Intellectual  Philosophu, 
The  Elements  of  Moral  Science,  etc.     He 
also  edited  an  edition  of  Webtter'a  Dic- 
tionary,   He  died  in  1892. 
Porter     ^'"   Robert  Keb,  artist  and 
»    traveler,     bom     at     Durham 
about   1775;   died  at   St.   Petersburg  in 
1842.     He  was  brother  to  Jane  and  Anna 
Maria  Porter,   became  a   student  at  the 
Royal    Academy,    painted    several    large 
battle-pieces,  and  in  1804  was  invited  to 
Russia  by  the  emperor,  who  made  him  his 
historical  painter.     In  1808  he  joined  the 
British    forces    under    Sir    John    Moore, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  Spain.     Subse- 
quently he  returned  to  Russia  and  mar- 
ried   the    Princess    Sherbatoff.     In    1818 
he    obtained    the    honor   of    knighthood. 
Porter.   W^^am  sydmky  (pseudonym 
u        V;  Wenry '),  autuor,  born  at 
Greezifiboro,  N.  C,  in  lS6i  ;  uied  in  lUiO. 
He  became  a  journalist  and  later  a  short 
story    writer    for    magazines   and    news- 
papers.    In  this  field^  he  was  very  pro- 

l^u,'^^,  ^*'*^^  capable,  and  his  stories 
grew  widely  popular. 

Port-OlaseOW  <«la8'k6),  a  seaport 
*.      . .  .        of  Scotland,  in  Ren- 

frewshire, on  the  southern  bank  of  the 

2n-K?  f^®  ^'y*^*  .^»»  deepened  so  as  to 
enable  large  vessels  to  sail  up  to  Glasaow. 
«h ^""'iS  °'  Po'-t-Olasgow  raoidiy  dE 
«h!f  J^*"i'**yA,.*'*''^«^"'  it  has  some- 
^MnL^Jlr^'  ^''•^  ?*"P^«  industries  are 
sbipbuilding  and  marine  engineering :  and 

rte."pS..°l"84a*"'*^'  "'  8ailcloth,•^pea, 

Port  Hope,  f.  *°'^  ^  Canada,  on 
Lak-  n„f.t^„  a^^  northern  shore  of 
t*»*  **?t*no,  63  miles  n.  t  of  Toronto 
by  the  Grand  Trunk  Itailwa,.    The  to^ 


Port  EnroB 


Porttand  Bedt 


te  tMantifully  dtaated  at  the  base  and 
on  the  decliTity  of  the  hilia  overlooking 
the  lake,  kt  has  active  induatriea,  and 
a  good  trade  in  timber,  grain  and  flour. 
Pop.  (19U)  6069. 

Port  Huron    ffigSi:  ^puS  S! 

St.  Clair  Co.,  on  the  St  Clair  Kiver,  at 
the  aoathern  extremity  of  Lake  Huron 
and  opposite  Sarnia,  Canada,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  tunnel  under  the 
river.  It  is  a  railroad  terminus,  and  has 
daily  steamship  connections  with  Detroit, 
U2  miles  distant.  It  is  an  important 
grain  and  wool  market,  and  has  extensive 
pipeworks,  agricultural  implements  and 
other  factories,  shipyards,  dry  docks, 
large  elevators,  etc.  Under  the  city  is 
a  deposit  of  salt,  also  oil  and  natural 
gaa.  Pop.  18,863. 
PnW-ini     (por'ti-chS),  a  town  in  South- 

rornci  ^^  ^^^^^  •„„  j^e  Guif  of 

Naples,  at  the  base  of  Vesuvius.  It  is 
about  5  miles  east  Irom  the  city  of 
Naples,  but  is  connected  with  it  by  the 
long  village  of  S.  Giovanni  a  Teduecio. 
(See  plan  at  Naples.)  It  is  delightfully 
situated,  has  many  elegant  villas,  and  is 
surrounded  by  fine  country  seats.  It  pos- 
sesses a  royal  palace,  now  the  property  of 
the  municipality  of  Naples.  An  active 
fishery  is  carried  on.  Pop.  14,2-39. 
Pfvrfinn  (por'ti-kS),  in  architecture,  a 
XUJTUUU  jjjjjj  Qf  poppij  before  the  en- 
trance of  a  building  fronted  with  col- 
umns, and  either  projecting  in  front  of 
the  building  or  receding  within  it.  Por- 
ticoes are  styled  tetrastyle,  hexastyle, 
octostyle,  decastyle,  according  as  the  col- 
umns number  four,  six,  eight,  or  ten. 
Port  Jackson  (Ja^Vn),  a  beautiful 
run.  tiaC&iHIU    ^^^j  extensive  inlet  on 

the  east  coast  of  Australia  in  New  South 

Wales,   forming   a    well-sheltered   harbor 

on    the    south    shore    of    which    Sydney 

stands.     See  Sydney. 

Pnrf  JAinris  (j^r'vis),  a  town  and 
ron  werviS    8„n,n,pj  ^^^j.^  ^f  Orange 

Co.,  New  York,  on  the  Delaware  River, 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Neversink,  88 
miles  N.  w.  of  New  York.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  attractive  scenery,  and  has 
extensive  railroad  shops,  iron  foundries, 
glassworks,  glove  and  shoe  factories,  silk- 
mills,  etc.  Pop.  9.0&1. 
Portia  11(1  (port'land).  a  seaport  of 
xurbitiuu  jfainp,  capital  of  Cumber- 
land Co.,  on  a  peninsula  at  the  western 
extremity  of  Casco  Bay,  108  miles  n. 
by  E.  of  Boston.  It  is  a  picturesque  and 
well-huilt  city,  with  handsome  public 
buildings,  and  abundance  of  trees  in 
many  of  its  streets.  This  has  given  it 
the  name  of  'Forest  City.'  The  trade, 
both  maritime  and  inland,  is  extensive, 


Portland  being  the  terminna  of  three  im- 
portant railwaya.  Tha  harbor  ia  aaif  of 
access,  capadona,  deep  enon^  for  the 
largest  vessels,  and  never  obatmcted  with 
ice.  Shipbuilding  is  largelr  carried  on, 
and  it  has  a  valuable  foreign  trade,  es- 
pecially with  London,  Liverpool  and 
Qlasgow,  and  a  large  coastwise  trade.  It 
is  also  extensively  engaged  in  the  cod 
and  mackerel  fisheries.  Its  induatriea  in- 
clude extensive  canning  and  packing 
works,  oil  refining,  engine  and  stove 
works,  car  and  locomotive  ahops,  heavy 
iron  forgings,  and  other  manufactures. 
Portland  is  an  old  town,  the  site  being 
first  settled  in  1632.  Pop.  65,000. 
PnrtlnTid  *  <=ity,  capital  of  Jay  Co., 
f  UXUH.UU,  Indiana,  on  the  Salamonia 
River,  30  miles  N.  K.  of  Muncie.  It  has 
oil  wells,  lumber  and  flour  Drills  and 
wood-working  industries.  Pop.  5130. 
Portland  the  chief  city  of  Oregon, 
f  urviuuu,  ^nj  capital  of  Multnoms  i 
Co.,  situated  on  the  Willamette  Ri  -•, 
about  12  miles  from  its  confluence  ^.:  h 
the  Columbia  and  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion. It  is  the  jobbing  and  financial 
center  of  the  Pacific  Northwest  and  is 
an  important  commercial  and  shipping 
point,  naving  regular  steamship  connec- 
tion with  San  Francisco  and  other  coast 
dties,  also  with  Asiatic  ports.  It  is  ex- 
tensively engaged  in  slaughtering  and 
packing,  in  ship  and  boat  building,  and 
has  numerous  manufactures.  Its  exports 
include  wheat,  lumber,  fruit,  flour,  wool, 
salmon,  etc.  The  city  is  attractively 
built,  and  was  the  seat  of  the  I^ewis 
and  Clark  exhibition  of  1905.  Pop. 
266,000. 

Portia  Till  I'Si'E  OF,  a  peninsula,  sup- 
X-oniaua,  ^^    ^^   ^^^,^   ^eei.    for- 

merly an  island  in  the  county  of  Dorset, 
50  miles  w.  8.  w.  of  Southampton,  in  the 
British  Channel.  It  is  attached  to  the 
mainland  by  a  long  ridge  of  shingle,  called 
the  Chesil  Bank,  and  it  consists  chiefly 
of  the  well-known  Portland  stone  (which 
see),  which  is  chiefly  worked  by  convicts, 
and  is  exported  in  large  quantities.  One 
of  the  most  prominent  objects  in  the 
island  is  the  convict  prison,  situate<l  on 
the  top  of  a  hill.  It  contains  about  1500 
convicts.  The  south  extremity  of  the 
island  is  called  the  Bill  of  Portland,  and 
between  it  and  a  bank  called  the  Sham- 
bles is  a  dangerous  current  called  the 
Face  of  Portland.  See  also  Portland 
L  reakvcater. 

Portland  Beds,  l?o/~JThe 'uSK 

Oolites  occurring  between  the  Purbeck 
Beds  and  the  Kimmeridge  Clay,  consist- 
ing of  beds  of  hard  o51itic  limestone  and 
freestone   interstratified   with  clays  and 


g»rtlap4  Breakwater Porto  Alegre 

rntinf  on  light-colored  aands  which  con-  cinerary  urn  or  vaa*  of  th>  tMwA  <...».i» 

with   a   few   reptiles.     They   are   named   Emperor    Alexander    Severua     It    k  5 

f.'i-"'„*f'%"S.'{"  °J  '>•  f""P  «e"°'°«  *»>•  transparent.  dark-bhiegliS  coated  wiS 
isle  of  Portland  in  Dorsetshire,  from  opaque,  wh  te  glass  which 'h^h*--^ 
whence  they  may  be  traced  through  Wilt-   dbwn  in  The  mannVr  ol  a  can^  T^J^l 

Si'Zfl      yS^"?"^"''^-      .K  .    Sive  on  eac^^^dT^oip  TSu^'deS? 

Portland  Breakwater,  ^''f  «••««*:  <^"tely  executed  in  relierreprewnting  the 
n*   »!..   W!«H    »„    n    *  •  ^?*    '''T''   marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis.     In  1810 

S.  -^!L!°*^  ^°'""' */°"P'«*«.P'"°*^*^"°°  The  pieces  were  carefully  <»llctedaSd 
in/  w"^*®  *''Pu"°'^u°'  ^'«'".  between  it   very  successfully  reunited   ~"****^  *•"* 

'^L:iTz?k'^zJniorZtrot  port  loms  W5v^-p«^i°'*'' 
of\^hrss;  '^St^di?v^^""4  ^•'*  °-»^-;«*  <^'.\°'be?uti?u"i?;'&tS 

SlSfwfnJ  t??henuLth."anrconl^ts*  of   Sl£  p°a7tlIr?o<^ed'^  vTrifn.^in'ffilf.l? 
two    port^ns     one    connected    with    the   from    IcSs    t^o   S^'fwt^  %e   sfte'ta 
«f"SmTA**    °  '^J?***"'  """l  «°°ther   rather   Tnheafthy.    The    strwt^   ?houah 
of   ^00  feet   in   length,   separated    from    rather  narrow,  ire  laid  out^t  rieht  an 
the  former  by  an  opening  400  feet  wide,    gles  and  adorned  with  acacias      A  moSS. 

i5rw*Uh''^'*'i??r,""°Pr  ?''".'«^*  *°  ^«'°  stream  travemS  ^hftown.  «?d  JS, 
«ea   with   a   northerly   wind.     It   is   pro-   open  space  like  a  racecourse.  liMlvthinS 

T!L^lo^^  Inr^Y.^^^'f  '^"^  P"°'^Vl  it     Th^ere  are  barrSS^^tTea teT  ^SuJ 

Th-   t«T*''  i°\  °^  ^^^  '°"?^'  portion,  library,  botanic  garden,  fiospitel!  etc .  but 

The    work,    which    was    carried    o-.^    by  no  buildings  of  architTOtural  imMrtiiici! 

fwIn7T°^'  "^''^"Pied  .a  P««-  od  of  .early  llie  town  and  harbor  a r^protMtSS 

twenty-five  years,  ending  with  187-^      It  batteries.     Pod    53978  Proteciea   oy 

is  constructed  of  Portland  stone  T>^l!i    T_il  i^     '       «„.  r   «  » 

Portland  Cement,  a  ^lii  -  known  ^o^  Lyttelton.   see  lv«c»o». 

used  cement,  which  derives°?s  nam?from  ^0^   ^ahon     <P*:S°')..  the  capluj 


its  near  resem 
blance  in  color 
to  Portland 
ston.e.  It  is 
made  from  chalk 
and  clay  or  mud 
in  definite  pro- 
portions. These 
materials  are  in- 
timately mixed 
with  water,  and 
formed  into  a 
sludge.  This  is 
dried,  and  when 
caked  is  roasted 
in  a  kiln  till  it 
becomes  hard. 
It  is  afterwards 
ground  to  a  rine 
powder,  in  T(hich 


the  island  of'Mi< 
norca,  situated 
on  a  narrow  in- 
let in  the  a.  b.  of 
the  island.  The 
harbor,  pro* 
tected  by  three 
forts,  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the 
Mediterranean, 
and  is  capable 
of  accommodat- 
ing a  large  fleet 
of  ships  of  the 
heaviest  ton- 
nage. Pop.  17,- 
975. 

Port  Natal. 

See  Durban, 


Porto.    ®*™*  *■  Oporto. 


state   it  is   ready   for  market.     This  ce- 
ment is  much  employed  along  with  gravel       

lS»FtTs1i?1t7S'irur^^^^^^  Porto  Alegre   ^^^t'caW?^ 

V^J^^  a«  to  "°it  a  7"nd  ^hf°  Btnick.  the  province  of  Rio  GrandA'sS.*''ie5 

Portland  Stone,  '!  "^  o»""c  lime-  the  northwest  extremity  of  Lake  Pato* 

zreat  abunHi,n«.  i«  /i.^*?T  *^?,'''"'?,*  5»  ^^  ™"«»  N.  N.  w.  of  Rio  Grande.    Itta 

Inland     teiSrSfJ'^  **'  Portland,  well  and  reaularly  built.    The  harbor  is 

PaVJi-U J  V-£.    r2?^TiA»-«™T^  ?"*"•*  ^'•- ■"  ^^  merchant  vei«>hi.  and  it 

?Prtland  VaW  i5^JS«^,};„*  ^^^    "-PorUnt    tradt     Pop.    .bwt 


Portobello 


Port  Boyal 


PortobeUo  iS?«b'>«»2;>i,*  ^^ 

dktiict)  of  Scotland,  3  milss  east  of  the 
dty  of  Edinburgh  on  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
much  frequented  aa  a  aummer  resort. 
Pop.  9200. 

PnrtA  HHIn  '^  seaport  of  Panam&. 
rono  atliO,    ^^  ^^^^  Caribbean  Sea, 

40  miles  n.  v.  w.  of  Panama.  Formerly 
of  some  importance,  it  is  now  a  poor  and 
miserable  place,  although  its  fine  harbor 
still  attracts  some  trade. 

Porto  Cabello    i«''»:bft'y«).  *  town 

*  v<.  »v  wowvuv      ^f  Venezuela,  on  tiie 
Caribbean  Sea.     It  has  a  capacious  and 
safe  harbor.   Pop.,  with  district  surround- 
ing, about  14,000. 
Porto  FetTAio    (fer-ra'yS),     chief 

Elba,    on   the   north    coast.     Pop.   4222. 
Napoleon    I    resided   here   from   May   5, 
1814,  to  February  26,  1815. 
Pnrf  nf  Snain      the    chief    town    of 

ron  01  Bpain,   ^^^^  .g,^^^  ^^  ^^.^j. 

dad.  It  is  a  pleasant,  well-built  town; 
has  two  cathedrals,  government  house, 
town-halL  courthouse,  theater,  barracks, 
etc.  It  IS  a  railway  terminus,  and  has 
an  active  trade.  It  is  a  i>ort  of  call  for 
many  lines  of  ocean  steamers.  Pop. 
(1911)  59,658. 
Port  OrnliArd     (changed  from  name 

capital  of  Kitsap  Co.,  Washington.     It  in 

situated  on  Port  Orchard  Bay,  an  inlet 

of  Puget  Sound,  18  miles  w.  of  Seattle. 

It  is  a  navnl  station  of  the  United  States, 

with  a  very  large  dry  dock,  GOO  feet  long 

by  75  wide,  and  capable  of  holding  vessels 

with  a  draught  of  30  feet.     Pop.  682. 

Porto  HiPO  (pOr'to  re'ko;  Sp., 
ronO   JllCO    p^^^^    ^.^^^     formerly 

one  of  the  Spanish  West  Indian  Islands, 
the  fourth  in  size  of  the  Antilles,  east  of 
Hayti;  area,  with  subordinate  isles,  3506 
square  miles.  The  island  is  beautiful  and 
very  fertile.  A  range  of  mountains,  cov- 
ered with  wood,  traverses  it  from  east 
to  west,  averaging  about  1500  feet  in 
height,  but  with  one  peak  6G~8  feet  high. 
In  the  interior  are  extensive  savannahs ; 
and  along  the  coast  tracts  of  fertile  land, 
from  5  to  10  miles  wide.  The  streams 
are  numerous,  and  some  of  the  rivers  can 
be  ascended  by  ships  to  the  foot  of  the 
mountains.  here  are  numerous  bays 
and  creeks.  The  chief  harbor  is  that  of 
the  capital,  San  Juan  de  Porto  Rico; 
others  are  Mayaguez,  Ponce,  and  Are- 
cibo.  The  climate  is  rather  healthy  ex- 
cept during  the  rainy  season  (Sept.- 
March).  Gold  is  found  m  the  mountain 
strmuus.  Copper,  iron,  lead,  and  coal 
nave  also  been  found;  and  there  are 
«aipe  or  salt  pood«.    Tb9  chief  prod- 


ucts are  sugar,  rum,  molasses,  coffee,  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  hides,  live  stock,  dyewoods, 
timber,  rice,  etc.  There  are  extensive 
phosphate  deposits  along  the  south  coast. 
The  island  was  discovered  by  Co!umbus  in 
1403,  and  waa  settled  b^  the  Spaniards  in 
1510,  who  soon  extermmated  the  natives. 
Invaded  by  the  United  States,  July,  1808. 
it  was  ceded, by  Spain  to  that  government 
by  the  treaty  of  peace.  Since  its  occupa- 
tion by  the  United  States  a  good  school 
system  has  been  introduced,  attendance 
being  made  compulsory,  and  various  steps 
have  been  taken  for  the  advancement  of- 
the  people,  including  the  establishment 
of  a  Icgislavive  assembly  and  trade  advan- 
tages which  have  led  to  a  large  commerce 
vtiih  this  country.     Pop.  1,118,012. 

Porto  Rico.  ?*.^  -^^^^  DE,  the  cap- 
'  ital  and  principal  sea- 
port of  the  above  island,  on  its  north 
coast,  stands  upon  a  small  island  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  a  bridge, 
is  surrounded  by  strong  fort!  Scat  ions,  and 
is  the  seat  of  the  government.  Pop. 
48,716. 

Port  PhiUip,  i^;;^''-    «^  ^'^ 

Port  'Rnvnl  (roi  al),  a  fortified  town 
xui  b  Auyai  ^  (,jg  southeast  coast  of 

Jamaica,  on  a  tongue  of  land,  forming 
the  south  side  of  the  harbor  of  Kingston. 
Its  harbor  is  a  station  for  British  ships 
of  war,  and  it  contains  the  naval  arsenal, 
hospital,  etc.  It  has  been  often  dam- 
aged by  earthquakes.  Pop.  14,000. 
Pnrf  Pywal  s  Cistercian  convent  in 
X-urt  AUyai,    ^j^^^.^^  ^,,5^^  pUyed  an 

important  part  in  the  Jansenist  contro- 
versy. It  was  situated  near  Chevreuse 
(department  of  Seine-et-Oise),  about  16 
miles  s.  w.  of  Paris,  and  was  founded  in 
1204  by  Matthieu  de  Montmorency,  under 
the  rule  of  St.  Bernard.  Port  Royal,  like 
many  other  religious  houses,  had  fallen 
into  degenerate  habits,  when  in  1600  the 
abbess  Jacqueline  Marie  Ang^iique  Ar- 
nauld  undertook  its  reform.  The  number 
of  nuns  increased  considerably  under  her 
rule,  and  in  1025  they  amounted  to  eighty. 
The  building  thus  became  too  small,  and 
the  insalubrity  of  the  situation  induced 
them  to  seek  another  site.  T*"-  mother 
of  the  abbess  purchased  the  house  of 
Cluny,  in  the  Faubourg  Saint  Jacques, 
Paris,  to  which  a  body  of  the  nuns  re- 
moved. The  two  sections  of  the  convent 
were  now  distinguished  as  Port  Royal  des 
Champs  and  Port  Royal  de  Paris.  About 
l(i36  a  group  of  eminent  literary  men  of 
decided  religious  tendencies  took  up  their 
residence  at  Les  Oranges,  near  Port 
Royal  des  Champs,  where  they  devoted 
themselves  10  religions  exercises,  the  edU' 
cation   of   jroutb,   «tc.    Th«s«   w«r9   Tfi' 


fortnuh 


Portimoiiili 


fardfld  m  formiDg  a  Joint  community 
with  the  nuns  of  Port  Uoyal,  among 
whom  moat  of  tbem  bad  relativea. 
Among  the  number  were  Antoine  Arnauitl, 
Amauld  d'Andilly,  Lemaiatre  de  Hacy 
and  bia  two  brotben,  oil  relatives  of  tbe 
•bbeaa;  Nicole,  and  subsequently  Patical, 
wboae  aixter  Jacqueline  was  at  Port 
Royal.  Tbe  educational  inatitution,  tbua 
founded,  wbicb  flouriabed  till  lUiiO,  be- 
came a  pot/erful  rival  to  tbe  institution 
of  tbe  Jeauita,  and  as  tbe  founders 
adopted  tbe  views  of  Jansenius  (see  Jan^ 
tenutt),  aulMequentiy  condemned  by  tbe 
pope,  a  formidable  quarrel  ensued,  in 
wbicb  tbe  Port-Uoyalist  nuns,  aiding  with 
their  male  frienda,  became  subject  to  tbe 
relentless    oppo- 


PORTSMOUTH. 


IMU.I1H  Man 


•Ition  of  tbe 
Jesuits,  which 
culminated  in 
tbe  complete 
subversion  of 
their  institu- 
tion. Port  Roy- 
al des  Champs 
was  finally  sup- 
pressed by  a 
bull  of  Pope 
Clement  II 
(1709),  and  its 
property  given 
to  Port  Royal 
de  Paris.  The 
latter  continued 
its  existence  to 
the  Revolution, 
when  its  house 
was  converted 
into  a  prison,  and  subsequently  (1814) 
Into  a  maternity  hospital. 
PArfmsli    (port-rush'),    a    small   sea- 

land,  6  miles  north  of  Coleraine;  much 
resorted   to   for  sea-bntliing.     It   is   con- 
nected with  the  Giant's  Causeway  by  an 
electric  tramway.     Pop.  119G. 
Pnrt  Snirl     (p6rt-sa-§d'),   a    town  In 

ron  aaia  ^^^p^    ^^  \^^  Metiiter- 

rnnean,  at  tlie  northern  entrance  of  the 
Suez  Canr.i.  It  was  begun  simultaneously 
with  tb'.'  cannl  in  1859.  being  designed 
for  it^  termiual  port.  There  is  an  outer 
harlior  formed  by  two  piers  jutting  out 
into  the  sea,  each  terminated  by  a  small 
lighthouse.  This  admits  large  ocenn 
steamers,  wliii-h  thus  sail  into  the  inner 
harbor  and  from  it  into  the  canal.  Near 
the  entrance  to  the  inner  harbor  is  a  lofty 
tishthouMe  with  a  powerful  light.  Pop. 
(1907)  49,884. 

PnrtsAa.  (pdrt'se) ,  an  island  of 
fuibsctt  Hampshire,  England,  about 
5  milea  long  (n.  to  s.)  by  about  3  broad. 
V  comprtoea  the  towna  tA  Portsmouth  and 


Portaea,  and  several  villages,  and  Is  con- 
nected with  tlie  mainland  by  a  bridge  at 
its  north  end.     See  /'ort«niou(Jk. 

Portsmouth  (j'^J'-fmutji).  »«>«  ;»•«"- 

*wAi»u«ww«u  j.{pj,|  gtation  of  tha 
Britixh  navy,  a  seaport  of  England,  In 
Hampshire,  on  tbe  southwest  extremity 
of  the  island  of  Portsea.  It  consists  of 
the  four  districts,  Portsmouth  proper, 
Portsea,  LanUitort,  and  Southsea.  Porta- 
moiith  proper  la  a  garrison  town.  Tbe 
best  street  la  tbe  High  Street,  which 
contains  tiie  principal  shops,  hotels,  and 
places  of  business.  Portsea  is  the  seat 
of  the  naval  dockyard ;  Lnndport  is  an 
artisan  quarter;  and  Southsea  on  the  east 
side  of  the  town  of  Portsmouth  is  a  fa- 

voriie    seaside 

The  Environs  o/ 


resort,  and  com- 
mands fine  view* 
of  Spit  head  and 
the  Isle  of 
Wight.  South- 
sea Castle  with 
its  adjacent 
earthworks,  the 
batteries  of  the 
Gosport  aide, 
and  the  circular 
forts  built  out 
in  the  road- 
Rtead,  command 
the  entrauce  to 
Portsmouth 
Harbor.  Tbe 
island  of  Port- 
sen,  which  is 
separated  from 
the  mainland  by 
a  narrow  creek  califd  Portsbridge  Ca- 
nal, is  bounded  on  thf>  east  by  Lang»> 
ton  Harbor,  on  the  west  by  Portsmonth 
Harbor,  and  on  the  south  by  Spitbead 
and  the  Harlior  Channel.  The  royal 
dockyard  covers  an  area  of  about  500 
acres,  and  is  considered  the  largest  and 
most  mnsnificput  estnblishment  of  the 
kind  in  the  world.  Enclosed  by  a  wall 
14  feet  high,  and  entered  by  a  lofty  gate- 
way,  it  includes  vast  storehouses,  con- 
taining all  the  materials  requisite  for 
naval  archiecture;  machine  shops,  with 
all  modern  appliances;  extensive  slips  and 
docks,  in  wlilch  the  largest  ships  of  the 
navy  are  built  or  repaired ;  ranges  of 
handsome  residences  for  the  officials,  and 
a  Royal  Naval  College,  with  nccommo- 
dntion  for  seventy  studtots.  Outside  tbe 
dockyard- an  area  of  14  acres  t.  stains 
the  gun-whnrf,  wher<?  vast  numiiers  of 
guns  and  other  ordnance  stores  are  k?pt, 
and  an  armory  with  25,000  stand  of 
small  arms.  Portsmonth  has  no  manu- 
factures of  any  consequence,  except  those 
immediately  connected  with  its  naval  e*- 


fortamonth 

tabliahments,  and  a  few  Urge  breweries. 
m  tr«de,  both  couting  and  foreign,  ia 
of  consideMble  extent.  Of  late  yean  an 
extensive  and  syiteoatic  series  of  forti- 
katiotta  has  beoi  under  cmistnictinn  for 
the  complete  defense  of  Portsmouth. 
Tbey  extend  along  a  curve  of  al)out  U 
miles  at  the  north  side  of  Portsea  Islanci. 
A  series  of  hills,  4  miles  to  the  north  of 
Portsmouth,  and  commanding  its  front 
to  the  sea,  are  well  fortified  with  atrong 
forts.  On  the  Gosport  side  a  line  of  forts 
•xtmds  for  4  miles.  The  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  Includes  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  island  of  Portsea.  Pop. 
(1911)  281,166. 

Portsmouth,  fi.^f"??'*  of  Rocklng- 
„  _    . ,  *    ham    County,    New 

Hampshire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pla- 
eaU^a  River,  three  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  58  miles  n.  by  e.  of  Boston 
by  water;  tirst  settled  in  1(124.  The 
Government  maintains  at  this  port  a 
navy  yard  with  immense  dry  clocks,  and 
the  harbor  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most 
commodious  in  the  United  States,  with  a 
depth  sufficient  for  the  largest  battle- 
ships. The  North  America,  the  first  ship- 
of-hne  launched  in  the  Western  Uemi- 
sraere,  was  built  in  this  harbor,  and 
Ranger,  commanded  by  Captain  John 
Paul  Jones  and  '  Kearsarge '  of  Civil 
War  fame,  were  built  here.  Shoes,  but- 
tons, etc.  are  manufactured.  Portsmouth 
was  the  scene  of  the  peace  conference 
between  the  representatives  of  Russia 
and  Japan  in  1905.    Pop.  11,269. 

Portsmouth,  Sj^jy'  "'""ty  ««?*  .o' 

*v  /^u.  J  Scioto  County,  Ohio, 
on  the  Ohio  alwve  the  mouth  of  Scioto 
River,  95  miles  s.  of  Columbus.  It  is  an 
important  manufacturing  town,  its  prod- 
ucts including  lumber,  shoes,  lasts  and 
laces,  tops  for  tables,  dressers,  sideboards, 
etc.,  underwear,  gas  engines,  flour,  pre- 
pared hominy,  etc.  There  are  also  foun- 
dries, machine  and  railroad  shops,  etc. 
Pop.  27,000. 

Portsmouth,  county  seat  of  Norfolk 
AVAuuuuuw,  county,  Virginia,  oc- 
rapies  the  western  or  mainland  side  of 
the  harbor  of  Norfolk-Portsmouth,  8 
miles  from  Hampton  Roads,  on  the  Eliza- 
beth River,  with  a  channel  800  feet  wide 
and  35  deep  to  the  ocean.  Here  is  a 
urge  United  States  navy  yard,  covering 
380  acres.  The  city  has  railroad  shops 
and  manufactures  and  an  important  ex- 
port trade  in  cotton,  lumber,  early  garden 
ye^tables,  oysters,  dams  and  fish.  There 
is  here  a  large  naval  hospital  and  other 
institutions.     Pop.  38,496. 

Port  Stanley,  i;?e^Va7k1an«&U' 

M  Port  William  Inlet,  on  the  N.  b.  coast 


Portiigftl 

Of  Bast  Fklliland.    It  exports  wool,  Ud«b 
seal-fnr,  etc.    Pop.  800.  ^^ 

Port  Talbot.    Btt  Ahtmwm. 

Portnors,!  (pAr'ta-gal),  a  republic  in 
X-onu^i  the  southwest  of  Burop% 
forming  the  west  part  of  the  Ilierian  Pen- 
insula ;  iMunded  east  and  north  by  Spain, 
and  west  and  south  by  the  Atlantic; 
greatest  length,  north  to  south,  865  miles : 
greatest  breadth,  130  miles.  It  is  divided 
into  eight  provinces:  Minho,  Triu-os- 
Montes,  Beira,  Estremadura,  Alemtejo, 
Algarve,  Azores  and  Madeira,  with  a  total 
area  of  35,490  m.  miles,  and  a  population 
of  5,500,000.  The  Azores  and  Madeira 
Islands  are  regarded  as  integral  parts  of 
the  nation.  The  Portuguese  are  a  mixed 
race — originally  Iberian  or  Basque,  with 
later  Celtic  admixture.  Oalician  blood 
(derived  from  the  ancient  GaUaici,  pre- 
sumably Gallic  invaders)  predominates  in 
the  north ;  Jewish  and  Arabic  blood  are 
strongly  present  in  the  center,  and  Afri- 
can in  the  south.  The  principal  Portu- 
guese colonies  are  Goa,  Macao,  and  Timor 
(part)  in  Asia;  and  Cape  de  Verde  Is. 
Portuguese  Guinea,  the  islands  of  Sao 
Thome  and  Principe,  Angola,  and  Portu- 
guese East  Africa  in  Africa — the  total 
area  amounting  to  nearly  803,000  sq.  m., 
and  the  total  pop.  to  15,000,000. 

Physical  Featuret. — Portugal  is  only 
partiallj  separated  from  Spain  by  nataral 
boundaries.  Its  shape  is  nearly  that  of 
a  parallelogram.  The  coast-line,  of  great 
length  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
whole  surface,  runs  from  the  north  in  a 
general  8.  s.  w.  direction  till  it  reaches 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  where  it  suddenly 
turns  east.  It  is  occasionally  bold,  and 
rises  to  a  great  height;  but  far  the 
greater  part  Is  low  and  marshy,  and  not 
infrequently  lined  by  sands  and  .efs, 
which  make  the  navigation  dangerous. 
The  only  harbors  of  any  importance, 
either  from  their  excellence  or  the  trade 
carried  on  at  them,  are  those  of  Lisl)on, 
Oporto,  Setubal,  Faro,  Figueira,  Ave- 
iro,  and  Vianna.  The  interior  is  gener- 
ally mountainous,  a  number  of  ranges 
stretching  across  the  country,  forming 
a  succession  of  independent  river  basins, 
while  their  ramifications  form  the  water- 
sheds of  numerous  subsidiary  streams, 
and  enclose  many  beautiful  valleys.  The 
loftiest  range  is  the  Serra  d'Estrella,  a 
continuation  of  the  central  chain  st^'etch- 
in^  across  Spain,  which  attains  <-be 
height  of  7524  feet.  The  nucleus  of  the 
mountains  is  usually  granite,  especially 
in  the  north  and  middle.  The  minerals 
include  lead,  iron,  copper,  manganese, 
cobalt,  bismuth,  antimony,  marble,  slate, 
salt,  saltpeter,  Uthogmphic  st<»«s,  mlU* 


Vortimtl 


Portugal 


•tone*,  and  porcelain  ear^h.  No  riT«n  of 
Iniportanc*  Uke  their  riae  in  Portugal. 
Tlie  Minho  in  tlie  north,  the  Douro,  and 
the  Tagna  ail  rise  in  Spain  and  flow 
from  eaat  to  west-  The  (iuadiana  is  the 
only  large  river  which  Hows  mainly  south. 
Portugal  can  only  claim  as  peculiarly  her 
own  the  Vouga    Aloudego,  and  8ado. 

Climate  and  Productiona. —  The  climate 
ia  greatly  moditied   by   the  proximity  of 
the  sea  and  th:  height  of  the  mountnios. 
In  general  the  winter  is  short  and  luild, 
and  in  some  places  never  completely  in- 
terrupts the  course  of  vegetation.     Early 
in  February  vegetation  is  in  full  vigor; 
during   the   month   of   July   the   heat    is 
often  rxtreme,  and  the  country  assumes, 
particularly  in   Its  lower  levels,  a  very 
parched   appearance.    The  drought   gen- 
erally continues  into  September ;  then  the 
rains  begin,  and  a  second  spring  unfolds. 
Winter  begins  at  the  end  of  November. 
In   the  mountainous  districts   the   loftier 
summits  obtain  a  covering  of  snow,  which 
they  retain  for  months;  but  south  of  the 
Douro,  and  at  a  moderate  elevation,  snow 
does  not  lie  long.     The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of   Lisbon   is  about  50".     Few 
countries  have  a  more  varied  flora  than 
Portugal.     The    number    of    species    has 
been   estimated   to   exceed   40(K),    and    of 
these  more  than  3000  are  phaneroKamous. 
Many  of  the  mountains  are  clothed  with 
forest    trees,   among   which   the   common 
oak  and  the  cork  oak  are  conspicuous. 
In   the   central   provinces  chestnuts   are 
prevalent :  in  the  south  both  the  date  and 
the  American  aloe  are  found ;   while  in 
the   warmer  districts  the  orange,   lemon, 
and    olive   are    cultivated    with    success. 
The  mulberry  affords  food  for  the  silk- 
worm, and  a  good  deal  of  excellent  silk 
is  produced.     The  vine,  too,  is  cultivated, 
ana  large  quantities  of  wine  are  sent  to 
Britain   (especially  port  wine>,  and  also 
to   France,  being  in   the  latter  country 
converted    into    Bordeaux    wine.    Agri- 
culture  generally,  however,  is  at  a  low 
ebb,  and  in  ordinary  years  Portugal  fails 
to    raise    cereals    sufficient   to   meet    its 
own  consumption.    Among  domestic  ani- 
mals raised  are  mules  of  a  superior  breed, 
sheep,  goats,  and  hogs;  but  up  to  a  very 
few  years  ago  little  attention  was  paid 
to  their  improvnnent    In  conseouence  of 
recent  reforms,  however,  theie  has  been 
a  marked  improvement  in  most  branches 
of   industry.    More   homed    cattle   have 
bt&x  raised  and  of  a  better  Quality,  and 
live  stock  now  figurea  with  timber  and 
wine  among  the  chief  exports.    The  fish- 
eries, ao  \otit  n^lected,  have  also  been 
revived  in  recent  years. 

Mantufaetum,   Inimttrtf,   eio. —  Mana- 
(■fitorca  are  of  limited  aaoont,  although 

U— 8 


they  hare  been  increasing  of  late  yeuft 
Portugal  ia  not  a  manufacturing  couatrfi 
what  industry  there  is  is  prindpally  eoB^ 
centrated  in  the  two  chief  towna,  LiaiNMl 
and  Oporto.  In  all,  some  600,000  penona 
are  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits,  and  of 
these  nearly  60,000  are  employed  wearinff 
wool.  The  rest  cut  cork,  manufacture 
cotton,  linen,  silk,  leather,  glaaa  and  potoe- 
lain,  paper,  and  gold  and  aUver  fiUgreet 
and  carry  on  various  other  indnstriee. 
Besides  wine,  the  principal  general  ex- 
ports are  cork,  copper,  ore,  live  cattle^ 
sheep,  horses,  and  pigs,  wool,  sardinaa, 
olive-oil,  eggs,  potatoes  and  onions.  The 
total  imports  of  Portugal  in  1912  reacliad 
a  total  of  $746,000,000 ;  the  exports  in  the 
same  period  being  worth  $346,000,000. 
The  coast  fisheries  employ  a  large  numt>er 
of  people,  the  sardine  and  tunny  bdng 
the  principal  fish  taken. 

Oovemnient. — The  government,  now  a 
republic,  was  until  1910  a  monarchy,  the 
crown  hereditary  both  in  the  male  and 
female  line.  The  constitution  recognised 
four  powers  in  the  state — the  legisIatiTe, 
executive,  judicial,  and  moderating,  the 
last  vested  in  the  sovereign.  There  were 
two  chambers,  the  Chamber  of  Peera  and 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  House  of 
Deputies  consisted  of  149  members  elected 
directly  by  all  dtiaens  above  twenty-one 
years  of  age  who  possess  certain  qualifi- 
cations of  property  or  status.  In  external 
affairs  the  new  government  professes  to 
remain  faithful  to  traditional  allianeee 
and  responsibilities.  Under  the  conatita- 
tion  of  1911,  there  are  two  legialatiTe 
chambers — a  National  Council  and  a  Sen- 
ate. The  council  is  elected  by  direct  aof- 
frage  for  three  years.  The  aenata  ia 
elected  by  the  municipal  coiudla,  lialf  the 
members  retiring  every  three  years.  The 
two  chambers  uuited  constitute  the  Gon- 

Sess  of  the  republic.  The  president  of 
e  republic  is  elected  by  both  chambera 
for  a  period  of  four  years.  He  cannot  be 
re-elected. 

Hittory, —  The  Phoenicians,  Cartha* 
ginians,  and  Greeks  early  traded  to  thia 
part  of  the  peninsula,  the  original  inhab- 
itants of  which  are  spoken  of  as  Lusi- 
tanians,  the  country  being  called  Lnsi- 
tania.  It  was  afterwards  conquered  by 
.'he  Romans,  who  introduced  into  it  tbeur 
own  civilisation.  The  countn  was  after> 
wards  inundated  by  Alans,  Suevi,  Goths, 
and  Vandals,  and  in  the  eighth  centoiy 
(712)  was  conquered  by  the  Saracena. 
When  the  Spaniards  finally  wrested  the 
country  between  the  Minho  and  the 
Douro  from  Moorish  banda,  they  placed 
counts  or  governors  over  this  region. 
Hwiy  the  Xoonser  of  Btugaady,  graai- 


Yoxtog&l 


Fortngftl 


■on  of  Hugh  Capet,  came  into  Spain 
about  lOUU,  to  aeelc  hia  fortune  in  the 
wan  acainat  the  Moon.  Aipbonw  M 
gave  him  the  hand  of  bii  daughter,  and 
appointed  him  (10U3)  count  and  gov- 
ernor of  the  provinc-ea  Eotre  Douro  e 
Ilinho,  Traz-os-Mootea,  part  of  Beira, 
etc.  The  count,  wlio  owed  feudal  aervicea 
to  the  Caatilian  iiings,  waa  permitted  to 
hoSd  in  hia  own  right  whatever  conqueatH 
be  ahouid  malce  from  the  Moora  beyond 
the  Tagua  (1112).  Henry'a  aon.  Al- 
phonao  I,  defeated  Alpbonao,  Icing  of 
Caatile,  in  1137,  and  made  himself  inde- 
pendent. In  1130  he  gained  tb<>  brilliant 
victory  of  Ourique  over  the  Wooi-«,  nnd 
waa  aaluted  on  the  field  as  King  of  I'or- 
tugal.  The  cortea  convened  by  Alphonso 
in  1143  at  Lamego  confirmed  bim  in  the 
royal  title,  and  in  1181  gave  to  the  king- 
dom a  code  of  laws  and  a  conatitutlnn. 
Alpbonao  extended  his  dominions  to  the 
bordera  of  Algarve,  and  took  Santarem 
in  1143.  The  capture  of  Lisbon  (1147) 
which  waa  effected  by  the  aid  of  some 
English  Crusaders  and  others,  wns  one 
of  the  moat  brilliant  events  of  bis  warlike 
life.  The  aucceeding  reigns  from  Al- 
pbonao I  to  Dionysiua  (1279)  are  note- 
worthy chiefly  for  the  conquest  of  Al- 
garve (1251)  and  a  conflict  with  the 
pope,  WDo  aeveral  timea  put  the  kingdom 
under  interdict.  Dionysius'  wise  en- 
couragement of  commerce,  agriculture, 
manufacturea,  and  navigation  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  future  greatnesa  of 
Portugal.  He  liberally  patronized  learn- 
ing, and  founded  a  university  at  Lisbon, 
tranaferred  in  1308  to  Coimbra.  By 
theae  and  other  acts  of  a  wise  and  benefi- 
cent administration  he  earned  the  title 
of  father  of  hia  country.  He  was  auc- 
ceeded  by  Alphonso  IV,  who  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Alpbonao  II  of  Castile  defeated 
the  Moon  at  Salado  in  1340.  He  mur- 
dered Inez  de  Castro,  the  wife  of  hia 
aon  Pedro  (1355)  (see  Inez  de  Castro), 
who  succeeded  him.  Dying  in  1367, 
Pedro  I  waa  succeeded  by  Ferdinand, 
on  whose  death  in  1383  the  male  line  of 
the  Burgundian  princes  became  extinct. 
Hia  daughter  Beatrice,  wife  of  the  King 
of  Caatile,  ahouid  have  aucceeded  him; 
but  the  Portngueae  were  so  aversa  to  a 
connection  with  Castile  thr'  John  I. 
natural  aon  of  Pedro,  grand-master  of 
the  order  of  Avis  (founded  in  1162),  waa 
minted  king  by  the  eatatea.  In  1415  he 
took  Ccata,  on  the  African  coast,  the 
nnt  of  a  series  of  enterprises  which  re- 
■ulted  in  those  great  expeditions  of  dis- 
covery on  which  the  renown  of  Portunl 
rests.  In  this  reign  were  founded  the 
W?i.-F'*'*.''/H*^  colonies,  Porto  Santo 
.(1418).    l&dein    (142()),    the    Aixxw 


(1438),  and  tboM  on  the  Gkid  Cout 
The  reigna  of  his  son  Edward  (1433^18) 
and  hia  grandson  Alpbooao  V  w.*ra  law 
brilliant  than  that  of  John  I:  b->t  tlie 
latter  waa  aurpaaaed  by  that  of  J  II 
(1481-85),  perhaps  the  ablest  of  &'ortu> 
gafa  rulen.     In  hia  reign  liecan  a  vio- 


lent atruggle  with  the  nobility,  whoa* 
power  had  become  very  great  under  hia 
indulgent   predeceaoora.    The  expeditions 


of  discovery  were  continued  with  ardor 
and  scientific  method.  Bartolommeo 
Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  of  Uood  Hope  in 
1487,  and  Vasco  da  Gama  reached  India 
in  140a  In  1500  Cabral  took  posaea- 
sion  of  BraziL  (See  Volonv.)  While 
these  great  eventa  were  still  in  progreaa 
John  II  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin 
Emanuel  (1405-1521).  The  conqueata  of 
Albuquerque  and  Almeida  made  him 
master  of  numeroua  poKsenslona  in  the 
islands  and  mainland  of  India,  and  in 
1518  Loiie  de  Soarea  opened  a  commerce 
with  China.  Emanuel  ruled  from  Bab  el 
Mandeb  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  and 
the  power  of  Portugal  had  now  reached 
its  height.  In  the  reign  of  John  III, 
son  of  Emanuel  (1521-57),  Indian  dis- 
coveries and  commerce  were  atiii  further 
e:ktended;  but  the  rapid  accumulation  of 
wealth  through  the  importation  oi  the 
precioua  metala,  and  the  monopoly  of 
the  commerce  between  Europe  Mid  India, 
proved  disadvantageous  to  home  indna- 
try.  The  ^visdom  which  had  hitherto 
ao  largely  guided  the  couuseln  of  the  kinga 
of  Portugal  now  seemed  to  forsake  them. 
The  Inquisition  waa  introduced  (1536), 
and  the  Jesuits  were  admitted  (1640). 
Sebastian,  the  grandson  of  John  III,  who 
had  introduced  the  Jesuits,  having  had 
his  mind  inflamed  by  them  against  the 
Moora  of  Africa,  lost  his  life  in  the 
battle  against  these  infidels  (1678),  apd 
left  hia  throne  to  the  disputes  of  rival 
candidates,  of  whom  the  most  powerfui, 
Philip  II  of  Spain,  obtained  posseaaion 
of  the  kingdom  by  the  victory  of  Alcan- 
tara. The  Spanish  yoke  waa  grievona  to 
the  Portuguese,  and  many  efforta  wer» 
made  to  break  it ;  but  the  power  of  Philip 
was  too  great  to  be  shaken.  Portugal  con- 
tinned  under  the  (dominion  of  Spain  tilt 
1640,  and  her  va  t  colonial  possessions 
were  united  to  t>  .  already  splendid  ac- 
quisitions of  her  rival.  But  these  now 
began  to  fall  into  the  handa  of  the  Dutch, 
who,  being  provoked  bv  hostile  meaanres 
of  Philip,  attacked  the  Portngueae  aa 
well  aa  the  Spaniah  possesaiona  both  in 
India  and  America.  They  deprived  the 
Portuguese  of  the  Moluceaa,  of  their 
settlements  in  Guinea,  of  Malacca,  and. 
of  Ceylon.  They  alao  acquired  about; 
half  of  BrasU.   which,  aftar  tb^  ^^Ih^ 


foftngAl 


POTtVgtl 


II 


tablkhfliimt  <rf  PortngacM  iiid«p«ndeiic«, 
tiMjr  Mrtortd  for  a  pecuniar/  coinp«iiM> 
Uon.  In  IMO,  by  «  ■ucc«tarul  rvvoit  of 
the  coblM,  Portugal  recovered  her  indc- 
p«ad«nce,  and  John  IV,  Duke  of  Bra* 
gaua,  reicned  till  IGSti,  when  lie  was 
•ueceeded  by  AlpbouMO  Vi.  AlpbouMi 
ceded  Tangier  and  Bombay  to  England 
aa  the  dowry  of  bia  daugbter,  who  beiauie 
the  queen  of  Cbarlea  If.  Pedro  II,  wlio 
depose<l  Alpbon««>  VI,  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Spain  (1U68),  by  which  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country  was  acknowl- 
edged.  During  the  long  reign  of  John 
V  (1706-80)  some  vigor  wa8  exerted  in 
regard  to  foreign  relatioDM,  while  under 
bia  ion  and  aucceuor  Joseph  I  (1730- 
77)  the  Marquis  of  Ponibal,  a  vigorous 
reformer  such  as  Portugal  required,  ad- 
ministered  the  government.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Maria  Frauciaca  Irabella, 
eldest  daughter  of  Joseph,  in  1777,  the 
power  was  in  the  bands  of  an  ignorant 
nobility  and  a  not  less  ignorant  clergy. 
In  1702,  on  account  of  the  sickness  of  the 
queen,  Juan  Maria  Jos^,  Prince  of  Brasil 
(the  title  of  the  prince-royal  until  181U), 
was  declared  regent.  His  connections 
with  England  involved  him  in  war  with 
Napoleon;  Portugal  was  occupied  by  a 
French  force  under  Junot,  and  the  royal 
family  fled  to  Brazil  In  1808  a  British 
force  was  landed  under  Wellington,  and 
after  some  hard  fighting  the  decisive 
tiattle  of  Vimeira  took  place  (August 
21),  which  was  followed  by  the  Con- 
vention of  Cintra  and  the  evacuation  of 
the  country  by  the  French.  The  French 
soon  returned,  however;  but  the  opera- 
tions of  Wellington,  and  in  pnrticular 
the  strength  of  his  position  within  the 
lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  forced  them  to 
retire.  The  Portuguese  nov/  took  an 
active  part  in  the  war  for  Spanish  inde- 
pendence. On  the  death  of  Maria,  in 
1816,  John  VI  ascended  the  throne  of 
Portugal  and  Brazil,  in  which  latter 
country  he  still  continued  to  reside.  The 
absence  of  the  court  was  viewed  with 
dislike  by  the  nation,  and  the  general  feel- 
ing required  some  fund,  "cental  changes 
in  the  government.  A  revolution  in  favor 
of  constitutional  government  was  effected 
without  bloodshed  in  1820,  and  the  king 
invited  to  return  home,  which  he  now  did. 
In  1822  Brazil  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Por- 
tugal, and  proclaimed  Dom  Pedro,  son  of 
John  VI,  emperor.  John  VI  died  in 
1826,  having  named  the  Infanta  Isabella 
Maria  regent.  She  governed  in  the  name 
of  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  Dom  Pedro  IV 
of  Portugal,  who  granted  a  new  consti- 
tntion,  modeM  on  the  French,  in  1826. 
In  this  year  be  abdicated  the .  Portu- 
^OSM  tlmnM  In  hivor  of  his  daugbtec 


Maria  da  Gloria,  imposing  on  her  tb« 
condition  of  marrying  her  uncle  Dom 
Miguel,  who  was  entrusted  with  the  gov- 
ernment as  regent:  but  the  absolutist 
party  in  Portugal  set  up  the  claim  ot 
Dom  Miguel  to  an  unlimited  sover- 
eignty, and  a  revolution  in  his  flivot 
placed  him  on  the  throne  in  1^8.  In 
1831  Dom  Pedro  resigned  the  Brazilian 
crown,  and  returning  to  Europe  sne* 
ceeded  in  overthrowing  Dom  Miguel,  and 
restoring  the  crown  to  Maria  in  IKiS, 
dying  himself  in  1834.  In  1830  a  suc- 
cessful  revolution  took  place  in  favor  of 
the  restoration  of  the  constitution  of 
1820,  and  in  1842  another  in  favor  of 
that  of  1820.  Slaria  died  in  1853.  Her 
husband,  Ferdinand  of  Saze-Cobarg 
(Dom  Ferdiuand  II),  became  regent  for 
his  and  her  son,  Pedro  V.  who  bimaelf 
took  the  reins  of  government  in  18!S5. 
Pedro  died  in  1801,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  Louis  I.  Louia  died  in 
1880.  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Carlos  I.  During  these  latter  reigna  the 
state  of  Portugal  was  generally  fairly 
prosperous  and  progressive.  King  (Jarloa 
was  assassinated  by  revolutionists  Feb. 
1,  1908,  with  bis  oldest  son,  the  second 
son,  born  1880,  ascending  the  throne 
under  title  of  Manuel  II.  In  the  recent 
division  of  Africa  between  the  nations 
Portugal  lost  part  of  her  territory  hi  that 
continent. 

The  dissatisfaction  of  the  people  with 
the  metliods  pursued  by  the  government, 
which  was  manifested  in  the  assassina- 
tion of  Carlos  I,  grew  still  more  marked 
under  his  injudicious  youthful  successor 
and  the  corrupt  and  expensive  adminkh 
tration  of  the  departmental  offlciala,  and 
on  October  3,  lOlO.  a  sudden  revolu- 
tionary movement  broke  out  in  tiM 
streets  of  Lisbon.  Socialistic  and  re- 
publican sentiment  had  invaded  the 
army,  many  of  the  troops  joining  tlw 
revolutionists,  and  the  outbreak  made 
such  rapid  and  successful  progress  that 
by  the  5th  Manuel  bad  fled  the  kingdom 
and  a  republic  was  proclaimed,  under  the 
presidency  of  Theophile  Braga,  a  poet 
and  historian.  Dr.  Bernardino  Machado 
was  elected  president  August  6,  1916. 

When  the  European  war  broke  out  in 
1914  the  government  declared  that  Porto- 
gal  would  stand  by  her  old  treaty  of  alli- 
ance with  England  and  the  forces  of  the 
Portuguese  colonies  were  strengthened 
and  co-operated  against  German  West 
African  territory.  An  attempt  to  restore 
the  monarchy  was  made  in  1815,  but  was 
unsuccessful.  In  February,  1916,  Portu- 
gal seised  a  number  of  German  vessels; 
and  Germany,  denouncing  the  act  as  a 
violation  of  treaty  obligations,  declared 


fwrtigtl 


QiiiM 


WW  «i  Portugal  March  0.  PortafOM* 
Uwrpm  w«r«  oiwd  on  tha  wcatam  front  m 
wall  aa  in  Africa.    See  Emroptit  Wmr. 

Ltrntuatt  and  LUtftmn, —  Tba  diffar- 
ancaa  oatwaan  Portngaaaa  and  Spaniah 
knfoagaa  ara  of  eomparativaljr  modam 
origin,  tba  two  langnagaa  baing  vanr 
naarly  alika  in  tba  tima  of  Alpbonao  I. 
Tba  diaiaet  of  Spaniah  apolian  in  Por- 
tugal at  tba  beginning  of  tha  monarchy 
waa  tba  Qaliciaa,  which  waa  alao  that 
of  tha  court  of  Leon ;  but  that  court  sub- 
aequMitlT  adapted  the  Caatilian,  which 
beama  tna  dominant  language  of  Spain. 
Tba  decline  of  the  Oalician  dialect  hi 
Spain  and  the  formation  of  the  Portu- 
gnaaa  language  finally  determined  the 
aaparation  of  Spaniih  and  Portugueae, 
and  from  cognate  dialectn  made  them  dis- 
tinct languages.  Portugueae  is  consid- 
ered to  have  ieaa  dignity  than  the  Span- 
iah, but  la  superior  to  it  in  flexibility.  In 
aome  pointa  of  pronunciation  it  more 
raaemblea  French  than  Spanish.  It  is 
alao  the  language  of  Brazil.  The  oldeat 
monuments  of  Portuguese  literature  do 
not  go  back  further  than  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  the  native 
literature  could  then  boast  of  nothing 
mora  than  popular  songs.  The  first 
Portugueae  coliecticm  of  poetry  (oan^ 
eioneiro)  waa  made  by  King  Dionyaiua. 
and  waa  published  under  the  title  of 
C*ttoitme4ro  del  Bey  Dom  Dinia.  Some 
poems  on  the  death  of  his  wife  are  at- 
tributed to  Pedro  I,  husband  of  Inez  de 
Caatro.  The  sons  and  grandsons  of  John 
I  were  poets  and  patrons  of  the  trouba- 
dours. B&  de  Miranda  marks  the  transi- 
tion from  the  fifteenth  to  the  sixteenth 
ccntunr  and  the  separation  of  the  Portu- 
gueae from  the  other  Spanish  dialects  and 
from  the  language  of  the  troubadoura. 
The  sixteenth  century  is  the  classic  era 
of  Portuguese  literature.  The  chief 
names  are  Sft  de  Miranda,  Antonio  Fer- 
leira,  Camoens,  Diego  Bemardes,  An- 
drade  Camtaiha,  and  Alvaree  do  Oriente. 
The  principal  epic  and  the  greatest  poem 
in  the  Portuguese  literature,  almost  the 
only  one  which  has  acquired  a  European 
nputation,  ia  0<  Lunadas  (The  Portu- 
foeae)  of  Oamoena  (1524-80),  which  baa 
placed  ita  writer  in  the  rank  of  the  few 
great  poeta  of  the  highest  clasa  whose 

Sniua  ia  uniyersally  recognized.  After 
imoena  aa  an  epic  writer  comes  Cor- 
tereal,  who  baa  celebrated  the  siege  of 
um.  and  the  shipwreck  of  SepuiVeda. 
Yasco  de  Lobeiro,  Francisco  Moraes,  and 
Bamardim  Ribeiro  are  am<mK  the  lead- 
ing romance  writers.  The  drama  also 
began  to  be  cultlrated  in  the  sixteenth 
eantnry.  8&  de  Mfaranda  studied  and  imi- 
tated  riautua.    Ferreira   compoaed   the 


flnt  rcfolar  trafady,  /nat  it  Omttf, 
Camoana  wrote  aavaral  tbaatrleal  piaea. 
among  which  an  AmpMtrffcm  mni  BU—> 
eu$.  Bama,  alao  a  romanea  writar, 
wrote  a  Uittorff  of  tkt  Conquett  of  irndt*. 
The  OomiwafitaHat  of  Alpbonao  d'Albo- 
querque,  by  a  nephew  of  tha  conqueror: 
the  Ckromole  of  King  Jfaaael  imd  of 
Prince  John,  by  Damlan  da  Ooea;  tha 
Hittorp  of  the  Diaooverp  and  CoafMSl 
of  the  Indiet,  by  Lopta  de  Caatanhula; 
the  Chronicle  of  King  Behnttimn,  by 
Diego  Bernardo  Crus,  are  all  works  of 
merit.  By  the  openinK  of  the  aa^an* 
teenth  century  PortugaPa  literary  great* 
neaa  had  been  succeeded  by  one  of  grant 
activity,  though  of  little  real  power.  A 
crowd  of  epics  were  stimulated  Into  baing 
by  the  success  of  the  Lntiad.  During 
this  period  the  native  drama  became  al- 
moat  extinct,  being  overabadowed  by  tba 
Spanish.  In  the  eighteenth  century  tha 
Infiuence  of  the  French  writers  or  tba 
age  of  Louis  XIV  so  completely  domi- 
nated Portuguese  literature  that  it  be- 
came almost  entirely  imitative.  Towards 
the  close  of  this  century  two  writer* 
appeared  who  have  formed  acbools,  Fran- 
cisco Manoel  do  Naacimento  (1784- 
1820),  an  elegant  lyriat,  and  Barboaa  du 
Socage,  who  introduced  an  affected  and 
hyperbolical  style  of  writing.  Among 
more  recent  poets  possessing  some  claim 
to  originality  may  be  mentioned  Mouainho 
de  Albuqueraue,  Feliciano  Castilho,  Her- 
culano  de  CarvAlho,  Almeida  Ckrrett, 
Thomas  Ribeiro  and  Theophile  Braga; 
among  novelists  are  Carvalho,  Oarratt, 
Julio  Dinlz,  and  Rebello  de  Silva. 
Among  historians  Braga  stands  first 
Through  the  efforts  of  these  and  otbeia 
Portuguese  literature  baa  again  b«gnn 
to  assume  an  aspect  of  native  vigor.  In 
art  Portugal  has  never  distinguished  her- 

Portuguese  East  Africa,  J/*J*^ 

tugal,  on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  is 
bounded  on  the  n.  by  German  East 
Africa,  w.  by  British  Central  Africa  Pro- 
tectorate, Lake  Nyassa,  Rhodesia,  and  the 
Transvaal  Colony,  and  8.  by  NataL  Ita 
area  is  301,000  sq.  m.  The  recion  con- 
tains the  ports  of  Mosambioue,  loo,  Quill- 
maue,  Cuinde,  Beira,  Innambane,  and 
Lorenco  Marques,  the  last  named  being 
the  seat  of  government    Pop.  8,120,000. 

Portngucse  Guinea,  ^^^^  „»« 

the  coast  of  Senegambia,  W.  Afiiau  It 
indttdeb  the  Bissagos  Is.  olf  the  coast  It 
produces  rubber,  wax,  ivfwr,  hides,  rice, 
palm  oil,  etc.  Ita  capital  la  Bulama  on 
the  i^nd  of  aama  anne,  with  a  pop.  of 

about  aooooa       ^^  * 


iBdiA 


PodtiTe  MiiloiDihy 


BnrtifiiMe  India,  SSS  l^^K 

2.  «OMt  <1)  Ooa,  2B0  m.  ■.«.■.  off 
Milwir.  Atm.  1469  iq.  m.  (2)D»iBao» 
IQP  B.  K.  of  Bombay.  Afm,  169  iq.  m. 
it)  Tk»  maU  tsL  of  Dlu.  1^  m.  w.  of 


Area,  2  wj.  m.    Touu  pop.  OdB,* 


(t)  Th« 
fluwiao 

Portnlaoes  iSir-?;!';;*^;  ii,SS 

few  •zonaa,  conaUting  of  annual,  per*n- 
Blalt  harbacaooa,  or  ahrubby  plants.  The 
oaljr  apedea  of  any  importance  \n  Fort*' 
M«*  OMroo^a,  or  common  puralane,  wbidi 
is  a  llaahjr,  prostrate  annual. 
Pftrt  Win#     ia  a   very   stronf,   full* 

ron  Wine,  f^^^^^  ^,„e  p?oduc«i 

la  th4  upper  valley  of  the  Douro,  Por- 

a;al,  ana  haa  its  name  from  the  place  of 
pmantj  Oporto.  It  ia  aligbtly  aatrin* 
mnt,  and  haa  a  color  varyinc  from  pink 
to  red.  It  requires  three  or  four  yeara  to 
mature,  and  with  age  becomea  tawny;  it 
reoeitea  a  certain  proportion  of  spint  to 
haaten  the  prtKess  of  preparation.   Larg* 

Suantitles  of  artificial  port  are  made,  par* 
icularly  in  the  United  States. 

PnutidAn  (po-sI'dOn),  the  Greek  god 
rOKiaon  ^f  ^^^  ^^^  identified  by  the 
Romans  with  the  Italian  deity  Nep- 
tunua.  A  Mon  of  Kronos  and  Rhea,  and 
hence  a  brother  of  Zeus,  Hftra,  and 
D<emeter,  be  was  regarded  as  only  inferior 
in  power  to  Zeus.  His  usual  residence 
was  In  the  depths  of  the  sea  near  MtsK, 
in  Eubosa,  and  the  attributes  ascribed  and 
most  of  the  myths  regarding  him  have 
reference  to  the  phenomena  of  the  sea. 
The  horse,  and  more  particularly  the 
war-horse,  was  sacred  to  Poselddn,  and 
one  of  the  symbols  of  bis  'H>wer.  Dar- 
ing the  Trojan  war  Poseidfin  waa  the 
conatant  enemy  of  Troy,  and  after  ita 
close  he  is  described  as  thwarting  the 
return  of  UlysHcs  to  his  home  for  bis 
having  killed  Polyphemus,  a  son  of  the 
god.  Poseidon  was  married  to  Amphi- 
tritA.  Hia  worship  waa  common  through- 
out Greece  and  the  Greek  colonies,  but  ea- 
pecially  prevailed  in  the  maritime  towna. 
The  Isthmian  games  were  held  in  hla 
honor.  In  works  of  art  Posefddn  is 
represented  with  features  resembling 
those  of  Zeus,  and  often  bears  the  tddent 
ia  his  right  hand.  A  common  reprasen- 
tation  of  him  ia  as  drawn  in  bia  chariot 
over  the  aurface  of  the  sea  by  himracampa 
(monsters  like  borsen  in  front  and  fiahea 
behind)  or  other  fabuloua  animals, 
fnuin  (pA'sea),  a  town  of  Found. 
x^useu  iormeriy  in  Prosaia,  capitidcHf 
the  province  dt  tne  same  name,  aituated 
on  the  WardM^  140  miles  east  \a  south 
of  Berlin.  It  is  sarrounded  by  two 
Unea  oi  fwt«,  Is  bolb  Mtfa  considera- 


Us  rafalarhyt  has  ftMrally  Am  wMs 
atrsets,  and  ansMrons  aquans  sr 
apaeaa.    The    SMst    aotawortk/ 

baildlaga  are  the  catbadral,  ia  tte  

atyle  (1T75),  the  towa  pariih  ehaiek* 
a  flat  baiMiaf  ia  the  Itallaa  stjria,  b«tk 
Romaa  Catholic:  tba  towa-boosa  (UWl), 
with  a  lofty  tower;  the  Racajraskt  LI* 
brary:  the  municipal  archive  belkUag, 
etc.  The  man  of  acta  rea  coaalat  ckltfljr  w 
agricaitaral  machiaca,  maanres,  woolaa 
and  linen  tissues,  carriagea,  Icatbw,  lse> 
querware,  etc.  There  are  alao  btawer- 
lea  and  diatiUeriea.  Pop.  lS6,691v-/rka 
province  is  bounded  by  West  Praaala, 
Russian  Poland.  Sileala,  and  Braadaa' 
burg;  area,  11,178  sq.  miles.  The  ear 
face  ia  flat,  and  extenaively  occupied  by 
iakea  and  marabea.  A  amall  portkm  oa 
the  northeast  belongs  to  the  baaia  of  the 
Vistula ;  all  the  reat  fi  the  baaia  of  tbo 
Oder.  The  soil  is  mostly  of  a  light  sad 
sandy  character,  yielding  grain,  aUllstt 
flax,  bemp,  tobacco,  and  hope.  Forests 
occupv  ao  per  cent,  of  the  surface.  The 
inhdbltanta  include  many  Qermana,  eSM- 
cially  in  the  towna,  but  conataersMy 
more  than  half  are  Poles,  Poaea  bciaff 
one  of  the  acquisitions  which  Praaala 
made  by  the  dismemberment  of  Poland. 
Hy  the  pence  of  1910  (see  rre««|r),  it 
lM>came  part  of  Poland.     Pop.  l,8oB,0W. 

PosidoniuS  <|:irSrptt;'  ll^ra^*'^  ' 
Syria,  about  135  B.O.  He  settled  aa  a 
teacher  at  Rhodes,  whence  he  ia  called 
the  Rhodian.  The  moat  diatingaiiAed 
Romana  were  bia  acholars,  and  Cicero 
waa  initiated  by  him  into  the  Stoic  phllos* 
ophy.  Removing  to  Rome  ia  51  BA, 
he  died  not  long  after.  In  hla  i^ysleai 
investigationa  he  waa  more  a  follower  ol 
Ariatotle  than  of  the  Stoic  acbooL 
PoailiTio  (po-a«'lip-po),  an  aailaiaes 
rouupo  ^^ph  boanda  the  dty  sf 
Naplea  on  the  west.  It  Is  trsveraed  1^ 
a  tunnel  called  the  Grotto  of  PosUlpo^ 
2244  feet  long,  from  21  to  82  feet  wide, 
with  a  height  varving  from  25  to  60 
feet,  through  which  nina  the  road  to 
Possuoli.  Thia  tunnel  is  remarkable  in 
its  antiquity,  t>eing  conatructed  ia  the 
reign  of  Auguatua.  A  aecond  tanael  has 
recently  been  constructed  for  the  tramway 
from  Naplea  to  Poxzuoli. 

Positive  <P°?''"*''^' J°.  P5"?*~5fe' 

AVMMvv  jj  picture  obtained  by  prtait* 
ing  from  a  ntgttive,  in  which  the  lights 
and  ahadea  are  rendered  aa  thegr  are  la 
nature.    See  Pfuttography.  

Poiitivc  Philosophy,  S^uS^tE 

name  given  by  Augaste  Oonts  to  tiM 
phikwophical  and  religiooa  aystem  pio- 
malgated  by  him   (chiefly  in  his  (Jssrt 


iMillvt  mkwphy 


Jt  Fiktt«M»M«  l*otttlM.  ISMM^^Md 
&  poMbvBOiM  IfMsy*  ON  JMt0h»j. 
Tte  ibUoinMiiof  idta  which  li««  at  iba 
toot  of  tbb  twofold  iirMtai  >  tho  cob- 
coplioo  th«t  th«  tBonaliM  of  oar  oodal 
uMMi  eunot  bt  rtfomad  aolll  tbt  tho* 
orlM  npoB  whkb  it  io  ■bopml  bavt  htm 
bniifht  taito  eomplttff  banuoay  with  kI- 
tBc*.  Tho  iMdiDg  idMt  of  Comtv's  pbi- 
looophy  art  (1)  tba  claMiflcation  of  tba 
arivBCM  in  tba  order  of  tbcir  davelopment, 
proecadlBf  from  tba  almpier  to  tba  mora 
compiai  —  matbamatica.  aatronomy,  pbya- 
ica.  cbamlatry,  biology  and  aoriology :  and 
(2)  tba  doctrine  of  tba  '  three  atagea,'  or 
Ibe  three  aspecta  in  wbiob  tba  liuman 
mind  BucceaKively  viewa  the  worid  of 
phenomena,  namely,  the  theological,  tba 
metapbyaical.  and  the  acientlBc.  Tbia 
lltrary  of  the  three  atagee,  one  of  tba 
moet  characterialic  of  Comte'a  ayBtem.  ia 
Ihus  euccinctly  aUted  by  George  Ileury 

'  Every  branch  of  knowledge  paaaea 
aiirreasively  through  three  atngea.  lat, 
the  Mupcrnaiurul  or  fictitious;  2d,  the 
metaphyiical  or  nbmtmct ;  3il.  the  po$itice 
or  rck>ntitic.  The  lirxt  is  the  neo»HMiary 
point  of  departure  tnlcen  by  human  in- 
teiiigence:  the  second  is  merely  a  stage 
of  transition  from  tbo  supernatural  to 
the  positive:  and  the  third  bi  the  fixed 
and  definite  condition  in  which  knowl- 
edge ia  alone  capable  of  progrcarfive  de- 
velopment. In  the  Mupernatural  stage 
tba  mind  aeeka  after  cauaeti  aspirea  to 
know  the  e$tenera  of  thinga  and  their 
modea  of  operation.  It  regards  all  ef- 
fects as  the  productions  of  suiicrnatural 
•gents,  whose  intervculion  is  the  cauat 
of  all  the  apparent  anomalies  and  irreg- 
olnritiea.  Nature  ia  animated  by  super- 
human beinga.  Everv  unusual  phenom- 
enon ia  a  sign  of  the  pleasure  or 
displeasure  of  some  being  adored  and  pro- 
pitiated as  a  God.  In  the  metapbyaical 
atage,  which  is  only  a  modlflcatlon  of  the 
former,  but  w-liich  is  imirartant  aa  a 
tranaitional  stace,  the  8uperu.itural  agents 
give  place  to  abstract  forces  (iM'rsonified 
abatractions)  supiiofiod  to  inhere  in  the 
varioua  sulnttauces,  nnd  capable  tbem- 
aelrea  of  engendering  phenomena.  The 
highest  condition  of  this  stnge  Is  when  all 
these  .forces  are  brought  umler  one  gen- 
eral force  named  nature.  In  the  posi- 
tive stage  the  mind,  convinced  of  the  fu- 
tility of  all  inquiry  into  causes  and 
essences,  applies  itself  to  the  observa- 
tion and  claBRificatioQ  of  Inws  which  reffu- 
late  effects:  that  is  to  say,  the  invaria- 
ble relations  of  sucv-easion  and  simliitnde 
which  all  things  bear  to  each  other.  The 
higbeat  condition  of  tbia  stage  would  be 
t9  IM  ftble  to  repreaent  »11  pbenom«IMt 


••  tht  nukm  pMtlralMi  tf  «m 

flaw.* 

Tba  rtllgloiM  aUa  of  paMvita  hM 
aenawhat  tba  aaturt  of  m  apoMgy  «r 
aftanhoufht.  Aftar  doiBg  awajr  with 
tbaokgy  and  Bataphyalca,  tad  rtMriag 
hia  ayatanVi  aciamw  w  poaltlva  nowF 
adga  ahma,  Coala  diaeovarwd  that  thara 
waa  aoBMthing  poaltlva  tai  auia'a  cmvlag 
for  a  being  to  worahip.  Ha  tharafora  had 
rccourac  to  what  ha  ealla  tha  ettkoa  of 
humanity  conalderad  aa  a  corporata  b^ag 
In  tba  past,  praaant,  sod  futvft,  whlcE 
la  apoken  of  aa  tha  Oraad  Btrt,  Thia 
religion.  Ilka  other  forma  of  worahip, 
requir'  for  ita  fnli  davalopoNBt  an 
orgat'  «  priaathood,  templea,  ate.  Un* 
der  tha  rtfgima  of  positive  religion  vomta 
would  Include  the  political  ana  aoelal  aMa 
of  bla  aystem.  Hence  some  of  hia  fol* 
lowera  look  forward  to  tba  eatabliabmaot 
of  an  international  republic,  compoaed  of 
the  five  great  western  nationa  of  Buropa, 
destined  ultiiuatcly  to  lead  tha  trhoW 
world.  Society  in  tbia  great  common- 
wealth will  be  reorganised  on  the  baaia 
of  a  double  direction  or  control,  that  of 
tlie  temporal  or  material  authority,  and 
that  of  Cte  apiritual  or  educating  biody. 

Among  leading  thinkers  of  tha  laat 
generation  Comte'a  pbiloaopby  fouwL 
many  admirers  and  aome  adberenta, 
partly,  doubtleaa,  on  account  of  ita  strik- 
ing originality,  partly  by  reason  of  tba 
autbor'a  powerful  peraonality.  The/  In- 
cluded auch  intellecta  as  George  Henry 
!.-\i-,,  John  Stunrt  Mill,  Richard  Con- 

C!ve,  Harriet  Martineau,  and  otbera. 
ter  Investigators,  however,  have  not 
sustained  the  favorable  verdict  of  tboaa 
who  judged  from  a  nearer  mental  per> 
spective.  Tba  critiques  of  Herbert  Spen- 
cer, Professor  Huxley,  John  i>iBke,  akd 
Dr.  McCosb  are  apecially  Important; 
also  the  reply  of  M.  Littr«,  the  foremost 
French  disciple  of  Comre,  to  Mill's  elab- 
orate critique  of  positivism.  Though 
there  ia  still  a  faithful  following  of  the 
positive  philosophy,  it  is  not  so  distin- 
guished as  formerly:  while  the  profeaaad 
dbiciplea  of  the  ^viigion  of  humanity  ara 
few  and  rare. 

Fosse    ComitatTis  (^;  ^-^^-^ 

'  th%  power  of  the  county,'  that  ia,  tbe 
citizens  who  are  summoned  to  aaaiat  an 
officer  in  suppressing  a  riot  or  executing 
nny  legal  process. 

Postal  Savings  Banks.   '^  -^ 

postal  .savings  banka.  adopted  for  the 
United  Statea  by  Act  of  Coogreaa  In  1010, 
has  long  been  in  eziateoca,  with  very  aat- 
isfactory  resulta,  in  many  foreign  coun- 
tri^    Tb«  dapoidta  to  }909  Ui  Qmt 


.ttefiiM 


Itflln     ■■  - 


IT81.T04JM8;    In    It« 
IB    Fniiic*.  «27li,0BB 


CBtiiiiMii7<134^  and'  lairMMjii'. 
|128ini.iue;  Th«y  r»««Ml  to  ""jr  ot^J' 
couatrlM.  wiib  ilctiowtK  nndtr  flOO.UUO.« 
gou.  The  •otal  for  ili«  world  «ggr«g«tcd 
iUNnj(Uy,«15,  t\w  depoalton  Dumbering 
iO,sa04l(KI.  ComiwrlMMi  tbowed  Ibat  In 
Ivn  s*»n  the  number  of  deiKwitors  have 
doabM  and  that  d«|mtit>  b«d  increawd 
7B  jp*r  cent.  Under  the  new  law  in  th« 
United  Btatea  an  experimental  bank  w«a 
•pened  in  each  State  on  January  1.  rill. 
The  reaponw  haa  been  ao  latiKfactory 
that  many  othera  bnve  been  ad(l«d.  Any 
aam  from  |1  to  $100  la  accepted,  and  ud^ 
tereat  paid  at  the  rate  of  2  per  cent. 
VtM'tm-rrt    (poa'teml,  in  fortjflcation.  la 

angle  of  the  flank  o(  a  baallon,  or  in 
that  of  the  curtain,  or  near  the  orlllon, 
dcacending  into  the  ditch. 
Port-glacial.     »^  Po»*-iertiary. 

PAotitiv  (pOat'ing),  traveling  b/ 
ronag  ^,;g„  ^f  ,,oraea  hired  at  dif- 
ferent atatlons  on  the  line  of  Journey,  a 
ayatem  eatablinbetl  In  England  as  early  na 
tM  reign  of  Edward  II.  ..,  ,     . 

Portmaster-Oeneral,  {jlJI^'^if '  .le 

PoatotBce  Department  of  the  executive 
branch  of  the  government  of  the  United 
Btatea.  Hia  dutien  are  to  eatabliah  pout- 
officea  and  appoint  postmafitorK.  nnd. 
generally,  to  miperintend  the  Imaineaa  of 
the  department  in  ail  the  dutiea  aaaigned 

PAB4:.Tni11  «  'o""  "'  Hndmili  ao  con- 
rOSl-HUU,  ,trncted  tlmt  tiie  whole 
fabric  reata  on  «  vertical  axis,  and  can 
be  turned  by  means  of  a  lever.  See 
Windmill.  ._     .      . 

ron-OOn  OOna,  ^,,g  purpo^  of  se- 
curing to  a  lender  a  sum  of  money  on  the 
death  of  some  specified  individual  from 
whom  the  borrower  has  expectationa. 
Such  loana  are  not  only  generally  made 
at  usurious  rates  of  interest,  but  usually 
the  borrower  hos  to  pny  a  much  larger 
sum  than  he  has  received  in  considera- 
tion of  the  risks  the  lender  runs  in  the 
caae  of  the  obliger  predeceasing  the  per- 
aon  from  whom  he  has  expectation.  If, 
however,  there  Is  a  gross  inadennacy  in 
the  proportions  amounti'-ig  to  fraud,  a 
court  of  equity  will  interfere. 
PftatAfflAA  «  department  of  the  »»»»- 
rOllOmoe,  emment  of  a  country 
charged  with  the  conveyance  of  lettera, 
newspanera,  parcels,  etc.,  and  alao  aince 
recent  timea  with  the  tranamiaaion  of 
telegrama.  From  the  time  of  Cyma  the 
Elder  down  to  tba  middle  afsf  yim^W  nil- 


era  WkI  cMweetad  aoft  or  Im  t^eOn 
syetema  of  poaUl  c«auBinilattMi  throv 
Mt  tbdr  domiBlflae;  but  the  'mt' 


syetema  of  poeUl  ceouBimlattloa  thrMik> 
Mt  tbdr  domiBlflaa;  hut  the  'poet'  m 
wt  know  it  to-day  la  aa  iBatltatloa  el 


very  modem  growth.    Th0  flret  trace*  el 
a  poatal  ayattm  la  BBfland  are  obeerved 
In  the  statutae  of  Edward  HI.  and  the 
poetoOce   aa    a   dvpartneat   of    gmreni* 
^nt  took  ita  riae  b  the  employBMat  of 
royal    maaaengers    for    carrylBg    lettenk 
The  first  English  postmaaier  we  hear  <^ 
was  Sir  Brian  Take,  hia  date  being  1588. 
In  1543  a  poet  exiated  by  wbkh  lettera 
were'  carried  from  London  to  Edinburgh 
within  four  days,  but  this  rate  of  trane- 
portation,  rapid  for  that   ».eriod,  laMed 
but   a   abort    time.    Jamea    I    IpprbTM 
the  poatal  communication  with  Scotland, 
and  aet  on  foot  a  ayatem  for  forwarding 
lettera   intended    for    foreim    lande.    In 
ItiOT  he  appointed  Lord  Stanhope  poet- 
master    for    England,    and    in    1619    a 
separate   poetmaater    for    foreign   parte. 
Up  to  within  a  abort  time  of  the  reign 
of  Charlee  I,  merchanta.  tradeemen,  and 
profosttional   men   availed  themaelvce  of 
ony  means  of  conveyance  that  offered,  or 
employed    expreaa    meaaeogera    to    cany 
their    correapondence.    The    univeraitleB 
and  principal  cities  had  their  own  poeta. 
The   foreign   merchanta   settled    in    uw- 
don  contiuued  to  send  their  foreign  lettera 
by   -rivnte  means  long  after  the  eatab* 
liMhi'nent   of  the   foreign  poet.     In   1682 
Charles    I    forlmde    letters    to    be    aeat 
out  of  the  kioRdom  except  through  the 
postoffice.    In  1U35  he  established  a  new 
system  of  posts  for  England  and  Scot- 
land.   All  private  and  local  poeto  wen 
abolished,  and   the   Income  of  the  poet- 
officea  waa  claimefl  by  the  king.     Inter- 
rupted by  the  civil  wars,  peace  had  no 
sooner  been  restored  than  a   more  po"- 
feet  postal  ayatem  was  eetabliahed.    In 
1US3  a  penny  poat  waa  aet  up  in  the 
metropolia.    During    the    government    of 
William    III    acta    of   parliament   were 
passed     which    regulated    the    internal 
poatal   system    of   Scotland;    and   nnder 
Queen  Anne,  in  1711,  the  poatal  ayatem 
of  Eneland  was  arranged  on  the  method 
on  which,  with  aome  modifications,  it  con- 
tinued till  near  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.     Sir  Rowland   Hill,  the 
author  of  the  ayatem  at  present  eziating, 
gave  the  first  intimation  of  bis  plan  in 
a  pamphlet  in  the  year  1837.    He  aoon 
had  the  aatiafaction  of  aeeing  the  legia- 
ia*ur"  adopt   hia  plan,  in   ita  principal 
fea    THi  at  least,  and  on  the  10th  Jena- 
ari.     S40.  the  uniform  rate  of  Id.  per 
i  OS.  for  prepaid  lettera  came  into  oPfv** 
tion.    The    anccess    of    Rowland    E 
flcheme  waa  vaatly  favored  by  the  inv 
ti<m  of  the  gdh^elve  poetafe  etamp,  xu 


Postofloe 


Fostofflce 


idea  of  which  would  seem  to  be  due  to 
Mr.  Jamea  Chalmers,  of  Dundee.  Svh- 
sequently  many  important  improvements 
have  been  made  in  the  management  of 
the  postoflSee  business.  One  of  these  was 
the  adoption  of  postal  carriages  on  rail- 
ways, by  which  the  delivery  of  letters 
was  greatly  '  accelerated.  These  car- 
riages are  fitted  with  an  apparatus  into 
which  letter-bags  are  thrown  without 
stopping  or  even  materially  slackening 
the  speed  of  the  train ;  while  the  sorting 
of  letters,  etc.,  proceeds  during  the 
transit.  The  reduction  of  the  cost  of  car- 
riage, the  great  increase  in  the  rapidity 
of  transmission,  the  immense  development 
of  commerce,  together  with  the  increase  of 
population,  have  had  the  effect  of  enor- 
mously increasing  the  work  done  by 
the  postoffice.  In  recent  years  an  im- 
mense stride  has  been  taken  in  the  im- 
provement of  postal  communication  be- 
tween different  countries  by  the  formation 
of  the  International  Postal  Union  in 
3885.  All  the  states  of  the  Union  form 
a  single  postal  territory,  having  a  uni- 
form charge  for  the  letters,  etc.,  passing 
between  the  several  states  of  which  it  is 
composed. 

In  France  a  system  of  postal  messen- 
gers for  administrative  purposes  was 
established  under  Louis  XI  in  1464,  and 
it  is  to  France  that  the  term  poat  is 
due.  A  general  postal  system  in  France 
was  set  on  foot  in  1576.  Up  to  near  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  French 
posts  were  farmed  out.  The  postal  re- 
form introduced  into  England  by  Sir 
Rowland  Hill  was  to  some  extent  adopted 
in  France  in  1849,  but  it  is  only  re- 
cently that  the  French  postal  arrange- 
ments have  been  rendered  satisfactory. 
In  Germany  the  first  post  was  estab- 
lished in  Tyrol  about  the  latter  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century  by  the  Count  of 
Thum,  Taxis,  and  Valsassina,  and  the 
administration  of  the  postal  system  of 
the  empire,  with  the  revenues  attached, 
remained  until  1803  as  a  fief  to  this 
family.  Many  of  the  German  states, 
however,  had  also  a  separate  post  of 
their  own.  The  connection  of  the 
telegraphic  with  the  postal  system  of 
Germany  began  in  1849.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  German  Empire  a  uniform 
postal  and  telegraphic  system  has  been 
organized  for  the  whole  of  Germany.  The 
Germans  have  paid  great  attention  to 
their  postal  arrangements,  and  in  some 
respects  they  are  ahead  of  other  coun- 
tries. To  Germany  is  due  the  introduc- 
tion of  post-cards,  which  were  first  pro- 
posed by  Prussia  at  a  postal  conference 
held  at  Karlsruhe  in  1865.  The  postal 
■jrstem  of  Italy  arose  in  Piedmont  about 


the  year  1S60,  when  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
fanned  out  the  transmission  of  letters 
to  a  postmaster-fsneral.  This  arrange- 
ment continued  until  1697,  when  Dtike 
Victor  Amadeus  added  the  income  of  the 
postoffice  to  the  revenue  of  the  state, 
and  from  1710  the  administration  was 
carried  on  directly  by  the  state.  Since 
the  unification  of  Italy  a  reorganized  sys- 
tem, including  telegraphic  and  parcel 
transmissions,  has  been  extended  to  the 
whole  of  the  kingdom.  In  most  of  the 
other  states  of  Europe  a  very  perfect 
system  also  now  obtains.  The  develop- 
ment of  a  postal  system  in  the  American 
colonies  followed  in  the  lines  of  that 
already  established  in  Britain.  The  ear- 
liest mention  of  a  postoffice  in  the  col- 
onies is  in  1G39,  a  postoffice  for  foreign 
letters  being  then  established  at  Boston. 
In  1683  a  postoffice  was  established  in 
Pennsylvania  by  William  Penn.  In  1692 
a  postmaster-general  for  the  American 
colonies  was  appointed,  and  a  geneial 
postal  system  wns  soon  after  organized. 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  postmaster-gen- 
eral in  1753-74,  and  numerous  reforms 
were  instituted  under  his  management. 
In  1760  he  arranged  a  stage-wagon  to 
convey  the  mail  from  Philadelphia  to 
Boston  once  a  week,  starting  from  each 
city  on  Monday  morning  and  reaching 
its  destination  by  Saturday  night.  In 
1789  the  Constitution  conferred  upon 
Congress  the  exclusive  control  of  postal 
matters  in  the  states.  In  1700  there  were 
but  75  postoffices  in  the  country,  and 
the  whole  sum  received  for  postage  was 
$37,935.  At  the  close  of  the  Civil  war, 
in  1865,  there  were  20,000  postoffices, 
140,000  miles  of  post  route,  and  receipts 
of  $14,.')00,000.  In  1010  there  were  over 
60,000  postoffices,  4.~>0,0<X)  miles  of  postal 
routes,  and  a  revenue  of  about  $225,000,- 
000.  The  number  of  pieces  of  all  kindb 
which  pnssetl  through  the  mails  was  over 
14.000,000,000.  The  annual  aggregate  of 
letters  for  all  the  postoffices  of  the  world 
is  estimated  at  .30.000,000.000  and  of 
newspapers  at  15.000.000.000.  The  early 
post  rates  in  this  country  were  based 
more  on  the  distance  carried  than  the 
weight  of  the  letter.  Until  1816  the  rate 
for  a  single  letter  (composed  of  a  single 
piece)  was,  under  40  miles.  8  cents;  un- 
der 90,  10  cents;  under  150.  12t  cents: 
under  300,  17  cents;  under  500.  20  cents; 
over  500,  25  cents.  Some  modification! 
were  made  in  1816.  and  in  1845  new  rates 
weie  fixed,  as  follows:  for  a  letter  not 
ovf^  ^alf  an  ounce  in  weight  under  300 
mr  «.  5  cents ;  over  300.  10  cents ;  and 
an  iddif'onal  rate  for  every  extra  half 
ouL.e  o'  action  thereof.  In  18R3  the 
ratea  wci«>  redaced  to  3  centa  for  all 


Poit-pleiocene 


PotMk 


diaUnces  under  3000  milw,  and  10  cents 
for  aSl  over  that  distance.  In  1803  the 
rate  was  fixed  at  8  cents  for  all  letters 
within  the  United  States  of  not  more 
than  half  an  ounce  weight.  The  1-cent 
postal  card  was  adopted  in  1873,  and  the 
2-cent  letter  rate  in  1883,  the  weight 
being  increased  in  1885  from  a  lialf  ounce 
to  an  ounce.  Rural  free  delivery  has 
sir  T*  been  adopted,  also  delivery  of  mer- 
•■o»n:;li>'-o  parcels.  In  1909  the  2-cent 
postal  rcf«^  f'""  letters  was  extended  to 
letters  for  (n  at  Britain  and  Germany, 
\Y'  the  lutter  '  rse  carriage  in  German  mail 
b' ips  i>e)rig  •  required.  Also  to  Canada, 
^T'^xicx  Cuba,  Panama,  and  Shanghai. 

In  tiitj  United  States,  under  present 
regulations,  nil  mail  matter  is  divided 
into  four  clusses.  The  first  class  includes 
letters,  post-cards,  and  anything  closed 
against  inspection:  postage,  2  cents  each 
oz.  or  additional  fraction  of  an  oz. ;  post- 
cards, 1  cent ;  registered  letters,  10  cents 
in  addition  to  postage.  Second  class  mat- 
ter includes  all  newspapers,  periodicals, 
etc.,  issued  as  frequently  as  four  times 
a  year ;  postage,  1  cent  per  lb.  or  frac- 
tion thereof.  When  the  newspapers,  etc., 
are  sent  by  persons  other  than  the  pub- 
lishers the  charge  is  1  cent  for  each  four 
ounces.  Mail  matter  of  the  third  class 
includes  photographs,  circulars,  proof- 
sheets,  etc. ;  postage,  1  cent  for  each  2 
0Z8. ;  limit  ot  weight,  4  lbs.  each  pack- 
age. The  fourth  class,  or  Parcel  Post, 
embraces  merchandise  and  all  matter  not 
Included  in  the  other  three  classes:  post- 
age varying  according  to  weipht  and  dis- 
tance. Prepayment  of  postage  by  stamps 
for  al)  classes  of  matter  is  required. 

A  brief  synopsis  of  offenses  against  the 
postal  laws  follows:  No  article  ma^  be 
mailed  intended  or  adapted  for  any  inde- 
cent or  immoral  use,  or  printed  matter 
describing  where  such  may  be  procured ; 
also  any  letter  or  circular  concerning  any 
kind  of  lotteries,  or  any  scheme  for  de- 
frauding the  public.  It  is  unlawful,  also, 
to  send  any  threatening,  inflammatory  or 
libelous  matter;  thus  dunning  notices  may 
not  be  sent  on  postal  cards.  The  use  of 
the  mail  to  offer  for  sale  any  spuriaus  or 
counterfeit  note  or  money  is  a  crime  pun- 
ishable by  fine,  imprisonment,  or  both.  It 
is  forbidden  to  open  the  letters,  though 
unsealed,  of  other  persons.  To  know- 
ingly and  willfully  obstnirt  the  mail  ren- 
ders liable  to  a  fine  of  $100. 

Post-pleioccne  i&\;S^..Tfn  ^l 

ology,  same  as  Pletsfoceiie. 

jrOSl-Xeniary  ^,ogy,  the  Lyellian 
term  for  all  depoaita  and  phenomena  of 
more  recoit  data  than  the  Norwich  or 


mammaliferoua  crag.  It  may  b«  ra- 
atricted  so  as  only  to  include  accumula- 
tions and  deposits  formed  since  the  cloae 
of  the  glacial  or  boulder  drift  systema, 
and  has  been  divided  into  three  sectiooa^ 
kiatoric,  prehUtorio,  and  pott-glacial. 
The  first  comprises  the  peat  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  fens,  marshes,  river 
deposits,  lake  silts,  accumulations  of  sand 
drift,  etc.,  containing  human  remains, 
canoes,  metal  instruments,  remains  of 
domestic  animals,  etc.  The  ^ehittoria 
comprises  similar  or  nearly  similar  de- 
posits, but  the  remains  found  in  them 
are  older,  comprising  stone  implements, 
pile-dwellings,  and  extinct  animals,  as  the 
Irish  deer,  mammoth,  etc.  To  the  poat- 
glacial  belong  raised  beaches,  with  shells 
of  a  more  boreal  character  than  those  of 
existing  seas,  the  shell-marl  under  peat, 
many  dales  and  river  valleys,  as  well  as 
the  common  brick-clay,  etc.,  covering  sub- 
marine forests  or  containing  the  remains 
of  seals,  whales,  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros, 
urus,  hysena,  hippopotamus,  etc. 
Postnlate  (po^'ta-lAt),  a  position  or 
xvsiiuxabc  supposition  assumed  with- 
out proof,  being  considered  as  self-evi- 
dent, or  too  plain  to  require  illustra- 
tion. In  geometry,  the  enunciation  of  a 
self-evident  problem.  Euclid  has  con- 
structed bis  elements  on  the  three  follow- 
ing postulates:  1.  Let  it  be  granted  that 
a  straight  line  may  be  drawn  from  any 
one  point  to  any  other  point.  2.  That  a 
terminated  straight  line  may  be  produced 
to  any  length  in  a  straight  line.  3.  That 
a  circle  may  be  described  from  any  center 
at  any  distance  from  that  center. 

Fotamoereton  (Pot-a-moj'e-ton),  a 
A viica.uiwg«<vvu.    ggnyg    o£    aquatic 

plants  belonging  to  the  nat.  oraer  Na- 
ladacee.  It  has  &  perfect  flower,  a 
four-pointed  perianth,  four  sessile  anthera, 
four  ovaries,  and  four  drupes  or  nuta. 
Several  species  are  indigenous  to  Britain, 
where  they  are  known  by  the  name  of 
pond-weed. 

Pnfaali  (pot'ash),  or  Potassa,  an 
x^Ukasu  alkaline  substance  obtained 
from  the  ley  of  vegetable  ashes  which  is 
mixed  with  quicklime  and  boiled  down  in 
iron  pots,  and  the  residuum  ignited,  the 
substance  remaining  after  ignition  being 
common  potash.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  aakea  and  the  pott  (called  potash  ket- 
tles) in  which  the  lixivium  is  (or  used  to 
be)  boiled  down.  An  old  name  was  vege- 
table alkali.  Potash  in  this  crude  state 
is  an  impure  carbonate  of  potaasium, 
which  when  purified  is  known  in  commerce 
as  pearl-aak.  It  is  iis»d  in  the  making  of 
glaaa  and  aoap,  and  large  quantities  of  it 
are  now  produced  from  certain  'potash 
minerals'  (eapecially  camallite),  instead 


Potaih  Water 


Potato 


of  from  wood  aahea.  What  is  known  as 
cauttic  potash  (hydrate  of  potanium, 
KHO)  is  prepared  from  ordinary  potasli. 
It  is  solid,  white,  and  extremely  caustic, 
eating  into  animal  and  vegetable  tissues 
with  great  readiness.  It  changes  the 
purple  of  violets  to  green,  restores  red- 
dened litmus  to  blue,  and  yellow  turmeric 
to  reddish  brown.  It  rapidly  attracts 
humidity  from  the  air,  and  becomes  semi- 
fluid. It  is  fusible  at  a  heat  of  300% 
and  is  volatilized  at  low  ignition.  It  is 
used  in  surgery  under  the  name  of  lapia 
infem&lit  or  lapis  causticus  for  destroy- 
ing warts,  fungoid  growths,  etc.,  and  may 
be  applied  beneficially  to  the  bites  of  dogs, 
venomous  serpents,  etc.  In  chemistry  it 
is  very  extensively  employed,  both  in  man- 
ufactures and  as  an  agent  in  analysis. 
It  is  the  basis  of  the  common  soft  soaps, 
for  which  purpose,  however,  it  is  not  used 
in  its  pure  state.     See  Potassium. 

Potash  Water,  ''°  ,  a"«ted  water 
^vvnatM.    v*a.««/x,   produced  by  mixmg 

bicarbonate  of  potash  with  carbonic  acid 
water  in  the  proportion  of  20  grains  to 
each  bottle  of  the  water,  or  about  half 
an  ounce  to  the  gallon.  Bisulphate  of 
potash,  as  being  cheaper  than  tartaric 
acid,  is  sometimes  used  (but  should  not 
be)  with  carbonate  of  soda  to  produce 
the  common  effervescing  drink.  A  valu- 
able medicinal  water  is  compounded  of  a 
certain  proportion  of  bromide  of  potas- 
sium. See  Aerated  Waters. 
Potassium  (P«>-ta  J-um;  a  Latinized 
i>.wwcuHM.u.uA  term  from  potash),  a 
name  given  to  the  metallic  basis  of  pot- 
ash, discovered  by  Davy  in  1807,  and  one 
of  the  first  fruits  of  his  electro-chemical 
researches :  symbol,  K ;  atomic  weight, 
39.1.  Next  to  lithium  it  is  the  lightest 
metallic  substance  known,  its  specific 
gravity  being  0.865  at  the  temperature  of 
60°.  At  ordfinary  temperatures  it  may  be 
cut  with  a  knife  and  worked  with  the 
fingers.  At  82''  it  is  hard  and  brittle, 
with  a  crystalline  texture;  nt  50°  it  be- 
comes malleable,  and  in  luster  resembles 
polished  silver;  at  150°  it  is  perfectly 
liquid.  Potassium  has  a  very  powerful 
affinity  for  oxygen,  which  it  takes  from 
many  other  compounds.  A  freshly  ex- 
posed surface  of  potassium  instantly  be- 
comes covered  with  a  film  of  oxide.  The 
metal  must  therefore  be  preserved  under 
a  liquid  free  from  oxygen,  rock-oil  or 
naphtb?^  being  generally  employed.  It  con- 
ducts electricity  like  the  common  metals. 
When  thrown  upon  water  it  decomposes 
that  liquid  with  evolution  of  hydrogen, 
which  burns  with  a  pale  violet  flame, 
owing  to  the  presence  in  it  of  potash 
vapor.  Chloride  of  potassium  (KCl)  is 
known  in  commerce  as  '  muriate  of  pot- 


ash,' and  closely  resembles  common  salt 
(chloride  of  sodium).  It  is  obtained 
from  potassic  minerals,  the  ashes  of 
marine  plants  (kelp;,  and  from  sea- 
water  or  brine  springs.  It  enters  into 
the  manufacture  of  saltpeter,  alum,  arti- 
ficial manures,  etc.  Bromide  and  iodide 
of  t)otas8ium  are  useful  drugs.  (For  tlie 
carbonate  of  potassium  see  Potash.)  Bi- 
carbonate of  potassium  is  obtained  by 
exposing  a  solution  of  the  carbonate  to 
the  air,  carbonic  acid  lieing  imbibed  from 
the  atmosphere,  and  crystals  l)eing  de- 
posited; or  it  is  formed  more  directly 
by  passing  a  current  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  through  a  solution  of  the  carbonrte 
of  such  a  strength  that  crystals  form 
spontaneously.  It  is  much  used  in  med- 
icine for  making  effervescing  drinks. 
Nitrate  of  potassium  is  niter,  or  saltpeter. 
(See  yitcr.)  Sulphate  of  potassium 
(K1SO4)  is  used  medicinally  as  a  mild 
laxative,  in  making  some  kinds  of  glass 
and  alum,  and  in  manures.  The  bisul- 
phate (KHSOt)  is  used  as  a  chemical 
reagent,  and  in  calico-printing  and  dye- 
ing. Chlorate  of  potassium  (KCIOi)  is 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  lucifer 
matches,  in  certain  operations  in  calico- 
printing,  and  for  filling  friction-tubes  for 
firing  cannon.  It  is  a  well-known  source 
of  oxygen.  The  bichromate  (KsCrsOr)  is 
also  used  in  calico-printing  and  dyeing. 
Cyanide  of  potassium  (KCNt)  is  much 
used  in  photograpLv. 
Potato  (P>>-til'tO;  Sol&num  tubers' 
sum),  a  plant  belonging  to  the 
nat.  order  Solanacese,  which  also  includes 
such  poisonous  plants  as  nightshade,  hen- 
bane, thorn-apple  and  tobacco.     We  ovre 


Tttbsrs  of  Potato. 


this  esculent  to  western  Sonth  America, 
where  it  still  grows  wild,  chiefly  in  tlie 
region   of   the  Andes,   producing   small, 


Potato 


Potato-bug 


tasteleas,  watery  tuberg.  The  potato  waa 
fint  introduced  into  Europe  by  tbe  Span- 
iard! after  tbe  conquest  of  Peru,  by  whom 
it  was  spread  over  tbe  Netberlanus,  Bur- 
gundy, and  Italy  before  tbe  middle  of  tbe 
■ixteenth  century.  In  Germany  it  is  first 
beard  of  as  a  rarity  in  tbe  time  of  Charles 
V.  Sir  John  Hawkins,  Sir  Francis 
Dralie,  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  are  all 
credited  with  the  first  introtluction  of  the 
tuber  into  England  (15t>5).  Although 
tbe  potato  was  tolerably  widely  distrib- 
uted on  tbe  continent  of  Europe  before 
its  appearance  in  Britain,  it  seema  to  have 
lieen  cultivated  more  as  a  curiosity  than 
as  an  article  of  food,  and  Ireland  is  said 
to  have  been  the  country  in  which  it  was 
first  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  for  food. 
In  tbe  course  of  the  eighteenth  century 
it  became  a  favorite  article  of  fed  with 
the  poorer  classes  in  Germany ;  but  in 
France  there  existed  so  violent  a  preju- 
dice against  it  that  it  did  not  come  into 
general  use  until  towards  the  end  of  the 
century.  The  potato  is  a  perennial  plant, 
with  angular,  herbaceous  stems,  growin^; 
to  the  beigbtt  of  2  or  3  feet ;  leaves  pin- 
nate; flowers  pretty  large,  numerous,  dis- 
posed in  corymbs,  and  colored  violet,  blu- 
ish, reddish,  or  whitish.  The  fruit  is 
globular,  about  the  size  of  a  gooseberry, 
reddisb  brown  or  purplish  when  ripe,  and 
contains  numerous  small  seeds.  Tbe 
tul>er8,  which  furnish  so  large  an  amount 
of  the  food  of  mankind,  are  really  under- 
ground shoots  abnormally  dilated,  their 
increase  in  size  having  been  greatly  fos- 
tered by  cultivation.  Their  true  nature 
is  proved  by  tbe  existence  of  tbe  '  eyes  * 
upon  them.  These  are  leaf-buds,  fro  i 
which,  if  a  tuber  or  a  portion  of  it  con- 
taining an  eye  is  put  into  earth,  a  young 
plant  will  sprout,  tbe  starchy  matter  of 
the  tuber  itself  supplying  nutriment  until 
'.':  throws  out  roots  and  leaves,  and  so 
attains  an  independent  existence.  The 
potato  succeeds  best  in  a  light,  sandy  loam 
containing  a  certain  proportion  of  vege- 
table matter.  The  varieties  are  very 
numerous,  differing  in  the  time  of  ripen- 
ing, in  their  fomfT  size,  color,  and  quality. 
New  ones  are  readily  procured  by  sowing 
tbe  seeds,  which  will  produce  tubers  tbe 
third  year,  and  a  full  crop  the  fourth. 
But  tbe  plant  is  usually  propagated  by 
sowing  or  planting  tbe  tubers,  and  it  is 
only  In  tliis  way  that  any  one  variety 
can  be  kept  in  cultivation.  Like  all 
plants  that  are  extensively  cultivated,  and 
under  very  different  circumstancea  of  soil, 
climate,  and  artificial  treatmmt,  the  po- 
tato is  extremely  subject  to  disease. 
Among  ttie  dheases  to  whicli  it  is  liable 
an  tbe  '  carl,'  the  '  scab,'  the  '  dry  lot.' 
mai  tlM  'wet  lot,'  besidei  tbe  more  de- 


structive potato  disease  proper.  The 
principal  feature  of  tbe  curl  is  the  cnrl- 
ing  of  tbe  shoots  soon  after  their  first 
appearance.  After  that  they  make  little 
progress,  and  sometimes  disappear  alto- 
gether. The  plants  produce  no  tubers,  or 
only  a  few  minute  ones,  which  are  unfit 
for  food.  The  scab  is  a  disease  t'lat 
attacks  the  tubers,  which  become  covered 
with  brown  sputa  on  the  outside,  while 
underneath  the  skiu  is  a  fungus  called 
Tubercinia  scabies.  Tbe  dry  rot  is  char- 
acterized by  a  hardening  of  the  tissues, 
which  are  completely  gorged  with  myce- 
lium (the  vegetative  part  of  fungi).  In 
the  disease  called  wet  rot  the  potato  is 
affected  much  in  the  same  way  as  by 
the  dry  rot;  but  the  tubers,  instead  of 
becoming  hard  and  dry,  are  soft.  Th« 
fungus  present  in  wet  rot  is  supposed  to 
be  tbe  same  that  accompanies  dry  rot. 
The  potato  disease  par  excellence  was 
prevalent  on  both  sides  of  tbe  Atlantic 
in  the  year  1845.  Usur.lly  tbe  first  sign 
of  this  disease  is  the  appearance  of  brown 
patches  upon  the  haulms  and  leaves. 
These  spots  appear  about  tbe  time  the 
planis  attain  their  full  growth,  and  when 
carefully  examined  are  found  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  ring  of  a  paler  color.  The 
whole  of  this  outer  ring  is  infested  with 
p  fungus  called  tbe  Botrytit  or  Peronot- 
f  1  infettana,  which  is  a  constant  ac- 
c  paniment  of  the  disease,  if  not  its 
cause.  If  the  weather  be  dry  tbe  prog- 
ress of  the  disease  is  slow,  but  if  a  moist 
warm  day  supervene  it  will  be  found  tha" 
the  mola  spreads  with  great  rapidity, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  plant  becomes 
putrid  in  a  few  days.  Tbe  disease  first 
shows  itself  in  a  tuber  by  appearing  ai 
a  brownish  spot,  and  tbe  part  affected 
may  be  cut  out,  leaving  the  remainder 
quite  wholesome.  None  of  the  plans 
adopted  for  mitigating  the  potato  disease 
have  been  very  effective.  The  potato  is 
also  attacked  by  various  insects,  tbe  most 
destructive  being  tbe  Colorado  beetle. 
The  tubers  consist  almost  entirely  of 
starch,  and  being  thus  deficient  in  nitro- 
gen, should  not  be  too  much  relied  on 
as  a  staple  article  of  diet.  Potatoes  are 
extensively  used  as  a  cattle-food,  and 
starch  is  also  manufactured  from  them. 
In  Maine,  Vermont,  and  Northern  New 
York  this  is  an  important  industry. 
Enormous  crops  of  this  valuable  esculent 
are  grown  in  tbe  United  States,  and  macb 
attention  has  been  given  to  their  improve- 
ment. Its  cultivation  has  also  extended 
widely  over  tbe  earth. 

roiaiO-DUg,  ica  to  the  CoUtndo  »«» 
tie  (which  see),  from  the  inja^y  caoaffd 
by  it  to  tbe  potato. 


Pctohefstroom 


Pot  Metal 


iTOlcneiBiroOm  ^^  j^  ,|,^  Tram- 
Taal,  South  Africa,  on  the  Mooi  River, 
alwut  '26  miies  m.  of  tlie  Vaal  River. 
Pop.  (lUM)  U348. 

Potemkin  (po-tem'liin),  Oreoobt 
roienuun  ALEXA^uHOVlTCH.  a  Rus- 
sian generai,  a  favorite  of  tlie  Emprem 
Catharine  il,  born  in  173U;  died  in  1791. 
Descended  from  an  ancient  Polish  fam- 
ily, and  early  trained  to  the  military 
profession,  be  soon  after  her  acceHsion 
attracted  the  attention  of  Catharine,  who 
appointed  him  colonel  and  gentleman  of 
the  chamber.  Soon  after  he  gained  the 
mtire  confidence  of  Catharine,  and  be- 
came her  avowed  favorite.  From  1776 
till  his  death,  a  period  of  more  than  fifteen 
years,  be  exercised  a  boundless  sway  over 
the  destinies  of  the  empire.  In  1783  he 
suppressed  the  Ichanate  of  the  Crimea, 
and  annexed  it  to  Russia.  In  17S7,  being 
desirous  of  expelling  the  Turks  from  Eu- 
rope, he  stirred  up  n  new  war,  in  the 
course  cf  which  he  took  Oczakolf  by  storm 
(1788).  In  the  following  year  (1780) 
he  took  Bender,  but  as  the  finances  of 
Russia  were  now  exhausted  Catharine 
was  desirous  of  peace.  Potemkin,  how- 
ever, resolved  on  conquering  Constanti- 
nople, resisted  the  proposal  to  treat  with 
the  enemy,  and  went  to  St.  Petersburg 
to  win  over  the  empress  to  his  side 
(March,  1701)  :  but  during  his  abseoce 
Catharine  sent  plenary  powers  to  Prince 
Repnin,  who  signed  a  treaty  of  peace. 
When  Potemkin  learned  what  had  been 
done  he  set  out  for  the  arm^,  resolved  to 
undo  the  work  of  his  substitute;  but  he 
died  on  the  way,  at  Nicolaieff. 
PnfATifial  (pO-ten'shul),  a  term  in 
roieniiai  ^,^^^1^3.  if  a  body  attract, 
according  to  the  law  of  universal  gravi- 
tation, a  point  whether  external  or  of  its 
own  mass,  the  sum  of  the  (luotients  of 
ita  elementary  masses,  each  divided  by  its 
distance  from  the  attracted  point,  is  called 
the  po(eM<taI.  -The  potential  at  any  point 
near  or  within  an  electrified  body  is  the 
qnantity  of  work  necessary  to  bring  a 
unit  of  positive  electricity  from  an  in- 
finite distance  to  that  point,  the  given 
distribution  of  electricity  remaining  unal- 
tered. 

Potcatial  Energy,  {{f * ,  p-^   of 

a  aystem  of  bodies  which  is  due  to  their 
relative  position,  and  which  is  equal  to 
the  work  which  would  be  done  ny  the 
various  forces  acting  on  the  system  if  the 
bodies  were  to  yield  to  them.  If  a  stone 
ta  at  a  certain  height  above  the  earth's 
nirface  the  potential  energy  of  the  ays- 
tea  ctmslsting  of  the  earth  and  stone,  in 
Tirtse  ol  the  force  of  fsavity,  hi  the  wock 


which  might  \n  done  by  the  falliiig  of 
the  St  on  the  surface  of  the  eartn. 

Poten    A  Mood.  *•*■*  J^°^.  u**'  * 

«w»vu  .J.  ,w,vvu|  verb  which  ex- 
presses an  action,  event,  or  circumstance 
as  merely  possible,  formed  in  English  by 
means  of  the  auxiliaries  may  or  can. 
Potentilla  itPtten-til'a),  a  genus  of 
herbaceous  perennials,  nat. 
order  Itosacete,  found  chiefly  in  the  tem- 
perate and  cold  regions  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  containing  about  120  spe- 
cies. They  are  tall  or  procumbent  herbs, 
rarelv  undershrubs,  with  digitate  or  nn- 
equally  pinnate  leaves,  and  yellow,  red, 
purple,  or  white  flowers.  Some  are 
favorite  garden  flowers.  P.  anaertna  is 
also  called  silver-weed,  goose-grass,  or 
wild  tansy,  the  leaves  of  which  are  greed- 
ily devoured  by  geese;  and  P.  fragaruu- 
trum,  barren  strawberry.  P.  reptant  is 
a  well-known  creeping  plant  with  con- 
spicuous yellow  flowers.  The  roots  of  P. 
angerlna  are  eaten  in  the  Hebrides,  either 
raw  or  boiled.  P.  Tormentilla  is  used  in 
Lapland  and  the  Orkney  Islands  both  to 
tan  and  to  dye  leather,  and  also  to  dye 
worsted  yam.  It  is  also  employed  in 
medicine  as  a  gargle  in  the  case  of  en- 
larged tonsils  and  other  diseases  of  the 
throat,  and  for  alleviating  gripes  in  cases 
of  diarrhea. 

Pot»n7A  (pd- tent'sA),  a  town  of 
f  UbCiUiH,  Southern  Italy  and  a  bish- 
op's see,  capital  of  the  province  ot  the 
same  name,  on  a  hill  of  the  Apennines 
near  the  Basento,  85  miles  e.  s.  b.  of 
Naples.  It  <s  walled,  and  is  indifferently 
built.  It  suffered  severely  by  earthquake 
in.  1857,  most  of  the  buildings  having 
fallen  and  many  lives  were  lost  Pop. 
(1911)  16,672.— The  province  is  puffy 
bounded  by  the  Gulf  of  Tara'nto  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Its  chief  productions  are 
maize,  hemp,  wine,  silk,  cotton. 

Poterinin  ^ffifirliVd'er&'ce'i 
and  suborder  Sanguisorbee.  P.  Bangui- 
aorba,  or  salad-bumet,  which  grows  on 
dry  and  most  frequently  chalky  pastures, 
is  said  to  t>e  native  about  Lake  Huron. 
It  is  valuable  for  fodder,  and  is  used  in 
salad.  It  has  pinnate  leaves  and  tall 
stems  surmounted  by  dense  heads  of  small 
flowers. 

Poti  Ip^'tyS)'  ■  Russian  town  in 
Transcaucasia,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  has  extensive 
harbor  works,  and  is  connected  by  rail- 
way with  Tiflis,  but  the  trade  is  being 
drawn  away  by  Batonm.  Pop.  7066. 
Pftt  If »fa.1  <ti>  ioferior  kind  of  brass 
roi  Aeiai,     (^ppe,    lO  parts;  lead. 

6  to  8),  used  for  aaildng  various  large 
venels  onplayvd  ia  the  art*.    A|w  a  kiai 


Potooki 


Potter 


of  stained  kIbm  in  whicli  the  colon  are 
incorporated  with  the  substance  by  being 
added  while  the  glass  is  in  a  atate  of 
fusion. 

PotOfiki  (po-tots'ki),  an  ancient  Polish 
AVKvvAj,  fgmiiy^  taking  its  name  from 
the  castle  of  Potok,  and  still  holding  pos- 
sessions in  Oalicia  and  the  Ukraine. 
Among  its  moat  distinguished  members 
was  Count  Ignatius,  grand  marshal  of 
Lithuania  before  the  downfall  of  Poland, 
and  a  fellow-patriot  of  Kosciusko,  born 
1751.  In  179}  he  took  refuge  in  Sax- 
ony, and  published  a  political  tract  upon 
the  establishmeut  and  fall  of  the  consti- 
tution, returning,  however,  to  share  in 
the  last  struggle  for  independence.  He 
then  passed  some  time  in  the  prisons  of 
St.  Petersburg  and  Warsaw,  and  died  at 
Vienna  1800. 

Potomfl.fi  (pd-td'raak),  a  river  which 
A  vKviunv     fofojg  ^\^^  boundary  between 

Maryland  and  Virginia,  pasttes  Washing- 
ton, and  after  a  course  of  nearly  400  miles 
flows  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  being  about 
8  miles  wide  at  its  mouth.  The  termi- 
nation of  the  tidewater  is  at  Washing- 
ton, alraut  125  miles  from  the  sea.  and 
the  river  is  navigable  for  large  ships  for 
that  distance.  Above  Washington  are 
several  falls  which  obstruct  navigation. 
Pot'orOO.     ^®®  Kangaroo  Rat. 

Pnfnai  (pot-o-8§';  common  pronuncia- 
XOIOSI  jj5^^  po-to'se),  a  city  of  South- 
em  BoIivia,J|rin  the  department  of  same 
name,  on  thTalope  of  tlie  mountain  mass 
of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  more  than  13,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  in  bare  and  barren 
surroundings.  It  is  regularly  built,  and 
has  a  cathedral,  a  mint,  etc.  It  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  its  silver  mines,  which 
were  at  one  time  exceedingly  productive, 
and   have   again   begun   to   show   an   im- 

? roved  return.  The  cit^r  was  found.>d  in 
547,  and  the  nopulation  increased  so 
rapidly  that  in  1611  it  amounted  to 
ISbfiOO,  but  the  1906  estimate  was  23,- 
450. — ^The  department  has  an  area  of 
50,000  square  miles,  and  is  celebrated  for 
its  mineral  wealth,  especially  silver.  Pop. 
325,615.  ,      F-       V 

Pot-ponrri  (f^s^S  ^--^s  o'lfa 

podrida  (which  see)  ;  also,  and  more  gen- 
erally, a  musical  medley,  or  a  literary 
composition  made  up  of  parts  put  to- 
gether without  unity  or  bond  of  connec- 
tion. 

PotsdAm.  (pots'dam).  a  town  in  Pros- 
*"••»»•***•  iia,  a  bishop's  see,  capital  of 
the  proTinoe  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  sec- 
ond royal  reaidence  of  the  kingdom,  is 
charminglr  situated  in  the  midst  of 
woodtd  bull,  17  milea  soathwaafc  of  Bar- 


lin,  on  the  Havel,  which  here  has  MvanJ 
lakes  connected  with  it  It  is,  on  tha 
whole,  one  of  the  handsomest  and  moat 
regularly  built  towns  in  Germany,  and 
with  its  suburbs  now  covers  a  large  apace. 
The  principal  edifices  are  the  royal  pal- 
ace (remodeled  1750),  with  interesting 
memorials  of  Frederick  the  Great;  Gar- 
rison Church,  containing  the  tombs  of 
William  I  and  Frederick  the  Great;  the 
Nikolai  Church,  the  French  Protestant 
Church,  built  after  the  model  of  the  Pan- 
theon at  Rome;  the  town-house;  and  tha 
Barberini  Palace,  erected  by  Frederick 
the  Great  in  imitation  of  that  at  Rome, 
but  rebuilt  in  1850-52.  Immediately  to 
the  west,  outside  the  Brandenburg  Gate 
(resembling  a  Roman  triumphal  arch), 
are  the  palace  and  park  of  Sana  SoucL 
The  palace,  a  building  of  one  story,  waa 
erected  under  the  direction  of  Frederick 
the  Great;  the  grounda  are  finely  laid 
out,  and  contain  varioua  fountaina.  etc, 
and  an  orangery  330  yarda  long.  In  the 
same  neighborhood  is  the  New  Palace,  a 
vast  brick  building  exhibiting  mucli  gaudy 
magnificence.  A  third  palace  in  the  en- 
virons of  the  town  is  called  the  Marble 
Palace.  Potsdam  was  an  unimportant 
place  till  the  Great  Elector  selected  it 
as  a  place  of  residence  and  built  the  royal 
palace  (1600-71).  I'op.  (1910)  62,24a 
Potstone  (Pot'ston;  Lopia  ottSrit),  a 
"^^  ^  species  of  talc  containing  an 
admixture  of  chlorite.  Its  color  is  green 
of  various  shades;  it  is  greasy  and  aoft, 
but  l>ecomes  hard  on  t>eing  expoaed  to  the 
air.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  capa- 
bility of  being  made  into  vases,  etc.,  by 
turning.  It  was  obtained  by  the  ancienta 
from  quarries  in  the  island  of  Siphnoa 
and  in  Upper  Egypt.  It  ia  now  quarried 
in  the  Valaia  in  Switzerland,  in  Norway, 
Sweden,  Greenland,  and  the  neighborhood 
of  Hudson  Bay. 

Pott  (.pot)'  August  Fbuduch,  a 
*""'•'  German  philologiat,  bom  in  1802. 
He  studied  at  Gdttingen,  became  a  teacher 
in  the  gymnaaium  at  Celle,  and  subse- 
quently privat-docent  in  the  Univeraity 
of  Berlin.  He  wrote  R^earcket  in  the 
Etymology  of  the  Indo-Oermanie  Lan- 
guages, etc.  He  died  in  1887. 
Potter  (Pot'*r),  Henrt  Codhait,  au- 
thor  and  divine,  was  bom  at 
Schenectady,  New  York,  in  1835.  He 
entered  the  Protestant  Episcopal  minhi- 
try,  and  l>ecame  bishop  of  New  York  City 
in  1887.  He  published  numerooa  worka 
and  was  an  energetic  social  reformer. 
In  1900  he  viaited   the  Philippinea  and 

Jublished  his  views  thereon.    He  died  in 
90a 
Potter     John,    an    Engllah    classical 
*""^*»    acholar  and  diyfiia,  primate  of 


Potter 


Pottery 


•U  England,  born  in  1674,  wat  the  ion  wa«  long  aupposed  to  be  of  no  older  date 

of  a  Itaen-draper  of  Wakefield.     In  1706  than  the  ninth  century  of  our  era.  and  to 

he  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne.     In  have  originated  with  the  Araba  in  Spain ; 

1708  be  waa  appointed  regiua  prof-aaor  but  the  discovery  of  glazed  ware  in  Jiigypt. 

of  divinity  at  Oxford,  in  1716  waa  rai«ed  of  glazed  bricks  in  the  ruins  of  Bdbylon, 

to  the  see  of  Oxford,  and  in  1737  ap-  of  enameled   tiles  and   glazed  colhns  of 


pointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He 
died  in  1747.  His  works  include  Archao- 
Ionia  Graca,  a  work  on  Greek  antiquities, 
A     Ditcourte    on     Church     Qovernment 

il707),  an  edition  of  Clement  Alexan- 
rintit    (1714),    and    theological    works 
(Oxford,  17S3). 

l>A4"fAr  Paul,  a  celebrated  Dutch 
XOll^r,  painter  of  animals,  born  at 
Enkhnisen  in  1625.  He  received  bis  first 
instruction  in  art  from  his  father,  Pieter 
Potter  (1587-1G55),  a  painter  of  some 
pcte.  He  devoted  himself  specially  to 
the  study  of  animals,  producing  his  first- 
signed  picture, 
Tm  Herdtman, 
in  1613.  His 
works,  specimens 
of  which  are  in 
the  more  impor- 
tant European 
galleries,  are 
highly  esteemed. 
His  coloring  is 
brilliant,  aaia  the 
separate  parts  are 
delicately  exe- 
cnted,  yet  with- 
out stiffness  or 
mannerism.  Hia 
pictures  are  gen- 
erally of  small 
size,  but  there  is 
a  celebrated  one 
of  large  size  in 
the  museum  of 
The  Hague.  It 
represents  a  man 

and  cattle,  with  a  bull  in  the  foreground, 
and  is  known  as  Paul  Potter's  bull.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1G54.  at  the  early 
age  of  twenty-nine.  His  engravings  are 
much  esteemed,  and  his  paintings  com- 
mand a  high  price. 
Potter's  Clay,      ^ee  Clay. 

PotterV    (pot'ir-i),  the  art  of  forming 
xvititoxjr    ynsels  or  utensils  of  any  sort 


earthenware  in  other  ancient  cities,  proves 
that  this  is  not  the  case.  The  \rabs, 
however,  seem  to  be  entitled  to  the  credit 
of  having  introduced  the  manufacture  of 

f lazed  ware  into  modem  Europe.  The 
talians  are  said  to  have  become  ac- 
quainted with  this  kind  of  ware  as  it  was 
manufactured  in  the  island  of  Majorca, 
and  hence  they  gave  it  the  name  of  majol- 
ica. They  set  up  their  first  manufactory 
at  Faenza  in  the  fifteenth  century.  In 
Italy  the  ort  was  improved,  and  a  new 
kind  of  glaze  was  invented,  probably  by 
Luca  della  Robbia.  The  French  derived 
their  first  knowl- 
edge of  glared 
ware  from  the 
Italian  manufac- 
tory at  Foe.'za, 
and  on  that  ac- 
count gave  it  the 
name  of  faience. 
About  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  man- 
ufactory of  Ber- 
nard Palissy  at 
Saintes  in. France 
became  famous  on 
acc#int  of  the 
beautiful  glaze 
and  rich  orna- 
ments by  which 
its  products  were 
dititinguished.  A 
little  later  the 
Dutch  began  to 
manufacture  at 
but   less   beautiful 


Sueceasive  dtagci  of  Earthenware  Veuel  on  the 
Patter's   Wheel. 


Delft  the  more  solid 
ware  which  thence  takes  its  name.  The 
principal  improver  of  the  potter's  art  in 
Britain  was  Josiah  Wedgwood  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  Porcelain  or  china- 
ware  first  became  known  in  Europe  about 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  through 
the  Dutch,  who  brought  it  from  the  East. 
See  Faience  and  Chinatrarc. 
Though  the  various  kinds  of  pottery 
in  clay.  This  art  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  porcelain  differ  from  each  other  in 
being  practiced  among  various  races  in  the  details  of  their  manufacture,  yet  there 
prehistoric  times.  We  find  mention  of  are  certain  general  principles  and  proc- 
earthenware  in  the  Mosaic  writings.  The  esses  which  are  common  to  them  all.  The 
Greeks  had  important  potteries  at  Sanios,  first  operations  are  con  lected  with  the 
Athens,  and  Corinth,  and  attained  great  preparation  of  the  potter's  parte,  which 
perfection  as  regards  form  and  ornamen-  consists  of  two  different  ingredients,  an 
lation.  Demaratus,  a  Greek,  the  father  earthy  substance,  which  is  the  clay 
of  Tarquinius  Priscns,  king  of  Rome,  is  proper;  and  a  siliceous  sulistance.  which 
Mid  to  nave  instructed  the  Etruscana  and  is  necessary  to  increase  the  firmness  of 
in  this  art.    Glased  earthenware  the  ware,  and  nnder  it  1cm  liaUa  to 


Pottery 


Pottery 


■brink  and  crack  on  exposure  to  heat,  moved  to  a  room  in  wlilch  they  are  dried 
The  clay  ia  first  finely  comraimited,  and  more  thoroughly  at  a  high  temperature, 
reduced  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  when  When  they  have  reached  what  ]».  called 
it  ia  run  off  through  a  set  of  wire,  gauae,  the  green  state  they  are  again  taken  to 
or  silk  sieves  into  cisterns,  where  it  is  a  lathe  and  more  truly  sliaptd.  as  well 
diluted  with  wRter  to  a  standard  density,  as  smoothed  and  burnished.  When  the 
The  other  ingredient  of  the  potter's  ma-  articles  are  not  of  a  circ-ular  form,  and 
terial  ia  usually  ground  flints,  or  flint  according  y  cannot  be  produced  by  means 
Mwder,  as  it  is  called.  The  flint  nodules  of  the  wheel,  they  are  either  pressed  or 
m  reduced  to  powder  by  being  heated  cast  m  molds  of  plaster  of  Pans.  In  the 
and  then  thrown  into  water  to  make  them  tormer  case  the  paste  used  is  of  the  same 
brittle.  They  are  then  passed  through  a  consistence  as  that  employed  on  the  wheel, 
stamping  mill  and  ground  to  fine  powder:  in  the  latter  molds  of  the  same  sort  are 
which,  treated  in  much  the  same  way  as  used,  but  the  clay  mixture  is  poured  into 
the  clay,  is  finally  passed  as  a  creamy  them  in  the  condition  of  slip.  By  the  ab- 
liauor  into  a  separate  cistern.  These  sorption  of  the  water  in  the  parts  next  the 
linuorn  are  now  mixed  in  such  measure  dry  mold  a  crust  is  formed  of  greater  or 
that  the  dry  flint-powder  bears  to  the  clay  less  thickness,  according  to  the  time  that 
the  proportion  of  one-sixth  or  one-fifth,  or  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  remain.  The 
even  more,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  molds  are  in  two  or  more  pieces,  so  as 
clay  and  the  practice  of  the  manufacturer,  to  be  easily  detached  from  the  molded 
The  mixture  is  then  forced  into  presses,   article.  j  .  •  j  ^,,        »:  i_    „ 

lined  with  cloth,  by  means  of  a  force-  AA  hen  shaped  and  dried  the  articles  are 
pump,  the  cloth  retaining  the  clay  and  ready  for  the  kiln,  m  which  they  are  ex- 
allowing  the  water  to  escape.  The  clay  posed  to  a  high  temperature  until  they 
now  forms  a  uniform  inelastic  mass,  acquire  a  sufficient  degree  of  hardness  for 
which  is  cift  Into  cubical  lumps  and  trans-  use.  The  paste  of  which  the  earthenware 
ferred  to  a  damp  cellar,  where  it  remains  is  composed  is  thus  converted  into  what 
until  a  process  of  fermentation  or  disin-  is  called  bisque  or  otscutt.  W  hile  under- 
tegration  renders  it  finer  in  grain  and  not  going  this  process  of  baking  the  articles 
so  apt  to  crack  in  the  baking.  But  even  are  enclosed  m  larger  vessels  of  baked 
after  this  process  the  ingredients  compos-  fire-clay,  called  saggers,  to  protect  them 
ing  the  paste  are  not  intimately  enough  from  the  fire  and  smoke,  and  to  distribute 
incorporated  together  nor  sufficiently  fine  the  heat  more  uniformly.  The  whole 
in  texture  until  another  operation  has  firing  lasts  from  forty  to  forty-two  houra. 
been  undergone,  called  slapping  or  wedg-  After  the  kilns  hav.^^  been  allowed  to  cool 
ing,  which  consists  in  repeatedly  breaking  very  slowly,  the  V  ides  are  taken  out, 
the  lumps  across  and  striking  them  and  if  they  are  not  to  be  decorated  in 
toeether  again  in  another  direction,  dash-  color,  and  sometimes  also  when  they  are 
'ng  them  on  a  board,  etc.  This  final  to  be  so  decorated,  thejr  are  immersed 
process  of  incorporation  is  now  most  fre-  m  a  vitrifiable  composition  called  glaze, 
quently  performed  by  machinery.  which,  after  the  vessels  have  been  a  sec- 

In  making  earthenware  vessels,  if  they  ond  time  subjected  to  heat  in  glazed  sag- 
are  of  a  circular  form  ^he  first  operation  gers,  is  converted  Into  a  coating  of  glasa, 
after  the  paste  has  bof..  made  is  turning,  rendering  the  vessels  impermeable  to 
or   what   is   technically   called   throwing   water. 

them  on  the  wheel.  This  is  an  apparatus  These  processes  are  all  that  are  neces- 
resembling  an  ordinary  turning-lathe,  ex-  sary  to  complete  a  plain  earthenware  ves- 
cept  that  the  surface  of  the  cfcMcfc,  or  sup-  sel,  but  very  frequently  the  vessels  are 
nort  for  the  clav,  is  horizontal  instead  of  adorned  with  printed  or  painted  decora- 
vertical  The  chuck  is,  in  fact,  a  revolv-  tions  executed  m  colors,  such  as  may  be 
inif  circular  table,  in  the  center  of  which  burned  into  the  substance  of  the  article, 
a  piece  of  clay  is  placed,  which  the  potter  There  are  two  methods  of  printing  on 
bcins  to  shape  with  hia  hands.  The  earthenware:  press-printing,  which  is 
rotary  motion  of  the  table  gives  the  clay  done  on  the  bisque,  and  bat-printing,  done 
a  cylindrical  form  in  the  hands  of  the  on  the  glaze.  In  both  cases  an  engraving 
potter,  who  gradually  works  it  up  to  the  is  first  executed  in  copper,  and  thence 
intended  shape.  It  ia  then  detached  from  transferred,  by  means  of  a  sheet  of  paper 
the  revolv'ng  tab'''  ind  dried,  after  which,  containing  an  impression,  to  the  article 
if  intended  for  fine?v-finished  ware,  it  is  requiring  to  be  printed ;  but  the  processes 
taken  to  a  lathe  and  polished.  It  is  at  are  slightly  different  in  detail.  When  the 
this   stage   that   the   handles   and   other   vessel  has  received   Its  impression   it   is 

Srominent  parts  are  fitted  on,  which  is   ready   to   be   fired   in   the   enamel   kiln, 
one  by  means  of  a  thin  paste  of  clay   Painting  on  earthenware  is  effected  with 
^Ued    tUp.    The   i^clea   are   now   re-  a  bniab  pver  the  glaze. 


Pottery 


All  Uw  DoiBcnnu  varletiM  of  Mithoi- 
w«F|»  ar*  Lw4d«  in  the  nunncr  Jiut  de- 
■cribMl,  with  only  alight  modiflcat<ona  in 
the  utuK  of  the  ingredient!  of  their  com- 
goaition  or  the  proceiaea  of  manufacture. 
Stoneware  may  be  formed  of  the  claya 
which  are  oaed  for  other  veeaela.  with  the 
addition  of  diflFerent  aorta  of  aand,  and 
Bometimea  of  cement.  A  greater  degree 
of  heat  la  applied  than  in  the  caae  of 
ordinary  earthenware,  and  when  aome 
fluxing  aubetance  is  added  it  has  the  effect 
of  producing  that  state  of  semifusion 
which  is  the  distinguishing  quality  of 
stoneware.  A  kind  of  semivitrified  ware, 
first  made  by  Wedgwood,  takes  its  name 
from  him.  It  is  made  of  two  different 
kmda  of  pastes,  both  very  p.astic.  Thia 
ware  is  incapable  of  taking  on  a  super- 
ficial glaae;  but  by  a  precesa  called 
meartng,  which  is  simply  baking  at  a 
high  heat  in  sagfcrs  coated  internally  with 
a  flaxe,  acquires  a  remarkable  luster. 

Porcelain  or  chinaware  is  formed  only 
from  argillaceous  minerals  of  extreme  def- 
l<;««y.   united  with  siliceous  earths  cap- 
able of  communicating  to  them  a  certain 
?*^     .  translucency  by  means  of  their 
Titrification.     Porcelain  is  of  two  kinds, 
hard  and  tender.     Both  consist,  like  other 
earthenwares,    of    two    parts  — a    paste 
which  forms  the  biscuit,  and  a  glaze.    The 
biscuit  of  hard  porcelain  is  composed  of 
kaolin  or  china  clay,  and  of  decomposed 
felspar.    The  glaze  consists  of  a  felspar 
«x:k  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  and  mixed 
with  water,  so  as  to  form  a  milky  liquid 
Into  which  the  articles  are  dipped  after 
■,  preliminary  baking.    Tender  porcelain 
biscuit  is  made  of  a  vitreous  frit,  com- 
posed of  siliceous  sand  or  ground  flints, 
with  other  ingredients  added,  all  baked 
together  in  a  furnace  till  half-fused,  and 
then  reduced  to  a  condition  of  powder. 
.  f,  *''"'®  °'  tender  porcelain  is  a  spe- 
cially   prepared    glass    ground    fine,    and 
made  into  a  liquid  by  mixing  with  water. 
The  processes  employed  in  manufacturing 
porcelain  wares  are  very  much  the  same 
as  thoM  used  for  other  kinds  of  earthen- 
ware,   but    requiring   more   delicacy   and 
care.     The  biscuit  paste  even  of  hard  por- 
celain has  so  little  tenacity  compared  with 
that  of  earthenware  that  it  cannot  easily 
be  shaped  on  the  wheel,   and  is  conse- 
quently   more    frequently    molded.    The 
paste  of  tender  porcelain  is  still  less  tena- 
cious, so  that  the  wheel  cannot  be  used 
for  it  at  all,  and  a  little  mudlage  of  Rum 
or  black  soap  must  be   added   before   it 
can  be  worked  even   in  molds.     During 
the  baking,  too,  it  becomes  so  soft  that 
tIS-?*^®'  an  article  must  be  supported, 
^■der  porcelain   receives  two  coats  of 


Pottinger 

MMallie  ozidaa  Incorpontod  with  aoma 
raaible  flux,  anch  aa  borax,  flint,  etc.,  are 
usMi  for  painting  on  porcelain.  The  col- 
ors  are  mixed  with  eaMutial  oila  and 
turpentine,  and  applied  by  means  of  a 

f^»^^^'.^'^^-  When  the  painting 
la   finished   the   vessels  are  baked   in  a 

which  are  also  used  foi  fixing  the  printed 
figures  on  the  glaze  of  stoneware.  By 
the  operation  of  the  furnace  moat  of  the 
colors  employed  in  painting  porcelain  be- 
come quite  different,  and  the  change  which 
takes  place  in  them  is  usually  through 

*  m  "®!  2'  *l°^  ■*»  *•'"*  *•»•  vnptr  tint 
will  not  be  obtained  unleaa  the  baking  is 
stopped  precisely  at  the  proper  time. 
Sometimes  porcelain  haa  designs  etched 
on  it  by  means  of  fluoric  acid.  Sculp- 
turM  also  are  executed  by  casting  in 
molds  in  various  kinds  of  porcelain, 
called  statuary  porcelain,  Parian.  Carrara, 
etc.  The  most  important  seats  of  the 
manufacture  of  earthenware  in  the  United 
States  are  at  Trenton,  New  Jeraey,  and 
East  Liverpool,  Ohio.  *.  •  « 

Fottin&rer  4p°.'''?"^*L^'  ^\obkd,  a 

%.t    A  e  .  ?''t«h  oflScer,  famed   for 

his  defense  of  Herat  in  1838,  was  bom 
in  Ireland  in  1811,  and  went  to  Bombay 
?i>V''®u"«*  °'  ^"^  ■■  artillery  cadet.  In 
1837  he  traversed  Afghanistan  in  dis- 
guise, and  reached  Herat  after  many 
risks.  The  city  was  then  held  by  an 
Afghan  prince,  and  was  besieged  by  the 
Persians  for  nearly  a  year,  when  it  was 
relieved  by  a  British  diversion  in  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  credit  of  the  defense 
was  given  to  Pottinger.  Major  Pottinger 
A*  u  *  leadina  part  in  the  disastrous 
Afghan  war  of  1841-42,  and  as  political 
agent  had  to  sign  terms  with  the  rebels, 
which  weie  afterwards  repudiated  by 
Lord  Ellenborougb.  A  trial  by  court- 
martial  only  served  to  show  his  conduct 
in  brighter  colors.  He  died  in  1843  at 
Hong-Kong. 

Pottineer,  ^^  HpRT,  Bart.,  a  dis- 
r.  ,  ""p^*'  tinguished  soldier  and 
diplomatist,  uncle  of  the  above,  bom  in 
IToO.  He  went  to  India  as  a  cadet  in 
1804,  and  soon  became  known  for  his 
energy  and  administrative  ability.  Ris- 
ing gradually  to  the  rank  of  major-gen- 
f™l'J^  '^"■'  *'^*^''  ^^''-  Afghan  campaign 
in  1839,  raised  to  the  baronetage  as  a 
reward  for  his  services.  In  1841  he  went 
as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  China,  and 
contributed  much  to  bring  hostilities  to 
a  conclusion.  He  was  successively  gov- 
ernor and  commander-in-chief  of  Honc^ 
Kona  (1843),  governor  of  the  Gap«  of 
Good  Hope   (1846),  governor  and  eon- 


mander-in-chief    Of    Hadraa     (1860«4< 
Se  died  to  1896. 


Fottetowii 


VAttstoum  iPots't(ma),abormighot 
ronnown  UMtwrntn  Co^  Ptnwi- 
TMiia,  oo  the  Scbaylidll  RlTcr.  40  milM 
w.w.w.  of  PhltadtlphU,  it  ■  thriytof 
BMtafaetariDf  town,  with  eztcnaivc  Iron 
awl  other  industries,  including  numerous 
roiling  miUs,  nailworks,  steer  mills,  ho- 
siery and  silk  factories,  etc.    Pop.  15^609. 


•rt  mad*  with  ohareoal  or  fMM.aoB' 
Irritating  antiMptle  lotion.  Brsad-aodi 
milli  poultice*  are  also  common.  Thf 
best-knoiwn  poultice,  bowerer,  is  the  mas- 
tnrd-plaster.  This  may  be  made  by  mlsi 
ing  llnseed-meal  with  water,  and  addhu 
5!r*ix'!!lj«'~  'Toots'Viir'a  cits'of  Penn-  mustard.  It  produces  a  rapid  but  mil4 
PottfVlUe  Knii  cwitsi  of  Schuy^^  counter-irriutfon,  indicated  by  a  re&iess 
IdU  Co.,  on  the'lihSlkiWyU.  M  ^^^^  ^.the  skin^d  »•  «"2J.\?/XSoS?'' 
H.w.  o^  PhiUdelphia:  It  is  in  the  ^center  ^**»' l^'^^ivfri?  awMrtftSSftoi 
of  the  great  anthracite  coal-field,  with  ex-  Poultry  i?f 'iSi;  bild  tor  SiTtaSi 
tensive  blast-furnaces,   forges,  foundries,  *     •'.»  .""»  ««*ft-'''\.Hi*  ??!T 

rolling  mills,  steam-engine  and  machine 
factories,  also  manufactures  of  brass, 
hosiery,  velvets,  silk,  flour,  lumber,  etc. 
The  annual  product  of  the  neighboring 
coal  mines  is  Heveral  million  tons.  It  is 
on  several  railroad  lines  and  is  an  im- 
portent  shipping  point.  Pop.  204288. 
Pouched  Eat.     see  Oop*er 


PniKfrette  (P»^»t'),  the  name  given 
rouareiie  ^^  ^  nowdery  manure  ob- 
tained from  ordure.  It  takes  a  long  time 
to  prepare,  is  pulverulent,  of  a  nrown 
color,  und  almost  inodorous.  It  contains 
on  an  average  about  25  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  25  per  cent,  of  fixed  salts. 
Largely  made  in  France,  it  is  in  demand 
in  all  quarters,  being  found  particularly 
useful  tor  gardens.  Its  efficacy,  weight 
for  weight,  is  five  times  that  of  cow  dung, 

Poughk^jepsic  iS-'itl'h\tL% 

York,  capital  of  Dutchess  County,  situ- 
ated ou  tue  east  baul(  of  the  Hudson 
River,  70  njilee  north  of  New  York  Ci<^ 
and  79  mileo  south  of  Albany.  It  is  built 
partly  on  a  slope,  partly  on  a  plateau, 
about  200  f.'ct  above  the  river,  and  is 
prettily  situated.  It  is  distinguished  for 
■ta  educational  institutions  and  is  known 
as  the  *  City  of  Schools.'  These  includs 
Vassar  College  for  women,  one  of  tne 
chief  institutions  of  the  kind  in  America. 
Its  industries  include  blast  furnaces,  and 
the  manufacture  of  farming  implements, 
milk  separators,  horseshoes,  machinery* 
automobiles,  etc.  Pop.  82,000. 
FOUlpe   (1^'P>'    8**  Octopua. 

PnnlfipA  (pSl'tis),  in  medicine,  a 
ruiuii»<c  ggfj^  QjQjgt  application  ap- 
plied externally  to  some  part  of  the  body 
either  hot  or  cold,  but  generally  the 
former.  The  simple  poultice  is  made 
with  linseed  meal  and  boiling  water, 
spread  out  with  uniform  thickness  on  a 
cloth  or  rag,  and  is  used  where  it  !s  de- 
sired to  hasten  the  progress  of  inflamma- 
tion. Its  moisture  causes  relaxation  of 
the  aUn,  and  thereby  lessens  tlie  discom- 
f»H  or  fain.    It  acts  also  as  a  counter- 


or  kept  for  their  eggs.    The  bird*  mosf 
commonly  included  under  this  designation 
•re  the  common  fowl,  the  pea-fowl,  the 
guinea-fowl,  the  turkey,  goose,  and  dudi. 
There  is  a  great  difference  between  the 
Tsrleties  of  the  domestic  fowl  and  choice 
of  variety  must  depend  on  the  purpose  . 
for  which  the  fowls  are  kept,  whether  for 
•fgs  or  meat  or  both,  and  whether  sitters 
or  non-sitters  are  desired.    Common  egg- 
producing   breeds  in   America  are  Leg- 
borno  and  Minoroas,  which  lay  white- 
•helled  eggs  and  are  non-sitters.     Plym- 
outh Hocks,  Wyandottes,  Orpingtons  and 
Rhode  Island  Reds  are  good  for  general 
farm  purposes.    They  are  sitters  and  pro. 
ducers  of  brown-sheUed  eggs  as  are  also 
the    Brahmas,    Cochins   and   Langshuu. 
The  science  of  poultry  culture  has  made 
rapid  advances  within  recent  years,  Amei^ 
ica   leading   the   way.      Result*   depend 
largely  upon  careful  feeding  as  well  as 
upon  careful  breeding.    The  proper  ratio 
for  feeding  fowls  has  been  widely  dis- 
cussed, but  the  general  conclusion  seems 
to  be  that  abont  1  :  6  is  the  best,  and  diat 
there  should  be  about  18  per  cent  of  al- 
buminoid*. 7  of  fats  and  75  of  carbohy- 
drates.    Fowl*    fattening   require   inore 
fats ;  those  constantly  layinc ,  mor«  albu- 
minoids.   In   America   artificial   inenba- 
tion    is    widely    practiced.     In    general 
poulti7  fanners  use  long  rows  of  build- 
togs  divided  into  pens  or  bouses  with 
enclosed    yards   in   front  of  each,    with 
'scratdiing  sheds'  for  winter  use.    An- 
other system  is  the  '  colonj '  plan,  housM 
accommodating  forty  or  fifty  hens  each 
being  placed  at  some  distance  apart,  with 
no  fencing.   Larger  fowls,  called '  roaster* ' 
to  distinguish  thenf  from  the  'broilers,* 
which    are    un&ittened    and    sold    when 
weighing  from  one  and  a  half  to  two 
pounds,  are  usually  reared  in  confinement, 
being  killed  at  the  weight  of  seven  or 
eight  pounds. 
Pnn-n  AA  (poons ;  a  cormptloD  of  pftm- 

tMsd  to  prevent  ink  from  spreadinf  on 

Spar,  now  superseded  by  blottinff-Daiwr. 
M  tarm  i*  al*o  applied  to  dtavooai)  4nt 


Pound 


Towtoly 


m  souM  othtr  powdtr  niml  to  cmbroldtn 
or  wiraTiBJi,  to  trace  a  dcsini  or  patttra 
by  bclof  dltad  throufh  pinbolM  in  tht 

Sip«r. 
OUnd.  *?  Bnglitb  law,  an  encloaad 
^*  place  for  ke«pinf  cattle  wbicb 
bave  atrayed  on  another  niau'a  ground, 
until  tbejr  are  redeemed.  A  pound  may 
belong  to  a  pariah  or  village  or  to  a 
manor. 


and  attended  the  achool  of  Domeakhtao. 
At  Rome  be  fell  into  great  want,  but  waa 
aaaiated  by  a  Frenchman.  Jac-duea  Duchet, 
and  by  him  tended  through  an  illneaa 
brought  on  by  overwork.  In  1030  Poue* 
ain  married  the  daughter  of  his  benefactor. 
About  thia  time  hia  alTaira  began  to  im* 
Sf'*''.*-  «**^  '°"°d  liberal  patrona  in  Car- 
dinal   Barberini    and    in    the    Cavaliere 

_  ,      ^»/erent_denomlnation«,  avmrdu-   Belvoir  Caetle.     He  wae  also  invited  to 

paint  the  great  gallery  of  the  Louvre: 
and  his  auccesses  gained  him  the  poaition 
of  first  painter  to  Louis  XIII,  with  a 
pension  of  3000  livres.  From  1040  to 
3M2  he  resided  in  I'arls;  but  the  rivalry 
of  French  painters  and  the  want  of  appre- 
ciation of  his  works  evinced  by  the  Tari- 
aiana  induced  him  to  return  to  Rome, 
where  he  lived  until  his  death  in  1066. 
He  modeled  statues  and  reliefs  with  great 
skill,  and  might  have  become  an  eminent 
sculptor.  Historical  and  landscape  paint- 
•n--.'  J  .    ,.«»-   ^#   -  •.  l":*"'  *"°.''e'^e'''  were  the  chief  aubjecta  of 

Ponndaee,    ■    "i*   ®'   "9   ^^^   P«'   bis  gemus;   in  these  his  style  is  grand 

» 7T    .  fo««o.   sometimes   a  per-   and  heroic,  and  his  invention  fertile.     He 

has  been  called  the  Raphael  of  France. 
Among  his  more  celebrated  works  are  the 
Seven  Sacramenti,  the  Death  of  Ocrtnani- 
c««.  the  Capture  of  Jerutalem.  the  Plague 
of  the  Phtltatine$.  A  braham't  Servant  and 
Rebecca,  the  Adultereta,  the  Infant  Mo- 
»e»,  ilotea  and  the  Dauphtera  of  Jethro 
at  the  Well  JUptet  bnnaing  Water  from 
the  Sock,  the  Worahip  of  the  Golden  Calf, 
John  Baptizing  in  the  Wilderneaa,  etc., 
and  many  fine  landscapes. 

Pout.  s««  ^•'•• 


Ptda  and  troy.  The  pound  trojf  contalna 
5700  grains,  and  is  divided  into  12 
SJiSS*"'  ^^^  pound  avoirdupoia,  contains 
7000  grains,  and  is  divided  into  16 
??'"^5?- ._  "^^  pound,  or  pound  aterling, 
Jhe  h'Bhest  monetary  denomination  used 
iS,  "JU}?^  money  accounts,  and  equal  to 
f)  shillings,  was  so-called  from  its  orig- 
inally being  equal  to  a  quantity  of  silver 
weighing  one  pound.  The  pound  is  used 
strictly  as  a  money  of  account,  the  coin 
repreaenting  it  being  the  sovereign.  See 
Honey. 


—       c     ""'  """"juiufs  a  per- 
centage deducted  from  wages  paid  in  ad- 
vance.    Also,   a   tax    formerly   levied   on 
merchandise  by  weight. 
Ponshkin.     ^^  Puahkin. 

PonSSln  .(P^-M*).  Gaspab,  a  French 
landscape  painter,  bom  in 
Rome  in  1613.  His  real  name  was 
Dughet;  but  having  been  placed  under 
the  instructions  of  the  celebrated  Nicolas 
Poussin,  who  had  married  his  sister,  lie 
assumed  the  surname  of  bis  master.  He 
lived  mo8l!y  in  Rome  or  its  neigliborhood, 
and  had  extraordinary  facility  of  execu- 
tion, so  that  his  works  are  very  numer- 
ous, specimens  being  found  in  all  the  chief 
collections  in  Europe.  His  paintings  are 
distinguished  by  grandeur  aud  rather 
somber  characteristics,  and  storms  or 
high  winds  were  subjects  in  which  he 
excelled,  though  he  was  also  highly  suc- 
cessful with  morning  and  evening  effects. 
The  pictures  of  his  maturer  period  owe 
much  to  the  influence  of  Claude.  Many 
of  ojs  figures  are  said  to  have  been  sup- 
Pljed  by  Nicolas  Poussin.  He  died  about 
1675. 


Pouter     (?<>«>**«•).  «  variety  of  fancy 
u.  ..  .    .  P'geon,  the  chief  character  of 
which  is  its  very  projecting  breast. 

Povoa  de  Varzim  (p^-^o'a  da  var- 

_«j  u  »t..         ,  -  „  ''^^  ^  •  *  seaport 

and  bathing  place  of  Portugal,  about  16 
miles  northwest  of  Oporto.  Pop.  12,623. 
Powan  (pj'"'a°;  Coregonua  dupe- 
T  J    .  ®»"^*>>  a  fish  inhabiting  Loch 

Lomond,  in  Scotland,  and  also  known  aa 
the  fresh-water  herring. 
Powderlv  (Pou'der-ll).  Terewce  Vnr- 
,         "     ^  CEJiT,  was  born  at  Carbon- 


scape  painter,  born  at  Andelys.  in  Nor- 
mandy, in  1594.  He  first  studied  in  his 
native  place,  and  then  at  Paris,  under 
nawtera  of  Httle  merit ;  but  he  made 
astonishing  progress.  He  bad  already 
SSSII*"^  considerable  reputation  when,  in 
1624,  be  went  to  Italy  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  himself  in  his  art ;  there  be 
lodged  with  Du  Quesnoy,  the  sculptor, 


the  Knights  of  Labor  1879-93.  He  was 
elected  mayor  of  Scranton  for  three  lerma, 
and  was  made  commissioner-general  of 
immigration  in  1897.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1894,  and  to  the  bar  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1901.  In  1906 
he  was  sent  abroad  to  study  causes  of 
immigration,  and  in  1907  waa  made  chief 
of  the  Division  of  Information  in  the 
Boreau  of  Immigration.    He  wrote  Tkirt$ 


PoweU 


Fomoli 


7Mrt  9f  Lobar,  and  Hittorn  of  Labor 

Dop. 

VnvrmW  (pouVI),  JoBif  Wesuct.  nolo- 

XOWVU    j^j^  ^g,  born  j„  j^oun,  Morrli, 

New  York,  in  18U4.  In  the  Civil  war  be 
roae  to  be  lieutenant-colonei,  loeing  an  arm 
at  Bbilob.  In  18U7  and  yearn  following, 
under  direction  of  Smitbaonian  Inati'ution 
and  Department  of  tbe  Interior,  be  con- 
ducted tbe  geoaraphical  and  geological 
■urvey  of  tbe  Uocky  Mountain  region, 
and  waa  tbe  first  to  make  tbe  periloua 
journey  down  tbe  Colorado  River,  and 
tbrougn  ita  cafion.  His  Contributiont  to 
Ifortk  American  Etknalogif  are  embraced 
in  8  vols.  In  1881  he  was  appointed 
Director  of  the  Unitd  Statea  Geological 
Aunrey.  His  publicatioLs  include  many 
scientific  papers  and  addresses,  and  nu- 
merous  government  volumes.  He  served 
aa  President  of  the  Anthropologics!  So* 
ciety  of  Washington  and  of  the  American 
Association  for  Advancement  of  Science. 
He  died  in  1902. 

Power  o£  Attorney,  l°J«j;'  J?„* 

ten  instrument  whereby  one  person  is 
authorised  to  act  for  another  as  bis  agent 
or  attorney,  either  generally  or  in  a  spe- 
cial transaction. 

Powers  (pow'ers),  Hiram,  sculptor, 
AwwvAB   jjjg  gQ^  q£  jj  farmer,  was  born 

at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  in  1805.  He 
early  displayed  great  ingenuity  in  mechan- 
ical matters,  and  became  somewhat  note- 
worthy on  this  account  while  acting  aa 
a  shopman  and  assistant  to  a  clockmaker 
of  Cincinnati.  He  next  obtained  employ- 
ment in  a  museum  in  that  city.  At  this 
period  be  formed  the  acquaintance  of  a 
Qerman  sculptor,  and  having  bc.-n  taught 
modeling  by  him,  determined  to  become 
himself  a  sculptor.  In  1835  he  went  to 
Washington,  and  had  sufllcient  success 
there  to  enable  him  to  proceed  to  Italy. 
He  now  settled  in  Florence,  where 
be  resided  until  his  death  in  1873.  He 
is  distinguished  in  portraiture,  and  pro- 
duced busts  of  many  of  the  most  noted 
American  statesmen.  His  most  famous 
ideal  works  are  the  statue  of  Eve,  the 
Oreek  Slave,  and  the  Fiaher  Boy. 
Pn-orliafATi  (pow'ha-tan),  an  Indian 
rownaian  ,,1,,^,    ^^    Virginia,    bom 

about  1550 ;  was  the  father  of  Pocahontas 
(which  see).  He  died  in  1618.  He  waa 
friendly  to  the  settlers,  but  after  bis 
death  the  confederacy  of  tribes  of  which 
he  was  chief  t>ecame  hostile,  and  in  the 
conflicts  that  ensued  they  were  nearly  all 
destroyed. 

Pnnrfkrfl  ^I^hk  Gbeat,  a  term  of  mod- 
x^uwcrS)  em  diplonwcy.  by  which  have 
long  been  meant  Britain,  France,  Austria, 
G«nMiiy«  Italy,  and  Boasin,  tad  to  which 


mnat  now  be  addad  tbe  United  Butaa  aad 
Japan. 

fu/juji|p  *«w  statute  of  Drof- 
beda,  an  act  of  tbe  Iriab  Parliament, 
passed  in  1495,  whereby  ail  general  atat- 
utes  before  that  time  made  In  England 
were  decUired   of   force   in   Ireland.    It 


waa  80  named  from  Sir  Edward  Povnlnia, 
iputy  of  Ireland  under  Henry  Vll  In 
1494,  when  he  suppressed  tbe  revolt  of 


deputy  of  Ireland  under  Henry  Vl 
1494,  when  he  suppressed  tbe  revo..  w. 
Perkin  Warbeck.    See  Irtiand  (Iliotorv). 

Poynter  lpo«»'t*').    »»  ^■'"T^" 

AvjubVA  joH„^  m,n  of  Ambrose 
Poynter,  an  architect,  was  bora  in  Paria 
in  1836;  received  bis  art  training  at  tbe 
Bcboola  of  the  Royal  Academy  and  under 
Oleyre  In  Paria ;  gained  a  reputation  bj 
his  Itrael  in  Egypt,  exhibited  in  1867, 
and  Tko  Catapult  (1868) ;  painted  tbe 
cartoons  for  the  mosaic  of  8t.  Oeorgo  in 
tbe  Westminster  Palace  (1809).  Ha 
produced  various  other  notable  paintinga. 
He  was  elected  an  aaaociate  in  1869  aind 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1876.  waa  tba 
first  Blade  professor  of  art  at  Univeralty 
College,  London,  and  was  director  for  art 
at  South  Kensington  for  some  years.  Ha 
wuK  made  Prmiiteiit  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy in  18U0.  Ue  <lit><l  July  26,  1919. 
PoZOblanCO    .(PSrthf-blAnTtO),  a  town 

and  30  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Cor- 
dova. Its  inhabitanta  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  agriculture  and  aa  mufetean. 
Pop.  12,792. 

PoZZOlana.  ?/,  Pozzuolawa  (pot-aO-n- 
**  ^  **  "^' lA'na),  a  sort  of  mortar 
produced  in  Italy  and  formed  of  vokanJe 
ashes.  When  mixed  with  a  email  portion 
of  lime  it  quickly  hardena  even  under 
water.  Tbia  singular  property  rendara 
it  very  useful  as  a  cement  in  tbe  erection 
of  molea  and  other  buildinga  in  maritime 
situationa.  It  is  much  used  In  Italy  as 
a  aubatitute  for  mortar,  and  haa  received 
ita  name  from  Poauoll,  the  port  fran 
which  it  la  shipped. 

Pozznou  teir;*;!?^'aS?  SgSK 

of  Southern  Italy,  6  milea  w.  a.  w.  of 
Naples,  on  the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Baia 
(Gtolfo  dl  Posauoli),  the  northwestern 
portion  of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  (See 
Naplee.)  Tbe  coast  forma  a  natural  nar- 
bor,  which  is  well  sheltered;  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  and  an  active  nsbing  to 
carried  on.  Posauoli  is  a  city  of  great 
historic  interest.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Greeks  abont  020  B.C.,  and  became  nnder 
Rome  a  great  center  of  commerce.  St. 
Panl  landed  here  in  the  course  of  hte 
journey  to  Rome.  Possuoll  waa  destroyed 
by  the  Qotha  more  than  onoa,  rebuilt  by 
the  Byiaatioe  Greeks,  and  flsally  dewa- 


t«t«d  bj  Mrtbqoakta  and  volcaBie  trap- 
It  kboaiMfai  In  Aadeot  rains.    Tm 


Fmtor 


mtlwdnil  •umdi  on  tbt  ■H*  of  •  tonplo 
of  AbjnatiM,  and  In  oa«  of  tbt  lateral 
wallo  all  Corlnthlnn  colamM  of  tbt  old 
ttmlt  art  prtttrvtd.  A  ralotd  Ttmplt 
ei  Btnpis  a»o  rtmalM,  enckitcd  by  fort/- 
dfbt  marbit  and  cranltt  columoa.  On 
an  talnenct  bcbbuTtbt  town  atands  tbt 
ralatd  anpbltbtater,  rttting  on  tbrtt 
atrkt  of  arvbeo.  In  tbt  nticboorbood  art 
Lakt  ATtrana,  tbt  Orotto  of  tbt  Sibyl, 
tbt  batba  of  Ktro,  tbt  ruloa  of  Bala  and 
CuBUBi  ttc  Recently  Potsuoli  baa  been 
eoaaMtrably  altered  by  the  eatablUbment 
of  Armatrong,  Mitcbell,  A  Co.'t  work*  for 
anniljrint  funa.  armor-plat -w,  and  marbin- 
trr  to  tot  Italian  goveroment.  Pop. 
(fe06)  17,017. 

Praotiee  (prak'tli),  in  aritbmttic,  a 
"**  *"  rule  for  expeditiously  lolvlng 
qneationi  in  proportion,  or  rather,  for 
abridging  tbe  operation  of  multiplying 
qnantltlet  expressed  in  different  denomi- 
nations, as  wb«D  it  is  required  to  find 
tbt  value  of  a  number  of  articles  at  ao 
many  pounds,  sbillings,  and  pence  each. 
p«aHier  (Pf*-dl-i),  Jacquc^  an  em- 
^^^  inent  scuHtor,  born  ut  Geneva 
in  1702.  Having  gone  to  Paris  in  1800, 
and  stoditd  art  in  1813,  be  gained  tbe 
prist  of  tbt  Academy  for  a  bas-relief  of 
PkUectetet  and  I'lpueB.  Tbis  work  pro- 
cored  bim  admission  into  tbe  French 
Academy  at  Rame.  From  1823  be  worked 
conatantly  at  Paris,  where  his  popularity 
was  very  great  and  where  he  was  admit- 
ted to  the  Institute  In  1827.  His  works 
are  of  various  kinds:  religious,  monu- 
mental, but  mainly  classical.  In  execu- 
tion be  ranks  as  a  sculptor  of  the  first 
class,  but  bis  invention  and  conception  are 
defective,  and  there  is,  according  to  some 
critics,  a  decided  meretriciousness  in  bis 
style.  He  died  in  1844.  His  works  com- 
prise: Centaur  and  Bncchante,  Ptycke, 
Vtmut,  Pkrpne,  The  Three  Graces,  twelve 
colossal  Victories  on  the  monument  of 
Napoleon  I  in  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
statut  of  Ronueau  at  Geneva,  etc. 

Pv^aH    (Ptd  ) ,  WiNTHBOP  MaCKWOBTH, 

7  T\^ AJl^^tr,^"^  *°  London,  Eng- 
land, In  1802.  Be  was  educated  at  Eton, 
wbtre  In  1820  be  became  one  of  tbe  prin- 
cipal contributors  to  a  magasint  pob- 
liahtd  thttt  called  The  Btonkm.  From 
Eton  be  went  to  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, wbert  ht  obtained  for  two  yeara 
in  Boeeessloa  the  ^taneellor's  priie  for 
an  English  poem.  At  this  time,  like 
Itacaalay,  be  contributed  both  in  proae 
aad  verse  to  JTn^Afs  Qicarterly  Maao- 
tint.  In  1828  ht  waa  called  to  the  bar, 
-  is  1880  and  1881  waa  returned  by  St 
to  Farliamat,  wbtre  bt  took  a 


promiBtnt  part  In  oppoolac  tbt  . 

of  tbt  rtfonn  btU.  Ht  Atd  faTlL... 
HIa  potma  art  aMatly  of  a  ligbt  aad 
eltgant  cbaracttr,  btlonging  to  tbt  ckss 
known  aa  vera  4*  mHMJ4,\at  tbty  alao 
comprist  otbtr^  In  a  mora  serious  vein. 
PnefeOt  <?.«■•'/•««;  prmfectmt),  tbt 
V  .  \!*"«  o'  ~r««ia  funetlonarits 
of  andtnt  Romt.  Of  theat,  tbt  mott  im- 
rwrtant  was  the  prafeettu  urbi  or  wrbU 
(prefect  of  tbe  city).  During  tbt  kingly 
period  and  the  early  republic  tbt  prmfeo- 
tui  urbit  had  the  right  to  tztrcist  all  the 
powers  of  the  king  or  consuls  in  their 
sbseoce.  After  the  foundation  of  the 
prKtorahip  (see  Prmtor)  this  ofHce  lost 
its  dignity  and  privileges;  but  under  the 
empire  it  was  revived  as  that  of  chief 
permanent  magistrate  of  the  city,  with 
important  military  functions.  The  prm- 
fcctue  prviorio,  an  officer  under  the 
empire,  was  general  of  tbe  Imperial  life 
fcuards.  His  position  was  one  of  great 
power,  for  tbe  troop,  under  his  command 
fretiuently  decided  the  succession  of  the 
imperial  throne.  (Set  PratorUma.) 
Many  other  Roman  functionaries  bore 
the  title  of  pnefect,  such  as  the  prafeetut 
aquarum,  who  bad  charge  of  the  water 
sup|»ly  of  the  city;  the  prafeotue  wrarU, 
who  managed  the  public  treasury,  etc. 

PrsemiULire  ,(prt-™o-ni'«).  in  Eng- 

~ ,  7^  Hsh  law,  a  name  givtn  to 
a  kind  of  offense  of  the  nature  of  a  con- 
tempt against  the  monarch  and  the  gov- 
ernment. Tbe  term  is  derived  from  tbt 
opening  worda  of  the  writ  preparatory 
to  the  prosecution  of  the  offense — pro- 
Monere  or  prtrmaniVe  faciae  A.  B. 
(Cause  A.  B.  to  be  forewarned  that  he 
appear  befora  us,  etc.).  The  punishment 
is  forfeiture  and  imprisonment  during 
the  sovereign's  pleasure.  Many  of  tbe 
statutes  are  now  repealed,  and  proateu- 
tions  upon  praemunire  are  unheard  of  in 
our  times:  the  last  took  place  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  II. 

Prseneste    (vn-M'te),  the  ancient 
Aia:ucBi,c    name  of  Paleatrlna  (which 
see). 
Prator    (Pf*'tor),   an   important   offi- 

state.  Up  to  367  B.a  the  title  was 
merely  an  adjunct  to  that  of  consul: 
but  when  at  that  date  the  consulship 
was  thrown  open  to  the  plebeians,  the 
judicial  functions  of  the  consul  were 
separated  from  bia  other  duties  and 
given  to  a  new  patrician  magisirate,  who 
was  entitled  the  praetor.  In  337,  <'.ter 
a  struggle,  the  plebeians  were  also  ad- 
mitted to  this  oiBce.  In  240  B.O.  an- 
other magistracy,  that  of  prmtor  pere- 
trfaw,  was  instituted  for  the  purpose  of 
aettllnjr  diai>vtes  between  foretgatts  and 


TratofiMU 


Vnkna, 


bttwMB  foralfMn  Md  cit'  m ;  and  in 
dhtlBcUoo  froB  him  who  .•d  tlila  of* 
Am  tiM  other  fuoctloMr/  was  ttroMd 
prmtor  htMiiim.  After  •icctloo  the  two 
pnrton  dtttnnlncd  th«ir  oOcm  by  lot. 
Th«  prmtor  urMnut  wna  tbt  tint  to  po- 
•ItioB,  and  waa  the  chief  mafiatrate  for 
tb*  administration  of  Justice.  About 
B.O.  227  the  number  of  prstors  was  In- 
creased  to  four;  afterwards  to  six  and 
eitht:  and  under  the  empire  the  namber 
Taried  from  twelve  to  eighteen.  After 
compietinf  his  year  of  oflfce  the  pnetor 
was  often  sent  as  proprator  to  guTorn 
a  province.    Bee  Procomul. 

guard  of  the  Roman  em* 

Krors.  first  established  to  a  standing 
dy  by  Augustus.  Under  bim  only  a 
small  number  of  them  were  stationed  in 
Rome,  the  rest  being  in  the  adjacent 
towns.  Tiberius  assembled  the  whole  at 
Home,  where  ther  were  used  to  quell 
any  sudden  popular  disturbance.  The 
nnmber  of  cohorts  was  raised  by  Vital- 
tins  from  nine  to  sixteen,  and  under  the 
later  emperors  they  became  powerful 
enough  to  decide  the  succession  to  the 
throne.  They  were  reorganised  and  their 
powers  curtailed  by  Reptimius  Severus 
and  by  Diocletian,  and  were  finally  dis- 
banded by  Constantine  the  Great.  812  a.d. 

Pragmatic  Sanction,  "  ^"^'«  *?i 

"  '  solemn   de- 

cree pronounced  by  the  head  of  a  legiH- 
lature.  In  ii^uropean  history  several  Im- 
portant treaties  are  called  pragmatic 
aanctlons,  but  the  one  best  known  by  this 
name  is  the  instrument  bv  which  the 
German  Emperor  Charles  VI,  being  with- 
out male  issue,  endeavored  to  seiure  the 
snccession  to  Maria  Theresa. 

^'^ati"*^.  foslL^l^^dev&ei?  o'f 
toe  acientific  method  as  applied  to  meta- 
phyaical  problems,  or  to  the  mental  atti- 
tude that  refuses  to  accept  anv  theory  <•  v 
cept  in  as  far  as  it  explains  facts  and  i^ 
translatable  into  action.  The  be<4t  i>a- 
thorities  on  the  subject  are  John  Dewey, 
Btudiet  in  Logical  Theory  (1903),  and 
William  James,  Pragmtttinm  (1907). 
Pramie    (P""**;  Bohemian,  PraJko,  Qer- 

.,J^  o?  "W>'  '*"»)»  the  capital  of 
l-secno-SIovakia,  a  prosperous  and  weO- 
built  city  of  eentrul  Boiiemia,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Moldau,  here  crossed  by  seven 
bridges;  15S  miles  northwest  uf  Vienna 
and  75  miles  southt>aat  uf  lirt^Un,  with 
both  of  which  it  is  connected  by  railway. 
Its  site  is  a  regular  basin,  cut  in  two 
by  the  river,  from  the  banks  of  which 
the  houses  rise  on  both  sides  till  they  are 
terminated  and  enclosed  by  hills  of  con- 
dderaUe  height.    When  viewed  from  the 


Karlsbrikke,    or    old    bridge,    the    city 

rrasenu    a    most    imposing    appesraaM. 
t  was  formerly  eacloaed  by  a  wall  and 
fosse,  but  these  defenses  have  been  de- 
molished.   Among  the  public  buiidlaga  of 
I'rigue  are  the  old  caatle,  or  palace  oftbe 
Bohemian    kings;    liie    Roman    CathoUe 
cathedral,   a   Gothks  atructure    (founded 
1344),  somewhat  ahapeleaa  from  having 
been    only    partly    finished,    though    aa 
effort  is  now  being  made  to  cony>lete  It; 
the  Jesuit  college,  called   the  Clementl- 
num,  consisting  of  churches,  chapels,  and 
other  buildings,  and  coataining  the  uni- 
yersity   library:    the   Carolinum,   or  col- 
lege of  law  and  medicine ;  the  town-hall : 
the    Teynkircbe    or    old    church    of    the 
Hussites,      interesting      as      coataining 
statues  and  other  works  of  art  and  the 
burial   place   of   the   aatronomer   Tycho 
Brahe;  the  palace  of  Wallenstein,  origi- 
nally a  magnificent  atruct-ire,   but  now 
much    dilapidated,    etc.    The   jnanufae- 
turea  of  Prague  are  of  great  variety,  in- 
cluding gold  and  silver  embroidery,  silk, 
woolen,  cotton,  and  linen  gooda,  porcelain, 
and     Jewelry.    The    suburbs    of    Karo- 
linenthni  and  Smiohow,  the  former  with 
25.U0O.  the  latter  with  50,000  inhabitanta, 
are   quite   modern,   and   ore   busy   indus- 
trial centers.     From   its  position  on  tha 
river  Moldau,  Prague  has  free  communi- 
cation with  the  Elbe,  which  gives  it  great 
facilities  for  transport  in  addition  to  its 
railway   connectiona.     Prague   is  one  of 
the  oldest  towns  in  the  kingdom,  dating 
from  the  eighth  century.     Its  university 
waa  founded   in   1348,  and   had   at  oae 
time  about  10,000  students.     Recently  it 
waa    divided    into    two    universities,    a 
German  and  a  Csecb  or  Bohemian,  hav- 
ing  together   more   than   3600   studenta 
The  city  was  long  greatly  disturbed  by 
the  struggles  between  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics and   the  Hussites.    It  suffered  se- 
verely also  in  the  Thirty  Yeara*  war.     In 
J  (131  the  city  was  captured  by  the  Sazona, 
who  were  driven  out  a  few  montha  later 
by  Wallenstein.    Since  that  date  it  has 
passed    through    many    vicissitudes.     In 
1742   it  waa  taken   by   the   French  and 
Bavarians,  and  two  years  later  capltu- 
Uited  to  Frederick  the  Great.    After  the 
Seven    xwrs*  war  the  city  made  rapid 
?trid«.    During  the  Anstro-PruKsfan  war 
in    1866    Prague    wns    occupied    by    the 
Prussians,  and  here  the  trcutv  of  peace 
was  signed  August  23.    In  1U18  it  passed 
out  of  Austrian  eoutrol,  btx-oming  the  cap- 
ital of  the  new  state  of  Czecho-Slovakia 
(q.  v.).    Pop.  223,741. 
]^hran     (PrA-ran*),  a  town  In  Vte- 
.      .   „  „  tona,  Australia,  a  s.  E.  sub- 
urb  of   Melboume.      Pop.    41461.     See 
afeiooiM'iMa 


Prairial 


Pratt 


Prairial.     ^**  calendar. 

Prairie  (Prfi'ri;  French  'meadow')} 
AAiuAAo  j^g  name  given  in  the  Unitra 
Statea  to  the  vast  natural  meadows  or 
plains  of  the  Mi-isissippi  valley,  espe- 
cially lying  between  it  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  extending  northwards 
into  Central  Canada.  Throughout  this 
immense  territory  the  differences  of  level 
are  sufficient  to  produce  a  steady  flow 
of  the  rivers,  but  not  so  great  as  to 
obstruct  their  navigation,  thus  securing 
a  unique  system  of  easy  intercommuni- 
cation between  all  sections  of  the 
interior.  There  is  a  great  sameness  in 
the  features  of  the  topography,  the  vege- 
table productions,  the  soil,  and  geological 
features.  Some  of  the  prairies  that  have 
a  peculiarly  undulating  surface  are 
known  as  rolling  prairiei.  The  prairies 
were  formerly  treeless,  except  along  the 
streams,  and  the  annual  burning  of  their 
dried  grass  by  the  Indians  is  supposed 
to  have  ^iven  rise  to  the  autumnal  misti- 
ness visible  in  the  *  Indian  Summer.* 
They  have  now  much  more  woodland. 
Vast  herds  of  buffaloes  used  to  roam 
over  the  prairies,  but  these  have  been 
destroyed.  Immense  tracts  are  now  cul- 
tivated, and  produce  large  crops  of  wheat 
and  maize  with  little  outlay  of  labor  on 
the  part  of  the  farmer,  the  soil  being 
deep  and  rich.  They  constitute,  in  fact, 
the  great  grain-raising  region  of  the 
United  States. 

Prfl.iri^>(1nfr  or  Prahue  Marmot,  a 
X-nune  aog,  ^  „  ^  1 1  rodent  animal, 
the  wistonwish  (t'l/nomya  ludovicianut) , 
allied  to  the  marmot  as  well  ns  to  the 
squirrel,  and  found  on  the  North  Amer- 
ican prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi  and 
east  of  the  Uocky  Mountains.  These 
animals  live  gregariously  in  burrows,  and 
are  characterized  by  a  sharp  bark,  like 
that  of  a  small  dog,  whence  their  popular 
name.  They  are  about  1  foot  in  length 
exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  rather 
short.  Their  burrows  are  quite  close 
together,  and  have  a  mound  of  excavated 
earth  near  the  entrance,  on  which  the 
little  animals  are  wont  to  sit  and  look 
around  them.  These  communities  are 
termed  '  villages.'  A  second  species,  C. 
colutnbiaHU8,  inhabits  the  region  west  of 
the  Rockies.  The  prnirie-dog  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  prairie-squirrel, 
to  which  it  is  allied. 

Prairie-hen,  *{|*  ^It^A  '""°*  °J 

'  the  pmnated  grouse  of 
the  United  States  {Tctrao  cupfdo).  The 
neck  of  the  mnle  is  furnished  with  neck- 
tufts  of  eighteen  feathers,  and  is  re- 
markable also  for  two  loose,  pendulous, 
wrinkled  skins,   which  somewhat  resem- 


ble an  oranffe  on  inflation.  Tb«  prairie* 
ben  is  much  prised  for  the  table. 

Prairie-sanirrel.  °^  oo/heb,  a 

animals  of  North  America,  of  the  genus 
Spertnophilua,  found  in  the  prairies  in 
great  numbers.  They  live  in  burrows, 
and  not  on  trees,  and  much  resemble  the 
prairie-dog  or  marmot.  They  have  cheek- 
pouches,  in  which  their  food  is  carried. 
This  consists  of  prairie  plants  with  their 
roots  and  seeds. 

Prairie-wolf,  LVS.J7  V,-  ,<^-ft 

wolf  which  is  found  on  the  prairies  in 
North  America,  believed  by  many  to  be 
a  mere  variety  of  the  European  wolf. 
It  is  a  cowardly  animal,  and  only  dan- 
gerous to  man  when  in  packs  and  pressed 
by  hunger. 

Prftkrif  (pr&'krit),  the  name  of  cer- 
xxoAixt   jg.j,    jj.^j^    dialects,    which 

acquired  greater  prominence  as  the  older 
Sanskrit  passed  gradually  out  of  use. 
The  modem  tongues  of  India  have 
sprung  from  the  Prftkrit  just  as  the 
Uomance  languages  have  sprung  from 
the  old  Italian  dialects,  and  not  from  the 
literary  Latin. 

Prase    (P''^)>   "■   ^^^    leek-green   va- 
riety    of    quarts,    the    color    of 
which  is  due  to  an  admixture  of  horn- 
blende. 
Pro. tin  n^    (pra-t§k'),  a  term  used  to 

quarantine,  which  the  captain  of  a  vessel 
is  hold  to  have  performed  when  he  has 
convinced  the  authorities  of  the  port  that 
his  ship  is  free  from  infectious  diseases; 
more  generally,  the  license  to  trade  after 
having  performed  quarantine. 
PratO  (Pra'to),  a  town  of  Italy,  in 
«.Kv  Tuscany,  11  miles  northwest  of 
Florence,  in  a  fertile  plain,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Bisonzio.  It  dates  from  the 
twelfth  century,  is  surrounded  by  ancient 
walls,  and  is  a  well-built,  cheerful-look- 
ing place.  The  cathedral  is  very  beauti- 
ful; it  was  begun  by  Nicolo  Pisano, 
and  completed  after  his  designs  in  1450 
with  a  facade  furnishing  a  beautiful 
specimen  of  Italian  Gothic.  Prato  has 
manufactures  of  woolen,  cotton,  silk,  etc. 
Pop.   (1900)   20,199. 

Pratt  ^"AR^'3>  philanthropist,  born 
'  at  Wintertown.  Massachusetts, 
in  1820;  died  in  1801.  lie  became 
wealthy  through  the  introduction  and 
sale  of  astral  oil,  and  in  1887  founded 
the  Pratt  Institute  in  Brooklyn,  to  which 
he  added  an  immense  tenement  house 
and  left  it  by  will  an  endowment  of 
$2,000,000. 

Pl«tt     I^i^ocH,  philanthropist,  bom  at 
jrxabi,,    j^^j^^    Middleboro,    liMsachv 


Pmwh 


Pre-Adamites 


wtti,^in  1808:  died  in  1896.  He  grew 
WMltay  in  the  iron  buainesa  in  Balti- 
more and  foundM  various  benevolent  in- 
■titationa,  includinf  the  free  public 
library  of  Baltimore,  to  which  he  left  an 
endowment  of  over  $1,000,000, 


Prawn  ^P'W>;  Palamon),  a  genua  of 
crustaceans,  order  Decapoda, 
section  Macrura  ('long-tailed').  The 
common  prawn  (Palwmon  aerratua)  is 
the  most  familiar  species,  and  resembles 
the  shrimp.  It  attains  an  average  length 
«f  from  3  to  5  inches.  The  tail  is  broad 
and  flat,  and  its  terminal  plates  are 
fringed  with  long  hairs.  The  color  is 
light  gray  spotted  with  purple,  which  is 
brightest  in  the  antenuce.  It  is  well 
known  and  esteemed  as  an  agreeable  arti- 
cle of  food. 

Praxiteles    (Praks-it'e-lsz),  one  of  the 
/^*  greatest   sculptors   of   an- 

cient Greece,  a  citizen,  if  not  a  native,  of 
Athens,    flourished    about    364    B.C.     He 
and  his  contemporary  Scopas  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  later  Attic  school,  so  calle<l  in 
contradistinction     to    the    earlier    Attic 
school   of    Phidias.     Without    attempting 
to  rival   Phidias  in  grandeur,   Praxiteles 
chose  subjects  which  demanded  a  display 
of  the  human  form,  especially  in  the  fe- 
male figure.     The  finest  is  said  to  have 
been    the    Cnidian    Aphrodite    (Venus), 
whom  he  was  the  first  to  represent  naked. 
The  group   of   Niobe  and   her   Children, 
now  in  existence  at  Florence,  is  by  some 
attributed  to  Praxiteles  and  by  others  to 
Bhcopas.     His   two  statues  of  Eros   (Cu- 
pid)  were  also  celebrated.     One  of  them, 
placed  in  the  Temple  of  Eros  at  Tbespia, 
and   the  statue  of  a   satyr  were  consid* 
ered    by    Praxiteles,    according    to    Pan- 
sanias,  as  his  finest  works.    An  excellent 
copy  of  the   latter  still  exists.    Among 
his  works   were  also   statues  of  Apollo, 
Dxonyaoa,  Demeter,  etc.,  in  marble  and  in 
'bronie,  which  served  as  models  to  suc- 
ceeding artists.     Quite  recently,  a  marble 
statue  of  Hermia  by  Praxiteles  has  been 
discovered  at  Olympia. 
Praver     (P'"*'").  «   petition  offered  tc 
"/'"     a    divinity.      The    Scriptures 
tacitly  assume  that  prayer  was  offered  to 
God   from    the   beginning   of   the   world; 
and  although  we  read  that  'men  began 
to  ^11  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  *  after 
Beth  was  born,  we  are  forbidden  by  all 
commentators   to  connect   tliis  statement 
with    the   origin   of   prayer.     It   is   not. 
however,  until  the  time  of  Abraham  that 
prayer  comes  first  distinctly  into  notice. 
Aa  the  altar  appears  to  have  been  the 
■pecial   place    for   prayer   in   the  patri- 
fu    1.***'  "*  '^'^^  *•**  tabamacfc  under 
the   Moaaic   covenant   until   the   tediple. 
the  boase  nt  prayer,'  was  built    From 


the  time  of  the  dedication  of  Solomon's 
temple  the  Jews  appear  to  have  gone 
there  to  pray,  and  to  have  turned  their 
faces  towards  it  if  they  were  prevoited 
from  going  there;  and  this  custom  pr«- 
vails  among  the  Jews  at  the  present 
time,  as  does  the  similar  custom  among 
the  Mohammedans,  who  turn  their  faces 
towards  the  sacred  Kaaba  at  Mecca. 
When  we  come  to  New  Testament  times 
we  meet  with  synagogues  established  as 
places  for  the  public  worship  of  God, 
and  for  reading  his  word.  Christ  taught 
that  prayer  should  be  offered  to  God  in 
his  name  in  order  to  ensure  an  answer. 
Henceforward  Christ  became  to  the 
Christian  what  the  temple  was  to  the 
Jew.  The  posture  of  the  body  in  prayer 
IS  left  undecided  in  Scripture,  and  al- 
though Christ  gave  his  disciples  a  form 
of  prayer  of  the  most  universal  appli- 
cation, it  does  not  follow  that  men  may 
not  pray  according  as  each  experiences 
special  wants. 

,  Prayer  for  the  dead  ia  a  practice  re- 
jected by  Protestants  as  having  no 
scriptural  warrant,  but  which  prevails  in 
the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Greek 
and  other  Eastern  churches.  The  custom 
seems  to  have  existed  in  most  ancient 
religions.  The  doctrine  and  practice 
came  to  the  Christian  Church  through 
the  Jews  (2  Maccabees,  xii,  43,  «). 
The  first  of  the  Christian  fathers  who 
mentions  prayer  for  the  dead  is  Ter- 
tullian;  but  he  speaks  of  the  usage  as 
long  established  in  the  church;  such 
prayers  are  frequently  alluded  to  by  St. 
John  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
and  St.  Augustine.  In  the  burial  service 
of  the  first  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of 
the  English  Church  some  prayers  for  the 
dead  appeared,  but  they  were  deleted 
from  the  second  book,  and  are  not  found 
m  the  subsequent  revisions. 

Praying  Wheel,  »°  "P^S*!!"  ."."!* 

„*  m-u  t       J     .V  °^  **'*  Buddhists 

of  Tibet  and  other  parts  of  the  East, 
as  a  mechanical  aid  to  prayer.  The 
prayers  are  inscribed  on  a  cylinder  or 
wheel,  fixed  on  an  axle,  every  turn  of 
which  counts  as  a  prayer  uttered.  To 
facilitate  this  holv  duty  they  are  often 
set  in  the  bed  of  a  running  stream  to 
be  turned  incessantly  by  the  water,  oi 
may  be  placed  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
turned  by  the  current  of  cool  air  flowinc 
into  a  tent 

Pre-Adamites,  traditional  inhabit- 
,  .  '  auit>  of   the  earth 

prior  to  the  creation  of  Adam.  Ancient 
legends  or  traditions  of  the  East  speak 
of  nations  and  empires  existing  before 
Adams  maticm,  and  of  a  line  of  kings 
Who  ruled  over  them.     In  modem  times 


Frebend 


Precipitate 


the  subject  waa  taken  up  by  Isaac  de  la 
Peyrtee,  who,  in  a  work  published  in 
l(io6,  maintained  that  the  Jews  were  the 
descradants  of  Adam,  and  the  Gentiles 
those  of  a  long  anterior  creation,  found- 
ing his  opinions  on  Komans,  v,  12-14. 
Prebend  (preb'end),  a  yearly  stipend 
jrreoeua  j^j^  ^^^  ^^e  funds  of  an 

ecclesiastical  establishment,  as  of  a  ca- 
thedral or  collegiate  church.  Prebtttiarp 
is  the  person  who  has  a  prebend.  A. 
9imple  prebend  is  restricted  to  revenue 
only;  a  dijfnitary  prebend  is  one  which 
has  a  jurisdiction  annexed. 
Precedence  .(P'^r'^'dens),  the  order 
A  swww«>v.«vv    jjj  ^jrhich  men  and  women 

follow  each  other  according  to  rank  or 
dignity  in  a  state  procession  or  on  other 
public  occasions.  In  England  the  order 
of  precedence  depends  partly  on  statutes, 
and  partly  on  ancient  usage  and  estab- 
lished custom.  Questions  arising  on  mat- 
ters of  precedence  depending  on  usage 
are  hardly  considered  as  definitely  set- 
tled, and  are  in  a  rreat  measure  left 
to  the  discretion  of  the  officers  of  arms. 
The  sovereign,  of  course,  is  always  first 
in  order  of  precedence,  after  whom  in 
descending  order  follow  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  sons  of  the  sovereign,  grandsons 
of  the  sovereign,  brothers  of  the  sov- 
ereign, uncles  of  the  sovereign,  the  sov- 
ereign s  brothers'  or  sisters  sons,  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  Lord  High 
Chancellor,  and  so  on  through  the  high 
state  dignitaries,  the  various  ranks  of  the 
peerage,  etc.  The  order  of  precedence 
among  women  follows  the  same  rules  as 
that  among  the  men.  Bv  the  acts  of 
Union  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  the  prece- 
dence in  any  given  degree  of  the  peerage 
has  been  established  as  follows :  —  1. 
Peers  of  England;  2.  Peers  of  Scotland; 
8.  Peers  of  Great  Britain;  4.  Peers  of 
Ireland;  5.  Peers  of  the  United  King- 
dom and  Peers  of  Ireland  created  subse- 
quent to  the  Union.  Rules  of  precedence 
are  also  strictly  observed  in  some  of  the 
European  states,  but  are  of  minor  im- 
portance in  the  United  States. 
Precedent     (Pres'e-dent),    in    law,    • 

xreceaeai  judicial  decision  which 
serres  as  a  rule  for  future  determinations 
1b  similar  cases.  Precedents,  strictly 
speaking,  are  binding  on  tribunals  only 
when  they  are  actual  decisions  of  the 
point  in  question;  what  is  termed  an 
extrajudicial  opinion  or  obiter  dictum 
—  the  opinion  of  a  judge  pnmounced 
where  it  was  not  called  for  to  decide  the 
iasoe  —  can  have  authority  only  from  the 
chaimctw  of  the  judge,  and  not  as  a  prec- 
•dent.  Precedents  are  now  of  as  much 
•athority  in  courts  of  equity  as  in  those 
U  CMomm  law. 


^«»e>itor  .lJlSr?SitiSs.\"n  iS: 

portant  official  in  a  chapter,  whether 
cathedral  or  collegiate,  who  led  the  sing> 
ing.  He  ranked  generally,  although  not 
universally,  next  to  the  dean;  but  in 
modem  cathedral  foundationa  he  Is  usu- 
ally a  minor  canon,  and  in  consequence 
has  lost  much  of  his  prestige.  He  is  still, 
however,  everywhere  the  conductor  of  the 
choral  aervice,  and  superintendent  of  the 
choir. 

Preceptory  i^K&^k  *^ii5?«.' 

house  of  the  Knights  Templars,  subordi- 
nate to  the  temple  or  principal  house  of 
the  order  in  London.     It  was  under  the 

fovemment  of  one  of  the  more  eminent 
nights  appointed  by  the  grand-master. 

Precession    of   the   Equinox, 

a  slow  motion  of  the  line  of  intersection 
of  the  celestial  equator  or  equinoctial 
and  the  ecliptic,  wnich  causes  the  posi- 
tions occupied  by  the  sun  at  tha  equwox 
(the  equinoctial  points,  which  see)  to 
move  backward  or  westward  at  the  mean 
rate  of  50.26"  per  year.  This  motion  of 
the  equinox  along  the  ecliptic  carries  it, 
with  reference  to  the  diurnal  motion, 
continually  in  advance  upon  the  stars; 
the  place  of  the  equinox  among  the 
stars,  with  reference  to  the  diumsl  mo- 
tion, thus  precedes  at  every  subsequent 
moment  that  which  it  previously  held, 
hence  the  name.  This  sweeping  round 
in  the  heavens  of  the  equinoctial  line 
indicates  a  motion  of  the  axis  of  rota- 
tion of  the  earth,  such  that  it  describes 
circles  round  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic  in 
25,791  years.  Nutation  (L.  nutatio,  a 
nodding)  is  a  similar,  but  much  smaller 
gyratory  motion  of  the  earth's  axis, 
whose  period  is  about  nineteen  years. 
From  these  two  causes  in  combination 
the  axis  follows  a  sinuous  path,  instead' 
of  a  circle,  about  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic. 
Nutation  causes  the  equinoctial  points  to 
be  alternately  in  advance  of  and  behind 
their  mean  place  due  to  precession  by 
6.87".  At  present  the  vernal  equinoctial 
point  is  in  the  sodiacal  sign  Pisces,  and 
It  is  moving  towards  the  sign  Aquarius. 

Precious  Metals,  «  name  commonly 
.>,Awv.i.vw»  ,«»v«cuBf  applied    to    gold 

and  silver  in  contradistinction  to  such 
ordinary  and  abundant  metals  as  iron, 
copper,  lead. 

Precious  Stones,  ^o^*- 

Pr#n{mtA.t«k  (pre-sip^-tit),  in  chem- 
rreoipiiaie  j;^  ^  aoUd  body  pro- 
duced by  the  mntnal  action  of  two  or 
more  liquids  mixed  together,  one  or  other 
of  them  holding  some  sabstance  in  sola- 


FnoognitioB 


Pregnaney 


tfam.  The  tenn  ii  generally  applied 
when  the  solid  appears  in  a  flocculent 
or  polremlent  form.  Substances  that 
settle  or  sink  to  the  bottom  like  earthly 
matters  in  water  are  called  sediments, 
the  operating  cause  being  mechanical,  not 
chemKad.  Red  oxide  or  peroxide  of  mer- 
cury is  often  called  red  precipitate. 

Precognition  |,?^th°«!''"thl'  t 

amination  of  a  witness  at  some  time 
previous  to  his  appearance  in  court. 
Precognitions  may  be  taken  in  civil  or 
criminal  cases,  and  may  be  taken  by  the 
agents  or  counsel  for  any  of  the  parties. 
In  criminal  trials  the  precognitions  for 
the  crown  are  generally  taken  by  the 
procurator-fiscal  and  the  signature  of  the 
witness  is  aflSxed ;  but  those  acting  for 
the  defense  may  take  precognition  from 
the  crown  witnesses  also  if  they  please. 
Precognitions  are  rarely  taken  in  presence 
of  a  magistrate,  or  on  oath. 
Pr^i1f>atiTlfl.tioTl  < pre-des-ti-nft'shun ) , 
rreaesimaiion    j^  theology,  the  term 

used  to  denote  the  decree  of  God,  whereby 
the  elect  are  foreordaine('  to  salvation. 
The  theory  of  predestination  represents 
God's  absolute  will  as  determining  the 
eternal  destiny  of  man,  not  according  to 
the  foreknown  character  of  those  whose 
fate  is  so  determined,  but  according  to 
God's  own  choice.  This  doctrine  has 
been  the  occasion  of  many  disputes  and 
cmitroversies  in  the  church  in  all  ages. 
On  the  one  side,  it  has  been  observed 
that  the  doctrine  of  predestination  de- 
stroys moral  distinction,  introduces  fatal- 
ism, and  renders  all  our  efforts  useless. 
On  the  other  side,  it  is  contended  that  if 
God's  knowledge  is  infinite  he  must  have 
known  everything  from  eternity ;  and  that 
the  permission  of  evil  under  such  circum- 
stances is  indistinguishable  from  a  plan 
or  decree  under  which  it  is  foreordained. 
The  first  great  champions  of  these  oppo- 
site views  were  Pelagius  and  Augustine. 
The  former  held  that  there  was  a  possibil- 
ity of  good  in  man's  nature,  and  that  the 
choice  of  salvation  lay  in  man's  wilL 
Atigustine  maintained  that  ajiart  from  di- 
vine grace  there  is  no  possibility  of  good 
in  human  nature,  and  that  since  the  fall 
man's  will  has  no  power  of  choice.  Pre- 
destination forms  one  of  the  peculiar 
characteristics  of  the  Calvinistic  theol- 
ogy; the  ouestion  is  left  an  open  one 
by  the  Anglican  Church,  and  also  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  since  the  Refor- 
mation. 

Predicables  ('>»^'J-k*-w«>.  in  logic 

AAvuAVMwxv^  are  terms  afBnnable,  as 
prsdieatas.  of  other  terms.    The  predic*' 


first  two  name  the  higher  and  lower 
cUuses  of  the  things  classified:  a  genua 
includes  more  than  one  species.  The 
other  three  express  the  attributes  oa 
which  the  classification  is  founded. 

Predicament.  »«» t,'o«epor». 

Pr»f1inatfk    *o  •os'C'  ^***  '•  affirmed 

rreoicaie,  ^^  ^^^^^  „,  ti,^  aubject 
PreSxistence,  Poctmn^  o'*  *»>•  <'?c- 

*.  AvvAAowvuvv)  jpjjjg  sometimes  main- 
tained that  the  soul  of  every  man  has 
an  existence  previous  to  that  of  his 
body.  This  opinion  has  for  ages  been 
prevalent  In  Hindustan,  and  was  held 
by  several  Greek  philosophers,  more  tar 
peclally  by  the  Pythagoreans,  Emped- 
ocles,  and  also  apparently  by  Plato. 
A  similar  doctrine  has  found  some  coun- 
tenance in  Christian  times  as  an  expla- 
nation of  the  union  of  soul  and  body. 
In  favor  of  this  theory  appeal  is  made 
to  these  peculiar  sensations  which  are 
sometimes  raised  by  sights  or  sounds, 
which  we  feel  conscious  of  having  had 
a  former  familiarity  with,  though  reascm 
would  persuade  us  we  had  seen  them  for 
the  first  time.  The  doctrine  's  supported 
by  some  modern  German  philosophers, 
particularly  the  younger  D'iclite,  and  is 
maintained  by  the  modern  Theoeophical 
Society,  which  now  has  a  considerable 
membership  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States. 

Pr^f  et  (P''A'''^ :  ^  pntfectua) ,  the  title 
XV.J.VV  jj£  jjjj  important  political  func- 
tionary in  France,  whose  office  was 
created  in  1800  at  the  instance  of  Na- 
poleon. There  is  a  pr^fet  at  the  head 
of  each  department,  who  is  entrusted  with 
the  whole  organization  and  management . 
of  the  police  establishments;  but  not 
with  the  punishment  of  police  offenses. 
Within  this  sphere  of  action  the  pr^fets 
are  unchecked :  the  sous-pr£fets,  who  are 
appointed  by  them,  and  who  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  districts,  are  entirely  sub- 
ject to  their  commands ;  and  the  authori- 
ties of  the  communes,  as  well  as  the 
justices  of  the  peace,  can  set  no  limits 
to  their  activity.  In  time  of  tumult  the/ 
can  call  out  the  military,  or  provision- 
ally declare  a  state  of  siege.  The  council 
of  the  prftfecture  is  a  court  in  whicb 
are  settled  all  disputes  respecting  the 
taxation  of  individuals,  engagements  witk 
the  state  for  building,  the  indenmifioi' 
tion  of  those  who  have  had  to  give  ap 
anything  to  the  public,  etc.  Of  this 
court  the  prCfet  is  president,  and  in  it 
he  baa  a  casting  vote.  Toe  appeals 
against  its  'Jadsions  lie  to  the  coandl  of 
stats. 


blsa  art  said  to  ba  flvv:  gsona,  speclss,  TTijuimaiijiu   (pnc'nan>d),  the  state 


Prejevaliki 

^Id.    It  lasts  in  tbe  hiunan  rabdeet  from 
274  to  280  dajw;  that  is  to  aay,  that 
time  abould  elapae  from  the  moment  of 
MMiception  to  the  time  of  birth.    Among 
the  earliest  signs  of  pregnancy  are  the 
stoppage  of  the  monthly  discharge,  and 
sickness,  usually  felt  in  the  early  part 
of   the  day,   and   thus  called   'morning 
slclmess.'    The     latter     usually     begins 
about  the  fourth  or  fifth  weelc,  and  may 
last  all  the  time,  but  often  diminishes  in 
course  of  the  fourth  month.    Changes  in 
the  breast  are  evident  during  the  sec- 
end    month,   the    nipple   l)ecoming    more 
prmninent,  and  the  dark  circle  round  it 
being  deeper  in  tint  by  tbe  ninth  week, 
little  elevated   points   in   it   being   more 
mariced.    Towards  the  fourth  month  en- 
laigement  of  tbe  belly  becomes  noticeable, 
and  continues  to  increase  regularly   till 
delivery    takes    place.    About    the    six- 
teenth   or    seventeenth    week    quickening 
occurs ;  that  is,  the  mother  l)ccomes  aware 
of    movements     of    the    child.     None    of 
these  signs  are,  however,  absolutely  con- 
clusive,  as   various  conditions   may   give 
rise  to  similar  signs  or  signs  resombling 
them.     The   only    conclusive    evidence    is 
the  detection  of  the  sounds  of  the  child's 
heart,  beard  by  applying  the  ear  to  the 
belly  of  the  mother,  midway  between  the 
navel  and  the  line  of  the  groins,  a  little 
to  the  right  or  left  of  the  middle  line. 
They  may  be  detected  about   the  eight- 
eenth   week.     During   pregnancy    women 
shoujd    take    regular    meals    of    plain, 
nourishing  food,  avoiding  rich  and  highly- 
seasoned  dishes,  and  should  restrain  un- 
wholesome cravings,  which  sometimes  ex- 
ist.    Gentle    but    regular    and    moderate 
exercise   should   be   engaged    in,   all    un- 
due   exertion,    effort,    and    fatigue   l)eing 
avfrided.    Clothing  should  be  warm,  wool- 
en   next    the    skin,    and    nowhere    tiffkt. 
Prudence  in  baths  must  be  exercised,  too 
hot  or  too  cold  water  being  avoided,  and 
Ihe  bowels  must  be  kept  well  regulated, 
only    the    mildest    medicine    being    used. 
Above  all,  a  calm  and  equable  frame  of 
mind    should    be    cultivated,    and    there 
should  be  no  hesitation  in  asking  advice 
of  the  doctor. 
PrejeVaL^.     See  PnhevaUki. 

Prelate     (prel'at),  in  church  law,  one 
*  of  those  spiritual  dignitaries 

who  exercise  jurisdiction  in  their  own 
name.  These  were  originally  only  the 
bishops,  archbishops,  patriarchs,  and  the 
pope.  The  cardinals  and  legates,  abbots 
and  priors,  also  obtained  certain  privi- 
leges of  Jurisdiction  by  grant  or  pre- 
•cnptlon.    The   term   is  now  commonly 


?ntbjter 
^Inde  an;  f^-j-c.  ««r 

sonata;  though,  as  the  name  ImpUas,  it 
may  be  an  introduction  to  any  ^ce*  of 
music.  Bach  and  bis  contnaponurles 
elaborated  preludes  considerably;  aind 
Chopin  wrote  several  piano  works  which, 
though  complete  in  themselves,  be  desig- 
nated preludes.  More  recently  the  term 
has  been  applied  to  operatic  introduc- 
tions when  they  are  shorter  than  the 
usual  overture.  Wagner  in  particular 
has  prefaced  most  of  his  operas  with  a 
prelude. 

Premises,    s**  ^"'''^  sviiogim. 
Premonstratensians,  2!,ii?"""i: 

„  .  .  TIKM,  a  re- 

ligious order,  founded  at  Pr«mantr«, 
near  Laon  in  France  by  St.  Norbert  in 
1120,  who  gave  them  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine  with  some  additional  rigor. 
The  order  was  introduced  into  England 
in  1146,  and  its  members  were  tLTt. 
regularly  known  as  the  White  Canons. 
Before  the  Reformation  they  had  MOO 
monasteries,  among  which  were  500  nun- 
neries, mostly  in  Germany,  the  Nether- 
lands, Frante.  England,  and  tbe  north 
of  Europe.  The  order  is  now  very  small. 
Prentiss  (Pren'tis),  Serqkant  S.. 
*  .  .  orator,  born  in  Portland. 
Maine,  in  1808,  removed  to  Mississippr 
in  1827.  As  a  lawyer  he  was  in  the 
front  rank;  as  a  speaker  was  remarka- 
ble for  wit,  sarcasm,  and  argumentative 
power.  His  manner  of  speaking  was  at 
once  natural  and  dramatic.  He  died  in 
1850. 

PreBOSition  ^  Prep-u-zish'un ;  from  L. 
««.yv»AMvu  pr<ppr,aitu»,  placed  be- 
fore), a  part  of  speech  which  is  ased 
to  show  the  relation  of  one  object  to  an- 
other, and  derives  its  name  from  its 
being  usually  placed  before  tbe  word 
which  expresses  the  object  of  the  rela- 
tion. In  some  languages  this  relation  is 
often  expressed  merely  by  changes  of  tbe 
termination. 
PresbUI^.     ^^  Pre»»lurg. 

PresbyoDia  (pr«'-bi-o'pi-a),orPM»'. 

^  *^  **  BY  OPT,  that  is,  'old- 
slghtedness,'  an  affection  of  the  eye  com- 
mon at  an  advanced  stage  of  life;  its 
effect  is  to  render  objects  near  the  eye 
less  dihtlnct  than  thoae  at  a  distance. 
Persons  affected  with  presbyopia  goier^ 
ally  have  to  use  convex  spectacies. 
Presbyter  (P«»'b«-t*r;  Cr.  pnthv 
*  f    ,      i&rot,  an  elder) .  an  ofllc»- 

bearer  in  tbe  early  Christian  Ohnich,  tba 
«act  character  and  position  of  whom  is 
dlllerently  regarded  by  different  aothwri- 
tlM.    Preabytiriua    fownUily    uudMBin 


fzwliyteiiui 


itmhjUaAaA 


that  MteiiiaUjr  bithop  and  pr»«5y<er  were 
oo*  aad  tbf  Mune;  BpiMopaliaiu  gener* 
ally  BMuntain  that  from  the  first  they 
were  different,  as  was  cerUinly  the  case 
bi  Ttn  early  times.  By  the  end  of  the 
Mcomf  century  (he  presbyters  held  a 
posititm  in  connection  with  the  congre- 

fations    intermediate    between    that    of 
ii^op  and  deacon,  and  represented  the 
priests  or  secoud  order  of  clergy. 

Pmbyterian  L^-'.^iplfJ^iS^/hosS 

Christians  who  hold  that  there  is  no 
order  in  the  church  as  established  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles  superior  to  that 
of  presbyters  (see  Presbyter),  and  who 
vest  church  government  in  presbyteries, 
or  associations  of  ministers  and  elders, 
possessed  all  of  equal  powers,  without 
any  superiority  among  them.  The  Pres- 
byterians believe  that  the  authority  of 
tlieir  ministers  is  derived  from  the  Holy 
Ghost  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of 
the  presbytery;  and  they  oppose  the 
Independent  scheme  of  the  common  rights 
of  Christians  by  the  same  arguments 
which  are  used  tor  that  purpose  by  the 
Episcopalians.  They  affirm  that  all  min- 
isters, being  ambassadors  of  Christ,  are 
equal  by  their  commission;  and  that 
Episcopacy  was  gradually  established 
upon  the  primitive  practice  of  making  the 
moderator,  or  speaker  of  the  presbytery, 
a  permanent  officer.  These  positions 
they  maintain  against  the  Episcopalians 
by  the  general  argument  that  the  terms 
bishop  and  presbyter  are  used  as  synon- 
ymous terms  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
that  they  were  used  simply  to  designate 
the  minister  appointed  by  the  apostles  to 
take  charge  of  a  new  church  on  ita 
foundation.  They  therefore  claim  valid- 
ity for  the  ordination  aff-r  the  Presby- 
terian form,  as  there  was  ^ginally  no 
higher  ecclesiastic  than  a  ,  esbyter  in 
the  church. 

The  first  Presbyterian  church  in 
modern  times  was  founded  in  Geneva  by 
John  Calvin  about  1541;  and  the  con- 
stitution and  doctrines  were  thence  in- 
troduced, with  some  modifications,  into 
Scotland  by  John  Knox  about  1560, 
though  the  Presbyterian  was  not  legally 
reci^nized  as  the  national  form  of  churcn 
government  until  1502.  For  nearly  a 
century  after  this  date  there  was  a  ccs- 
tinual  struggle  in  Scotland  Iwtween 
Episcopacy  and  Presbyterianiam ;  until 
ultimately  by  the  Treaty  of  Union  in 
1707  it  was  agreed  on  the  i»rt  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  tliat  that  form  of 
ehaich  government  should  be  the  national 
form  of  ecclesiastical  government  in  Scot- 
land, and  that  the  Scotch  Church  shonld 
ba  sopportad  as  the  only  me  establishad 


by  law.— The  cwatitation  of  tlw  Scotsii 
Church,  and  of  the  Presbyterian  CbnrdI 
generally,  ia  as  follows:  — The  kirk* 
session  ia  the  lowest  court,  and  ia  com* 
posed  of  the  parochial  minister,  or  min- 
isters, if  more  than  one,  and  of  lay  ciders 
(usually  from  six  to  twenty) ;  the  min- 
ister, or  senior  minister  where  there  are 
more  than  one,  being  president  or  mod- 
erator. This  court  exercises  the  relig- 
ious discipline  of  the  parish;  but  an 
appeal  may  be  made  from  its  decisions 
to  the  presbytery,  and  again  from  the 
presbytery  to  the  synod.  A  presbytery 
consists  of  the  pastors  of  the  churches 
within  a  certain  district,  and  of  an  elder 
connected  with  each,  while  the  synod 
comprises  the  presbyteries  within  a  cer- 
tain area,  their  ministers  and  represent- 
ative elders.  (See  Prtthpttry,  synod.) 
The  Generii  Assembly  u  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  court,  its  decisions  being  mi- 
preme.  (See  A»$emhlv,  Oeneml.)  Be- 
sides the  Established  Church  of  Scotkad 
there  are  others  whose  constitution  is 
Presbyterian,  but  who  decline  being  con- 
nected with  or  receiving  emoluments  from 
the  state.  The  chief  of  these,  the 
Free  Church  and  the  United  Presbyterian, 
united  in  1900  as  the  United  Free  Church 
of  Scotland. 

Shortly  after  the  Reformation  Presbjf- 
terianism  was  in  considerable  strength  . 
in  England,  a  larj^  number  of  the  Puri- 
tans preferring  this  system  to  episcopacy ; 
but  it  subsequently  declined  in  Btreogth. 
The  rule  of  the  Stuarts,  however,  did 
much  to  renew  its  vigor,  and  in  16^ 
the  Long  Parliament  abolished  episco- 
pacy, a  measure  followed  by  the  meeting 
of  the  famous  Assembly  of  Divines  at  ,.^ 
Westminster  tae  following  year.    In  tfUfi  ^ 

gresbytery  was  sanctioned  by  parliamaBt.  ^^. 
ut  it  was  never  generally  adopted,  or  * 
regularly  organised,  except  in  Lmidaii 
and  Lancashire.  Soon  after  the  Resto- 
ration episcopacy  was  restored,  and  about 
2000  Presbyterian  clergy  were  ejected 
from  their  cures  in  consequence  of  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662.  Presbyte- 
rianism  has  ever  since  been  simply  one 
of  the  forms  of  dissent  in  England,  and 
has  held  no  prominent  position,  thougli 
many  Presbyterian  churches  are  scat- 
tered throughout  England.  Of  these  1^ 
far  the  greater  number  are  united  to 
form  a  single  body,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  England. —  The  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Ireland  originated  throu|^  the 
setti«nait  of  Scottish  colonial  in  Ubter 
in  the  reign  of  Jama  I.  When  Ciiarlas 
II  attempted  to  force  Prelacy  upon  the 
Scotch  many  of  them  took  relnn  In  the 
north  of  Ireland,  which  gave  the  cause 
of   Preabyterlanism   in   that  country   a 


ItnAijimj 


."Prmrfpttott 


ftMrii  bapttlM.  Th*  tevor  ■howa  thM> 
Iv  WIlliuB  III  wu  of  ftMt  BMistaiiet 
to  thtn;  whieb  ttaty  i«paid  by  th*  part 


dwriiig  tto  tattn  hilf  of  Ui  Hfe  ht 

.    ^  MuwMy  OM  It.    Aftor  two  yoan 

to  thon;  whieb  tbty  MMid  by  tbo  part  ia  tiavtUnt  tbiooch  iB^ifftftil,  FrSaM. 
|b«y  pland  in  tbt  rabtlBon  ondvr  Jsidm  and  Itaijr,  cbieliy  fw  bwlth,  h!i  rttonS 
*r«'^'?'^'M*A'^  ^  *''*  Btfflorabia  aiegt  to  bi«  aativo  country,  wber*  ho  ourrlod. 

and  aet  hlmwlf  aMddoooaly  to  litanry 
labor.  The  earii«t  fmlta  of  tbia  wan 
contribntiou  to  the  North  AmtriMm 
Revie»:  and  for  many  yaara  hia  only 
productiona  were  easaya  and  nacasiae 
articlea.  Acquaintance  with  Spaniah 
iterature,  which  be  began  to  ealtivate 
in  1824,  led  him  to  attempt  hia  first 
srait  work  on  Spanish  hiatory,  Tkt 
IMgn  of  Ferdinond  and  /«aft«l{«,  pub- 
lished in  1837.  ,  It  waa  received  with 
enthusiasm  both  in  America  and  Europe; 
waa  rapidly  translated  into  French, 
Spanish,  and  German;  and  its  author 
waa  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  at  Madrid.  Prescott's  nest 
work  was  the  Uutorp  of  the  Conqmott 


of  Londonderry.  As  a  teat  of  hia  gratis 
tode  the  king  doubled  the  sum  given  for 
the  aupport  of  their  ministeia,  hence 
known  as  Regium  Donum.  The  Preaby- 
tcrian  Churrh  was  early  introduced  into 
the  United  States,  and  has,  including  its 
several  branches,  a  membership  of  about 
2.000,00a  The  body  is  an  important  one 
alao  In  Canada  and  other  British  colo- 
niea,  and  in  Europe,  its  membership  in 
the  world  being  estimated  at  12,290.000. 
Among  Protestant  churches  it  is  surpassed 
fat  numbers  only  by  the  Episcopaliana 
and  the  Methodists.  The  Methodists  and 
Baptiato  largely  exceed  it  hi  membership 
In  the  United  Sutes. 

Presbvterv  (pre»'bi-ter-i),  a  Jodlca- 
«A«vujrM;Ajr  j„y  consisting  of  the 
paston  of  all  the  churches  of  any  par- 
ticular Presbyterian  denomination  within 
a  given  district,  along  with  their  ruling 
(wfc,  presidbig)  elders,  there  being  one 
mling  elder  from  each  church  session 
commissioned  to  represent  the  congrega- 
tion in  conjunction  with  the  minister. 
The  functions  of  the  presbytery  are,  to 
grant  licenses  to  preach  the  gospel,  and 
to  Judge  of  the  qualifications  of  such  aa 
apply  for  them:  to  ordain  ministers  to 
vacant  cbargea;  to  Judge  in  cases  of 
reference  for  advice,  and  in  complaints 
and  appeals  which  come  from  the  church 
aessions  within  the  bounds  of  the  pres- 
bytery; and  generally  to  superintend 
whatever  relates  to  the  spiritual  interests 
of  the  several  congregationa  under  lis 
charge,  both  in  respect  of  doctrine  and 
discipline.  Appeals  may  be  talcen  from 
the  presbytery  to  the  provincial  synod, 
and  ttience  to  the  general  assembly. 
PreSCOt  (pres'kut),  a  manufacturing 
ond  market  town  in  England, 
county  of  Lancaster,  8  miles  east  of 
Liverpool.  Prescot  has  long  l)een  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  watch-tools, 
watch-movements  and  hands,  small  files, 
etc.  Earthenware,  glaim  Iwttles,  etc.,  are 
also  manufactured.  Pop.  (1911),  8154. 
Pfeseott.  WnxiAM  HicKUWG.  his- 
*  "^y**  torian.  bom  in  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  in  1796;  died  in  1850. 
His  father  waa  a  lawyer,  the  son  of 
Colonel  William  Prescott,  wlio  com- 
tnanded  the  American  forces  at  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hi!!.  In  1811  he  entered  Har- 
wd  College,  and  waa  graduated  in  1814. 
While  at  college  he  met  with  an  accident 
to  his  left  eye,  completely  depriving  him 
y_ra  «»e  for  ever  afterwards,  and  ren- 
oarint  the  other  eventoally  so  weak  Uutt 


of  Memico,  with  a  Prelimittarp  View  of 
the  Ancient  Mewican  Civilization,  »nd  th« 
IMf  of  the  Conqueror  Hernando  CorUa, 
which  appeared  in  1843,  and  waa  re- 
ceived with  an  equal  degree  of  ftivor. 
In  1847  he  published  the  Hittorw  of  tho 
Connueat  of  Peru,  with  a  PreKmimry 
7<ew  0/  the  Cit)ili€ation  of  the  Ineaa. 
In  1855  the  first  two  volumes  of  the 
l??f:**??'*^  Bietorj  of  the  Reion  of 
Phtltp  II,  Ktng  of  Spatn,  appeared,  and 
proved  to  the  public  equally  accmtabla 
with  Prescott's  former  works.  In  1868 
waa  published  a  third  volume;  but  the 
sudden  death  of  the  author  from  apoplexy 
put  a  stop  to  his  labors.  Prescott  af- 
forda  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  anc- 
cess  of  indomitable  industry  and  perw- 
verance,  carried  out  in  spite  of  the  allic- 
tion  of  partial  and  latterly  almost  total 
blindness. 

Pr^anAff  county  seat  of  Yavapai  Co., 
xreSCOll,  Arizona,  134  mUes  H.  of 
PhcDnix.  It  is  an  important  mining  ean- 
ter,  being  in  the  rich  gold,  ailver  and 
copper  mining  region  of  the  Bradshaw 
mountains ;  also  a  trade  center.  Pop.  9000. 
PreSCriDtion  .(pre -sknp' shun >,     in 

acquired  by  use  and  time;  the  object 
being  to  secure  the  title  to  property  to 
him  who  has  had  the  possession  of  it 
for  the  term  fixed  by  the  law,  and  to 
prevent    any    one    from    disturbing    his 

fo«seiis!on  after  such  term  baa  expired, 
n  the  English  common  law  the  term 
preacWptt'oii  is  applied  only  to  ineois 
poreal  seredltaments,  aa  a  nght  of  way, 
a  common,  etc.,  and  requires  Immtmorlai 
time  to  establish  it.  This  rule  waa  modi* 
fied,  however,  by  a  statute  under  Willlan 
Iv,  which  provides  that  no  right  of  com> 
mon  shall  be  defeated  after  Oirty  yean; 


fmuiption 


Pmcnred  Profiiiimi 


Bt,  and  after  sixty  /mh  the  rbdit 
ig"  dMoad  abMlute  and  indefeaaible, 
niilcw  bad  by  conient  or  agreement  In 
elalBH  d  tight  of  way,  tt  water-coarae, 
and  aimlkur  easemoits  the  perioda  are 
twenty  and  forty  yean.  Claims  to  the 
use  of  light  to  any  dweliing-bouse  or 
bniMing  enjoyed  for  twenty  /ears  are 
indefeasible,  unless  shown  to  nave  been 
by  consent  ,    . 

By  the  law  of  Scotland  prescription 
has  a  much  wider  operation  tnan  by  the 
taw  of  England.  It  not  only  protects 
Individuals  from  actions  which  other 
parties  might  have  brought  against  them, 
but  in  some  instances  creates  a  positive 
title  to  property.  The  prescription  by 
which  a  right  of  property  can  be  es- 
tabliahed  is  that  of  forty  years.  What- 
ever adverse  right  is  not  cot  off  by  the 
other  special  prescriptions  of  shorter 
periods  is  destroyed  by  the  long  prescrip- 
tion, as  this  is  called.  To  create  a  title 
to  real  property,  the  long  prescription 
must  be  both  positive  and  negative.  The 
party  holding  the  property  must  have  been 
forty  years  in  unchallenged  possession, 
and  be  able  to  show  a  prtmo  facie  valid 
title;  while  a  claimant  must  have  been 
forty  years  without  an  ostensible  title, 
and  must  by  not  legally  challenging  it, 
have  tacitly  acquiesced  in  the  possessors 
title.  By  Scotch  law,  but  not  by 
English,  a  vicennial  prescription  applies 
to   crimes,    no    prosecution    being    com- 

?etent  after  a  period  of  twenty  years, 
n  American  practice  prescription  pre- 
supposes a  lost  grant,  and  can  therefore 
give  a  title  to  those  things  only  which 
can  pass  by  grant  In  almost  all  the 
States  of  the  American  Union  there  are 
express  statute  provisions  regulating 
the  doctrine  of  prescription.  Generally 
an  uninterrupted  possession  of  twenty 
years  is  required  for  the  acquisition  of 
real  rights.  In  some  States  a  notifica- 
tl<»  by  the  owner  of  the  land  to  the 
occupant  that  his  intention  is  to  contest 
the  title  may  defeat  prescriptive  acquisi- 
tion. 

P'MMA'n'nf^A'n  in  medicine,  is  the 
ireSOnptlOn,    f„^^  ^n^  directions. 

in  which  a  medicine  or  medicines  are 
ordered  or  prescribed  by  a  medical  man. 
The  aeverai  medical  substances  which 
may  be  contained  in  a  prescription  are 
distinguished  by  names  indicative  of  the 
oflee  performed  by  each.  These  are  — 
1.  The  bmi»,  which  is  the  principal  or 
most  active  ingradlent  2.  The  adjw 
vmHt,  m  that  which  is  intended  to  wp- 
mat*  the  action  of  the  baals.  8.  The 
esrraoMee.  intended  to  modify  its  action. 
4.  The  emripient,  or  that  whidi'  gives 
{^  w)K>le  #  cMBiopdioos  or  af  ree^bla 


form.  To  these  certain  writers  add  ft 
fifth,  the  intermeiimm,  which  is  the  mm- 
stance  employed  to  unite  remedies  whka 
do  not  mix  with  each  other  or  with  tha 
excipient  such  as  Tolk  of  eggs  and 
mucilage,  employed  In  the  preparatioB 
of  emulsions.  In  choosing  the  form  of 
a  prescription  it  should  be  borne  In  mind 
that  solutions  and  emulsions  generally 
act  with  more  certainty  and  rapidity  than 
powders  diffused  through  water:  and 
these  again  than  the  semisolid  and  solid 
forms  ol  medicine.     See  also  Pharmaotf, 

jrreseaVH,UUU  nomination  of  one  or 
several  candidates  to  a  vacant  office ;  com- 
monly used  in  the  case  of  a  patron  to  a 
church.    In    England    the   clergyman    is 

firesented  to  the  bishop  to  be  Instituted 
n  a  benefice ;  in  Scotland,  before  the  abo- 
lition of  church  patronage,  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  presbytery  for  induction. 
1>rA«#TifTn»llt  (pre- sent 'ment).  In 
rreSf  nimeni    ,g^  ^^  properly  q>eak- 

ing,  the  notice  taken  by  a  grand  jury  of 
any  offense,  from  their  own  knowledge 
or  observation,  without  any  bill  of  indict- 
ment being  laid  before  them  at  the  suit 
of  government. 

Preserved  Provisions,  ?^*S"^. 

ervation  of  dead  organic  matter  from 
the  natural  process  of  decay  is  a  most 
useful  means  of  increasing  and  diffuaing 
the  food  supply  of  the  world.  Animals, 
vegetables,  and  fruits  may  all  be  eaaily 
preserved  for  this  p-irpoae.  The  preserv- 
ing of  fruits  is  an  old  and  familiar  proc- 
ess. This  is  generally  effected  by  boiling 
or  stewing,  though  drving  is  also  fre- 
quently resorted  to,  where  the  fruit  la 
meant  to  be  kept  intact.  Fruita  intended 
for  confectionery  are  preserved  in  four 
different  ways  —  1.  In  the  form  of  Jam, 
In  which  the  fruit  Is  boiled  with  frmn 
three-fourths  to  about  equal  ita  weight  of 
sugar.  2.  In  the  form  of  jelly,  in  which 
the  juice  only  is  preserved,  by  being  care- 
fully strained  from  the  aoiid  xrartiona  of 
the  fmit,  and  boiled  with  about  half  of 
its  weight  of  sugar.  8.  By  candyfaiK, 
which  consista  in  taking  the  fruita  whole 
or  in  piecea,  and  boiling  them  in  a  clear 
syrup  of  sugar  previously  prepared. 
They  absorb  the  syrup,  which  is  then 
crystallised  by  the  action  of  a  gentle 
heat  4.  By  stewing  them  hi  a  syrup  of 
sugar  and  water  till  they  become  soft 
but  not  broken,  and  transferring  them 
with  the  syrup  to  Jars.  Many  add  pale 
brandy  eunal  In  quantity  to  the  syrup. 
Several  kinda  of  vegetables,  as  cabbages, 
encumbers,  cauliflowers,  onions,  are  pre- 
served by  pkklina.  (See  /Nokia*.)  An- 
tiaifttici  ftra  «a^  to  preterw  meat  nUo, 


FzeMrved  Troriiloiii 


PrMdidtat 


■altliig  btiag  tbt  moit  common  procwi. 
tM  to  prwtrvt  Utrgv  qiumtitiM  o(  vcf> 
•Ubio  and  animal  prodacta  (or  food  pur> 
poaaa,  and  at  the  sama  time  to  keep  tbem 
naarljr  in  tlieir  (reah  atate,  they  muat  be 
anfajected  to  one  of  three  proceaaea. 
Theae  are  —  drying  refrlaeratlon,  and  ex- 
cinaion  of  air  and  microblc  germa.  With 
TCgetablea.  which  contain  ao  large  an 
amount  of  water  in  proportion  to  their 
aolid  and  nutritious  material,  the  procesa 
of  dryinc  ia  peculiarly  applicable,  and  it 
ia  largely  employed  as  the  means  of 
furniahiug  fresh  vegetable  food  for  shipa 
in  a  comriact  and  portable  form,  when,  in 
addition  to  deaiccation,  compreaaion  ia 
alM>  employed. 

The  nreaervation  of  artidea  of  food  by 
the  ap^  ication  of  cold  ia  the  simplest  of 
all  known  methods,  and  in  such  climates 
aa  the  United  Statea,  Russia,  etc,  it  is 
largely  taken  adrantage  of;  while  of  late 
it  baa  generated  a  large  and  increasing 
trade  between  the  count  riea  of  the  north 
and  aouth  temperate  sones.  In  1875  ice 
began  to  be  used  to  preserve  fresh  meat 
in  conaiderable  quantities,  which  waa 
aent  from  Americr  to  Europe.  The  use 
of  ice  baa  been  largely  replaced  by  refrig- 
erating  machines,  by  which  a  temperature 
beat  auited  to  the  preservation  of  the 
material  is  maintained.  The  reault  ia 
that  the  diatribution  of  meat  over  the 
aurface  of  the  globe  is  being  revolution* 
ised.  The  trade  between  Great  Britain 
tad  New  Zealand  in  fresh  mutton  is  now 
immense,  and  a  large  trade  exists  between 
Argentina  and  northern  countries.  The 
modern  methods  of  refrigeration  for  car- 
rying purposes  consist  of  an  air-tight 
room  on  board  ship,  where  the  meat  ia 
kept,  and  through  which  dry  cold  air 
is  made  to  circulate  by  means  of  special 
machinery  driven  by  steam,  the  air  l>eing 
first  compressed  and  cooled  by  the  refrig- 
erating machines  spoken  of,  a  further 
cooling  taking  place  when  it  is  again 
allowed  to  expand. 

The  process  of  preservation  by  exclu- 
sion from  the  action  of  atmospheric  air 
is  yearly  aasuming  more  importance  and 
being  more  largely  practiced.  The  most 
perfect  method,  and  thnt  which  is  now 
most  generally  resorted  to,  is  the  enclo- 
sure of  the  food  in  air-tight  cases  from 
which  the  air  is  then  expelled;  upon  the 
perfection  of  the  air-excluding  process  de- 
pends entirely  the  preservation  of  the 
article.  The  first  successful  ai  tempt  to 
preserve  f reah  meat  in  tbia  way  wns  made 
in  1809  by  M.  Appert,  a  Frenchman. 
The  plan  now  generally  adopted  is  com- 
monly known  aa  canning,  and  is  appli- 
caUe  alike  for  fleah-meats,  vegetables  and 
Croita.    Tba  proceas  ia  osoally  aa  f  ollowt : 


—  Tha  provlaiona  of  whatavar  kind  art 
packed  into  a  tin  cylinder,  and  the  inta^ 
sticea  filled  in  with  water  or  other  appro- 
priate fluid,  aa  gravy  in  the  case  of  fieah- 
food.  The  lid,  which  ia  perforated  with 
a  email  aperture  or  pinhole,  ia  aoiderea 
carefully  down.  The  caaea  are  then  act 
in  a  bath  of  aoiution  of  chlorida  of  cal- 
cium; heat  ia  applied  until  the  whole 
boils,  and  the  air  is  thus  expelled  through 
the  pinholes.  These  holes  are  then  her- 
metically closed,  and  the  canixter  and  its 
contents  are  once  more  subjected  to  the 
operation  of  heat  until  the  proviaiona  are 
perfectly  cooked.  When  it  baa  become 
cool  the  canister  is  coated  over  with  paint 
and  removed  to  the  proving  room,  an 
apartment  the  temperature  of  which  baa 
been  raised  to  the  degree  of  temperature 
most  favorable  to  decomposition.  If  the 
operation  has  been  successfully  performed, 
the  ends  or  sides  of  the  canisters  will  have 
fallen  in  to  some  extent  from  the  out- 
ward pressure  of  the  air.  If,  after  the 
interval  of  some  days,  the  ends  bulge  out, 
it  is  a  certain  sign  that  the  proceaa  lias 
not  been  successful,  the  liberated  gaaea 
causing  the  outwaid  pressure.  Such  caaea 
should  be  rejected  or  submitted  again  to 
the  process.  Not  only  may  boiled  pro- 
visions be  preserved  in  this  way,  but 
roast  meats  also.  An  improvement  on 
this  process  haa  been  effected  by  intro- 
ducing into  the  canisters  a  small  quantity 
of  sulphite  of  soda,  which  cansea  the 
absorption  of  any  traces  of  free  oxygen 
which  mav  lurk  in  the  cases.  Olaaa  bot- 
tles are  also  largely  used  in  place  of  tin 
cans,  especially  for  household  preserving. 
Fruits  may  be  preserved  without  cooking, 
other  than  is  done  by  pouring  hot  syrup 
into  the  Jars  and  setting  them,  when 
closed,  in  boiling  water,  this  being  appar- 
ently suflficient  to  destroy  the  microbes. 
The  effectiveness  of  the  process  depends 
on  the  exclusion  of  fermentative  germs 
and  the  killing  of  those  already  preaent 
by  the  application  of  heat. 
Praaiflff-nf  ( prez'i-dent ) ,  one  who  pre- 
xrciuucui.  gj,,pg.    ^   presiding   officer. 

The  supreme  executive  officer  of  the 
United  States  is  styled  President.  The 
qualifications  of  a  person  raised  to  this 
dignity  are,  to  be  a  natural-bom  citisen 
of  the  age  o*  35  years,  and  to  have  re- 
sided 14  years  within  the  Statea.  The 
election  is  by  an  electoral  college,  the 
members  of  which  are  elected  by  popular 
vote,  and  who  subsequently  meet  and 
elect  the  President.  In  his  legiala- 
tive  capacity  the  Preaidoit  baa  the 
power  of  approving  bills  sent  to  him 
after  pasting  Congress,  or  of  retnmiog 
them  to  the  house  in  which  they  orlgi- 
Dfitedi  with  hia  reaaoos  for  non-appnmU. 


Pi6m1iu'§ 


If  bt  nUins  •  bill  for  ten  day*  withoat 
•ignlnf  It  becomea  «  law,  uulesa  an  ad- 
Joammcnt  of  Congms  prevenu  ita  r*- 
tura,  wben  it  faila  to  become  a  law.  Is 
bis  ezecotlvt  capacity  be  is  commander- 
in-cbief  of  tbe  army  and  nary ;  be  baa  tbe 
power  of  making  treatlea,  aubject  to  tbe 
concurrence  of  two-tbirds  of  tbe  Senatora ; 
of  appointing  ambaaaadom,  miniatera,  con- 
auto,  judgea  of  tbe  Supreme  Court,  and 
otber  public  officiala  not  otberwiao  pro- 
vided for :  of  convening  Con^rvsa  in  extra 
aeaaion  wben  deemed  neceaaary,  and  per- 
forming other  excriitivr  dutit-M.  Tliv  huI- 
orv  of  the  President  was  originally 
|i».00O.  It  was  increased  to  |50,00(>, 
and  tbere  waa  addc<l  to  it  for  traveling 
expenaee  $25,000.  In  1900  it  was  made 
975,000.  He  holds  his  office  for  four 
yeara  and  is  elipble  for  reelection.  The 
aimilar  officers  in  Switzerland  and  France, 
and  recently  in  Portugal,  bear  tbe  same 
dtle.  See  Succeagion,  Presidential, 
Preu  LiBERTT  or  THE,  tbe  liberty  of 
'  every  citizen  to  print  whatever 
be  chooses,  a  privilege  which  does  not 
prevent  his  being  amenable  to  justice 
for  the  abuse  of  this  liberty.  Tbe  right 
of  printing  reata  on  tbe  same  abstract 
grounda  as  tbe  right  of  speech,  and  it 
might  seem  strange  to  a  man  unac- 
quainted with  history  that  printing  should 
be  subjected  to  a  previous  censorship,  as 
it  ia  in  some  countries,  and  has  lieen  in 
all,  any  more  than  speaking,  and  that 
the  liberty  of  the  press  should  be  ex- 
preaaly  provided  for  in  the  constitutions 
of  moat  free  states.  But  when  we  look 
to  history  we  find  the  origin  of  this,  as 
of  many  otber  legislative  anomalies,  in 
periods  wben  politics,  religion,  and  indi- 
vidual rights  were  confusedljr  intermin- 
gled. It  is  only  since  men's  viev/s  of  tbe 
just  limits  of  government  nave  become 
clearer  that  the  liberty  of  tbe  preits  has 
been  recognized  as  a  right;  and  to  Eng- 
land we  are  particularly  indebted  for  tbe 
establishment  of  this  principle.  The  ex- 
istence of  a  censorship  of  tne  presa  waa 
for  centuries,  however,  deemed  an  easen- 
tlal  to  tbe  safety  of  all  European  govern- 
ments. Liberty  of  printing,  as  we  un- 
derstand it,  is  a  comparatively  modem 
notion ;  Milton'a  plea  for  a  free  preaa  met 
with  no  response  from  his  own  party, 
nor  for  very  many  years  later  was  It 
the  cue  of  any  party  in  the  Engliab  com- 
monwealth to  refrain  from  suppressing 
tbe  writings  of  their  political  opponenta. 
In  England  tbe  liberty  of  tbe  presa,  aoon 
after  printing  was  introduced,  waa  reg- 
ulated by  the  king's  proclamationa,  pro- 
hibitions, charters  of  licenae,  etc.,  and 
finally  by  the  court  of  StaiHrbamber. 
Tbe  Lmig  Parliament,  after  tbdr  mpftire 


with  Cbarlea  I,  aaaomad  th«  aaoM  powtr. 
Tbe  government  of  Cbarlea  II  imltatad 
their  ordinances,  and  tbe  praaa  did  not 
really  become  free  till  tbe  expiratloB  w 
tbe  atatutea  restricting  it  ia  1(108,  aftM 
which  it  waa  found  unpoaaible  to  pMi 
new  laws  in  restraint  of  It,  and  It  baa 
remained  free  ever  aince,  the  laat  rcstrie* 
tion  In  England  ceasing  with  the  aholi- 
tiun  of  tbe  newspaper  stamp  duty.  In 
18.5t}.  Such  legal  checka  aa  remain  art 
merely  Intended  to  prevent  outragea  on 
religion  or  decency,  to  protect  aubjecta 
from  defamation,  and  to  conaerve  tbe 
copyright  of  authors.  Tbe  conatitutiona 
of  many  of  tbe  United  States  declare, 
as  we  should  expect,  for  liberty  of  tha 
preaa,  and  one  of  tbe  notable  erenta  of 
colonial  history  was  a  auit  in  New  Yorlt 
which  catablished  liberty  of  the  preaa  in 
that  colony.  Within  the  United  States 
as  a  nation  tbere  haa  been  no  qncatlon 
of  the  full  liberty  of  the  preaa,  aubject 
to  tbe  operation  of  tbe  law  for  libel.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  all  the  Sooth  Amer- 
ican iepublics.  Among  European  coan> 
tries,  it  may  be  generally  aaid  tbe  liberty 
of  the  presa  is  found  moat  predominant 
among  tbe  weaker  powera,  such  aa  Spain, 
Turkey,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Swftiar- 
land,  and  Roumania;  while  in  Germany, 
Auatria,  and  particularly  in  Ruaaia,  th«« 
are  still  manv  restrictlona.  In  the  Brit- 
ish colonies  the  law  ia  aa  in  England,  hat 
in  India  the  governor-general  exercises  a 
censorship.  See  BooJba  (Centorthip  of). 
Press     I^^i^i'Q-    ^^  Ptintinff. 

PressW,  S't^"rH^JS5;'& 

miles  eaat  of  Vienna,  beautifully  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  and  on 
spurs  of  the  Little  Carpathiana.  The 
most  striking  edifice  is  tbe  ruined  royal 
palace,  on  the  top  of  an  eminence,  burned 
in  1811.  Tbe  cathedral  \n  a  large  Ootble 
structure,  dating  from  tbe  eleventh  cen- 
tury, which  haa  latterly  been  considerahly 
modernized;  here  the  kings  of  Hungary 
were  crowned.  The  Franciscan  chnrch 
(thirteenth  century)  ia  also  noteworthy. 
Tbere  are  alao  aeveral  palaces,  including 
that  of  the  primate  of  Hungary.  The 
river  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  boats. 
Tbe  manufactures  are  various.  The 
trade,  particularly  transit,  and  chiefly  In 
com  and  timber.  Is  extensive.  Pressoatg 
is  a  place  of  very  great  antlqnityt  uia 
was  long  a  fortress  of  aome  strangth. 
In  1541.  wben  tbe  Turks  (»ntnr«d  Bnda, 
it  became  the  capital  of  HlIDgary,  and 
retained  tbe  honor  till  the  Emperor 
Joaeph  II  restored  it  to  Bnda.  The 
treaty  by  which  Austria  ceded  Toiiee 
to  Fzance  and  tiie  Tyrol  to  BaTsrla  war 


grtiUMl 


^rafunptiOA 


■lgB«d  belt  ia  1800.  Pop.  TB,228,  mort 
tiuui  halt  id  wham  art  Qcmaaa  aad 
Mftral  thoiMand  Jtwi. 
9iwM*«ai  (pri-«A«-*t),  Edmond  dc, 
nmwmntwu  ,  Vrencb  Protwtant  mln- 
lM«r,  bora  at  Paris  in  1824.  After  ttudy- 
tat  BDdtr  ViMt  at  Lauaanne,  and  at 
Ballt  and  Berlin,  b«  bacamc  paator  o( 
SUboat  Cbapai.  Paria,  where  he  fuined 
a  bifta  rtpaUtioa  a«  a  preacher.  He 
■at  la  tba  WatkiBal  Aaaembly  (1871-75). 
and  waa  made  life  aenaior  in  1888.  lie 
ia  tbe  aatbor  of  many  relificua  worka  — 
biMorieal.  evanfelical.  etc.,  aome  of  which. 
iaelndinc  hia  Life  of  Ckritt,  have  been 
traaalated  into  Encliab.  He  died  in  18»l. 
TS-aaa  grmiir  tbe  name  given  in  Eng- 
* *»•■■»■"•»  land  to  a  detachment  of 
■aamin  who  (under  a  naval  ofRcer)  were 
ampowored,  ia  time  of  war,  to  lay  hold 
of  aaatarnt  men  and  compel  them  to 
wtty  In  tbe  kina'a  ahipa.  Thii  practice 
bacaoM  obsolete  during  the  laat  century, 
thoogb  tbe  lawa  permitting  it  have  never 
baaa  repealed.  No  such  practice  has  ever 
existed  in  tbe  United  Sutes. 

nener  jonn  ^„  johw),  a  legend- 

In  tbe  mid- 

by   travelers 

was  a  Christian  princt  who 


•ry  personate  of  aome  note, 
dk  asM   it   waa   reported 
t  taere  i 


that 

id^Md  tai  tbe  interior  of  Aala  nadcr  thia 
name,  and  tbe  aame  story  waa  aiao  known 
to  the  Omaaders.  Who  thia  Preater  John 
was  It  is  not  easy  to  decide:  tbe  sappo- 
dtioB  that  he  wss  the  Dalai  Lama,  or 
soe  of  tbe  chief  priests  of  the  Lamaite^ 
dooB  not  am*  with  the  position  aasicned 
to  hia  rcndcnce  by  travelera.  Tbe  Por- 
tagasss  In  tbe  fifteenth  century  picked 
ap  a  story  of  a  Christian  prince  in  Cen- 
tral Africa,  and  by  aome  confuaion  of 
Banes  tbey  transferred  thither  the  throne 
of  Preater  John.  Hence  in  recent  times 
the  home  of  this  mythical  prince  and 
priest  baa  alwaya  been  laid  in  Abraainia. 
I^fi^n  (prea'td;  lulian),  quick,  used 
<^xuOT.u  jg  n,a,|j.  to  designate  a  faster 
rat*  of  movement  than  is  indicated  by 
oBsfrs.  Prttto  seesi  denotes  very  qnick, 
sadT  pnttittimo  the  highest  degree  of 
nukhuess 

VT^Kkan  (prcs'tun),  a  mnnicipsl  and 
xswMMw    parliamentary    borough 


of 


ICfigloivr  In  Lancaahire,  27  miles  north- 
east of  Lit 


^verpooi,  sgreeably  sltusted  on  a 

hd^t  above  tbe  r^ht  or  north  bank  of 
the  RftMe,  near  tbe  bead  of  ita  estuary. 
The  eBviroos  al  tiie  town  exhibit  mttcfa 
pIsasiBC  souery,  and  tbe  town  possesses 
thras  fine  public  parks.  Among  tbe 
dnrehes  Christ  Church  is  admired  for 
Os  purity  of  its  Norman  ardiitseture; 
Ha  tanA  chnn^  whUk  has  bsaa  xsbollt 


■|  AiMe  euvirwu* 

I  SnsfliM    p 


In  the  decorated  style  of  the  fooitssatb 
century,  is  alao  a  nne  bolldiag;  aad  oa* 
of  tbe  Komaa  Catholic  eburcbsa,  Bt 
Walburga's,  is  considered  tbs  finest  in 
the  town.  Tbe  town-ball  is  a  qilsBdid 
Rtructure;  and  generally  tbe  arebitscture 
of  rre»ton  is  good.  Tbe  river  is  spanned 
by  five  bridges,  two  of  them  railway 
bridges,  one  of  which  coat  £4U,000.  The 
railway  atation  I  recently  reconstructed) 
is  wry  large,  and  is  one  of  tbe  most  Im- 
portant Junctions  on  the  London  and 
Northwestern  Railway.  Tbe  original  ata- 
ple  manufacture  of  tbe  town  was  linen, 
which  is  still  woven  to  some  extent,  but 
has  been  completely  eclipsed  by  tbe  cottoo 
manufacture,  of  which  Preston  is  now 
one  of  tbe  chief  centers.  Prestoo  alao  baa 
macbine-ahopa,  iron  and  braaa  foundriea, 
railway-carnage  works,  breweries,  malt- 
houses,  roperies,  tanneries,  etc.  Some 
shipping  trade  is  carried  on.  and  exteo- 
■ive  harbor  and  river  diveraion  works 
have  much  improved  the  town  aa  a  port. 
In  1323  Preston,  originally  Priest'a-town, 
was  taken  and  burned  by  Robert  Brnce; 
in  the  great  civil  war  It  espoused  tbe 
royalist  cauae,  and  waa  twice  captured 
by  the  Parliamentarians;  in  the  rebellion 
of  1715  it  was  occupied  by  the  Jscobite 
force*:  in  that  of  1745  tbe  Highlanders, 
headed  by  the  Pretender,  passed  through 
Preston  both  on  their  march  to  London 
and  on  their  retreat.  Preston  was  tbe 
birthplace  of  Arkwrigbt  Pop.  (1911), 
117,113. 

Prcstonpans  iZTToVr^^kcot 

land,  in  tbe  county  of  Haddington,  near 
the  south  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
It  used  to  have  a  flourishing  mnnufncture 
of  salt :  hence  tbe  name.  In  the  vicinity 
ia  tbe  scene  of  the  famous  battle  in  1745, 
when  tbe  .lacobites  defeated  Sir  John 
Cope  and  the  royal  forces.     Pop.  2614. 

Prcstwich  fe r1>'  LSsU'. 

4  miles  northwest  of  Manchester,  a  favor- 
ite residrnce  of  Manchester  merchanta. 
Pop.  (1911)   17,196. 

Pr^framTltion  (pre -sum 'shun).  In 
rresiuupuoa   j^^.   j,  j,,^  .^uming 

of  a  fact  or  proposition  as  true,  snd  is 
of  two  kinds,  prteaumptio  jurir  and  pnt- 
tumptio  jurit  tt  de  jure.  Tbe  prviump- 
tio  jurit  is  a  presumption  established  in 
law  till  tbe  contrary  be  proved,  e.  ff.  tbe 
possessor  of  goods  is  presumed  to  be  tbe 
owner.  Tbe  prfE8umptio  jurit  et  ie  jitre 
is  that  where  law  or  cuatom  establishes 
any  proposition  that  cannot  be  overcome 
by  contrary  evidence,  aa  tbe  incapacity 
in  a  minor  with  guardians  to  act  witlioot 
their  consent. 


Mm 


l/nM*  S4m*r4  Frmncit). 

*"•"**•  Africa,  capital  of  tb«  Tiam- 
vaal  ProiiiM*  and  of  th«  Unimi  of  loutk 
Africa,  86  mlli^  n.  k.  of  JnhannMbiirR. 
It  waa  foinifii>d  in  lWi5:  namnl  nftrr  th« 
Boar  fcmaral.  Pretoriim,  first  iirwiWrot  of 
tlw  Sooth  Afrirnn  Republic,  (^aptured 
bjr  tba  Britiah  in  190U.    Fop.  SO.O0O. 

Prerention  of  Cruelty  to  Ani- 

mi^    Sat  Aaiaial*  (Cmeltp  to). 

PreVAlA.  (prcT'l-ai)t  a  fortiflfd  town 
A*vv«a»  Of  European  Torke/,  In  tba 
padialie  of  Janina.  on  tba  nortbem  aida 
of  tba  Gulf  of  Aru,  18  milea  aoutbweat 
from  Arta.  It  baa  a  atormjr  biatory,  baT- 
iof  b««n  frequently  blockaded  and  cap- 
tore^  and  oo  one  occasion  plllaced  by 
the  TarkR,  it  being  tben  nnder  France. 
Pop.  (19C6)  tiSOO. 

PrtTOft  D-Exfle.  i^'^'^i: 

qau,  a  French  writer,  bom  in  1G07. 
Originally  a  member  of  the  Jesuit  order, 
be  aoon  quitted  It  for  the  military  service. 
After  alternating  aerenil  timea  between 
the  cboirh  and  the  army,  be  gave  up  both 

Krofeaaiona,  and  in  1729  be  went  to  Hoi- 
ind,  where  be  publinhed  his  Mfmoirtt 
d'aa  Homme  de  Qualiti.  After  a  aojoum 
of  two  yeara  in  England  he  returned  to 
France,  and  waa  appointed  almoner  and 
aecretary  to  the  Prince  of  Contl.  From 
tbia  period  till  bia  death  in  1763  be  pur^ 
aued  an  active  literary  life,  editing  a 
Joamal  called  Pour  ei  Contre,  and  pub- 
lishing many  romances,  of  which  the  beat 
known  are  the  Hittoirt  de  M.  Clevol»*4, 
and  the  Hutoire  4u  Chevalier  det  Ortea* 
at  4«  Mmnon  Le$caitt. 

Prtvoft-Paradol  feVLSc^iA: 

AttOM,  a  French  writer  and  member  of 
tba  Academy,  waa  bom  at  Paria  in  1829. 
In  1865  be  obtained  the  chair  of  French 
literature  in  the  faculty  of  Aiz,  but  aoon 
reaigned,  and  next  year  became  one  of  tba 
editors  of  the  Jommal  dca  D4bat$,  a  paper 
with  which  ha  never  broke  bia  c<»nectioii. 
In  1870  he  went  as  ambaaaador  to  the 
United  Statea;  but  soon  after  bia  arrival 
put  an  Old  to  bia  own  life  —  hia  mind 
being,  it  la  believed,  unhinged  by  tba  aawa 
of  the  declaratl<Hi  of  war  by  Franoa 
againat  Pruaaia.  He  wrote  Mtudtt  twr 
lea  liorwiinn  FrmmMk,B»t*i  da  FEk- 
totra  UasvaraaOa,  La  JVawaa  ^yaaaaBa, 
Ikt  B4U  da  ia  faatOla  daaa  rfdaoatiaw, 
ate.  I 

***•"  kat  Uas  of  Tm7,  <to  aoa  «f 


By  bia 

ba  had,  accoi«af  to  H< 

cblMfta,  the  aaac  fUMoa  battf  P«eMi^ 
Paria.  CMMBdra.  tmi  TaaHm^liaMiM 
baa  bean  r—daiad  ftuMoaa  bf  tba  t*  ~  ' 
fata  of  hlaMalf  aad  Ua  faaUy.  aa  a 
of  tba  TfDJaa  war.  Wbaa  aa  wa 
trently  old  tba  Gnaka  deaaaailail  of  btai 
the  reatoratioa  of  Haiaa,  wbo  bad  baw 
carried  away  by  Paria,  and  aa  bia  raftiaal 
to  give  bar  op  the*  auida  war  agaiHt 
Troy,  and  took  and  deattayad  tba  dUf, 
after  a  aiega  of  tea  ytara.  BaaMT  givaa 
no  account  of  tba  death  of  Priaa;  bat 
other,  poeta  repreaaft  bias  to  bava  btaa 
slab  at  tba  altar  <rf  Zaoa  by  Pyirboa  tba 
Greek. 


ayaua  and  Aphrodite,  a  god  of  gardiaa, 
fruita.  etc.,  cooaldercd  by  nytboMiats  ta 


reprcaent  fertility  in  aator*.  Ba  araa 
worabiped  ia  all  parta  of  Qiaaca,  aad  alia 
in  Rome. 

Bohemia,  In  a  diatriet  where  ara  lab 
lead  aad  aUvar  adnaa.    Fop.  18,6711. 

PribyloT  Iilaiidi  fty^'iSi.-T 

of  ialaada  oa  tlia  coaat  of  Alaab«, 


in  Bebrlag  Sea,  behMgiag  to  tba  Uatttd 
Statea.  The  larger  ara  8t  PbaL  Bt 
George.  Walrua  anu  Beaver  lahu^ 
They  are  frequented  by  nombata  ci  fef> 
aeals.    Tba  nativea  are  Alaottena. 

Price.   ^y*f**- 

Prie«  (Prt")>  RiCHABD,  an  bgliab  ra* 
AA«vv  i^om  imd  acononical  wiltar, 
bom  fai  1T23 ;  for  moat  of  bto  ttt»  a  paa* 
tor  to  variooa  Dlaaiating  cbowbaa  la  tta 
metropolia.  He  commancad  Ua  Ittevuy 
career  ia  1788  by  bia  Aaaiaia  of  fJka  Frit- 
o<mI  DitlemM4»  im  Jferala,  wbMi  waa 
followed  by  Four  Dt$t«rtmihn$  mt  ffta 
ImporUtnet  of  ChritUitttft,  Tk$  Votmro 
ofHittoricai  EvUeiteo,  ete,  (1787).  In 
1771  appeared  bia  Ohoorvotioiu  oa  Jitaaer^ 
aionanr  PlaaaiaMta  omd  AnmmiHoa,  and 
later  &a  eelebratad  NortUmfton  Mortat- 
Up  Tablet.  Ba  alao  pobllabed  a  aombai 
•f  political  tracta,  in  ona  <rf  wbiA  h* 
advocated  tba  eaoaa  of  the  Amerieaa  c<^ 
aaiea  in  1776»  When  Pitt  bacaaM  vriaa* 
aiiniatar  ba  eoaanited  Dr.  Priea  la  Ua 
achiea  for  tba  reduction  of  tba  aatJaaal 
daM.  aad  tba  catablUbmant  of  tiM  ifeikiBt 
fond  wM  tba  raauit  of  bia  raooaaMada* 
tioa.  At  tba  commaaoaaaat  «f  tba 
FraBOi  ravaiatka,  in  a  atfiMB  (pab- 
liakad  la  178i)  Oa  f  ka  Looo  of  Oomtr%, 
ba  warady  iipraaaaJ  Ua  iOkj/bit  at  the 
of  tba  Fraaeh  saaala.    Tbia 


ll  wfeWh  Dr.  FriM  wm  itfMtljr  tiMtai. 
!•  «•«  la  iMdM  la  1791. 


r.  RMi,  to  Htitroidabin,  laTrMi:  <il«d 

•t  London  to  1848.    Ut  itodiod  Badictnt, 

MMteok  tko  Anrm  of  M.D.  at  Edtn- 

kwgli :  epoMMBrtd  practico  m  *  medical 

■W  at  Brittel.  aiid  to  1810  received  tlie 

upetotvfBt  of  plijrolciaB  to  tke  Clifton 

PtapMMnry  and  it.  Peter's  Hospital.    In 

ins  bt  pnbllaiMd  bis  great   work.  R«- 

§mnkM  Into   fk«   Pkpiliml   HMont   of 

MmMmi,  and  to  1843  appeared  his  Nat- 

nrdi  History  0/  Han.    Re  wrote  many 

■toor  works  on  ethnology,  besides  trea- 

mn  OB    varioas   medical   subjects.    In 

1846  bt  Mt  Bristol  for  London,  where 

bodied. 

IVIaVIv  Anil    *  °"<°'  flv<^°  ^°  "*^' 
rnOUy  AIH,   j.^,,  pried,  thrubs  of 

tbo  United  States,  genus  Xantkomylum, 
order  Rntace*.  They  bsTe  an  aromatic 
and  pungent  bark,  which  from  being  used 
aa  a  remedy  for  toothache  gains  them  the 
name  of  tootkaoke-tree. 
VmaVIv  V«af  the  popular  name  of 
jmOUy  neai,  ,„  eruptive  skin  dis- 


occurring  in  hot  weather  or  in  hot 

dbnates.  It  is  characterised  by  the  ele- 
vatfon  of  the  papules  of  the  skin  and 
tatonae  itching.  While  annoying,  it  is  not 
to  tbe  least  dikngerous.  One  familiar  va- 
risty  of  it  Is  known  aa  Lichen  tropieut. 
Baa  Lleksn. 

jmeuy  rear,  ^."^  ^^^^^  cacuce«, 

othanriat  called  Indian  fig.  The  opuntia 
is  a  fleehy  and  suc- 
culent plant,  destitute 
of  IsaTes,  covered  with 
dnsters  of  spines,  and 
consisting  of  flattened 
Jointa  fnaerted  upon 
each  otiier.  The  fruit 
is  purplish  in  color,  cov- 
ered with  fine  prickles, 
and  edible.  The  flower 
is  large  and  yellow.  It 
is  a  native  or  the  trop- 
ical parts  of  America, 
whence  it  har  been  to- 
trodnced  into  Europe, 
Mauritius,  Arabia,  Syr- 
ia, and  China.  It  is 
esiaily  propagated,  and 
in  some  countries  is 
qsad  aa  a  hedge-plant. 
It  attains  a  height  of 
7  or  8  feet 

TriAeanz  Ip^'^)*  huhthbkt,  an 


MAIy       Pear 
lOpwMm  ml- 
ru). 


EngUab  divine,  bom  at 
»w,  Comwali,  to  1048.  He  waa  aoe- 
aaMfvaly  prehmdarr  <^  VomiA,  xaetor 
•C  Blaoen.  rector  of  8<riiaait  ai 


MmI 


•f  SMMk,  vicar  of  Trowaa,  and  doaa  of 
Norwicb.  Hia  chief  wvrka  were  TAa  OU 
ltd  A'ets  7*c«tSM*Hto  Oomieclad  In  tk* 
UUt9rv  of  iho  J0M)$  and  iVel^kkorlNi  Wa- 
lloM,  and  a  Uft  of  AleAammed.  Ha  died 
in  1734. 

Pride  of  Indi-    «^  «•«* 

Pri«»at  (Prtst:  Habraw,  kiktn:  Qraak, 
rncn    jitl„^..    Latin,   taeorlf).    to 

its  most  general  Nigniflcatioo,  a  man  wnoaa 
function  is  to  Inculcate  and  expound  ra> 
liglous  dogmss,  to  fmrform  religious  rites, 
and  to  act  aa  a  mediator  between  wor- 
shipers and  whatever  being  they  worabip 
In  some  countries  the  priesthood  hat 
formed  a  special  order  or  caate,  the  of- 
fice being  hereditary;  in  other  eonntriei 
it  has  been  elective.  In  sacred  biatory 
the  patriarchal  order  fumishsa  an  anun- 
pie  of  the  familv  prieathood.  Abrabam. 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  perform  priaatly  acta, 
and  'draw  near  to  the  Lord,'  aa  alao 
doea  Job,  and  the  Arab  aheikh  to  this 
hour  unites  in  his  person  the  dvil  and 
religious  headship.  The  Mosaic  prieat- 
hood was  the  inheritance  of  the  aona  of 
Aaron,  of  the  trilw  of  Levi.  The  order 
of  the  priests  stood  between  the  high- 
priest  aa  the  one  hand  and  the  Levitoa 
on  the  ether.  (Sea  Hi§h-pfie$t  and 
Levit»».)  The  ceremony  of  their  caamt- 
cration  la  deacribed  in  Bzodna  zziv  and 
Leviticus  viii.  They  wore  a  apedal  dre^^i, 
and  their  actiona  were  in  manv  caaaapre- 
Rcribed  atrletiy  by  the  Moaaic  law.  Tneir 
chief  duties  were  to  watch  over  the  fire 
on  the  altar  of  burnt  ofertogs,  and  to 
keen  it  burning  conttoually;  to  ofer  a 
lamb  morning  and  evening,  and  two  lamba 
on  the  Sabbath,  each  accompanied  with 
a  meat-offering  and  a  drink-offering  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle.  Tbaaa  were 
fixed  duties  which  never  varied,  bnt  their 
chief  function  was  their  being  always  at 
their  poat  to  do  the  priest^  ofllce  tor 
anv  gniitv,  penitent,  rejoicing,  or  thank- 
ful fsraelite.  As  their  functiona  neccn- 
aarily  took  up  the  greater  part  of  their 
time,  a  distinct  provision  had  to  be  mane 
for  them  by  tithes,  a  share  of  spoil  taken 
in  war,  of  the  offerings,  etc.  On  tlM  set- 
tlement of  the  Jews  to  Canaan  tbe 
priestly  order  had  thirteen  cities  allotted 
to  them,  with  pastures  for  their  flocks. 
In  the  time  of  David  the  prieatly  order 
waa  divided  into  twenty-four  courses,  sach 
of  which  was  to  serve  in  rotation  for  one 
week,  while  the  further  aaaignment  ot 
apedal  aervicea  during  the  weak  waa  de- 
termined by  lot.  The  division  tbna  insti- 
tuted waa  confirmed  by  Soi<»ran,  and  con- 
ttonad  to  be  rscognued  aa  tba  typical 
nnmbar  of  the  priaatbood.  la  tba  now 
Teatamtnt  baliavan  fMaarally  an  TagaTds# 


iktofUtj 


Pilittf^ 


M  kavtag  tbt  cbaracttr  «f  ptimU,  aad  It 
li  Md  by  mMV  ProtMtMtt  that  tb«  idM 
of  •  coofc'  -atid  prktbood  iorwiad  with 
McrUetel  fttaeuiNM  fai  rvpufMst  to 
ChrlMteBitjr.  la  mo*  cburcbM,  '**»n- 
hn,  tkt  Baat  priMt  ia  not  ased,  c 
pMtor,  etc,  bnnc  tb«  ttrm  tmpk 
•tMd.  TboM  Cbriatiaos,  bowtv»r,  «•.«, 
Ilk*  tb*  Rmbsd  Catholics.  Ur»<>kii,  etc 
look  vpoB  tbo  eocbariiit  u  •  auriQc*.  rt- 

Sard  tM  print  m  Mrformiog  Mcrificial 
vtlM,  ooa  ■■  atandlnf  in  •  apf^  iai  rela- 
tkM  botwwn  God  and  hia  frtlow-maD. 
Tbt  prieots  of  tb«  Church  of  ICom«  are 
boaod  to  a  Ufa  of  celibacy;  but  in  tb« 
Greek  Cbnrch  a  mnrried  man  may  be 
coBWcrated  a  prieat.  In  the  Angliran 
and  other  Epfaropal  churcbea  the  prieata 
form  the  aecond  order  of  clergY,  biahopa 
rankinc  first  Diverse  riewa  of  toe  prieaily 
oSm  are  held  in  the  Aoslican  and  allied 
chnrcbes. 

Priestlev  (prtotHi),  Joasra,  an  Bng- 
rneiuey  „,,,  «.Jen,i,t  .nd  divine,  wu 

bom  In  1733  nvar  Leeds.  His  father  waa 
a  clothier,  of  the  Calviniatio  pentuasioo, 
in  which  he  was  alM>  liimaelf  brought  up. 
At  the  age  of  ninett-en  he  waa  placed  nt 
the  Dissenting  academy  at  Daventry.  with 
a  view  to  the  ministry,  where  he  apent 
three  years.     He  there  became  acquainted 


JTos^h  PriMtley. 

with  the  writings  of  Dr.  Hartlev,  which 
made  a  great  impression  upon  bu  mind; 
and  he  was  gradually  led  into  a  partiality 
for  Arianiam.  Oa  quiuiiis  tb^  aradcmy 
In  1766  he  accepted  an  .  itation  to  be- 
come minister  at  Needh'iJi  Market,  In 
SoiTdk,  where  he  had  to  live  aa  best  be 
mold  on  an  aTerage  ^rlary  of  £30  a  year. 
Hla  Ttewa  did  not,  Imwercr,  prov«  pal- 


•taMo  to  bla  Mafie^tloa,  who 

dastrtwi  bias,  aad  la  17BS  ha  «» 

the  cbame  of  a  coofrtfatioB  at  Naatwldl^ 
hi  Cbeabiro,  to  whieb  h>  ioinad  a  achaal. 
About  this  ttm*  be  published  bla  Ami 
work,  Tkt  Hcripturt  U^ctrin*  o/  Aeaiis* 
sios.  In  this  be  rejected  the  doetrlaen  of 
the  Trinity  and  the  Atonement.  In  17tll 
he  became  a  teacher  in  the  DlaacatiBg 
acnflemy  at  Warrlngtoo,  and  while  hero 
wrote  a  Uitlorjf  of  BleetrMtif,  which 
gained  him  admtaaion  to  the  Rojral  Soci- 
ety, and  the  decree  of  LL.D.  from  Iha 
University  of  K^flnburah.  In  17«7  be  bf 
rame  miniMler  of  the  Mill  Hill  chapel  at 
Leeda,  where  his  religions  opinions  ba> 
came  decidedly  Bocinian.  While  b«n  ha 
published  his  /Iktory  mn4  Pn$«nt  BHl9 
of  Ditcoteriet  relatina  to  Vitkm,  Utkt, 
•nd  C'o/ors  (1772).  bis  next  ImpoitaBt 
work  beinf  Imttitutf  of  Nmtmnl  and  B§- 
vteled  ReJifUm  (1772-74).  After  a  («•• 
idence  of  six  /ears  at  Leeds  be  accepted 
an  invitation  from  the  Earl  of  Bbelbonie, 
afterwarda  Marquis  of  Lanadowne,  to  !•• 
side  with  him  aa  a  companion  In  the  nom- 
inal capacity  of  librarian,  with  a  salary 
of  £250,  an  appointment  which  gave  him 
ample  opportunities  for  proaecntlng  sci- 
entific research.  In  1774  be  discovered 
oxygen,  or  '  dephlogisticated  air.'  as  he 
csllcd  it,  a  reault  which  waa  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  other  important  diacoveries  In 
chemistry.  Among  his  works  beliMDfiag 
to  thin  iHTiod  sre  ErptrimtntB  mmd  OMer- 
vatinn»  on  Different  Kinit  of  Air;  An 
Examination  of  Dr.  tUUTi  Intmirw  Mo 
the  Human  Mini;  ffarHey**  Tkoorti  of 
the  Human  Mind:  The  DoetHno  of  PkOO' 
eophical  Neceeeity;  etc.  Some  of  hla 
philosophical  worka  brought  about  diBtr- 
ences  between  bimaelf  and  his  patron,  ai^ 
the  connection  was  diaaolveo  in  Vtifk 
Prieatley  retaining  an  annuity  of  £1110 
per  annum.  He  next  removed  to  Bir> 
ningham,  where  be  became  ones  moro  min- 
later  of  a  Diasenting  congrefatioa,  and 
wrote  Hittorif  of  the  Comption*  of 
Ckrietianily :  Hietory  of  Borly  Optniono 
eoncernina  Jeene  Chrietj  Oeneroi  Hietonf 
of  the  Chrietion  Church ;  etc.  Owing  to 
his  favorable  opinions  regarding  tba 
French  revolution  a  mob  assembled  and 
set  fire  to  Dr.  Priestley's  house,  acd  In 
the  conflagration  hia  apparatua  and  man- 
nacripu  wan  destroyed.  For  this  Insane 
outrage  he  received  compensation,  but 
according  to  bis  own  estimate  too  Httlo 
by  £2000.  On  quitting  Birmiugham  ha 
became  itresident  of  the  Dissenting  col- 
lege at  Hackney,  bnt  was  goaded  bypar^ 
enmity  to  seek  an  aaylnm  In  the  UBltod 
State*  in  1794.  He  took  op  his  r«ald«iea 
at  Northnmbcriand.  in  Pennaylvania, 
where  h*  «*d  ia  1804.    H*  la  nguOoi 


Frihiki 


Primstiooio 


I 


iii 


M  a*  foandw  of  Unitarianini  ia  th* 
Caltod  Statu.  Am  a  nao  of  Mieae*  ha 
itaada  Ugb,  whUe  aa  a  thwlof  ian.  ani 
••pecially  at  a  historical  ttaeoloaian,  ha 
ranln  low.  Aa  a  metaphyaician  he  aolda 
a  napacUble  poaition.  Bot  hia  cnat  nat* 
oral  powara  were  so  diatribated  in  attack- 
lag  aubjecta  the  moat  varied  that  be  never 
attained  auch  excellence  in  any  one  branch 
aa  hla  talenti  deaerved. 
IMInki  (prA-lOlie).  a  town  of  Rua- 
AAUiuwi.    ^^    jj,     ijjg    govemment    of 


PolUTa,  on  the  UdaL  Pop.  19,065. 
p,.ini  Juan,  Mabquis  os  Jjob  CAstiir 
**■""»  uEJos,  CJouNT  OB  Rsuss,  Field- 
narahal  and  Qrandee  of  Spain,  was  bom 
at  Reuaa,  in  Catalonia,  in  1814.  He  was 
totined  for  the  law,  but  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  ciyil  war  which  followed  the  death 
of  Ferdinand  VII  (September  29.  1833) 
be  joined  the  volunteera  who  had  taken 
op  arma  in  the  cause  of  the  infant  queen 
laabella,  and  roae  ao  rapidly  that  hi  1837 
he  waa  appointed  a  colonel  in  the  regular 
army.  When  Queen  Maria  Christina 
Quitted  Spain  he  allied  himself  politically 
with  the  Progresista  party,  and  vigor- 
oualy  opposed  Espartero,  who  had  as- 
aomed  the  regency.  May  8,  1811.  Dur- 
ing the  next  two  yean  he  was  engaged 
in  more  than  <me  insurrectionary  move- 
moit.  On  the  downfall  of  the  Espartero 
ministry  Prim  was  appointed  by  the 
qoeen  a  brigadier-general,  and  afterwards 
created  Count  de  Beuaa  and  governor  of 
Madrid  (1843).  On  the  occasion  of  a 
democratk  rising  at  Barcelona  he  waa 
■ejt  to  restore  order,  but  with  little  suc- 
cess. The  revolt  soon  began  to  attain 
vride  proportiona,  end  Prim  was  accused 
of  dilatorinesa  and  dismissed  from  his 
omunand.  In  November,  1844.  he  was 
brought  to  trial  for  his  share  in  a  con- 
apiracy  for  the  assassination  of  Narvaez, 
president  of  the  council,  and  convicted 
and  sentenced  to  six  years'  seclusion  in 
a  fortress,  a  sentence  which  was  revoked 
by  the  queen  in  January,  1845.  After 
some  years  of  service  under  the  Turks  be 
returned  to  Spain,  and  was  in  1857  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general, 
and  in  1868  raised  to  the  senate.  In  the 
following  year,  war  having  broken  out 
between  Spain  and  Morocco,  Prim  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  reserve, 
and  hia  successes  in  this  war  gained  bim 
the  title  of  Marquis  de  loe  Caatillejos. 
In  1861  he  was  appointed  to  command  the 
Bpaniah  contiagrat,  which,  al<mg  with 
others  from  England  and  France,  was 
.seat  out  to  Mexico,  but  be  withdrew 
alrag  with  the  English.  In  January, 
1886,  he  headed  a  revolt  against  the  gov- 
•iBBMit  of  ODmuiell:  bat  the  insurrcc- 
wa  waa  speedily  mpprMsad,  and  he  was 


aoBpdled  to  flee.  B«  raeeaeded  ia  vmt- 
ttiawloc  Qoeaa  Isabella  in  1868.  aftwr 
vklch  ha  was  appointed  ministMr  of  war. 
He  waa  shot  by  aaMariBt  in  1870. 

primary  (P'»'»*-ri).  *»  ^«^  • 
"*  ""^"tf    term  nsed  as  equivalent  to 

maUtototo,  the  name  fiven  to  the  oMest 
known  group  of  stratified  rocks,  indo^ng 
the  Cambrian,  Silurian,  Devonian,  Car- 
boniferous and  Permian.    See  Oeolon. 

Primary  Elections,  S^s^^iK 

have  come  to  take  the  place  of  county  and 
state  nominating  conventions.  In  1860 
the  Republicans  of  Crawford  connty, 
Pennsylvania^  discarded  the  county  con- 
vention of  delegates,  choor'ng  their  county 
candidate  by  a  direct  election  patterned 
in  methods  after  the  general  election. 
Other  local  groups  from  time  to  time  fol- 
lowed a  similar  plan,  and  in  1890  the 
state  of  Minnesota  tried  the  direct  pri- 
mary for  parties  in  the  city  of  Minneap- 
olis. Success  there  led  to  its  adoption 
throughout  the  state.  Other  states  fid- 
lowed,  and  in  some  direct  nominations 
are  mandatory  for  practically  all  offices. 
Every  voter  in  theory  may  nominate 
whomever  he  pleases,  but  direct  nomina- 
tion laws  tend  to  exclude  from  the  pri- 
mary ballot  names  not  presented  by  a 
petition  bearing  a  certain  percentage  of 
signatures. 

Primary  Schools,  S^uS'iSoS: 

See  Education, 

•■^"™**®  Christian  Church  the  title 
assumed  by  a  bishop  holding  a  position  of 

{>re-eminence.  In  Africa  the  title  be- 
onged  to  the  bishop  who  had  been  longest 
ordained.  At  a  later  date  '  primate '  be- 
came the  official  title  of  certam  metrop<d- 
itans  who  obtained  from  the  Pope  a 
position  of  episcopal  authority  over  sev- 
eral other  metropolitans  and  who  were 
at  the  same  time  appointed  vicars  of  the 
Holy  See.  The  title  is  still  retained  by 
the  bishops  of  Armagh,  L^ons,  Mains, 
Toledo,  Pisa,  etc.,  though  none  of  thesa 
possess  any  primatial  Jurisdiction.  In 
the  Church  of  England  both  the  arch- 
bishops still  retain  the  title  of  primate* 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  being  dis- 
tinguished as  the  'Primate  of  all  En^ 
land,'  and  the  Archbishop  of  York  as 
the  'Primate  of  England.' 

Primates  ^^^e^t^ainSS  "faT^i: 

system  of  nomenclature  to  the  first  order 
of  mammals.  He  placed  this  first,  bs- 
cause  he  ranked  man  amonc  the  primates. 
Tba  apes  are  induded  in  the  sans  ordtf. 

Primatiodo  <££S*««J?>   xSffi 


Prime 


Prince  Edward  Idaad 


painter  of  the  Boiognese  school,  bom  nt 
Bologna  in  1400.  He  received  bis  fint 
instruction  from  Innocenzo  da  Immola, 
and  completed  his  siudies  under  Giuiio 
Romano.  In  connection  with  several  of 
the  pupils  of  the  latter  he  painted  the 
Palano  del  T6,  in  Mantua,  from  Oiulio's 
designs.  Through  the  recommendation  of 
Frederick,  duke  of  Mantua,  Primaticcio 
was  taken  into  the  service  of  Francis  I 
of  France  in  1531.  He  did  much  to  im- 
prove the  palace  at  Fontaineblean,  and 
gave  a  new  impetus  to  French  art.  He 
made  a  collection  of  antique  statues  in 
Italy  for  Francis,  and  was  appointed  suc- 
cessor to  Rosso  as  royal  painter.  He  died 
•  in  1570. 
Pritnik  (prim),  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
**""''  Church  one  of  the  canonical 
hours,  and  also  the  service  in  the  breviary 
which  falls  to  be  performed  at  that  time. 
The  term  is  derived  from  the  Latin  prima 
(that  is,  prima  hora,  first  hour),  because 
prime  begins  with  the  first  hour  of  the 
day  according  to  the  Eastern  mode  of 
reckoning,  namely,  6  o'clock. 

Prime  nnTjInpfor  ^^^^  p"*  ot  sa 
rnme   l/OCtlUClOr,    electric  machine 

from  which  sparks  are  usually  taken. 

Prime  Minister,  SfiS,"^""  ^ 

PmniP  KTurnhpr  a  number  which 
rnme  linmoer,  ^^n  be  divided  ex- 
actly by  no  number  except  itself  and 
unity. 

Primintr  (prlm'ing),  in  steam-en- 
***'*""o  gines,  the  entrance  of  water 
spray  along  with  steam  into  the  cylinder 
of  an  engine.  It  always  causes  great 
annoyance.  The  use  of  muddy  water,  in- 
sufficient steam-room,  carelessly  con- 
structed flues  and  pipes,  etc.,  in  the  boiler, 
give  rise  to  priming.  Superheating  the 
stean^  is  one  remedy.  Priming  valvea,  a 
species  of  spring  valves,  fitted  to  the 
cylinder,  are  so  adjusted  as  to  eject  prim- 
ing by  the  action  of  the  piston. 

Primogenitnre  /rriJbViftMl 

est  son  and  those  who  derive  through  him 
to  succeed  to  the  property  of  the  ancestor. 
The  first-born  in  the  patriarchal  ages  had 
among  the  Jews  a  superiority  over  his 
brethren,  but  the  '  insolent  prerogative 
of  primogeniture,'  as  OiblTon  denomi* 
nates  it,  was  especially  an  institution  de- 
veloped under  feudalism.  Before  the 
Norman  conquest  the  descent  of  iandi  in 
England  was  to  all  the  sons  alike,  bat 
later  the  right  of  anec«Bsi<m  by  primo- 
geniture came  to  prevail  everywhere,  ex- 
cept in  Kent,  where  the  aneioit  gavelkind 
tenure  still  remained.  The  ri^t  vi  pri- 
■oceniture  is  cntirclr  abdtehed  in  Ftanoe 
Md  iMffauBr  bat  it  prmllf  to 


degree  in  most  other  eonntries  in  Bar^a. 
The  rule  operates  only  in  cases  of  intss* 
tacy,  and  is  as  follows :  —  When  a  persoa 
dies  intestate,  leaving  real  estate,  us  dd- 
est  son  is  entitled  by  law  to  the  whoM. 
If  the  eldest  son  is  dead,  bat  has  left  an 
eldest  son,  the  latter  succeeds  to  the  wlmle 
of  the  property.  If  the  whole  male  line 
is  exhausted  then  the  dangfaters  succeed  — 
not  in  the  same  way,  however,  but  jointly, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  crown,  to  whioi 
the  eldest  succeeds.  In  the  United  States 
no  distinction  of  age  or  sex  is  made  in  the 
descent  of  estates  to  lineal  descendants. 
Pn'mrnap     (prim'rOs;      Prjmila)»     a 

rnmrose  ^^^^   „,   beautiful   low 

Alpine  plants,  nat.  order  Primulacea. 
Some  are  among  the  earliest  flowers  in 
spring,  as  the  common  primrose,  the  os* 
lip,  and  cowslip ;   and  several  Ja 


and  other  varieties  are  cultivated  m  gar- 
dens as  ornamental  plants.  The  varie- 
ties of  the  common  primrose  which  liave 
arisen  from  cultivation  are  rery  nnmer- 

ous. 

Primrose  Leagrue,  ^,}  p?"«3! 

lish  women  founded  for  the  furtherance 
of  conservative  opinions  in  England,  and 
named  after  the  favorite  flower  of  Earl 
Beaconsfield,  one  year  after  his  deatli, 
April  19,  1881.  This  anniversary  is  ob- 
served by  the  wearing  of  the  primrose 
and  the  annual  meetings  in  each  freat 
center  of  population. 

Primnlacea  j??"--?'?;?!',  ^t 

plants,  a  nat  order  of  monopetaloas  cz- 
ogens,  distinguished  by  the  stamens  bdas 
opposite  to  the  lobes  of  the  corolla,  um 
having  a  superior  capsule  with  a  free 
central  placenta.  It  consists  of  herhn- 
ceous  plants,  natives  of  temperate  and  cold 
regiona.  Many  have  flowers  of  nuMh 
beauty,  and  some  are  Tery  fragnnt  See 
Primrote, 

Pnnne  (prins;  Latin,  friitotH),  Ut- 
■"^^**®  erally  one  who  holds  the  first 
place.  In  modem  times  the  title  of  prince 
(or  princess)  is  given  to  all  Mvcvelftna 
generally. 

PriniM  AlhArt  •  ^wn  of  Sai&atdw- 
rnnce  AlOCn,  ^„      Canada,     on 

Saskatchewan  Hirer.  It  has  lumber, 
grain  ai^  cattle  interests.    Pop  (efia. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  ?J,*S^ 

a  ptorinee  of  the  Dominion  «t  Panada,  is 
the  Onlf  of  St  Lawrence,  and  aqpaatsd 
by  Mmthamberland  Strait  ffMi  Mew 
Bronswidc  oa  the  east  and  Mava  Seotia 
on  the  sooth: 
to  wart,  ifrmt 

ittg  fCOB  «  to  i 

■VMf  wXtmf 


PrinoeofWtkt 


Princeton  TTniyenity 


nmariwbto  Boeeenlon  of  lart*  bajw  uul 
projaedng  hetdlaiMila.  The  corfact  oik 
dnlatM  fently,  nowhert  riaiiif  w  hich  u 
to  beeome  moantaiiiooa  or  Oakiagwo 
low  u  to  fonn  a  monotonoiur  flat  Too 
Uand  is  natarally  divided  into  three  pen* 
tn«[^^lwf  and  the  whole  is  oninently  asri- 
caltnral  and  iwatoral.  the  forests  now 
befns  of  oMnparatiTely  limited  extent 
The  capital  is  Charlottetown.  The  public 
aSain  of  the  island  are  administered  by 
m  Mentenant-goremor  nominated  by  the 
«rown,  who  appidnts  an  executive  council 
of  nine  monbers.  Vhere  is  also  a  legis- 
latiTe  council  of  thirte^  and  a  house  of 
assemUy  of  thirty  members,  both  chosen 
by  the  people.  There  is  an  excellent  edu- 
cational system,  the  elementary  schools 
being  free.  The  idand  is  supposed  to 
bave  been  discovered  by  Cabot  It  was 
first  eol<miaed  by  France,  captured  by 
Britain  in  3T45,  restored  and  recaptured, 
and  finally,  in  1873.  was  admitted  to  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  Pop.  93,728. 
Prinr<«i  nf  WaIm  the  title  of  the 
imnoe  OI  waxes,     heip.apparent   of 

the  British  tlirone,  first  conferred  bv  Ed- 
ward I  on  his  son  (afterwards  Edward 
II)  at  the  time  of  nis  conquest  of  the 
Principality  of  Wales. 

Prince's  Feather.     fi^J:'**''**- 

VnnfMk'a  If^fnl      or  Pain  OB  BiT- 

jmncesAetai,  ^^^.^  i^etal,  a 

mixture  of  copper  and  zinc. 
PrtnftntATl  (prins'tun),  a  dty,  county 
mnceiOIL  ^g^t  of  Gibson  county, 
bdiana,  27  miles  n.  of  Evansville,  in 
Adds  of  coal,  oil  and  eos.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant grain  and  cattle  market  and  nas 
repair  shops  and  manufactures  of  clothing 
huigers,  carriages,  canned  goods,  etc. 
Pop.  8500. 

Priiin»f  ATI  ■'  town  of  Mercer  county, 
rrmoeion,    jj^^  Jersey,  40  mile*  H. 

&  of  Philaddphia  and  10  miles  ir.K.  of 
Trenton.  It  has  gained  distinction  as  the 
■eat  of  Princeton  University  and  Prince- 
ton Theolodcal  Seminary  (£.«.).  The 
town  was  first  settled  in  1696  and  re- 
ceived its  present  name  in  1724.  It  was 
bore  that  the  first  State  Legislature  of 
New  Jersey  assembled.  The  Battle  of 
Prteeetcm  was  fought  near  the  present 
■ite  of  tiM  Graduate  School  January  3, 
1T77,  wlien  an  American  force  under 
Cl«teral  Washington  defeated  the  British 
and  forced  GomwalUs  to  fall  back  to  New 
York,  leaving  New  Jersey  in  the  liands  of 
tiM  Americans. 

Princeton  Theological   Semi- 

•lAiM  an  Instttntion  for  the  training 
■■**»  of  ministers  for  the  Presbyte- 
vte  Oteid^  tho  oUsit  aofaool  of  its  kind 


in  the  United  States.  The  seminary  was 
estaWshed  at  Princeton.  New  Jersey,  in 
1S12,  with  the  Rev.  Archibald  Alexander 
as  ite  first  professor.  The  teaching  forea 
consiste  of  a  president  and  eleven  pro- 
fessors, with  several  additional  instruc- 
tors. All  professors  are  required  to  sub- 
scrilte  to  the  Wcstmbuter  Confessi<«  of 
Faith.  The  teaching  is  along  strictly  or- 
thodox lines,  as  distinguished  from  Union 
Theological  Seminary  if. v.).  New  York, 
where  more  freedom  of  thought  is  pei^ 
mitted  teachers  and  studentyu  The  library 
contains  over  100,000  volnmea. 

Princeton  University,  gjtft 

for  the  higher  education  of  men  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  established  in  1746.  It  was 
called  originally  the  College  of  New  Jer- 
sey, and  was  located  at  Elisabethtown, 
N.  J.  The  first  president  was  Rev.  Jona- 
than Dickinson.  In  1748  the  coUece  was 
removed  to  Newark,  and  in  1752  land 
was  purchased  at  Princeton,  and  the  cor- 
ner stone  of  the  first  building— the  famous 
Nassau  Hall — ^was  laid  in  1754.  Instruc- 
tion was  first  given  in  Nassau  Hall  in 
1756.  During  the  revolutionary  war  the 
college  suffered  heavily,  but  although  the 
forces  of  England  and  the  coloniste  surged 
across  Princeton,  the  work  of  the  institu- 
tion went  on,  only  one  commencement 
that  of  1777,  being  omitted.  BSrom  time 
to  time  many  handsome  buildings  have 
been  added.  Among  these  may  Be  men- 
tioned West  College,  Reunion  Hall,  W  ith- 
erspoon,  Edwards,  Dod,  Brown,  Blair 
and  Stafford  Little  Halls,  Upper  and 
Lower  Pyne  Buildings,  Seven^-nme  HalL 
Patton,  Cuyler,  Campbell,  Holder  and 
Hamilton  Balls.  Other  beautiful  build- 
ings on  the  campus  are  the  Isabella  Mc- 
Cosh  Infirmary,  Dickinson  HalL  Mar- 
guand  Chapel,  Alexander  Hall,  McCosh 
Redtetion  Hall,  the  University  Library 
uid  Gymnasium,  Graduate  College,  the 
Cleveland  Memorial  Tower  (completed  in 
1012),  the  Palmer  Memorial  Stadium, 
and  tiie  Univeniity  Dining  Halls.  An 
artificial  lake,  formed  bv  flooding  the  low- 
lands near  the  university,  was  presented 
by  Andrew  Carnegie. 

Instruction  is  given  in  philosophy,  art 
and  archeology,  language  and  literature, 
mathematics  and  science.  The  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  (q.v.)  is  a  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  institntion,  tlmngh 
closely  affiliated.  The  prestdente  of 
Princeton  University  have  aU  been  ^eigy- 
mai  with  the  eieeptloH  of  Woodrow  Wu- 
son.  iriio  was  head  of  the  university  from 
1908  to  1010.  He  was  sooeeeded  by  J<rim 
Grier  Hibben.  In  1917  there  were  97L 
students  enrolled,  a  considerable  telUng 
oC  owing  to  tb«  war,  a  great  muakn  « 


Principal 


Princeton  men  volontceriug  for  wsrvice. 
In  1916  the  enrolment  waa  1555.  A  new 
Athletic  Field,  to  be  caUed  Poe  Field,  has 
been  planned.  . 

t»^.M««<i1  (orin'si-pal),  the  term  used 
PnnOipal  ^'^^  United  State«  to  des- 
ignate the  proprietor,  chief,  or  head  of 
an  academy  or  seminary  of  learning. , 

Principal  and  Agent,  fio'n'Tn 

law,  applied  to  that  branch  of  questions 
which  relate  to  the  acting  of  one  person 
for  another  in  any  commercial  transac- 
tion.   See  Agent.  Broker,  Factor. 
Pm-nfiTKr    (print'ing),    in    a    general 
rnuuu|^    gense.  is  the  art  of  stamp- 
ing   impressions    of    figures,    letters,    or 
signs,  with  ink,  upon  paper,  vellum,  cloth, 
or  any  similar  substance;  but  the  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  production  of  pho- 
tographs  from    negatives,    where   neither 
ink  nor  pressure  is  used.     Printing  may 
be  done  (1)  'w>m  engraved  metal  plates, 
in  which  the  ink  is  stored  for  transfer- 
ence in  the  sunk  or  incised  lines  of  the 
pattern    (see   Engraving);    (2)    from  a 
level  surface,  as  polished  stone,  where  the 
ink  is  confined  to  the  lines  by  a  repellent 
medium  (see  Lithography)  ;  or  (3>  from 
surfaces  in  relief,  where  the  ink  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  raised  characters,  which 
may  be  either  on  one  block  or  on  separate 
or  movable  types.    The  latter  method  iz 
so  much  the  more  important  that  it  givM 
its  restricted  meaning  to  the  term  onni- 
ing,  unless  where  otherwise  r:ualifi:d. 

Hittory. — ^The  rudiments  or  the  crt  ot 
typography  or  letterpreaa-printing  were 
undoubtedly  known  to  the  ancients  so  far 
as  the  taking  of  impressions  from  blocks 
is  concerned,  and  this  method  is  still 
practiced  in  China.  The  ancient  Romans 
made  use  of  metal  stamps,  with  characters 
engraved  in  relief,  to  mark  their  articles 
of  trade  and  commerce;  r-zA  Cicero,  in 
his  work  De  Natura  Deorum,  has  a  pas- 
sage from  which  Toland  imagines  the 
modems  have  taken  the  Tiint  of  printing. 
Cicero  orders  the  types  to  be  made  of 
meUl,  and  calls  them  forma  htenrum, 
the  very  words  nsed  by  the  ''irst  printers. 
In  Virgil's  time,  toOj  brands  with  letters 
were  used  for  marking  cattle,  etc,  with 
the  owner's  name.  .  ,     , 

Block-printing  in  Europe,  from  single 
pieces  of  wood,  can  be  traced  back  as 
far  as  the  thirteenth  century.  In  these 
blocks  the  lines  to  be  printed  were  in 
relief  as  in  modem  wood-engraving,  and 
of  the  book  was  printed  from 


if  Nether- 

.  perum  of 

the   early 


Printing 

the  fifteenth  century  block-book  making 
was  a  distinct  craft  in  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands.  Among  the  earliest  speclM 
of  German  origin  is  an  Apoca'>ip$i»,  con- 
taining foity-eight  illustratl  »8  on  — 
many  leaves;  and  among  tha 
landish  origm,  the  Biblia  t. 
forty  leaves,  both  works  of 
fifteenth  century. 

It  is  a  matter  of  much  dispute  to  whom 
is   due   the   merit   of   adopting    movable 
tvpes.    The  invention  has  long  been  pop- 
ularly credited  to  Johan  Gutenberg,  but 
critical  examination  of  early  Dutch  and 
German  specimens  and  historical  evidence 
would  seem  to  point  to  Laurens  Jansiooo 
Coster,  of  Haarlem,  as  the  first  inventor. 
(See  Coster,   Clutenberg.)     The  date  of 
the  Haarlem  invention  is  variously  placed 
between  1420  and  1430.    Costers  typ« 
were   first   of  wood,    then   of   lead,   and 
lastly    of    tin;    the    first    book    printed 
from  movable  types  being  probably  m» 
entitled   Speculum   Xoatne   Salutu.    Go- 
tenberg  in  1449  connected  himself  with  • 
rich  citizen  in  Mainz,  named  Jobann  Fn«t 
or  Faust,  who  advanced  the  capital  nee- 
essary  to  prosecute  the  business  of  print- 
ing.    Soon    after     (probably    in    1453) 
Peter   SchSfEer,   who   afterwards  became 
Fust's  son-in-law,  was  taken  into  a>part- 
nership,  and  to  him  belongs  the  merit  ot 
inventing  matrices  for  casting  types,  each 
individual  type  having  hitherto  been  cnt 
in  wood  or  metal.     The  oldest  work  of 
any  considerable  size  printed  in  Mmiiw 
with  cast  letters,  by  Gutenberg,  Fust,  and 
SchSffer,  finished  about  1455,  is  the  Lmtim 
Bible,  which  is  called  the  Forty-tw<^U»ea 
Bible,  because  in  every  full  column  it  has 
forty-two   lines;    or    the   Mazarin   Bible, 
from  a  copy  having  been  discovered  in 
the  library  of  Cardinal  Mazarin  in  Paris. 
Fust   having   separated   from   Gatenbarg 
in  1456,  and  obuined  the  printing-pmw 
for  his  own  use,  undertook,  in  connectton 
with  Peter  SchSffer,  greater  typographical 
works,  in  which  the  art  was  carried  ti> 
higher  perfection.     Fust  was  particulari/ 
eni;aged  in  the  printing  of  the  Latin  •»• 
German  Bible,  the  first  copies  of  wMch, 
bearing  date,  were  printed  in  1462.    Pii«t 
is  said  to  have  died  of  the  plague  in  1406 
at  Paris,  upon  which  Peter  SchOffer  cfm- 
tinued    the    printing    business    alone    a| 
Mains.    After  the  separation  of  Gute^ 
berg   and    Fust    the    former   had   RMOM 
means  to  procure  a  new  printiiut-ptMa> 
and  had  printed  many  works,  of  wbicb 
the  nwBt  remarkable  is  the  A«trolM<Ml 
•nd  Meiioal  Caleniar   (in  folio,  14B7>. 
In  1462  the  dty  of  Maim  was  taken  and 
sacked  by  Adolphus,   coont  of   Nassau, 


'MtfkfAi     l^ST  w  - -- 

a  single  block."" Theleaves  were  usnally 

Brinted  only  on  <»e  side  of  the  paper,  the 
lank  ddss  being  afterwards  pasted  to-  — w.»-   -,   -.— .^ — .   r-— uV    u.„.  «i 
ccther  so  as  toSw  the  Toiame  the  ordi-  and  thto  dreumstance  is  •*»  to  have  s© 
asJ7  book  appeuancc    B7  tke  middle  of  detufed  tiie  establisbment  of  Fast  ui 


PxintiBg 


ftebOffer  that  muiy,  of  th«ir  wo'^mo 
wtn  obliged  to  Mdc  employment  etoe- 
Zteie.  ^truth««m.to>etb*t^the 
inventor  of  tlie  new  art  wae  Coeter;  that 
Gutenberg  and  ScMfter  made  Importwt 
improvemenU  on  It,  and  aided  by  »wrt 
widely  epread  the  reeulta  of  the  new  art 
From  this  period  printing  made  rapid 
procreM  throughout  Europe.  In  1406 
we  find  worka  printed  at  haplee;  and  in 
1467  Sweynhelm  and  Pannartz,  two  of 
the  moat  celebrat'^  and  extensive  old 
printera,  eatablish  «, themselves  at  Rome. 
In  1409  we  find  printing  at  Venice  and 
Milan ;  in  1470  at  Paris,  Nuremberg,  and 
Verona;  and  by  1472  the  art  Imd  become 
known  in  all  the  important  cities  of  the 
continent.  In  1490  it  had  cached  Con- 
stantinople, and  by  the  middle  of  the 
next  century  had  extended  to  Russia  and 

America.  .         .      i  ..       *i       k»^ 

At  the  Invention  of  printing  the  char- 
acter of  type  employed  was  the  old  Gothic 
or  Uermsn.  The  Uoman  type  was  brst 
totroduced  by  Sveynheim  and  Pannavlz 
at  Rome  to  140i,  and  the  /toltc  by  Altlua 
Manutiua  about  1500.  Schoffer,  in  his 
edition  of  Cicero's  De  O^w.  produces 
for  the  first  time  some  Greek  characters, 
rudely  executed ;  but  the  earliest  complete 
Greek  work  was  a  grammar  of  that  lan- 
guage printed  at  MUan  in  14^  The 
Peii^afeite*,  which  »??«»««  «»J*^„;?1" 
tlie  first  work  printed  in  the  Hebrew  char- 
acter, and  the  earliest  known  i'o{»i;Io« 
jItUe— Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chaldalc,  Oreek, 
Latin  — issued  from  the  press  of  Genoa 
fai  1616.  Several  printers'  names  have 
become  famous  not  only  for  the  beauty 
of  their  types,  but  also  for  the  general 
excellence  of  their  PS?^«c»>o,°^  ,  ^™°^ 
these  mav  be  noted:  The  Aldi  of  VeniM 
(1490-1597),  Baden  of  Paris  (1495- 
1535),   Estiennes  or  Stephens  of   Paris 

i  1602-98),  Plantin  of  Antwerp  (j514- 
B),  Wechel  of  Paris^  and  Frankfort 
(1530-72),  Elaevir  of  Leyjlen  and  Am- 
•terdam  (^5801080),  and  Bodoni  of  Par- 
aw  (1768-1818).  .      .       j    ^ 

The  art  of  printing  was  first  introduced 
into  England  by  William  Caxton,  who 
eatablished  a  press  in  Westminster  Abbey 
tol476.  (See  Cwton.)  in  the  midst 
of  a  busy  mercantile  life,  while  reaidrnt 
in  the  Netherlands,  he  began  about  14(i8 
to  translate  Le  BecueU  de»  Hutotre$  de 
TroM  of  Raoulle  la  Fevre.  This  worl- 
was  finished  In  1471,  and  Caxton  set  about 
learning  thv  new  art  of  printing,  with 
the  view  <a  pnbliahing  his  book.  The 
Aamiett.  tha  first  English  printed  book, 
appeared  In  1474,  Printed  either  at 
Kogea  or  Cologne.  In  1475  The  Oam« 
mi  FUm  of  the  Chetee,  the  second  Eng- 
Wl  |99K  printed,  app«^  *t  Prof«. 


Piintiiig 

and  In  1476  ht  began  to  practice  the  new 
art    at    Westminster.    The    farst    book 
printed  in  England,  the  Dictee  and  hatf 
wot  of  the  FhilMoahera,  was  printed  in 
November,  1477.    Between  that  date  and 
1401  Caxton  printed  upwards  of  seventy 
Tolumea,  including  the  works  of  Lydgate, 
Gower,  Chaucer.  Malory,  etc.     Upwarda 
of  twenty-two  of  thwie  were  translated  by 
himself   from   French,    Dutch,   or  Latin 
originals.    The  whole  amounted  to  more 
than  18,000  pages,  nearly  all  of  folio  size, 
some  of  the  books  having  passed  through 
two  editions,  and  a  few  through  three. 
Caxton   distinguhthed   the   books   of    hia 
printing  by  a  particular  device,  consiat- 
mg  of  the  initial  letters  of  hia  n«Tie,  with 
a  cipher  between.    His  first  performancea 
were  very  rude,  the  characters  rewmbling 
those  of  EInglish  manuscripta  before  the 
Conquest.     Most  of  his  letters  were  joined 
together:    the   leaves   were   rarely  num- 
bered, the  pages  never.    At  the  beginning 
of  the  chapters  he  only  printed,  aa  the 
custom  then  was,  a  small  letter,  to  inti- 
mate what   the  initial  or  capital  letter 
should  be,  leaving  that  to  be  made  by  tha 
illuminator,   who  wrote  it   with  a  pen, 
with  red,  blue,  or  green  ink. 

Caxton's   two  most  distinguiahed  aw<^ 
cessors    w^ere    Wynkto    de    Worde    and 
Richard  Pynson.    The  former,  a  native 
of  the  Dukedom  of  Lorraine,  served  under 
Caxton,  and  after  the  death  of  hia  maAtt 
successfully  practiced  the  art  of  prinUDK 
on  his  own  account.    The  bootai  which 
he  printed  are  very  numerous,  and  display 
a  rapid  improvement  in  the  typogiaphlcal 
art.     He  died  in   1534.    Pynson  waa  a 
native  of  Normandy,  and  it  la  supposed 
that  he  also  served  under  Caxtwi.    Tha 
works  which  he  printed  are  neither  so 
numerous  nor  so  beautiful  as  those  of 
Wynkin   de    Worde.     He   was   the   tot 
printer,  however,  who  introduced  the  Ro- 
man letter  into  England.    To  Wynkin  de 
Worde  and  Pynson  succeed  a  long  llat  ol 
ancient  typographers,  into  which  we  can- 
not enter  here.     ,  ,       ,  ,     v       _^ 
The  first  Scottish  printers  of  wl^  wa 
have  any  authentic  account  were  Walter 
Chapman,  a  merchant  to  Ed.nburgh,  md 
Andrew  Millar,  who,  iJ  conaequcrca  of  a 
patent    from    Jamea    IV,    wtabMahed    a 
press  at   Edinburgh   in    1607.    In   1M6 
Thomaa  Davidson  printed,  •  in  the  Fry- 
ere's  Winde,'  Edinburgh,  the  C»roi»ld«i 
of  ScotloHd,  by  BpethluB,  and  in  IMOthe 
works   of    Sir   David    Llndaay.    Robert 
Leprevik    printed    extenalvely    both    at 
Edinburgh    and    St.    Andrawiu    Thomaa 
VantrolUer    waa    another    oW.^BcottlBh 
printer,  who  bronght  outjin  15*^.^*r 
?to'a  In$Mt.te,:  in  1680  f^«SS'*l^nt 


grfntlaf 

characten  only  large  caP^^»i,p„  .„  many 
caw  are  used.  Bf"l^«f  "l  «-  Old  Engltah, 

-Bngll-E.  Pi^'gr  Minion.    NoTipareil. 


Iriatiag 

line.    When  the  word*  in  the  «*»  P*^ 
increaaed  till  tbey  nearly  fllltUe^«PJ^. 

w  Ucrea^  or  dlmlnlBhed  aa  to  "-to 


**"i.'.-_-_j  IT  itnsa  in  an  inch.     iyP« 


Pearl.   Diamond.    Englwn   nas   us    ..-- 

aw  nica  ems  measnre  1  men.    "r****! 
fvL^to  eJSTl   to   8  point,   no°P*"»  ° 

SSi  to  aet  In  M&ten,  ofl  Point)  .    .. 


aoing  to  press  to  be  printed  from.  H  JTC 
f«i^or  thi-v  are  fixed,  probably  aingly. 
'^T^tanaular  £ra me  ol  Iron,  or  cAwe. 
S?t'S^c\"inb;  means  of  wedg«.^^ 

i^t  to   the  foundry.     If  t|»«   '°"*-   „ 

each  other  In  P» 'P«„?!**l-    ta  than  ooa 

whvn  there  are  more  aneew  '"■  »i^22- 

in  a  work  it  b  advisable  to  baje  th«a 

for  tbe  second,  0  'or  the  third,  ^^^^ 
book  can  be  sure  that  the  «••"  ««" 


Trinting 


Printing 


to  the  compMiof  room,  and  tht  compoo* 
itor  undom  tho  woric  that  was  tomwm 
done,  by  iiainlfting  all  the  tjrpee,  that  ia. 
puttins  them  back  into  their  reapective 
cella  in  the  caae.  They  are  then  ready 
for  farther  combinationa  aa  required. 

(7oRipo«if>0  Machinet. —  Several  at- 
tempta  hare  beoi  made  to  expedite  the 
work  of  the  compoaitor  by  calling  in  the 
aid  of  machinery.  A  large  portion  of  the 
compoeitor'a  work  conaista  in  correcting 
the  reader'a  and  the  author's 
proofs,  in  arranging  the  types 
in  paigea,  in  imposing  these 
patea  in  formes,  and  in  dress- 
ing the  formea  for  press.  These 
procesaea  are  ao  varied  and  in- 
tricate as  to  be  beyond  the  range 
of  machinery.  For  compoaing 
newspapers,  where  the  work  is 
plain  and  apeed  is  of  the  first 
consequence,  composing  ma- 
chines of  different  sorts  have 
proved  themselves  efficient  aids, 
and  have  come  into 
aae  to  an  extent 
that  a  few  yeara 
ago  waa  considered 
very  unlikely.  The 
same  method  has 
been  applied 
bookmaking 
and  the  old 
system  of 
hand- setting  of 
types  has  been 
largely  replaced 
by   machine  •  set 


n, 


.'arioni  ma- 
chines designed 
for  tliis  purpose 
have  been  in- 
vented,  in  the 
earlier  ones  the 
types  being  in  dif- 
ferent ways  made 
to  fall  meciianic- 
ally  into  place. 
But  all  these  have 
been  set  aside  by 
the  linotype  ma- 
chine, the  inven* 
tion     of    Ottmar 

Merf«itb«ler,  thia  .      .   ^      ^ 

b«iug  not  oiuy  a  oompoatof  bnt  a  type- 
fagtn»g  machine  lo  ita  main  leatnrea 
tha  linotybs  ia  wholly  onlike  any  pre- 
vions  machine.  No  types  are  used ;  metal 
natricea  aimilar  to  those  empiored  by 
tynafoondera  take  their  place.  The  few 
9  these  matrices  naed  are  stored  in  Tar- 
lieal  channels  as  types  are  in  other  ma- 
ridnes,  and  they  are  aimilarly  bruoght 
iato   w.ords   and  lines   on   tba 


McceBthanr 
LiinotypsTypeiiettlag  Uaohlae 


manipnlatioa  of  keys  on  a  keyboard 
somewhat  like  a  typewriter's  by  tba  com- 
positor. When  a  line  of  matricaa  ia 
compoaed  it  ia  ranoved  to  another  part 
of  the  machine,  where  it  is  automaticaUy 
apaced  out,  then  molten  metal  ia  injected 
into  it,  a  '  line-o'-type '  cast  in  one  piece 
ia  produced;  thia  line,  dreaaed  by  cuttera 
to  correct  thickneea  and  height,  Ukea  ita 
place  in  a  column,  while  the  matricea 
themselves  go  back  along  raila,  and  drop 

off  into  their 
respective 
channela  a  a 
they  are 
reached. 
When  it  ia 
remembered 
that  after  the 
compoaitor 
aet    up    the 

of    matricea, 

checked  it  aa  cor< 
rect,  and  turned  a 
Bwitch,  the  whole  of 
the  subaeqnent  opera- 
tions indicated  above 
are  purely   automat- 
ic, BOLae  idea  may  be 
formed  of  the  amount 
of  ingenuity  ex- 
pended on  tliia  piece 
of  mechaniam.    It  ia 
used   almost  univer- 
sally   in    newspaper 
offices        throoghout 
the     entire     world, 
and   ia  veiT  largely 
employed     in     book- 
making.    Another 
<nachine,the  Mon- 
otype, <a  latar  in- 
vention, casts  singlt  types, 
and  thus  forms  a  mechan- 
ical succfessor  to  the  older 
methods,  and  is  now  com- 
ing into  extersiva  Qse,  be* 
ing  distinguished  by  a  rick 
varioty  of  type  faces. 

Frinting. — ^When  tht 

form    of    types    has    been 

prepared  for  press  by  the 

compositor  it  is  passed  over 

to  the  pressmen,  who  form 

a   distinct  craft     The  act 

of    printing  has   two  operations.      First 

there  is  the  application  of  ink  to  the  face 

of  the  type,  and  then  the  preasing  of  a 

aheet  of  paper  on  the  typea  witfi  such 

weight  as  to  cause    the  ink  to  adhere  to 

it    The  ink  used  is  a  thick,  viscid  floM 

made  of  boiled  linseed-oil  and  lampUadb 

It  is  applied  to  the  Qrpe  by  means  of  C 

tdar  covered  with  aa  alastlo  coapooad 

of  melted  i^oe  and  treada.     Wkan  tiK 


Printiiig 


Printinr 


.•in*tn«  la  bctnc  done  on  hand-piw  tb« 
»SEr"fi  «ni^  on  a  U«ht  frame  having 
So!  by  which  It  ia  gripped  by  the 
hSda  of  the  prewman  or  Printer,  who  In 
S»^i>«  nuMB  the  roller  aeveral  tlines 
?v''?'an  iShTuble*  and  then  ^-cjn.a'd. 

SS  forwarda  OTer  the  'o"»»-  J^^^?  more 
nrbitInK  i«  done  on  machine,  two  or  more 
SJSiJr"  placed  in  aultable  bearing.,  and 
geMrally   the   forme  la  made  to  travel 


Linotyt*  Mttrieei. 
„,     1.  ».tT<<  DonbU  inttrix. 

"•j' Utuf^ld.     •.  di.trib«tion  t-th. 


calla  for  more  o'J»"  "i^  in  pUin  work 
the  workman.  JR"  ;^'»,heet8  the  lettera 

ra,  V-SL^ffi  a°notSer*w?S  Wng 
firmly  ™P'*fn"   when   there   are   illua- 

Theae  elwita  are  %*  "SiSf '^2^ 'bSi 
tra^  Sra*d  ««£ace  te  tfea  light 
^^SickMim  of  PrimHmt^Tk*  Mtehaa- 


«r«  foUowed  for  obtaining  the  lmprMri«t 
which  produce,  the  .prlnt***  •■^,,,^ 
Ant  ftnd  aimuleat  ia  by  the  advanct 
foward  each  other  of  twi  flat  aurfac^ 
one  (thrbed)  carrying  the  type-forme. 
\bl  other  (rte  platen)  carrying  the  blank 
iheet  to  be  printed.  The  aecond  ia J^ 
Sfrotatlon  Sf  a  cnrlinder  jboTe  a  tygj- 

table  traveling  back^f^"  •,"i  Iw^n^- 
tha  table  belna  in  contact  with  the  cyim- 
der  *in  advancing  and  free  in  returning 
The  third  and  moat  '«*°t>y  "fiSS^ 
method  ia  the  contact  of  two  cyllndm 
SvoWng^'continuouslv  in  the  «me  di^ 

tion,  one  carrying  tbe  type^ujiace  b™* 
the  other  bringing  agalnat  It  *  contlnu- 
oua  web  of  paper    ^blch  it  afterwarda 

cSta  into  aheets.  P'-^^,"»*'?le  «S- 
the  first  class  are  called  pww^t  tne  aec- 
ond cylinder,  and  the  th irrf «.«or». 

The  presa  used  by  Gutenberg  waa  oi  a 
very  nlde  description,  tbe  ink  bring  a^ 
olied  by  means  of  le«tber<overed  naiw 
•tiiffed  with   soft   material,   and  havlBg 

SSt'SSe  handle,  and  the  PKi^t  S^ 
obtained  by  a  screw  ^bich  brought  dojro 

>  fiat  block  or  platen.  The  h"*.*™ 
provement  on  thls*^  device  ««"»"  to J^ve 
^l  the  construction  of  guides,  enabling 
the  type-forme  to  be  run  under  the  im 
pressing  surface  and  .withdrawn  wiin 
farilltv  Other  necessities  soon  alter 
irS"^ chiefly  that  of  obtain  ng  a  raplj 
return  of  the  platen  from   the  poalUOH 


AlUon  Prtss. 


■t  wUdi  It  gave  the  ?>*«"«•  J'^!*!?* 
the^SSw  wquirlng  to  ^  turnrfb^; 
b¥t  iTwaa  not  tifl  the  year  1«»  {g* 
thia  waa  met  by  the  «nv«»t»f»  «  wm«« 
Jansaooa  Blatu,  a  natlw  d  ^,«w;*«Sg?: 
cCtoa  Mahon.  the  third  jarl  of  Stoj^ 
hope,  waa  tht  author  of  tbtnMt  gjw 
iBpronmat   in   priating-praaaee,   wm» 


MatlBf 


MatiBC 


ItOOk  B*  «iflMd  a  eoabiMtloa  of 
hfnaa,  whM  h»  applM  to  tte  ^  wrtf 
PNHL  Tk«M  tevtn  brou^t  down.tlit 
ptotn  with  grMtbr  IdcmmmI  rapidity, 
■■4  wk>t  wu  of  mil  grwter  inportance, 
ooMTwfd  at  tb«  ptopor  monMit  tbat 
■otkn  itte  direct  pnaan.  Tba^pnt- 
MM  was  undar  ooatrol  and  capable  of 
muf  adJoatBtnt  Tba  pnaa  was  of 
ban,  not  of  wood  as  was  the  case  with 
all  previoaslr  constructed  presses,  and 
It  endbited  a  namber  of  contrivances  of 
ths  BMist  iafwioas  character  for  facili- 
tattaiff  the  work  of  the  pressman.  In 
1818  John  Ruthyen,  a  printer  of  Edin- 
bvnfa,  patented  a  press  on  the  lever  prin- 
dple,  with  several  decided  improvements. 
Tns  (Mumbian  Press,  invented  in  1814 
by  O.  CInner,  of  Philsdelpbia,  and  ths 
Albion  Press,  wera  the  latest  cwtriv- 
■Bees.  Even  in  its  best  form  the  hand* 
^ees  te  laborious  to  work  and  slow  in 
epoation,  two  workmen  not  being  able 
to  throw  oft  mora  than  250  impressions 
In  an  boor.  It  therafore  became  impen- 
tlve,  especially  for  newspapers,  to  devise 
a  mora  expeditions  and  at  tbs  same  time 
a  mora  easy  method  of  taking  impressions 
fion  tjrpss. 

8o  early  as  the  year  1790  Mr.  Nichol- 
ioa  took  out  letters-patent  for  printing  by 
Bsdiinsry.  His  pnntlng-maraine  never 
bscaas  avaiUble  In  practice,  yet  be  de- 
tnrves  ths  credit  of  being  the  first  who 
rancsted  the  application  of  cylinden 
ud  Inking-rollers.  About  ten  yean  later 
Kfinifc  a  printer  in  Saxony,  turned  bis 
attmtion  to  the  improvement  of  the  print- 
ing-press, with  a  view  chiefly  to  acceler- 
ate  Its  operation.  Being  unsuccessful  in 
gaining  assistance  in  hu  native  country 
to  bring  his  scheme  into  operation,  he 
same  to  London  in  1806.  Tnera  he  was 
fsoeived  with  equal  coldness,  but  ulti- 
matsly,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr. 
Bensley,  he  coastmeted  a  machine  on  the 
platen  or  hand-press  principle.  After- 
wards hs  adopted  Nicholson's  cylinder 
prind^ls,  and  stuceeded  in  producing  a 
Bachme  whidi  so  sstisfied  Mr.  Wsltsr, 
j^rt^ristor  of  the  TJrnee  newspaper,  that 
•a  agrsemoit  was  entered  teto  to  erect 
two  to  print  that  journal.  On  the  28th 
W  Ksvwnbur,  1814,  the  reader  of  the 
risist  was  Informed  that  he  held  in  his 
WUH  a  p  .im  piiatsd  by  machinery  moved 
te  the  power  of  steam,  and  which  had 
lini  prodoesd  at  tits  rate  of  1800  im- 
msrions  psr  bou:  This  is  commonly 
■mosed  to  bs  ths  first  specimen  of 
inatinf  execotsd  by  stsam  mschinery; 
OBt  K&iig's  platm  buu^Ibs  was  set  to 
'  in  Aprd,  1811.  ami  1000  sheets  of 
H  of  tlM  AmHmI  B^ttUr  for 
priBtsd  hgr  It    Sbat  waa  on- 


larit  in  i 

iiitiin 
nM  INN 


doobtsdly  ths  flnt  work  priatsd  hy 
chloery. 

A  further  Improvement  was  nads  in 
May.  1848,  by  Appicgarth.  His  nadiine. 
whidi  printed  10,000  Impressioits  per 
hour,  had  a  vwtical  cylinder  65  bicbeo 
broad,  on  which  the  type  was  fixed,  snr- 
rounded  by  ehdit  other  vertical  cylinders, 
each  about  18  laches  diamstw  and  cov^ 
srcd  with  doth,  round  which  the  papsi 
was  led  by  Upes,  each  paper  or  Impres- 
si<m  cylinder  having  a  feeding  apparatus 
and  two  boys  tending.  The  type  used 
waa  the  ordinary  kind,  and  the  form 
was  pUced  on  a  portion  of  the  large 
eyltatoier.  The  surface  of  the  tvpe  formed 
a  portion  of  a  polygon,  and  the  regular- 
ity of  the  Impreesion  was  obtained  by 
pasting  slips  of  psper  on  the  impresdon 
cylinders. 

Few  machines,  however,  of  tl*s  eon- 
structi<m  were  made,  a  formidable  riral 
having  appeared,  devised  by  Messrs.  Hoe 
8c  Coi  of  New  York.  It  wss  constructed 
with  from  two  to  ten  impression  cylinders, 
each   of    them   printing   from   a   set    of 

2 pes  placed  on  a  horisontal  central  cylln* 
t  of  about  64  feet  in  diameter,  a 
portion  of  which  was  also  used  as  a 
cylindrical  ink-tabte,  each  of  the  encir- 
cling cylinden  having  its  own  Inking 
roUera  snd  separate  feeder.  A  machine 
of  this  construction,  having  tm  impres- 
sion cylinders,  threw  otf  at  tlie  rate  9t 
18,000  impressicms  an  hour. 

Repeated  attempts  were  made  by  la- 
ventora  to  construct  a  machine  whkb 
would  print  from  the  continuous  roll  or 
web  in  which  paper  is  supplied  by  ths 
paper-making  machine.  Experiments  wers 
conducted  successfully  by  Nicholson, 
Stanhope,  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  Apple- 
garth,  and  others,  but  the  difficulties  for 
the  time  proved  insurmountable.  Tbese^ 
however,  wera  st  length  overcome,  sad 
the  result  is  the  construction  of  a  class 
of  machines  which  possess  the  merit  of 
being  at  once  simpler,  mora  expeditious, 
and  mora  economical  in  requiring  less 
attendance  than  any  pravious  cortriv^ 
ance. 

The  flnt  mschine  on  the  web  priadpla 
tbat  established  itself  in  the  priatlng- 
oflice  was  the  'Bullock,'  an  Americaa 
contrivance.  It  was,  however,  spesdily 
eclipsed  by  the  '  Walter  Press,*  invsated 
ana  constructed  on  the  pnmises  of  ths 
Z^ondoa  Time*.  Since  then  several  oOer 
rotary  machines  have  been  Invented  and 
brought  into  extensive  use.  Ths  'oosn- 
ddlvery'  machine  (that  is,  nnproTuM 
with  an  apparatus  for  folding  fba  papers  > 
of  the  latter  flrm  nay  bs  taken  as  a  typei 
ai  rotary  msehines,  aad  is  riiowB  te  thei 
flfua.    Ths  tda  ot  jmpm  t  Is  plawA  ^B* 


jnriiitittC 


Mm 


•""" „  J       .hui.  th*  MrriAMi  briua  down  tb«  iM***",*** 

^  toprtated  on  ont  rido  %.»»»'»  SSo  iSSyt  the  printod  ohMtt  «oplM«3 

SiSS.  SSrflV  of  t»«  •  iwS\2«H 

havJM  m«d«  tbem  capibto  of  PfMoe^ 
K^k  work  of  th.,fiMrt  qoj^ltJN^tkj 
UK  of  the  platen  to  now  confiiwd  t* 
■Decial  wrtt  of  work.  _a_<^« 

Ijp  tri840  there  w.«  no  ptm  ttwn| 
enough  to  print  properly  a  w««  ««  ?! 
48  i^uaie  lnch«i  in  alte ;  ^"^^ 
2000  aqoare  Inches  «' ^^  brW  w*"^ 
areprinted  In  the  nort  P«n«c*  "SSSStai 
The  colored  "I»PJ««»«»«  o'J^  ^^^ 
Joomala  are  often  admirable  r^tOMO- 
tiMia  of  wotka  of  high  art. 


•attini  cyunoera  e  «  wurei.  "••,-\  ■— ' 
««.  dUnleter  aa  the  printing  2"™>«?: 
ThTabeets  thoa  aevered  then  trarel  ug 
ward  over  a  drum,  and  when  any  deaired 

nomber  of  *••"•" /■iSf'rf.  *Stlr.^ 
dirwted  by  a  iwltch  down  the  flyeij  r 
ind  fiK»fted  on  the,  toklnroff  b«ari  »; 
i  fi  theMmpreaaion  cylinderjor  the  print- 
Ib«  (•vlinder  T.  and  e'  for  T*.  The  cynn- 
£!  9^  .made  of  large  diameter  in  order 
&  the'  Wankerwlt?  which  it  ia  «.v«red 
t^«  ahMrh  the  aurplua  Ink  of  the  nraip 
SriStM*  if  the  web.  The  iMnt*V- 
SStaa  coMlata  of  two  drama  paralMto 


Open^llTwy  Web  Maehtae  of  Hoe  *  Oe, 


Bower  of  thia  machine  la  from  12,000  to 
Sow  perfect  eight-page  P*P««  P«L^.'; 
MichinS  of  later  oji^ln  jery  grwty 
■nrnoaa  thla  in  productive  c«Wu:k^ 
M^of  8  to  12  pagea  being  printed 
K  «  m#ed  of  24,000  per  hour,  and  4 
to  6  pSTjaSra  at  4a({«)^per  hour. 

ThrSLshtoea  hitherto  dwribed Jiava 
been  of  the  cylinder  claaa  and  of  the 
outcome  of  that  clasa  —  the  rota^. 
Thrpla«e»  or  Ant-aurface  printto«-n*J^ 
chine  waa  contrived  boom  «««' the  intro- 
ductlon  of  the  cylinder,  «»«  hadtor  itt 
aim   the  production   of   work  ey»l   in 

»roc't^  SU  ^■^^~!g!  •? 
th*hand-pr«i  ao  fnr  aa  the  nwde  of 
takiM  the  iSpreaalqo  b  concerned,  but 
to  dStlngntoheS  from  that  preaa  in  that 


Prior  iSStttSai'^W^aS 

ssSiatiSrdeiU'Sd'ir'^^H 

K  tte  tirm  prioreaf  waa  ■PP»«gto  the 
bead  of  a  convwit  of  femalca.    Bee  At- 

ftl|«-  MATHWr,  an  Engllah  POt^  *• 
Prior,  2n  of  a  joiner,  bom  m  ft**, 
and  educated  at  Weatmlnater  SctooU 
He  eariy  found  a  P?tron  In  tbjKMl 

it  BtllCal.  to  <Sf»«_S* 


SStai-J  S*U  and  PontNr.   ftia  war| 


PriMiaiiiit 


Mion 


broofht  btoi  Into  tern*,  and  In  1600  ht 
was  •ppoiatad  Mcraury  to  tlw  BncUih 
•BbMty  at  The  Uacoc.  In  16B7  b*  was 
nominatad  aecretarjr  to  tbt  planipottnti- 
arlaa  who  cmcluded  the  Peace  of  Bye- 
wick,  and  on  bU  return  waa  made  aec< 
retanr  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
In  1701  he  entered  Parliament  aa  a 
Whir,  but  loon  after  changed  hia  poll- 
tica  and  Joined  the  Torr  party.  He  waa 
in  consequence  excluded  from  ofllce  dur- 
ing the  rigime  of  Marlborough  and 
Qodolphia,  and  he  employed  himielf  in 
writing  and  publishing  another  volume 
of  poema.  In  1711,  when  the  Toriea 
again  obtained  the  ascendency,  he  was 
employed  in  secretlv  negotiating  at  Paris 
the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  and 
be  remained  in  France  until  1714,  at  first 
as  a  secret  agent,  afterwards  as  ambassa- 
dor. On  the  accession  of  George  I,  when 
the  Whigs  were  once  more  In  power. 
Prior  was  recalled  and  examined  before 
tlie  privy-council  in  respect  to  his  share 
in  negotiating  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
and  was  kept  in  custody  on  a  charge  of 
high  treason  for  two  years,  although  ulti- 
mately discharged  without  trial.  During 
hia  imprisonment  he  wrote  Alma,  or  the 
Progreat  of  the  Mind,  which,  together 
with  his  most  ambitious  work,  Sofomon, 
waa  published  In  1718.  He  died  in  1721 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
Prior  was  endowed  with  much  wit  and 
power  of  aatire;  and  many  of  his  lighter 
pieces  are  charming,  but  his  serious  per^ 
lormancea  fail  in  moving  either  the  feel- 
ings or  the  fancy. 

PrisciannS    (prfB^'l-an-us),    usuany 
"•  known  as  Fbisciait,  a 

celebrated  Roman  grammarian,  who  lived 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century 
of  our  era,  and  of  whom  little  more 
is  known  than  that  he  was  l>om  at 
Ccsarea,  taught  grammar  at  Constanti- 
nople in  the  time  of  Justinian,  and  wrote 
the  Inttitutionea  Qrammaticie,  an  expo- 
sition of  Latin  grammar.  His  work, 
auccessively  abridged  by  several  writers, 
formed  the  basis  of  instruction  in  Latin 
up  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  there 
exist  at  present  about  one  thousand 
M8S.  of  it,  none  dating  l)efore  the  ninth 
century.  It  contains  numerous  quota- 
tions from  Latin  authors  now  lost. 

Priscillian  ^W^s"^  t  S: 

known  as  Priscillianists,  in  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century,  their  doctrines  being 
a  mixture  of  Gnosticism  and  Maniche- 
iam.  Priscillian  was  himself  a  wealthy 
and  accomplished  man,  of  very  temperate 
and  strenuous  habits.  Hia  followers  did 
not  leave  the  Catholic  Church,  aad  he  waa 
actoaliy  at  one  time  made  a  bishop  him- 


self. Ha  waa  altlmately  tsaeotad  at 
Trevaa  In  880,  after  a  protmcad  atranle 
with  the  orthodox  dargy.  TEa  moat  oUk 
UoctiTe  part  of  hia  creed  waa  tlM  belief 
in  an  evil  spirit  aa  the  auprema  power. 
Hia  aect  iaated  nntU  aboat  WO  uv 

Prism  iP'*^>L.*?  "f*^."'  •  '^^ 

*  **•"»  dgure  which  might  be  genaratad 
by  the  motion  of  a  line  upt  parallel  f 
itself,  one  extremity  of  It  Deing  osrriad 
round  a  rectilinear  figure.  A  'right 
priam '  is  one  in  which  the  facea  art 
at  right  angles  to  the  ends.  In  optica  a 
prism  is  a  transparent  body  having  two 
plane  facea  not  iiarallel  to  one  another, 
and  most  commonly  it  is  made  of  glaaa, 
and  triangular  in  aection,  the  aectioo 
forming  either  a  right-antleid,  equilateral, 
or    iaoaceiea    triangle.    The    two    latter 


Ught  passing  throngh  Pilsak 

Tarietlea  are  moat  familiar.  If  a  ray  sf 
light,  SI,  enter  auch  a  prism  by  one  of 
the  two  principal  faces,  it  la  bent  in 
passing  through  so  as  to  take  the  direc- 
tion by  B I E  B.  The  angle  which  the  raj 
in  the  priam  makea  with  the  normaL 
N  I,  is  always  smaller  than  the  anrie  of 
incidence,  Nia,  and  the  angle  which  it 
makes  with  the  normal,  bit,  la  smaller 
than  the  angle  of  emergence,  n'bb,  the 
ray  being  alwaya  lient  towards  the  baae 
of  the  prism.  Not  only  is  the  ray  thoa 
bent,  but  it  is  also  decompoeed,  and 
by  auitable  arrangements  could  be  ex- 
hibited as  made  up  of  what  are  naually 
known  as  the  seven  primary  colore: 
violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow,  oraaga, 
and  red.  See  Color,  Light,  OpUoi,  8p99- 
Irum. 

Prison  (P>^>'o)f  <i  houae  In  which  a 
**  person  is  confined  and  thereby 

deprived  of  hia  personal  liberty:  espe- 
cially a  building  for  the  confinement  or 
safe  custody  of  criminala,  debtora,  or 
others.  Imprisonment  is  now  one  of  the 
recognked  methods  of  judicially  pnniah- 
ing  certain  crimea;  bnt  fonnerly  It 
waa    employed    In    nearly    avarv    cdiiii' 


PrboB 


PrifOA 


tnr    lo    Ear«^    for  purpoM    of    to- 
Iwtkt  and  oppraMioo.    Men  w«r«,  bid* 
Bm    to    diifli    dUMeoM,  ^whtrt    In    • 
■hort  tint  they  ptrblMd.  throofli  tb*  to- 
^■eincT  of  tb«  law  to  protect  tboM  wbo 
w«n  offaiaiTe  to  th«  powerful ;  and  even 
in  Great  Britain,  where  the  lawe  have 
alwaya  condemned   the   incarceration  of 
the  innocent,  the  pri»on  wae,  by  the  con- 
nivanca   of    the   aothorltlee,   made   iub- 
■ervient  to  grow   injoatice  and  cruelty. 
To   tba   eighteenth   century   belongs   the 
honor    of    Initiating    the    proper    regu  a- 
tion  of  impriaooment.     In  Britain  parlia- 
menUnr   inquirlee   brought   out   ■t/ange 
reTelatlons    aa    to    the    horrora    of    the 
debtora'  priiona;  but  public  interest  in 
the  subject  waa  only  effectually  arpnwd 
by   the   extraordinary    exertions   of   the 
celebrated  John   Howard,   who   In  1778 
began,  without  any  official  •tap^'nf.,  *« 
ir>ka    inapectlona   of    the   chief    Bnglieh 
VUMMM.    He  found  these  places  not  only  In- 
sanitarr  and  111  ventilated,  but  filthy,  poi- 
Bonoos,  and  in  nearly  every  case  over- 
crowded.   Disease  was  rampant,  and  no 
measttraa    were    taken    to    prevent    ita 
spread:  many  of  the  prisons  were  utterly 
unfit   for   human   creatures   to    live   In; 
and.  to  crown  all,  such  intercourse  was 
allowed    between    the    prisonere    as    en- 
sured the  reduction  of  all  to  the  level 
of  the  most  corrupt  and  criminal.    How- 
ard's revelations  caused   such  a   feeling 
throughout     the     country     that     prison 
reformation  could  no  longer  be  detayed. 
The    r«iult    was    that    parliament    en- 
trusted a  committee  of  three  (of  .^hom 
Howard   was    one)    with    the   duty    of 
framing  a  suitable  scheme  for  the  future 
management  of  the  prl-ons.    Their  rec- 
ommendations were  embodied  in  the  Act 
10.  Geo.  Ill  c  74   (17TO).  which  seta 
forth  distinctly  the  principles  that  were 
to    govern    future    prison    discipline    in 
Britain.    The  chief  features  emphasised 
are  —  soliUry    confinement,    cleanliness, 
medical  help,  r^olar  work,  and  the  en- 
forcement   of    order— the   same   princi- 
ples, indeed,  which  are  now  adopted  by 
every  civilised  aUte  in  the  world.    Up 
almost  to  this  time  many  criminals  had 
been  sent  as  convicts  to  America;  bnt 
thia  being  no   longer  possible,   the  new 
scheme  was  intended  to  provide  accom- 
modation for  Buch  at  home.    Australia, 
however,  now  presented  Itself  aa  a  new 
field  for  transportation,  and  thal^iaia- 


tan  haUed  with  joy  thia  new  rwecptad* 
for  criminala.  The  newborn  aaal  ol  th* 
public  diad  oat  with  the  abaoice  of  any 
nc«d  for  ehaiDm,  and  tba  whok  "chaina 
dronpad  far  tlavm  yaara,  to  ba  revived 
aninby  tha  earsMt  abtjwikMwi.  u  a 


publlabad   a   wort,   to   wWch   ba   .,_ 
stracted    (on    paper)    a   model    prisM, 
whwb  be  called  the  i*anopi(ooii.    Nnt 
year  he  proposed  himself  to  constroct  tht 
building    in^eallty.    Hia    Ideal    priMa 
was  not  unlike  Howard'a;  but  BanttouB 
trusted    greatly^  to    publicity    »»!    frM 
communication  between  criminals  and  tM 
public  for  the  protection  of  the  umatea 
from   oppression.    In    1704   the  govern- 
ment adopted  his  scheme,  but  the  c«i- 
Btruction  of  the  prison  was  put  off  tlU 
1810,  when  Sir  Samuel  Bomllly  moved 
Parilament  to  Uke  up  tba  matter  onca 
more.    This   time   it   was  pushed   to  a 
successful  issue;  and  in  1§1»,,7,*!  •'^j,*? 
the  famous  penitentiary  of  Mlllbank,  vir- 
tually on  Howard's  plans,  and  deattoed  to 
be  the  precursor  of  the  modern  prison. 
This  was  only  the  beginning  of  reform, 
and  the  credit  of  carrying  it  on  ^J^f 
due    to    the    Prison    Discipline    Society, 
and  to  Mr.  Buxton  and  Mrs.  Pry,  Ita 
leading  members.    The  latter  befan  her 
work  at   Newgate   In   1813,^  and   found 
that  prlaon  In  a  state  as  bad  as  can  be 
imagined.    Among    the    prisonere    them- 
selves she  effected  a  reformation,  perhaps 
only  temporary;   but  among  the  public 
her  efforts  Inaugurated  a  desire  for  Im- 
provement  which  resulted  in  the  aboli- 
tion of  all  such  scandals.     In  1824  and 
1825    the    legislature    passed    important 
acts  for  the  regulation  of  prisons,  con- 
taining  provisions   for   moral  and  sani- 
tary care  of  prisonere,  separation  of  the 
sexes,  etc.    The  use  of  irens  was  wr- 
tially  forbidden,  and  separate  cella  for 
each  prisoner  recommended.    These  laws, 
though  not  carried  out  to  the  letter  at 
fint,   were   very   helpful   to   future   re- 
formers.   In   1881   a  committee   of  the 
House  of  Commons  reported  in  favor  oi 
separate  cells  In  all  ewes,  and  this  suj^ 
geation  waa  adopted.    The  gradual  work 
of    modernising   prisons    then    went    on 
until  the  cessation  of  transportation  to 
New  8c. *h  Wales  to  1840  and  the  len- 
erel  defusta  of  this  system  rendered  it 
necessary  to  look  out  for  new  ways  of 
disposing    of    the    criminal    popniatKm. 
The  chief    features  of  the  new  scheme 
now  bronght  into  operation  consisted  of 
ae  following:  (D  Separate  confinement 
in  a  penitentiary  for  a  short  period;  (2) 
hard  priaon  labor  in  some  public  wort; 
and    (8)    transportation   wi*   tk*at-«fc 
leave.    For  the  firet  of  thea?  form  o« 


puafaibiaent  the  existing  orisons  were 
used ,  for  tte  second,  wniea  rewiy  caroe 
in  pUce  of  tba  farmer  ayi^B  of  wtoiaaaia 
tranaportatioo  public  work  waafooni  at 

Portlind,  Dkrtmoor.  •5i.,P«*S?*JSli5: 
The  tkW  wch  aet  •occwsfoL'rh*  wlo- 
ska  rafoNd  ta  raeelTa  tba  tkiet-of-laavf 


fdM 


MB,  Mil  tfMM  had  nltlMteUr  t*  to  Ub. 

^^teprlMUMMt  In  BiitalB  Mawli  tbtw: 
Wtoa  tto  cooTlet  teMMMcd  fw  a  p^ 
riod  «f  two  TMH  or  Im*.  th«  poBljihaMrat 
It  todakanr  tonawl.  iapriaoaiBMt  Tto 
crtetoal  paaaia  tto  tlm*  In  a  local  ptUoa. 
wtoft  to  liTta  in  Mlitanr  conBnenwnt  and 
weita  at  tto  trtad-wtoel  for  a  month;  it 
hit  eondnet  la  good  ha  rtc9\rt»  intrto 
which  aititia  him  to  Improvtd  conditiona 
aa  tto  doaa  of  hia  term  approacbct. 
Vm»i  aarritoda  ia  tto  titit  applied  to 
tarma  of  impriaonmant  which  cxcaed  two 
jmn.  It  ia  oaaicd  In  a  convict  priaon, 
lai  ia  dlfidadlnto^threa  perioda.  Tto 
irat  laata  nlnt  montba,  ia  one  of  aoiiunr 
ooaHMOMnt,  and  during  it  tto  convict  ia 
att  to  worh  at  aome  induatrr.  Tto  aae- 
OBd  period  k  aiao  diatinguitbcd  by  c«Ua- 
lar  iaokition,  but  the  convict  worka  along 
with  othera  at  one  of  tto  great  convict 
mimia,  auch  aa  Portland  or  Dartmoor. 
Tto  6nal  period  ia  that  of  releaae  on 

tiekat-of-laava.  during  which  the  convict 
•  obliged  to  report  bimaelf  at  intervala 
to  tto  police* 

In  tto  United  Statea  priaon  borrora  In 
tto  early  dajra  differed  only  from  tboaa 
of  tto  mother  country  in  tto  fact  that 
niaona  were  rare.    Connecticut  for  more 
than    fifty   yeara   bad   an    underground 
priaon  In  an  old  mining  pit    In  Pbila- 
lelphia  all  gradca  of  crinunala  and  toth 
■azca  were  buddfed  together.    In  Boaton 
debtora  were  confined  with  criminals  In 
coaamon  night-rooma.    Every  v*"pge  bad 
ita    atocka,   pillory,    and    whlpv-ag-poot 
Baform  began  In  Phltadeipbia,  where  in 
1776  waa  formed  *  Tbe  Society  for  Allevi- 
ating  the   Miaeriea   of   Public    Priaona.' 
Tto  Boaton  *  Priaon  Diadpline  Society' 
of  1824,  and  tbe  'Prison  Aaaodation  of 
New    York,'    oiganiaed    later,    are    atlU 
active.    Tbe   'National   Priaon   Aaaoda- 
tioa  of  America'  waa  formed  in  1870, 
BOW   one   of   the  moat  efliciant  in   tbe 
world.    Priaon    reform   congreaaea   have 
bean  held  in  all  large  citlea,  wbere  tlie 
humanitarian  infloencea  of  atate  ofliciala 
tova  lieen  unified  in  one  body.    One  of 
tto  miafortnnaa  of  tbe  prison  ayatema  In 
■May  of  tto  flutea  is  a  diapoaition  to 
regard  eoivieta  as  slaves  of  the  state, 
tto  profit  of  whoae  labor  is  so  much  clear 
gain    to    tto   atate    treaaury.    Gompatl- 
tion  with  lator  outside  the  prison  walla 
being  thua  forced,  troubles  have  ensued 
of  great  peril  —  aa  in  Tenneasee  in  1800- 
98  among  Iron  and  coal  miners,  and  la 
ottor    SoottoiB    and    Waatem    Statea. 
In  aome  of  theae  ttataa  tto  ooovleta  are 
'    to  perform  ootdaor  labor  aad  at 


TnWn 

eraelly.  Tto  avija  al  tUa  ayalaB  hwa 
of  lata  baan.mda  afltat,  aad  Mnaat 
afforta  to  rttoni  or  do  away  with  tto 
aystam  ara  balaf  aada.    »m  alao  Pan- 

PriwAtAM*  •  ▼*"*•!  of  war  owned  and 
mwmjmn,  ^^ipp^  by  private  In- 
dlviduala  to  aeiaa  or  plunder  tto  Mm 
of  an  enemy.  Such  a  vessel  most  be 
licensed  by  government  aud  under  a  letter 
of  marque,  ottorwiae  ato  ia  a  pirate. 
Tbe  iettera  of  marque  were  finrt^  granted 
in  England  during  the  reign  of_Henry 
V,  in  view  of  the  war  with  France; 
and  they  were  tasued  to  aggrieved  aub- 
Jecta  In  order  ttot  they  might  compm^ 


aata    themselvea    for    fnjury    dona    bv 
foreigners.    In  tto  aiiteenth  century  it 
became   common^to   gnwt   commiaBloi» 
to    privateera.    England,    Holland,    and 
Spain,    aa    tto    three    principal    naval 
powers,  used  this  effective  weapmi  freely; 
and  France  alao  aeot  out  privateera  In 
every  war  in  which  rhe  waa  engaged.    A 
neutral  la  not  forbidden  by  tto  law  of 
nations  to  accept  a  commiasion  for  priva- 
teering :  but  be  may  to,  and  gaierally 
is,  by  treaty.    In  1818  Congreas  paasad 
a  law  forbidding  enliatmeots  on  foreign 
privateera.    By  tto  Declaration  of -'nrls, 
1886,     tto    grwit    powers    of     Burow 
mutually  agreed  to  atandon  tto  light 
to  arm  privateera  In  case  of  war;  Irat 
several  nationa,  chief  of  them  beins  tto 
United    Sutes    "d    Spain,    have    :iot 
agreed  to  tbia,  and  it  ia  doubtful  whathar 
It  will   to   alwaya   strictly   acted   upon 
even  by  tbe  partiea  to  tbe  declaration. 
The  German  volunteer  fleet  of  1870  can 
not  to  very  clearly  distinxuisbed  from  a 
collection  of  privateers.    The  practice  of 
privateering,   while   useful   to   maritime 
countries,  and  necessary  at  one  pwiod  to 
England,  ia  very  harassing  to  trade,  and 
givea   endleaa   opportunitiea   for   private 
plunder.    It  was  probably  in  deprecation 
of  Irreaponsible  warfare  of  any  kind  that 
the  powers  agreed  to  abandon  privateer' 
ing  in  1856.    At  tbe  Hague  Confermce 
of  1907.  tbe  question  of  privateering  waa 
considered,  and  strict  precautlooa  taken 
against   the  revival   of   this  practice  in 
naval  war,  by  insisting  ttot  when  mer- 
chant vessels  are  converted  into  cruisera 
they  aball  to  formally  wrolled  on  tto 
naval   liat   and   placed   under   the  com- 
mand  of  a  commiaai<med   naval   officer, 
with  a  crew  aubjact  to  naval  diaciplina. 
Priw#t    (Priv'et;  X«»gi»«»n»a»),  a  genua 
•'^"'**  of  planta  of  tto  order  Oimemt. 
Tto  eeniBKm  prlwat   (L.  ^>^a0§f)   i»» 
natlva  of  Europe,  growjtog  8  or  10  las* 
„„    _       __     _     hl^:  tto  laavea  ara  allltfthso-lancajdate, 

Oar  w  oftw  twtM  TKf  teiakljr  m^  od^ffia,  wW*t  gt  «wt,  but  iw  «toi«r 


It'll  loaad  te 

fiMi  VlrrlBlA  to  UkKlmip^  aad 

li  ■»»  widtly  I  "'I  (or  bodno  tna  othtr 
ilrMiMBt«l  porp .  «  In  tlMGrBitcd  lutM. 


Imfd  ■hinmlllMr     ■■4 

^r    ^    tko    ff^,  „,     ^,     _  _ 
ooaiMr'iAff^la-dilof:  M'  «tlMr 
wlw         Of  hav*  tlkd  r«»or 
wmI-     tbo  crown,  h  wtU  •• 


Tlino  nro  nomtt^a*  other  imcIm. 

omptlon  from  tho  feneml  rul«  of  Inw. 
TU^Momptlon  may  bt  dthw  rM<  or 
MrwiMi:  real,  when  it  attacbM  to  any 
piiMi  pmonal,  wban  It  attachaa  tonw- 
•ona.  aa  ambaMadora.  mtmbera  of  Con* 
gf«a,  ctergrnien,  I'  ••re.  and  othera. 
EaTpriTUefe  la  J.  . '^9  Importanca; 

ptraonal  prlvHar^.  ...v  ..ar,  U  guaran- 
iwd  to  many  ul  v  j^i'  ^  .0  •  cud 
eeanaala  ara  e..  avc  f  oui  p  •"•■  «'« 
In  ooort;  an**  (•  uirosKnie  >  -jhM  .  *t- 
tmdanea  Ip  1  ••  '  Inr  an'  rtu  ag 
from  tbalr  -t-i  ■■"'»'-•  I    <i' ^ 

Privilege ..  CnaTr   nicatiji. 

Baa  Co*/''"'  '*o'   '  >«•«>..' ncc'^i. 

— .  «  ■     ■  1  -  ■    j.rwTLRnaN    or 

PnVy-Cilt7>»Df ..  ,;:.,  .^n  em  '.-  tha 


9H»*  oflka. 


who  ma/  nrt  bara  flUa**  •  jy  tmortut 
OflclaUy  at  tha     .4id  to  tba  lord- 


royal  bonaeboiU  of  }  ...«lan'J,  u  '  utad  by 
H«ity  VII.  Th-.r  •'^.  u  10  attand 
tba  aoreralcn;  bw  '  .  r  upponuiant  la 
Moir   laaraiy   a   mai'  ho""<     neitber 

iKlcTSw  aait^bting  atuched  to  tbalr 

Ku^  «A-n«m1     tha  cooncH  of  aUta 
ITy^eOTinOll)   ©t  the   BrltUb   aoT- 
araign,  conraned  to  concert  mattera  for 
Sa  publteaervlca,  and  for  tha  honor  and 
■afetT  of  the  realm.    The  Eng  lab  priir- 
wS  may  be  aaid  to  have  exleted  from 
K  of  freat.antlqulty:  but  the  ooga- 
ctlMiai    ordinarium,    eatabltabed    by    Ed- 
wi^  I.  waa  the  I«l*nt  «'  t^•  ""l*,?, 
inatitution.^  It    «>«»'«t«i    °'    ^^  ^g 
mlntotera,  Judgea,  and,  pflfcers  of  atate, 
and  grow  in  power  and  influence  lapiaiy, 
Jhough    repefiedly    checked    by    jealona 
Parllamentir  Since  the  time  of  the  Long 
Parliamoit  the  power  of  the  council  naa 
been  much  reduced,  and  the  rise  of  the 
cabinet   baa   effectually,  blotted   out   al 
the    more    Important    functiona    of    tik 
earlier  body.   The  privy-council  of  Scot- 
taS  waViUrbed  &  that  of  England  at 
tha   union;   but   Ireland   haa   a   apeciai 
privy-coundl  atill.    As  it  exists  at  prea- 
oit.  tha  number  of  membera  of  tba  ynrji 
cooneU  to  Indefinite;  they  are  nominated 
by  Hia  aeterelga  at  pkasare,  ana  no  pat- 
ant  or  grant  to  necaaaary,  but  thay  mwrt 
ba   nataal-boni    aubjacte.    The   Itot   <a 
wiry^ooncilora   (aooa  900  in  nnmbar) 
Sw^Kces.  beaidea   tha  membara  of 
^rvSuaSlf  and  tha  mambara al  tha 

14-8 


ptaaident  of  tha  council,  who  to*Pytotad 
by  patent,  and  who  maimgaa  tba  dabataa 
and  raporta  raaulta  to  tha  •fraralp,  A 
manbarof  the  prtTy-eoaaeil  baa  tto  Utto 
of  *  right  honorable.'  It  to  only  oa  tary 
extraordinary  ooeaaloaa  that  all  tba  ■sm- 
bera  attend  tha  council,  and  It  to  notcMW 
uaoal  for  any  member  to  attend  OBHaa 
apadally  anmmoned.    Tbe  attandaaea  oi 

at  toast  aix  members  U  n««5i!L*?,iw 
stltuta  n  council.  PrlTy-coundlora  aia  Iqr 
their  oath  bojind  to  advtoa  thacrown 
withoat  partiality,  aSactloo,  or  ^d;  to 
heap  lU  connael  saerat,  to  aroid  cprmp- 
tlon,  and  to  aailat  In  the  waentkm  o< 
what  to  leaolred  upon.  Wblto  tba  polit- 
ical ImporUnca  of  tba  priTT-copwsll.  ««• 
vary  gnat,  has  been  eztlngutobad  by  tba 
growth  of  tha  system  of  party  -^Jfom- 
ntant.  It  atill  ratalna  functiona  h  '  a  ad- 
mlntotrative  and  JodlctoL  ,    _^  w- 

Orders  in  eouneU  are  ordara  laaoad  W 
the  aovereign,  by  and  with  tba  MViaa^oC 
the  prlTy-council,  either  by  Tirtua  «  »• 
royal  prerogative,  and  indapandMtly  of 
any  act  oi  Parliament,  or  by  mtoa  w 
anch  act,  authortolng  tba  ao^afrngn  Id 
council  to  modify  or  dtopenaa  with  omrtain 
statutory  proylalona  vbkh  It  may  ba  as- 
pedlent  In  pf>rtlcalar  oonjnnetofaa  to 
alter  or  anapa;  i.      ^^ 

rnvy-pnTie,  ^s^«t  tha  mai 

boosebcdd  of  Great  Britain,  whoaa  ftme- 
tlon  It  to  to  take  charga^tha  pwMot 
of  the  private  aspwaea  and  dmiittaa  of 
the  sovereign. 


Priw-Mal  •  ■«'•  •»«*•*  by  tha 
rnvy-BCU)  Britlah  aovmraign  to  audi 
grants  or  documenta  aa  are  aftarwarda 
to  pass  the  great  aaaL,  Since  tba  ttme 
of  Henry  vftl  the  prlvy;aeal  baa  baaa 
the  warrant  of  the  iMallty  of  ,0*Bto 
'rom  the  crown,  and  the  antbonty  for 
Jia  lotd-chaneellor  to  affix  the  great  aa^; 
anch  granta  axa  termed  letter»-pat«it. 
Tha  <&»i'  who  haa  the  coatody  of  the 
prlvy-aeal  to  caUed  lord  pri*yi<*k«'»*J" 
the  fifth  great  officer  of  ateta.  bavta«  tfao 
generally  a  aaat  in  the  calrinat. 
hrimrn  (prla),  anything  caotuiai  law- 
"^2*  twal  ttoTrigbto  of  wa*.  Pw 
erty  eaptanl  on  land  to  naoally  oatod 

^^^    At  light  91  btfliaMita  M 


Pro* 


PzolMtliUity 


Mntnr*  tb»  oroMrty  •(  their  enemlM  on   Imn  thoira  it  a  larg*  itnietan  toDportad 

M  thTrSht  to  owTint  TiolaSoo  of  tlw   rfmr  m»y   luive  wllf lit.  p1«!«1  on   It 
"w  of  iKloni  By  neutrals,  ao  long  a.  and  adjnatad  according  to  drcuiaatancw. 
S«  InJtoptndenca  of  other  nationa  la  not   Proat  carry  a  logeaU  generaUy  of  mat- 
interfered   with.    It   ia  accordingly  set-   ting.  .„,  ^\ 
"5\iT  principle  of  the  law  of  nation.  ProbaMll^tS    <P"*»  *',S1"  '^VuJ 
»ImV  Vvarv  belliiterent  has  a  riaht  to  e^      *«"»»»*,  ^.^vb    ,yy^^  applied  to  tkoM 
tabltah  tribunal?  of  prlxe,  and  to  examine    philoMpher.  who  maintain  that  certainty 
and  decide  upon  all  maritime  capture.;    f.  impoMlble,  and  that  we  muat  be  wt- 
a^  Kiw  that  the  court,  of  prize  of     "fled  w  th  what    •  P~babie.    Tbta  wa. 
HmT  oantan   have   ezclu.ive  jurudiction    the  doctrine   of   the   New   Academy   at 
S«S?ffiteS4latfniTcapture.made    Athene,   particularly   of  Aioe.ilau.  and 
under  the  authority  of  their  wvereign;    Cameade..             /„«.i^  wru»n     in   .1. 
excepting  only  In  caw.  where  tha  capture  Probability     ^Pw"*^"^-  *j2:*i!-«fi 
WM  made  upon  the  territory  of  a  neutral,   f  ,    .      "7  ..    "^'v  *'*•    °lV''*fS?i« 
or  by  yttielifitted  out  within  a  neutral*,   icalinve.tii.tion  of  chanc«i:  the  «tio 
limit..    Thew    caw.    inrolve    an    inva-    of  the  number  of  «»»■''<»■  by  which  an 
■ion    of    the   neutral',   wvereignty.   and    eveat    may    happen    to    the   number   by 
muet  be  adjudicated  in  hi.  court.    The   which  it  may  both  happen  or  fail.     If 
Sion.  of  the  priie  court,  are  final  and    an  event  may  happen  in  a  way.  and  fall 
Su.ive  upon  the   right,  of  property     n.»way^  and  all  thew  way.  are  equally 
Kved;   aula  if   their  judgment,  work    likely    to   occur,   the   probability   of    ita 
injustice  to  the  .object,  of  other  power.                               •            j  »i..  „«vi„kiiu» 
their   claim,  must  be  adjusted  between   happening  1.              .  and  the  probability 
the  sovereign,  of  their  respective  state..                           •  +  • 
Prior  to  the  entrance  of  the  United  State.      -...,„.  <  _..*.i«*.  • 
into    the    European    war     (1917).    the   of    it.    faUing    i«  — — T-        'certainty 
American   government   protested   against                            x  j  f  "*"     i»„     ivk.„    ♦!.« 
Se  British  procedure  of  taking  neutral   being   reprewnted   by   unity.    When   the 
vSedto   into  port  for  examlnaaon,  con-   probability    of    the     happenina    of    an 
tending  that  the  examination  .hould  bo   event  i.  to  the  probabilfty  of  it.  faH- 
cIS  out    on    the    high   .ea.;     Great     ng   a.   •   to   6.    the   fact   i.    expressed 
Briteta    pleaded    thatHbecauae    of   Oer-   in  popular  language   thu.  — the  'odd.' 
many*,  unlawful  employment  of  the  .ub-    are  •  to  6  for  the  event,  or  6  to  a  agahirt 
mamie  the  priae  rufe.  must  of  necessity   the    event.    If    there    are    three    event, 
be  altered.  The  decisions  of  national  prize   such  that  one  must  happen,  and  only  one 
courts  may  property  be  subjected  to  inter-  can  happen,  and  .oppose  the  drst  event 
national  review.                                              can  happen  In  a  ways,  the  second  m  o 
PwM»    (prO'a),  a  peculiar  kind  of  Mil-    way.,  and  the  third  in  c  ways,  and  that 
rrOa    fnVboat   umT  in   the    Malay   or   all  thew  ways  are  equally  likely  to  occur. 

."    •*      .      ^ J  til  An     If     la     ovifi«nr     thflr    tllfl 


Eastern  Archipelago  and 
the  Pacific.    It  is  vari- 
ously   constructed,    but 
regularly   has  one   side 
quite  flat,  on  a  line  with 
the  stem  and  stern 
while  the  other 
side  1.  curved  in 
the    u.ual    way ; 
and  being  equally 
sharp  at  .tem  and 
.tjern.    it   .ail. 
equally    well 
in  either  di- 
rection with- 
out   turning. 
Their    ahape    and    small 
breadth  of  beam  would  ren- 


and  sometimes  to  both  sides 


h  +  0 


then  it  is  evident  that  the 
probability  of  the  happen- 
ing   of    the    first    event    1. 

,  and  of  it.  failing 


■no  BompiimHi  lo  noin  siurn. 

The  outrigger  in  the  example    PImi,  ElavstieB,  wd  End  View  ol  Pro. 


Example : 
a  +  b  +  0 

SuppoM  that  8  white 
balls,    4    black    ball^ 

and  5  red  ball. 

are    thrown 

gromlMUOu.ly 
ito  a  bag,  and 
a  perMU  orawa 
ont  one  ol 
them:  tha 
probability 
that  thi.  wffl 
be  white  I.  A 
or  },  the 
probabiM.ty 
that  it  wtU  bt 


frobftte  Court 


Trooedue 


bUdc  ii  4/12  or  lA  ^"  probabUi^  tkat 
TwUl  b«  r«i  Is  6/12.  The  thwrj  of  prob- 
ebilitiM  is  a  compiksted  ana  atenslTS 
iSrand  has  bwa  much,  utilised  in  a«- 
tnarial  sdtnce;  it  has  also  bMn  used  in 
calcnlatinff  ths  chancss  «  ▼«ious  guMS. 

Probate  Court    i-ffl**^  £e,^ 

jurisdiction  In  questions. relating  to  the 
probate  of  wills,  the  administration  of 
property  left  by  intestates,  the  manage- 
ment a  testamentary  trusts  the  guard- 
ianship of  infants,  and  ■imilar  matters. 
A  pr«>l»ate  judge  is  «>«n°»o"^y./|^l*?K.,» 
■orroffate,  and  In  some  sUtes  the  trilm- 
nal  Itself  is  known  as  a  surrogate  s  court. 
The  ordinary  courts  of  common  law  and 
the  probate  courts  haTe  as  a  rme  con- 
curroit  Jurisdiction  in  remoring  trustees 
and  guardians.    In  ^f}"^   »oP«>j!f*S 
court   was   constituted   in    1868   which 
superseded    the   ecclgriastical   courts   in 
matters  reUting  to  ^iUs  and  ffS?^?"!: 
The  Judicature  Acts  of  1878-76  trsM- 
ferred  its   iurisdiction   to   the   Probato, 
DlTorre  and  Admiralty  Division  of  the 
High  Ck>urt  of  Justice. 

Probation  iPSn''wS?ib>^c??SfflK 

or  delinquent  children  are  set  at  liberty 
by  the  court  under  the  supervision  of  a 
nrobation  ofBcer,  who  is  responsible  to 
Uie  court  for  the  good  conduct  and  prp- 
greaslTe  reform  of  the  offender.  If  the 
fatter  fails  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the 
probatioii  he  may  be  brouAt  back  to 
TOurt  and  CMwigned  to  »  pri*""®'  ^f: 
formatory.  When  he  fulfills  them  he  is 
released  from  probation  and  becomes  a 
free  citlsen.  The  probation  vstem  is 
baaed  on  tiie  tiieory  tiiat  the  reformation 
of  the  criminal  rather  than  his  punishment 
is  the  most  effective  protection  to  sodety, 
and  that  in  the  early  stages  of  criminal- 
ity reformation  is  much  more  prouable  if 
the  individual  is  permitted  toTive  under 
normal  conditions  with  the  advice  of  aa 
intelligent  and  sympathetic  person. 

ProboMidea  ajrS*^l^mi\s1 


an  or- 
»,^ I  distin- 
guished, as  implied  by  this  name,  by  the 
possession  of  the  characteristic  proboscis 
^  trunk.  Of  this  dass  the  elephant 
alone  exists;  but  there  are  several  eat- 
tinct  animals  comprised  in  it 
PrAllOieiM     (pro-bos'ls),  the  term  Up- 

shorter  flexible  muscular  organ  formed 
by  the  elongated  nose  of  several  mammals. 
Althouidi  seen  in  a  modified  degree  in 
the  ta^s,  etc.,  the  term  is  more  gener- 
ally lesteicted  and  applied  to  inffieate  the 
fltzlble  *tnink*  of  m  daphant      . 

PreboMiilCoiikty,  YlJ^^II 


ailU),  a  native  of  Borneo.  dhtingnislMd 
particularly  by  lu  elongated  nose.  Its 
Bbortened  thumbs,  snd  Us  «|oniajM 
tail.  The  general  color  is  a  llgbtish  red. 
These  monkeys  are  arboreal  in  habits, 
and  appear  to  frequent  the  neighborhood 
of  streams  and   rivers,  congregating  in 

iw!^'««    (prO'bus),MAacuBAunuu8. 
PrODIlS    ^S™;,  the  sblest  of  the  Ro- 
man emperors,  was  bom  at  Sirmium  in 
the  year  232.    At  an  early  age  Marcua 
attracted    the    notice    of    the    Emperor 
Valerian,  by  whom,  after  having  distin- 
guished himself  by  military  ,»ervlce,  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  legion;  and 
the  brilliancy  of  his  •«bsequent  conduct 
In   the   African,   Persian,   Arabian   and 
Germanic   campaigns  brought   htar  into 
still    more    prominent    w)tlce.    On    the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Tacitus,  in  276, 
the  army  hailed  him  as  emperor,  a  selec- 
tion immediately  confirmed  bv  the  smate 
and  people  of  Rome.    His  chief    struggle 
during  his  reign  was  to  guard  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  empire  aga  nst  the  bafbarlans, 
a  task  which  he  carried  out  with  great 
success  both  In  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
He  also  settled   large  numbers  of   M^ 
bartans   in   the    frontier   provinces,   and 
admitted   Ibem   to  his  legions;   and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  makuig  of  roads  and 
draining  of  marshes.    Bia  sHlful  admln- 
istratiou    and    public    virtues    did    not 
however,  protect  him  from  enmity;  and 
after  a  short  reign  he  wasmurdered  in 
a  military  insurrection  In  282. 
-DvAAAiliirA    (prO-se'dtkr),   C  IT  1 1..   Is 
rrOCeanre    l^^  method  of  proceeding 
In   a   civil   suit    throughput   its   various 
stages.    In  the  United  States,  when  re- 
drdTlb  sought   for  a  civil  JBJorTj,  g« 
Injured  party  brings  an  ««*«»«»  *««"5£  ^ 
party  whom  he  alleges  has  done  «>•>"- 
jury'   The  person  who  raises  an  action  is 
termed  the  ploinliff,  and  be  aninst  whwn 
thractlon  Is  broSght  the  defeniant:  in 
Scotland  the  terms  are  /"»»'•««'  '■it't 
ienier.    It  is  usual  before  the  suit  is 
commenced  for  the  plaintiff^  attorney  to 
acquaint  the  defendant  with  the  demand 
of  his  client,  and  state  that  onless  com^ 
plied  with  legal  proceedings  will  be  insti- 
tuted.   Should  this  not  have  the  desired 
effect,  the  actionals  begun  as  a  rule  by 
issuing  against  the  defendant  a  vmt  ot 
tummont,  commanding  him  to  «»ter  •» 


appearsiMS  In  court,  felling  whkh  an  ap- 
p^nre  will  be  entered  for  him  bythe 

pUiintlff.  (8«,.y«r»PP««r'II£i'Lth\SS! 
an  appearance  has  been  entered  both  pa^ 
ties  to  tha  salt  are  now  saM  tobe^ 
ooarf,  and  Jndgment  may  be  PW«5|2!S 
with/  The  nart  •twjL  t^ J*?f*^ 
or  the  saHMMlita  in  lefal  form  of  am 


ProeeUuidflB 


Prooopiui 


came  of  action  or  gronod  of  doffsae 
bronfht  forward  bs  the  reapective  aidaa. 
Tba  next  atage  of  precedure  after  the 
pkadfaiga  ia  the  tnae,  which  may  be 
either  on  matter  of  law,  when  it  ia  called 
•  dtmmmr,  or  on  matter  of  fact,  where 
tlie  fact  oniT  ia  diapoted.  A  demurrer  ia 
determined  oy  the  Judgee  after  heari,ng 
•rgament  on  both  aides,  bat  an  iaaue  of 
fact  haa  io  be  inveatigated  before  a  jury, 
and  tbia  ia  denominated  trial  ftw  jury. 
(See  /wv  ond  Jury  Triah.)  After  the 
^ge  haa  aummed  up  to  the  jury  the 
verwiet  foliowa  and  then  the  judgment  of 
the  court;  where  there  ia  no  jury,  of 
eoarae,  Jadgment  ia  pronounced  by  the 
judge  after  hearing  counsel. 

***""***"***'"'  petrel  family  of  birds, 
of  which  tlie  typical  genus  is  ProceUaria. 
Thv%nmaM  (prd'ses),  in  law,  a  term  ap- 
f  XUUCW    pfjgj   i^   jtg   widest   sense   to 

tlie  whole  course  of  proceedings  in  a  cause 
real  or  personal,  civil  or  criminal. 
!]>ivwMMainiia1  (prO-sesh'un-al),  a 
rrOOeSSlOnai  ^"rvlce-book  of  the  Ro- 
man  Catholic  Church,  for  use  in  religious 
procesaiona.  Elome  of  the  processionals  of 
ancient  date  are  very  rare  and  highly 
valued  by  book-fanciers. 

Froeefsion  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

See  Holy  Qho$t. 

Ptodda  (pro'chM*;.  anciently.  Pro- 
»«w«M«M»  ekyto),  an  island  on  the 
west  coast  of  B.  Italy,  lying  nearly  mid- 
way lietween  the  island  of  Ischia  and  the 
coaat  of  the  province  of  Naples.  It  is 
about  8  miles  long  and  1  mile  bread,  flat 
in   surface,   and    fertile.    The    principal 

Slace  of  the  island  is  Procida,  or  Castello 
i  Procida,  which  has  a  harbor,  a  castle, 
and  a  conaiderable  trade.     Pop.  13,9G4. 
Profiida     OioTAnm  da.    See  Sicilian 

Proclamation  Xc'n^«SebJ 

a  ruler  or  chief  magistrate  to  the  people, 
I  concerning  any  matter  which  he  tbfnka  fit 
to  give  notice  about.  It  may  consist  of 
an  authoritative  announcement  of  some 
fraat  event  affecting  the  State,  but  is  most 
commonly  used  in  Britain  for  the  aum- 
moaing,  prorogation,  and  dissolution  of 
Parliament.  A  royal  proclamation  must 
be  issued  under  the  great  seal.  In  the 
United  States  the  President  issues  procla- 
mations as  to  treaties,  days  of  thanksgiv- 
ing, admisaion  it  new  States,  etc.  Proc- 
lamations are  iaaued  in  the  United  States 
for  election  days,  the  Preaideat,  Oovem- 
ora,  mayors,  and  aheriCs  acthig  by  au- 
thority of  their  eflaaa. 
PrAAln*  (prftHilas),  a  philosephw  ot 
■"»'***'"  the  Ne^Platonio  aohool.  ben 


at  Bysantium  in  412;  died  at  Atbena  is 
485.  He  waa  educated  at  Alexandria  and 
Athena  and  became  familiar  with  all 
branches  of  philoaofAy  and  thecriogy.  As 
a  teacher  at  Athena  be  waa  verr  aocceaa 
ful.  His  system  aimed  at  the  widest  com- 
prehensiveness. He  not  only  endeavored 
to  unite  all  phiiosophical  sebemes,  but 
made  it  a  maxim  that  a  philoaopher 
abould  embrace  also  all  religraiia  by  be- 
coming infused  with  their  spirit,  ui  hia 
writings  he  professes  to  return  to  Plato, 
and  to  brin^  down  Neo-Platonism  from 
the  misty  heights  to  which  it  waa  raised 
by  Plotinus.  M.  Cousin  placed  him  on 
a  level  with  the  most  distinguished  philos- 
ophers of  Greece,  but  this  estimate  ia 
generally  considered  extravagant  His 
extant  works  include  a  Sketch  of  Aatron- 
omy,  in  which  he  gave  a  short  view  of 
the  systems  of  Hipparchus,  Aristarchus, 
and  Ptolemy;  Thj  Theology  of  Plato, 
Principles  of  Thet'jgy,  a  Ltfe  of  Homer, 
etc 

Froconsnl  and  Froprsetor, 

originally,  in  the  ancient  Roman  system 
of  administration,  a  consul  or  pnetor 
whose  command  (or  imperium)  was  pro- 
longed for  a  particular  purpose  after  bin 
demiasion  of  oflSce.  In  course  of  time  the 
terms  came  to  be  applied  to  anyone  who 
waa  entrusted  with  some  special  service, 
and  with  magisterial  authority  for  the 
purpose  of  performing  it.  Proconsuls 
and  proprstors  were  generally  men  who 
had  Deen  consuls  or  pnetors,  but  were 
not  always  so.  There  were  four  varie- 
tiea  of  proconsul :  1.  A  distinguiabed 
atatesman,  formerly  consul,  appointed  for 
a  speciui  duty.  2.  An  individual,  who 
had  never  lieen  consul,  waa  sometimes 
created  proconsul  to  be  sent  on  some  im- 
portant mission.  3.  A  consul  occaaionally 
bad  his  tmpertum  prolonged,  in  order  to 
complete  some  undertaking  he  had  com- 
menced. 4.  A  conaui  appointed  after  his 
term  of  office  to  the  government  of  a 
province.  The  proconsuls  under  the  re- 
public had  no  authority  within  the  walls 
of  Rome,  and  they  lost  their  imperium 
on  entering  the  city.  Under  the  empire 
the  emperor  was  always  invested  with 
proconsular  authority. 
PrAconina  (pro-k5'pi-ua),  Aitdbkw. 
rrOCOpiUS  ^  Huesfte  leader  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  He  succeeded  Ziska  in 
ltiJ4  aa  commander  of  the  Taborites,  the 
chief  aection  of  the  Hussites,  and  became 
tba  draad  of  the  troops  of  the  Bmperor 
BifisBund.  He  made  himself  master  of 
a  large  part  of  Bohemia,  and  ravaged 
MwavU,  Auatria.  and  Blleaia.  Xla  pnn- 
dMl  liiliury  triuaiphs  were  tha^  battle 
of  Auaatg  in  1496,  aad  hia  eampidgna  in 


prooopiiii  of  CMareft 


PioeBXKtor>ilMal 


Bilwia  and  Saxony  in  th«  'o»ow{f«  f^l 
Hia  expwiitiona  wert  matkad  .with  fraat 
eoorage  and  •taughter,  and  with  thjMdj- 
■trncUon  •t  many  citiaa.  of  which  Dna- 
Sra  ma  ^a  chief.  In  i4Sl  b«  gainad  a 
mat  victory  over  the  Elector  of  ftan- 
fcTbnii.  wfo  wa.  in  alliance  with  Bifia- 
mund,  and  in  1433  he  appeared  with  a 
large  following  at  the  Council  of  BMel, 
and  demanded,  in  the  name  of  the  Hua- 
aitea,  various  reforms  in  religious  matters. 
Aa  the  section  of  the  Hussites  led  by 
Procopius  were  not  satisfied  with  the  con- 
eaaaioos  made  by  the  council  war  was 
raaumed,  but  Procopius  was  killed  soon 
alter  in  a  battle  fought  at  BOhmischbrod 

trocdpius  of  Cassarea,  l^^S^ 

a  native  of  Ceaarea,  in  Palestine,  where 
he  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about 
600  A.D.^e   first  attracted   the  notice 
of  Belisarius,  who  appointed  him  his  sec- 
retary; and  about  the  yeax  641  he  was 
aptMmted  by   the   Emperor  Justinian  a 
iLator  and  afterwards  (6«8)  prefect  of 
Sa    city.     He    died    at    Conatant  nople 
•bout  6&  A.D.     His  works  are  a  history 
af  hia  own  times  and  a  history  oi  t&e 
edifices  built  or  repaired  by  Justinian.    A 
scandalous  chronicle  of  the  court  of  Jus- 
tinian, entitled  Anecdota,  has  also  been 
attributed  to  him  by  some  writers. 
■B.A«*«ia4A«    (pro-krus't6s;     'the 
rrOOmiteS    ^fretcher*),  a  celebrated 
robber  o£  ancient   Greek   legend,   wlwjie 
bed  is  still  proverbially  spoken  of.    a  he 
u£nd  of  hii  is,  that  ff  his  victims  were 
toi  short  for  the  bed.  he  stretched  them 
to  death,  while,  if  they  were  too  tall,  he 
cut  oft  their  feet  or  legs.  ^  „_ 

l>KA/>f»r    (prok'tir),   Bbtan  Waujb, 
rrOCtCr    ;^^    English    poet    and   prpae 
writer,  bom  about  "89;  died  ft Jfndon 
in  1W4.     He  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
where  he  was  the  schoolfellow  of  Byron 
and  Peel.    His  first  published  work  was 
entitled     Dnmatio    Scenea     and     other 
Poema,  and  appeared  in  1819  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Barry  Cornwall,  which  re- 
mained Procter's  pseudonym  in  his  future 
writings.    This    volume    being    well    re- 
ceived, he  published  shortly  thereafter  A 
SicOUn  Storii  and  Iforcton  Coloima.    In 
1821  he  produced  a  tragedy,  ll»fa»«oltt, 
which  was  performed  with  great  aucceas 
at  Covent  Garden.    Procter  also  wrote 
several  other  books  of  poetry  and  a  vari- 
ety of  prose  works;  the  most  interesting 
of  »b-se  latter  being  a  Memoir  of  CharU$ 
Lamb,  of  whom  he  was  an  intimate  per- 
aonal     friend.     Procter's    poems    exhibit 
much  delicate  grace  and  refinement,  but 
have  never  attained  great  popularity.    He 
WM  called  to  :^«  bar  in  1881.  and  for 


muiy  years  held  tka  peat  of  a  ctau^ 
■ioBsr  in  lunacy,  wbick,  hawavar,  ha  rt- 
^SS  in  18ea-i-Hia  d*?i*taft  Aiwjawi 
AHiw,  bom  in  London  in  lf»;  '«^_1» 
1864,  waa  a  poetess  ->f  som*  note.    H« 
Bonn  and  hymna  ahow  much  taata  Mid 
feallng,  but  she  never  attempted  anytUng 
on  a  iirga  scale..  Her  beat-known  voluM 
la  Legendt  and  L»r»ca,  publiabed  in  18B8. 
p-JJIft-    (from  the  Latin  pr^omr**^), 
*'®®*"*    a  person  who  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical and  admiralty  courts  In  Bnt»«n* 
performs  the  duties  of  an  attorney  or 
solicitor.    The  proctors  were  formerly  * 
distinct  body,  but  any  ■oHcitor  may  nijw 
practice   in    these   courts.    Thcanaan  a 
proctor  is  a  crown  official  cb^flJ^,™ 
the  duty  of  conserving  the  pubUc  intw- 
ests  in  certain  classes  of  private  lawraits. 
In  the  Univeraitiea  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge the  proctors  are  two  officera  choaen 
from  among  the  masters  of  art,  wnoaa 
office  la  to  preaerve  diacipline. 
■Ortu&M'     REDriEU),    stataaman,    waa 
•frO<'*®'»    bom   at    Proctoravllle,   V«- 
mont.  in  1831;  died  in  1008.    He  waa 
elected  to  the  legUlature  of  Veraont  in 
1867,    lieutenant-govemor   m    loTn*   •■« 
governor  in  1878.    He  waa  made  Secre- 
tary of  War  by  President  Harrison  in 
1^,  and  was  elected  United  States  Sen- 
ator for  Vermont  in  1801. 
"PvAitfnv     Richard  Akthokt,  an  Bag- 
■*roCM>r,    ]i,|i     astronomer,     bora     at 
Chelsea  in  1837,  and  educated  "t  Ktoga 
College,  London,  and  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity.   Having  devoted    himaelf    •PWi'U; 
to  the  study  of  astronomy,  he  publisbad 
a  number  of  valuable  worka  on  the  sub- 
ject,  including   Saturn  and  ita   Bftom, 
Handbook  of  the  Start,  Half  Boureviih 
the  Teleteope,  Half  Honrtwkh  the  Stare, 
Other  Worldt  than  Ourt  (a  very  popnlar 


^oA),  Light  Bcience'jor  Leteare  Hourt. 
eteT^edied  in  1888,  in  the  United 
SUtea.  In  1888  a  monument  waa  erected 
to  hia  memory  by  George  W.  Childa  In 
Greenwood  Cemetery. 
1>Mwni*o4^Av  (prok'ft-rt-tnr).  among 
rrwmtUXOT    l^^   ancient   Romana,   a 

provincial  officer  who  managed  the  ««f- 
enne  of  hia  province.  In  aome  of  the 
small  provhMea,  or  in  a  I»rt  of  »,»jf« 
province,  the  procurator  diacharged  tne 
office  of  a  gaveraor,  and  had  the  power 
of  puniahing  caniully.^as  waa  the  caae 
with  Pontiua  Pifcte  in  Judea,  which  WM 
attached  to  the  province  of  Syrta. 

Procwator-flical,  i"^ilSJ'.t" 

to  act  aa  the  public  prosecutor  in  crim- 
inal casea  before  the  sheriK,  m*««/»te^ 
or  JtMtieea  of  the  peace  belonging  to  his 
district  He  is  allowed  to  wactice  pri- 
vately ••  a  lawyer  aiao.    Wb«i  mfor- 


Proeyon 

matioD  of  a  crime  committed  within  a 
procwrator-fiwml'a  district  liaa  been  laid 
before  him,  it  is  hi*  buainew  to  ascertain 
the  truth  of  the  charge,  to  obtain  a  war- 
rant for  the  apprehension  of  toe  accused, 
to  see  tlMt  the  warrant  is  carried  oat, 
and  in  general  to  do  whatever  else  is 
necessary  to  protect  the  innocent,  and 
bring  to  Justice  the  guilty.  All  precogni- 
tions of  witnesses  are  taken  by  him  beipre 
the  sheriff  or  sheriff-substitute  of  the  dis- 
trict The  procurator-fiscal  has  also,  in 
conjunction  with  the  sheriff,  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  a  coroner  in  making  investi- 
gations with  regard  to  persons  who  are. 
suspected  to  have  died  from  other  than 
natural  causes.  The  duties  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  district  attorneys  in 
the  United  States.  ^ 

Pmmmn  (pr6'si-on),  the  genus  of 
XTWJyoa.  animals  to  which  the  raccoon 
belongs. 

Prodnccr-gas  n;^i:t'lir.Tft 

air  is  driven  through  glowing  coke,  car- 
bonic acid  gas  first  arises  from  the  coke, 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  being  consumed. 
As  this  passes  through  the  coke  it  takes 
up  new  carbon  and  is  largely  converted 
into  carbonic  oxide.    There  results  a  gas- 
eous mixture  composed  of  about  26  per 
cent  of  carbonic  oxide,  70  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  from  the  air  emploved,  and  4 
per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid.    This  mixture 
U  combustible,  burning  with  a  clear  name, 
and  under  the  name  of  producer-gas  is 
laqiely    employed    in    various    procewes. 
The  gas  from  the  producer  is  very  hot, 
and  if  passed  at  once  into  the  fumsce  a 
large  proportion  of  the  heat  of  the  coke 
may  be  utilised;   if  allowed  to  cooL  a 
large  percentage  of  the  heat  is  lost.    Coal 
yields  about  160,000,  coke  about  175,000 
cubic  feet  of  this  gas  per  ton.    If  steam 
be  mixed  with  the  air  driven  through  the 
coke  hydrogen  is  added  to  the  gases  pro- 
duced, and  the  beating  value  is  higher 
tlian  in  the  former  case. 
ItwMlnMinTi     C<X9T  or,  a  phrase  used 
rroaUClloa,  j^  political  economy,  not 
always  in  the  same  sense  even  by  the 
same    writer.    The    confusion    generally 
arises  from  a  want  of  clearness  in  distin- 
guishing l)etween   cost   and  expenses  of 
production.    The  cost  of  production  in  its 
original  meaning  signifies  the  amount  of 
inconveniences    and    exertions    necessary 
for   the   production   of    any   commodity. 
Used  as  equivalent  to  expenses  of  pro- 
duction, it  signifies  the  wages  and  profits 


lK>Aftta«Aii     (pro-feah'na),  th«  act  of 

member  of  •  religious  order  after  the 
novitiate  is  flnislwd.    See  if  ommKo  Vow. 

Prof eiior  ^^X^'lli  u'nitSlitatS; 

to  salaried  teachers  in  universities  and 
similar  institutions  who  are  appointed  to 
deliver  lectures  for  the  instruction  of  stu- 
dents in  some  particular  branch  of  learn- 
ing. In  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  England, 
the  professors,  and  the  instruction  whicb 
they  convey  by  lectures,  are  only  auzilia- 
ries  instead  of  principals,  the  necessary 
business  of  instruction  being  carried  on 
by  the  tutors  connected  with  the  several 
colleges.  In  the  universities  of  Scotland 
and  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pro- 
fessors are  at  once  the  governing  body 
and  the  sole  recognised  functionaries  for 
the  purposes  of  education. 
Prftflf  (profit),  the  gain  resulting  to 
xiuui>  ^^  owner  of  capital  from  its 
employment  in  buying  and  selling,  in  man- 
ufacturing, or  in  any  commercial  under- 
taking.—  Net  profit  is  the  difference  in 
favor  of  a  seller  between  the  selling  price 
of  commodities  and  the  original  cost  after 
deducting  all  charges. —  The  rate  of  profit 
is  the  proportion  which  the  amount  of 
profit  derived  from  an  undertaking  bears 
to  the  capital  employed  in  it. —  Profit  mnd 
lo»»,  the  gain  or  loss  arising  from  goods 
bought  or  sold,  or  from  any  other  contin- 
gency. In  bookkeeping  both  gains  and 
losses  are  titled  profit  and  lot$,  but  the 
distinction  is  msde  by  placing  the  former 
on  the  creditor  side,  and  the  Tatter  on  the 
debtor  side. 

Profit-Sharing,  Sdop?^'**,»   ^n^ 

manufacturing  and  mercantile  establish- 
ments, by  which  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  annual  profits  is  divided  among  the 
employes.  It  is  argued  that  this  sys- 
tem, by  giving  the  employ^  an  interest 
in  the  prosperity  of  the  establishment,  in- 
creases the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
product,  and  lessens  the  danger  of  strikes 
and  labor  disputes  generallr  While  rec- 
ognized as  a  desirable  principle  by  Targat 
in  1775,  it  was  first  put  in  practical 
operation  in  1842  by  Leclaire,  a  pro^er- 
ous  painter  and  decorator  of  Paris.  It 
proved  in  his  case  highly  successful,  and 
also  in  several  other  French  establish- 
ments. Of  recedt  years  it  has  l>een  some- 
what widely  adopted  in  the  United  States. 
Great  Britain,  France,  Switxerland  and 
elsewhere,  and  has  proved  as  a  rule  very 
advantageous. 


expended  on  the  production  of  the  article.   »«.»-»-,».~^-~  4,v»ji.\    ^-  t>-~. 

It  is  the  ultimate  basis  of  value  of  articles  PromathiC    ^P"Jl^i^  ,*'  'JL^ifS^ 
which  can  be  indefinitely  multiplied,  and  ■t^*"B"»''"**'   nathoub,   in  ethnolog^r. 
rMulates  the  minimum  value  of  articles 
wiich  are  limited  in  quantity. 


a   term  applied  to  the  skull  of  certaui 
races  of  men  in  whom  the  jaw  slaot» 


Frolaptut  Uteri 


forward!  by  rtMon  of  the  oblique  inser- 
tion of  tlM  tMth.  See  Facial  Anffl*. 
Xtm**M»nttmim.  (prof-nO'iia) ,  in  medlciiM. 
rn^nons  ^  prejudgment  of  the 
pbytidKn  regarding  the  probable  course 
and  reault  of  a  diteaae. 
•PiuL-iMiij^aMijiTi  (pro-greeh'un)  •  in 
PrOin^SSlOn  ^^thematics.  a  r^lar 
or  proportional  advance  in  increase  or 
decrease  of  numbers.  In  on«*mcticoI 
proareition  terms  increase  or  decrease  by 
equal  differences,  as,  2,  4,  0,  8.  10,  and 
10,  8,  6,  4,  2.  In  ycometrico/  progrea- 
sion  terms  increase  or  decrease  in  a 
certain  constant  ratio,  as  Z,  4,  »,  lo,  oA 
U4,  and  04,  62,  IG.  8,  4,  2,  or,  generally, 
a,  or,  or*,  at*,  at*,  etc. 

a       a       a       9 

r       ^      ^      ^  .      .X. 
where  a  is  the  first  term,  and  r  the  com- 
mon ratio  in  the  one  case,  and  1-^r  tue 
omnmon  ratio  in  the  other. 

ProgrefMivc  Party,  l^^^  p«^'*'^«^ 


Pmipn'filPA    Theobt     of,     \n    that 
rrOjeCOies,  b^nch   of   mechaDlea 

which  treats  of  the  motion  of  Iwdisa 
thrown  or  driven  some  distance  by  an 
impelling  force,  and  whose  progress  is 
affected  by  gravity  and  the  resistance  ol 
the  air.  The  most  common  cases  are  the 
balls  projected  from  cannon  or  other  fire- 
arms. If  thrown  horizontally,  the  body 
will  move  in  a  curved  path,  because  it 
retains  uuchingcd  (leaving  out  of  account 
the  resistauce  of  the  air)  its  horisontal 
velocity,  while  it  falls  faster  and  faster 
towards  the  ground.  A  body  projected 
obliquely  has  initially  a  certain  horisontal 
velocity  and  a  certain  vertical  velocity. 
It  retains  its  horizontal  velocity  un- 
changed, but  its  vertical  velocity  is  altered 
by  the  force  of  gravity,  and  in  both  of 
these  cases  we  find  that  the  path  of  the 
projectile  is  a  parabola.  With  a  givja 
velocity  the  greatest  range  of  a  projectile 
is  obtained  by  projecting  at  an  angle  of 
45"   with  the  vertical.     The  actual  patili 


orsjan- 
iaed  in  the  United  States"  in  1912.  At 
meetings  held  in  Chicago,  Juno  22-2.i, 
1912,  part  of  the  progressive  forces  at  the 
Republican  National  Conveutiou  formed 
a  new  party.  A  more  representative  con- 
vention was  assembled  in  August,  in 
wliich  Roosevelt  was  nominotetl  for  presi- 
dent and  Hiram  W.  Johnson  for  vice- 
president.  The  party  was  defeated  in  the 
ensuing  election.  In  1916  it  again  nomi- 
nated Theodore  Roosevelt,  but  on  his 
declination  it  accepted  the  candidate  of 

the  Republican  party.    

1>i>n1ii)iifinTi        the  forbidding  by  law 
jrrOmDinon,      ^^  ^1,^  manufacture  or 

sale  of  alcoholic  liquors  for  beverages. 
The  first  prohibition  state  was  Maine 
(1846).  By  the  end  of  1917  full  prohi- 
bition was  in  force  in  half  the  states  and 
partial  prohibition  in  others.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1917,  Congress  submitted  to  the  sev- 
eral states  for  ratification  a  constitutional 
amendment  prohibiting  the  manufucture, 
sale,  transportation,  import  or  export  of 
intoxicating  beverages,  the  amendment  to 
become  low  on  the  approval  within  swven 
vears  of  three-fourths  of  the  states  of  the 
Union,  or  36  states.  The  first  state  to 
ratify  the  amendment  was  Mississippi; 
Nebraska  was  the  thirty-sixth  state  to 
ratify,  on  January  16,  1919,  on  which 
date  Missouri  and  Wyoming  also  ratifiwl. 
The  amendment  was  certified  by  Frank  U 
Polk,  acting  secretary  of  state,  January 
29,  1919,  to  take  effect  one  year  hence. 

Prohibition  Party,   gutitKS 

organized  at  Chicago  in  1^  as  an  out- 
ome  of  tbe  movement  against  intoxicat- 
ing liquors. 
23— U— « 


of  a  bullet  is  always  within  the  parabola 
of  the  theoretical  projectile,  and  hence  the 
range  of  a  gun  is  much  less  than  what  the 
parabola  would  give.  The  range  depends 
also  upon  the  shape  and  weight  of  the 
projectile  and  there  is  also  its  initial 
velocity  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
See  Oiinncry. 

ProieetiOTl  (pro-jek'shun),  the  reo- 
XTUJCOliUU  resentation  of  sometning 
by  means  of  lines,  etc.,  drawn  on  a  sur- 
face, especially  the  representation  of  any 
object  on  a  perspective  plane,  or  such  a 
delineation  as  would  result  were  the  cbi<rf 
points  of  the  object  thrown  forward  upon 
the  plane,  each  in  the  direction  of  a  line 
drawn  through  it  from  a  given  point  of 
sight  or  central  point.  This  subject  is  of 
great  importance  in  the  making  of  mapa, 
in  which  we  have  to  consider  the  pr^ec- 
tion  of  the  sphere  or  portions  of  it.  Pro- 
jeciions  ot  the  sphere  are  of  several  kinds, 
according  to  the  situations  In  which  the 
eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed  in  respect 
of  the  sphere  and  the  plane  on  whicn  it 
is  to  be  projected.     See  Map. 

Prolapsus  Ani  {K-K"sioV'i* 

the  lower  part  of  the  rectum  through  the 
anus,  caused  by  straining  in  costiveness, 
piles,  etc.  Persons  liable  to  this  accident . 
should  be  careful  to  regulate  their  bowels 
so  as  to  prevent  costiveness  and  conse- 
quent i:traming.  Regular  bathing  of  the 
parts  with  cold  water  may  also  be  found 
useful.  ^      .... 

Prolapsus  TIteri  S' *?«;;>•  o;'?£ 

womb,*  or  '  bearing  down,'  a  common 
affection  among  women  who  have  borne 
lane  iauiiliee.  but  suoieliBMS  occurring 


VNbtorii 


Piob|^%m1c 


i^ 


Ib  TirgiM.  aad  in  very  rare  cmm  in  In* 
ftuBta.  WlMt  midvn  the  falling  down  of 
the  woari>  poeatbic  k  •  general  laxity  of 
tiM  parta  aupporting  it,  and  it  nuur  lie 
of  Tariona  dccnea,  fiom  tiie  aligliteat 
downward  displacement  to  such  a  deacent 
aa  canaaa  external  protmaion  of  the  wonb. 
When  tba  falling  down  once  begina  it 
ahraya  tenda  to  faicreaae,  onleaa  meana 
an  taken  to  prevmt  it  In  all  caaaa  of 
thia  afectloe  the  firat  reanisite  for  care 
ia  prokMiged  reat  In  the  boriaontal  poai* 
tlon,  with  the  ose,  under  surgical  direc- 
tion, of  cold  or  astringent  Injections  and 
the  Tarloos  forms  of  peasanr. 
ProlAtArii    (prO-le-tl'ri-i).   the  name 

Bomaa  dtlsens  who.  in  the  classification 
of  their  means  by  Senrius  Tallias,  stood 
in  the  sixth  or  lowest  class.  The  term 
haa  been  nTived  in  modem  times  as  a 
designation  of  the  lowest  class  of  the 
commanity;  but  more  frequently  the  col- 
lective appellation  proletariat  ia  ueed.  A 
protslanan  is  a  member  of  the  proletariat. 
Praloffne  (prO'log),  the  preface  or 
rrpiOgue    introduction  to  a  dramatic 

Slay  or  performance.  It  may  be  either 
1  prose  or  verse,  and  is  usually  pro- 
nounced by  one  person.  Prologues  some- 
times relate  to  the  drama  iUelf,  and  serve 
to  explain  to  the  audience  some  drcum- 
stancea  of  the  action,  sometimes  to  the 
situation  in  which  the  author  or  actor 
stands  to  the  public,  and  sometimes  have 
po  immediate  connection  with  either  of 
these  persons  or  subjects. 
PrATn»  ipr6m),  a  town  of  Lower 
•"*'™®  Burmah,  capital  of  a  dUitrict 
of  aame  name,  is  situated  on  the  Irra- 
waddy.  It  is  a  large  town  surrounded 
»y  a  wall,  with  extensive  suburbs,  and, 
»wins  to  the  flat  ground  on  which  it  ia 
iMiilt,  It  is  liable  to  be  inundated  by  the 
river.  It  has  a  splendid  pagoda  which 
attracts  many  Buddhist  pilgrims. 
are  manufactures  and  an  active 
Pop.  27,375. 

Promerops  <r^X\ird% 

ol  whidi  are  remarlmble  for  the  beautv 
of  tbtix  plumage.  They  have  a  iongish 
bill,  an  extensible  tongue,  and  feed  upon 
insects,  soft  fruits,  and  the  saccharine 
juicea  of  plants.  One  siiecies,  P.  ««perba, 
la  a  native  of  New  Guinea;  another,  P. 
CTfthnrhifnehu*,  is  a  nntive  of  Africa. 

FrometheiU  (P«-0-"«'tha»).  «o  Greek 
ii.  Avauv^vuvtM   mythology,    one    of    the 

Titans,  brother  of  Atlas  and  of  Epime- 

theus,  and  the  father  of  Deucalion.    His 

name    meana   'forethought,'   as    that    of 

Ua  brother  Epimetheus  signifies  'after- 

thought.'    He  gained  the  enmity  of  Zeus 

hr  bringing  fire  from  beav«  to  men,  and 


by  eonf  wring  other  baaalti  on  thaak  To 
pnnlah  this  offanat  Ztua  aaat  down  Pan* 
aoia»  who  brooi^  all  kiadi  of 


yC 


Thew 
trade. 

genus 
many 


Promeropt  tupaiba. 

into  the  world.  He  caused  Ptmnethaos 
himself  to  be  chained  by  Hephoatua  (Vul- 
can) on  a  rock  of  the  Caucasus  (the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  world,  according 
to  the  notions  of  the  earlier  Greeks), 
where  his  liver,  which  wss  renewed  every 
night,  was  torn  by  a  vulture  or  an  eagle. 
He  was  ultimately  delivered  by  Heracles, 
who  destroyed  the  vulture,  unlocked  the 
chains,  and  permitted  Prometheus  to  re- 
turn to  Olympus.  That  is  the  traditimi 
as  shaped  by  .Xschylus,  who  haa  a  noble 
tragedy  on  the  subject,  the  Prometkeua 
Vinctua  ('Prometheus  Bound'),  while 
Shelley  has  also  a  drama,  the  Promtthetu 
Unbound.  A  different  version  is  given  by 
Hesiod. 

PromisA  (prom'is),  in  law,  an  en- 
f  AUUUBC  gagement  entered  into  by  one 
person  to  perform  or  not  perform  aome 
particular  thing.  When  there  is  a  mutual 
promise  between  two  parties  it  is  termed 
a  contract  A  promise  may  either 
lie  verbal  or  written.  A  verbal  promiae 
is  in  the  United  States  called  a  promise 
by  parole,  and  a  written  promiae  ia  In 
technical  language  there  called  a  covenant. 
By  English  law  no  promiae  is  binding 
unless  ft  was  made  for  a  conaideration, 
but  by  Scotch  law  it  is  alwaya  binding, 
whether  a  consideration  was  given  or  not 

Promissory  Note.   ®«*  *^ 

pTonmter  (promp't«r),  one  placed 
rTQmpWT  behind  the  scenes  in  a 
theater,  whose  business  is  to  assist  the 
acton  when  at  a  loss,  by  uttering  the 
fint  words  of  a  sentence  or  words  for^ 
gotten. 

rrong^imCK,  lo«,  ,  .pedea  of  ant*. 


Franoui 


fxopagatioB 


Pioot  sutw  of  tngnTinn  an  matpf 
dlMiiifiiUdMNl  M  (1)  AriUiir  /Voo/«.  wlA 
no  eiumved  title,  MmetlmM  ugaM  ta 
p«Dcin>7  the  paiuter  or  cncniver,  or  bon. 
"Smirqne  artirt**  prooto  Iwvt  «0flM  nafk. 
f rwncntlr  a  minuta  part  left  wbitt,  ec  a 
dwtpi  •JiihUy  tngravcd  on  the  man^ 
{2yProot$  before  Lettere,  atiU  withoot 
title,  but  with  artiafa  and  eofraTtrt 
iSmrmH  "Torft'noun).  in  grammar,  a  namea  buerted  doee  to  the  bottom  of  tfta 
Prononn  i'^^  uJS  iiateayofTniun  work,  and  the  PoblUher  a  name  nearthe 

-  •-'--   lower  margin  of  the  plate.     (3)  Lettere* 

Proofi,  with  Utle  engraved  lightly^  in  meh 
a  manner  aa  to  be  eaaily  eraaed,  or  In 
open  lettera  ready  for  abading,  when  the 
title  ia  finally  put  on  the  plate  for  the 
ordinary  impresaiona. 


lava.  tlM  AnOhetprm  Amerkara,  or  A, 
fSrS/«r.  which  iahabita  the  wwiitm  parte 
of  the  Ualtad  Statca.  It  frequente  the 
phiht#  In  anmoMr  and  the  moantaina  in 
winter.  It  ia  one  of  the  few  hollow- 
homed  antelopes,  and  the  only  IWng  oof 
In  whldi  the  homy  sheath  ia  branched, 
Maaehing  bring  otherwise  peculiar  to 
deer  whkh  have  bony  antlera. 


or  nama^  or  need  to  represent  an  object 
merely  In  relation  to  the  act  of  speaking; 
thoa  It  neither  designates  ite  object  in 
▼Irtne  of  the  qualities  possessed  by  it,  nor 
alwaya  deabmates  the  same  objfect,  but 
deslgnatesdifferwit  objects  according  to 
the  circumstances  in  which  it  is  used. 
The  pereoiMl  pronoaae  in  English  are  7, 
Mo»  or  ifou,  he,  $he,  it,  ice,  »«,  and  «»«»• 
The  faist  is  used  for  the  name  of  things, 
as  well  as  for  that  of  persons.    Relative 
oroMoatw  ate  such  as  relate  to  some  noun 
going  before,  called  the  antecedent ;  as  the 
man  who,  the  thing  which.    Interrogatfve 
proaoaiM  are  those  which  senre  to  ask  a 
question,  as  whot  which f  what?    Poueee- 
tve  pronoune  are  such  as  denote  poeseesicm, 
as  my,  ihy,  hit,  her,  our,  yoar.  and  tknr. 
Demonatrative  pronotina  are  those  wbicli 
point  out  things  precisely,  as  ihtt,  that. 
Dittrihutive   pronouna    are   eocfc,    every, 
either,   neither.    Indefinite  pronouna  Bte 
those  that  point  out  things  indefinitely, 
as  aome,  other,  any^  one,alLauch.    Po^ 
■essive,   demonstrative,   distributive,    and 
indefinite  pronouns,  having  the  properties 
both    of    pronouns    and    adjectives,    are 
e<mimonly   called   adjective  pronouna  or 
pronofRtnal  od>cc«i«ee. 

Prommoiamcnto  ^J,l?tl^Xiii^ 

and  Spanish  America,  a  proctamation 
against  the  existing  government,  intended 
to  serve  as  a  signal  of  revolt. 

Proof  ImpwMioa,  J^ff^sSf^ 

ston  from  typaa.  taken  for  correction.  A 
first  proof  is  the  impressMm  tek««  with 
all  the  errors  of  worta»ra*ip.  After 
this  is  correctad  another  imvieasiOB  is 
printed  wtth  a»re  care  to  amd  to  the 
aothte:  thia  te  termed  a  etaM  proof. 
1  thk  hi  corrected  by  the  awhor,  and 
tnca   altered   accordingly,    another 

, «  6  taken  and  carefully  read  over: 

thia  la  fltilei  tha  freaa  proof.    In 

aa 
lag 


laiiiiaasion  ia __  _ — 

to  skow  Aa  state  ei.  k  dH>- 

•f  tki  w«*;  alH^  aa 

^or  «aa  af  a  Uaitod 

m    Aa 


Proofreading.  J^ted^iJtl^' f^J 

correction,  the  necessary  correctiona  being 
made  on  the  margin  of  the  proof-abeet, 
an  establisht^i  set  of  signs  being^oaad. 
It  is  the  purpose  of  the  proofreader  to 
make  the  printed  matter  conform  to  the 
author's  MSS.,  but  as  this  frMoently 
needs  correction,  a  good  proofreader  wiu 
endeavor  to  correct  errors  or  inconstoten- 
ciea  due  to  the  author.  Sevenl  readlnga 
are  necessary  to  yield  a  good  result,  <me 
of  these  being  usually  made  by  the  author. 
A  final  revision  is  made  to  see  if  all  the 
corrections  have  been  made  by  the  com- 
pMitor.  See  t'orrectton  of  the  Prtaa. 
"ProniurflJlda  (prop-a-gan'da),  an  aa- 
rxopagoJiaa  .oclation,    the    congre- 

Sticm  de  propaganda  Me  (for  propagat- 
t  the  faith),  established  at  Rome  bT 
Gregory  XV  in  1622  for  diffnsfaig  a  knowl- 
edge of  Boman  CatbolicLm  throughout 
the  world,  now  charged  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Roman  Catholic  miasioaa. 
In  close  connection  with  it  stend  the 
seminaries  or  colleges  of  the  Jeauits,  and 
the  great  autjority  of  the  members  of  the 
propaganda  are  Jeaato  and  ^Fraiylacana. 

FWf**'**"*  SSS5u«tfon°or  con* 
tinatloa  of  Oc  aparica  ct  animals  or 
pi— ti  Aa  a  tcdMll  tarm  it  is  used 
ehiefiy  i»  resaa*  to  fiaate.  The  moat 
cmnaaa  aathad  at  ^ppantiag  ^aato  ia 
^  caosse  l»  thstar  aaed.  Tbeae  are  other 
vays.  buwwer,  by  wVkA  plaMa  are  prop- 
ay^  natanlly.  ^  8md8,  for  vm^ 
throw  oS  raaaata  ftaaD  their  stesas  wUck 
creep  aloag  tha  gnamd,  and  thew  ruaaem 
take  root  at  the  ^meta,  ai^aead  up  aay 
plants.  Tlte  ramteawpst.  artmcml  me«B» 
of  prnpagariag  i^ts  «K^had^^k«^ 

the  Tufotts  fonaa  of  graftH«.  la- 
ian^MOT  grafthac if. aiiDiaairi, 
thamhj  ibets  sad  bg  rilpa.   tasa 

(aa  tha  aateto)  are  ^opai^rtsi^ 

P  ikf  teitl  or 


of  whlBb 


Proptlltr 


Propolit 


^i 


glv«  ua  a  partial  chronologica]  arrange' 
ment  First,  there  are  three  prophets 
who  belong  to  the  Kingdom  of  urael  as 
distinct    from    that   of  Judah  — Hoaea, 


I- 


poet,  the  date  of  whose  birth  is  variously 
(ivcn  as  &7  and  40  B.C.  After  the  end 
of  the  civil  war  he  found  n  patron  at 
Rome  in  Mscenas;  obtainctl  the  fnvor  of 
the  emperor;  devoted  himself  to  poetry: 
became  the  bosom  friend  of  Ov  id ;  lived 
mostly  in  Rome,  «od  died  tliere  about  12 
B.O.  Bis  elegies,  of  which  we  have  four 
hooks,  arc  not  so  highly  osteeme<l  as  those 
of  his  friends  Ovid  and  TibuUus. 
Pronftrtv  Tax  (prop'*r-ti),  a  rate 
XTOpeny  Aa*  or  duty  levied  by  the 
State,  county,  or  municipality  on  the 
property  of  individuals,  the  value  of  the 
property  being  fixed  by  assessment. 
Pronliets  (pro^'etz),  among  the  He- 
***'*'***'''"  brews,  inspired  teachers 
sent  by  God  to  declare  his  purposes  to 
his  people.  The  ordinary  Hebrew  word 
for  a  prophet  is  nAbhi,  generally  inter- 
preted as  '  one  who  pours  forth  or  an- 
nounces.' There  are  two  other  words 
applied  to  the  prophets,  namely,  roiih  and 
ehozeh,  both  of  which  literally  signify 
seer,  and  are  uniformly  so  translated  in 
the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures. 
In  the  Septuagint  the  word  ndbhi  is 
always  rendered  prophftei,  and  in  the 
Autliorized  Version  prophet.  The  literal 
signification  of  the  Greek  word  prophCtit 
fai  'one  who  speaks  for  another';  but 
the  word  was  generally  used  as  moaning 
'one  who  speaks  for  or  interprets  the 
will  of  a  god.'  In  the  common  accepta- 
tion of  the  word  its  sense  has  become 
narrowed  to  that  of  a  '  foreteller  of 
future  events,'  but  the  wider  acceptation 
still  remains  side  by  side  with  this  nar- 
rower one.  From  the  time  of  Samuel 
frequent  mention  is  made  of  a  body  of 
men  bearing  the  general  name  of  proph- 
ets. They  were  mcabers  of  a  school  in 
which  young  men  of  all  the  tribes  were 
instructed  in  the  law,  and  apparently 
also  in  sacred  poetry  and  music.  The 
first  school  of  this  nature  appears  to  have 
beoi  set  up  by  Samuel  at  Ramah,  nnd 
there  is  mention  of  others  at  Bethel, 
Jericho,  Gilgal,  and  elsewhere.  It  is 
proliable  that  these  schools  of  the  prophets 
were  formed  to  strengthen  the  attachment 
of  the  Jews  to  their  religion,  and  to  main- 
tain that  religion  pure.  The  prophetic 
order  seems  to  have  continued  in  existence 
down  to  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament 
canon.  Sixteen  of  them  are  the  writers 
of  books  that  are  admitted  into  the  Old 
Testament  canon.  These  may  be  divided 
tet*  foar  groups  in  such  a  manner  "^f  to 


up  •  new  plant,  wWle  a  few  are  propa- 
gattd  by  cuttings  of  the  leaves. 

Propeller.   •*"  «« tw-ivopdicf. 

PrAn*rtin«   (pr6-per'she-us),   Sextus   Amos,  Jonah;  secondly,  there  ar»  eight 
fxv|iv*iiiUB  AUREUUS.  a  Latin  elegiac   prophets   of   the    Kingdom   of   Jodah  — 

Joel,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Obadiah,  llicaht 
Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah;  thirdly, 
two  prophets  of  the  captivity  —  Biekiel 
and  Daniel ;  and  fourthly,  three  prophets 
of  the  return  —  Ilaggai,  Zecharfah,  and 
Malachi.  To  the  first  group  belong  also 
Elijah  and  Elisha,  the  two  great  prophets, 
who  are  not  the  authors  of  any  books  in 
the  canon.  The  chief  function  of  the 
prophetic  order  was  to  mail. tain  the  Mo- 
saic theocracy  in  its  purity,  and  the  patri- 
otism which  strongly  characterhtes  all  the 
Hebrew  prophets  was  closely  connected 
with  their  religious  zeal.  The  Jewish 
peoplr  beint  the  chosen  of  God  and  the 
immediate  subjects  of  the  divine  ruler,  it 
is  the  constant  cry  of  the  prophets  that 
the  people  should  turn  to  righteousness 
in  order  to  be  clelivered  from  the  hands  of 
their  enemies.  The  predictive  powers 
of  the  prophets  l/4ve  been  the  occasion 
of  much  controversy.  The  ability  of  the 
prophets  to  foretell  the  future  was  gen- 
erally believed  in  by  the  Jews,  and  in  one 
passage  of  the  Old  Testament,  Deut.,  zviii, 
22,  is  made  a  negative  test  of  the  justness 
of  a  person's  claim  to  be  a  prophet.  The 
main  controversies  with  regard  to  this 
predictive  power  turn  upon  two  points  — 
first,  the  reality  of  the  power,  which  is 
by  some  altogetner  denied;  and,  secondly, 
the  reference  of  the  prophecies.  With 
regard  to  the  reference  of  the  prophecies 
the  chief  controversy  is  connected  with 
the  prophetical  writings  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament supposed  to  relate  to  the  Mes- 
siah. Regarding  these  prophecies  three 
different  positions  are  taken  up  by  dif- 
ferent schools  of  Biblical  critics.  Those 
who  deny  to  the  prophets  the  power  of 
foretelling  future  events  altogether  neces- 
sarily deny  also  the  reference  of  the 
prophecies  in  question  to  Christ  as  the 
Messiah.  Another  school,  while  admit- 
ting the  reference  of  at  least  some  of  the 
passages  to  historical  events,  contend  that 
in  their  secondary  meaning  they  have  also 
a  reference  to  the  Messiah.  The  third 
school  hold  undeviatingly  to  the  theory 
that  none  but  the  Messianic  interpreta- 
tion is  permissible. 

ProiMilia  (prop'u-lis).  a  red,  resinous, 
Axvyvuo  (l^orous  substance  having 
some  resemblance  to  wax,  collected  from 
the  viscid  buds  of  various  trees  I"  bees, 
and  used  by  them  to  stop  the  holes  and 
crevices  in  their  hives  to  prevait  the 
entrance  of  cold  air,  to  strengthen  th« 
cells,  etc. 


Fvoioriplio& 


•Ti  iiMnntia  (prO-pon'tU).  tht  anclwt 
*"f'"*"  UBt  of  tU«  8««  of  UtLt- 
BMk  from  btlnc  before  or  in  advanc*  of 
thoPoatua  Euxmua  or  Black  Sea. 


and  hypothetical:  aecoodlj,  accordlM  to 
Quality,  into  agirmutivt  and  ntMm$i 
tbiraiy,  according  to  quantity,  Into  tmh 

luw  ..,».». wwtol  and  particnlar. 

llwMkAvl-inm    (pro-pOr'Bhun^  In  math-  PrnnrfiBtOT      See  Pr«»or,  Prooonanl. 

Proportion  ^^atiis.  tii*-  eqMaiity  or  i^ropr«ior. 

-       •  .    -^..     '-..    p-o«-l«a    (prop-lira).  In  Greali  tr- 

f  rupjriWH.  chitecture,  the  entrano*  to 
a  temple.  The  term  wa»  employed  par- 
ticularly In  speakitiR  of  the  anperb  rea- 
tibulea  or  porticoes  conducting  to  the 
Acropolis   of  Athena.     Thin    magniflcaot 


. ,   ._,    -.^ .    or 

aimilarity  of  ratios,  ratio  being  tlie  rela- 
tion which  one  quantity  beat';  to  another 
of  the  same  liind  in  respect  to  magnitude ; 
•r  proportion  is  a  relation  among  quanti- 
tlea  such  that  the  guotleut  of  the  flrnt 
divided  by  the  secouu  is  equal  to  the  quo- 
tient of  the  third  divicl-d  by  the  fourth. 
Thus  5  is  to  10  as  8  is  to  10 ;  that  is,  5 
bears  the  same  relation  to  10  as  8  doea 
to  16.  Proportion  is  expressed  by  sym- 
bola,  thus :  —  a:b::o:i,  or  aii  =  o:d, 

•      0 
«r  -  =  -.    The  above  is  sometimes  called 

6  d 
geometrical  proportion  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  arithmettcal  proportion,  or  that  in 
which  the  difference  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  third 
and  fourth,  flormonicol  or  musical  pro- 
portion is  a  relation  of  three  or  four 
quantities  such  that  the  first  is  to  the  last 
as  the  difference  between  the  first  two  Is 
to  the  difference  l)etween  the  last  two; 
thus  2,  3,  0  are  in  harmonical  propor- 
tion, for  2  is  to  0  as  1  is  to  3.  Recipro- 
cal or  inverte  proportion  is  an  equality 
between  a  direct  and  a  reciprocal  ratio, 
or  a  proportion  in  which  the  first  term 
is  to  the  decond  as  the  fourth  is  to  the 
third,  aa  4 :  2 : :  3 :  6  inversely,  that  is  as 

Froportional  Compasses.   |/^! 

poMet. 

Proportional   Bepresentation, 

hi  politics,  a  system  of  representation 
by  which  political  parties  are  repre- 
sented according  to  their  numbers, 
and  not  in  such  a  manner  as  that 
the  majority  elects  all  the  representa- 
tives. Two  plans  for  securing  propor- 
tional representation  have  been  tried,  the 
one  being  by  providing  that  voters  ^ball 
only  vote  for  a  proportion  of  the  repre- 
sentatives, say  two  out  of  three,  or  half 
when  the  number  is  even ;  the  other  being 
to  give  each  elector  a  vote  for  every  one 
of  the  representatives,  those  with  the 
highest  votes  being  elected  according  to 
the  number  each  party  is  entitled  to  in 
proportion  to  the  total  vote  cast. 
Prnnogition  ^  grammar  and  logic, 
rropouilOU,    ^  wntence  or  part  of  a 

aantence  consisting  of  a  subject  and  a 
p««diccte,  and  in  which  something  ia 
afllrmed  or  denied  of  a  subject.  Logical 
propoaitioaa  are  said  to  be  divided,  first, 
•ccording  t9  attbatance,  into  categorical 


Tb«  Prop/liM,  Athens. 

A,  Temple  of  Kiki.     B,   Qateway.     C,  Court. 

D,  Poiticum.     E,  Wing  buildings. 

work,  of  the  Doric  order,  waa  constructed 
under  the  direction  of  Pericles  (b.c.  437- 
433)  after  the  designs  of  Mnesicles,  (hm 
of  the  most  celebrated  architects  of  hii 
age. 

Propylon.    seei-i,io«. 
Prorogation    of    Parliament, 

the  continuance  of  parliament  from  one 
session  to  another.  Parliament  is  pro- 
rogued by  the  sovereign's  authority,  either 
by  the  lord-chancellor  in  the  royal  pres- 
ence, or  by  commission,  or  by  proclama- 
tion. 

ProaPftninm  < prO-se'nl-um) ,  the  part 
rroscemuiu    j^    ^    theater    from   the 

curtain  or  drop-scene  to  the  orchestra; 
also  applied  to  the  curtain  and  the  orna- 
mental framework  from  which  it  hann. 
In  the  ancient  theater  it  compriacd  the 
whole  of  the  stage.  ^     , 

Proscription  te-VS't;;?,\"U? 

of  gettinjg  rid  of  enemies,  firat  reaorted 
to  by  Sulni  in  S2  B.C.,  and  imitated  more 
than  once  afterwards  in  the  stormy  years 
that  elated  the   republic.    Under  Snlta, 


£fOlt 


fioniti 


Hilt*! 


rtit  drawn  oat  aid  peatad 


_  ,  I  WMt  «rawn  Ml  AM  ponaa 

#  ia  pdiUe  pkMM,  vltk  tht  pcomtoa  ©f 

mua  M  uf  mma  who  •hottld  uU 

•TtboM  mmm  Mtbc  lkrt%  and  tba 


f  tivud  M  Uf  Ff>9M  wiw  ahettM  kill 
IHir  •Ttboat  BMill  to  tba  liata,  and  tba 
ttriit  ot  daatb  to  tboaa  wbo  aboald  aid 


r  ' 


•r  uwllar  ani  of  tbam.  Tbair  property 
•Jae  waa  cMdIacatad.  and  tbair  cbiidran 
Wtra  MelarM  ineapabia  of  bonora. 
l^Tfl^i  (prfia).  ordinary  apofctn  or  writ- 
?****  tan  lancoafa,  ontraaunalad  by 
foalie  naaanra,  and  tbua  uaaa  in  contra- 
oatinetlon  to  iwraa  or  fo^try.  Tba  tma 
dnnetar  m  ptot*  can  b«  clearly  coo* 
Ottvad  only  b|  omaidarlnc  it  in  rahtion 
to  poatry.  Tbe  two  cblai  atataa  of  tbe 
Inward  man  may  b«  called  the  ikitMmg 
and  tiw  poalical  atatea,  and  depend  upon 
tbt  predominance  of  tbe  nndetatandlng, 
or  tba  imagioation  and  feelinpu  If  wa 
tbinlt  (In  tbe  narrower  amae  of  tba  word) 
wa  emabine  Ideaa  according  to  tbe  lawa  of 
laaaas ;  and  proae,  whicb  la  tbe  lanfuaae 
of  aober  tbougbt,  ia  cbaracteriaed  by  tbe 
abatractncaa  and  preciaion  belonging  to 
faleaa  tbat  occupy  tbe  underatanding.  Ar- 
tiatic  and  finiaoed  proaa  ia  among  tbe 
lateet  attaiomenta  both  of  nationa  and 
individuals,  and  it  would  appear  tbat  witb 
BMMt  nationa  claaaical  prose  writers  are 
lower  than  claaaical  poets. 

mteontion  (p''««-ko''*nn).  cmm- 

* »1»»*WM.    iifj^i,,        Ti,,     1,^      of 

America  and  of  England  differs  from  tbat 
of  other  countries  in  having  no  office 
analogoua  to  what  is  termed  in  France 
aiMeMre  public  for  the  proaecution  of 
offeittea.  At  common  law,  therefore,  and 
in  tbe  great  majority  of  cases,  the  so- 
called  erotecuior  is  merely  the  person  in- 
{nred  by  an  offense,  who  in  the  first 
natance  obtains  a  summons  or  warrant 
against  the  accused.  Tbe  result  of  this 
ia  tbat  maLT  criminals  are  allowed  to 
go  free  merely  because  there  is  no  prose- 
cutor. 

PrOlfilvte  (Proa'e-llt;  Qreel^,  pro$S' 
'^^<'  lvto$,  a  stranger  or  new- 
comer), a  person  who  leavea  one  religion 
for  tbe  profession  of  another.  Tbe  Jewa, 
in  New  jTeatampnt  times  at  least,  bad  two 
elaaaea  of  proselytes,  namely,  tbe  'proa- 
elytea  of  the  gate,'  as  they  were  termed: 
and  tbe  'proselytes  of  rigliteousness,' 
or  of  tbe  covenant.  According  to  the 
rabbia,  tbe  proselytes  of  tbe  gate  were 
those  who  renounced  idolatry  and  wor- 
shiped tbe  only  true  God  according  to  the 
(so-called)  seven  laws  of  the  children  of 
Noah,  without  subjecting  themselves  to 
circumcision  and  the  other  commands  of 
the  Mosaic  law.  Tbe  proselytes  of  right* 
eoosneas  were  persona  who  had  been  fully 
converted  from  paganism  to  Judaism,  had 
been  circumcised,  and  bound  tbemaelvea 
to  obaerve  tbe  Moaaic  law. 


tbeir  alllea. 

Pioi^miiehUte  i^J^^^Sf^^ 

gasterofMMls  comprising  tba  wbalka,  peri- 
winkles, etc.,  mostly  marina,  tbongb  aoata 
inhabit  froah  water. 

Pfyian^^  (proa'n-di),  that  part  of 
•"*»■«**»/  gfunnar  which  tiaotiof  the 
quantity  of  syllabkia,  of  accmt,  and  oC 
tbe  laws  of  Tersificatioo.  Tbongb  chiefy 
restricted  to  verdflcation,  it  may  alao  ba 
extended  to  proaa  comporition.  In  tlia 
Greek  and  Latin  langoagaa  every  ayllable 
had  its  determinate  length  or  quantity, 
and  veraea  were  conatructed  by  ajrstema  of 
recurring  feet,  each  foot  containing  a 
definite  number  of  ayliablea,  poaaaaaing 
a  certain  quantity  and  arrangement.  Tbe 
versification  of  modem  European  lan- 
gnagea,  in  general,  ia  regulated  mainly  br 
accent  and  number  of  syllablaa,  though 
the  weight  or  otberwlae  tbe  quantity  of 
ayllabies  Ims  also  to  be  taken  into  ac- 
count if  liarmonious  verse  ia  to  be  pro- 
dnead. 

ProaOVis  (pro -•O  >!•)..  a  genua  of 
''^Jr*"  tropical  leguminoua  treea  of 
the  suborder  Mimose*.  having  their  pods 
filled  between  tbe  seeds  with  a  pulpy  or 
mealy  substance.  Some  of  them  yield 
useful  products,  as  resin  or  tannin,  food 
for  cattle,  etc  See  Metquite,  Alguro- 
bUla. 

Prowpopaia  teVn^;et;.^^'bJ 

which  things  are  represented  aa  peraona, 
or  by  which  things  banimate  ara  apoken 
of  as  animated  beings,  or  by  which  aa 
abaent  person  is  introduced  as  speaking, 
or  a  deceaaed  jwraon  ia  represented  aa 
alive  or  present  It  includes  pertonj/fca- 
tion,  but  is  more  extensive  in  ite  signifi- 
cation. 

Prosper  of  Aqnitaine,  f^JVi't: 

er  wbo  lived  during  tbe  early  part  of  the 
fifth  century,  but  of  whom  little  is  per- 
sonally known.  A  large  part  of  bis  life 
seems  to  have  been  spent  at  Maraeiilea, 
where  he  was  connected  with  an  ascetic 
order.  It  was  here  tbat  he  wrote  bia 
polemical  poem  Adverme  /furratoe,  and  it 
la  suppoaed  tbat  he  finished  nis  Okronieom 
Contulare  (a  continuation  of  Jerome's 
chronicle)  at  Rome  about  455. 
VroMnitll  (prOa'nite),  a  town  of 
xrvMUlz   ^ggjyi,     ,n    Moravia,    11 

miles  8. 8.  w.  of  tbe  town  of  Olmttts.  It 
has  manufactures  of  woolena  and  linen 
clotb  and  one  of  tbe  largest  com-marketa 
in  Moravia.    P^  (1910)  34,100. 


fnftelttkiid 


Prottiteili 


PUn  of  ProatyU 
Tarnph. 


Pmteto  Gland  JSjrWia'aiTr 

wiiM  ntrreuds  tb«  awk  of  tht  bbdtfw 
ud  aftUura  in  omIm.  It  te  Uabit  to  m* 
iMgtaMt,  MiMdalljr  in  old  «<•#  ud  ia 
oftoa  tlM  MAt  of  variom  dtoMMo. 
Pi¥ftiiU  (prO'atll).  in  •rchltcctaro, 
**«••/*•  applM  to  •  portico  In  which 
tht  eolamiM  itaiid  oat  qaft*  frao  froa  tho 
wall  of  tho  baildtBg  to 
which  It  is  attacbad; 
alao  appllad  to  a  ttm- 

es  or  other  atmctare 
ivlBff  pillars  in  froot 
only. 

Protagorai    \ff^ 

raa).  a  Oreeian  phi* 
loacvhor,  bom  at  Ab> 
dora.    in    Thrace,    ap- 

Srently  about  480  B.O. 
t  was  tb«  flrat  to  at- 
rama  tha  titla  of  Soph- 
iat,  and  aa  aach  ha 
taocht  principally  at 
Athena.  In  411  B.O.  he 
waa  accused  of  athe* 
lam,  for  beginnlnc  one 
of  hia  woriu  {P«ri 
Tkedm  —  Concerning  the  Gods)  with  the 
worda,  '  Reapecting  the  gods,  I  am  un- 
able to  know  whether  they  exist  or  do 
not  eziat.'  Ha  aeema  to  have  died  soon 
after,  perfaapa  in  the  aame  year.  He 
waa  the  author  of  a  large  number  of 
worka,  all  of  which  are  lost. 
PmtnAAeiik  (prot-e-ft'ae-e),  a  natural 
rrOieaCCK    ^^„  ^^  arboreacent  apet- 

alo«a  ezogena,  chiefly  nativea  of  Auatralia 
and  the  Cape  Colony.  They  are  ahruba 
or  small  trees,  with  hard,  dry,  opposite  or 
alternate  leavea,  and  often  large  heada 
of  ahowy  and  richly-colored  flowers,  which 
render  them  favorite  objects  of  cultiva- 
ti«n.  The  typical  genus  Protea  is  Afri- 
can and  containa  numerous  species. 
Bmtkri*  Is  a  well-known  Australian  spe- 
cies bearing  the  popular  name  of  honey- 
suckle. 

'PrAtnAtiATi  (pro-tek'ahun),  a  term 
rrOTeOllOn    ;^p,j«i    in    economics   to 

an  artificial  advantage  conferred  by  a 
government  or  legislature  on  articles  of 
home  production,  either  by  means  of 
bounties  or  (more  commonly)  by  duties 
imposed  on  the  same  or  similar  articles 
introduced  from  abroad.  Such  duties 
may  be  aimply  profeoMve,  that  ia,  auch 
aa  that  the  foreign  and  homa  artlclaa  can 
ctmpete  in  the  market  on  nearly  eqoal 
terms :  or  proAiMtory,  that  is,  auch  aa  to 
ezclnde  foreign  competition  altogether. 
The  principle  ofprotection  haa  kmg  bam 
applied  in  the  unltad  State*,  as  om  of 


tha  main  alamaots  of  RtpoMkaa^ 
potttks,  aa  opposed  to  tha  dooM  o( 
Iwr  rtTtnna  only,  maiataiosd  by  Um 


pPOQOII. 

become  a  leas  exclaaiva  party 
formerly.    Bee  #>ee-lrade. 
PratAAtAT    (pro-tak'tur).  a  tills 
rroieowr   /,„f^  ^  several  oecai 

by  the  English  parliamant  upon  those  ap- 
pointed to  act  aa  regents,  ganerally  doriic 
the  minority  of  the  king.  AmoM  those 
who  have  held  thia  oflke  are  Rlehardi 
duke  of  York  (14M) :  Rkhard.  daks  el 
Gloucester  (1483) :  and  the  Dnka  of 
Bomeraet  (1647).  In  16B8  ths  titto  oC 
lord-protector  waa  beatowed  upon  Cntmr 
well,  aa  head  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
England,  and  after  hia  death  (1658)  hia 
aon  Richard  alao  heM  the  title  for  a  short 
period. 

Protettant  Epiioopal  ClrarolL 

For  the  origb  and  early  develtmrnsat  of 
thia  church  aee  Enplmni,  JBodeatoelfesI 
Hittorv.  Its  origin  In  the  United  BUtcM 
reaches  far  back  into  the  alzteenth  cen- 
tury, when  it  waa  eatablished  in  Virginia, 
and  afterwarda  made  its  way  into  aome 
of  the  other  colonies,  altliougb  it  waa  not 
formally  organised  until  1785.  Its  doc- 
trinal symbol  in  thia  country  is  the  Thir- 
ty-nine Articlea  of  the  Church  of  England, 
aiightly  altered.  The  legialative  author- 
ity ia  vested  In  a  ceneral  convention, 
wnich  meeta  triennially,  conaiating  of  a 
houae  of  biahopa  and  a  bouse  of  clerical 
and  lay  deputlea.  Each  diocese  haa  a 
convention  conaiating  of  the  clefgy  and 
lay  repreaentativea,  having  power  to  leg- 
iaUte  in  dioceaan  jiattera  not  regalated 
by  the  general  canona  of  the  cbarch. 
This  chorcb  has  not  made  the  progress 
in  America  of  several  of  the  other  church 
OTganisatlons,  but  it  haa  a  memberahin 
of  more  than  900,000.  and  over  7500 
chuTchea,  with  aboat  106  blidiops,  regular 
and  missionary. 

PrntnatiLil^  (prot'es-tanta),  a  name 
rroiesiaiHB  ^^^  ^^  f^a  party  who 

adhered  to  Luther  during  the  Reforma- 
tion in  1829,  and  protested  againat,  or 
made  a  aoWmn  declaration  of  diaaent 
from,  a  decree  of  tbe  emperor  Charlea  V 
and  the  diet  of  Spires,  and  appealed  to  a 
general  council.  The  protecting  members 
were  the  electors  John  of  Sazonyand 
George  of  Brandenburg,  Prineeo  Bmeat 
and  Franda  of  Brnnawiek-LattraarK, 
Philip,  landgrave  of  Heaaa,  and  Wolf- 
gang, prince  «rf  Anhalt.  together  with 
fonrtean  imperial  cities,  the  chM  of  which 
were  Stnabncf,  NOrsbarf,  Ulm,  and  Qw- 


MKxoconr  risoiution  test  chart 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


Ib 

|Z8 

L£ 

■Hi 

Ufi 

112 

|16 

|40 

u 

u  „ 

MtUU 

■  2.2 
2.0 

1.8 


^  /APPLIED  IN/HGE    Ir 

S^  16SJ  East   Main  Street 

S^A  Rochester.   Ne»  York        1*609       USA 

^B  (716)   482 -0300 -Phone 

^S  (716)  288- 5989 -Fa> 


Proteus 


Protoplam 


stance.  (Se«  Reformation.)  The  name 
is  now  applied  generally  to  those  Chris- 
tian denominations  tLat  differ  from  the 
Church  of  Rome  and  that  sprang  from 
the  Reformation. 

PrnfPTia  (pro't6-us),  in  classical  my- 
cxutcua  thology,  a  marine  deity  who 
fed  the  flocks  (seals)  of  Poseidon  (Nep- 
tune) in  the  JBgean  Sea.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  soothsayer  who  prophesied 
only  when  compelled  by  force  and  art, 
and  who  tried  every  means  to  elude  those 
who  consulted  him,  and  changed  himself, 
after  the  manner  of  the  sea  gods,  into 
beasts,  trees,  and  even  into  fire  and  water. 
Prn+PTia  *  genus  of  perenuibranchiate 
fiubcus,  batrachians.  One  species 
only  has  been  hitherto  discovered,  namely, 
the  Proteus  angutnus,  which  is  found  in 
subterranean  lalies  and  caves  in  Illyna 
and  Dalmatia.  It  attains  a  length  of 
about  1  foot.  The  body  is  smooth,  naked, 
and    eel-like,    the    legs    four    in   number, 


Proteus  anguinua. 

small  and  weak,  the  forefeet  Ihree-toed, 
the  hinder  four-toed,  and,  in  addition  to 
permanent  external  gills,  it  possesses 
lungs  in  the  form  of  slender  tubes.  From 
its  inhabiting  places  devoid  of  light  the 
power  of  vision  is  unnecessary,  and  in 
point  of  fact  its  eyes  are  rudimentary 
and  covered  by  the  skin. 

Prothonotary  .S'lr'^^^faiS 

functionaries  connected  with  _  the  papal 
court  who  receive  the  last  wills  of  car- 
dinals, etc.  In  some  of  the  United  States 
the  name  of  prothonotary  is  given  to  the 
principal  clerk  of  some  of  the  courts. 

ProtoPOPPlia  ( prO-tc-kok'us) ,  a  genus 
rroi,ucout.us  ^^  j,,gjg     p   nivalis 

(red-snow)    appears   on    the   surface   of 


Pntitaeeu*  nivUi*  (Rcd-tnow),  maeaifltd  and 
natural  aiia. 

•now,  tiu|eing  extensive  tracts  In  the 
Arctic  rpgions  or  among  the  Alps,  in  an 
locr^jbly   short  space  of  tla«e.  wi*"!   a 


deep  crimson.  This  plant,  which  maj  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  simplest  forms  of 
vegetation,  consists  of  a  little  bag  or 
membrane  forming  a  cell.  A  large  num- 
ber of  these  are  commonly  found  to- 
gether, but  each  one  is  separate  from  the 
rest,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinct 
individual. 

Prnfopol  (prO'tu-kul),  in  diplomacy, 
AxvbuvvA  a  document  serving  as  a 
preliminary  to,  or  for  the  opening  of, 
any  diplomatic  transaction ;  also,  a  diplo- 
matic document  or  minute  of  proceed- 
ings, signed  by  friendly  powers  in  order 
to  secure  certain  political  ends  peacefully. 
A  notable  instance  was  the  protocol 
bringing  an  end  to  hostilities  in  the  war 
between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  and 
preceding  the  regular  treaty  of  peace. 
Prn+furPfiA  (prO'tu-j6n),  a  species  of 
rrOIOgene  l^^^^^^  composed  of  fel- 
spar, quartz,  mica,  and  talc  or  chlorite; 
BO-cailed  because  it  was  supposed  to  have 
been  the  first-formed  granite.  It  occurs 
abundantly  in  the  Alps  of  Savoy,  and  is 
found  in  Cornwall,  where,  on  decomposi- 
tion, it  yields  china-clay  or  porcelain- 
earth.  It  is  also  called  Talcose-granite. 
Protoe-Pnes  (pr«>-toj'e-nez),  a  Greek 
fiubugcucs  painter,  contemporary 
with  Apelles,  born  at  Caunus  in  Carta, 
flourished  between  332  and  300  B.C. 
Protogenes  is  said  to  have  lived  in  com- 
parative obscurity  at  Rhodes  till  the 
fiftieth  year  of  his  age,  when  his  merits 
were  made  known  to  his  fellow-citizens 
through  a  visit  of  Apelles. 
PrntoTilivtpq    (pro'to-fltz),    a    name 

organisms  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  con- 
sisting either  of  a  single  cell  or  of  several 
cells  united  by  a  gelatinous  substance  but 
without  any  essential  mutual  dependence, 
and  corresponding  to  the  Protozoa  of  the 
animal  kingdom. 

Protoplasm  Ke'e^'S^sl Vt  i^  g"tf 

carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen, 
nearly  identical  with  the  white  of  an  egg, 
and  constituting  the  most  elementary  liv- 
ing matter  in  animal  and  plant  structures. 
It  is  colorless,  transparent,  and  appar- 
ently destitute  of  structure,  and  is  seen 
in  its  simplest  form  in  some  of  the  lowest 
types  of  animal  life,  as  in  the  Protozoa. 
When  unrestricted  by  an  imprisoning  en- 
velope it  is  endued  (as  is  seen  in  Amaha 
diffluent)  with  the  power  of  extending 
itself  in  all  directions  in  the  form  of 
mutable  processes  which  can  be  with- 
drawn spontaneously,  and  it  has  also  the 
power  of  passing  or  flowing  in  minute 
masses  through  closed  membranes  without 
these  masaea  thereby  lodn«  their  identity 
of  tata.    In  tb«  form  of  cells,  the  sliiq 


Protomis 

of  which  is  merely  dead  and  hardened 
protopiasm,  and  enclosing  a  nucleus,  or 
with  a  nucleus  embedded  In  its  substance, 
it  is  the  structural  unit  of  all  organized 
bodies,  constituting  not  only  the  basis  of 
the  ovum  of  both  plants  and  animals,  but 
of  the  tissuej  themselves  in  their  perfect 
state,  which  are  mere  multiples  of  such 
cell-units  variously  modified.     As  the  pro- 
toplasm in  our  bodies  is  continually  un- 
dergoing waste,  a  continuous  renewal  of 
the  material  is  essential  to  the  continuance 
of  life.     Animals,  however,  cannot  elab- 
orate protoplasm  from  mineral  substances 
for   themselves,  they   being  able  only  to 
convert  by  the  process  of  digestion  dead 
protoplasm   into   livi-ag.     Plants  can,  on 
the  other  hand,  manufacture  protoplasm 
from  mineral  compounds  and  the  atmos- 
phere, and  so  they  are  the  storehouse  of 
protoplasmic  matter  for  the  animal  king- 
dom.    Some    biologists    pref«»r    the    term 
Bioplasm  to  that  of  Protoplasm,  as  beiug 
more  expressive  of  its  function.     Barcode 
is  also  used  similarly. 
PrnfnrTii*   (prO-tor 'nis),    the    name 
rrOlOrniS  gf^,^^  ^^  ^he  earliest  fossil 
passerine  bird  yet  known.     In  size  and 
structure  it  approaches  the  lark,  and  it 
occurs  in  the  Eocene  strata  of  Glarus. 

X^ruiusituius  jjjjjyg  given  to  a  fossil 
monitor  lizard,  which  occurs  in  the  Dur- 
ham Permian  rocks.  It  was  long  the 
earliest  known  fossil  reptile. 
Prntnvnii.  (prO-tu-zO'a),  a  subkingdom 
rroigzua    including  the  most  lowly 


Pnmt 


organized  members   of   the  animal   king 
dom.    The   Protozoa   may   be  defined   to 
be  animals  composed  of  a  nearly  struc- 
tureless  jelly-like   substance   termed   tar- 
code  or  protoplasm,  not  possessing  perma- 
nent distinction  or  separation  of  parts, 
and   without   a    definite    body   cavity   or 
trace  of  a  nervous  system.     The  animals 
present  the  appearance  of  a  transparent, 
gelatinous  cell  containing  a  nucleus.     In 
many,  contractile  vesicles  have  been  ob- 
served which  perform  the  office  of  a  heart. 
The  organs  of  locomotion  are  varied.     In 
some  of  the  higher  forms  movements  are 
effected  by  means  of  cilia,  in  others  by 
long,    whip-like   bristles    termed    fiageUa. 
but  the  most  characteristic  organs  of  loco- 
motion are  processes  named  pteudopodUi, 
consisting  simply  of  prolonfations  of  the 
sarcodic  substance  of  the  body,  which  can 
be  emitted  and  retracted  at  pleasure.    The 
Protoaca  are  idngle-celled   animals   and, 
with   the  exception  of  «.  few  inhabiting 
the  bodicB  of  animals,  are  aquatic  in  their 
habits.     They  are  of  very  minute  Me. 
They   have   not   the   usual    reproductive 
organs,   this   function  being  fulfilled   by 
mean*    of   iriinple   cleavaice    or    'fission.' 


and,  except  In  the  higher  fonna,  they  tar* 
no  differentiated  mouth,  the  food  being 
■imply  ab«)rbed.  From  thia  fact  tiio 
Protoioa  have  been  divided  into  thoac  tbat 
have  a  distinct  external  month  and  those 
that  have  no  distinct  mouth ;  but  this  clas- 
sification has  no  great  value.  A  better 
mode  of  division  is  into  the  three  ciawea 
of  Gregarinidai,  Rhigopoia  and  JNfMorM. 
See  these  terms.        ,     ,      „  t^ 

Prondlion  K.'a'^^re5?h"p1£ii5i;: 

born  at  Besangon.  in  1809;  died  there  in 
1865,    He  was  the  son  of  poor  parenta, 
who  were  unable  to  pay  for  bis  education, 
but  ht  was  enabled  to  attend  gratuitourty 
the  college  of  his  native  town.    At  the 
age  of   nineteen   he  entered   a  prmtera 
office,  afterwards  became  a  press  ftader, 
and  in  this  way  acquired  considerable  lin- 
guistic knowledge,  with  the  result  that 
he  wrote  an  Essai  de  Qrammatre  Oen§- 
rale.    As  a  reward  for  his  studious  labors 
he  had  conferred  on  him  by  the  Academy 
of   Besangon   the  pension   Suara,  wtaien 
yielded  him  an  income  of  1500  francs  for 
three  years.    Political  economy  now  be- 
came his  chief  study,  and  in  1840  ap- 
peared his  famous  work,  bearing  on  the 
title-page  the  question:  Qu'e$t-ce  qu9  lo 
ProprUt6f    ('What    is    property?'),    to 
which  the  first  page  of  the  treatise  con- 
tains the  answer,   C'est   le   Vol   ('it   is 
theft  •).    For  this  treatise,  and  two  others 
which    followed,    he   was    prosecuted    at 
Besangon,    but    was    ultimately    acquit- 
ted.    In   1843  he  managed  a  system  of 
water    transport     on     the    RhOoe    and 
SaAne;  settled  in  Paris  in  1847;  started 
various  newspapers,  and  became  a  leader 
in  the  revolution  of  1848;  was  elected  a 
representative  for  the  Seine  in  tlie  Ccm- 
stituent  Assembly :  attempted  with  no  so^ 
cess  to  found  a  Banque  du  People;  and 
for  his  outspokenness  in  the  press  he  was 
imprisoned  for  three  years.    Besides  those 
already  noticed  his  more  important  tres- 
tises  are:  Diseours  aur  la  Cilibration  in 
Dimanche,  De  lo  Creation  4e  VOrdre  tfeiM 
rHumaniti,  and  8y$tim€  de»  ControdiO' 
tions  Economiquea. 
PrOUt     ^^TBKB.    See   Uahong,   Fnmr 

p-ft«4-  Samuix,  painter  in  water^ol- 
**"'*•'»  ors,  bom  in  Plymouth  in  1788; 
died  in  1862.  He  received  a  few  lessons 
in  drawing  in  his  native  town,  and  prow- 
coted  his  werlt  by  industriously  stotehing 
from  natnre.  In  1808  he  visited,  and  in 
1812  finally  removed  to  Londoe,  where 
he  maintained  himself  by  receiving  nupils 
and  furnishing  drawings  for  BrfttMi's 
topographic  and  architectural  pubjlca- 
tiowk  He  was  an  occasional  exhibitor 
at  the  Academy  and  British  Instttutteg 


FroTen$aI 


• 


from  1803  to  1827,  and  was  one  of  the 
MtliMt  membera  of  the  Society  of  Paint- 
en  in  Water-colors.  In  1818  he  visited 
the  continent,  after  which  be  made  re- 
peated artistic  tours;  he  became  famous 
for  his  drawings  of  street  scenes  and  the 
quaint  mediteval  architecture  of  Europe. 
Some  of  his  sea-coast  scenes  exhibit  great 
power.  Bis  drawings  are  held  in  much 
repute. 

Provencal    (pr6-'»v-««»>')_  law- 

AAWVVUyaA       quAGE     AND     LlTEBA- 

TUBB,  strictly  the  language  and  literature 
of  tliat  portion  of  Southern  France 
known  as  Provence,  but  in  its  widest  ap- 
plication the  Provencal  language  includes 
the  Uomance  form  of  speech  belonging  to 
the  inhabitants  of  a  geographical  area 
which  comprises  the  whole  south  of 
France  (especially  Provence,  Limousin, 
Auver^e),  with  Catalonia  and  Valencia 
in  Spain.  This  language  was  the  earliest 
cultivated  of  the  Romance  languages  (or 
those  based  on  the  Latin),  and  at  one 
time  was  extensively  used  in  literature. 
It  was  also  called  langue  d'oc  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  kindred  speech  of  North- 
ern France,  the  langue  d'oui;  and  yet 
a|:aiB  it  received  the  name  of  lenpua  lemo- 
atna  probably  from  the  wide  fame  of  a 
few  Limousin  troulmdours.  Provencal,  as 
a  new  and  distinct  language,  appears  in 
historical  records  alwut  the  tenth  century, 
and  continued  as  a  medium  of  living  lit- 
erary expression  until  about  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  1350  a  few 
scholars  of  Toulouse  attempted  to  revive 
its  decaying  glory,  and  for  this  purpose 
composed  a  treatise  on  grammar  and 
poetry  called  the  Leys  tPAtnora.  About 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  the 
language  ceased  to  be  used  both  for  ad- 
ministrative and  literary  purposes,  and  it 
iias  long  been  reduced  almost  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  patoia.  In  the  last  century 
such  poets  as  Jasmin  and  Mistral  have 
endeavored  to  resuscitate  Provencal  as  a 
literary  language,  and  have  produced 
poems  of  no  small  value  written  in  the 
modern  form  of  it ;  while  a  society  of  lit- 
erary men  and  scholars  (lou  Felibrige) 
exists  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  this 
object.  Still  Provencal  is  a  language 
whoae  interest  as  a  vehicle  of  literature  is 
mainly  in  the  past  This  interest  begins 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century 
with  a  didactic  poem,  based  by  its  un- 
known author  on  the  De  Contolatione 
Philoaopkia  of  Btptius ;  but  Provencal  lit- 
erature in  its  development  found  most 
characteristic  expression  in  the  amorous 
lyrics  of  the  troubadours.  The  earliest 
of  these  lyric  poets  was  William  IX, 
cmint  of  Poitiers,  about  the  close  of  the 
d«^Bth  century,  who  was  foUowad  ia 


Proverb 


France,  Italy,  and  Spain  by  an  innumer- 
able band  of  poets  in  the  Provencal 
tongue.  Moat  of  thia  poe^  was  in- 
tended to  be  sang,  and  not  infrequently 
the  poet  also  composed  his  own  music. 
Besides  the  lyric  poetry,  of  which  there 
were  various  classes,  Provencal  poetry 
also  existed  of  a  narrative  character,  in 
which  legendary  and  historical  themes 
were  treated  in  epical  detail.  The  rapid 
decay  of  this  Provencal  literature,  which 
was  almost  exclusively  the  possession  of 
the  upper  classes,  was  largely  due  to 
political  causes.  During  the  war  with 
the  Albigenses  the  social  condition  of  the 
feudal  nobility  in  the  south  of  Fran'x 
suffered  such  downfall  that  thenceforth 
the  art  of  the  troubadour  and  the  mii> 
Btrel  ceased  to  be  lucratively  attractive. 
See  Troubadour. 

Provence  xpro-vA^s),  one  of  the  old 
*  provinces  of  France,  lying 

in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  country, 
on  the  Mediterranean,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Dauphin^  and  Venaissin,  on  the 
east  by  Piedmont,  and  on  the  west  by 
Languedoc.  It  now  forms  the  depart- 
ments of  Bouches-du-RhOne,  Var,  and 
Basses-Alpes.  w'th  parts  of  Vaucluse  and 
Alpes  Maritimes.  The  capital  was  Aix, 
and  the  province  was  divided  into  ITpiwr 
and  Lower  Provence.  Greek  colonies 
were  founded  here  at  an  early  period ;  and 
the  Romans  having  conquered  all  the 
southeast  of  Gaul  ^b.c.  124-123)  gave  it 
the  name  of  Promncia  Oallia,  or  sim- 
ply Provincia  (the  province),  whence  its 
later  name  was  derived.  It  passed  suc- 
cessively into  tbe  hands  of  the  Visigoths, 
Ostrogoths,  Franks,  and  in  879  became 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy.  It 
subsequently  was  ruled  by  the  counts  of 
Aries,  and  the  counts  of  Barcelona,  then 
by  Charles  of  Anjou  (brother  of  Louis 
IX  of  France)  and  his  descendants,  and 
passed  to  Louis  XI  of  France  in  1481. 
Proverb  (Pi'ov'erb),  a  short,  pithy  sen* 
tence  forming  a  popular  say- 
ing and  expretising  some  result  of  the 
experience  of  life  In  a  keen,  quaint,  or 
lively  fashion.  Proverbs  have  been  de- 
fined by  Cervantes  as  'short  sentences 
drawn  from  loug  experiences ' ;  by  Howeli 
as  sayings  which  combine  'sense,  short- 
ness, and  salt ' ;  by  Bacon  as  '  the  genius, 
wit,  and  spirit  of  a  nation ' ;  and  by 
Earl  Russell  as  '  the  wisdom  of  many, 
and  The  wit  of  one.'  They  have  formed 
an  important  part  of  the  common  wis- 
dom of  both  eastern  and  western  civiii- 
zations,  and  in  this  way  they  are  inter- 
esting in  a  study  of  the  spread  and 
structure  of  language,  as  it  luui  been 
pointedly  applied  to  changing  manners 
•nd  enatoma.    QcMk  and  Latin  proveiba 


Prorerbt 


wen  collected  by  Era»mui  ta  W« 
AiMia;  Bngluh  proverb*  have  been  col- 
tecSd  fey  Camden,  Howell,  Ra?.  Ke Uy. 
Eta  (M  enlarged  and  improved  edition 
of  Ray),  and  Hazlitt;  Scotch  by  Allan 
Ramiay  and  by  A.  riislop;  French  by 
S^ncy*  Gerian  by  varfous  collectora, 
iSreT  eipecially  Wander:  Arabic  by 
BarekhTiSt  and  by  Freytag;  Bengali  by 

v!^^.«li.  one  o!  the  canonical  books 
PrOVerDi,  of  the  Old  Testament, 
nanally  in  the  main  ascribed  to  Solomon, 
racc^rdance  with  the  auper^rip  ions^iu 

S'rlFten'bV^Won^imse^f  (as  the  first 
two  of  them  may  have  been),  at  leasi 
represent    the   traditional    views   of    the 
ancient    Jewish    Church.    According    to 
mS    Biblical    critics,    the  ,book    of 
Proverb$  is  composed  of^several  sections 
written  by  different  authors  and  at  dif- 
ferent  times,  and   finally  .collected   into 
a  ^ngle  book  at  some  period  subsequent 
to   the   return   from   the   captivity.    All 
seem  tc  be  agreed  that  some  part  of  the 
S  is  to  l^  ascribed  to  Solomon,  but 
tltere    Is    great    diversity    of    "Slf '?eVd 
to  how  large  his  share  is.     «'th  regara 
to  the  other  two  contnbutoni  toj'roverbg 
MHwl    in    the    book    itsef,    Agur    and 
liiuel.  nothing  whatever  is  toown;  and 
i^"he  case  of  Lemuel   it   is  even   sus- 
^^  that  the  name  is  not  that  of  a  real 
jSSiage     The  canonicity  of  the  ^k 
S  Proverba  is  represented  as  a  suDjeci 
It  SrouTc   in  the  Talmud,  some  having 
SbiS  to  receive  the  book  as  canonical 
r.*JSunt  of  the  contradictions  it  «>n- 
t«tas     It    ultimately    found    its    place, 
hwevert  in  all  the'jewish  lists  of  the 

5"ti5p«ft?"  (PtoVl-dens).  a  dty  and 
PrOVlQenCC  ^pital  of  the  atateof 
Rhode  Island  and  county  seat  of  Provfr 
dence  county,  situated  on  both  «de«  of 
the  Providence  River,  at  the  influi.  of  the 
Seekonk,  Moshassuck  and  VVoonasqna- 
tocket  rivers.  It  is  45  miles  8.  8.  w.  of 
Boston  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
Md  Hartford  R.  R.  The  west  side  of  the 
city  is  a  low  pUin ;  the  east  side  a  plateau 
^  low  hills.  Most  of  the  manufacturing 
estabJshments  are  on  the  banks  of  tte 
Moshassuck  and  Woonasquatucket  Tbere 

gS  areV  SUte  houge  ( 19W)^i^^^^^ 


Pro?o 

Roser  Williams,  the  founder  of  the  dty. 
P^videSce  is   iouble   for  if „««>«»«;; 
taring   industries,    it   being   one   of   th« 
ireat    centers    of    manufacture    of    the 
fflry?^  Prominent  among  its  productiim. 
~«  Xi^are,  "crews.  tools   locomouvjt. 
etc    with  many  others,  includmg  flour  ami 
Swmllsr  cotton  and  woolen  factoriw, 
foundries,   steam-engine   and   boiler   fac- 
tories,  machine-shops,    printing,    bleach- 
tag,    calendering,    and    dye    works,    etc. 
Providence  has  a  safe  and  cog"»of »"! 
harbor,    though    somewhat  .diffic","    «» 
access,  and  the  coasting  trade  is  Impor. 
?aSt.    iFwas  at  one  tfme  an  imMrtant 
seat  of  foreign  commerce,  but  this  has 
Sued.    PrSvidenee  was  first  "et tied  in 
the  yew  1636,  incorporated  in  1649,  wd 
has  rapidly  increased  in  sise  since  1820. 
Pop.  224326. 


tant  are  tne  Diaie  aoujw  v*"^."."— 4_r~j 
Ubrai|bnUdinjr.  court  house.  I^.^,  J:l»„d, 


Dnuainir,  court  uvuoc,  »j— ^~ 

and  Btttler   Hospitals,   tl»eJj°?^*S!l™ 
Inwn    UniversltT     etc    With    Brow^ 

TlnivenitT    (founded  in  1764),  there  w 
?  liK V  .bout^2()0,()()0  volwoes.    At 

the    aonth    end    of    the    city    ta    Roger 
Williams  Park,  caatainlng  a  tutve  ot 

16-S 


Pop.  OA^ii^ mrov'ins) .originally* 
Province  JEry  oi  considerable  ex- 
tent, which  being  reduced  under  Romim 
dominion  was  new  modeled,  anW^**^ 
the  command  of  a  governor  sent  from 
Rome,  and  to  such  taxes  and  «)°tribn. 
tions  as  the  Romans  saw  fit  to  impowe. 
In  modern  times  the  term  has  been  ap- 
plied to  colonies  or  to  independent 
TOuntries  at  a  distance  from  the  metroth 
olis  or  to  the  different  divisions  of  the 
kingdom  itself.  Thus  the  Low  Coutt- 
friJI    belonging    to .  Austria    and    Sp^ 

were     styled    .P»-o*»«''"^  ^*  „^"!52    " 
govemmenU     into     which     Fnmce     WM 
divided  previous  to  the  revolution  were 
S  BO    called    provinces.    The ,  name    taj 
sometimes  been  retained  by  todejenW 
states.    Thus   the   Republic  of  Holland, 
after    It    had    thrown    off    the    Spanin 
JokJ  wa.  called  ihe  United  Prov1m«; 
and  the  Argentine  Republic  used  to  b« 
called  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Plat*. 
In  the  canon  law  the  term  is  applied  to 
th«  iurisdiction  of  an  archbishop.    In  the 
B^mai  Catholic  Church  it  is  also  giT« 
to  the  territorial  divisions  of  an  ccclesla*- 
tical  order  such  as  the  Franciscans, 
•ii     _:— -     (nro-vrn),  a  town  in  France, 
PrOVinS    ^^'J^IVtment  of  3eine-et- 
Mame,  80  miles  east  of  Melun,  and  W 
mi*"  8.B.  of  Paris.    It  has  rer.siM  of 
a\A  walls,  a  tower  called  Csesarb   tower, 
a   church   of   the    twelfth   centuiy.    etc. 
PrS^  la  mentioned  in  a  capitulary  of 
ChirteLalne  in  802.  and  in  the  thirteenth 
wntu^t  was  a  large  and  important  d2^ 
It   dSves   iu   modern   reputadgn   from 
its  mineral  waters.    Pop.    (1"§°'.|,™J& 
PtOTO    <j2''SJ'LVh"ci:S"'^ 


^TOTOft 


Prnsiia 


ronnded  by  a  fertile  farming  country. 
Pop.  8825. 

Provost  (Prov'uat,  pr6'v6),  a  title 
f  luvvDb  jjf-ypQ  jQ  iiig  president  of  cer- 
tain bodies,  aa  the  heads  of  several  of  the 
c<dleg«a  in  the  Universities  of  Oxford  aud 
C^mbri^e.  equivalent  to  principal  in 
other  cofleees.  In  the  Scotch  burghs  the 
provost  is  tha  chief  magistrate,  corre- 
sponding to  the  English  mayor.  The 
enief  magistrates  of  Edinburgh  and  Glas- 
gpw  are  styled  lord  provoat.  In  the 
United  States  there  is  a  limited  use  of 
the  term  provost,  applied  to  tb-^  chief 
officer  of  an  educational  institution. 

Provost-marshal,  '^  Xr^of'thS 

rank  of  a  captain,  who  deals  with  of- 
fenses against  discipline,  brings  the 
ofTenders  to  punisbment,  and  sees  the 
sentence  executed.  In  the  navy  there  is 
a  similar  office. 

PlUdentiuS  (Pn>-d«»'8he-n8),  Aube- 
Axuu«u«xu0  j^jpg    Clemens,    one    of 

the  early  Chrisnan  poets,  born  at 
Calagnrris  in  Spain  in  348  a.d.  ;  died 
after  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 
In  his  latter  years  he  composed  a  great 
number  of  hymns  and  other  poems  of  a 
religious  nature  in  which  he  successfully 
imitated  classical  models. 
Pmdhon  (prfl-ddv),  Pierre,  a 
XTUOnou  ]{^pnch  painter,  bom  in 
1768:  died  in  1823.  He  studied  bis  art 
at  Dijon  and  in  Rome,  wheve  be  came 
under  the  influence  of  Correggio  and  of 
Leonardo.  He  afterwardp  settled  in 
Paris,  where  he  gradually  li  ade  bis  way, 
and  at  length  became  famous  by  liis 
Truth  Detcending  from  Heaven,  Psvche 
Carried  off  bp  Zephyr,  Crime  Purgued  hy 
Justice  and  Divine  Vengeance,  etc.  His 
importance  consists  in  the  fact  that,  in 
opposition  to  David,  be  accentuated  the 
purely  pictorial  element  and  the  effect  of 
light  in  his  works. 

PrnneUa,  Pnmello  <P'J-?f |'  °>^ 

woolen  stuff  of  which  clergymen's  gowns 
were  once  made,  and  which  is  still  used 
for  the  uppers  of  ladies'  boots  and  shoes. 
Prunella  is  also  the  name  of  a  genus  of 
plants,  order  Lahiacew,  with  one  Ameri- 
can species,  known  as  Blue-curl  or  Self- 
heal,  at  one  time  in  repute  as  a  febrifuge. 
It  is  mildly  aromatic  and  slightly  as- 
tringent. Pmnello  (diminutive  of  prune) 
is  the  name  given  a  kind  of  plum. 
Prunes,     see  PJam. 

Pmnin?  (nrSn'ing),  is  the  severing 
^Aiuuug  jj£  portions  of  the  stem, 
branches,  shoots,  leaves,  or  roots  of  a 
plant  for  the  purpose  of  removing  ex- 


crescent or  unprofitable  growths,  and 
rendering  the  sap  more  conducive  to  the 
nutrition  of  the  valuable  parts  of  the 
plant.  The  immediate  effect  ol  pruning 
18  to  reduce  the  growth  of  a  plant  in 
as  far  as  it  depends  on  the  amount 
of  foliage  duly  exposed  to  the  light;  but 
as  by  judicious  pruning  the  parts  left 
have  not  only  a  greater  share  of  sap, 
but  are  better  exposed  to  the  light,  its 
ultimate  effect  is  to  produce  a  largei 
and  stronger  plant.  From  the  tendency 
of  sap  to  flow  in  increased  quantity  into 
the  parts  immediately  adjoining  those 
where  its  flow  has  been  interrupted,  an 
almost  unlimited  power  is  given  to  the 
gardener  of  controlling  the  direction  of 
the  growth  of  a  plant.  The  season  for 
pruning  varies  with  the  nature  of  the 
tree  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
pruned.  In  gev.eral  it  may  be  said  that 
autumn  and  winter  are  the  best  beasons 
for  extensive  {pruning;  in  summer  an 
excess  of  vigor  in  the  plant  may  require 
a  little  pruning,  but  in  spring  it  not 
only  weakens  the  plant,  but  is  liable  to 
induce  disease.  Root-pruning  is  em- 
ployed to  check  rapidity  of  growth  and 
to  induce  development  of  flower-brds. 
The  best  season  for  this  operation  is  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen  in  autumn  or  before 
the  sap  begins  to  flow  in  spring. 
Pmnns  (Prii'nus),  a  genus  of  arbo- 
rescent  plants  l>elonging  to  the 
nat.  order  Rosacea,  and  comprehending 
the  cherry,  bird-cherry,  plum,  damson, 
sloe,  buUace,  apricot,  etc. 
Pmri^O     (prO-n'gO),  a  papular  enip- 

papules  are  diffuse,  nearly  of  the  color 
of  the  cuticle,  intolerably  itchy,  the 
itching  being  increased  by  sudden  ex- 
posure to  beat,  and  when  abraded  oozing 
out  a  fluid  that  concretes  into  minute 
black  scabs. 

Priiasin  (pmsh'a ;  German,  Pbeus- 
fxuasxa  g^N),  the  leading  state  of 
the  German  Empire,  comprising  the  north- 
orn  part  of  Germnny.  The  following- 
table  is  from  the  1901  census.  By  the 
peace  of  1919  (see  Treaty),  Prussia  lost 
vV.  Prussia  and  Posen. 

Area  — 

Provinces.          «q.  miles.  Population. 

East    Prussia 14,275  1,996,623 

West  Prussia    9,846  1,568,658 

Brandenburg     15,400  3,108,554 

Pomerania     11,623  1,684,832 

Posen     11,178  1,887,273 

Sit«ttia      15,557  4,668,857 

Saxony     9,746  2,833,616 

Sohleswig-Helstein     . .  9,278  1,887,968 

Hanover     14,858  2,590,939 

Westphalia    7,798  «,187,777 

Hease-Masssn    «,«55  1,«97,9R\ 


Pnusia 


RktaaUad   10,41« 

BarUa  (olty)    -j ^ 

136,488 


6.7S»,79S 

66.TtO 

l,888,84t 

84,472,609 


The  census  of  1910  in-licuteil  that  the 
population  of  Prussia  had  iiicruascd  to 
40iB7,573.  The  revised  boundary  of 
lOie  (see  map  of  Germany)  rjHluced  the 
area  by.about  25,000  «l""«™^«°'*ij! 
population  by  about  4,000,000.  ine 
capital  is  Berlin.  Other  imi>ortant  cities 
are  Breslau,  Charlottenburu,  Cologne, 
Diisseldorf,  ITrankfort,  Hanover,  Kiel, 
Magdeburg,  KiiniKsbcrg,  and  Stettm. 

Physical     Featurea.—  The     whole     of 
northern  and  eastern  Prussia,  from  Hol- 
land on  the  west  to  Russia  on  the  east, 
belongs   to  the  great   plain   of   Northern 
Europe,  and  may  be  described  generally 
as  a  vast  plain,  elevated  to  the  south  and 
southwest,     and    thence    descending    to- 
wards    the     Baltic     and     the     German 
Ocean.    The    loftiest    summits    are    on 
the  southern  frontiers,  where  the  Biesen- 
gebirge  and  the  Sudetic  Mountams  form 
the   boundary   between    Prussia   and   the 
Austrian  dominions.     The  highest   Prus- 
sian mountain  is  the  Schneekoppe  in  the 
Riesengebirge    (5257    feet).     Further    to 
the  west  the  Thuringian  forest  and  the 
Harz    Mountains    cover    a    considerable 
area,  the  latter  rising  in  the  Brocken  to 
the  height  of  3742  feet.     On  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea,  large  tracts 
are  only  saved  from  inundation  by   low 
sand  hills.    Behind  these  hills  extensive 
lagoons,  on  the  Baltic  co.st  called  Haffs, 
have   been   formed,   communicating   with 
the   sea   by    narrow    outlets.     The   chief 
bays  or  gulfs  are  Danzig  Bay,  Pomera- 
nian Bay.  and  Kiel  Bay,  all  on  the  Baltic 
coast;   and  on  the  Baltic  coast  are  the 
islands  of  RUgen,  Usedom,  Wollin,  etc.; 
in    the    North    Sea    the    North    Frisian 
Islands  and   East   Frisian   Islands.    The 
principal  river  which  drains  this  portion 
of  Prussia  is  the  Elbe,  which  enters  it 
from    the    Kingdom    of    Saxony,    flows 
northwestward,    and    enters    the    North 
Sea     between     Hanover     and     Holstein. 
The  Weser,  with  its  tributary  the  AUer, 
and    the    Ems.    are    the   principal    rivers 
west  of  the  Elbe.     The  Oder  lies  almost 
wholly    within    Prussian    territory,    and 
enters   the    Baltic    by   the    Pommerische 
Haff.    The  Vistula  or  Weichsel  flows  in 
a    northern    direction    through    Eastern 
Prussia      and     throws     off     two     large 
branches  which   enter  the  Frische  Haff, 
while  the   main   stream   passes  into  the 
Gulf   of   Danzig.    The   other    more    im- 
portant   riven    are    the    Passa^ge.    the 
Piegel,    uid    the    Niemen    or    Memel. 


Pnuiia 

LakM  aboand  in  almoBt  trtn  provlBC^ 
but  more  capecially  in  thoM  of  Bart  and 
WMt  PruaaU,  Pomenmia,  and  Bnnd»- 
burg.  The  chief  coaat  Ugooos  ar«  tb« 
Pommerische  Haff,  Fri«:he  Haff,  and 
Kurische  Haff.  The  climatic  conditions 
of  this  extensive  territory  must  nacaa- 
sarily  be  diversified.  The  average  of  a 
number  of  places  sitnated  between  the 
highest  and  lowest  latitudes  fives  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  52*  Fahr.^^ 

The  southwestern  division  of  Prassla. 
consisting  of  the  greater  part  of  West- 
phalia, the  Rhenish  province,  and  Hesse- 
Nassau,  differs  so  much  from  the  east- 
ern division  as,  in  many  respects,  to 
present  a  striking  contrast  to  it.  In 
particular,  Its  surface  as  a  whole  la 
much  more  finely  diversified.  Its  moun- 
tains stretch  across  the  country  in  all 
directions,  and  from  numerous  valleys, 
one  of  which,  that  of  the  Rhine,  In  point 
of  fertility  and  beauty  is  not  surpassed 


by  any  other  valley  in  Europe.  Thougft 
the  surface  is  thus  diversified,  the  moun- 
tains nowhere  reach  any  great  elevation, 
the  highest  summit  being  the  Wasser- 
kuppe,  on  the  borders  of  Bavaria,  IWlO 
feet.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  thto 
portion  of  the  Prusslnn  monarchy  belongs 
to  the  bnsin  of  the  Rhine,  which,  entering 
it  on  the  southeaot,  traverses  it  In  a 
N.  N.  w.  direction  till  it  enters  Holland. 
There  are  numerous  streams  tributary  to 
the  Rhine,  the  largest  being  the  Moselle, 
with  its  tributary  the  Saar.  There  are 
no  lakes  worth  mention  in  this  portion 
of  Prussia.  As  compared  with  the 
division  already  described,  the  climate  of 
this  part  of  Prussia  is  milder  in  winter 
and  cooler  in  summer,  the  mean  annual 
temperature  Iwing  about  1"  higher. 

Agriculture,  etc.—  The  land  in  Pmisia 
Is  much  subdivided,  especially  In  the  more 
populous  districts,  small  farms  of  3  or 
4  acres  being  the  most  common  holding. 
In   East   and   West   Prussia   the   soil    Is 
for  the  most  part  poor;  the  Rhine  valley 
and  the  province  of  Saxony  may  be  con- 
sidered the  most  productive  portions  of 
the  kingdom.    Rye  is  the  chief  agncul- 
tural  product,  oats  are  largely  grown  m 
the  northeast,  wheat  chiefly  in  the  south 
and  west,  while  the  other  grain  crops  are 
spelt  (an  inferior  sort  of  wheat),  maiza, 
millet,  and  barley.    Potatoes  are  exten* 
sively  cultivated;  beet-root  for  the  pro- 
duction  o£   sugar    is   a   very   important 
rrop;    flax,   hemp,    and    rape-seed   cover 
large  areas;  tobacco  is^ralsed  in  wveral 
provinces;  and  In  the  Rhine  and  Moselle 
districts  the  vine  Is  freely  cultivated  and 
some  of  the  finest  wines  produced.    In 
East  Prussia  horses  are  reared  fhMj 
for  military  purposes;  cattle  are  largtlV 


Pnuiia 


Fnuiia 


•zported  from  the  maritime  vroylwrn, 
■nd  In  Weet  Pninia  and  Fomerania 
■beep  are  raised  in  large  nombet*.  Along 
the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea  a  consider- 
able number  of  the  inhabitanta  are  em- 
ployed in  the  fiahing  industry.  The  for- 
ests cover  about  20,lX)0,000  acres,  nearly 
one-fourth  of  the  total  area,  and  are 
a  great  source  of  wealth,  forestry  being 
nowhere  better  understood  than  in 
Prussia.  The  best  wooded  provinces  are 
Brandenburg,  Silesia,  and  Rhenish  rrus- 
sia.  In  some  of  the  forests  the  wild  boar 
is  common,  other  wild  animals  being  the 
wolf,  lynx,  wild-cat,  etc. 

Mining  and  Manufacture: — Mining  is 
one  of  the  chief  branches  of  Prussian 
Industry;  the  most  important  mineral 
products  being  coal  and  lignite,  iron, 
copper,  lead,  silver,  and  zinc,  while  other 
flunerals  produced  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  are  cobalt,  nickel,  arsenic,  anti- 
mony, manganese,  rocksalt,  kainit  and 
other  potash  salts,  alum,  and  copperas. 
About  a  third  as  much  coal  is  raised  in 
Prussia  as  in  Britain,  the  chief  coal-fields 
'icing  in  the  Rhine  province,  Westphalia, 
ind  Silesia.  Iron  is  found  in  all  parts, 
ihe  principal  areas  being  Westphalia, 
^Silesia,  the  Rhine  province,  and  the 
Hars;  copper  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
Han  and  Westphalia:  silver  chiefly  in 
Hanover;  lead  is  found  in  Silesia,  the 
Rhenish  province,  Westphalia,  and  Sax- 
ony; sine  in  the  same  localities,  except 
Saxony;  cobalt  in  Westphalia  and  Sax- 
ony; arsenic  in  Silesia.  Aml>er  is  found 
along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  chief 
textile  manufactures  are  those  of  linens, 
cottons,  and  woolens.  Silesia,  Branden- 
burg, and  Westphalia  are  the  provinces 
in  which  the  linen  industry  is  chiefly 
developed;  the  cotton  manufacture  is 
most  extensive  on  the  Rhine;  the  woolen 
manufacture  has  its  chief  seats  in  Bran- 
denburg and  the  Rhenish  province; 
while  silk  and  velvet  are  made  in  the 
Rhine  valley,  as  also  at  Berlin.  In  iron 
kand  steel  ware  the  chief  manufacturing 
reenters  are  Essen,  Solingoi,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  Burtscheid.  At  Essen  are 
located  the  great  Krupp  ordnance  and 
armor-plate  works,  nowhere  surpassed  in 
output  The  manufacture  of  porcelain 
and  the  finer  kinds  of  ware  is  extensive, 
and  leather  and  paper  making  are  large 
industries.  Other  manufactures  of  na- 
tional Importance  are  beet-root  sugar, 
chocolate,  chicory,  chemical  products,  and 
tobacco. 

Trade  and  Oommeree. —  Prussia  carries 
on  a  large  trade  both  by  sea  and  with 
its  inland  neighbors.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  textile  fabrics,  yam,  metals  and 
metal  wares,   agricoltazkl   produca  and 


livs  Mttxik,  wool,  chemicals,  spirits,  coak 
timber,  laatbcr,  stoiewart  and  glass,  etc. ; 
and  tbt  imports  are  chiefly  in  the  raw 
materials  connected  with  the  textile  and 
other  mannfactures,  and  tea,  coffee, 
sugar,  and  other  colonial  products.  Be- 
sides the  ordinary  road  and  canal  com- 
munication, Prussia  has  an  extensive 
system  of  railways,  nearly  all  national 
property.  The  principal  ports  are  Stet- 
tin, Pillau,  Konigsberg,  Stralsund,  Kiel, 
and  FIcnsburg  on  the  Baltic ;  and  Altona 
on  the  North  Sea.  In  many  of  these 
ports,  and  particularly  in  Stettin,  shin- 
buiiding  is  carried  on  with  considerable 
activity.  The  system  of  money,  weights 
and  measures  in  Prussia  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  rest  of  Germany.  See  Ger- 
many. 

Government,  Adminiitratum,  etc — 
Prussia  is  a  monarchy  hereditary  in  the 
male  line,  the  present  constitution  of 
which  was  framed  by  the  government, 
with  the  aid  of  the  constituent  assembly, 
in  1^0,  and  subsequently  modified  by 
royal  decrees.  The  king  is  assisted  in 
the  executive  by  an  Irresponsible  privy- 
council  and  by  a  cabinet  which  is  nomi- 
nally responsible  to  a  legislative  assem- 
bly composed  of  two  chambers.  The 
upper  chamber  (Herrenhans)  is  com- 
posed of  princes  of  the  blood  of  the 
reigning  and  former  sovereign  families 
of  full  age,  the  heads  of  the  mediatized 
principalities,  the  territorial  nobility 
created  by  the  king,  life  peers  chosen  by 
the  king,  and  a  few  titled  nobility  elected 
by  resident  land-owners,  etc.  The  sec- 
ond chamber  or  House  of  Deputies  ( Hans 
der  Abgeordneten),  since  the  eniane- 
ment  of  the  kingdom,  consists  of  433 
members.  The  primary  qualification  of 
electors  is  based  on  taxation,  and  the 
primary  electors  are  divided  Into  three 
classes.  The  first  division  consists  of 
those  who  pay  the  highest  taxation,  the 
second  of  those  who  pay  the  medium,  and 
the  third  of  those  who  pay  the  lowest 
amounts.  The  indirect  electors  (Ur- 
wUhler)  elect  the  direct  electors  (Wahl- 
manner),  who  cLoose  the  represoitatives. 
The  deputies  are  chosen  for  three  years. 
The  principal  items  of  revenue  are  direct 
taxes,  state  railways,  domains  and  for- 
ests. For  local  administrative  purposes 
the  kingdon  is  divided  into  province^ 
govemmenta  departments,  circles,  and 
communes,  and  all  recent  legislation  has 
tended  to  reinforce  local  authority  and 
discourage  centralization.  At  the  head 
of  each  province  is  a  president  or  gov- 
ernor and  also  a  military  commandant. 
Prussia  is  by  far  the  most  important 
state  in  the  Qerman  Empire,  to  the 
Bundesrath  or  Federal  Cooncil  of  which 


Pnmia 


it  Mntli  17  membcn,  while  to  the  Reicb- 
rtM  or  Diet  It  MDds  236  deputie.  (more 
than  half  the  toul  number).    Although 
the    reifnlnf    family    and    nearly    two- 
thirdt  <3  the  total  population  are  Prot- 
estants, ab«)lute  religious  liberty  is  guar- 
anteed by  the  constitution.    The  clergy, 
both  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic,  are 
naid  by   the  state.    A   complete  system 
of    primary,    secondary,    and    university 
eduoition    exists,    all    grades   of   schools 
being    linked    together    according    to    a 
deflnite    scheme    or    schemes    of    study. 
Elementary  education  is  enforced  by  law, 
maintained  by  local  taxes,  and  adminis- 
tered   by    local    authority.     Prussia   has 
ten    universities  — Berlin.    Bonn,    Bres- 
lau.  OOttingen,   Oreifswald,   Halle.   Kiel, 
KOnigsberg,   Marburg   and   MUnster,   at- 
tended by  some  15,000  students  In   all. 
All  private  as  well  as  public  educational 
establishments     are     placed     under     the 
superintendence  of  the  minister  of  public 
instruction,  and  all  public  teachers  are 
regarded  as  servants  of  the  state.    The 
Prussian  army  and  navy  form  an  integral 
part   of    those   of   Germany   in   general. 
Bee  Germany.  .     ,     .      ,  _* 

fli»(ori/.— The   historical    development 
of  the  Prussian  Kingdom  is  closely  asso- 
ciated   with    three    important    elements. 
The  first  of  these  Is  found  In  the  grow- 
ing power  of  the  Electorate  of  Branden- 
burg,  which   formed   the   nucleus  of  the 
future  kingdom ;  the  second  relatesto  the 
acquirement  of  the  province  of  Prussia, 
which  gave  Its  name  to  the  new  hetero- 
geneous territory;  and  the  third  w  »«»■ 
elated  with  the  rule  of  the  Hohenzollern 
family,    under   whose    skilful    diplomatic 
and  military  guidance  the  small  Branden- 
burg electorate  has  grown  into  what  is 
now  considerably   the   larger  portion   of 
the     German     Empire.     Brandenburg, 
which    had    been    conquered    by    Charle- 
magne In  780.  was  erected  into  a  mar- 
graviate  by  Henry  I   (the_ Fowler),  em- 
Beror  of   Germany   in   926.    Albert   the 
Bear,   who   received    Brandenburg   as   a 
fief  from  the  Emperor  I^othaire   (1134). 
conquered  the  Slavonian  Wends,  and  took 
in  1157  the  title  of  Margrave  of  Branden- 
burg,    His    dynasty    continued    to    bear 
rule    till    1320,    and    during    this   period 
German    civilization    was    gradually    ex- 
tended in  Pomerania,  Saxony,  Branden- 
burg,  and   Silesia.    After   its  extinction 
there  followed  a  period  of  anarchy,  during 
which  Brandenburg  fell  as  a  lapsed  fief 
to  the  empire,  and  Louis  of  Bavaria  gave 
it  to  his  son.    Remaining  under  Bavarian 
rule  for  three  electorates  it  was  subse- 
quently ceded  to  the  house  of  7<uxem; 
burg,  and  Charles  IV,  the  first  iamt\»> 
leprcaentativa  o£  this  houaa,  gave  it  b.K 


Tnuiia 

ccsiively  to  his  tons  Wenceslaus  (13TO) 
Sd  BlgUund  ( 1878) .  The  latter  baiag 
in    debt    netWtd    from    Frederick.    th« 


burgrave  of  NOmben;,  a  loan  of  400^ 
gold   florins,   for   which   Frederick   held 
Brandenburg  in  pawn,  and  subsequently 
acquired  It  in  full.    ThU  burgra^  WM 
the    descendant    of    Conrad    of    Hohen- 
zollern, a  cadet  of  a  Suablan  family  to 
whom    belonged    a    small    territory    sur- 
rounding the  ancestral  castle  of  Honen- 
zollern,  of  which  they  traced  their  lora- 
ship  back  to  the  time  of  pharlenjanie. 
Brandenburg,  which  Frederick  had  thoa 
acquired,  was  covered  with  feudal  strong- 
holds, which  he  gradually  reduced,  and  he 
also  added  the  two  small  terrltorlea  of 
Ansbach    and    Baireuth.     Frederick    II, 
who  succeeded   his   father  In   1440,   ex- 
tended the  possessions  of  his  family  by 
policy  as  well  as  by  valor.    In  1470  JM 
abdicated  In  favor  of  his  brother  Albert 
111,  sumamed  Achilles,  who,  by  a  fam- 
ily ordinance,  prepared  the  way   m  an 
important   respect  for  the  future  grw-  - 
ness  of  his  house  by  providing  for  the 
undivided  descent  of  the  dominions  In  con- 
nection with  the  electorate.     His  grand- 
son, Joachim  II.  who  succeeded  In  16», 
embraced    the    Reformation,    and    grtab- 
lished  Lutheranism  In  1539.     In  1587  M 
acquired    the    reversion    of    the    prtocl- 
palities  of  Liegnitz,  Brieg,  and  WoWau. 
John       George       succeeded       in       1671. 
Joachim    Frederick,    who    succeeded    in 
1598,  married  his  son  John  Siglsmund  to 
the  daughter  of  Frederick  Albert,  duke 
of  Prussia ;  and  in  1018  John  Siglunund 
united  the  duchy  of  Prussia  to  the  elec- 
torate, thus  bringing  it   about   that  the 
whole  country  became  known  aa  Prussia. 
The  Prussians  were  a  Slavonic  people 
inhabiting  the  coast  territory  situated  be- 
tween   the    Vistula    and    the    Niemaik 
Their   neighbors,    the   Poles,   endeavwod 
to  convert  them  to  CHirlstlanity,  and  to 
this    end    they     (1283)     conquered    tha 
whole  country  with  the  aid  of  the  Teu- 
tonic   Knights    of    St.    George.    As    the 
price    of    this    assistance    the    knights 
claimed  the  conquered  territory,  and  e^ 
tablished  themselves  In  castles  and  walled 
cities.    Their  rule,  which  was  a  despotic 
oligarchy,  was  finally  overturned  by  the 
combined   forces   of   the    Prussians   and 
the  Poles,  and  in  1466  West  Prussia  WM 
ceded  to  Poland  and  East  Prussia  made 
a  fief  of  the  Polish  crown  under  a  grand- 
master, and  later  under  a  dulM.     «  was 
as  successor  to  Duke  Fredenck  Albett, 
his  father-fai-law,   that  John  Siginnand 
obtained  the  duchy  of  Pruaala.    By  Ae 
treaty    of    Xanten    (1614)    Cl*yes,    La 
Mervk,  etc.,  were  assigned  to  Branden- 
burg, and  in  this  manner  was  laid  the 


FnuiiA 


Pnutia 


fottBdatlon  of  Um  PruMUn  Rhint  prov 
lace. 

John  Blfiimand  w«i  succeedad  in  1610 
by  bit  MB  George  William,  who  wm  a 
weak  and  ▼aeillating  ruler,  uuequal  to 
encounter  the  terrible  crieii  that  now 
ooeuned  In  the  aifaira  of  Oermaoy,  the 
Thirty  Yean'  war.  During  thie  war  the 
electorate  became  the  battleground  of  the 
contending  forces,  and  Buffered  eeverel/, 
being  at  fbe  death  of  the  elector  in  1U40 
occupied  by  Swedish  troops.  A  Terjr 
dilferent  man  was  his  son  Frederick 
William  (which  see),  called  the  Great 
Elector,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
Tirtuai  founder  of  the  Fruaaian  mon- 
archy. He  found  hia  country  weak,  and 
left  it  strong  and  with  its  boundaries  ex- 
tended, and  provided  with  a  well-equipped 
arm/  and  a  well-filled  treasury.  Dying 
in  1088,  h«  was  succeeded  by  bis  son 
Frederick,  who  in  1701  had  himself 
crowned  as  king,  being  the  first  King  of 
Prussia.  Under  his  rule  the  Prussian 
troops  fought  side  by  side  with  the 
English  at  Blenheim,  RamiUies.  Ouden- 
arde,  and  Malnlaquet.  Fre<lerick  I  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  (1713)  Frederick 
William  I,  who  governed  Prussia  till 
1740.  Hia  reign  was  on  the  whole  peace- 
ful, and  the  country  grew  greatly  in 
population,  industry,  and  wealth.  He 
went  to  war  with  Charles  XII.  and  ac- 

?uired  part  of  Pomerania,  with  Stettin, 
rom  Sweden.  At  Lis  death  be  left  a 
prosperous  country,  a  well-supplied 
treasury,  and  an  army  of  80,000  men  to 
Us  successor. 

Frederick  II,  sumamed  the  Great 
(which  see),  succeeded  to  the  crown  on 
the  death  of  bis  father  in  1740.  In  leas 
than  a  year  after  hia  accession  he  pro- 
claimed war  againat  Maria  Theresa  in 
order  to  enforce  bis  claim  to  the  Silesian 
principalities,  and  invaded  Silesia.  At 
the  persuasion  of  England  Maria  Theresa 
entered  into  negotiations  with  him,  but 
failed  at  first  to  come  to  an  understand- 
ing. Ultimately,  however,  by  a  treaty 
concluded  at  Berlin  (1742)  Frederick 
obtained  the  cession,  with  the  exception 
of  some  specified  districts,  of  both  Upper 
and  Lower  Silesia,  and  of  Qlats.  Con- 
ceiving that  the  Austrians  might  seek 
to  regain  this  territory,  Frederick  in 
1744  Invaded  Bohemia,  and  commenced 
what  is  called  the  Second  Silesian  war. 
He  was  at  first  compelled  to  retreat,  but 
sutwequentty  gained  such  successes  that, 
when  peace  was  concluded  in  1745,  Aus- 
tria confirmed  the  cession  of  Silesia, 
wbich  was  guaranteed  by  Great  Britain. 
Prussia  now  enjoyed  an  interval  of  pros- 
perous peace,  which  the  king  was  desir- 
9^    %p    iia^iQtain.    ^ut    ^is    cpotinued 


auccesa  had  arouaed  the  fear  of  Auatrla 
and  the  enmity  of  France  and  Russia, 
BO  that  theae  powers  projected  a  scheme 
of  conquest  which  embraced  the  parti- 
tion of  Prussia.  Before  their  plans 
could  be  matured  Frederick  invaded 
Saxony,  entered  Dresden,  and  publiabed 
the  deapatchea  which  proved  the  exiat- 
ence  of  the  acheme.  England  now  openljr 
entered  into  a  defensive  alliance  with 
Frederick,  and  aubaidized  him.  The 
allies,  whose  plans  had  been  discovered 
(Auatrla,  France,  Ruaaia,  and  Sweden), 
prepared  for  immediate  hoatilltiea.  In 
the  Seven  Yeara'  war  (wbich  aee)  fol- 
lowing upon  thia  movement,  the  immenae 
forces  wnich  his  enemies  were  able  to 
bring  into  the  field  reduced  Frederick 
to  the  greatest  straits,  and  gave  oppor- 
tunity for  the  development  of  bis  strate- 
gic genius.  Towards  the  close  of  fhe 
war  the  English  cabinet  began  to  dn.w 
off  from  the  Prussian  alliance,  but  the 
death  of  the  Empress  Elisabeth  (1702) 
broke  up  the  alliance  against  Prussia,  and 
the  Peace  of  Ilubertsburg  (1763)  put 
an  end  to  the  war.  According  to  Fred- 
erick's calculation,  880,000  men  had  p«r- 
ished  in  a  war  wbich  failed  in  effecting 
any  territorial  change;  but  it  trans- 
formed Prussia  into  one  of  the  chief 
European  powers.  Frederick  determin- 
ing again  to  extend  his  boundaries,  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  Austria,  and 
invaded  the  territories  of  Poland.  Nego- 
tiations followed  with  Russia,  and  in 
1772  the  partition  of  the  weak  kingdom 
of  Poland  was  arranged  in  a  treaty  be- 
tween the  three  powers.  In  this  way 
Prussia  obtained  most  of  Pomeronia  and 
a  large  portion  of  Poland.  (See  Po- 
land.) Frederick  died  in  1780,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew  Frederick  Wil- 
liam II. 

The  new  king  had  neither  the  military 
skill  nor  the  strength  of  character  pos- 
sessed by  his  predecessor.  He  continued 
the  absolutism,  but  curtailed  some  of  the 
freedom  of  the  former  reign.  In  1788 
he  made  a  useless  armed  intervention  in 
the  affairs  of  Holland,  and  in  1791  in- 
terfered in  the  affairs  of  France  on  be- 
half of  Louis  XVI.  In  1792,  war  having 
already  been  declared  by  the  French 
autborities  against  the  empire,  the 
Prussians,  under  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, invaded  France.  They  were  de- 
feated by  Kellerman  at  Valmy,  anr'  soon 
afterwards  Frederick  William  withdrew 
from  this  war  with  France,  in  which  he 
had  been  the  most  active  promoter. 
Then  followed  a  second  and  a  third  par- 
tition of  Poland  (1793,  1795),  by  which 
Prussia  acquired  a  considerable  acces- 
sion  of    territory.    By    the    traaty   of 


TnutU 


Pruiiit 


D«Ml.  concluded  In  17D5  with  the  French 
Himibllc  PruMla  openly  abandoned  Iter 
SKtlon     wUh     t(Je     other     European 
power.,  and  In  a  necret  treaty  of  the  fol- 
bwtni    year    B^nnce    wna    Pefn>»"ed    to 
SJ«ce^her  frontier  to  the  llbme^  while 
•  Mw  line  of  neutrality  waa  formed  by 
whkh  Saxony  and  other  South  Oennnn 
TtateS  withdrew  their  aupport  troni  t he 
"mplre     B^ederick  WilUnni  d  e.l  in    79'- 
Md  was  succeeded  by  f  redenclcJJ  UHam 
III      Continuing    his    father's    policy    In 
rlwrd  to  France,  he  courted  the  French 
dlfwtorate.  and  at  the   Peace  of  Lunfr- 
dUe     (1801)     Prussia    was    IndetDnlfied 
by  4110  «.uare  miles  ceded  at  the  ex- 
nense   of   the   empire.     In    18(H   I  russia 
J^ognlzed     Napoleon     as     Emperor     of 
ivan^r    and    (n    the    camnalgn    which 
ended    In    the    overthrow    of    Austria   at 
Austerllta      (1805)      remained     neutral, 
ffis  attitude  was  at  first  successful,  but 
ultimate  y   It   led   to  distrust  among  the 
Geman  states.,  and  by  the  formation  oj 
the  Confederation  of  the  Ul'ine  i  "">"'« 
w-^s  isolated   and   left   to   tl.e  mercy  of 
Naooleon.     At     the     Instigation    of    the 
Kter  PruBsU  had  occupieS  Hanover,  but 
Napoleon    treated    this    fact    wU'lff'red 
temptuous    IndlEference    when   he    offered 
tHestore  Hanover  to  Eng  and      In  Ins 
indignation     at     this     >n»nlt     F  reder^k 
William    declared    war    against    t  ranee 

LrmiM  met  at  Jena  and  Auerstftdt. 
w^«  the  Prussians  were  completely 
lf!^^ted  and  the  whole  country  was 
J^r  in  the  hands  .of  N-^Po'^^^.f  ^,,%°; 

rf'-5lli^(ftne'!  /l^rJoncfuWrbeKn 
PrSa  and  Nkpokon.  all  lands  between 
Uie   fihine  and   the   Elbe  were  ceded  to 
Naooleon    for   his   free   disposal,   a   war 
fedemntty    of     140.000.000     francs    was 
imiiMed  on   the  mutilated  kingdom,  and 
^r^Sck   William   was   also  put   under 
treatv    obligation    not    to    m.iintam    an 
S  of  ino're  than  42,000  regular  troops 
durinz    the    next    ten    years.     The   years 
wh'ch      ollowed    this    national    disaster 
were   chiefly   remarkable    for   the  sweep- 
fng    Intemal    reforms    which    the    crises 
necessitated,    carried    out    under    Baron 
Stein    and    Baron    Hardenberg,    and    al- 
most   amounting    to    a    revoluUon^  The 
restrict  on   of    the   army    to   4J.0UU  .was 
evaded   by  replacing  rapidly   ihe  drilled 
men  by  another  body  of  undrllled  men. 
ThuB,  after   Napol^n's  disastrous  Ru^ 
lian  campaign  of  1812,  Prussia  was  pre- 
pared to  tele  prompt  advantage  of  her 
Opportunity.    The  king  i^«d  «  g««ral 

«4— U-* 


call  to  arms,  and  160.000  men  *t  ooct 

forS   was  Joined   afterwards  By   Au»- 

trla.     In  the  great  ■trort«,'?,' 1^  7!L 
throw  of  Napoleon  which  'oHowed   (sw 
France)     an  important  part  wa.  Uken 
i,v    the    Kingdom    of    Prusa  a,    and    tlw 
P^russlan  trS?ps  were  -IfH^ly  »SP»« 
In  the  Waterloo  struggle.     At  the  Con- 
ines, of  Vienna  (181^).  ''^°  »^«  S5f 
nf     Fiirooe     was     rearranged,     rrusaia. 
?l,onlh  Toslng  some  possewlous,  waa  in- 
Kflfled  w°fh  othenf  more  extensive  and 
valuable,  and  was  placed  'n  ".'"''"aK- 
lanlageous    position    than    before.     8h. 
now   also   formed   one  of   the  stetea   m 
the  new  German  Confederacy.     _     .^  ^ 
After      the      restoraMon.      Freaenca 
Wniiam  III  leaned  to  the  deapotic  coun- 
aels   of    Ai.strla    and  ^  Ruwila,   ■"PPOfl^ 

was  expected  to  grant  a  cpnatltutlon  to 
bis  subKr  but  «f"«^  the  demand  ol 

his    states    to    this    ^^f}^^i°  JF^Jlyolu- 
itUT   he  tried  to  anticipate  the  revoiu 

t'lSrJ'mol^ment   -PreadJ-f  tj^-g^rt 

Europe  by  •u'n™<»»'"f,  »  ^f.  .t  bSSid 
Ing  of  provincial  parU-tmenta  at  B«riin, 
but  he  conferred  on  them  no  real  power. 
In  the  following  year,  however,  •"«  • 
deadly  struggle.  In  yblch  Berlin  wm^ 
clared  in  a  state  of  siege,  the  king  aw- 
SK  his  minister..  a4hn°™  S 
stitution.  the  details  of  which  wew  ^h^ 
Ol  ated  by  a  new  parliament,  and  wwcn 
was  formally  proclaimed  ««  18«>-    The 
Poles  In  1848  revolted  againatPttMslan 
rule,  but  the  movement  was  •um™*",!^ 
SSppr^.    In  1848  a  deputation  ^tjr 
German  national  assembly  at  f  JW^" 
offered  the  crown  of  Emperor  of  th«  r?  t^ 
mana   to   the    King   o£    Pruaala.   bttl    It 

Tm  declined.^  »?,***'".  ^^VoTfJSS^J^ 
existed  in  the  Germanic  Confederacy, 
one  rf  them  desiring  Prussia  to  l>e  the 
chfef  state  in  Germany,  to  the  exclusion 
of  Austria  alt<«ether;  henceforth  there 
was  a  strong  rivalry  between  taeae  iwr. 
Ttltc^  In  1857.  the  king  belM  unable 
?o  conduct  affairs  by  r^son  J?  men^l 
illness,  hs  brother  William  became 
regent  and  ultimately  suaeiKi^  to  tl^ 
throne  on  the  death  of  Frederick  William 

'^ThTnew  king.  William  I.  ahow^  .^ 
position  to  absolutism,  J'Wc^.J",.;^ 
t^  occasioned  a  Jengthaned  diapute  be 


franla 


Pmiio  Aoid 


sMintloiM  in  rnard  to  tht  dochiM  of 
■dwMwic  aiKl  Uototoln,  tbt  ProMiaBi, 
ondcr  Utntr&l  Wraagol,  mUrcd  Bcblto- 
wlf  (ItMM),  and  Donmark  wm  ov«r> 
powtrwL  By  th*  TrMty  of  Vianna, 
aifBed  Octobar  80,  180i.  Denmark  gave 
■p  Behlaawis,  Holateiii,  part  of  Jutland, 
and  Lauanburg  to  Oamuiny.  In  the 
followinc  year  Pruaala  purcbaaed  the 
claiaa  of  Austria  over  the  Duchy  of 
Laaaaburg,  and  it  was  agreed  that 
leklaawig  and  Ilolatein  should  be  admin- 
isterad  aeparately  bs  both  powers.  But 
tbia  Battlement  did  not  last  long. 
Pniaaia,  which  had  determined  on  ap- 
proptlating  them,  wished  to  buy  out 
AtMtria.  but  the  latter  would  not  cede 
bar  ciauna  for  money.  This  led  to  war 
between  the  two  powers  and  to  the 
6reak-np  of  the  Oerman  Confederation, 
some  of  the  atates  of  which  sided  with 
Prussia,  others  with  Austria.    On  June 

15,  1809,  the  Prussian  troopa  took  the 
offensive,  and  the  brief  campaign  which 
ensued  (s  known  as  the  Seven  Weeks' 
war.  The  Prussian  forces  were  armed 
with  the  new  needle-gun,  and  the  whole 
movementa  were  directed  by  the  chief  of 
ataif.  Count  von  Moltke.  The  Austrians, 
under  Oaneral  Benedek,  were  completely 
defeated  near  KOniggrAts  in  BoLemia, 
where  on  July  3d  was  fought  the  da- 
eisive  battle  of  Badowa;  and  peace  soon 
followed.  A  subordinate  campaign 
againat  Hanover,  Bavaria,  and  other 
atatea  bad  been  conducted  by  the  Prua- 
alana  with  complete  success.  After  the 
war  Pruaala  incorporated  Hanover, 
Heaac  CasseL  Nassau,  Hesse-Homburg, 
Schleswig,  Holstein,  Lauenburg,  Herae- 
Darmstadt  north  of  the  Main,  nnd  the 
principality  of  HohenxoUem,  which  al- 
ready belonged  to  the  royal  family.  The 
K.jg  of  Prussia  now  invited  the  Statea 
of  North  Germany  to  form  a  new  con- 
federction,  which  was  established  on  the 
basis  of  proposals  made  by  Prussia.  Th'- 
Jeclousy  of  France  was  excited  by  thin 
po\'erful  confederation,  and  in  1867 
the  question  of  the  disposal  of  Loxem- 
bur,;  brought  France  and  Prussia  almost 
to  the  point  of  war.  In  1870  Prince 
Leopold  of  Hohensollem  consented  to 
become  a  candidate  for  the  then  vacant 
Spaniah  throne.  This  was  opposed  by 
the  French  emperor,  who  demanded  not 
only  that  the  candidate  should  withdraw, 
but  that  the  King  of  Prussia  should 
pledge  himself  not  to  permit  any  such 
future  candidature.  This  being  refused, 
war   waa  declared  by   France   on   July 

16,  1870,  with  a  moat  disaatrous  result 
to  herself.  (See  Franeo-Oermen  War.) 
After  the  German  arma  had  proved  en- 
tiieiy  successful,  on  tba  invitation  of  the 


North  Oamum  parliament,  snpportad  bf 
the  South  Qannan  atataa,  the  King  of 
Ihrinaia  assumci  on  January  18. 1871*  tte 
title  of  German  Emperor. 

From  this  point  the  hiatorv  of  Pniaaia 
is,  to  a  great  extent,  merged  in  that  of 
the  German  Empire.  In  the  banda  ol 
I'rince  Bismarck,  acting  as  premier  of 
Prunia  as  wpII  aa  chancellor  of  tha  em* 
pire,  a  strong,  central,  autocratic  goV" 
ernment  was  maintained.  Externally 
his  policy  waa  to  secure  Germany  from 
attack  by  France  or  Itussia,  and  in  order 
to  thia  alliancea  were  made  with  Auatria 
and  luly.  Internally  the  legislation  of 
Pruaala  has  been  chiefly  remarkable  in 
recent  years  for  its  anti-clerical  and 
anti-flociai  laws.     In  1878  many  clerical 

firivileges  were  suppressed  by  the  lawa 
ntroduced  and  carried  by  M.  Falk;  but 
in  1880  an  amendment  to  these  was  pro* 
motiKl  by  the  premier,  and  later  ha 
greatly  modified  bis  opposition  to  tha 
ultrsmontanes.  Tha  social-democrats  alao 
evoked  the  special  antipathy  of  the 
Prussian  premier,  and  their  success  at 
the  electlona,  especially  in  Berlin,  caused 
him  to  promote  an  anti-social  law,  which 
waa  vigorously  applied.  In  hia  policy, 
both  home  and  foreign.  Prince  Biamarck 
was  supported  by  the  Emperor  William 
I  until  the  death  of  the  latter  in  March, 
1888.  He  waa  aucceeded  by  hia  aon, 
Frederick  III,  who,  when  he  ascended 
the  throne,  waa  struggling  with  a  deadly 
throat  diseaje.  When  he  died  in  June, 
1888,  he  was  aucc>>eded  by  hia  ami, 
William  11,  who  announced  that  he  ruled 
by  •  divine  rijfht,'  and  would  suffer  no  in- 
terference with  hi«i  authority.  He  dla- 
charxed  Bismarck  from  the  chancellorship 
and  throutrh  PruaKJa  imposed  n  fatal  war 
policy  on  the  whole  German  Emnire,  ter- 
minating in  the  cntntitrophic  European 
war  (q.  v.).  1914-18.  when  Prussia  and 
the  other  German  states  suffered  defeat. 

Pnissiaii  Blue  j[?Tr«S^'/VZr."*^* 

of  iron  (FerCyu) 
possessed  of  a  deep-blue  color,  and  much 
used  as  a  pigment.  It  is  also  used  in 
medicine. 

Prussian  Brown.  ?  ~!?I.  <»b*^'ned 

.■.AuiHunu  A*xvnu,  ^^  adding  a  so- 
lution of  the  yellow  prussiate  of  potash 
to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  coppei', 
which  throws  down  a  precipitate  of  Jeep 
brown.  This,  when  washed  and  dried, 
is  equal  to  madder,  and  possesses  greater 
permanency. 

Fmssic  Acid  te^lLl'^^il*^  ■'** 

ayarocyaNto  or  cvan- 
hpirio  add  (HCN),  waa  discovered  by 
Scheele  in  1782.  but  first  prepared  in  the 
pure  state  by  Gay-Lussac  in  1811.  It  *', 
a  cokwicH  l^uid  whkh  aoUdifiea  at  6*  W, 


fmik 


to  fMthwy  cmuK  •»«  bolto  •»  »^ 
It!  tiMciae  iWTlty  If  •bo«t  0.7.  It  dto- 
■olMiiiB  •if  proportloM  In  w«t«r,  forin- 
5fT  liquid  whfch  rwWeni  llta»u«-p»p«r 
bat  illiWly.    It  to  fouud  In  the  k«m«to 

plains,  chtrrlM  »nd  qulncw;  the  btoMom 
bf  MMbcn.  slow.  etc. ;  thy  learn  of  the 
MTcSiry,  teurel:  and  rarlou.  parte 
,rf  other  Plintfc  Pure  pro-ale  acfd  le 
prnMifed  by  paeeinc  a  itream  of  dw 
iaipbnretted  hydrogen  over  dry  cyanide 
of  mereury.  Tble  add,  which  ie  one  of 
the  Btrongeet  poiBone  known,  Ja  usea 
nedlcinally  to  remove  varloua  forma  of 
"ritatldn:'  but  In  all  ca«ea  It  muet  be 
need  with  extreme  caution.  When  an 
overdose  la  admlDietered  death  l>  inatan- 
taneons,  and  with  a  leeeer  doee  the  tymp- 
toma  are  coovulelona  or  paralyala.  The 
nature  of  Ita  action  la  not  clearly  under- 
•tood,  but  the  beet  antidotes  are  found  to 
be  ammonia,  chlorine-water,  or  a  sub- 
cntaneous     injection     of    atropine.    See 

S!I!!!*C**(prOth),  a  river  of  Europe 
rrniU  ;,']hlch  risea  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  CJarpathian  Mountains,  In  the 
•oatheaat  of  Galicla,  flows  circuuously 
SMt  paat  Caernowita,  then  a.  B.Z.,  form- 
liil  the  boundary  between  Boumania 
and  the  Russian  government  of  Besaa- 
rabia.  and  enters  the  Danube  on  the  left, 
about  12  milea  below  Qalata. 
5r~*  „.     (prln),    VViLUAM,  pamphlet- 

Prynne  ^^  .nd  R?»t'«='«°Np^"  'i 

Bwanawlck,  Bomersetshlre,  in  1000,  and 
Sucated  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  hta 
dSree    In    1620.     He    then    removed    to 
iSncoln's  Inn,  wliere  he  »»«;?"««»,{*'■ 
rister,  and  in  l«i27  b«?Ran.  with  Pu'ltfo 
Srverlty    to    attnclc    pnvailing    'a»»»loo8. 
For  a   volume  denouncing  stage-playUig, 
entitled  UittrioMaitix,  which  was  sup- 
powd  to  be  leveled  at  the  queen,  he  was 
Condemned  bv   the   St«f-«'>«l«"*f '  *?„£^ 
a  fine  of  £5000.  to  Btaud  in  the  piifory 
and  have  both  ears  cut  off.  and  to  remain 
a  prisoner  for  life.     While  in  prison  he 
wrote  another  book,  \e»«  Irom  //•«»«* 
aaaintt  Laud,  and  being  condemned  again 
ti  another   fine  of   £5000.    and   to  loae 
the    remalndei    of    his    ears,    had    the 
^amps  cut  off,  and  was  branded  on  b<rth 
cheek^    The   Long   Parliament    in    1040 
granted  his  releaae.     Soon  after  he  en- 
tered Parliament  and  took  a  pwMninent 
part   b»   the   trial   of   Laud.    After   the 
hTil  of  Charles  I  Prynne  opposed  Crom- 
well,   who    had    him    again    impriaone^ 
At    the    Eeatoration    he    was    appointed 
keeper  of  the  recorda  at  the  Tower,  and 
diedin  lfl0d.    He  was  a  moat  voluminous 
wrltar.    Be  had  much  leamios  and  in- 


PNlnodj 

dafatifabla  ladoatry,  bat  wm  va»y  4il> 

p;^1lS"is/'i;-SL.'  ess 

states  and  eltlea  serving  as  the  commoB 
hoBM  <rf  the  community.  That  of  Athens 
waa  the  moat  famoua.  Here  the  CI7 
exerciaed  the  dutlea  of  hospitality  both 
to  its  own  citlaens  and  atrangera.  Toe 
prytanes  or  prealdenU  of  the  aenate  were 
entertained  in  it,  together  with  the  cltl- 
lena  who,  whether  from  peraonal  or  an- 
cestral services,  were  honored  with  the 
privilege   of  taking   their  meals  at   the 

ThlilJw  (Pr-bem'lal),  •  town  of 
frzemyU  j^^trian  Oalicla,  on  the 
river  San,  61  milea  west  of  Lemberg,  and 
140  east  of  Cracow.  It  haa  two  andent 
cathedrahi  and  aeveral  clolatera;  and  tHU 
been  strongly  fortlUed.  it  was  taaen  oy 
the  KuBHluus  in  1014,  and  loat  again  to 
the  Germans.     Pop.  BAjW. 

JfTZAevaUKly  vAl'ske),  CoLointL  N., 
a  HuBBJan  twlTeler,  bom  in  1889.  He 
became  an  army  officer  and  w"jn>P»«2^ 
on  numerous  and  important  mnramment 
exploring  expeditlmia,  ^"^M^  ^^• 
panied  by  an  armed,  force.  Tha  reaulta 
Sf  his  einloratlona  in  Aala  are  of  the 
higheat  value.    He  died  in  1888. 

Psalmanazar  i'lSL"  V*m^^ 

name   of   a   literary    Impoator,   bmra   of 
p^atholie  narenta  In  the  aoutb  of  France 
Smt  IC^rdied  In  1703.^  He  atudled 
among  the  Dominicana,  acted  aa  a  pnjata 
tutor ;  became  a  common  vagrant,  and  at 
length  assumed  the  character  of  a  Japan- 
ese col  vert  to  Christianity,  a  chara^er 
which  he  changed  to  that  of  a  inverted 
heathen  native  of  the  ialand  of  Formowi. 
At  thhi  time  be  became  acquainted  wltt 
a  clergyman  named  Innea,  who  brought 
him  to  London  aa  a  convert  to  the  Church 
of    England.     Dnder    the    I«tronajra    of 
Biahop  Compton  he  tranalated  the  Church 
Catechism  Into  a  language  which  he  In- 
vented  ani'   called   Formoaan,   while   he 
aUo  published  a  so-called  authentic  fla- 
ym  of  Formoto,    Various  scholars  had 
doubte  of  hia  pretensions,  and  at  laat  he 
confessed     his     Imposture.     For     many 
yeara  after  he   resided  in   fondan,  and 
employed  hia  pen  in  writing  for  the  book- 
sellera.    Hia     Aatofcio^rop**,     pub  tobefl 
after  hia  death,  expreaeea  great  P«»»^»« 
for  hia  deceptlona.    Dr.  Johnaon  had  • 
high  opinion  of  his  cfaaraeter  and  aWn* 

v^1«i<^-»    (aA'mu-dl.  aal'mn^),  the 
FaalmOdy  ^^  UHipketioaof  alnglng 

paahna.    The  •OBpoaltton  of  paalm  tunes 


Pialmi 


PMudepigrapha 


and  the  performtnct  of  pnlmodT  appMn 
to  have  been  practiced  and  encourafed 
in  Germany,  France,  and  the  Low  Oonn- 
tries    before    it    waa    introduced    into 
Britain.     In  France  psalmody  was  pop- 
ularised at  the  Reformation  by  Clement 
Marot  and  Claude  Ooudimel,  the  former 
of  whom  translated  the  Paalms  of  David 
in  verse,   while  the   latter  set   them  to 
music.     Psalm-singing  was  introduced  by 
the   Reformers;    but    Calvin   discouraged 
any  but  simple  melody,  while  Luther  prac- 
ticed and  favored  part  harmony,  as  did 
also  John  Knox  in  his  psalter.     The  first 
English  version  of  the  Paalma  of  David, 
which  appeared  soon  after  that  of  the 
French,  was  made  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII,  by  Thomas  Stemhold  groom  of  the 
robes  to  that  monarch,  and  John  Plop- 
kins,  a  schoolmaster,  assisted  by  William 
Whittyngham,  an  English  divine.    It  was 
aftervtards  superseded  by  the  version  of 
Nahum  Tate,  the  poet  laureate,  and  Dr. 
Nicholas     Brady.    The    first    important 
compilation  of  psalm  tunes  for  four  voices 
was  published  in  1621  by  Thomas  Ravens- 
croft,  Mus.  Bac,  and  included  such  well- 
known  tunes  as  Bangor,  8t.  David's,  Nor- 
wich, York,  etc.     Sternhold  and  Hopkins' 
version  of  the  Psalm*  was  first  used  in 
Scotland,  and  was  afterwards  superseded 
by  the  version  now  in  use,  founded  on 
that  of  Francis  Rous,  provost  of  Eton,  a 
member  of  Cromwell's  government. 
Psalms    .(»=>«).  Book  of,  one  of  the 
"*'*^"    books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
containing    the    liturgical    collection    of 
hymns  used  by  the  Jews  in  the  temple 
service.     Each    psalm    in    the    collection, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  has  a  particular 
superscription,  such  as  MatchU,  instruc- 
tion, micktam,  memorial,  etc.     The  chro- 
nology of   the  psalms  is  much  disputed. 
The  earliest   f  Psalm  xc)   is  said  to  have 
lieen  written  by  Moses,  many  are  attrilj- 
uted  to  David,  a  few  are  supposed  to 
have   been    written    on    the   return   from 
the  captivity,  and  some  are  assigned  to 
the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  but  evidence 
as  to  their  actual  origin  is  greatly  lack- 
ing.   There  is  an  ancient  division  of  the 
psalms   into    five   books,    viz.   i-xli;    xlii- 
Ixxii;  Ixxiii-lxxxix ;  xc-cvi;  cvii-cl,  which 
many    critics    look    upon    as    indicating 
five  distinct  collections.     Those  who  take 
this  view  place  these  collections  in  chron- 
ological   order   as    they   stand;    but    this 
method  is  considered  by  the  latest  criti- 
cism  to   be    unwarranted  by   the   inter- 
nal  evidence   of   each    particular   psalm. 
Nearly  eighty  are  popularly  assigned  to 
David,  twelve  to  the  singer  Asaph,  some 
fourteen  to  the  sons  of  Korah,  two  have 
the  name  of  Solomon,  and  one  is  sup- 
DOMd  to  have  been  written  by  Mosea. 


Tbt  oplnloo  that  aome  of  the  psalms  an 
of  tiM  tlfflt  of  Samuel  baa  no  historicni 
authority,  while  those  by  unknown  an- 
thon  are  apparently  of  the  latest  date. 
In  the  Old  Tesument  there  are  150 
psalms,  but  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate psalms  ix  and  z  and  dv  and  cv 
are  united,  while  cxvi  and  cxivii  are 
divided,  so  that  the  numbering  differs 
from  the  English  version.  In  structure 
the  psalms  have  the  strophe  and  anti- 
strophe  which  is  so  characteristic  of 
Hebrew  poetry.  It  would  also  seem  that 
many  of  them  were  meant  to  be  sung 
in  parts,  the  chief  part  by  the  oflSciating 
priest,  and  a  responsive  part  by  the  peo- 
ple. The  Book  of  Pialma  as  we  have  it 
IS  essentially  the  hymn-book  of  the  sec- 
ond temple,  and  according  to  the  latest 
criticism,  was  ascribed  to  David,  merely 
because  the  order  of  the  worship  in  the 
second  temple  was  the  same  as  tnat  pre- 
scribed by  him  for  the  first  temple. 
Psalter  (sal't^r  ,  specifically,  the  ver- 
*  sion    of    the    Psalms    in    the 

Book  of  Common  Prayer;  also  applied  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  a  series 
of  devout  sentences,  150  in  number,  and 
to  a  large  cbaplet  or  rosary  with  150 
beads,  agreeing  with  the  numl>er  of  the 
psalms. 

Psaltery  (sftl't*r-i),  or  Psalteriok 
•'an  instrument  of  music  used 
by  the  Hebrews,  the  form  of  which  is  not 
now  known.  That  which  is  now  used  is 
a  flat  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  trape- 
zium or  triangle  truncated  at  the  top, 
strung  with  thirteen  chords  of  wire, 
mounted  on  two  bridges  at  the  sides,  and 
struck  with  a  plectrum  or  crooked  stick, 
thus  resembling  the  dulcimer  (which 
see). 

Psammetichus  ^??^'?2*'*i^*"'"'!^'  ^^ 

,.   ,     .         king  of  Egypt  who 

died  about  617  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the 
twelve  kings  who  reigned  simultaneously 
m  Egypt  for  fifteen  years  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  .Ethiopian  dynasty;  but 
being  suspected  by  the  other  kings  of  aim- 
ing at  sole  sovereignty  he  was  driven 
into  banishment.  With  the  aid  of  some 
Greek  mercenaries,  however,  he  defeated 
the  other  kings  in  a  battle  fought  at 
Momempbis,  on  the  east  side  of  Lake 
Mareotis,  after  which  he  became  the  sole 
king  of  Egypt  (671  or  670  B.C.),  and  the 
founder  of  a  new  dynasty. 
Psara.  °?w  Ipsara  (Psyra),  an  island 
7  "  >  of  Turkey,  in  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  7  miles  northwest  of  Scio, 
about  6i  miles  in  length,  and  as  many 
in  breadth. 

Psendepigrapha  l^^iftC^Sli 

tinnal  wrltlnp),  a  term  appUed  in  bib- 


Pseudomorpli 


Psyoliical  Beseardh 


lioifphy  to  a  great  number  of  books  consist  of  the  Kremlin,  the  gntr^^  cUg. 
STftaWary   writv^^^^^^  ?rb.  ^Among  the*' chie*  buildings  are  the 

to  a  place  in  the  Old  and  ^^''^  lestnment   «i°;    j^""     "^  ^^e  palace  of  the  ancient 

SSSSphrannuttr^^tnon^SfUK  TrKif  I'^X^Xip^rKuf/ctS: 
thTpseudepigrapha  have  no  value  unleM  f/^^Klau  leather  ^opH  1913)  aiMM). 
to  p>ove  the  capacity  for  forgtry  which   i«  Ku^iaujt^ithen     |^^  /j^^^  ^^^^^  of 

Ir'^be^^^mLtSl^ed^^S^^^^^  KT.  a^id  aSffin  Movements  of  the 

St  K^na^i^/e.f';^^^.;^/]/   oj  jvhlch  (£e.c«.en*a?  is  the  breadroot 

h^Z^"^  X-rail^e%Wf  Psoria^MSrS^^ir^vl^ 

Simc.  Matthia,,  Thoma,,  ,^«««j'«;»«»:  ^  patches  appear  c^veJed  with  large 
Aadrctr..  History  of  Joseph  "^..Jy/":.  SeSthere  being  often  cracks  or  fissures 
ter,  yativity  of  Mary,  Acts  of  the  Apos    scaies,^^u  ^^^^    b^^^^^    ^^^^ 

ties,  etc.  rsfl'dS-morf),   a   min-    In  some  cases  it  is  a  syphilitic  affection. 

Pseudomorpli  iStavffa  der.nito  The  name  is  ajo  gjven  to  the  teh.  ^^^ 
form,  belonging  not  to  the  substance  of  Psyche  ^^^f^'  „  "^ort  of  mythical  or 
which  it  consists,  bnt  to  some  o  her  s^^^^^  allegorical  personification  of  tie  hum« 
stance  which  has  wholly  05,P""r'y ^^'i^l  ^"ul  a  beautiful  maiden,  whose  charming 
appeared.  Sometimes  Q^a'^tz  is  found  m  |«^';'  «. ''""^^^  ^y  the  latin  writer  Ap- 
the  form.of  fluorspar  crysta  s,  the  fluoi-  ^tory  »s  gn  i  ^^  beautiful  as  to  Se 
spar  having  been  changed  by  a  process  P^^^^^  /'^^^us  i,ejgelf.  This  goddess, 
o?  replacement  or  substitution  into  quartz.  ^"^^^.""^  .;^,ou8  of  her  rival  charms, 
Pseudopodia  a-^The"oikns  'of  SSdf^u'pid  or  Love  to  inspire  her  with 
AovMuvf  °'°?^'i„  "  f    ViiP    lower    love  for  some  contemptible  wretch.     But 

locomotion    characteristic    of    the    'ower    ^ve  lor  i-^.^^^    ^^^    himself. 

Protozoa.     These    consist    of    ^a"«"f'y  ^^^]^  ^'^re  the  trials  Psyche  underwent, 

shaped    filaments,   threads,    or   finger  hke  Mary  were  i  ^^^  own  ^discretion, 

processes   of   sarcode,   which  the   animai  ariM  sv       f  j^      ^^   ^j    Ven  is, 

can  thrust  out  from  any  or  every  part  ^"^  P^jf^^^ J^^^er.  a  reconciliation  was 

of  its  body.     See/'roforoa.  uUimrtely  effected.  *  Psyche  by  Jupitert 

Psidlum.     SeeOuava.  command  became  immortal,  and  waa  foi 

l^n^s  to  the  basin  "^jhe  Baltic  the  South  otAy  ^^other  Si  at  a  distance  and  with- 
Dwlna.  which  drains  the  «o"theast,  car    e^^e  »^«\"J^,  ^f  sense),  the  results 


Fiyoliology 


Tteropoda 


i^taalUn,  laclikHiif  10011  ^irtingnlahed 
■doitiats  u  Alfred  AoMeU  Wallace  and 
Sir  OliTcr  Lodce.  The  society  has 
branchea  in  the  United  States. 

Piychology  iSrr'i.pikSl.'^i 

philosophy  which  deals  with  the  phenom- 
ena of  mind.  See  Mind,  Metapkygict, 
PhiloMophit. 

Piychotherapy4'«;'[^«'*^;;3l)i  ^^ 

forms  of  mental  healing  that  bave  re- 
cently come  into  prominence,  especially 
to  the  methods  of  the  Emmanuel  Move- 
ment and  Christian  Science.  Psycho- 
therapy has  its  basis  in  the  power  of 
■nggestion,  and  cannot  be  said  to  be  a 
new  science,  since  ^sculapius  and  other 
early  physicians  and  philosophers  recog- 
nised the  power  of  mind  over  body. 

The  Emmanuel  Movement  derives  its 
name  from  the  Emmanuel  Church,  Bos- 
ton, where  in  1906  the  rector,  Elwood 
Worcester,  first  organized  a  class  for  tbe 
teatment  of  nervous  disorders.  The 
rules  provide  that  the  sick  are  to  be 
received  onl:^  after  examination  by  a  phy- 
sician. While  the  Emmanuel  Movement 
declares  the  active  agent  in  all  recoveries 
to  be  faith,  it  makes  iree  use  of  subsidiary 
aids,  such  as  electricity.  See  Christian 
Science. 

rtBxmipai  ai^^C^'faSdircT^ 

traonidn),  distingnished  from  the  true 
grouse  by  having  the  toes  as  well  as  the 
tarsi  feathered.  The  common  ptarmigan 
(called  also  white  arouse)  is  the  Lagopus 
vulffiris.  The  male  is  about  15  inches 
long,  the  female  about  an  inch  less.  In 
summer  the  predominant  colors  of  its 
plumage  are  speckled  black,  brown,  or 
gray,  hut  in  winter  the  male  becomes 
nearly  pnre  white,  and  the  female  en- 
tirely BO.  The  willow-ptarmigan  (L. 
saliciti)  is  common  in  the  Arctic  regions 
of  America  and  in  Norway. 

Ptcrichthys  ^it^T^,^-  beS 

ing   to    the    Old    Red    Sandstone.      The 

gtirichthys  was  peculiarly  characterized 
y  the  form  of  its  pectoral  fins,  which 
were  in  the  form  of  two  long,  curved 
■pines,  something  like  wings  (whence  the 
name — ^^  wing-fish'),  covered  by  finely 
tnbereolated  ganoid  plates. 
iPtfiris     (tii^'s),  the  genus  of  ferns  to 

which  the  bracken  belongs. 
PterOCarDnS  (ter-o-kar'pus),  a  genus 
m.  nvAwwA^ww   jjj    leguminous    plants, 

•peciea  of  wMch  yield  kino,  dragon's 
blood,  red  sandal-wood,  eta 

Ptcroceras  <£nS;S'^^^K"th1 

Indian  Ocean;  the  KorpfonrshellB.    Tha 


head  of  the  animal  is  famished  with  a 
proboscis  and  two  tentacula,  which  are 
short.  The  shell  is  oblong,  the  spire 
short,  and  the  operculum  homy.  P. 
Scorpio  is  known  by  tbe  name  of  the 
ieviVs  claw.  At  the  least  ten  recent  and 
twenty-seven  fossil  species  of  this  genos 
are  known. 

Pterodactyl  ite«-o,-dak'til;  'winged 
^  finger'),  a  genus  of  ex- 
tinct flying  reptiles  of  the  order  Ptero- 
saurla,  found  in  tbe  Jura  Limestone  for- 
mation. In  the  Lias  at  Lyme-Regis.  in  the 
OSIite  slate  of  Stone6eld,  etc.  The  pter- 
odactyls bad  a  moderately  long  neck,  and 


1,    Pterodactyl    (restored).     2,    Skull  of 
Pt*rodaeti/lua  longirottrit. 

a  large  head ;  the  jaws  armed  with  equal 
and  pointed  teeth ;  most  of  the  bones, 
like  those  of  birds,  were  '  pneumatic,' 
that  is,  hollow  and  filled  with  air:  but 
the  chief  character  consisted  in  the  excess- 
ive elongation  of  tbe  outer  digit  (or  little 
finger)  of  the  forefoot,  which  served  to 
support  a  flying  membrane.  A  number  of 
species  have  been  discovered,  most  of  them 
small  or  of  moderate  size,  but  one  must 
have  had  an  expanse  of  wing  of  at  least 
20  feet. 

Pteromys  <*:^;%T''^'  ^  '''«'*•» 

Pteromdffi  (ter-op'i-dS),  a  family  of 
*  «*'* "f*'*'*'  cheiropterous  mammals, 
called  fox-bats,  from  their  long  and 
pointed  fox-like  bead.  The  type  genus 
18  Pteropus.  See  Fow-bats. 
Pterotmdft  (ter-op'o-da),  a  class  <rf 
ii.  vvAvj^vuw  jnoiiuscs.  comijrehendlng 
those  which  have  a  natatory,  wing-shaped 
expansion  on  each  side  of  tbe  head  and 
neck,  being  thus  a  sort  of  '  winged  snails.* 
They  are  all  of  small  size,  are  found  float- 
ing on  tbe  surface  of  tbe  ocean  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  and  in  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  regions  famish  mnch  of  the 
food  of  tbe  whak.    Thcjr  are  all  bev- 


fterosauria 


Ptolemy 


maphrodite.    Their  food  consists  of  mi- 

Pterosauria  {rt'°or^/''oV'rl?tii*s; 

^presented  cliiefly  by  the  Ptero^ctyls 
(Wbteh  see).  This  group  is  especial^ 
TOtedas  containing  forms  which  possessea 

rtCrygfOtUS  l^^^i  crustacean  occur- 
ring chiefly  in  the  passage-beds  between 
the  Silurian  and  Devonian  systems.  It 
bal  a  long,  lobster-like  form,  composed  in 
the  main  of  a  cephalo-thorax.  an  abuom- 
inal  portion  of  several  segments,  and  a 
somewhat  oval  telson  or  tail-plate.  . 
ronwwnai  "J^p^^^^   (f^ha),  an  ancient 

JftlLan,  Egyptian  divinity,  the  creator 
of  nil  thiuKS  and  source  of  life,  and  as 
such  fathe?  and  sovereign  of  the  gods. 
He  was  worahiped  chiefly  at  Memphis 
Sfde7the  fiS?e  Sfu  mummy-shaped  male. 
and  also  as  a  P^^"' »^(tol.e.mft'ik), 

Ptolemaic  System  iV^astronomy. 

that  matotained  by  Claudius  Ptolemy,  the 
Mtnmomer.  who  supposed  the  earth  to 
K^ffii^  the  center  if  the  universe,  and 
tLt  the  sun  and  stars  revolved  around 
it  Thfs  long-received  theory  was  even- 
luaUy  reiectia  for  the  Copemican  sys- 
tem.   See  Astronomy. 

Ptolema'ii.    ^"^  ^'''^ 

Ptolemy  il^'^-'a^T^^ 

?»T«n*'^of'fh"e%mp'°re'ritlfandTr  ^ 
Stoolh^eVrSon  of^s  dommion^  o 
whicV  Egypt  was  ^^^^^^^^JJi 
the   surname    Lagid«B, 
from    PtolemJEUs    La- 
gus,    the    founder    of 
the    dynasty.     Proir 
EMY    I,   called   Soter, 
the    Savior,    was    by 
birth    a    Macedonian. 
His  mother   was  Ar- 
sinog,  the  mistress  of 
Philip,  and  his  father 
is   commonly    reputed 
to  have  been  Lagus,  a 
Macedonian  of  humble 
birth.      Ptolemy    was 
one    of    the   intimate 
«...      T      An.  friends  of  Alexander, 
^*"'T/n.  ^iZ"         attended  the  king  on 
tiqoe  gsm.  j^j^  expedition  to  Asia, 

was  admitted  into  the  bodyguard,  and 
in  329  B.C.  commanded  one  of  the  chiei 
divisions  of  the  army.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  he  attached  ""!!U  ,*" 
the  party  of  Perdiccan,  and  •ecured  tot 
himself   the  goTenunMit  of  Sgypt.    o» 


married  Eurydtee,  ^augbter  of  Antigtw, 
and  in  B.c.  820  he  seiaed  the  Mtrwy 
of    Phoenicia    and    Cade-Syrta.    In   808 
he  invaded  Greece,  and  proclaimed  him- 
self as  a  liberator;  but  he  mfde  Uttto 
progress,  and  having  garrisoned  Corinth 
and   Sicyon.   which   he   lost  some  years 
fater,  he^  returned  to  Egypt    Antigonn. 
resol'ved  to  wrest  Cyprus  from  PtoUw 
(B.C.  307),  and  in  a  sea-fight  at  Salamls 
the  Egyptians  were  defeated,  and  Cypro* 
fSll  info  the  hands  of   the  victor,   who 
assumed    the    title    of    king.    Ant>fonM 
now    advanced    against    Egypt    through 
Svria  with  a  powerful  army,  supportea 
by  a  fl^t ;  but  he  was  ultimately  con^ 
^lled  to  retire,  while  a  fewyears  lato^ 
Cyprus  was  recovered  and  became  a  p«r 
manent  dependency   of   Egypt    PtolW 

diedinB.c.V-    ^«  T",{i,!I?S'J*'iS 
of    art,    learning,    and    literature,    »no 

foundea      the      celebrated      A^gjA 

lihrarv  —  PtoiemT     II      (PWIodelpMW)  f 

K^C.  309.  succeeded  ti.  father,  ^i 

reigned   in  almost  complete  Peace.    «» 

Ih^t  care  as  ruler  was  directed  totha 

internal   administration  of  his  kin«J>^ 

Hp  snared  no  pains  to  fill  the  library  oi 

Alewndria  wit^  all  the  treasureii  of  «- 

cient   literature,   and   among   the   ^ reh^ 

tectural  works  erected  during  b  s  reim 

were    the    lighthouse   on    the    island    of 

Ptaros,    the  ^Alexandrian    Museum,    wd 

the    royal    burying-place.      He    founded 

numerous  cities  and  colontes,  and  durtoj 

his  reign  the  dominion  of  Egypt  extendi 

into   Ethiopia.   Arabia.   aJid  Libya,  and 

embraced  t£e  provinces  of  Phaajcia  and 

CcBle-SyrUi,  besid«i  tracts  '«»  Asia  Mi^ 

and  some  of  the  islands  of  tibe  Medltw. 

SSean.    Ptolemy  died  in  247,  and  was 

SSSceeded  by  ^^^^^T^^^^J^^'  ^i 
named  Euergetet  .(  b«»efactor  ).  M« 
WAS  earlv  engaged  in  an  important  wm 
iM  SyrCT  which  he  advanced  witlj 
OTtoppoiition  to  Af  tioch,  th«ffl  tmned 
eastward,  subduing  Me«>pptamia,  Baby- 
iS  ete.  The  fl«ts  of  IFtolemy  had  at 
the  skme  time  subdued  the  coasU  of  Asia 
Mtoor,  and  carried  his  arms  to  the  Hd- 
l^nt  and  to  the  coast  of  Thrace.  Ptol- 
emT  took  some  part  in  the  a«tairs  of 
QrUce  against  the  rulers  of  Macedonia, 
SiTSiaintained  friendly  relation  with 
Rome.  Like  his  predecMsors,  he  was  the 
patron  of  schohirs,  and  his  court  WM  the 
?esort  of  the  jnoft  j^^^^f^^tlSf^mS 


wTdayr  lie  died  in  b.c.  222,  befag  ™. 
ceeded  by  Ptolemy  IV,  "anuuned  >M^ 
pZr.  fiis  Syrian  po-^fto"  ^^. 
been  gradually  wrested  from  him  by  An- 


Ptolemy 


Public  Lands 


ap  completely  to  debanchery,  and  died 
Bia  20B. —  Ptoumt  V  (surnamed  Epiph- 
Anet),  his  son  and  aucceieor,  was  un- 
der  five  years  old  at  bis  father's  death, 
and  this  led  Philip  of  Macedon  and  An- 
tiochus  III  (the  Great)  of  Syria  to 
combine  to  dispossess  Ptolemy,  and  divide 
bis  dominions.  To  avert  this  danger  the 
guardians  of  the  young  kiLj  ;  laced  him 
under  the  protection  of  Rome,  which  thus 
had  first  an  occasion  for  interfering  in 
the  affairs  of  Egypt.  Ptolemy  was  poi- 
toned  B.C.  181. —  Ptolemy  VI  (surnamed 
Phihmetor)  was  a  child  at  the  death  of 
his  father.  His  reign  was  much  dis- 
turbed by  the  rivalry  of  a  brother,  and 
being  expelled  from  Alexandria  be  re- 
paired to  Rome  B.C.  1C4,  by  whose  inter- 
vention he  was  replaced.  He  died  in  B.C. 
146.  During  the  reigns  of  the  succeeding 
Ptolemies  the  influence  of  the  Romans  in 
Egypt  gradually  increased,  with  a  corre- 
sponding decrease  in  the  independence  of 
the  native  sovereigns.  The  personal 
character  of  the  Ptolemies  also  degener- 
ated, a  fact  to  be  probably  connected  with 
the  common  practice  in  the  family  for 
brothers  to  marry  sisters. —  Ptolemy  XI 
(AuUtea,  'flute-player')  was  driven  from 
bia  kingdom  by  his  subjects,  who  were 
ground  down  by  taxation;  but  be  was 
restored  by  the  Rou:acs  (to  whom  he 
gave  great  sums  of  money),  and  died  b.c. 
61. —  Ptolemy  XII  (Auletca),  son  of  the 
preceding,  reigned  jointly  with  his  sister 
Cleopatra  till  b.c.  48^  when  Cleopatra 
was  expelled  and,  raising  an  army  in 
Syria,  invaded  Egypt.  On  the  arrival  of 
Caesar,  Cleopatra  by  her  charms  acquired 
an  ascendency  over  him.  Ptolemy  put 
himself  at  the  bead  of  the  insurgents,  was 
defeated  by  Ciesar,  and  drowned  in 
attempting  to  make  his  escape,  in  b.c. 
48  or  47. —  Ptolemy  Xlll  (Auietea), 
the  youngest  son  of  Ptolemy  XI,  was  de- 
clared king  by  Ctesar  in  conjunction  with 
his  sister  Cleopatra  in  b.c.  47.  He  was 
married  to  his  si::ter,  but  being  only  a 
boy  possessed  more  than  the  name  of 
husband  oi-  Cleopatra  caused  him 

to  be  put  to  wh,  and  the  line  of  the 
Ptolemies  ended  when  Cleopatra  perished 
by  her  own  hands  after  Octavius  defeated 
Antony  at  Actium,  and  Egypt  became  a 
Roman  province,  b.c.  30. 
Ptolemv  (Claudius  Ptolem^tjs)  ,  a 
J  Greek  astronomer  and  geog- 
rapher of  the  second  century  after  Christ. 
He  appears  to  have  resided  in  Alexandria, 
where  he  made  astronomical  observations 
In  139,  and  he  was  alive  in  161.  Ptol- 
emy's great  astronomical  work  is  entitled 
Megali  Syntaom  tCi  Aatronomiai,  and  is 
more  commonly  known  by  the  Arabic  title 
MmagMt.    Hia  iyatem,  founded  oo  the 


apparent  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  which  is  still  known  by  hb 
name,  was  finally  superseded  by  that  of 
Copernicus.  See  Ptolemaic  Syitem,  At- 
tronomy. 

Ptomaine   <t"'™a-'n.  ™*n),s<">e  o'  * 

^  **  ^  class  of  alkaloids  or  or- 
r;anlc  bases,  which  arc  generated  in  the 
body  during  putrefaction,  during  morbid 
conditions  prior  to  death,  and  even,  it  is 
said,  during  normal  healthy  conditions  of 
life.  It  is  unsidered  hignly  poidcnous, 
and  has  been  mistaken  for  strychnine  and 
other  vegetable  poisons  by  toxicologists. 
Pnhprfv    (pa'ber-vi),  the  period  in 

marked  by  the  functional  development  of 
the  generative  system.  lu  males  it  usu- 
ally takes  place  between  the  ages  of  thir- 
teen and  sixteen;  in  females  somewhat 
earlier;  and,  as  a  ru!e,  in  very  warm  cli- 
mates pul)erty  is  reached  somewhat 
sooner  than  elsewhere.  In  males  puberty 
is  marked  externally  by  the  deepening  of 
the  voice,  the  first  appearance  of  the 
beard,  greater  firmness,  fullness  of  the 
body,  etc. ;  in  females,  by  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Lrcasts  and  by  the  general 
rounding  ouf  of  the  frame,  and  most 
unequivocally  of  all  by  the  commence- 
ment of  menstruation. 
Publicans  <Pulj'li-kanz),  Publicawi 
(froff  pubhcus,  belonging  tff 
the  state) ,  the  farmers  of  the  taxes  levied 
in  the  teititories  of  ancient  Rome.  Nat- 
urally they  belonged  to  the  wealthier 
classes,  and  were  from  their  functions 
unpopuinr.  Far  more  unpopular  were 
the  sufjordinates  whom  they  employed  to 
collect  the  taxes  for  them.  In  Palestine, 
from  the  strong  spirit  of  nationality 
amoag  the  Jews,  many  of  whom  denied 
the  lawfulness  of  paying  tribute,  these 
weu'e  specially  obnoxious  as  the  agents  of 
the  foreign  rulers.  To  this  detested  class, 
and  not  to  the  publicani  proper,  the  '  pub- 
licans'  of  the  New  Testament  generally 
belonged. 
PnbliC  Houses.   See/n»andL«ce««e. 

'Pn'hlir»iQ+  (pub'll-sist),  a  term  orig- 
X-UUilClSX,    .^^,jy  applied  to  a   writer 

on  international  law,  now  used  to  denote 
a  writer  on  current  politics. 

PubUc  lands.   S^^°,"t,r.SS 

A  vast  area  of  public  lands,  the  property 
of  the  government,  added  greatly  to  by 
every  accession  of  territory,  and  given 
very  freely  to  settlers  for  the  purpose  of 
development.  Large  quantities  of  these 
lands  have  also  been  donated  to  railroads, 
as  in  the  instance  of  the  Central  Pacific. 
In  1860  the  public  domain  included  1,056,- 
Ql  1.288  acres,     lo  addition  to  homestead 


IPuUio  Lilirary 


Pudding--tone 


and  railroad  granta,  much  of  thU  waa 
gWea  to  new  atates,  when  fd""  "ed.  for 
Shool  and  other  Purposes.     In  1912  ^ 
remained,  not  including. Alaska,  ^^'<^< 
fl^acreS.    Much  of  t^is  remaining  land 
iTarid  or  aemi-arid,  yet  the  extension  of 
SriStion  haa  rendered  a  considerable  por- 
lira  of  it  suitable  for  agricultural  por- 
MMS,  and  the  area  of  settlement  has  in- 
SSeaaed    in    consequence.    Recently    the 
dta^^ry    of    valuable    coal,    phosphate. 
SeTroleum  and  other  deposits  in  the  un- 
settled territory,  and  of  sites  suitable  for 
wrter-power  development,  has  led  the  gov- 
«nme^  to  withdraw  large  tracts  from 
eutrv    under   the   newly   developed   idea 
tKt^tbeTtreasures  of  the  earth  belong 
trthe  nation  at  large  and  should  be  1  eld 
in  the  interest  of  all  the  people.    With- 
drawals of  coal  lands  made  during  the 
JKistration     of     President     Roosevelt 
SSunt^  to  14^J4.095  acres,  and  were 
added  large  y  to  by  President  Taft.     ine 
?otal  withdrawal  of  coal  la"}"!";, '°  ^dd^' 
iiXii    tn    «hp    laree    arer.    withdrawn    m 
Alaski%mount"to  koj^iii  fcros    dis- 
tributed  through    North    Dakota,    South 
D?kott^  Colorado,  Utah,  Washington  and 
?Sona.     Otler  large  ,withdrawal9  made 
by  President  Taft,  under  an  act  of  Con- 
K?ess  of  1910,  were  as  follows:  water- 
M^r   sites,    1,454.499   acres,   phosphate 
^f^  9  nfti  113  acres,  and  petroleum  sites. 
4  447119   acrts     This   action   has   been 
taken    to    prevent    these    very    valuable 
wi«   from   being   pre-empted    by  specu- 
S?ort,   and   awafting    legflation    regard- 
i«»thi.lr    disposal.     If    handled    in    the 
Sillic  intei^st^they  may  add  enormously 

«%   -Lf      e^■u.^^^a     the   schools   estab- 
PnbllC  ScnOOlS,   jj^bed    under    any 
national    system    of    education.     In    the 
UnuS  States  The  administration,  organ- 
iMdon  and  support  of  these  schools  de- 
S  SpSn  the  State  Legislatures  and  city 
^uncils;    Boards  of  Education  m  many 
StatM  and  cities  have  special  charge  of 
rbeKhools.    Three  grades  are  commonly 
recognized  — the  primary,  grammar,  and 
K    Normal  schools  for  tte  training  of 
telchers  are  established  in  nearly  all  the 
Rtates     The  public  schools  of  this  coun- 
fry  hi'vo  iade  marked  progress  since  tlie.r 
firat  institution  less  than  a  century  ago. 
and  are  now  in  manr  cities  in  a  high 
ttate  of  efficiency.  ^Public  ach^JL "y^^^f 
urevaii  in  many  of  the  countries  of  Ku- 
f^wrthw  of  Germany  being  the  most 
^FebratTfor  their  efficient  managmen: 
They  ara  of  lata  introduction  m  theBrtt^ 
isb  lalanda.  where  ele?e°tary^uice*ton 
ba0  1^  !>•«»  «o^  -iburph  ooijtroi. 


•n   i-f—  c..«m<i     (pub'll-ua;    mor» 

Publius  Syrus  ^„^tiy   p  u  b  t,  i 

UCS),  BO-called  because  a  native  of  Syr 
ia.  waa  carried  as  a  slave  to  Rome 
about  the  middle  of  the  first  century  B.O.. 
and  became  there  a  popular  writer.  Hw 
master  gave  him  a  good  education,  and 
afterwards  set  him  free.  He  excelled  In 
writing  mimi,  or  farces,  which  were  in- 
terspefsed  with  moral  sentences,  and  a 
collection  of  them  waa  used  by  the  Ko- 
man^  as  a  schoolbook.  A  number  of 
apotbegmH.  not  all  composwl  ^7 ^}°['^'^J 
been  published  as  Fublu  Syn  Sententta:. 


rUCCinia  ^J^gj  ^gn  known  to  farm- 
ers under  the  name  of  mildew.  The  ruat, 
otherwise  the  mildew,  of  com,  ia  tne  r. 

v7oM^\  (P»t-chSn'*),  GiAcoMO.  Itad- 
f  UCCini  \l^  composer,  born  in  Lucca, 
Italy,  in  1858.  He  first  cama  into  pubUc 
notice  through  his  opera.  La  Boheme 
(1896).  Other  of  his  operas  are,  Mod- 
ame  Butterfly  and  La  Fanctulla  del  Wett. 
PnCCOOn'.     ®'''°"  *'"  Blood-root. 

-D-n/ilr  a  celebrated  elf,  the  'merw 
Puck,  *  anderer  of  the  night,  whorf 
character  and  attributes  are  depicted  1» 
ShaSere^  J/,d«um«.er  2iighf*  Dream, 
ffX'was  also  known  by  the  names 
of  Robin  Uoodfellow  and  Frtar  K«M. 
He  was  the  chief  of  the  domestic  fairi*. 
and  many  stories  are  told  of  his  nocturnal 

ptcUer-Mnskaii  t^lY,'^^^;^ 

LuDWiQ  Heinbich,  Pbincb  or,  a  German 
traveler  and  author,  was  born  »n  1JI». 
He  served   in   the   Tuscan   and    »"»»" 
armies,  and  after  the  peace  of  1815  de- 
Toted  himself  to  Uterature,  landscape  ^t- 
dening,  and  traveL    One  of  his  works  waa 
JSatSd  into  English  by  M«.  Au-tta  « 
Tow  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Vrawe  9t 
VQerman  Pnnce.    Other  En/l"^  traM- 
lations  of  works  by  him  are  Semaateo%n 
Africa.    1837:    A    German    8ketch-B<H>h 
(ffl  Frutti).  1839^ and  Boypti^ 
Mehemed  Ali,  1^-5.    He  died  in,  i871. 
idZ.J4I^<«  Ika     '*a     the  bernes  of  the 
Pudaing-De       "SS,    Canadian     dog- 
wood   {Comut      inadentia),  common 
throughout  North  America.  „,^_,-- 

Pnading-StOne,  stoni,  a  term  now 
considered  aynonympus  with  conglomerate, 
but  originally  applied  to  a  m««  of  flint 

around  Bflrton,  MiisawMett* 


Pnddling  Fnniaoe 


Puerto  Pxindpe 


Puddling  rnmaoe.   see/ro*. 

Pllda«V    (pad'ii),  a  town  in  tb«  Wat 
xuQMcy   ^'Jdinf  of  York»hire,  6  mUw 
wMt  of  Lecda.    Woolen  and  wonted  man- 
ufactures are  extensively  carried  on,  and 
there  is  alio  a  large  manufacture  of  boots 
and  eboes.    Pop.  (1011),  14,027. 
Pneblfl.    (pweb'la),  in  full  La  Pucbla 
OE  LOS  Anoelbs,  the  capital 
of  a  Mexican  state  of  the  same  name, 
situated  on  a  plateau  70  miles  s.  c  of 
Mexico.     It  has  spacious  streets  and  sol- 
idly-built  houses,  the  cathedral  being  a 
magnificent  structure.    It  contains  a  large 
number  of  religious  edifices,  many  of  them 
higbly  decorated.    There  are  also  several 
colleges,  a  museum,  and  a  theater.     It  is 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  Mexican  manu- 
facturing industry,  and  its  chief  products 
are   cotton    and    woolen    goods,    leatber, 
glass,    earthenware,    and    soap.     Puebla 
was  built  by  the  Spaniards  in  1533-34. 
Pop.  93,152.    The  state  consists  of  an 
elevated  plateau,  and  contains  much  fer- 
tile soil.     On  the  western  frontier  is  the 
volcano    of     Popocatepetl,    the     highest 
mountain  in  Mexico.    Area,  12,042  square 
miles;  pop..  1,021,133. 
PnAliln    (pweblo),   a  city,   the  county 
XU6U1U    qJ   Pueblo   Co.,    Colorado,   on 
the  Arkansas  River,  an  important  railway 
center.     Its  position  at  the  entrance  of 
the  various  passes  connecting  the  eastern 
and  western  slopes  of  Colorado,  makes  it 
an  excellent  distributing  point,  and  large 
jobbing  houses  and  manutacturing  plants 
are  located  here.    Here  are  iron  ana  steel 
works,    smelters,    foundries,    stock    yards 
and  saddle  factories.    Pueblo  la  the  prin- 
cipal city  of  the  Arkansas  Valley  of  Colo- 
rado, which  is  the  largest  sinjrle  irrigated 
area  in  the  world.     It  was  the  camp  of 
Pike's  expedition  in  1806.    Pop.  55,600. 
Pueblos     "^  semicivilized  family  of 
'    American  Indians  dwelling 
in    Arjzor .    and    New     Mexico.    Their 
name   is   aeri.?d   from    pueblo,   Spanish 
for   'village,'   and    they    are   peculiar   in 
dwelling  in  enormous  single  habitations, 
some  of  them  large  enough  to  contain  a 
whole  tribe.     These  edifices  are  often  5 
or  6  stories  high,  and  from  400  to  1300 
feet  long,  with  a  large  number  of  rooms 
on  each  floor.     They  are  commonly  built 
of  adobe,  though  in  some  cases  of  flat 
stones,  and  the  ground  floor  has  no  doors 
or  windows,  entrance  to  its  rooms  being 
obtained   by   means  of  a   laddor   leading 
to  the  second  story.    Indoor  ladders  take 
the  place  of  stairtfays.     Bach  successive 
story  recedes  a  few  feet  from  the  line  of 
the  one  below  it,  thus  giving  the  building 
a    somewhat    pyramidal     aspect.     Each 
femily  baa  a  sep«t»t«  aptrtnteot  «nd 


then  are  larn  rooms  naad  for  coimeil 
chambcn  and  tribal  daitcM.  In  Ntw 
Mazko  there  are  19  ■nch  rillafee,  with 
over  8000  occupants.  These  till  the  land 
with  much  skill,  irrigating  their  fields 
extensively.  In  addition  to  field  crops, 
they  raise  horses,  cattle  and  sheep.  They 
also  have  the  arts  of  spinning  and  weav- 
ing and  pottery-making.  The  Moquis  of 
Arizona  are  a  related  tribe,  about  1800 
in  number,  who  live  in  villages  built  on 
the  summit  of  mesas  or  steep,  isolated 
hills,  rendering  assault  by  enemies  diffi- 
cult These  people  were  once  far  more 
numerous  than  at  present,  as  is  shown 
by  the  wide  area  over  which  the  ruins  of 
old  pueblos  and  remains  of  pottery  are 
found.  They  were  first  discovered  in 
1540  by  Vasquez  de  Coronado,  a  Spanish 
adventurer,  who  had  heard  exaggerated 
stories  of  the  splendor  and  riches  of  the 
*  seven  cities  of  Cibola.' 

Puerperal  Fever  LVer^Jiuu^i 

gious  disease  peculiar  to  women  in  child- 
bed, and  due  to  the  absorption  of  poison- 
ous material  by  the  raw  surface  of  the 
womb.  The  poison  may  originate  from 
decomposing  material  in  the  womb  itself, 
then  called  taprcemia;  but  is  .generally 
introduced  from  without,  tepticamia. 

Puerperal  Mania,  *"  *. '°™  o'i°- 

J.  '*"'"*">  sanity  developed 

during  pregnancy  or  after  childbirth,  and 
is  invariably  the  effect  of  exhaustion  or 
debility. 

Puerto  Cabello.   see  Porto  OaleOo. 

Puerto  de  Santa  Maria,  ^"JSiS 

El  PiTKBTO,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  prov- 
ince and  5  miles  northeast  of  Cadiz,  on 
the  Guadalete,  near  ita  mouth  in  the  Bay 
of  Cadiz.  The  town  is  pleasantly  situated 
and  is  well  built.  There  are  several  con- 
vents, a  Jesuit  college,  a  modem  theatre 
and  a  large  bull  ring.  A  notable  feature 
of  the  town  is  the  bodegas  or  wine  stores. 
El  Puerto  is  the  duef  port  for  the  export 
of  sherry  wines,  being  the  nearest  port  to 
J^rez  de  la  Frontera  (q.  v.),  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  rail.  Among  otber 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  brandy 
and  other  liquors,  glass,  soap,  flour, 
starch,  and  the  exporting  of  fisn.  Pop., 
1910  17  984 

Puerto  Montt    Kh*Jm'cW?a^' 

ital  of  the  province  Llanquihue.  Pop. 
4140. 

Puerto  Principe   SS*toS*!i  tU 

interior  of  Cuba,  early  in  the  centnry  the 
seat  of  the  central  government  and  sn- 
pmM  coarts  of  justice  of  tbe  Spanisli 


Puerto  &m1 


Ihigatekef 


WMt  Indlefc    It«  chief  ^manafacturtta 
^«Im.    U  ta  connected  by  railway  with 

STwtt.  San  Fernando  de  Nuevltaa.  and 

to  tl«  caplul  of  the  province  of  P»«/*?  •!»«««    (puf'in),  the  name  for  the 
Prliiclpe,atootaown^a.Camagjley^  PniRn  ^J  nUa,  birds  of  the  I 


or  cooked,  lome  of  them  are  tery  good 


Principe,  aiao  «buwu  a-  w— .-■—-.  - 
Jurreflin  of  10,600  equare  mllee  area. 
Pop.  (19071  29,616, 


Puerto  KCai   ^^    in   the    province 
and  7  miles  east  of  Cadto.    Pop.  9683. 
Puerto  EiCO.    see  Porto  fi.co. 

Pu£endorf,S'orfr^;?SSL  ^& 

iSd  thwloiy  an«riaw  at  Leip«lg  and  Jena, 
«dT&  appeared  hi»BJmc«toJ^ 
rUorudentia  Vntvenah:  In  l«»i  he  oe- 
S^J?Sfe«or  of  the  law  of  nature  and 

?ubKb%l?wo"rf^^Mi^ 
JSSlLi^  which,  from  the  boldness  of 
ftrrtUcta'ontheVnTtltution  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  caused  a  Profound  sensa- 
Hon  In  1670  he  went  to  Sweden,  &e- 
SSe  professor   of   natural    law    m   the 

ZTt  ta  Stockholm  as  historic  grapher- 
wal.  ^Ther^heTrote^m  Latin  his  v.g- 
S  vindication  of  Proteatant-sm  0« 
ikP  aniritual  Monarchy  of  the  Pope,^  a 

ftOuttaVua  Adolphua  in  Oprmanytpthe 
Imcationof  Queen  Chri'tina.tiUutoru 
ifSle>  duitavu»,Bjad  in  Geman  hw 
/;«rod«c«io«  to  the  Bforyof^ePrt^ 

S?v-id'i"'«umlfB«?o^Wte.  \Z  'Ir^ 
«ick  William,  elector  of  Brandenbu«.  a 
hiitSry  of  whim  Pufendorf  wrote  for  ^ 
•unn  the  first  king  of  Prussia.  In  lOU* 
g^°'wa,  c«Tted  a*"  baron  by  the  king  of 
Sweden  and  in  the  same  year  he  died  at 
B«nn  There  are  English  translations 
of  his  principal  works.  ^.  ,.„    «_i- 

Ti«4r  ^AAtkr'  {Vip^a  or  CIo«o  arte- 
PUff-attCier   J^^,'),  a  serpent  found  in 

South  and  Central  Africa.  Its  P<>P«'" 
name  is  derived  from  its  power  of  puff- 
fng  out  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  when 
irritated  o.  alarmed.  It  is  very  thick, 
attains  a  length  of  4  or  5  feet,  andjs 
e  xremely  •  cnlmous.  ^  The  Bosjesmen  poi- 
wn  the  arrows  used  by  them  in  battle 

rnil  OailS,  ja,  ghape,  and  because  if 
they  are  struck  when  they  are  ripe  the 
dr?  •pores  fly  out  in  POwSer  like  a  puff 
of  m'Sto,  fonn  the  ^e^^"  »' JhSdr^ 
Mftfoik    Whan  younc,  um  wnetner  raw 

16-8 


ma- 
_F  aiving  birds  oi  tn*  «*""" 
vrtitmrt^la  Thc  commou  puffin  (F.  Are- 
Sns*a^atlve  of  the  A^t'c  «J  "^ffi; 
em  temperate  regions.  It  can  fly  witn 
great  rapidity  when  once  upon  the  wing, 
ft  is  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  from 
the  singular  shape  and  enormonf  atoe  ol 


Common  Pullln  (rfal«r««a  aretieo). 


its   bill,   which   is   striped    with    orange 

upon  bluish  gray.  »•  «"«  «'"Si.*i^*  X'. 
parrot  or  the  couUeMcb.  Their  plu- 
mngris  glossy  black,  with  the  exception 
of  the  cheeks  and  under  surfaces,  which 
are  white.  It  breeds  upon  rocks  and  in 
the  rabbit  warrens  near  the  sea.  ana  wys 
one  egg,  which  is  white.  It  lives  on  flah, 
Crustacea,  and  Insects,  and  Is  a  gregarions 
and  migratory  bird.         ^     _  _    .,  _ 

iC^MA  (pug '  a  -  rS) ,  PuaoKBDB,  the 
^TlgW^®  iSme  in  InSia  for  a  piece 
of  muslin  cloth  wound  round  a  hat  or 
helmet  to  protect  the  head  by  warding  oB 

S^i^+ AVf  *  ('5?k4-chef') .  T»«LTAK, 
Pugatcnef    J^»,n  of  a  bon  Cossack, 
was  born   in    1726,   and  became   in   his 
youth  the  leader  of  a  band  of  robbere. 
Suring  the  Seven  Years*  war  he  served 
in  the  Russian,  Prussian,  and  Austrian 
armies  successively.    Returning  to  Rus- 
sia, he  attempted  to  stir  up  an  insurrec- 
tion, but  was  arrested   and  imprisoned. 
Having  made  his  escape,  he  pretended  to 
bi  the  murdered  czar,  Peter  HI.  to  whom 
he  bore  a  strong  personal  resemblance. 
He  was  joined  by  numbers  of  the  peas- 
antry, to  whom  he  promised  deiiveramce 
from     their    oppression.    After    sctomi 
considerable    successes,    accompanied    by 
frightful  cruelty  on  his  part,  he  found 
hifflf  at  the  Lad  of  15^000  men.  ai^ 
was  threatening  Moscow  itself  when,  p^ 
Treyed   by   his   followers  and   separated 
from  his  army,  he  was  captured,  and  m 
Jnne,  1775.  executed  at  Mo«»w. 


Pvgdoir 


PoUey 


.u^  „T"  mlnlatur*  re««mblaort  to 
tbt  balldof,  and  la  only  ktpt  at  a  domaa- 
tic  pat 

Pnget  Sound  iP^'S^of't'hTpX* 

Ocean,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  tbe 
State  of  Washington,  forminf  the  aoiith- 
west    continuation    of    Juan    de    Fuca  

Admiralty    Inlet.     It    is    navigable    by    t  n.    Pop.  (lUlO)  179.600 
larfe  ahips,  penetrates  far  into  the  in-   -^    '      -  •  v  -:^V-' ,f  if''^- 
tenor,  vand     is     divided     into     several 
branches,    which    afFonl    great    facilities 
for  navigation.    On  its  shores  are  Seat- 
tle, Olympia,  and  other  rising  towns. 


clay  la  thrown  la  at  tba  top  of  tha  eylin* 
dar,  and  by  the  ravolution  of  tha  ahaft 
ia  broucht  within  tha  action  of  th« 
knives,  by  which  It  ia  cut  and  knaadtd 
in  its  downward  progreaiu  and  finally 
forced  out  through  a  hola  in  tha  bottom 
of  the  cylinder. 

Fnket  <?**'J^*,''^'  •  *<>*»  o^  *«  w*nd 

~''  of  Salaihg    or    Junkaeylon,    be- 


Pngiiii 


PnflniL    (P*Jin),     AUOUSTIN     NOBTH- 

*'&'>»  UOBS  Welby,  architect,  was 
born  in  1811,  the  son  of  Augustus  Pugin 
(see  next  article),  from  whom  he  imbibed 
a  love  of  Gothic  architecture,  to  promote 
the  revival  of  which  became  early  the  ob- 
gct  of  hJs  life.  In  1834  he  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  designed  a  large 
number  of  ecclesiastical  buildings  for 
that  communion,  among  them  a  church  at 
Ramsgate,  which  was  built  at  bis  own 
expense.  He  assisted  Sir  Charles  Barry 
in  jrtie  designs  for  the  new  houses  of 
parliament,  especially  in  those  for  their 
interior  fittings  and  decorations.  The 
CoN<ra«f«,  or  a  Parallel  bciiccen  the 
Architecture  of  the  Fifteenth  nnd  Nine- 
teenth Centuriet  (1830),  tbe  True 
Prineiplet  of  Pointed  or  Christian  Ar- 
dkttecturo  (1841),  and  The  Glossary  of 
Ecelettattical  Ornament  and  Costume 
(1844),  are  among  his  principal  works. 
He  died  at  Ramsgate  in  1852. 
Pnfirin.  4"""^''"'*,  architectural 
»  »  draughtsman,  father  of  the 
above,  was  bom  in  France  in  17t>2,  but 
settled  early  in  life  in  London,  where  for 
many  years  he  acted  as  assistant  to 
Nash,  tbe  architect.  The  revival  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  England  was 
mnch  aided  by  his  Specimens  of  Gothic 
Architecture  (1821-23)  and  others  of  his 
works.  Among  these  were  tlie  Pictur- 
esque Tour  of  the  Seine  (1821)  and 
Bpeameni  of  the  Architectural  Antiaui- 
fee  of  Normandy  (1825-28).  He  died 
in  1832.  His  representations  of  Gothic 
architecture,  for  beauty,  accuracy,  and 
thorough  mastery  of  the  subject,  have 
never  been  excelled. 

PufiT-mill.  *  machine  for  mixing  and 
,  ^**  .  ^'  tempering  clay.  It  con- 
sists of  a  bollow  iron  cylinder,  generally 
set  upright,  with  a  revolving  shaft  in  the 
Jine  of  its  axis,  carrying  !\  number  of 
kaives  projecting  from  It  at  right  angles, 
«aa  arranged  in  a  spiral  maanec    Tha 


Pulaski  (''H;^"''!)'  couwt  gabuob, 

OXK4  tolish  patriot  and  Amer- 
lean  Revolutionary  officer;  born  in  1747. 
Going  into  exile  in  1772,  he  came  to  thia 
country  and  joined  the  natriot  army  in 
li«7.  As  commander  otthe  cavalry  he 
was  killed  in  1779  at  the  aiege  of  Savan- 
nah. 

"PXflci  (pul'che),  Luioi,  an  Italian 
poet,  bom  in  1431,  lived  in  in- 
timacy with  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  bis 
literary  circle.  His  poem  II  Morgante 
Maggiore,  is  a  burlesque  on  the  romantic 
epic.    Puici  died  in  1487. 

Pulicat   /**",':«-^"i^' a  to«n  of  India, 
**"*"•"   in  Madras  Presidency,  on  an 
island   23   miles    north  of  Madras  city. 
Pop.  about  5000. 

Pulitzer  (P<*'l»t-«*r),  Josiph,  Amer- 
*"  .  „  ican  editor  and  publisher, 
born  in  Budapest,  Hungary,  in  1847; 
diid  in  1911.  In  1804  he  drifted  to  the 
United  States,  entered  newspaper  work  in 
St.  Louis  and  became  rapidly  successful. 
In  1883  he  bought  the  New  York  Worli 
and  made  it  the  first  successful  exponent 
of  popular  journalism.  Four  years  later 
he  lost  his  sight.  He  endowed  a  school  of 
journalism  at  Columbia  Univejrsity. 

PulleV  <Pll''')'  *  "m*!'  wheel  movable 
v  about  an  axle,  and  having  a 
groove  cut  in  its  circumference  over  which 
a  cord  passes.  The  axle  is  supported  by 
a  kind  of  case  or  box  called  the  block, 
which  may  either  be  movable  or  fixed  to 
a  firm  support.    The  pulley  is  one  of  the 


Tig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


six  simple  machines  or  mechanical  pow- 
ers, and  is  used  for  raising  weights.  A 
single  pulley  serves  merely  to  change  tbe 
direction  of  motion,  but  several  of  them 
may  be  combined  in  variona  ways,  by 
which  a  asfchaaletl  adrantat*  or  pur* 


Pulley 


Polmotor 


.    ^  *      —  !<..«    nppnrd-   I  to  that  power  of  2  whoiie  Index  !■  thm 

ebaw  It  wined,  greater  «  '"»•  "^,"'™,  iuSbeTol  movable  puUeyt  (in  tlie^ai*> 
ins  to  their  number  and  the  mocle  ol  ?^"^  "t^j^i  i-'/*  or  1:8).  What- 
comblnatlon.  The  advantage  ganed  by  here  gj"^*^,^^^^  artanft««t_af 
any  combination  or  «>«'*'°  .°^„  Vhi  v/loi-  the  pSleyi  and  ot  the  rope^  th*  prln- 
readily  ~»PH<«1 ''y.^T'lfiyh  Umt  of  t1?e  dple  of  il  pulley,  is  the  iaie,  namely, 
ity  of  the  weight  raided  w«th  that  of  the  «^P'*j^^i,J^ion  (,,  the  tenrion  of  a  rope 

moTlng  power.  "^"/'^'^'K  *^!f;t,Pn''"Sow.  trithoutKnaible  diminution  «  a.  to  oV 
of  ▼!"«'  'e>»«  fit"-,.  T^p*  t  ^^"cnlarly  vlate  the  lo«8  of  force  coneequent  on 
ever,  in  the  pulley  is  S'^e**'  P"r'"V«"^   rfgidity.     The  term  pulley  is  used  indif- 

being  placed  upon  a  shaft  transmits 
power  to  or  from  the  different  parts  of 
the  machinery,  or  changes  the  uirectioB 
of  motion  by  moans  of  a  belt  or  band 
which  runs  over  it 

Pnllman  (PUl'man),  Geomb  M.,  in- 
X^UIUUHU  yentor,  bom  in  ChauUuqua 
Co.,  New  York,  in  1831.  At  22  he  con- 
tracted for  removing  warehouses  on  the 
Erie  canal;  afterwards  in  Chicago  for 
raiBing  entire  blocks  of  brick  and  stone 
buildings.  In  1858  he  made  his  first 
sleopins-ear,  now  developed  into  the  cai 
known  all  ov?r  the  world  — 'especially 
adapted  for  sleeping  in,  or  as  a  drawing- 
room  or  dining-car.  The  industrial  town 
of  Pullman,  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  was 
founded  by  him,  to  improve  the  social 
surroundings  of  his  workmen.  He  died 
in  1807. 

,.  movable,  in  the  single  fixed  pulley  PuhnobrailChiata  ^PftH'j^SSrS: 
(fig.  1)  there  is  no  mechanical  advan-  ^er  of  gasteropod  molluscs  (also  caUed  by 
tage,  the  power  and  weight  »«>n8  «!«««•  ^^^  naturalists  Pulmonata),  in  whidi 
It  may  be  considered  as  a  Jever  oi  lue  ^j^^  respiratory  organ  is  a  cavity  formed 
first  kind  with  fq"a'  a"°«Av  ^^wp  the  by  *«  adhesion  of  the  mantie  by  its  mu' 
gle  movable  PuUfy  ,(68- ,2)  ^lii'^ilal  gin  to  the  neck  of  the  animaL  The 
rords  are  parallel  there  is  a  mf' hanic^  |  ^    ^f    ^^em    are  terrertrfal. 

advantage,  there,  being  "°„i^Stl,  i  t^  a°o°«  **>«*  *'**°«  ^"^  ""^  "*  "*"«* 
5''''?t'marbe"c"n.?deV'erara; lever  of  PnlmOIiary  ConSTimption.  ^^ 
L  wcoTd^ind.  in  which  the  distance  ^  Co- 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  4. 


is:  S^r^^m^^h^  fulcrum  lH=lefhat   ^mp^ion. 
of  t^e   weight   from  the  fulcrum.     In  a  PulmOIia'ta. 
system    of   rulleys    (figs. 


11g.5. 


See  PHlmoftraackiota. 

3^'4*)"in"  which  "the  same  PnlmnfAr  ">  instrument  used  for 
string  passes  round  any  iHUmOtOr,  p^ducing  artificial  resplra- 
num^r  of  pulleys,  and  tion  in  casas  of  "uffooition,  gu  inhala- 
the  parts  of  it  between  tion,  drowning,  etc.  There  are  various 
the  pulleys  are  parallel,  devices  used  for  this  .purpose,  the  pnl- 
there'^  isan  equUibrium  motor  ««°K  .•»'  ~°**ifr'°f  re^  a^'aAh.^, 
when  the  power  is  lo  the  of  oxygen,  while  the  ^r.  PreLtK  aw 
weight  as^  to  the  num-  uses  pure  oxygen.  Ot5«^„°*SS1Llt^ 
ber  of  strings  at  the  known  as  the  lung  motor  andthe  «lva- 
lower  blMk  In  a  svs-  tor.  None  of  these  are  free  .from  danger, 
tern  in  which  each  p«l-  and  in  the  hands  of  the  "lexpertowd 
lev  hanKS  by  a  separate  may   hasten   death  instead   of   nat<^mg 

is  to  the  weight  as  employed  in  tJse  intervals. 


Mo-ViM 


fwmim 


Pnlo-Viai,  "»•  "  ^^   <''i^ 
Pnlo  Penang.  bm  p«Mm«. 

Pnlnit    (Pttl'P'O.    the   elevated    endo- 

'        uurB  or  deM  in  •  ctiurch  Irom 

whidi  the  preacher  dellTers  hie  diacoune. 

The  putpitum  of  the  andeat  Roman  the- 

aten  was  that  part  of  the  atage  where 

th<>  acton  performed. 

PnlflllA  (PUl'W),  or  OCTU,  a  favorite 
JTIUque  JJJi,^  /n  jjjji^o  „j  Central 

America,  made  from  the  juice  of  varioua 
apedea  of  agave,  pleasant  and  harmleas 
until  after  protracted  fermentation,  when 
it  becomea  |in  intoxicant  A  kind  of 
brandy  ia  also  diatilled  from  it 
Pnlui  (puis),  leguminous  plants  or 
*  *"■*  their  seeds,  includinj  aU  kinda 
of  beans,  pease,  lentils,  etc.  The  consid- 
erable proportion  of  nitrogen  which  they 
contain  makes  them  very  nutritiouH,  and 
on  that  account  they  are  much  eaten, 
with  or  without  rice,  in  India,  where  the 
chick-pea  (Cicer  artetmum)  is  one  of 
these  very  largely  used.  The  Hebrew 
word  translated  pulse  in  the  authorized 
version  of  the  Bible.  Daniel,  i,  12,  16, 
probably  means  edible  seeds  in  general. 
P||1m  the  throbbing  movement  of  the 
•**•«>  walls  of  blood-veHsels,  from  the 
passing  waves  of  blood  due  to  the  beata 
of  the  heart.  It  is  limited  in  healthy 
conditions  to  the  arteries.  In  the  newly- 
born  child  the  healthy  pulse  registers  130 
to  140  beata  a  minute;  at  two  years  of 
age  106,  at  ten  years 
about  00,  at  fifteen 
to  twenty  about  70; 
while  in  old  age  it 
may  sink  to  about  60. 
In  females  it  is  some- 
what higher  than  in 
males,  and  during 
certain  fevers  it 
sometimes  reaches 
140  beats  per  min- 
ute. In  arteries 
which  He  immediate- 
ly under  the  skin  it 
can  be  felt  with  the 
finger,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  radial  ar- 
tery, the  pulsation 
of  which  is  very  per- 
force and  frequency 
of  the  action  of  the 
heart 

Pulsometer  <^^; 

e-ter) ,  an  instru- 
ment of  the  pumn  kind  for  raising  water, 
eapedally  when  that  liquid  is  mixed  with 
•olid  matter.  It  acta  by  the  condensa- 
MoB  of  waste  steam  sent  into  a  reae^ 


Paltometer, 


voir,  tha  watar  maUat  np  iato  tka 
vacuum  formed  by  tha  coadeaaatkiii. 
Ji'rom  the  aocompaaying  figurs  It  will 
be  aaas  that  ^t  coosiata  caaeatlaUy 
of  a  doable  nambar,  or  two  coa* 
nected  chambara,  aa,  haviag  a  ball-ralve 
1  at  top  (which  ahuta  eitner  cnanber 
alternately)  and  dack-valvea  si  at  bot- 
tom. Steam  la  admitted  at  K  to  one 
of  tha  chambera  and  preaaea  oat  the 
water  contained  Uiera  toroofh  r  to  the 
pipe  r>  to  be  oarried  away.  Cond«iaati<» 
then  takea  place,  a  vacuam  ia  farmed,  and 
the  ball  falla  over  and  doaaa  the  opening 
through  which  the  ateam  cntere«f,  and 
water  flows  up  through  the  dack-valvea 
and  again  filla  the  chamber.  Hie  steam 
in  the  meantime  ia  now  acting  upon  the 
water  in  the  adjoining  diamber,  conden- 
sation then  taking  place  there,  the  ball 
falla  back  to  that  side,  and  the  opera- 
tiona  go  on  alternately,  the  reault  being 
a  steady  stream  of  water  sucked  into  one 
chamber  after  another,  and  then  forced 
out  and  upwards  by  the  steam. 

Pulta'wa.    BwPoUav. 

PnU<iTi»ir  (pult'ni),  William,  an 
nuieney  g  n  ,  1 1 ,  h  poimdan,  was 
bom  in  1084,  of  an  dd  Leicejiterriiirf 
family:  died  in  1764.  He  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1706,  and  became 
a  privy-coundlor  and  secretary  of  war 
at  the  acceaaion  of  George  I,  being  then 
a  friend  and  partisan  of  Walpole.  He 
later  turned  against  Walpole  ana  was 
dismissed.  On  Walpole's  fall  he  was 
asked  to  form  a  ministry  but  it  soon  fell. 
He  was  later  created  Earl  of  Bath  and 
retired  from  public  life. 
Pnlfnair  (pOl-tftsk'),  a  town  of  Rns- 
nUlUBK  gj^„  Poland,  on  the  river 
Narew,  32  miles  v.  n.  e.  of  Waraaw. 
The  Saxons  were  here  defeated  by  Charles 
XII  in  1703,  and  the  Russians  had  to 
retreat  before  the  French  in  1806.  Pop. 
15,878. 

Pnln  (P910K  (t  silky,  fibrous  substance 
**"**■  obtained  from  ferns  of  the  genus 
Cibotium,  and  exported  from  the  Sand- 
wich Islands;  used  for  staffing  mat- 
tresses, etp.  Other  spedes  growing  in 
the  East  Indies,  Mexico,  etc,  yield  a 
similar  substance. 

PnlvA^il  (vSl'tti).  the  oil  vielded  by 
nuza-OU    ^^  jAyalc-nut  (which  see). 

Puma  (pa'ma).    See  Cougar. 

PnTniP«»  (pQ'mis).  a  substance  fre- 
■*^^"*"*'®  qnently  ejected  from  vol- 
canoes, of  various  colmra,  gray,  white, 
reddish  brown  or  black :  hard,  roai^  and 
porous;  Ro«dfica1Iv  Hrhter  than  water, 
and  resembling  the  slag  produced  in  an 
iron  fomaee.     Pumice  ia  really  a  looafv 


FniBp 


Fnnip 


.policy.  f«.tWlk«J«^-    It  conteto*  *»  »»*.»«?  ?.'_.*.»i«  J'J'.!?*'. 


Km  t  abrouTitructure.    Pumlc*  ta  of 


thrM  Wwb,  glaiij;.  common,  "»^_P« W 
ritle.    Itfa    UMd    for   poU.bln«    ivory, 
wood,   marble,   meUU,   flM^   etc.;   •«o 
fornnootbinc  the  eurftce  of  •kini  and 

«!^«i«  a  contrivance  for  raliina  Hqulda 
*»»™P»  or  for  removing  gaaet  from  vea- 
aela.  Tbe  air-pump  la  dealt  with  in  a 
aeparate  article.  Thoufh  the  «onna  un- 
der which  the  hydrauHc  PU^P.  »"  «?"• 
itructed.    and,  the    mode    >»    *^^>»>« 

KSrraVt^y'of  waTth^re"« t"ly  four   «ime  phKe«i.  and 
^"Sm  £  con^f/ei^ed  «a  differing^rom    In  thfa  way  toe 
Shother  In  principle.    Theae  are  the   water  i.   rai.ed 
tuoMwff  or  luction  pump,  tbe  lift-pttrnp, 
the  /oroe-pniiip,  and  tbe  rotary  ot  centr%l- 
MgJ  pump.    6f    tbett    the    auction    ot 


atructl&  to  the  *•»•''»•»«>? ''*wfc^»2i 
der  to  ita  height  in  the  well.    W»tfn  the 
piaton  la  drawn  up  Ita  yalva  will  abut, 
and  the  water  in  the  cylin- 
der will   be  lifted   up:    the 
valve  in  tbe  barrel  will  be 
opened,  and  the  water  will 
paea  through  it  and  cannot 
return,   aa  the 
valve   opena   up- 
warda; — another 
atroke  of  the  pis- 
ton   repeats    the 
and 


Mmm«  "hSiiaebold  pump  la  ««•*  i"^ 
and    for    ordinary    purpoeea 
the    moat    convenient.     The 
usual  form  and  conatruction 
of  this  pump  are  abown  In 
the    annexed    engraving.     A 
piston  a  is  fitted  to  work  air- 
tight within  a  hollow  cylinder 
or  barrel  6  b;  it  is  moved  up 
and    down    by    a    handle    con- 
neoted  with  the  piston-rod,  and 
is  provided  with  a  valve  «^  open- 
ing upwards 


from  tbe  well 
but  the  height  to 
which  it  may  be  raised 
la  not  In  this  as  in 
tbe  snctlon-pump  lim- 
ited to  82  or  33  feet. 
The  force-pump  differs 
from  both  of  these  in 
having  Ita  piston  solid, 
or  without  a  valve,  and 
a>o  in  having  a  side 
with    a    valve 


Foree-punp  of 
gtesmengla*. 


wiiu    «    •— -■^    opening    outwarda, 

ugh  which  the  water  is  forced  to  any 

.    iht  required,  or  against  any  preaaura 

n  a  vaive  »,  uyc«-    tnat  may  oppose  it.     In  such  pnr  "s  tbe 

A?  the  bottorof    Pl«n,er  or  5olid  Piston    sfrequc  ^- 


ployed  instead  of  the  ordinary  plstou 
arrangeaaent  Is  represented  In  tbe  acco. 
panylng  figure,  which  shows  a  aectlonoi 
the  feed-pump  of  a  steam-engine.  The 
plunger  a  works  air-tight  through  a  atuf- 
fing-box  b  at  the  top  of  tbe  barrel,  and  on 
being  raised  produces  a  vacuum  in  the 
pump-barrel  Into  which  the  water  ruabea 


Suction- 
poatp. 


the  barrel  Is  another  valve  f, 
also  opening  upwards,  and 
which  covers  the  orifice  of  a 
tube  c  0,  called  the  suction-tube, 
fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  bar- 
nir^nd-reachlng  to  the  bottom 
of    the    welt    from    which    the 

side  pipe  d,  however,  requires  tbe  addl' .  m 
of  an  alr-vesael.  *  Double-acting '  pu'  pa 
are  often  employed  for  household  w-^ 
poaea.   (See  Steam  Engine.)    Centn.  .»aI 


ure  of  the  external  air  acting 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  In 
the  well,  causes  the  water  to 
rise  In  tbe  suction-tube  until 
the  equilibrium  is  restored.    After  a  few 


S^S.""Le  rteV^1ll  gefinto^  he'lS./AI  K^i  k«nS-^-,S.lTy  employed  wherever 

?h"a?r  below  the  piston  ^vlng  escaped  the  lift  Is  not  too  great.  a°d  the  Jiuantuy 

thronih  the  Dlaton-valve  e.    By  contlnu-  of  water  la  conalderable.    A  ^'heeUshaped 

iSr^  tie  wItCT  win  get  ahi)ve  the  piston  like  an  ordinary  fan,  has  passages  lead- 

uid  be  raTwd  along  with  It  to  tbe  clatem  ing  from  ita  center  to  its  clrcumfercmce; 

5    -tthJI™  of  the  barrel    where  it  la  It  ia  made  to  rotate  very  rapidly  in  a 


VaaipcUy 


Svmpkia 


Cktiihitump. 


Cantrifngal  Pump  and  Motor. 


rumpvuy  ologist,  bom  at  Oswego, 
New  York,  in  1837.  In  early  life  he  con- 
ducted explorations  for  the  governments 
of  China  and  Japan,  and  in  1866  became 
profeaaor  of  mining  engineering  in  Har- 
vard. He  was  on  the  geological  survey 
of  Michigan  1870-71,  State  geologist  of 
Missouri  1871-73,  and  on  the  United 
States  geological  survey  1879-81  and 
1884-01.  In  1903-04  he  was  engaged  in 
explorations  in  Central  Asia.  He  is  the 
author  of  Aero»»  America  and  Asia  and 
other  worlu. 

Pumpernickel  te'^'&'n'^l'r^aS 

made  in  Westplialia  from  unbolted  rye. 
PnmnVin  (pump'kin),  a  climbing 
rumpKHl    ^fiit*;nd  ita  fmit.  of  the 


in  America.  The  fmit  is  red.  and  some 
times  acquires  a  diameter  of  2  feet. 
There  are  two  varieties  of  the  plant,  on# 


Pumpkin  (CuturhiU  Pepo). 

with  roundish,  the  other  with  oblona 
fruit.  The  fruit  Is  eaten  in  a  cooked 
state. 


fWM 

Van     •  Pl*7  "PM  ^'^'^  ^^  ?!'  ^ 
'■■f    whkTdapMd*  OB  •  wymblMw; 

la  MOod  bttw«0a  two  wordi  ni  dtfltrwt 
•ad  ptrhapo  eootrary  mMBlat  ^  or  on  tbo 
■M  o(  tht  MBM  word  In  dif  trant  wnwo. 
Vmiiili  (contracted  from  jMiReMiMllo), 
*■■•'*  Um  chW  cbaractiir  in  «  pop- 
nlnr  conk  nhlbUioa  pcrroriMd  hj  pup* 
ptt*.  who  itranglw  his  child,  bMts  to 
dMth  Judy  his  wife,  bclalwn  •  police- 
oSctr,  etc.  The  pupp«t-«how  of  Punch 
MMW  to  h«T*  hecn  fint  popular  in  Bng- 
land  dartaf  tht  relm  of  Qumu  Annt. 
Tht  boro  wm  MmetiinM  cnllcd  Punchl- 
Mllo,  a  Mmi-anclirtsed  form  of, the  Non- 
poUtan  Pnlcincflo.  Bm  PumeMmtao. 
tkiiwAli  a  bevtraco  introductd  Into 
Jninon,  BngUnd  from  India,  whm  it 
iwtlTid  ita  nanw  from  the  Htadu  word 
Muck.  fir*,  this  being  tht  numbor  of  ita 
tegndlcnta,  arrack,  tea,  sugar,  watsr. 
and  lima-Julcs.  In  a  common  brew  of 
the  bsrcrags  its  Ingredients  are  mm, 
brandy,  sugar,  boiling  water,  and  lemoo- 
Julco.  .    .  . 

PhhaIi  •  »•«'  worked  by  prMsnra  or 
X-OUVUi  pereuislon,  employed  for  mak- 
iag  k^  ares,  in  cuttinf  out  shapw  from 
sheets  plates  of  various  materials,  in 
impresMOg  dies,  etc.  Punches  are  usu- 
ally made  of  st.el,  and  sre  variously 
shaped  at  one  end  for  different  uses. 
They  are  solid  for  stamping  dies,  etc..  or 
for  perforating  holes  in  metallic  plates, 
and  hollow  and  sharp-edged  for  cutting 
out  blanto,  as  for  buttons,  steel  pens, 


after  tht  Invention  of  prtntinf,  tht  V«M* 
tlaa  printm,  tbt  Maautil,  coatribatlM 
aattnally  to  Its  development.  Tht  arte* 
cipal  p^ta  uatd  in  Knglisb  compodUoa 
art  tht  oMasM  (,).  Mwioofon  ( ;),  eotfm 
(:>,  ptrM  or  fuU  »top  (.),  »o«e  •/  <«• 
(errofNiftoa  (T),  aef*  0/  saelaMaNMi  or 
*dminth»  (1),  iath  (— ).^nnd  poreji- 
tke»i$  (  ).  The  ooMMo  marka  tht  small- 
est grammatical  division  in  a  ttnteaet, 
separating  tht  several  membera  of  a 
serlta,  and  tbt  subordinate  clawMt  frooi 
tht  main  clause.  Tht  Mmkofon  Indi- 
cates a  longer  pause  than  tbt  comna, 
but  requires  another  member  or  mtmben 
to  complttt  the  senst.  Tht  colon  dtnoCtt 
a  still  l<mgtr  pause,  and  may  bt  inttrttd 
when  a  member  of  a  sentence  Is  com- 
plete In  Itself,  but  Is  foliiwed  by  spmt 
additional  Illustration  of  tht  aubjtet 
The  MHod  Indicates  the  md  of  a  wm- 
tenet,  and  is  also  uaed  rfter  contnettd 
worda,  headings,  titles  of  books,  etc., 
and  sometimes  after  Roman  numtraw. 
Tht  nott  of  imterrotatioit  la  plactd  at  tha 


end  of  a  direct  interrogatory  sentonct. 
The  «o<«  of  emeUmation  or  odsilraKon  la 
placed  at  the  end  of  such  words  or  dauaaa 


Jewelry,  and  the  like.  

Vm^aIiaaw     (pun'shun) ,  a  liquid  meaa- 
Punoneon   i^  of  capacity  conulnlng 

from  84  to  120  gallons. 

PnnohiiieUo  ir  S'i^'luii  «R8l: 

tlon,  the  origin  of  the  English  Punch, 
said  to  bt  derived  from  a  humorous  pea"- 
ant  from  Sorento,  who  had  received  the 
aickname  (about  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century)  from  his  bringing 
chickens  (pulcinelle)  to  market  in  Na- 
ples, and  who,  after  his  death,  was  per- 
sonated in  the  puppet-shows  of  the  Ban 
Carlino  theater,  for  the  amusement  of 
the  people,  to  whom  he  was  well  known. 
According  to  another  account,  it  Is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Puccio  d'Anlello,  a  favorite 
buffoon  of  the  Neapoliun  populace. 

PTmCtUatiOll  fcfe^p'o?inV;iS 
by  which  the  parts  of  a  writing  or  dto- 
coorse  are  cfflmected  or  separated  as  the 
senst  requires,  and  the  elevation,  deprea- 
alon,  or  suspensloa  of  the  voijt  indicated. 
Punctuation   aerves  both  to  render  the 

meaning  Intelligible  and  to  aid  the  oral  »»«.«».  --«  — , ,.—  — ~ . 

daliverv.    Our  nreatnt  system  of  punc-   hanging    or    electrocution,    imprisonment 
tuatiw  camt  Itry   gndnally   Into   nat  with  and  without  bard  labor,  soUtary 

25— U— I 


as  indicate  surprise  or  other  emotion. 
The  daik  is  employed  where  a  stnttnct 
breaks  off  abruptly,  and  the  subject  ta 
changed;  where  the  sense  Is  suspended, 
and  la  continued  after  a  short  Intermp- 
tion;  after  a  aeries  of  clauses  leading  to 
an  Important  conclualon;  and  in  certain 
cases  to  indicatt  an  ellipsis.  Tht  parta- 
theiit  encloses  a  word  or  phrase  intro- 
duced Into  the  body  of  a  sentence,  with 
which  it  baa  no  grammatical  connection. 
In  modem  usage  tht  da$h  is  frtqntntly 
used  to  replace  the  parenthe$U. 

Fnndit.  (p«»'<"t)'  8^  p«»d«. 

PtitiIa  (pQ'nik),  the  langnaga  of  the 
f  uiuv  gncient  Carthaflnlana,  an  off- 
shoot of  Phoenician,  and  allied  to  He- 
brew.—  Pttnio  vn,  wara  waged  betwMn 
Rome  and  Carthage,  the  flnt  B.o.  284- 
241;  the  second  B.O.  218-202:  and  tht 
third,  which  ended  with  tht  deatmctlon 
of  Carthage,  B.C.  140-147. 
Pnnififl.  (pH'ni-ka),  a  genns  of  plants 
•'^^"""*  which  consists  only  of  a  sin- 
gle sptdea,  tht  pomegranate  (P.  proa«> 
turn).  8et  Poatttfranote. 
PnniaYinKiTit  vH  I'l'h-ment),  a  pen* 
■'^"""»™®'**  al  Inflicted  on  a  ptr- 
■on  for  a  crime  or  oiense,  by  tht  author- 
ity to  which  the  offender  is  subject;  a 
penalty  imposed  in  the  enforcement  or 
application  of  law.  The  puniahmtnta 
for  criminal  offmses  now  known  to 
American  and  English  law  are  death  by 


Pnnjal) 


Punjab 


f 


I  ^ 


1 1 


sooflnemcnt,  detention  in  a  refonnatory 
■cbool,    aubjection    to    police-Bupervition, 
and    putting    under    recognizance.    The 
methooa  of  punialiment  differ  in  different 
■tatet,  but  the  general  character  of  pun- 
ishment for  offenses,  as  now  in  use,  does 
not   greatly    vary    in   civilized    countries 
generally.    In  Efngland,  in  cases  of  fel- 
ony and  of  certain  specific  misdemeanors, 
when  a  previous  conviction   for  a  sim- 
ilar offense  is  proved,  tlie  sentence  may 
include  police  supervision  for  seven  years 
or  less,  to  commence  at  the  espiration  of 
ttie  offender's  term  of  imprisonment.    On 
its  expiry  he  must  notify  to  the  police 
within  forty-eiglit  hours  his  place  or  any 
subseouent  change  of  residence,  and  re- 
port himself  once  a  month,  a  breach  of 
any  of   these  regulations  rendering  him 
liable  to  imprisonment  for  twelve  months 
with  or  without  liard  labor.     When  the 
offender  is  ordered  to  find  recognizances, 
personal  or  other,  be  may,  in  default,  be 
imprisoned.     In  army  punisliment  a  com- 
missioned oflScer  must  be  tried  by  court- 
martial,    which    may    sentence    him    to 
death,  or  cashier  him,  or  place  Lim  at 
the  very   bottom   of   the  oflScers   of  bis 
grade.     Privates  may  for  minor  offenses 
be  ordered  short  imprisonments,  or  pun- 
ishment-drill, or  stoppage  of  leave  or  pay. 
For    grave    offenses    they    are    tried    by 
court-martial,  and   may  be  sentenced  to 
dismissal  from  the  service,  or  to  impris- 
onment, to  penal  <!ervitude,  or  to  death. 
In  the  navy,  for  oificers  the  chief  addi- 
tions to  the  punishments  inflicted  in  the 
army   are   forfeiture    of   seniority    for   a 
specified    time    or    otherwise,    dismissal 
from  the  ship  to  w^hich  the  offender  be- 
longs, and  reprimand  more  or  less  severe. 
For  men  the  punishments  in  the  rase  of 
grave  offenses  are  of  the  same  character 
as  in  the  army,  flogging  being  practically 
abolished.    For  less  serious  offenses  there 
is  a  system  of  summary  punishments,  in- 
cluding   short     terms    of    imprisonment 
which   can   be   awarded   by   captains   of 
ships.     Within  recent  years  the  severity 
of  punishment  by  imprisonment  has  been 
mitigated  to  some  extent  in   the  United 
States.     Ten  of  the  States  have  adopted 
the  principle  of  indeterminate  sentences, 
the  time  depending  on  the  conduct  of  the 
convict.     The  severity  of  prison  discipline 
has  been  reduced  and  recreation  provided 
for  the  prisonera  in  some  instances,  and 
in  others  the  convicts  have  been  allowed 
to  do  outdoor  work  without  {ruard«.  their 
word  of  honor  being  taken,  and  in  very 
few  instances  broken. 
Pnniftb    (Pu°-Jiib'),   or  Panjab   (the 
« uujnu  nnnjp  means  'Five   Rivera'), 
a   province  of  British   India,   under  the 
administration  of  a  lieutenant-governor, 


so-called  because  it  was  the  region  inttr- 
sected  by  the  five  tributaries  of  the  Indus, 
the    Sutlej,    the    Beas,    the    Ravi,    the 
Cbenab,   and   the  Jhelum.    The   present 
lieutenant-governorship    of    the    Punjab, 
however,    is    larger    than    the    Punjab 
proper,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west  by 
Afghanistan    and    Beluchistau;    on    the 
north  by  Kashmir;  on  the  east  by  the 
Northwest  Provinces;  and  on  the  south 
by   Sind  and  Uajputana.     The  area,  ex- 
clusive of  native  states,  is  97,200  square 
miles;  the  pop.,  according  to  the  census 
of  1901,  24,7.">4,737 ;  inclusive  of  native 
states,  the  area  is  13;i,741  square  miles, 
and  the  pop.  29,170,135.     It  consists  of 
thirty-two    British    districts    and    forty 
native  tributary  states.     For  administra- 
tive purposes  it  is  divided  into  the  divi- 
sions of   Delhi,   Hissar,   Ambala,   Jalan- 
dhar,    Amritsar,    Lahore,    Kawal    Pindi, 
Multan,    Derajat,    and    Peshawar.    La- 
hore, situated  near  the  center  of  the  prov- 
ince, is  the  capital  of  the  Punjab,  but  its 
principal  city  is  Delhi,  the  ancient  me- 
tropolis of  the  Mogul  sovereigns  of  India. 
The  extreme  northern  portion  of  the  Pun- 
jab is  rendered  mountainous  by  spurs,  or 
offsets,  of  the  great  Himalaya  system ;  but 
for  the  most  part  the  province  consists 
of    a    series   of   extensive   plains.     These 
are    divided    into    eastern    and    western, 
which  may  be   roughly  defined  as  lying 
east  and  west  of  the  meridian  of  Lahore. 
The  eastern  plains  include  the  most  fer- 
tile and  populous  portion  of  the  Punjab, 
with  the  three  great  cities  of  Delhi,  Am- 
ritsar, and  Lahore.     Their  population  is 
largely   urban;    trade  and   manufactures 
flourish,  and  the  cultivable  area  is  gen- 
erally under  the  plow,  with  the  exception 
of     the     southwestern     portions,     where 
flocks    and    herds    pasture    in    extensive 
jungles.     The  western  plains,  on  the  con- 
trary, and  with  the  crception  of  a  com- 
paratively narrow  zone   which   is  fertil- 
ized  by    irrigation,   and   which    produces 
some  of  the  finest  wheat   in   tlie  world, 
are  covered  by  stunted  bush,  with  short 
grass  in  dry  seasons,  and  by  saline  plants 
which  afford  nourishment  to  great  herds 
of    camels.    These,    with    cattle,    sheep, 
and  goats,  are  tended  by  a  nomad  popu- 
lation.    The    difference   between    the   in- 
habitants of  these  two  series  of  plains  is 
also  very  marked,   those  in   the  eastern 
partaking  of  the  character  of  the  Hindu 
inhabitants  of  India,  while  those  in  the 
western    resemble    more    the    Mussulman 
peoples    of    the    Transsuleiman    country 
Though  numerically  small,  the  Sikh  ele 
ment  in  the  population  is  very  Important. 
The  Sikhs  constituted  the  dominant  class 
when   the   Punjab   became    Britisl..   and 
they  still  compose  the  mass  of  the  gentry 


Pnnjniid 


Pnrbeok  Bedi 


between  the  five  rivers.     Since  tlie  mutiny 
the  Punjab  has  made  great  progress  in 
commerce   and    general    industry,    partly 
tbroagb  the   constru'-'ion,   under   British 
roie,  of  irrigation       naic  and  railways. 
One  of  the  most  important  products  of 
the  Punjab  is  roclc-salt.     In  addition  to 
the  manufactures  common  to  the  rest  of 
India  the  industries  of  the  Punjab  include 
such  special  products  as  the  silks  of  Mul- 
tan  and  the  shawls  and  carpets  of  Lahore. 
The   province  enjoys  an  extensive  trade 
with    adjacent    countries,    and    sends    its 
products  to  Delhi  by  railways,  and  by  the 
Indus  and  the  Indus  Valley  Railway  to 
Sind    and    the    sea.     Its    imports    from 
Britain   are   chiefly   piece-goods,   cutlery, 
and  other  metal  works.     The  Punjab  has 
had  a   rather  eventful  history  from   the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great  downward. 
After  being  long  held  by  rulers  of  Afghan 
or  Tartar  origin,  the  Sikhs  under  Runjlt 
Singh   established   themselves   here   early 
in  the  last  century.    At  a  later  date  the 
country  fell  into  a  very  distrqcted  state; 
its  Sikh  rulers  came  into  warlike  contact 
with  the  British,  and  after  the  second  Sikh 
war,   in   1849,   the  country  was  brought 
under  British  administration. 
PnytiTiTirl     (punj'nud),  the  name  given 
f  uujuuu    jQ  (|,g  stream  which  pours 
into  the  Indus,  about  70  miles  above  the 
Sind    frontier,    the    combined    waters    of 
the  five  rivers,  the  Sutloj,  the  Beas,  the 
Ravi,  the  Chenab,  and  the  Jhelum. 
PnnVali     (pung'ka),    in    its    original 
f  uu&.au    sense    a    portable   fan    made 
from    the   leaf   of   the   palmyra,    but    in 
Anglo-Indian  parlance  a  large  fixed  and 
swinging  fan  formed  of  cloth  attached  to 
a  rectangular  frame  suspended  from  the 
ceiling   and    pulled    backwards   and    for- 
wards by  means  of  a  cord,  thus  causing 
a  current  of  air  in  the  apartment. 
'DnTiTio'k    (pun'na),   a   native   state  of 
riUUiau  inrtia,  in  Bundelcund,  by  the 
British  agency  of  which  it  is  politically 
superintended,   formerly   very   prosperous 
from  the  yield  of  its  diamond  mines.     Es- 
timated area,  25(58  sq.  miles;  pop.  about 
200,000. —  PUNMAH    18    the    chief    town. 
Pop.  14,676. 

PnTin  (pO'nO),  a  town  of  Peru,  cap- 
X^UUU  ijgj  of  the  department  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  west  sliore  of  Lake 
Titicaca,  about  12,430  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Pop.  about  6000. —  The  depart- 
ment is  distinguished  by  the  extent  and 
richness  of  its  pastures,  and  was  formerly 
famous  for  its  silver  mines.  Its  principal 
exports  are  the  wool  of  the  gbeep,  llama, 
alpaca,  and  vicuOa.  Area  about  42  sq. 
milM;  pop.  637,345. 

Pnw^i  an  oblong,  flat-bottomed  beat 
^^^h    vumi  for  fiaUiw  and  tbeotins 


in  shallow  waters.  Tbe  moat  common 
mode  of  propulsion  is  by  pushins  with  a 
pole  against  the  bottom  of  tbe  rirer,  etc., 
a  process  which  is  hence  called  punting. 
Pniifn.  Ar^TiAS  (Pi>>>'ta  a-rft'naa),  a 
nmia  Arenas  convict  stati<m  and 
capital  of  tbe  Chilean  colonial  territory 
of  Magellan,  which  most  of  the  steamers 
passing  through  Magellan  Strait  call  at, 
there  oeing  coal  in  its  vicinity.  Pop. 
8397. 

Pnntas  Arenas,  S'c.SS'ffi.  82 

tral    America,   on   the   Gulf   of    Nicoya. 

Pop,  (1904)  3569. 

PnDa    ^'"^  ^^  Chrytalit  (which  see). 

See  Eye. 


PnpU 

PnnilAve  (pa'pi-iaj),  the  period  dur- 
X^upuagc  j^jj  which  one  is  a  minor. 
PntiiTi  (pa'pin),  MiCHAEI.  lOVORSKT, 
f  upiu  scientist,  born  at  Idvor,  Hun- 
gary, in  1858,  was  graduated  from  Co- 
lumbia University,  New  York,  in  1883, 
and  became  adjunct  professor  of  mechanics 
there  in  1889.  In  1901  he  announced 
the  discovery  of  a  method  of  practicable 
ocean  telephony.  He  wrote  Propagatton 
of  Long  Electrical  Wavet,  and  other 
papers. 

Puppets    and   Puppet -snows 

(pup'etz),  the  performances  of  images  of 
the  human  figure  moved  by  fingers,  cords, 
or  wires,  with  or  without  dialogue.  Pup- 
pets in  English,  French  marionettei,  Ital- 
ian fantoccini,  are  of  great  antiquity.  In 
early  times  in  England  puppet-shows 
were  called  motions,  and  generally  repre- 
sented some  scriptural  subject.  In  later 
times  they  have  ranged  from  Punch  and 
Judy  to  representations  of  shipwredn 
and  battles. 
Pura'naS.     see  fion*iri«. 

Pnrhpnir  (pur'bek),  Isix  OF,  south 
ruroeCK  of  Dorsetshire,  England,,  a 
peninsula  so  sepatated  from  the  main- 
land on  the  north  by  Poole  harlxir  and 
the  Frome  as  to  be  connected  with  it 
by  only  a  very  narrow  isthmus.  It  is 
about  12  miles  long  by  7  miles  broad. 
The  prevailing  rock  Is  limestone. 

Purbeck  Beds,  g?s"'ort"hf  (SSlfto 

proper,  or  according  to  other  writers  the 
basis  of  the  Wealden  formation,  deriv- 
ing their  name  from  the  peninsala  of 
Purbeck,  where  they  are  typically  difr 
played.  They  eonaiat  of  argillaceous  and 
calcareous  shales,  and  fresh-water  lime- 
stones and  marbles,  and  are  alt(«etber 
300  feet  thick.  They  are  noted  far  their 
layers  of  foaaU   verCable  Mtrtb   i^i**r 


Pnroell 


Pure  Food  Law 


b«d8),  endoaing  roots,  tmnka,  and 
branches  of  cycades  and  conifen. 
Pnrrpll  (pur'sel),  Henby,  an  Bng- 
*  »"*'»'**  giish  musical  comptiaer,  bom 
in  1658;  died  1(505.  He  studied  music 
under  Dr.  Blow  and  became  organist  of 
Westminster  Abbey  in  1679.  His  best 
known  works  include  Dido  and  Eneaa 
(1680),  the  music  for  Dryden's  version 
of  The  Tempest  (1680).  the  music  for 
Dryden's  King  Arthur  (1691),  The  Juhi- 
lante  and  the  Te  Deum  (1694),  and  the 
music  to  Bonduca  (16i)5^  Purcell  was 
equally  great  in  church  music,  chamber 
music,  and  music  for  the  theater. 
Pnrnliflft  (pur'chas),  Samuel,  was 
XIUTbiUlB     ^p^  jn  15Y7  ^j  Thaxted,  in 

Essex,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
took  orders  and  became  in  1(Xh  rector 
of  Eastwood  in  Essex,  the  duties  of 
which  office  he  left  for  some  years  to  be 
discharged  by  a  brother,  while  he  de- 
voted himself  in  Lo.  <ion  to  the  self-im- 
posed task  of  collecting  geographical,  his- 
torical, and  miscellaneous  information. 
In  1613  he  issued  Purchaa  hia  Pilgrimage, 
or  Relations  of  the  World  and  the  Reli- 
gions observed  in  all  Ages  and  Places 
discovered  from  the  Creation  unto  the 
Present,  etc.  In  1615  he  was  appointed 
rector  of  St  Martin's,  Ludgate  Hill, 
Ixtndon,  a  position  favorable  to  the  pur- 
suit of  his  multifarious  researches.  The 
MS.  remains  of  Hakluyt  having  come 
into  his  hands  he  gave  to  his  next  work, 
published  in  1624.  the  title  Hakluytus 
Posthumus,  or  Purchas  his  Pilgrims, 
containing  a  History  of  the  World  in 
dea  Voyages  and  Land  Travels  by  Eng- 
lishmen and  others,  which  is  valuable 
as  containing  the  narratives  of  voyagers, 
explorers,  and  adventurers  as  written  by 
themselves,  the  language  of  the  previous 
work,  the  Pilgrimage,  on  the  other  hand 
being  Purchas's  own.  The  Pilgrims  have 
been  much  utilized  bv  subsequent  com- 
pilers of  voyages  and  travels.  Purchas 
died  in  Txindon  in  162f>. 
'Pn-pft'haap  (pur'chas),  in  law,  is  the 
X-uii/Unsc  ^j.j  Qf  obtaining  or  acquir- 
ing the  tide  to  lands  and  tenements  by 
money,  deed,  gift,  or  any  means  except 
by  descent.     To  be  worth  so  many  years* 

gurchase  is  said  of  property  that  would 
ring  in,  in  the  specified  t<me,  an  amount 
equal  to  the  sum  paid.  Thus  to  buy  an 
estate  at  itoenty  years'  purchase  is  to 
bay  it  for  a  sum  equivalent  to  the  total 
return  from  it  for  twenty  years. 
Vnrnliauk  *  system  formerly  com- 
xuroaasc,  ^^^  ^  q^^^^  Britain,  now 

abolished,  by  whidi  more  than  half  the 
fint  appointments  and  mudi  of  the  sab- 
sMuant  promotion  of  officers  in  Ae  Brit- 
Mi  amy  used  to  be  effected.  The  prices 


of  commissions  were  fixed  as  follows: — 
£400  for  a  cometcy  or  ensigncy;  £700 
for  a  lieutenancy ;  £1800  for  a  captaincy ; 
£3200  for  a  majority :  and  £4600  for  a 
lieutenant-colonelcy,  which  was  the  high- 
est rank  that  could  he  obtained  by  pur- 
chase. In  theory  an  officer  wishing  to 
retire  from  the  service  might  sell  his 
commission  for  the  price  affixed  to  the 
rank  he  occupied.  When  a  superior  offi- 
cer '  sold  out '  the  next  officer  inferior 
to  him  might  purchase  promotion  to  the 
rank  of  the  former  by  merely  paying  the 
difference  between  the  Jj^ces  of  their 
respective  commissions.  The  rank  of  the 
second  might  be  reached  in  the  same 
manner  by  his  next  inferior,  and  so  on 
down  to  the  ensign  or  comet.  No  com- 
mission could  be  purchased  by  one  officer 
unless  another  officer  vacated  his  com- 
mission by  its  sale.  The  abolition  of  the 
purchase  system  took  place  in  1871,  bi  t 
the  officers  who  were  deprived  of  a  1- 
able  interest  in  their  commissions  x  re 
compensated  by  giving  them  a  sum  of 
money,  the  payment  of  which  was  to  be 
extended  over  twenty-hve  years,  and 
which,  it  was  estimated,  would  amount 
to  £8.000.000.  Promotion  has  since  been 
through  seniority,  tempered  by  selection. 
The  Regimental  Exchange  Act  of  1875 
permitted  the  exchange  of  commissions 
through  purchase  under  su-h  conditions 
as  the  crown  might  deem  expedient  for 
the  time  being.  No  such  system  was 
ever  introduced  into  the  United  States 
army,  in  which  promotion  has  alwa}[8  de- 
pended solely  upon  merit,  real  or  claimed. 

Pure  Food  Law.  J?'"  cSjre£r"i2 

1906,  is  entitled  'An  act  for  preventing 
the  manufacture,  sale  or  transportation 
of  adulterated  or  misbranded  or  poison- 
ous or  deleterious  foods,  drugs,  medi- 
cines and  liquors,  and  for  regulating 
traffic  therein,  and  for  other  purposes.* 
It  makes  it  unlawful  for  any  person  to 
manufacture  within  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia or  any  Territory  any  article  of 
food  or  dmg  which  is  adulterated  or  mis- 
branded,  under  a  penalty  not  to  exceed 
$500,  or  one  year's  imprisonment,  or  both, 
at  the  discretion  of  the  court,  and  not  less 
than  SIOOO.  or  one  year's  imprisonment, 
or  both,  for  each  subsequent  oiFense.  The 
act  also  applies  to  any  food  or  dmg  in- 
t>-oduced  into  any  State  from  any  other 
'  'tate.  or  from  or  to  any  foreign  country. 
it  does  not  anply  to  foods  or  drags  made 
flLd  used  within  the  limits  of  anv  State, 
these  being  left  for  State  legislation.  The 
act  further  provides  that  in  any  package 
containing  rood  or  drugs,  the  quantity  of 
the  contents  must  be  coaspicnomiy 
marked  on  tae  oatsi^a  of  tlM  pmckaf  n 


PnrgatiTe 


Pnritaiit 


tennB  of  weight  measure  or  nomerical 
count  By  a  subsequent  act  it  was  pro- 
vided that  after  May  1,  1916.  the  use  of 
the  legend,  'Guaranteed  under  the  Food 
and  Drug  Act,'  was  declared  misleading 
and  deceptive  and  the  use  of  a  serial 
iiumber  on  food  and  drugs  was  prohiUted. 
It  was  re<}uired  that  guarantees  of  com- 
pliance with  the  law  should  be  given 
directly  to  dealers  and  should  be  incor- 
porated in  the  invoice  or  bill  of  sale. 
Pnrfffitive  (pur'ga-tiv),  a  medicine 
o  used   for  the   purpose  of 

producing  the  evacuation  of  the  bowels. 
The  following  is  a  common  classification : 
—  (1.)  Laxative  or  Mild  Cathartics,  em- 
ployed when  the  least  possible  irritation 
18  desired,  such  as  manna,  sulphur, 
cassia,  castor-oil,  tamarinds,  prunes, 
honey,  ripe  fruit  (2.)  Baline  or  Cool- 
inff  Laxatives,  givins  rise  to  more  watery 
evacuations  than  the  first  group,  such  as 
Epsom  salts,  Glauber's  salt,  phosphate  of 
soda,  Seidlitz  powders,  etc.  (3.)  Active 
Cathartics,  occasionally  acrid,  frequently 
tonio  and  stomachic,  such  as  rhubarb, 
senna  (often  in  the  form  of  black 
draught),  and  aloes.  (4.)  Drastic  or 
violent  Cathartics,  such  as  jalap,  scam- 
mony,  gamboge,  croton-oil,  colocynth, 
elaterium,  which  in  large  doses  act  as 
irritant  poisons,  and  are  employed  n 
■mailer  doses  chiefly  when  the  bov.  is 
have  failed  to  be  moved  by  milder  purga- 
tives. (5.)  Mercurial  Purgatives,  such 
as  calomel,  blue  pill,  and  gray_  powder. 

PnT^tory  ifevel^ln  *by  'the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  is  an  intermediate  state 
after  death  in  which  the  souls  of  the 
righteous  expiate,  through  temporary 
Buffering,  sins  committed  in  this  life,  and 
not  fnliy  atoned  for  before  death.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Council  of  Trent  they  are 
'  assisted  by  the  suffrages  of  the  faith- 
ful, but  especially  by  the  most  accepta- 
able  sacrifice  of  the  mass,'  to  be  enabled 
to  enjoy  the  happiness  of  heaven.  Cath- 
olics claim  that  this  belief  in  purgatory 
is  upheld  by  the  general  teaching  of 
Scripture  without  being  specifically  de- 
clared in  any  particular  passage;  they 
also  claim  thnt  it  is  in  harmony  with  the 
faith  and  practice  of  the  early  Christian 
agea. 

PUTl.    See  Pitoree  and  JagannAiEa. 

Pnrification  ^f «w'iK'*r^r"oi;  Hi 

mainly  one  through  the  performance  of 
which  an  Israelite  was  readmitted  to 
the  prlTilegea  of  religions  communion. 
lost  through  nndeanneaa.  The  chief 
varietiea  of  such  nndeanneaa,  and  the 
mathoda  of  purification  from  it  Required, 


are  detailed  in  Lev^  xiL  zIt.  zt,  and 
Numb.,  ziz.  The  neceaaity  of  purifica- 
tion waa  extended  after  the  captivity 
to  a  variety  of  cases  not  included  in 
the  Mosaic  legislation,  aoch  as  the  waah- 
ing  of  cups  and  pota,  etc  referred  to 
in  Marie  vii.  4. 

Purification    of    the    Yirgin 

H/Ta'Txr  Feapt  or  the,  called  alao  the 
*"'*J'»  feast  of  the  Presentation  of  the 
Child  Jesus,  is  a  festival  of  the  Christian 
church  held  on  the  2d  of  February,  in 
commemoration  of  the  event  related  in 
Luke's  gospel,  chap.  ii.  The  festival 
dates  from  very  early  times,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  formally  instituted  by  Pope 
Gelasius  in  a.d.  494.  See  Candlemas. 
PninTn  (pu'rim),  a  Jewish  festival  ob- 
JTUrua  ^gpyg^  Q„  jhg  i4t,^  gnd  15th  of 

Adar  (March),  instituted  to  commemo- 
rate the  preservation  of  the  Jews  in 
Persia  from  the  destruction  threatened 
them  by  the  schemes  of  Haman  (EiSther, 
ix). 

PninfaTia  (pil'ri-tans),  a  name  first 
rnnTanS   ^^^n^  to  those  English 

Protestants  who  regarded  the  Reforma- 
tion in  England  as  incomplete,  and  the 
Anglican  Church,  even  of  Edward  VI,  as 
retaining  too  much  of  the  discipline, 
ritual,  and  ceremonial  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  Many  of  them,  who  were  driven 
into  exile  under  Queen  Mary,  and  wtm 
returned  to  England  after  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth,  brought  back  a  zealous  de- 
sire to  remodel  the  Church  of  England 
in  the  spirit  of  continental  Protestantism, 
especially  that  of  Geneva.  In  1572  a 
presbytery  waa  set  up  at  Wandaworth  in 
Surrey,  and  before  many  years  Presb.v- 
terianism  found  adherents  both  among 
the  clergy  and  tlie  Uiity.  Meanwhile  the 
Brownists,  the  Independents  of  later  days, 
whose  Congregationalism  was  aa  much  op- 
posed to  PreabTterianism  aa  to  Episco- 
pacy, liegan  to  be  organized  and  to  make 
some  progress.  In  doctrine  these  two 
Puritan  parties  differed  little  from  each 
other,  or  from  many  Anglicans  who  re- 
mained contented  with  the  Church  of 
England  as  it  was.  During  the  later 
years  of  Elizabeth  the  nickname  of 
Puritan  was  popularly  bestowed  on  all 
in  the  church,  or  out  of  it,  whose  views 
of  religion  led  them  to  adopt  a  great 
austerity  of  life  and  gravity  of  demeanor ; 
who  made  conatant  use  of  Biblical  phrase- 
ology in  their  ordinary  conversation,  and 
who  treated  aa  sinful  the  most  of  the 
amusements  and  diversions  of  the  society 
around  them.  The  drama  waa  specially 
obnoxiona  to  them,  and  the  dramatists 
repaid  the  hatred  of  the  extreme  Purtan 
by  ridica.l*nf  sod  caricatoring  him  on 


gurl 

flM  ftigt.    Tboogh  the  Puritans  were  al- 
wan  ateadlMtlT  loyal  to  Elisabeth,  the 
lecblatloa  which  she  favored  visited  with 
sever*  penalties  all   Protestant   noncon- 
fomtitv  to  the  Established  Church,  and 
in  1!^  several  leading  Brownisu  were 
broufht  to  the  scaffold.    The  hopes  with 
whicn  the  accession  of  James  I  inspired 
the   Puritan   party   in   the  church  were 
grievoosly  disappointed  when  their  mod- 
erate  demands   for   a    reform   of    ritual 
Cnd   a   slight    modification    of    epiacopal 
-uthority  were  rejected  at  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference.    During  his  reign  tlie 
prelates  and  many  of  the  clergy  becanie 
less  Protestant,  while   the   Puritan   ele- 
ment In  the  church,  and  out  of  it,  in- 
creased in  intensity.    Nonconformity  was 
pursued  by  new  penal  statutes,  and  num- 
bers of  Puritans  emigrated  to  New  Eng- 
land.   This  emigration  continued  during 
the  reign  of  Charles  I  and  the  ascendency 
of     Laud.     The     Parliamentarians     who 
took  arms  against  Charles  I  were  mainly 
Puritans,   and    the   built   of   them   were 
Presbyterians.     Presbyterianism   in   Eng- 
land reached  its  height  with  the  meeting 
of    the    General    Assembly    of    Divines 
at     Westminster.     (See    Preabyteriana.) 
With  the  downfall  of  the  Anglican  system 
Independency  again  reared   its   head    in 
England.    The    Independents    now   com- 
oined   with   their   Congregationalism    the 
desire  for  a  theological  latitude,  which 
widened  the  gulf  between  them  and  the 
Presbyterians.    The   army   became   leav- 
ened    with     Independency,     and     Oliver 
Cromwell    its    champion.     With    bis    as- 
cendency the  influence  of  Presbyterianism 
.  as  a  power  in  the  state  dwindled,  and 
Independency   became   the  dominant  ele- 
ment in  English  Puritanism.     After  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II  and  of  the  old 
Anglicanism,     the     Presbyterians,     Inde- 
pendents,   and    Baptists    were    the   three 
chief  denominations  into  which  Puritan- 
Ism  had   split   up.     Since  then    Noncon- 
formists or  Dissenters  has  been  the  term 
generally  used   where   Puritanism  would 
formerly  have  been  employed.    The  set- 
tlement    of    New    England   by    Puritans 
brougbt    that    section    of    the    American 
colonies  under  the  dominance  of  Puritan- 
ism to  the  extent  of  persecution  and  ex- 
pulsion   of    other    sects.    The    Puritans 
long   reignec   supreme  in   New   England, 
and   especially    in    ^lassachusetts,    where 
they   displayed   an    intolerance    equal    to 
that   of    the   Anglican   church   from    the 
domin.nncp  of  which  they  hnd  escaped. 
p««1     is  the  name  now  given   to  hot 
'    beer   flavored    with   gin,    sugar, 
and  ginger. 

Pnmiali    (pur'ne-a),  the  northeastern 
*'"*"*"'   d&trict  of  the  Bhagalpur  di- 


TnrplM 


vision  of  the  lientenant-covemorship  et 
Bengal.  Rice  and  indigo  arc  its  chief 
products.  Area,  4956  square  miles;  pop. 
1,874,794. —  PuBNiAii,  the  chief  town, 
stands  on  the  east  bank  of  the  SaurA 
River.  It  is  an  unhealthy  place,  but  doe* 
a  considerable  trade  in  jute.  Pop.  14,007. 
Plirole  (pui*'?!)*  ft  secondary  color 
"  compounded  by  the  union  of 
the  primaries  blue  and  red.  Of  all  the 
various  kinds  in  use,  the  Tyrian  dye  was 
anciently  the  most  celebrated.  This  color 
was  produced  from  an  animal  juice  found 
in  a  shellfish  called  murex  by  the  an- 
cients; and  as  it  was  thus  obtained  only 
in  small  quantities,  its  use  was  re- 
stricted to  the  great  and  wealthy.  It  be- 
came the  distinctive  color  of  imperialism, 
and  the  later  emperors  of  the  East  for- 
bade its  use  by  subjects.  Hence  their 
offspring  were  called  porphyrogeniti,  bom 
in  the  purple.  In  modem  times,  and 
from  the  red  or  scarlet  hat,  cassock,  and 
stockings  worn  by  them,  cardinals  are 
sometimes  said  to  have  obtained  the  pur- 
ple. With  the  gi  il  disuse  of  the 
purple  obtained  froDi  ;&iiellfish,  archil  and 
cudbear,  yielded  by  various  species  of 
lichens,  were  employed  in  the  dyeing  of 
silk  and  wool ;  but  they  have  been  super- 
seded by  the  purples  obtained  from  ani- 
line. For  cotton  the  chief  purple  dye 
was  furnished  by  madder,  but  the  alizarin 
to  which  madder  owed  its  dyeing  proper- 
ties is  now  prepared  from  coal-tar.  The 
common  shades  of  purple  with  which  wool 
is  dyed  are  obtained  from  logwood  with 
a  mordant  of  alum  and  tartar. 

Fnrple-black,  »  preparation  of 
.fc  u.A^j.v  wAuvA,    madder  used  as  a 

pigment. 

Purple  Emperor,  TyJ&?ri,rn 

larj^e,  somewhat  rare,  and  richly-colored 
British  butterfly;  so  called  from  the 
splendid  purple,  iridescent  color  of  its 
fore-wings. 

e  Grackle.    ^^*   crow-biack- 


bird. 


Purple 

Purple  of  Cassius.    fHpifX"'' 

Pmriilps  Ear  Cockle,  '  or  Peppeb- 
X  uj,|>xca,  CORN,  a  disease  aff  :;ting  the 
ears  of  wheat,  produced  by  the  Tylenchug 
or  Vibrio  tritici  ('wheat  e*l'),  one  of 
the  Infusoria.  The  infected  grains  of 
wheat  at  first  assume  a  dark-green 
color,  which  soon  deepens  to  a  black, 
and  become  rounded  like  small  pepper- 
corns. The  husks  open,  and  the  diseased 
grains  are  found  to  contain  no  floor, 
but  a  moist  substance  of  white  color  and 
of  cottony  consistence.  A  single  grain 
of  wheat  may  contain  50,000  young 
vibrios.    These  forms  may  be  dried,  ana 


Pnrplei 


restored  again  on  the  application  of 
moisture.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid,  in  the 
proportion  of  1  of  acid  to  100  parts  of 
water,  destroys  the  vibrio  effectually. 
Pnim1«a  The,  or  Purpura,  spots  of 
rurpiCB,    g  liyi^  jed  on  ,i,e  body,  the 

result  of  extravasation  of  blood  from  the 
skin.  In  ordinary  purpura,  which  is  not 
dangerous,  tonics,  especially  quinine  and 
iron,  are  the  most  effective  remedu-s.  In 
the  purpura  htrmorrhagica,  or  bleeding 
purpura,  thera  is  hemorrhage  from  mu- 
cous membranes,  sonietimes  terminat- 
ing fatally.  Ih  this  form  of  the  disease 
with  copious  bleeding,  benefit  may  be  de- 
rived from  the  use  of  ergot,  siven  either 
by  the  mouth  or  bypodermically,  as  a 
solution  of  ergotine. 

Purple-wood,  a%.7^r"p°S.7r«™ 

and  C.  bracteita,  imported  from  the 
Brazils,  well  adapted  for  mortar-beds 
and  gun-carriages,  and  also  used  for 
ramrods,  buhl-w<»rk,  marquetry  and  turn- 

Pnrrmrft  (pur'pQ-ra),  a  genus  of 
rurpuitt  gasteropod  molluscs,  of 
which  the  greater  number  are  littoral. 
Many  of  these  molluscs  secrete  a  fluid 
which  is  of  a  purplish  color,  but  one  in 
particular  furnished  that  celebrated  and 
costly  dye  of  antiquity  called  the  Tynan 
purple.  ^      „       , 

Pur'pnra.   s«ep«rpic.. 
Purqueira  OU,  "°'*  "  ^•^^  ^"• 

Pnrflik.prfl.'h  »  ^^°^^  ^°'  decapod 
XUrsc-«*i»u,    crustaceans  of  the  genus 

Biraua,  allied  to  the  hermit-crabs.  A 
species,  5.  latro  (the  robber-crab),  found 
in  the  Mauritius  and  the  more  eastern 
islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  one  of 
the  largest  crustact mus,  being  sometimes 
2  to  3  feet  in  length.  It  resides  on 
land,  while  paying  a  nightly  visit  to  the 
sea,  often  burrowing  under  the  roots  of 
trees,  lining  its  hole  with  the  fibera  or 
the  cocoanut  husk  and  living  on  the 
nuts,  which  (according  to  some  writers) 
jt  climbs  the  irees  to  procure,  and  the 
shells  of  w'-.ich  it  certainly  breaks  with 
great  ingpauity. 
Pn-psa-  (pur'ser\  in  the  navy,  the 
rursrx  og^er  who  ':ept  the  accounts 
of  the  ship  to  which  he  belonged,  and 
hr.d  charge  of  the  provisions,  clothing, 
pay,  etc.  He  is  now  designated  pay- 
matter.  _       ^  .       ..       .    iU 

Piii*a1aTi^   (purslfln),  a  plant  of  the 

oca),  with  fleshy,  succulent  leaves,  nat- 
uralized throut'iout  the  warmer  parts  of 
th<  world.  Purslane  was  form-rlv  more 
vmi  V^  *^  prcwnt  in  laladi  w  a  pot- 


Pmey 

herb,  in  pickles,  and  for  gamisUns.  II 
baa  antiscorbutic  properties. 
PuTCTiivATif  (pur'swi-vant),  an  a^ 
niniuyani  t^ndant  on  the  heraldi, 
one  of  the  third  and  lowest  order  of. 
heraldic  officers.  There  are  four  pursui- 
vants belonging  to  the  English  CoIlMe 
of  Arms,  Uouge  Croiw,  Blue  Mantle, 
Rouge  Dragon  and  Portcullia.  In  the 
court  of  the  Lyon  King-of-Arms  in  Scot- 
land there  were  formerly  six  pursuivants, 
Urticorn,  Carrick,  Bute,  Kintyre,  Ormond 
and  DinpmiU,  but  the  last  thret  have 
been  abolished. 

Pnm  (Pii'ro),  or  PUBUS,  a  river  of 
f  uiu  gouth  America,  which  risinc  in 
the  east  of  I'eru  enters  Brazil,  and  flow- 
ing northeast  after  a  course  of  400  miles 
joms  the  Amazon  about  100  miles  above 
the  confluence  of  the  Madeira  with  the 

PTirvevftll«e    (pnr-va'ans).  formerly 
JTUrveyau 'C   j^  England  the  exer- 
cise by  officials  called  purveyore  of  the 
royal   prerogatives,   involving   a   right  of 
preemption,  by  which  the  king  waa  au- 
thorized to  buy  provisions  and  necessaries 
for  the  use  of  his  household  at  an   ap- 
praised  value,   in   preference   to  all   his 
subjects,  and  even  without  the  consent  ot 
the  owner;   it  included  the  right  of  im- 
pressing  horses   and   carriages,   etc.,   for 
the   use   of   the   sovereign.     It   was   also 
practiced  by  many  of  the  great   English 
nobles.     It   led   to   much   oppression  and 
many  exactions,  and  a  number  of  statutes 
were  passed  to  prevent  them.     There  was 
until   recently   a   class   of   purveyors   in 
the  British  army,  who  superintended  the 
army  hospitals.    Their  duty  is  now  ex- 
ercised by  the  army  service  corps. 
Pnrwo     (pSr'wa),   a   town  of  India, 
x^uiwo,   ujj^jj  district,  Oude  province, 
with  manufactures  of  shoes  and  leather- 
work.    Pop.  about  11,000. 
Pn,    the    white    or    yellowish    matter 
***">  found    in    abscesses,   and   formed 
upon  the  surfaces  of  what  are  sometimes 
misnamed   healthy   sores.     It  consists  of 
dead  and  dying  white  blood  corpuscles  in- 
fected   with    pyogenic   germs    and    tissue 
cells  and  with  dissolved  tissue  and  blood 
serum. 


PnttAtr  (pti'si),  Edward  Bouvebie, 
f  uacjr  j^f(gp  whom  the  Tractarian 
movement  in  the  Church  of  England  be- 
came designated  Puseyism,  was  born  in 
1800.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  of  which  he  be- 
came a  fellow  in  1824.  In  1828  be  waa 
nppointed  to  the  regius  professort'  'P  of 
Hebrew  at  Oxford,  to  which  was  at- 
tached a  canonry  of  Christ  Church.  In 
1838  the  Tract*  for  the  Timet  began 
to  appear,  but  t>e  was  oot  promloentll 


FnMyiim 


Futntm 


coDBectcd  with  the  Tnctarian  movenwnt 
until  1886-ttU,  when  be  contributed  to 
the  Tr9ct$  one  on  baptiam  which  ex- 
cited much  attention,  lie  published  a 
defense  of  the  ft\mous  Tract  No.  UO,  and 
in  1843  be  was  suspended  by  the  vice- 
rbancellor  of  Oxford  from  preaching  for 
tliree  years,  on  account  of  (lie  ver^  high 
sacramental  docttine  inculcated  m  bis 
sermon  on  the  Eucharist,  preached  before 
the  university.  Ihe  prominence  thus 
given  to  him,  his  position  in  the  universi- 
ty, his  reputation  for  scholarship,  nnd  his 
thoroughgoing  advocacy  of  '  Anglo-Cath- 
ullc '  principles,  procurcnl  the  general 
adoption    of    the    term    Puseyism    as    a 


Rev.  Dr.  Pnaey. 

synonym  of  Tractarianism ;  and  with 
the  secession  of  Newmau  to  Rome,  Pusey 
became  the  acknowledged  head  of  the 
new  church  party.  During  the  rest  of 
his  life  he  lived  very  retired,  though  a 
continual  flow  of  books,  pamphlets,  etc., 
came  from  his  pen.  He  died  in  1882. 
Among  the  more  substantial  of  his  works, 
in  addition  to  his  Library  of  EnglUh 
Fathera  and  Anglo-Catholic  Library,  are 
his  Councils  of  the  Church,  from  the 
Council  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  51,  to  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  A.D.  381 
(1857)  :  Daniel  the  Prophet,  nine  lec- 
tures (18G4)  ;  and  the  Minor  Prophett, 
with  a  commentary  and  introduction  to 
the  several  l>ooks  (18G0-77). 
Puseyism.    ^**  Tractarionwm. 

PnsTilra.r  (pnsh'kar),  a  town  of  India, 
rusUKar  j^  Ajmere  -  MenvSra.  Raj- 
putfina,  the  only  one  in  India  contain- 
ing a  temple  dedicated  to  Brahma.  A 
great  fair  in  October  and  November  is 
attended  by  about  100,000  pilgrima.  Pop. 
8750. 


p,j||]|]^  0)wh'klB),  Alexakdeb, 
Ti  Count  of  Seriejevitch,  a 
Russian  poet,  bom  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
1799;  died  in  1887.  At  an  early  age  he 
was,  on  account  of  his  liberal  opinions, 
sent  to  Odessa,  where  he  discharged  va- 
rious oflkes,  but  was  rsstored  to  favor 
on  the  accession  of  Nicholas  in  182i, 
who  appointed  him  imperial  historiogra- 
pher, lie  made  a  study  of  foreign  lit- 
eratures, and  was  much  influenced  hy 
Byron.  His  first  poem  was  Ruilan  and 
Liudmila  (1821)  ;  this  wqs  followed  by 
the  Prisoner  of  the  Caucasus;  the  Fohn- 
fain  of  Bakhtchisarai ;  Eugene  Onegin; 
the  Gypsies;  and  Poltava.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  a  dramatic  poem.  Boris 
Oodoonof.  He  fell  in  a  duel  with  his 
brother-in-law.  His  works  have  been 
translated  into  German,  French  and 
English. 

PnaTifn  (push'tO;  of  which  Pukhtv 
XUBUbU  ,g  ^  dialectic  variation)  is 
the  vernncular  language  of  the  Afghans 
proper  wlierever  they  may  be  settled,  and 
by  the  best  authorities  is  regarded  as  an 
Aryan  language,  more  or  less  allied  to 
the  Iranian  group.  Persian  is  the  lan- 
^age  of  the  educated  classes  in- Afghan- 
istan, and  is  also  known  to  the  people, 
who,  however,  prefer  the  use  of  Pushtu. 
Pustule  (pus'tal),  a  small  and  nearly 
rounded  elevation  of  the 
cuticle,  with  an  inflamed  base,  and  con- 
taining pus.  Diseases  known  as  '  pus- 
tular diseases*  are  those  that  are  char- 
acterized by  true  pustules.  Smallpox  and 
chicken-pox  are  accompanied  by  pustules, 
but  these  are  regarded  as  febrile,  not 
pustular  diseases,  the  eruption  being  net 
primary  but  secondary. 
PutohOOk,  PucnycK  (puch'uk),  the 
*^  »  root  of  Aplotamis  Lappa,  a 
composite  plant  growing  on  the  Hima- 
layas in  the  vicinity  of  Cashmeri,.  It 
is  exported  to  the  Malay  countries  and 
to  China,  where  it  forms  a  main  in- 
gredient in  the  Chinese  pastille-rods 
known  as  joss-sticks.  In  Upper  India 
it  is  given  as  a  medicine  in  various  com* 
plaints  ranging  from  coughs  to  cholera. 
PnfffaTi'v'  (pA-td),  a  town  of  France, 
XUieaux    j^    ^,,g    department    of    the 

Seine,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine.  Pop. 
(1906)  28,718. 

Pnf-nam  (put'nam),  Isbael,  soldier, 
XUluam  ^.gg  born  in  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1718,  and  took  an  active 
part  as  an  officer  in  the  French  and 
Indian  war,  in  which  be  displayed  the 
greatest  hardihood  and  courage.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  left  his 
farm  and  hastened  to  Boston,  where  b* 
became  active  in  the  siege,  command- 
iog  at  the  battle  o(  Bonier  mu.    B» 


Pntnun 


Fuy-de-Ddm* 


wu  energetic  throofbout  the  war  and 
was  appointed  by  Congreos  one  of  tbe 
four  major-generals  under  Wasliinftoo. 
He  died  in  1790.  _      . 

Putnam  &  city,  capital  of  Windbam 
ruinam,  ^o.,  Connecticut,  is  on  tbe 
Quinnebaug  River,  33  miles  i*.  v.  E.  of 
Norwicb.  It  bas  marufactures  of  cotton, 
woolen  and  sillc  goods,  sboes,  catlerr. 
trunks,  boxes,  steam  beaters,  phonograpb 
needles,  tire  duck  etc.  Pop.  7280. 
•  PnttiAtr  (put'ni),  a  suburb  of  London, 
xainey  j^,  Q^rnj.  on  the  right  bank 
of  tbe  Thames.  It  is  tbe  birthplace  of 
Gibbon,  the  historian,  and  here  tbe  Ox- 
ford-Cambridge boat  races  are  rowed. 
Pop.  (1911)  28,*248. 

Putrefaction  (po-tri-fak'sbun),  such 

A  uvAiixnwMwu  j^  decomposition  of 
dead  organic  matter  as  is  generally  ac- 
companied by  the  evolution  of  fetid 
gases,  now  regarded  as  due  to  the  agency 
of  bacteria  or  other  organisms  floating  in 
the  atmosphere,  which  find  a  nidus  in 
the  putrescible  matter  and  grow  and  mul- 
tiply in  it.  The  substances  in  which 
these  micro-organisms  are  tlius  developed 
are  reduced  either  to  much  more  simple 
compounds  or  to  their  original  separate 
elements.  The  putrefaction,  or  putrefac- 
tive fermentation,  of  animal  substances  is 
usually  attended  by  more  fetid  and  nox- 
ious exhalations  than  those  arising  from 
vegetable  products,  chiefly  through  the 
more  abundant  presence  of  nitrogen  in 
tbe  former.  The  formation  of  ammonia, 
or  of  ammoniacal  compounds,  is  a  char- 
acteristic of  most  cases  of  animal  putre- 
faction, while  other  combinations  of 
hydrogen  are  also  formed,  especially  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  together  with  compli- 
cated and  often  highly  poisonous  vapors 
or  gases,  in  which  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus are  frequently  present.  These  pu- 
trefactive effluvia  are,  for  the  most  part, 
easily  decomposed  or  rendered  innocuous 
by  the  agency  of  chlorine.  The  rapidity 
of  putrefaction  and  the  nature  of  its 
products  are  to  a  great  extent  influenced 
by  temperature,  moisture,  and  access  to 
air.  A  temperature  lietween  tiO°  and  80°, 
a  due  degree  of  humidity,  and  free  access 
of  air  are  the  circumstances  under  which 
it  proceeds  most  rapidly.  Hence  the  ac- 
tion of  the  minute  organisms  wbicb  pro- 
duce putrefaction  can  be  checked  or  al- 
together prevented  by  a  very  high,  or  a 
very  low,  temperature,  by  the  exclusion 
of  air.  and  by  the  absence  of  moisture. 
Antiseptics  prevent  and  to  some  extent 
arrest  tbe  progress  of  putrefaction  by 
killing  the  germs.  Boiling  destroys  most 
of  them.  True  disinfectants  prevent  pu- 
trefaction, destroy  the  germs,  and  dinl- 
pate  the  noxious  products. 


Putteala.  ^p***^ 

Pntt^nliftni  (put 'ten -am),  OaraoB. 
ruiieiuiun  i^  Enfllsh  writer,  re- 
garded as  the  author  of  The  Art  of 
PoeHe,  which  appeared  anonymously  in 
1589.  If  its  author,  he  was,  from  indi 
cations  given  in  that  and  another  work 
from  the  same  pen,  bom  about  1B30 
and  became  a  scholar  of  Oxford.  In 
1579   he   presented   his   Partheniaiet   to 

Sueen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  was  a  gen- 
eman-usher.  The  ^r(  is  a  review  of 
ancient  as  well  as  modem  poetry,  and 
was  written  for  the  court  and  to  in- 
iitruct  in  versification.  Its  author  wrote 
several  other  pieces  which  have  been 
lost. 

Pnttv  (Put'i)i  <i  ^^^^  o'  P*"t*  <>'  <^ 
*'""'/  ment  compounded  of  whiting  or 
soft  carbonate  of  lime  and  linseedK>il. 
beaten  or  kneaded  to  tbe  consistence  of 
dough.  In  this  state  it  is  used  by 
glaziers  for  fixing  in  the  squares  of  glass 
in  window  frames,  etc.,  and  also  bv 
house-painters  to  stop  up  holes  and  cavi- 
ties in  woodwork  before  painting. 

Putty.pOWder,  S,  ^?£"1?n,et?m£ 
mixed  with  oxide  of  lead.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  for  polishing  and  other  pur- 
Eoses  in  glass  and  marble  works;  the 
est  kinds  are  used  for  polishing  plate. 
Pnv  (P>^-^)>  ^>  called  also  Ls  Pmr- 
*  "^  EW-VEtAT,  and  Le  Put-NOtbe- 
Dame,  a  town  of  France,  chief  town  of 
the  department  of  Haute-Loire,  270  miles 
B.  8.  B.  of  Paris.  It  is  built  on  the  steep 
slope  of  an  isolated  craggy  hill,  and 
viewed  from  a  distance  has  a  most  strik- 
ing and  picturesque  appearance.  Over- 
topping the  bouses  is  a  conical  rock 
crowned  by  a  small  chapel  and  a  colossal 
statue  of  tbe  Yirgin.  The  cathedral,  an 
ungainly  Romanesque  building,  dates 
from  the  sixth  to  tbe  twelfth  century. 
Tbe  manufactures  are  chiefly  lace,  tulle, 
and  woolens.     Pop.  20,507. 

Puy-de.D6me  jf*S?„*J^*5^'ce*ntS 

France;  area,  8070  S9uare  miles:  takes 
its  name  from  a  volcanic  cone  (4805  feet) 
which  overlooks  it.  Tbe  highest  point  in 
the  department,  Puy-de-Sancy,  6188  feet, 
is  the  most  elevated  peak  of  Central 
F—nce.  The  department,  with  its  nu- 
merous extinct  volcanoes  and  volcanic 
formations,  is  geolCeically  very  interest- 
ing, the  volcanic  formations  giving  tbe 
scenery  a  very  distinctive  character.  Of 
a  total  area  of  3073  sq.  miles,  much  the 
largest  proportioc  is  good  arable  and 
pasture  land,  the  fertile  plains  oi 
Limagne,  more  than  70  miles  in  length, 
consisting  of  allavlal  depotiti  of  volcanic 


Pii-Yi 


Pylon 


orifin.    making    It    on*    of    the    rchwt  maftatrtte.    In   1801   appofwl   hit   Al- 

Kgions  of  Fmnce.    Th«r«  are  coal  and  /rei,  an  epic.    He  died  in  1813. 

•tCer  mine*  in  tlie  department,  which  alao  pyj    Joun,  an  Lng  ieh  entraver.  born 

contains  a  number  of  springa.  some  of  '^9^*  in  li82;  died  in  18«4.    Lorly  in 


E,  augar  production,  and  tlie  ning  with  l'ope'§  Villa  in  1811.  lie  nlao 
e  of  varioua  textile  fabric*,  engraved  works  by  Claude.  Micbael  An- 
)   535,410.  gelo,  Gasp«r  Pou><8iD,  Landseer,  etc.     lie 


which  have  been  reurted  to  iy  health-   the  century  be  gained  a  high  rep      Mon 
■eekers  since   the  days  of  the  Romans,    for  ills  engravings  of  Turner  s  laiKlbcapes, 
The  industries  of  the  department  include   a  number  of  which   be  executed,  begin- 
papermaking, 
manufacture 

Pop.  (1906)   _™. .  -     .  .     -   .     ...,.,.,., 

■nj^  V*  (HsuANTUNO),  Emperor  of  passed  much  of  bis  life  lu  I'aris,  and  was 
*«*■**  China.  He  was  bom  February  elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
11,  1006,  and  acceded  in  1008,  in  bis  third    French  Institute.  ,.      v     ,      o      t. 

year,  on  the  death  of  the  emperor  Kwang  PYannalion  (Plf™^-' '-<»)»  >°  .^f**' 
Hgsu.  His  father.  Prince  Chun,  acU  as  *J6"*»""**  mythology,  a  king  of 
regent  Cyprus,  who,  having  made  an  ivory  image 

Vrtvvf^a'ntt  See  Poezolttna  and  Ce-  of  a  maiden  fell  in  love  with  his  own 
iruzzoilt  Uttt     fnenti.  work,  and  entreated   \ enus  to  endow  it 

PwIIIiaIi  (plll-ha'l6),  a  parliamentary  with  life.  His  prayer  was  granted,  and 
XWXilieil  g^j  municipal  borough  and  the  maiden  became  bis  wife, 
seaport  of  Wales,  in  Carnarvousbiie,  on  PvGrmV  (pig'uii)t^one  of  a  race  of 
Cardigan  Bay,  21  miles  8.w.  of  Carnar-  *J'»"*J  dwarfs,  Hrst  mentioned  by 
von.  It  is  an  old  town,  is  surrounded  Homer  as  dwelling  on  the  shores  of 
by  splendid  scenery,  is  much  visited  by  Ucean,  and  having  to  sustain  a  war 
tourists,  and  has  become  n  fnvoritt-  water-  against  the  cranes  every  spring.  I^ter 
ing  place.  It  belongs  to  the  Cnrnarvon  writers  place  them  mainly  in  Africa,  aiid 
district  of  parliamentary  boroughs.  Pop.  Aristotle  at  the  sources  of  the  MIe. 
(1911)  3791  Recent    travelers    have    found    tribes    of 

Wmmia  (pWml-a),  a  form  of  blood-  dwarfs  in  many  parts  of  Africa,  in  the 
jryKluia  TCisoning,  a  dangerous  dis-  Andaman  and  Philippine  Islands  (See 
ease  resulting  from  the  introduction  of  Segritog),  and  also  related  tribM  else- 
decaying  tissue,  forming  pus  (which  see),  where  in  that  region.  A  tribe  of  Fvg- 
into  the  blood  circulation.  Such  matter  mies  has  recently  been  discovereil  in  New 
may  be  introduced  through  an  ulcer,  Guinea,  averaging  4  feet,  3  inc^e8  in 
wound,  an  imperfectly  closed  vein,  or  a  height  and  extremely  wild.  In  addition 
mucous  membrane,  as  that  of  the  nose,  a  dwarf  race  has  been  reported  in  New 
This  disease  was  common  after  severe  Britain,  who  dwell  in  rock  cleft?  and 
operations  in  crowded  hospitals,  whose  steal  fruit.  There  are  also  very  short 
atmosphere  was  loaded  wUh  purulent  or  people  in  the  Bismarck  Archiijelago.  the 
contaminated  matter.  It  has  been  much  Solomon  Islands,  and  the  Malay  penin- 
checked  of  late  years  by  tlie  improved  sula,  but  these  indicate  a  race  mixture, 
ventilation  of  hospitals,  and  by  the  ap-  The  Bushmen  of  South  Africa  are  a 
plication  of  antiseptics  in  the  perform-  small  people,  but  not  dwarfish.  See  Ak- 
ance  of  surgical  operations  and  the  dress-  ka».  /  ,,,      j,  v     ,     r.      i. 

ins  of  wounds  PvIaHas     (pl'la-d6z),   in   Greek  my- 

l5l««I^«««,  (pik-nog'o-num).  a  ■'^y^*^"  thology.  son  of  Stropbius. 
XycnO^num  g^nus  of  Arachnida,  king  of  Phocis,  and  Anaxibia,  tlie  sister 
the  sea-spiders.  Some  species  are  para-  of  Agamemnon,  after  whose  murder  by 
sitic  upon  fishes  and  other  marine  ani-  Clyterunestra,  their  son  Orestes,  bemg 
mals,  but  the  common  species,  P.  littor&le,  carried  secretly  to  the  court  of  Strophms. 
is  free  when  adult,  rnd  does  not  appear  formed  the  friendship  with  Py lades 
to  be  parasitic  during  any  period  of  its  which  has  become  proverbial.  He  as- 
existence.  P.  Balanarum  attaches  itself  sisted  Orestes  in  nurdering  Clytemnestra. 
narasitically  to  the  whale.  and  eventually  m>  rried  his  sister  Llectra. 

Vtrm    (Pl).  Henry  James,  a  poet  laure-   Pvle  (P'''-   9'  *"*•"'•   •*^"*JJr*l?° .  ". 
■*^y®    ate  of  England,  was  born  in  1745,   ^Jf^^   and  writer,  born  at  Wilmington, 
of  an  old  Berkshire  family.     In  1784  he  Delaware,  in  1853 ;  died   in   1911.     His 
entered  psriiament  as  member  for  Bucks,  brilliant  work  as  an  illustrator  made  him 
Having  in  1775  published  a  translation   one  of  the  foremost  of  American  artists. 

of  six  odes  of  Pindar,  in  1778  one  of  Pylon  iP^'°?2'  '°  ^*^*' «" . "T^w!^ 
Frederick  the  Great's  Art  of  War.  and  -^Z*""  ture,  the  name  g'v-en  to  towers 
in  1788  another  of  the  Poetic$  of  Aris-  or  masses  of  masonry,  somewhat  resem- 
totle,  with  a  commentary,  he  was,  in  bling  truncated  pyramids,  placed  one  on 
1790,  appointed  poet  laureate.  In  1792  each  side  at  the  en  ranee  of  temples,  and 
be  was  appointed  a  Westminster  police   h:;ving    a    very     imposing    appearance. 


Pylorai 

Behind  them  in  the  larger  temple*  there 
WM  often  a  large  open  court,  and  In 
front  there  might  be  nn  avenue  with 
•phinxet  on  either  side.  An  entrance  of 
which  these  pylont  form  part  Is  "Sonie- 
timee  called  a  propylon.  See  tgypt 
(Arckitecturt) . 

PvIathi  (pl-IO'rn").  the  lower  and 
ryiOrUB  ^^yn  oriflce  of  the  stomach 
through  which  the  food  passes  on  to  the 
intestine.     See  Stomach. 


Pyramid 

ing  the  negotiation  of  any  peace  with 
the  king  which  did  not  secure  tM  libertiea 
of  the  subject  and  the  supremacy  of  par- 
liament. It  was  mainly  bit  financial 
skill  that  enabled  the  parliamentary  army 
to  keep  the  field.  In  Nov.,  164S,  ne  was 
made  lieutenant-general  of  ordnance,  and 
in  the  following  month  he  died,  and  waa 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
T>xnnma.\xTnnA     the  wood  of  the  La* 

See  Bloodtcood. 


U»1na    (pi'los),     a     town    of    ancient  See  Bioodtcoorf.  ,,.      ,  »^ 

^IW    tirme    memorable  in  the  Pelo-  Pyramid     ,(Plr;*-T,'"'>'  JS^  «!S?/l*„"2j 
Donnesian   war.  and   represented  by  the  *jr*aiuxu     ,    gtHctly  a  aoiid  contained 


ponnesian  war,  and  represented  by  the 
modem  Navarino. 

V^rn  (pim).  John,  an  English  statea- 
*/*"•  man  and  leader  of  the  popular 
party  during  the  reigns  of  James  I  and 
Charles  I,  was  born  in  Somersetshire  in 
1584:  studied  at  Oxford  and  became 
famous  as  a  lawyer.  He  entered  Porlla- 
ment  in  1014,  and  during  the  reign  of 
James  he  attained  great  influence  by  his 
opposition  to  the  arbitrary  measures  of 
the  king.  He  wati  a  7.calou8  Puritan.  In 
1326  be  took  part  in  the  impeachment  of 


John  PyiB. 

Buckingham  and  was  impri-'>ned.  In  the 
Short  Parliament  of  164i,  Pym  and 
Hampden  were  exceedingly  active  as 
leaders  of  the  popular  party,  and  in  1641 
Pym  was  offered  the  chancellorship  of 
the  exchequer.  He  impeached  Strafford, 
and  at  his  trial  appeared  as  accuser. 
He  was  the  main  author  of  the  Oroad 
Remonatrance,  the  final  appeal  presented 
in  1041,  and  one  of  the  five  members  to 
arrest  whom  the  king  went  to  the  House 
of  Commons  In  January,  1642.  When 
eim  war  became  inevitable  Pym  was 
aepolnted  one  of  the  committee  of  safety. 
Mil  wUle  ba  Uvcd  waa  mctif  In  resiirt- 

17-* 


by  a  plane  triangular,  square,  or  polyg- 
onal base,  and  other  planes  meeting  in 
a  point.  This  point  is  called  the  vertex 
of  the  pyramid;  and  the  planes  which 
meet  In  the  vertex  are  called  the  aides, 
which  are  nccesunrily  nil  triangles,  hav- 
ing for  their  bases  the  sides  of  the  base  of 
the  pyramid.  Every  pyramid  is  one-third 
the  solid  content  of  a  prism  that  has 
the  same  base  and  altitude  as  the  pyra- 
mid. Pyramids  are  denominated  triangu- 
lar, square,  pentagonal,  etc.,  according 
as  the  base  is  a  triangle,  a  square,  a 
pentagon,  etc.  .  ,        , 

PvroTniii  i°  architecture,  a  colossal 
x^iHUUu,  structure  of  masonry  hav- 
ing a  rectangular  haae  and  four  triangu- 
lar sides  terminating  in  a  point,  used  by 
the  ancients  in  various  parts  of  the  world 
for  sepulchcrs  or  for  religious  purpoaeiL 
especially  in  Egypt.  The  largest  and 
most  remarkable  of  the  Egyptian  pyra- 
mids occur  in  several  groui)8  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Nile,  on  the  border  of  the 
Libyan  desert,  extending  for  a  distance 
of  about  25  miles  from  north  to  south, 
the  farthest  north  being  opposite  Cairo. 
Tlicy  are  built  chiefly  of  the  hard  lime- 
stone of  the  adjacent  hills,  but  large 
blocks  of  granite  brought  from  a  distaace 
are  also  used,  especially  on  the  outside. 
The  four  sides  are  so  placed  as  to  face 
the  four  cardinal  points.  Some  of  these 
structures  belong  to  a  very  ancient  date 
in  the  empire.  The  stones  used  varied  in 
size,  but  are  mostly  large,  and  have 
required  great  mechanical  skill  to  quarry 
them,  transport  them,  and  raise  and  ad- 
just them  in  their  proper  places.  An  al- 
most incredible  number  of  laborers  were 
engaged  in  erecting  the  chief  Egyptian 
pyramids,  of  which  the  group  of  Gizeh, 
4  miles  8.  w.  of  Cairo,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  ancient  Memphis,  is  the  mest  re- 
markable. This  group  consists  of  nine 
pyramids,  among  them  the  three  most 
celebrated  of  all,  the  pyramid  of  Cheops 
(Khufu),  called  the  Great  Pyramid;  of 
Cephren  (Khafra)  :  and  of  Mycerinus 
(Menkaom).  According  to  Herodotus, 
ttx*   Great   Pjmmid   took    100,000   meo 


Pyramni  and  Thitbe 


PyrJB^ 


Unc  for  ten  jtun  to  mk*  •  catut- 
way  8000  feet  long  In  order  to  faeilitat* 
tb«    traotport    of    tht    itooo    from    tbo 

?liiar(lM'.  and  the  tame  number  of  men 
or  tweLty  Tears  more  to  complete  the 
pyramid  itielf.  Its  base  forma  a  aqoare. 
each  side  of  which  was  originally  7G8 
feet,  though  now,  by  the  removal  of  the 
coating,  only  750  feet  long,  occupying 
18  acres.  The  outer  surface  forms  a 
series  of  steps,  each  of  the  average 
height  of  8  feet  or  more.  When  the 
atructure  was  perfect  this  step  formation 
waa  hidden  by  the  coating,  which  ren- 
dered the  sides  quite  smooth,  and  the 
apex,  where  there  is  now  a  space  of  12 
sq.  yarda,  was  no  doubt  originally  quite 
sharp.  The  height  was  originally  about 
480  feet,  but  is  now  only  4Q1.  The  in- 
terior, entered  49  feet  at>ove  the  base  of 
the  north  face,  contains  several  chambers, 
one  of  which,  called  the  King's  Cham- 
ber, is  34i  feet  long,  17  wide,  and  10 
high,  and  contains  a  sarcophagus  of  red 
granite.  The  second  pyramid  is  600 
feet  square  and  447  feet  high.    The  third 

Jiyramid  is  only  854  feet  square  and  203 
eet  high,  and  is  the  best  constructed  of 
the  three.  The  six  smaller  pyramids 
which  complete  the  Giseh  group  are  of 
much  inferior  interest.  The  pyramids 
are  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the 
respective  kings  as  tombs  and  memorials 
of  tbemselves;  and  it  is  conjectured  that 
they  were  begun  at  the  l)eginning  of  each 
reijpi,  and  that  their  size  corresponded  with 
the  length  of  it.  About  850  yards  south- 
west of  the  Great  Pyramid  is  the  cele- 
brated Sphinx.  Ruins  of  pyramids  are 
to  be  found  at  Benares  in  India  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  East.  Certain  monu- 
ments of  the  ancient  inhabitants,  found  in 
Mexico,  are  also  called  pyramids.  These 
seem  to  have  l)een  intended  to  serve 
as  temples,  the  tops  of  them  being  flat 
and  surmounted  by  a  house  or  chamber 
in  which  sacred  rites  were  probably  per- 
formed. The  largest  and  perhaps  the 
oldest  of  them  is  that  of  Cholula,  which 
is  said  to  have  a  base  of  1770  feet  and 
a  height  of  177  feet. 

Pyr'amus  and  This'be,  ^.p^^'t^f 

lovers,  who,  as  their  story  is  told  by  Ovid 
(Met,  iv,  55-165),  resided  in  Babylon, 
and  being  prevented  by  their  parents 
from  meeting  openly,  were  in  the  habit 
of  secretly  conversing  through  an  open- 
ing of  the  wall,  as  their  houses  adjoined. 
They  agreed  one  day  to  meet  at  the  tomb 
of  Ninus,  when  Thi8l>e,  who  was  the 
first  at  the  rendesvous,  was  surprised 
by  a  lioness  and  took  to  flight.  In  her 
haate  she  dropped  her  garment,  which 
<ka  liaaesa  seisinc,  covered  with  blood. 


baring  Immodiately  before  killed  an  ox. 
Pyramua  appearing  on  the  scene,  and 
cmicludiDf  from  the  blood-besmeared 
robe  that  Thisbe  was  dead,  killed  him- 
self. Thisbe  returning  soon  afterwarda, 
and  finding  the  body  of  her  lover,  alao 
killed  herself.  The  atory  was  very  popu- 
lar in  the  time  of  Shakespeare,  who  made 
it  the  subject  of  the  burlesque  interlude 
in  A  Uidiummcr  Night'$  Dream. 
P«rrAfiA«ia    (pir'e-nCa),   a    lofty   tioun- 

main  chain  of  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  France  and  Spain.  It  abuta 
with  one  extremity  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  with  the  other  on  the  Atlantic. 
Ita  length,  from  Cape  Creux  on  the  Gulf 
of  Lyons  to  Fontarabia  on  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  is  about  280  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  little  more  than  50 
miles.  It  consists  of  two  lines,  which 
form  parallel  ridges  about  20  miiea 
from  each  other,  except  near  the  cen- 
ter, towards  which  the  range  rises  both 
from  the  cast  and  west.  The  des^nt 
on  the  south  side  is  much  more  abrupt 
than  on  the  north.  Its  loftiest  sum* 
mits  are  near  its  center,  where  its  cul- 
minating point,  Maladetta,  or  Pic  de 
N^thoo,  reaches  a  height  of  11,424 
feet.  The  principal  passes  in  the  Pyre- 
nees, formed  by  the  meeting  of  valleys 
from  opposite  sides  of  the  axis,  take  in 
the  east  part  of  the  chain  the  name  of 
Cols,  and  towards  the  center  that  of 
Ports.  Only  four  of  these  are  con- 
veniently practicable  for  carriages.  Two 
great  railway  tunnels,  completed  in  1013, 
will  do  much  to  shorten  the  journey  and 
to  promote  traffic  between  France  and 
Spain.  In  the  Pyrenees  is  to  be  found 
some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  France. 
The  climate,  genial  and  warm,  baniahes 
perpetual  snow  to  1900  feet  higher 
than  the  snow-line  of  the  Alps.  The 
French  Pyrenees  abound  in  mineral 
springs,  in  connection  with  which  are 
some  of  the  gayest  watering  ^aces  in 
Europe,  chief  among  them  Bagnftres 
de  Luchon.  Barege  is  in  a  dreary  gorge, 
but  its  waters  are  celebrated  for  their 
efficacy. 

PvT^nies  (p€-ra-nfl),  the  French 
*  J  ***"****  name  of  the  Pyrenees,  giv- 
ing name  to  three  French  departments. 
—  Ba88E8-Ptb£:n£e8  (bits  p^rft-nft)  is  a 
department  of  Southwestern  France,  at 
the  angle  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Its  in- 
dustry is  mainly  agricultural.  The  sur- 
face is  diversibed,  there  is  much  fine 
scene'7,  and  the  forests  are  extensive  and 
valuable.  Biarritz,  its  chief  watering 
place,  is  well  known  as  a  health  resort, 
especially  in  winter.  Pan  is  the  capital 
of  the  department.    Ana,  2843  sq.  rules  i 


PjItllMI 

pop.  420,847.— HAun^-PTBiMtM  (W- 
pA-rl-aA)  la  a  department  of  Southern 
nanct,  bounded  partly  bjr  Spain,  .partly 
bjr  Banea-Pyrta«ca,  and  otber  depart* 
Bents.  To  it  In  the  louth  belong  loma 
of  the  loftieat  ■ummlti  of  the  Pyreneca. 
The  fine  Kenery  and  the  mineral  apringa 
of  the  department  attract  many  viiitora. 
Area,  1740  iquafe  miles;  pop.  212,173. 
Tarbes  Is  the  capital.—  PYRiNftss-ORlKN- 
TALC8  (p«-rA-na-so-rS-a9-t&l),  a  depart- 
ment of  Southern  France,  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Spanish  fron- 
tier. Its  chief  wealth  lies  in  its  wines, 
of  which  the  well-itnown  Uoussillon  Is 
one.  The  department  is  also  very  rich  In 
Iron.  Perpignan  la  the  capital.  Area, 
1592  square  miles ;  pop.  212,121.  .  .  ^ 
Thrrmnt^^%  Peace  of  the,  concluded 
X-yreuccs,    between  France  and  Spain 


Pyrbfmita 


by  Cardinal  Masarin  and  De  Haro,  on  the 
lie  des  Faisans,  in  the  river  Bidassoa.  on 
the  borders  of  the  two  countries,  No- 
vember 7,  1050,  terminated  a  war  which 
had  lasted  for  twenty-four  years.  By 
this  treaty  Spain  ceded  to  France  Rous- 
sillon,  with  the  fortress  of  Perpignan, 
etc.,  so  that  the  Pyrenees  have  since 
formed  the  boundary  of  the  two  liing- 
doms;  and  in  the  Netherlands,  Artols. 
and  part  of  Flanders.  Ilainault,  and 
Luxemburg,  with  a  number  of  fortified 
towns.  . 

PiTTAflimni  (pl-reth'rum),  a  genus  of 
X-yrctuiuiu  herbaceous  plants  nearly 
allied  to  Chrfftanthemum.  P.  Parthenium 
is  known  as  feverfew;  from  P.  roseiim  is 
made  the  well-known  Persian  insect-pow- 
der.. ,  ^ 
Vrrrvnn  (pir'gOs),  a  town  of  Greece, 
*  J*©""  near  the  west  coast  of  the 
Morea,  and  not  far  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Ruphia  (Alpheios).  Its  harbor  is  at 
Katakolo,  to  which  there  is  a  railway, 
and  it  carries  on  a  considerable  trade. 
Pop.  (1907)  13,690. 

Pyrheliomcter  iri-n'sSru^'dl: 

vised  by  M.  Pouillet  for  measuring  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  of  the  sun.  It  con- 
sists of  a  shallow  cylindrical  vessel  of 
thin  silver  or  copper,  containing  water  or 
mercury  in  which  a  thermometer  is 
plunged.  The  upper  surface  of  the  vessel 
is  covered  with  lampblack,  so  as  to  make 
it  absorb  as  much  heat  as  possible,  and 
the  vessel  is  attached  to  a  support  in 
such  a  way  that  the  upper  surface  can  be 
always  made  to  receive  the  rays  of  the 
sun  perpendicularly.  The  actual  amount 
of  heat  absorbed  by  the  instrument  is  cal- 
culated by  ordinary  calorimetrical  means. 
The  area  of  the  exposed  blackened  surface 
and  the  amount  of  water  or  mercury 
which  baa  been  raised  through  a  cerUin 


P. 


Bombtr  of  themMHnatrtc  dtgiMa  balag 
both  of  tbna  known,  the  abaolutt  baating 
affect  of  tlM  snn,  acting  upon  a  givto  araa 
under  the  conditions  of  tht  tiptrioMBt, 
can  be  readily  found. 
Pvrifsia  (pl-rl'tes),  a  name  glrtn  la 
f  jriAvvB  mineralogy  to  varioua  matallie 
sulphides,  chiefly  to  the  sulphides  of  cop- 
per and  iron.  Pyritea  ia  largely  used  aa 
a  aource  of  sulphur  in  the  manufacturt 
of  sulphuric  acid.  It  Is  a  widely  diVused 
and  plentiful  mineral,  occurring  In  many 
different  kinds  of  rocks.  It  ia  abundant 
in  many  coal  aeams,  and  is  apt  to  be- 
come so  heated  by  the  action  of  water 
and  air,  which  change  it  into  sulphate  of 
iron,  as  to  set  fire  to  the  coal.  Copper 
pyrites,  called  also  yellow  copper  and 
chalcopyrite,  is  the  most  abundant  of 
all  the  ores  of  copper,  and  yields  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  worid'a  copper. 
The  color  of  pyrites  hu  often  caused  it 
to  be  mistaken  for  gold,  of  which  there  is 
a  notable  instance  in  the  early  history 
of  Virginia.  For  iron  pyrites  see  Iron. 
'Orrri*9  (p«'rits),  an  ancient  town  of 
*y"''*  Prussia,  24  miles  soutbeaat  of 
Stettin.  Its  chief  industries  are  machin- 
ery, sugar  manufacture,  and  agriculture. 
Pop.  (1005)  8000. 

Pirmiftnt  (pir'mont),  a  watering 
ryrmonx   pj^p^    q,    Prussia,    In    the 

principality  of  Waldeck  and  Pyrmont 
(which  see),  34  miles  8.  8.  w.  of  Hanover. 
Small  but  well  built,  with  several  fine 
promenades,  it  contains  a  palace,  and  a 
very  complete  bathing  establishment.  The 
water  Is  chalybeate,  poasessing  valuable 
medicinal  propertiea.  Over  100,000  bot- 
tles of  water  are  annually  exported.  Pop. 
1500. 

Pyro^lectricity  <|;2*li  eleSAcTtJ 

produced  by  heat,  as  when  tourmaline  be- 
comes electric  by  being  heated  between 
10°  and  100"  Centigrade. 

PyrogaUic  Acid  i:SA^,:'imd 

obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of  gallic 
acid  (which  see).  It  forms  crystals  that 
have  neither  smell  nor  color,  is  readily 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether,  has  a 
neutrsl  reaction,  readily  absorbs  oxygen 
in  an  alkaline  solution,  and  becomes  of 
a  dark  brown  color.  It  is  used  in  pho- 
tography, and  sometimes  as  a  hair-dye. 
FTT'oliu    ^**  Wintergreen. 

PyroUgneons  AcidJ.py,"!:??™': 

pure  acetic  acid  obtained  by  tha  diatilla- 
tion  of  wood. 

Pvralnrit^  (pl-ru-lO'alt),  a  btack  pre 
ryrOlUUie  ^f  manganese,  occurring 
crystalliMd  and  masaive  in  Deronshire, 


PjfOButtr 


Pjrrhvi 


Warwiekihirt,  Thnrlaffla*  Bruil  sad 
otiwr  placM.  It  !•  tb«  binosU*.  dletUt, 
«r  pttraidt  of  BMngaiMM.  ■od  u  much 
OMa  in  ebMBkal  proctwM. 

*7W™«Wr  itrumwt,  tbt  obJ«ct  of 
wblcb  b  tc  iDMsora  ail  mdatlima  of 
ttmpenitnre  aboT*  thoaa  indicattd  by  tha 
marcnrial  tbarmometrr.  Wedfwood'a  py- 
romater,  tba  Brat  wblcb  cama  into  axten- 
alra  naa,  waa  uaed  by  bim  for  tcatini  tbe 


baat  of  bia  pottery  and  porcelain  iilna, 
and  d«p«Bd«a  on  tn«  property  of  cUt  to 
contract  on  expoaura  to  baat.  Many 
different  nodea  have  been  propoaed  or 
actnally  employed  for  measurinf  bigb 
tcmperaturea ;  aa  by  contraction,  aa  In 
Wedfwood'a:  by  the  expanalon  of  bom  of 
different  metala ;  by  change  of  preuure  in 
confined  (aaea;  liy  I  lie  amount  of  heat 
Imparted  to  a  cold  man;  by  tbe  fuaing 
point  of  aolida ;  by  color,  aa  red  and  white 
neat,  etc 

*.jAWfnf  bemlcn  garnet,  a  dark-red  va- 
riety of  garnet,  found  embedded  in  trap 
tnfa  in  tno  mountain!  of  Bohemia.  It 
occcra  alio  In  Saxony  In  serpentine. 
PvmnfiAnfi  (pl'ru-fftn).  a  musical  in- 
ryropnone  it'^ument,  in  which  tha 
Tarloua  notea  are  produced  by  the  bum- 
ing  of  hydrogen  gaa  within  glass  tubes 
of  Tarlona  aixea  and  lengtha.  • 
PvmanAnA  (pl'ru-akop),  an  instm- 
f  jrxvaCOpC    ^^f    f^f    meaeurlng    tbe 

intenalty  of  heat  radiating  from  a  hot 
body  or  tha  frigoriflc  influence  of  a  cold 
body. 

PvTAlia  (pl-rO'sis),  in  medicine,  a  dia- 
*****■*■  ease  of  tbe  stomach  attended 
with  a  aenaation  of  burnlDg  in  the  epi- 
gaatriom,  accompnnied  with  an  eructa- 
tion of  watery  fluid,  usually  insipid,  but 
sometimes  acrid.  It  is  commonly  called 
Waterbraah. 

PvrOBOma  (pl-ru-sS'ma),  a  genus  of 
*J        **  phosphorescent     Molluscoi- 

da,  of  tbe  group  Tunicata,  compound 
aacidiana  inhabiting  the  Mediterranean 
and  Atlantic.  They  unite  in  great  num- 
bera,  forming  a  large  hollow  cylinder, 
open  at  one  end  and  closed  at  the  other, 
awimming  in  tbe  ocean  by  the  alternate 
contraction  and  dilatation  of  ita  compo- 
nent individual  animals. 
PyrOtechny  (Pl-ru-tek'nO.  the  acl- 
*  J  *  vi«*»v«M»j    pmjp   Qf   making  and 

naing  artificial  fireworks,  the  chief  ingre- 
dienta  of  wblcb  are  niter,  sulphur,  and 
charcoal.  Iron  filings  yield  bright  red 
and  white  sparks.  Steel  filings  and  cast- 
iron  boringa  contafn  cart>on,  and  give  a 
mora  brilliant  fire  with  wavy  radiations. 
Copper  filings  give  flame  a  greenish  tint, 
tboae  of  ainc  a  fine  blue  color;  tba  aul- 


ghaitt  ot  aatioMBy  glTta  •  laaa  graealah 
laa  tkaa  aiae,  bat  with  nueh  amoka; 
aBbar,  vwIb,  aad  comaoa  salt  giva  a 
jreiioir  Bra.  Lampblack  producan  •  ym 
red  color  with  gunpowder,  and  a  pink 
with  alter  in  excess.  Verdlgria  Imparta  a 
pala  green,  sulphate  of  copper  and  aal 
ammoniac  a  palm-trea  green.  Lycopo- 
dium,  used  alao  in  tbi  manufacture  of 
Ktage-llghtnlnR.  burns  with  a  roae  color 
ana  a  magnificent  Bama.    Sea  Firetcork$. 

Pyroxylio  Spirit  (p««>k»-»''i«).  • 

****'^/***'  **r"**  common  name  for 
mat  by  lie  alcohol  or  wood-spirit.  Sea 
MttkpL 

*  /  *  '  ****»  embracing  guncotton  and 
all  other  exploaive  aubatancea  obtained  by 
immersing  vegetable  fiber  In  nitric  or 
nitroaulphuric  acid,  and  then  Buffering  it 
to  dry.  Theae  suMtances  are  nitroderiv* 
ativea  of  cellulose. 
Py~1|a       See  iieucoiion. 

Pyrrhic  Dance  iPi^^^tiS"  :~X 

dance,  which  consisted  cliieUy  in  sucb 
an  adroit  and  nimble  turning  of  the  body 
as  repre  ented  an  attempt  to  avoid  tbe 
strokes  of  an  enemy  in  battle,  and  the 
motiona  necessary  to  pesform  It  wera 
looked  upon  aa  a  kind  of  training  for 
war. 

PirrrliA  (Pir'rO),  a  Grecian  philoao* 
xyrrno  pj;^,  ^^  e,j,^  founder  of  tba 

Pyrrbonian  or  skeptical  school,  flourished 
•5lou'  "WO  AC.  He  was  early  led  to 
apply  iiiuself  to  philueophy  by  the  writ- 
ings of  Democritus,  and,  accompanying 
his  master,  Anaxarcbus,  to  India,  In  tba 
train  of  Alexander  the  Ureat,  he  there 
became  acquainted  with  the  doctrinea  o( 
the  Brabmans,  Magi,  and  other  eaateta 

ghiloaophera.  Spending  a  great  part  of 
is  life  In  solitude,  and  abstaining  from 
all  decided  opinions  concerning  moral  and 
physical  phenomena,  he  endeavored  to 
attain  a  state  of  tranquillity  not  to  be 
affected  by  fear,  joy,  or  sorrow.  He  died 
in  his  ninetieth  year;  the  Atheniana 
erected  a  Htatue  in  honor  of  him,  and  bia 
countrymen,  who  had  made  him  a  high- 
priest,  raised  a  monument  to  his  memory. 
His  chief  doctrines  were  the  uncertainty 
of  all  human  knowledge,  and  the  l>elief 
that  virtue  is  the  only  good.  Pyrrho  left 
no  writings.  It  is  only  from  the  worka 
of  his  later  followers,  particularly  Sextua 
Empiricus,  that  we  learn  the  principlea 
of  his  school.  A  di»i)Otiilion  to  doubt  is 
often  called,  from  this  pbiloaopber,  Fifr- 
rhoniittt.  ,    „  . 

PvrrliTHi  (pir^nis),  king  of  Epirua, 
AjxAuuB   Q^g  qI  jjig  m^^t  Dotable  gen- 

eraia  of  antiquity,  waa  born  about  318 


Pjni 


Y  ^tkMS 


S.On  tad  WM  Itft  an  orpluui  In  child- 
bood.  U«  w«i  plactd  ou  ttiv  Ihrouv  of 
bb  •acMtbn  wb«n  about  iweUt  y««n 
el  agt,  ml  rvlgued  p«ai«(ully  ttvt  yfara, 
wbm  advaotMge  waa  taken  of  bia  amtaoca 
to  tranafrr  tb«  crown  to  bia  grvat-uncla, 
Naoptolifmuii  AfUT  arrvinc  witb  bia 
brotBer-in>lav  ,  Deuietiiua  PoHorcetra,  and 
graally  diatiugiiiitliiug  liiinaflf  at  tb«>  but- 
tie  of  Ipaua,  agahiat  Antlgonua,  b.0.  301. 
Pjrrrbua  rcfov.*n<(l  bin  doniinioni.  wbicb 
be  abami  witb  bia  rival,  and  tben  cauaed 
tba  latipr  to  be  put  to  deotb.  lie  neit 
contendtHl  for  poueaaion  of  Mare«lonin, 
and  in  280  pnMiK><l  over  into  Itaiy  to 
aaaiat  tbc  lireelca  ngainat  Rome,  lie  de- 
feated tbe  Uouiana  in  two  battles,  but 
witb  levere  Iom  to  bimnelf:  tben  pasaed 
over  into  Sicily,  returned  to  Italy  again, 
and  waa  defeated  at  Beneventura  '/75 
B.C.  He  now  retired  to  Epirua,  took  part 
In  tbe  Ureek  troublea,  and  waa  killed  at 
Argoa.  B.C.  272. 

p^«M.  (prrua),  a  genua  of  ornamental 
*/***■  and  fruit  treea,  tbe  latter  form- 
ing tbe  cbief  of  our  oribard  fruit,  and 
bcTonging  to  tbe  pomeoua  aection  of  tbe 
nat.  order  Itoanceie.  Tliere  are  about 
forty  apev-ica,  naiivea  of  the  north  tem- 
perate and  cold  rcaioua.  Tbe  pear  {P. 
comminit),  tbe  apple  or  crab  (P.  Malui), 
aervice-trec  (/'•  toimin&lia  and  dome$- 
tica),  mountuin-aab  or  rowan-tree  (/'. 
Ancuparia),  beam-tree  (/*.  Aria),  etc., 
all  belong  to  this  genua. 
"Pviliaiynrfl*  (pi-tbag'o-'aa).    a    Ore- 

ryrnagoraB  ^^QQ  pbnoaopber,  aup- 

poaed  to  bave  been  born  about  586  B.C. 
at  Samoa.  He  went  to  Scyron,  and  waa 
a  scholr.r  of  I'heretydea  till  tbe  death  of 
tlie  latter;  olhera  make  him  uiao  a  acholar 
of  Tbalea  and  Annximander.  He  ia  aaid 
to  bave  gatliered  knowledge  from  the  pbl- 
loaopbera  or  learned  men  of  Phcenicia, 
Syria,  Kgypt,  Babylon.  India,  etc.,  but 
eventually  aettlwl  nt  the  Greek  city  of 
Crotoua  in  Lower  Italy,  prolmbly  about 
820  &0.  Hla  abilities  and  character  led 
great  numbers,  chiefly  of  the  noble  and 
wealthy  classes,  to  adopt  hia  views. 
Three  hundred  of  tliese  were  formed  into 
a  select  fraternity  or  order,  and  were 
bound  by  vow  to  Pythagoros  and  each 
other,  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the 
rites  and  observances  enjoined  by  their 
master,  and  studying  bis  philosophy. 
Tliey  thus  formeil  at  once  a  philosophical 
acbool  and  a  religious  order.  Tbe  politi- 
cal influence  of  this  body  became  very 
considerable,  and  was  exerted  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  ari?:tocmtic  party.  The  dem- 
ocratic party  strenuously  opposed  the 
growing  power  of  tbe  order,  and  their 
enmity  ransed  Pythagoras  to  retire  to 
MetapootniB,  wbcr«  b«  ^«d  ftlK>ut  QQO 


%jo.  So  far  M  wt  can  JtMlga,  bia  mtta 
appMn  to  owa  vary  niich  to  a  TiTld  im« 
agination  acting  upon  tba  tbaa  prtvaillBg 
ignoranie  reapectiug  tba  order  of  naturt. 
What  Y"'  ^^^  known  waa  gueaaed  at, 
with  tbe  usual  result.  In  tba  caM  Of 
Pythagoras,  aa  In  that  of  otbar  taacban 
of  those  early  timca,  tbe  popular  affect 
of  thia  partial  knowledge  waa  heightened 
by  mingling  it  witb  aecret  doctrinea.  One 
of  these  doctrinea  waa  the  tranamigratlon 
of  aoula;  and  Pytbagoraa  Is  aald  to  have 
believed  himself  to  nave  previoualv  lived 
in  aeveral  bodiea.     He  had  also  abatruae 


tbeoriia  respecting  numbers,  geometry, 
and  music,  which  tie  valued  very  bigbljr 
as    fitting    tbe   soul    for   coti.emplatkm. 


The  effect  of  bis  teaching,  bowavar,  waa 
auch  that  bis  disciples  are  aald  to  have 

raid  bim  divine  honora  uft<  r  hia  death, 
n  appearance  be  waa  grave,  command- 
ing, and  dignified.  Ha  abatainad  fiwn  all 
animal  food,  limiting  himself  to  a  vege- 
table diet.  His  public  inatructlon  con* 
sisted  of  practical  discouraea  in  which  he 
recommended  virtue  and  diaauaded  from 
vice,  with  a  particular  reference  to  tbe 
various  lelationa  of  mankind,  aa  those 
of  husbands  and  wives,  parenta  and  chil- 
dren, citizens  and  magistrates,  etc.  Hia 
disciples  were  reouired  to  practice  the 
greatoHt  purity  and  simplicity  of  mannera. 
He  imiKMted  upon  them,  it  is  said,  a  silence 
of  from  two  to  five  years,  according  to 
cirt-um'itauces.  He  alone  who  bad  paaaad 
through  the  appointed  aeriea  of  trtala 
was  allowed  to  near  the  word  of  tba  maa* 
ter  in  bia  immedbite  presence.  To  tba 
initiated  tbe  doctrinea  were  not  delivarad, 
as  to  others,  under  the  maak  of  imagea 
and  aymbola,  but  unveileil.  Pytbagoraa 
left  no  writlnga,  tbe  Qolden  Senleneea 
extant  under  bia  name  having  been  com- 
posed or  compiled  by  later  bnnda. 

Pythagorean  Bean  iJfJ'-fbVlK: 

lumhium  tpeciotutn.    See  Nelmmhimm. 

Pythagorean    Theorem, 

the  forty-seventh  propoaltion  of  tbe  first 
book  of  Euclid't  Element;  which  shows 
that  in  any  right-angled  triangle  tbe 
square  of  tbe  hypotenuse  is  equal  to  tbe 
sum  of  the  squares  of  tbe  other  two  sides. 
Pv4''h*oa     (pith'e-as),  a   famous  navi- 

Massilia.  now  Marseilles,  supposed  to 
have  lived  about  the  time  of  Alexander 
tbe  Great  (say  830  B.C.).  He  la  re- 
pi'tod  to  bave  aailed  along  tbe  weat  coast 
of  Ei-oi*.  entered  the  English  Channel, 
and  'eled  some  distance  in  Britain, 
then,  «.v>ntinulng  bis  Journey  northward, 
to  bar-.'  arrived  at  Thule  (aoppoaed  t 
be  Iceland).    Id  a  secood  voyage  he  eq- 


Pythian  Qamet 


Pyxidium 


tered  the  Baltic,  where  he  proceeded  m 
(ir  as  a  river  which  he  called  Tanais, 
and  oa  the  banks  of  which  amber  was 
found.  We  only  know  of  him  through 
Strabo,  Pliny,  and  others. 

Pythian  Games  ffi*£K^a"t"&.2 

clan  games,  instituted  in  honor  of  Apollo, 
and  celebrated  at  Delphi.  Until  about 
586  B.O.  they  were  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Delphians,  and  took  place 
every  eighth  year;  but  after  that  date 
they  were  conducted  by  the  Amphictyons, 
and  celebrated  every  fourth  year,  prizes 
being  given  for  nute-playin^,  athletic 
sports,  and  horse  and  chariot  racing. 
Eventually  contests  in  tragedy,  painting, 
sculpture,  etc.,  were  added.  At  first 
prizes  of  silver  or  gold  were  awarded,  but 
afterwards  the  simple  laurel  wreath  and 
palm  branch  were  substituted.  They  con- 
tinued to  be  celebrated  until  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century  of  our  era. 
Pv^'Ti'iaa  KNIGHTS  OF,  a  benevolent 
ryiOiva,  ^^^  friendly  order,  founded 
in  the  United  States  in  18G4,  and  now 
strong  in  this  country  and  flourishing  in 
some  other  countries.  It  had  a  memoer- 
ship  in  1011  in  the  United  States  of 
711381.  It  has  an  insurance  depart- 
ment with  a  membership  numbering  00,* 
989,  representing  an  aggregate  life  Insur- 
ance of  $98,527,523. 

PirfVinn  (pl'thon),  a  genus  and  family 
ryuiou  jjf  serpents  allied  to  the  fam- 
ily Boids  or  Boas.  They  are  not  venom- 
ous, but  kill  their  prey  by  compression. 
The  pythons  belong  exclusively  to  the 
Old  World,  and  are  of  enormous  size, 
sometimes  attaining  a  length  of  30  feet. 
They  are  found  in  India  and  in  the  islands 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  in  Africa  and 
in  Australia.  A  rudimentary  pelvis  and 
traces  of  hinder  limbs  exist  in  the  pythons, 
these  structures  terminating  externally  in 


a  kind  of  hooked  claw.  The  head  exceeds 
the  neck  in  thickness,  and  the  mouth  is 
extremely  large.  Aided  by  their  prehen- 
sile tails  and  rudimentary  hinder  limbs, 
the  pythons  suspend  themselves  from  the 
branches  of  trees  and  lie  in  wait  near 
water  for  animals  which  come  to  drink. 
The  genus  Python  contains  various  spe- 
cies, the  best  known  of  which  is  the 
West  African  python  (P.  tebce),  common 
in  menageries.  The  female  python  hatches 
her  eggs  by  the  heat  of  her  body. 
P^rl-hniipqA    (pl'thon-es),  the  priestess 

at  Delphi,  who  gave  oracular  answers. 
See  Delphi. 

Py^  (piks;  Greek,  pyxis,  a  box),  a 
*  covered  vessel  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  contain  tlie  conse- 
crated host.  In  ancient  times,  although 
generally  rectangular  in  shape,  it  some- 
times had  the  form  of  a  dove,  and  was 
suspended  above  the  altar.  It  is  now 
cyhndrical,  cup  or  bell  shaped,  with  a. 
cross-surmounted  cover,  and  is  frequently 
delicately  chased  and  inlaid. 
p«Tv  Tbial  of  the,  the  final  trial  by 
*  **>  weight  and  assay  of  the  gold  and 
silver  coins  of  the  United  Kingdom,  prior 
to  their  issue  from  the  mint,  a  certain 
number  being  taken  and  tested  by  way  of 
sample  of  the  whole.  The  trial  takes 
place  periodically  by  a  jury  of  goldsmiths 
summoned  by  the  lord-chancellor,  and  con- 
stitutes a  public  attestation  of  the  stand- 
ard purity  of  the  coin.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  assaying  of  gold  and  silver 
plate,  which  takes  place  at  the  different 
assay  offices. 

PtnriiliTnn  (piks-id'i-um),  in  botany, 
ryZlOlUm  ^  capsule  with  a,  lid,  as 
seen  in  henbane  and  in  the  fruit  Lecy- 
thia  OUaria,  the  monkey-pot  tree,  a  large 
forest  tree  of  Brazil.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  theca  of  mosses. 


Q 


^. 


the  se^pii  jenth   letter  in   the  Eng- 
lish   alpJ.Det,    a    consonant    having 
the  h&xx^t  sotjnd  as  k  or  hard  c.     1«  « 
a  Bupcrfluouri   letter  in  English,  as   the 
combbation  qu,  in  which  it  always  oc- 
S«;  could  b^  equally  well  expressed  by 
kv)  or  k  alone  when  the  «  is  silent.     It 
did  not  occur  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  alpha- 
bet, the  sound  qu  in  Anglo-Saxon  words 
being  regularly  written  cw  or  c«.  but  was 
borrowed  from  the  French-Latm  alpna^t- 
n««»L-A«iTiAa     (kwak'in-bos),     John 
CtaaCkenbOS     Duncan,  author,  bom 
at    New    York    in    1848.     He   became   a 
doctor ;  a  tutor  in  rhetoric  at  Columbia 
College  in  1870;  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Columbia    and    at    Barnard    College    for 
Women  after  1891 ;  professor  emerUua  at 
Columbia  in   1894.     He  has  written  nu- 
merous school  books  and  other  works,  in- 
cluding     Hvpnotio      TherapeuUct      and 
Enemies  and  Evidences  of  ChrtsUantty. 
Onftili  (kwa'dS),     a     Teutonic     tribe 
HuaUi  ^bose  ancient  territory  was  on 
the  Danube,  extending  to  the  Theiss  on 
the  east  and  to  the  Carpathian  Mountains 
on  the  north.     They  long  waged  destruc- 
tive wars  with  the  Romans,  particularly 
under  Marcus  Aurelius,  but  cease  to  be 
heard    of    in    the'  fifth    century,    having 
probably  migrated  further  west  with  the 

n"« <i;iiHi(VAaiTn a     (  kwod-ra-jes'i-ma  ) , 
VmaarageSima    ^   Latin   word   sig- 


nifying fortieth,  and  used  to  denote  the 
lorty  days  of  fast  (Lent)  preceding 
Easter.  Quadragesima  Sunday  is  the 
first  Sunday  in  Lent  See  Lent. 
tX-naAwi-ntrX,*  (  kwod'rau - gl  ) , , ui  ge- 
dUaarangie  ^metry,  a  quadrilateral 
ngure;  a  plane  figure  having  four  sides, 
and  consequetitly  four  angles.  In  ordi- 
nary language  it  is  a  square  ^^u^wl" 
rangulai  court  surrounded  by  buildings, 
as  often  seen  in  the  buildings  of  a  college, 

school,  or  the  like.     ,.         ^  ,    ^ 

OnailrATif  ( kwod'rant ),  an  instm- 
liUaaraUb  ^j^^j  i^p  meaanring  angu- 
lar altitudes,  variously  constructed  and 
mounted  for  different  specific  uaea  in  as- 
tronomy, navigation,  surveying,  etc.,  con- 
■bting  originally  of  a  gradaated  are  of 
26— U— 5 


90",  with  an  index  or  vernier,  and  eithcf 
plain  or  telescopic  sights,  alona  with  a 
plumb-line  or  spirit-level  for  fixing  tiie 
vertical  or  horizontal  direction.  Its  pnn- 
ciple  and  application  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  sextant,  by  which  it  is  ausaneded. 
See  Sewtant.  „  .^.        v 

Quadrate  Bone  ifvl^Jpa^^'m'  "^ 

tiles  and  birds,  by  means  of  which  the 
lower  jaw  is  articulated  or  joined  to  the 
skull.  The  lower  jaw  of  these  forms  is 
thus  not  articulated  directly  or  of  itself 
to  the  skull,  as  in  mammals. 

auadratic  Equations.  S^^'"- 
auadratnre  io^'^o^^ThV'pSiti^ 

of  the  moon  or  a  planet  when  ite  lonri- 
tude  differs  from  that  of  the  sun  by  90  ; 
that  is,  when  it  is  90"  distant  from  the 
sun. —  Quadrature  of  the  circle,  the  squar- 
ing of  the  circle.  See  Circle. 
Onailriaa  (kwod-n'ga),  an  ancient 
Uuaanga  tVo-wheeled  car  or  char- 
iot drawn  by  four  horses  abr^st.  It 
was  used  In  racing  in  the  Greek  Olgn- 
pian  games,  and  in  the  games  of  the  Bo- 
man  circus.  ...       ,  X 

Qnadrilateral  ii'^e^'-Svli"-^'  ^'tb: 

space  inclosed  between,  and  defended  to, 
four  fortresses  in  Northern  Italy  fa- 
mous in  Austro-Italian  history,  namely, 
Peschiera  and  Mantua  on  the  Mincio,  and 
Verona  and  Legnago  on  the  Adige. 
Onodrille  (kwod-ril'),  a  danca  of 
Uuaaruie  ^.^ench  origin,  which  con- 
sists generally  of  five  consecutive  figurea 
or  movements,  danced  by  four  aeta  of 
couples,  each  forming  the  side  of  a  aquar^ 
Onailrlll*  *  ««"«  ■*  cards,  played 
UnaOnUC,  by  "four  persons,  with  a 
padc  of  forty  cards,  the  eight,  nine  and 
ten    of   each    suit    being    thrown    aMde. 

Siadrille  was  very  popular  and  futaioi^ 
le  in  England  about  the  beginning  of 
the  century,  but  is  now  almost  fojMottwi. 
Ombre,  the  game  celebrated  by  Pope  m 
hia  Rape  of  the  Lock,  is  esaentialiy  the 
same  came,  but  played  by  three  persona 
iosteaaot  four. 


QvidriTliun 


Quagga 


^ 


Qnadrivium  (kwod-riVi-um),  the 
^iM»iM«««iuu  name  given  by  the 
•eboolmen  of  the  middle  ages  to  the  four 
mathematical  branches  of  study,  arithme- 
tic, music,  geometry,  and  astronomy. 

Quadrnmana  /fo^r haS-Tt  h'^e 

name  applied  by  Cuvier  and  others  to 
denote  the  order  of  mammalia  represented 
by  the  lemurs,  monkeys,  and  apes,  from 
the  fact  that  these  forms  agree  in  possess- 
ing a  great  toe  so  constructed  as  to  be 
capable  of  opposing  the  other  digits  of  the 
feet,  instead  of  being  placed  parallel  with 
the  other  toes,  thus  forming  a  kind  of 
*  hand  '  adapted  for  supporting  the  foot 
on  the  ground.  This  conversion  of  the 
feet  into  hand-like  organs  presented  to 
Cuvier's  mind  so  different  and  remark- 
able a  structure  from  the  disposftion  of 
the  feet  and  toes  of  man,  that  he  sepa- 
rated man  as  a  sole  and  single  genus  to 


isi 


The  Mandrill  {Papio  maimom), 

represent  the  distinct  and  opposing  order 
of  Bitnana  or  'two-handed'  mnmmalia. 
But  in  modem  zoology  this  distinction  is 
held  not  to  exist  anatomically,  and  man 
ia  generally  included  in  one  order  with 
the  apes  and  monkeys  —  the  order  Pri- 
mates, of  which  man  constitutes  a  dis- 
tinct family  or  section.  As  limited  to 
the  apes,  monkeys,  and  lemurs,  the  Quad- 
nimana  are  chr^ractcrized  by  the  follow- 
ing points: — The  hallux  (innermost  toe 
of  the  hind-limb)  is  separated  from  the 
other  toes,  and  is  opposite  to  them,  so 
that  the  hind-feet  hecome  prehensile 
hands.  The  pollez  (innermost  toe  of  the 
fore-limbs)  may  be  wanting,  but  when 
present  it  also  ia  usually  opposable  to 
the  other  digits,  so  that  the  animal  be- 
comes truly  quadrumanous,  or  four- 
handed.  The  teats  are  two  in  number, 
•nd  the  mammary  glands  are  on  the 
chest  as  in  man.     See  Lemurs,  Uonkeya, 


Quadmned  (kwod're-ped),  the  name 
^  *^        popularly    applied    to 

those    higher   vertebrate    animals    which 

ness  four  developed  limbs.    The  name 
sually  restrictea  to  four-footed  mam< 
mals. 

Quadruple  AUiance  i^/**j;S;S 

so-called  from  the  number  of  the  con- 
tracting parties,  concluded  in  1718  be- 
tween Oreat  Brita:.!,  France,  and  Aus- 
tria, and  acceded  to  by  Holland  in  1719. 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht.  The  occasion  of  the  alliance 
was  the  seizure  by  Spain  of  Sardinia  in 
1717,  and  Sicily  in  1718,  both  of  which 
she  was  forced  to  give  up.  Another  quad- 
ruple alliance  was  that  of  Austria,  Rus- 
sia, Great  Britain,  and  Prussia,  in  1814, 
originating  in  the  coalition  which  had  ef- 
fected the  dissolution  of  the  French 
Empire. 

Qnsestor  (l^^^s'tur),  the  name  of 
7"  certain    magistrates    of    an- 

cient Rome  whose  chief  office  was  the 
management  of  the  public  treasure,  being 
receivers  of  taxes,  tribute,  etc.  Quieston 
accompanied  the  provincial  govemora 
and  received  taxes,  paid  the  troops,  etc. 
The  office  could  at  first  be  held  only  by 
patricians  until  421  B.C.,  when  the  num- 
ber, which  had  formerly  been  two,  was 
doubled,  and  plebeians  became  eligible. 
The  number  was  further  increased  to 
eight  after  the  outl  reak  of  the  first  Punic 
war.  As  province  after  province  was 
added  to  the  Roman  territory  the  number 
of  quiestors  was  again  increased,  till  un- 
der Sulla  it  reached  twenty,  and  in  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar  forty. 
Quaercra  (l<was'a;  Equua  Quagga),  a 
'^  OB""  species  of  the  horse  genus, 
nearly  allied  to  the  zebra,  and  formerly 
found  abundantly  on  the  plains  of  South- 
ern Af.ica,  south  of  the  Vaal  River. 
Though  striped  like  the  zebra,  it  possessed 
no  bands  on  the  li]r*^s;  of  a  dark  or  black- 
ish-brown on  the  bead,  neck,  and  shoul- 
ders, the  back  and  hind  quarters  were  of 
a  lighter  brown,  while  the  croup  was  of 
a  russet  gray.  The  under  parta  of  the 
body  were  white,  the  upper  parts  of  the 
legs  and  tail  being  marked  by  whi'iish 
bars.  The  quagga  was  of  smaller  size 
than  the  zebra,  and  in  general  conforma- 
tion bore  a  closer  resemblance  to  the 
horse.  Gregarious  in  habits,  the  quagga 
is  said  to  have  mingled  indiscriminately 
with  the  zebra  herds.  Its  food  consisted 
of  grasses  and  mimosa  leaves.  It  is  now 
said  to  be  absolutely  extinct,  having  been 
hunted  indiscriminately  by  the  Boers, 
who  killed  thousands  of  them  for  their 
skins.  In  this  respect  its  fate  resembles 
that  of  tlie  bi»oo  of  America,    Tbo  iwi- 


ttnail 


'QuakiTi 


mal  to  which  the  nam«  quacn  is  now  ap- 
plied  is  Baichell's  sebra.  See  Dauw. 
Onail  (liwftl:  Cotumiw),  a  genus  of 
Hiuut  fasorial  birds,  inciuaea  in  the 
family  of  the  partridges,  to  which  they 
are  nearly  allied,  but  from  which  they 
differ  in  being  smaller,  in  having  a  rela- 
tively shorter  tail,  no  red  space  above  the 
eye,  longer  wings,  and  no  spur  on  ihe 
legs.  The  common  quail  {C.  vulgSrit) 
is  a  migratory  bird,  and  is  found  in  every 
country  of  Europe,  and  in  many  parts  of 
Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  about  8  inches  in 
length.  The  color  of  the  upper  parts  id 
brownish  with  lighter  and  darker  marlt- 
ings,  of  the  under  parts  yellowish.  The 
quail  is  very  pugnacious,  and  in  some 
places  quail  fights  are  a  form  of  amuse- 
ment, as  was  the  case  al""  in  ancient 
times.  Its  flesh  is  deemed  excellent  food, 
and  large  numbers  are  brought  ai.ve  and 
dead  from  the  Continent  to  the  British 
marlcets.  In  Britain  these  binls  arrive 
early  in  May,  and  depart  southwards  in 


Oommon  Quail  {Coturnix  vulgirit). 

October.  There  are  several  Other  species, 
in  appearance  and  habits  not  greatly  dit- 
fering  from  the  common  quail,  as  ti..' 
Coromandel  quail  (C.  texfUin).  the  -\us- 
tralian  quail  (C.  austrdlia),  the  white- 
throated  quail  (C.  tonjuata),  the  Chinese 
quail  (0.  excalfacioria) ,  an  elegant  lit- 
tle species  measuring  only  4  Inches  in 
length,  etc.  The  name  quail  is  given  in 
the  United  States  to  some  birds  of  other 
genera,  as  the  Virginia  quail,  or  partridge 
(Ortym).  and  the  Califomian  or  crested 
quail  (Lophortyx).  The  Virginian  quail 
is  common  throughout  North  America, 
and  extends  as  far  south  ns  Honduras. 
It  is  rather  larger  than  the  -European 
quail.  The  flesh  is  very  white  and  tender, 
and  is  unequaled  in  delicacy  by  any  other 
member  of  its  order  in  America. 
OtiolrA'ra  (iKWft'kerz),  or  Fbiends,  a 
UUiifi.crB  go<;iety  of  Christians  which 
took  its  rise  in  England  about  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century.  George  Fox,  r,  na- 
tive of  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire,  was 
the  first  to  teach  the  religious  views 
which  distinguish  the  society.  He  com- 
menced l)ii  miniaterial  labor*  in  IQil,  and 


immediately  tell  under  perweatlon.    Bat 
persecution,  as  usual,  enlisted  the  lymp*- 
thiea  of  many  in  hia  cause.    .Kttn  mak' 
ing  multitudes  of  converts  he  organiied 
them   into  a  church,  which  liecame,  al- 
though not  until  after  severe  persecution, 
one  of  the  recognized  sects  of  Christian- 
ity.   Among  the  eminent  memben  of  the 
society  in  its  early  days  we  may  men- 
tion    William     Penn.     Robert     Barclay, 
George  Whitehead,  Stephen  Crisp,  Isaac 
Pennington,  John  Crook,  Thomas  Story, 
etc.    The  early  vjuakers  were  marked  as 
a    peculiar   people    by    their   testimoniea 
against  oaths,  a  paid  ministry,  and  tithes: 
their  use  of  the  singular  pronouns  when 
addressing  only  one  person;  their  refusal 
to  take  od  the  hat  as  a  compliment  to 
men;  the  plainness  of  their  apparel;  and 
their  disuse  of  the  onlinary  names  of  the 
months    and    days.     The    name    Quaker* 
was  given  to  them  in  derislin,  and  though 
they  nccepte<l  the  name  they  call  them- 
selves   by    that    of    Friends.    A    Derby 
niagistrnte  was  the  originator  of  the  de- 
risive  epithet   according   to  Fox    himself 
— '  because    I   made   him   tremble   at   the 
word  of  God.'    The  persecution  and  in- 
tolornnce,  of  which  they  were  the  victims 
both     in     Enitliind     and     America,    only 
tended  to  confirm  the  faith  and  strengthen 
the   bond   of   union   among   the  members 
'  '    the    rising    society ;    and    in    neither 
(        try  could  it  induce  the  sufferers  to 
it.aqulsh  their  conformity  to  what  they 
regarded  as  duty.     From  the  diffusion  of 
more  enlightened  views  on  the  subject  of 
religious    liberty,    acts    were   successively 
passed    by    the    English    parliament    re- 
lieving Friends  from   the  oppression  un- 
der which  they  suffered,  tolerating  their 
mode  of  worship,  marriage,  etc.,  and  al- 
lowing them  in  a  court  of  justice  to  make 
an  affirmation  in  place  of  taking  an  oath 
in    the    usual    way.     The    same    liberal 
policy  was  pursueti  In  America.     One  of 
the  brightest  chapters   in  the  annals  of 
the  sect  is  that  relating  to  the  founding 
of    the    colony    of    Pennsylvania.     (See 
Pcnn,   Willitttn,  Pennisyloania.)     But,  a* 
in  other  reforming  sects,   so  among  the 
B'riends,   succees    in    the  course   of   time 
gradually  undermined  (heir  zeal,  and  de- 
prived them  of  many  of  their  character- 
istic qualities.     Gradually  the  spread  of 
wealth   modified   the   stringency   of   their 
'  sumptuary '    rules,    and    there    wa*    In 
consequence  a  rapid  decline  of   the  an- 
cient   discipline.     Coincident    with    the** 
relaxations  of  rule  arose  disputes  as  to 
doctrine.     About    the    year    1827    Elias 
Hicks,  a  native  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
created  a  schism  in  the  society  by  pro- 
mulgating opinions  denying  the  miracu- 
lous conception,  divinity,  and  atouemeat 


Quakers 


Qnappelle 


of  ChrUt,  and  also  the  divin*  authority 
of  the  Ekriptatea.  One-fourth  the  sect 
in  America  followed  Hicki,  and  have 
since  been  known  aa  Hicksite  Friends. 
The  schism  made  much  stir  among 
Friends  in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  in 
America,  and  a  movement  was  begun  in 
favor  of  higher  education,  and  of  a  re- 
laxation in  the  formality  of  the  society. 
This  movement,  headed  by  Joseph  John 
Gumey  of  Norwich,  was  strenuously 
opposed  by  a  body  of  Friends  in  America, 
and  the  result  was  a  division  among  the 
Orthodox  Friends  themselves,  and  the 
origin  of  a  new  sect,  known  as  Wilbur- 
itei,  from  John  Wilbur,  its  founder. 

The  society,  or  the  orthodox  section  of 
it,  believes  that,  under  the  gospel  dis- 
pensation, ail  wars  and  fightings  are 
strictly  forbidden ;  the  positive  injunc- 
tion of  Christ,  '  Love  your  enemies,'  etc., 
entirely  preceding  the  indulgence  of 
those  passions  from  which  only  such  con- 
tests can  arise.  They  also  believe  that 
the  express  comm^ind,  '  Swear  not  at  all,' 

Jirohiblts  the  Cbristian  from  the  use  of 
udicial  as  well  as  other  oaths.  In  like 
manner,  following  the  spirit  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, they  believe  that  a  special  call  Is 
necessary  to  constitute  a  true  minister 
of  the  gospel,  that  the  faithful  minister 
should  not  preach  for  a  pecuniary  re- 
ward, that  the  essential  baptism  is  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  not  by  water,  and  that  the 
Lord's  supper  is  also  entirely  of  a  spirit- 
ual nature.  They  therefore  renounce 
both  these  sacraments  so  far  as  the  ordi- 
nary outward  forms  are  concerned.  As 
to  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
the  incarnation,  crucifixion,  resurrection, 
redemption  through  Christ's  death,  justifi- 
cation, etc.,  their  beliefs  are  similar  to 
those  of  orthodox  Christians  generally. 
The  Friends  were  one  of  the  first  sects 
to  allow  women  to  teach  publicly.  As 
early  as  1727  they  censured  the  traffic  in 
slaves,  and  the  efforts  of  the  society  had 
a  great  influence  in  bringing  about  their 
emancipation.  They  object  to  balls,  gam- 
ing places,  horse  races,  theaters,  and 
music;  also  to  the  reading  of  plays,  ro- 
mances, and  novels ;  and  enjoin  plainness 
of  dress  and  the  avoidance  of  ornaments. 
The  society  is  governed  by  its  own 
code  of  discipline,  which  is  enacted  and 
supported  by  meetings  of  four  degrees 
for  discipline  —  namely,  preparative, 
monthly,  quarterly,  and  yearly  meetings. 
Tlie  preparative  digest  and  prepare  tne 
business  for  the  monthly  meetings,  in 
which  the  executive  power  is  principally 
lodged,  subject,  however,  to  the  revision 
and  control  of  the  quarterly  meetings, 
which  are  again  subject  to  the  supervision 
uui   direction   of    the   yearly   meedun. 


There  are  about  00,000  members  and 
adherent!^  'n  Britain,  120.000  in  the 
United  a,  besides  small  numbers  in 

other  Ci      .ries. 

Qnakinsr  Orasi  (?»'»«»).  •  «eno; 

^  —a  *"*•«••  o(  grasses,  so-named 

from  their  spikeleta  being  always  in  a 
state  of  tremulous  motion,  in  consequence 
of  the  weakness  of  the  footstalks  by 
which  they  are  supported.  Briza  mam- 
ima,  a  native  of  Southern  Europe,  has 
long  been  cultivated  as  a  garden  annual 
on  account  of  its  large  and  handsome 
drooping  spikeleta,  B.  media,  a  peren- 
nial plant,  is  naturalized  in  the  vicinity 
of  Boston,  its  flowers  forming  elegant 
panicles. 

Qnamash  (kwam'ash),  the  North 
^  American  name  of  Camat- 

tia  etculenta,  a  plant  of  the  lily  family 
with  an  edible  Dulb.  These  bulbs  are 
much  eaten  by  the  Indians,  and  are  pre- 
pared by  baking  in  a  hole  du^  in  the 
ffround,  then  pounding  and  drymg  them 
into  cakes  for  future  use. 
QnamOClit  (kwam-ok'llt),  a  genus 
^  of     climbing     ornamental 

plants,  nat.  order  Convolvulacese,  chiefly 
found  in  the  hot  parts  of  America,  but 
some  species  are  indigenons  both  in  In- 
dia and  China. 

Qnandan&r  (kwan'dang),  the  edible 
^  o   fruit  of  a  species  of  san- 

dalwood    tree,     Santilum     acuminitum, 
called  in  Australia  native  peach. 
QnangSee.      ®®«  Kwangn. 

Qnangtung.      ®**  Kwangtung. 

Quantity  ^i'^'^^^'^'^v.  *K*   ?~p- 

^uouMbjr  g^y  ^jf  anything,  in  virtue 
of  which  it  is  capable  of  being  meas- 
ured, increased,  or  diminished,  relating 
to  bulk,  weight,  or  number.  In  mathe- 
matics a  quantity  is  anyttung  to  which 
mathematical  processes  are  applicable. 
In  grammar  it  signifies  the  measure  of  a 
syllable,  or  the  time  in  which  it  is  pro- 
nounced—  the  metrical  value  of  sylla- 
bles as  regards  length  or  weight  in  pro- 
nunciation. In  Latin  and  Greek  poetry 
quantity  and  not  accent  regulates  the 
measure. 

Quantock  Hills  ii5%"f'S^oi^;i." 

vation  in  England,  in  the  county  of 
Somerset,  extending  from  the  Bristol 
Channel,  near  Watchet,  northeast  to  be- 
tween Bridgewater  and  Taunton,  and 
rising  at  their  highest  point  to  an  eleva- 
ticHi  of  1428  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

QnanZA  *'  ^^^'  **'  Africa.  See  Co- 
^  >  anxa. 

QuavDelle  ^^:..p*'').'  ■j?™*"„*°j^'* 

viM»^^«uv  ©n  the   Canadian    Pacific 


dvarantiiLe 


B*Hw»y,  in  the  dirtrict  of  Awlnlbola,  • 
short  dutance  east  of  Reglna;  al»p,  the 
name  of  a  river  tributary  to  the  Aaaini- 

boine.  ^  ^        _,         * , « .    i  * 

Anawan't-'iiiA    (kworan-t6n;    it. 
UHarantme   ^uaranUna.   a   epace  of 
forty  days),  the  period  (originally  forty 
days)   during  which  a  ship  coming  from 
a  port  Buspected  of  contagion,  or  having 
a  contagious  sicltness  on  tward.  Is  for- 
bidden   intercourse    with    the    place    at 
which  she  arrives.    This  form  of  quaran- 
tine   is    confined     to    countries     where 
cholera,   yellow    fever,   etc.,   have   to  be 
guarded    against.    By    act    of    Congress 
passed  in  1888  national  quarantine  sta- 
tions were  established :  and  it  is  made  a 
misdemeanor,  punishable  by  fine  or  ini- 
prisonment,  or  both,  for  the  master,  pilot, 
or  owner  of  any  vessel  entering  a  port  oi 
the  United  States  in  violation  of  the  act, 
or  regulations  framed  under  it    Quaran- 
tine  was    first    introduced   at    Venice   m 
the  fourteenth  century.     In  Britain  it  is 
now  practically  abolished,  the  port  sani- 
tary  authorities   dealing  with   any   case 
reported  to  them. 

auaregnon    ^^^^^l^Un^ry'Z. 

trict  of  Belgium,  province  of  Hainaut,  4 
miles  west  of  Mons,     It  has  coal  mines 
and  blast  furnaces.     Pop.   10,033. 
DnarlM    (kworlz),  Fbancis.  an  Eng- 
liuarxes    J^gh  poet,  bom  in  1592,  near 
Rumford    in    Essex,    educated    at    Cam- 
bridge,   and    entered    at    Lincoln  s    Inn. 
He  was  for  some  time  cup-bearer  to  Eliza- 
beth,   queen    of    Bohemia,    and    m    Ib^l 
went  to  Dublin,  where  he  became  under- 
secretary to  Archbishop  Ussber.     He  was 
driven  from  Ireland,  with  the  loss  of  his 
property,  by  the  rebellion  of  1041,  and 
was   appointed   chronologer   to   the  city 
of    London.    At    the    commencement   of 
the  civil  wars  he  wrote  a  work  entitled 
the  Loyal   Convert,   which  gave  offense 
to  the  parliament;  and  when  he  after- 
wards joined  the  king  at  Oxford  his  prop- 
erty was  sequestrated,  and  his  books  and 
MSS.  plundered.    He  was  so  much  af- 
fected V  his  losses,  that  grief  is  rop- 
posed  to  have  hastened  his  death  in  1644. 
Of  the  works  of  Quarles,  in  prose  and 
verse,   the   most   celebrated   is   his   £.m- 
MeiiM.   a  set   of  designs   illustrat^,  by 
verses.    Among    his    poems   are    Dw*n» 
Poemt,  Divine  Fanoiet,  and  Argalua  on* 
Parthenia.    His  Enchiridion  is  a  coll«> 
tion  of  brief  essays  and  aphorisms,   In 
vigorous  and  occasionally  eloquent  lan- 

HUamerO  ^^  Adriatic  Sea,  between 
Istrla  and  the  Croatian  coast,.  15  miles 
in  loigtb  and  breadth.    It  ia  searlj  in- 


duarter-dayi 

closed  leewards  by  the  islands  of  Cbenw 
and  Veglia,  and  communicates  with  the 
Adriatic  by  three  channels.  The  seamen 
of  that  region  dread  the  gulf  on  account 
of  the  terrific  storms  to  which  it  is  sub- 
ject. 


Oii'arrel  (kwor'el),  a  bolt  or  dart  to 
liuarrex  ^  ^^^^  fp<,n,  ^  cross-bow,  or 

thrown    from    a    catapult,    espe-      --_ 
cially  one  with  a  square  head  and      V 
pyramidal  point. 

Onftrrv     (kwort) ,  an  open  ex- 
'•*'***/     cava  tion  made  for  ob- 
taining  stone,   such    as    granite, 
marble,  sandstone,  limestone,  and 
slates.    Stones  suitable  for  import- 
ant building  purposes  are  usually 
found  at  a  good  distance  below 
the  surface.     In  the  case  of  un- 
stratified  rocks,  such  as  granite, 
whinstone,  etc.,  the  stone  is  most 
frequently  detached  from  the  mass  (ffneu 
by  blasting,  a  process  by  which 
much   valuable   stone  is  wasted,   and   a 
different    method    is   employed   whenewr 
it  is  found  possible.     This  is  frequently 
the  case  with  some  stratified  rocks,  such 
as  sandstone,  from  which  blocks  are  sepa- 
rated by   hand-tools  alone.     Small  holes 
a   few   inches   asunder  are   cut   along   a 
certain  length  of  rock,  into  which  steel 
wedges   are    inserted.     These   are   driven 
in  by  heavy  hammers  until  the  stratum 
is  cut  through.     The  large  blocks  neces-    ' 
sary  for  monumental  purposes  are  gen- 
erally obtained  in  this  way,  and  before 
they  leave  the  quarry  they  are  usually  re- 
duced as  nearly  as  possible  to  a  rectan- 
gular form.  .  ,. 
On  art    (k  wort),  a  measure  of  capacity, 
*•»***"'  being  the  fourth  part  of  a  gal- 
lon, or  eight  gills. 

auartanAguc.  seeA(,«e. 

Onarter  (kwor'ter),  the  name  of  two 
HUtirtcir  nieasures,  one  of  weight  and 
the  other  of  capacity.  The  first  is  the 
fourth  part  of  a  hundredweight,  or  28 
lbs.    The  second  contains  8  Dushels  of 

OnnrfVr  tbat  part  of  a  ship's  side 
Htturvcr,  ^hich  lies  towards  the  stem, 
or  which  is  comprehended  between  the 
eft-most  end  of  the  main  chains  and  ttie 
sides  of  the  stem.  .  _  .  ^  ^.  . 
OnArt»r.i1fl.V8  '»  England,  the  day 
WttKniCr-ua.jrB)  that  begins  each  quar- 
ter of  the  year.  They  ^  are  Lady^dur 
(March  K),  Midsummer-day  (June  24), 
Michaelmas-day  (September  26),  Christ- 
mas-day (December  2o).  ,These  days 
have  been  a^ted  between  landlord  and 
traant  for  entering  or  quitting  lands  or 
houses  and  for  paying  rimt.  In  Scotland 
the  kvil  terms  are,  Whitsunday   (Majr 


Qnarter-deok 


Qnarts 


IB),  and  Martinmai  (November  11) ;  the 
conTentional  terms  Caudlemas  (Febru- 
ary 2),  and  Lammas  (August  1)  make 
op  the  quarter-days. 

QuarteMeck,  Srer^S^TpaJt^Jf  t^e 
upper  deck,  of  a  vessel,  extending  from 
tbe  main-mast  to  the  stern,  or  to  the 
poop  (when  there  is  one).  In  ships  of 
war  it  is  specially  set  apart  for  the  of- 
ficers. 

^iMuv«Axu5  aidry,  is  dividing  a 
coat  into  four  or  more  quarters  or  quar- 
terings,  by  perpendicular  and  horizontal 
lines,  etc.     See  Heraldry. 

Quarter-master  i  fcwor'ter-mas'ter ) , 

officer  who  attends  to  the  quarters  for 
^be  soldiers,  their  provisions,  fuel,  forage, 
etc.  Therr  is  a  quarter-master  on  Uie 
stafT  of  eacu  regiment,  in  which  he  holds 
the  relative  rank  of  lieutenant.  A  quar- 
terriaster  in  the  navy  is  a  petty  officer 
appointed  by  the  captain,  who,  besides 
having  charge  of  the  stowage  of  ballast 
and  prov'^ions,  coiling  of  ropes,  etc.,  at- 
tends to  the  steering  of  the  ship. 

Quartermaster-general,  ^^^^^f 

of  high  rank  in  the  army,  whose  depart- 
ment is  charged  with  all  orders  relating 
to  the  marching,  embarking,  disembark- 
ing, billetliv^,  quartering,  and  cantoning 
of  troop:^  encampments  and  camp  equip- 
age. The  quartermaster-general  is  at- 
tached to  a  whole  army  under  a  com- 
mander-in-chief, and  holds  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general. 

Quartermaster-sergeant  '^^Hi^P' 

o  commis- 

si<med  officer  who  acts  as  assistant  to 
the  quartermaster. 

Quartern  (kwor'tem),  a  term  some- 
^•MMHWAu  tinjga  used  to  designate 
the  fourth  of  a  peck,  or  of  a  stone ;  as  the 
qnartem-Ioaf.  In  liquid  measure  it  is 
tne  fourth  part  of  a  pint 

Quarter-sessions,  il?°f'!°^'/  **°' 

'  eral  court  of  cnm- 
inal  jurisprudence  held  quarterly  by  the 
Justices  of  the  peace  in  counties,  and  by 
the  recorder  in  boroughs.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  these  courts,  originally  confined 
to  matters  touching  breaches  of  the  peace, 
has  been  gradually  extended  to  the 
smaller  misdemeanors  and  felonies,  but 
with  many  exceptions.  Similar  courts 
lutve  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States,  and  are  closely  connected  with 
courts  of  Oyer  and  Terminer  (which 
■m). 

Quarter-staff, "  ?iLKl*  ^V'K 

'on  formed  of  a  stout 
pah  aiwat  6i  feet  long,  generally  loaded 


with  iron  at  both  ends.  It  was  grasped 
by  one  hand  in  the  middle,  and  by  tbe 
other  between  the  middle  and  the  end. 
In ,.  the  attack  the  latter  band  shifted 
from  one  quarter  of  the  staff  to  the  other, 
giving  the  weapon  a  rapid  circular  mo- 
tion, which  brought  the  loaded  ends  on 
tbe  adversary  at  unexpected  points. 
Quartet  "'  Quabtett  (kwor-tef), 
^  'a    musical    composition    for 

four  instruments,  generally  stringed  in- 
struments (that  is,  two  violins,  one  viola 
or  tenor  violin,  and  one  violoncello) ; 
also  a  composition  for  four  voices,  with 
or  without  accompaniment. 
Qnarto  (kwor'tu;  4to),  a  book  of  the 
^  "*'  size  of  the  fourth  of  a  sheet; 
a  size  made  by  twice  folding  a  sheet, 
which  then  makes  four  leaves. 
Quartz  C^^ortz),  the  name  given  to 
^  numerous  varieties  of  the  na- 

tive oxide  of  silicon,  called  also  silicic 
acid.  Quartz  embraces  a  large  number 
of  varieties.  When  pure  its  composition 
is  expressed  by  the  formula  SiOi.  It 
occurs  both  crystallized  and  massive,  and 
in  both  states  is  most  abundantly  dif- 
fused throughout  nature,  and  is  especially 
one  of  the  constituents  of  granite  and  the 
older  rocks.  When  crystallized  it  gen- 
erally occurs  In  hexagonal  prisms,  ter- 
minated by  hexagonal  pyramids.  It 
scratches  glass  readily,  gives  fire  with 
steel,  becomes  positively  electrical  bj 
friction,  and  two  pieces  when  rubbed  to- 
gether become  luminous  in  the  dark. 
The  colors  are  various,  as  white  or  milky, 
gray,  reddish,  yellowish  or  brownish,  pur- 
ple, blue,  green.  Quartz  veins  are  often 
found  in  metamorphic  rocks,  and  fre- 
quently contain  rich  deposits  of  gold. 
The  principal  varieties  of  quartz  known 
by  dfstin  c  names  are  the  following:  1, 
roch-cryatal ;  2,  smoky  quartz;  3,  yellow 
quartz;  4,  amethyst;  5,  sidcrite  or  liua 
quartz;  6,  roae  quarts;  7,  lAilky  quartz; 
8,  irUed  quartz;  9,  common  quartz;  10, 
fat  (greaay)  quartz;  11,  flint;  12,  horn- 
atone;  13,  Lydian  atone;  14,  floatatone 
(awimming  atone) ;  15,  fibrout  quartz; 
16,  radiating  quartz;  17,  chaioedonyi 
18,  cornelian;  19,  chryaopraae;  20,  agate. 
The  name  rock-crystal  is  applied  to  trans- 
parent and  colorless  crystals.  Smoky 
Quartz  consists  of  crystals  and  crystal- 
line masses  which  are  translucent  and 
of  a  brown  color.  Yellow  quartz,  some- 
times called  Bohemian  or  Scottiah  fopos, 
is  transparent,  and  of  various  shades  of 
yellow.  Amethyst  is  of  ivery  shade  of 
violet,  and  nearly  transparent.  Siderite 
is  of  an  azure-blue  color,  and  never  in 
regular'  crvstals.  Rose  quartz  fs  sf  a 
rose-red  color.  Milky  quartz  is  massive, 
translucent,  and  of  i,  milk-vhjj^  q^igr. 


Anartzite 


Qnatref aget  de  Brtan 


* 


IriMd  quarts  exhibits  the  colors  of  the 
rainbow.     Fat  or  greasy  quartz  has  the 
appearance  of  having  been  immersed  in 
oil.     Flint  has  a   more  compact  texture 
than  common  quartz,  is  dull,  only  trans- 
lucent on  the  edges,  of  a  brownish  color, 
and   breaks  with  a  conchoidal   fracture. 
Homstone   resembles   flint,   but   its  con- 
choidal fracture  is  less  distinct.     Lydian 
stone  differs  from  flint  chiefly  in  having 
a  darker  color,  less  translucency.  and  a 
fracture  somewhat  slaty;  when  black  it 
is  often  called  baaanite.    Floatstone  con- 
sists of  a  delicate  tissue  of  minute  crys- 
tals,    visible     only     under     a     powerful 
magnifier.     Owing  to  the  cavities  it  con- 
tains  it  will   sometimes   float   on   water. 
Fibrous  quartz  consists  of  those  varieties 
which  are  in  distinct  parallel  concretions. 
Radiating  quartz   is   like   fibrous  quartz, 
except  that  the  fibers  diverge  from  a  com- 
mon center,  and  r<>8emble  the  radii  of  a 
circle,   instead   of  being  parallel.    Chal- 
cedony includes  those  varieties  of  radia- 
ting quartz   where   the   thickness  of   the 
individuals  becomes  so  much  diminished 
as   to  render   them   nearly  or  altogether 
impalpable.    Carnelian  differs  from  cha  ce- 
dony  merely  in  having  a  blood-red  color, 
Chrysoprase    also    resembles    chalcedony 
in  compositio.i,  except  that  it  is  granu- 
lar instead  of  fibrous;  its  col-     is  apple- 
green.     Agate  implies  the  occurrence  of 
two  or  more  of  the  above  varieties  ex- 
isting together  in  intimate  union.     Cat  s 
eye,    avanturine,    prase,    plasma,    helio- 
trope, Compostella  hyacinth,  jr  per  (red, 
t.rown,    striped,    and     >orcclrin  ,    jasper 
aga  ?,    Mocha    stone,    Venuvhair   agate, 
etc.,    formerly     included    under    quartz, 
are     only     mixtures     of     this     mineral 
with  other  substances.    Several  var'    '.::: 
of  quartz   are   of   impirtant   use   in   the 
arts  and  manufacturt^.    The  ancients  re- 
garded   rock-crystal    as    petrified    water, 
and  made  use  of  it  for  the  fabrication  of 
vases.     At    present    it    is    employed    not 
only  for  cups,  urns,  chandeliers,  etc.,  but 
for   ;:c-ils.    spectacle-glasses,    and   optical 
instruments.     Quartz     enters  _   into     the 
composition  of  glass,  both  white  and  col- 
ored    In   the  manufacture  of  porcelain 
it  is  added  in  the  state  of  an  impalpable 
powder,  and  forms  part  of  the  paste;  it 
is  also  used  in  other  kinds  of  pottery. 
Quarts  is  used  as  a  flux  in  the  melting 
of    several    kinds    of    ores,    particularly 
those  of  copper,  and  in  other  metallur- 
gical   processes,    '"juchstone    Is   a    hard 
velvety-black  variety  of  Lydian  stone. 
OnArtTlte    (kwort'zlt),     Quabtz- 
VUaiXZlie    ,^g   g  metaphoric  strati- 
fied  granularK:rystalIine   rock   consisting 
entirely,   or  almost  entirely,  of  quarts. 
It  is  oraaUy  a  Hwdatone  wUeh  hM  bMO 


altered  by  beat,  etc.  It  la  gmarany  of  • 
grayish  or  pinkish-gray  color,  iron  a 
slight  trace  of  Iron. 

Onaaa  (kwas),  or  KvAsa,  a  aovr,  far- 
WUOBB  mented  liquor,  made  by  pour* 
ing  warm  water  on  rye  or  barley  meal, 
and  drunk  by  the  peasantry  of  Rusaia. 
Onaaai A  (kwash'l-n ) ,  a  genus  of  South 
wuassxa  American  tropical  plants,  coa- 
sisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  natural  onler 
SimarubacefB.  The  wood  of  two  speciea 
is  k^own  In  commerce  by  the  name  of 
Quaagia;  Q.  amdro,  a  native  of  Panama, 
Venezuela,  Guiana,  ;.nd  Northern  Brasil. 
a  small  tree  with  handsome  crimson 
flowers:  and  Q.  exceUa  (Picfce.no  cmcelta, 
Lindley),  a  native  of  Jamaic. .  The  lat- 
ter furni!(hes  the  lignum  qwia»%w  of  tha 
British  Pharmacopoeia.  Both  ^Inds  ara 
imported  in  billets,  and  are  inodorous, 
but  intensely  bitter,  3sp»cially  the  Ja- 
maica quassia.  Quassia  is  a  pure  and 
simple  bitter,  possessing  marked  tonic 
properties.  An  infusion  of  quassia 
sweetened  with  sugar  is  useful  to  de- 
stroy flies.  Q.  excelaa  was  formerly  aub- 
stitutcd  bv  some  brewers  for  hops,  but 
is  now  nrbhibited  under  severe  penalties 
Aiio'fn'miATie     (kwa-ter'ni-unz),      the 

Huatcmions  ^^^^  ^5^^^  ^y  r;ir  ',7ii- 

liam  Rowan  Hamilton  to  a  method  c? 
m.ithematical  investigation  discovorac 
and  developed  by  him.  It  is  most  Im- 
portant in  its  applications  to  nhysies, 
especially  in  crystallography,  optid,  kine- 
matics, and  electro-dynamics.  Accordine 
to  the  discoverer,  '  A  Quaternion  is  tL3 
quotient  of  two  vectors,  or  of  two 
directed  right  lines  in  space,  considered 
as  depending  on  a  system  of  Four  Oe^ 
ir.etrical  Elctnenta;  and  as  expressible  by 
an  algebraical  symbol  of  Quadrinomial 
Form.  The  science,  or  CalcitlHa,  of 
Quaterniona,  is  a  new  mathematical 
method  wherein  the  foregoing  conception 
of  a  gaaternioii  is  unfolded,  and  sym- 
bolically expressed,  and  is  applied  to 
various  classes  of  algebraical,  geometrical, 
and  physical  questions,  so  as  to  discover 
many  new  theorems,  and  to  arrive  at  the 
solution  of  many  difficult  problems.' 

auatrc-Bras  <r£Sgti.'in"'?r. 

province  of  South  Brabant,  20  miles 
8.  s.  E.  of  Brussels,  situated  at  the  Inter- 
section of  the  main  roads  between  Bms- 
sels  and  Charleroi,  and  from  Nivelle  to 
Namur.  It  Is  famous  for  the  battle 
fought  here  (June  IG.  1S15)  between  the 
English  under  Wellington  and  the  French 
under  Ney,  in  which  the  former  were 
victorlons. 

auatref  ages  de  Brtau  ^^'^f, 

Jkax   Louis   Aucakd   mi^    a   Fxendi 


Qnatrefoil 


duebeo 


I 


I 


naturalist,  born  in  1810;  toolt  bii*  M.D. 
decree  at  Straiburg  in  1838;  and  became 
professor    of    soology    at    Toulouue.    the 
Lyc«e  at  Paris,  and  pwfessor  of  anatomy 
and  ethnology   at   the    Mustfe  d  Ilwtoire 
Naturelle.     He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the    Royal     Society,    London,    in    18TO. 
His     contributions     to     science     Include 
numerous  researches  into  the  lower  grades 
of  life,  and  a  valuable  series  of  anthro- 
pological  studies.     Among    his   more   im- 
portant works  are  Souvenirt  d'un  yatur- 
alitte    (1854),    Crania    Etkntca     miO- 
79),  De  I'Espice  Humatne  (1877),  Honi' 
met     FomUm     et     Homme$     Sauvaget 
(1883),    La    Diatribution    Qiographxque 
de»  Mgritot   (1883),  VHomme  Terttawf, 
(1886);  let  Pygmiet  (1887),  and  /n«ro- 
duction  d   I'titude  det   Bacet  Uumotnet 
(1887-89).     He  died  in  1802. 
anatrefoil    (kwa'tftr-foil),   in   archi- 
Huairexuii   texture,  an  openmg  or  a 
panel  divided  by  cusps  or  foliations  into 
four  leaves,  or  more  correctly  the  leaf- 
shaped   figure  formed   by   the  cusps.     It 
is  an  ornament  which  has  been  supposwi 
to  represent  the  four  leaves  of  a  cruci- 
form flower,  and  is  common  in  the  tracery 


Qnatrefoils. 


of  Gothic  windows.  Bands  of  small 
quatrefoiis  are  much  used  as  ornaments 
in  the  perpendicular  Gothic  style,  and 
sometimes  in  the  decorated.  The  same 
name  is  also  given  to  flowers  and  leaves 
of  similar  form  carved  as  ornaments  on 
moldings,  etc 

QntkV^r  (kwft'ver),  a  note  and  meas- 
WUnvci  „pg  Qf  jime  j^  music,  equal  to 
half  a  crotchet  or  the  eighth  of  a  semi- 
breve.     See   Music. 

QrtaxF  (J'SK  ^  landing-place  substan- 
UUtty  ^jgiiy  built  along  a  line  of  coast 
or  a  river  bank,  or  round  a  harbor,  and 
having  posts  and  rings  to  which  vessels 
may  oe  moored,  frequently  also  cranes 
and  storehouses  for  the  convenience  oi 
merchant  ships. 

Onav  (kwft),  Matthew  Stanijct,  po- 
HUay  litical  leader,  born  at  DiUsburg, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1833;  died  in  1904.  He 
graduated  at  Jefferson  College,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  became  a  colonel  in 
the  Civil  war,  and  was  afterwards  pri- 
vate secretary  of  the  governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Elected  to  the  legislature  in 
1861,  after  holding  other  positiras,  he 
was  elected  State  treasurer  in  1885  and 
United  States  Senator  in  1887.    Shrewd 


and  alert  in  political  movements,  h« 
gradually  gained  leadenhip  in  and  con- 
trol of  the  Republican  organisation  la 
Pennsylvania,  what  is  called  the  '  polit- 
ical machine'  reaching  its  higbeat  de- 
velopment in  his  hands.  In  18w  he  was 
tried  for  miaappropr  ition  of  'public 
funds,  but  was  acquitted.  He  was  re- 
garded as  the  ablest  of  leaders  in 
^machine'  politics.  ,     ^, 

Oii*K»A  (kwe-bek'),  a  city  and  ship- 
Hucucv    pj^j,  pQrt  qJ  t|,g  t)ominion  of 

Canada,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  situated  on  a  promontory  near 
the  confluence  of  the  St.  Charles  with  the 
St.    Lawrence,    terminating    abruptly    in 
Cape  Diamond,  which  has  a  height  of  333 
feet,  and  on  the  banks  of  both  streams. 
It  is  about  400  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  140  miles  north- 
east of  Montreal,  to  which  the  river  is 
navigable  for  large  vessels.     It  is  divided 
into   the  upper  and   lower  towns.    The 
former,    placed    on    the    summit    of    the 
promontory,  is  strongly  fortified,  the  for- 
tifications comprising  a  citadel  and  other 
works.     The  view  from  the  heights  here 
looking   down    the   river    is   one   of    the 
finest    in    the   world.    The    lower   town, 
the  great  seat  of  business,  lies  under  the 
cliffs,   along  the  St   Lawrence  and   the 
St  Charles.    The  streets  are  mostly  nar- 
row, irregular,  and  frequently  steep,  ex- 
cepting in  the  suburbs,  which  are  modem 
and    built    upon    a    more    regular   plan. 
Among  the  principal  edifices  are  the  par- 
liament  buildinra,    the    Roman   Catholic 
cathedral,  the  Protestant  cathedral,   the 
new  court-houses,  the  new  town-hall,  and 
the    Scotch    church.     The    chief    educa- 
tional   irstitution    is    Laval    University, 
with     faculties    of    law,    medicine,    the- 
ology, and  arts,  and  a  library  of  nearly 
80,000    volumes.     Another    great    educa- 
tional institution  is  the  Grand  Seminary. 
The  chief  convent  is  the  Ursuline  convent 
covering  7  acres  of  ground,  and  haying 
connected  with  it  an  extensive  establish- 
ment for  the  education  of  females.     It  has 
buildings  dating  from  1686.    Much  of  the 
town    has    an    antique    aspect.     On    the 
Plains  of  Abraham,  west  of  the  upper 
town,  a  column  40  feet   high  has  been 
erected  to  the  memory  of  General  Wolfe ; 
while  in  the  upper  town  there  is  a  hand- 
some obelisk,  65  feet  high,  to  the  joint 
memory  of  the  two  commanders,  Wolfe 
and    Montcalm,    who    both    fell    in    tlie 
1759  capture  of  Quebec.     Shipbuilding  la 
the  chief  industry.    There  are  also  man- 
ufactures   of    iron-castings,    machinery, 
cutlery,  nails,  leather,  paper,  india-rubber 
goods,  rope,  tobacco,  beetroot-fugar,  etc. 
Quebec  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Canadian 
trade  in  timber,  immense  quantities  ot 


QitbM 


Qmtdali 


wblcb  •»  btr«  •cctiinutated,  to  that  at 
ceruin  tMioaa  rafta  moond  wttbtn  boonu 
nay  ba  acan  txtandlnf  atoiw  tba  watara 
adca  for  6  milca.  Tba  baaln  of  tba  St. 
Lawranca,  Immadiataly  balcw  tba  town, 
whera  It  to  2800  yarda  wide,  afforda  e«- 
cellent  ancborage  Tor  ibipa  of  larga  ton- 
nage, wblla  tba  wbanraa  along  tba  banka 
of  botb  rirara  afford  accommodation  for 
tba  largaat  vaaieU.  Tha  river  it  free 
from  ice  uaaalljr  from  tbe  lat  of  April  till 
tbe  middle  of  December.  Quebec  waa 
founded  in  1008  by  Cbamplain,  wbo  waa 
sent  on  an  exploring  expedition  from 
France.  In  1620  it  came  into  tbe  handii 
of  the  Engliah,  but  was  reatored  in  1032 
to  tlie  French,  in  whoBe  poueasion  it  re- 
mained till  1759,  when  it  fell  into  tbe 
handa  of  the  Britiah  in  conaeouence  of 
Wolfe'e  famoua  victory  on  the  Plain;  of 
Abraham.  Tbe  great  bulk  of  tbe  inbab- 
itanU  (more  than  flve-aixtha)  are  Ro- 
man Catholica,  chiefly  French  Canadiana, 
and  French  continues  the  common  Ir.n- 
Kuage  of  the  city  and  province.  Pop. 
(1911)  78,100.  ,  ,     . 

OiiAVMin      an   eastern    province   of  tba 
HUeueu,    i)„niiuio„  of  t'anadu,  t-xteiid- 
ing  from  Huilson  Strait  on  th«  north  to 
New  Brunswick,  Mnino,  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont  and  New  York  on  the  south,  and 
from  Labrador  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence on  the  east  to  Ontario  on  the  west. 
It    is    Canada's    largest    province,    there 
being  703,653  square  miles  of  land  and 
16,000  miles  of  water  area,  exclusive  of 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.     By  the  Fed- 
eral Act  of  1912  Quebec  gained  354,961 
square    miles,    formerly    included    in    the 
Northwest  Territories.     The  province  is 
1000  miles  from  E.  to  w.,  1200  from  N.  to  s. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  very  varied, 
being    diversified    by    mountains,    rivers, 
lakes    and    extensive  forests.     The    chief 
mountains  are  the  Notre  Daice  or  Shick- 
shock    Mountains,    extendiag    along    the 
south  aide  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  form- 
ing a    table-land    1500   feet    high,    with 
peaka  rising  to  the  height  of  4000  feet; 
and  tbe  Laurentian  Mountains,  or  Lau- 
rentides,  which  stretch  from  the  coast  of 
Labrador  to  the  Ottawa  River,  and  nae  to 
a   height    of    from    1200    to   4000    feet 
The  cliief  islands  are  Anticoati,  at  the 
month    of    the    St    Lawrence,    and    the 
Magdalen    Islands,    in   tbe   Gulf   of   St 
Lawrence.    The   chief   river   is    the   St. 
Lawrence,  which  flowa  through  tbe  en- 
tire length  of  the  province.    Next  to  It 
in  importance  is  its  chief  tributary,  tba 
Ottawa,  over  7000  miles  in  lengtb.    The 
other  largeat  rivers  are  tbe  St.  Maurice 
and  tbe  Sagnenay,  thia  stream  and  tbe 
Ottawa  being  notable  for  grand  and  beau- 
tiful aceoery.    Tbe  province  boMt*  many 


baaatlfol   lakea,  tba  cbiaf  balof^OrMl 
Lake,    Tamlacamingua,    and    Lake    Bt 
Jobn,  from  wbkb  toauaa  tba  Safnanay. 
Tba  climata  ia  Tariabia,  tbongb  Miubrh 
oua,  tha  tamperatnra  raofing  tmm  ar 
below  aero  Ir  winter  to  90*^  above  in  aoin- 
mer.     Tba  aoil  la  generally  fertile,  and 
well  auited  for  tba  growth  of  caraala,  bay, 
etc.;  maiaa,  flax,  and  tobacco, ara  alao 
grown,  eapecially  to  tbe  weat  of  tba  km- 
gitude  of  Quebec,  while  grapca,  malona, 
peaches,  and  tomatoea  in  tbto  region  coma 
to  maturity  in  the  open  air.    A  large  por- 
tion of  tbe  province  ia  atill  covered  witb 
foreat,  the  white  and  red  pinea  and  tba 
oak  being  tbe  moat  valuable  treea  for  tim- 
ber.   The  fiaberiea  are  extenaive  and  val- 
uable.   Tbe  minerato  worked  include  apa- 
tite, aabeatos,  gold,  copper,  iron,  plom- 
bago,  etc.    The  mannfacturea  are  ateadily 
increaaing,  and  include  furniture,  leather, 
paper,  cbemicala,  boota  and  aboea,  woolen 
gooda,  Bteam  and  agricultural  machinery. 
The  chief  exporta  are  timber  and  flab.    Tba 
educational  ayatem  embracea  inatitutiona 
of  all  grades,  from  primary  acboola  op- 
warda,  at  the  top  being  three  nniveraitiea 
—  Laval     University,     Quebec     (Roman 
Catholic)  ;   Macgill  University,  Montreal 
(ProtesUnt)  ;  and  Biahop'a  College,  Len- 
noxvllie  (Anglican).    The  affaire  of  tb( 
province  are  adminiatered  by  a  lieutenant- 
governor  (appointed  by  the  governor-gen- 
eral) and  an  executive  council  compoaed 
of  8  membera,  aasisted  by  a  leciaiative 
assembly  of  05  membera  and  a  legialativa 
council  of  24  membera.    Tbe  latter  bold 
their  appointmenta  for  life;   the  former 
are  elected  by  tbe  people  for  five  yaara. 
Tbe  capital  ia  Quebec,  bot  Montreal  ia 
the  largest  town.    Population  2,002.712, 
of  whom  1.429,186  are  Roman  Catholica, 
mostly  of  French  descent. 
OnAhronliA   (ke-brtt'cbO),     tbe    name 

different  genera,  but  witb  aimilar  quali- 
ties, indigenoua  to  South  America,  val- 
uable alike  for  their  wood  and  their  bark. 
Tbe  red  quebracho  {Lomopterinfimm  LO' 
rentii,  family  Anacardiacee)  to  very 
hard,  but  aplita  eaaily.  Tbe  bark  and 
wood  are  uaed  in  tanning.  Tbe  white 
quebracho  {Atpidotperma  quehraeho)  ia 
uaed  for  wood-engraving.  The  bark  con- 
teina  six  alkaloids,  and  is  used  therapeu- 
tically as  a  remedy  for  asthma,  being  em- 
ployed as  a  decoction  and  a  tincture. 
OnMlali  (kwe'da  ),  or  Keddah,  a 
WU6U»a     gjjgji  gtgte  on  the  weat  coaat 

of  tbe  Malay  Peninsula,  north  of  Prov- 
ince Wellcsley.  It  is  a  well-wooded  and 
mountainous  country,  witb  numeroua 
rivers,  for  the  most  part  navigaUe.  The 
climate  to  warm  but  healthy.  Tbe  cbiaf 
producta  «r«  rice,  pepper,  ivory,  and  tin. 


Pop.  80,000.    Th«  capltil.  ofth*  mom 
nuM.  hu  •  population  of  0000. 
OnMlKiilmnr  (kwe«l'Un-bur*),« town 

ornmou:  of  Mavdobarg.  province  of  B»x- 
onj.  at  tbo  foot  of  tb«  Han  MouoUlna. 
aS^  milM  a.  w.  of  Magdebura.  On  an 
amlntncfl  aboie  the  town  ta  an  old  coatle. 
onco  tha  rcaidenca  of  the  abbeaaca  of 
Qucdllnburc.  who,  aa  princcaaeii  of  tba 
ampin,  bad  a  Tota  in  tbe  diet.  The  man- 
nr.Mtnr^a  an  rarioua,  including  woolen*, 
beet-ruot  augar,  wlnejleather,  chemicala, 
ate.    Pop.  (1010)  27^.^  . 

OnMin  (kw6n;  Anglo-Saxon,  owin,  a 
HuWn  ;^oman),  tbe  wife  of  a  Itlng. 
In  Britain  the  queen  Ha  either  qurcn-eon- 
tort,  or  menly  wife  of  tbi^  reigning  liing. 
and  la  in  general  (unlen  \thi-re  expreuly 
exempted  by  law)  upon  the  same  lootiDg 
with  other  aubjecta,  being  to  all  intents 
tha  king'a  subject,  and  not  his  equal ;  or 
aacew-reyeiit,  regnant,  or  sovereign,  who 
holds  the  crown  in  her  own  right,  und  hna 
tbe  same  powers,  prerogatives,  and  duties 
aa  if  she  bad  been  a  icing,  and  whose 
husband  ia  a  subject;  or  queen-dowagcr, 
widow  of  the  king,  who  enjoys  mom  of 
the  privileges  which  belongeti  to  lier  as 
queen-consort.  In  Prussia,  Sw  len,  Bel- 
giu-i.  and  France  there  can  be  no  queen- 
regnant.  S«e  Salio  Law. 
0«A*Ti_h*«  the  sovereign  of  a  swarm 
UUeen-Dee,  ^^f    be^,,    ^^e    only    fnjly- 

developed  and  prolific  female  in  the  hive, 
all  the  other  Inhabitants  being  either 
males  (that  is  drones)   or  neuters.     The 

Sueen  alone  givea  birth  to  new  swarms. 
ee  Bee. 

Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  ««7,7. 

ands  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  off  the 
mainland  of  British  Columbia,  north  of 
Vancouver  Island,  discovered  by  Cook 
about  1770.  and  annexed  to  the  British 
crown  in  1787.  The  northernmost  of  the 
two  larger  islanda  la  called  Graham 
Island,  and  the  soothernmoBt  Moresby 
laland.  The  greatest  length  of  the  two 
together  is  about  1(50  miles,  and  the  great- 
eat  breadth  (of  the  northern  island)  about 
70  miles.  All  the  islands  are  covered 
with  magnificent  forests:  gold-bearing 
quarta  of  rich  quality  has  been  found,  and 
copper  and  iron  ores  and  a  fine  vein  of 
anthracite  coal  also  exist.  There  are 
numerous  creeks  suitable  for  harbors. 
The  climate  is  excellent.  The  islands 
form  part  of  British  Columbia. 

aueen  Cliarlottc  Sound,  «/f»fj 

the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  separating  Van- 
couver Island  from  the  mainland  of 
Eritish  America  on  the  north,  and  form- 
i|  t|i9  Qowineitcenieot  <f(  a  long  aeriea 


QuMniland 

of  Inleta  continued  along  tba  north  ami 
••at  of  that  laland. 

aneen-of-the-meadows.  f^ii^: 
aueeni'  CoUege,  g'JS5a*'!n  iIlS 

t>7  Margant  of  Anjou.  queen  of  Henry 
VI,  and  again  iu  HiVi  by  Elitabeth. 
queen  of  Edward  IV.  The  college  build- 
inga  are  among  the  moat  InterMtlng  In 
the  university.  John  Fisher,  Thomas 
Fuller,  and  Bishop  Pearson  wen  mem- 
ben  of  tbe  college. 

Queen's  College.  l-J,%^\  T^' 

by  Robert  Eglesfleld,  chaplain  to  Philippa. 
queen  of  Edward  III,  and  it  ia  from  ner 
that  it  gets  its  name.  The  subsequent 
foundationa  of  John  Michel,  Sir  Francis 
Brldgman,  and  I^dy  Margaret  Hunger- 
ford  were  consolidated  into  one  with  that 
of  Eglesfield  in   1858. 

Queen's  Colleges,  J-'e^  nSlSL?, 

situated  respectively  nt  Belfast,  Cork,  and 
(lalway.  and  c^tabliL.ied  in  1849  by  an  act 
of  parliament  parsed  in  184,'i.  They  are 
at  present  regulated  by  the  charters  of 
18G3.  Students  of  the  Queen's  Colleges 
may  obtain  degrees  in  arts,  medicine,  and 
law  from  the  Royal  Univeraity  of  Ire- 
land  (which  see). 

Queen's  County,  fa^TinVpioT 

Ince  of  Lelnster.  with  an  area  of  664  sq. 
miles.  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  but 
rises  in  the  northwest  into  the  Slieve- 
Bioom  Mountains,  whose  highest  summit 
is  1734  feet  above  sea-level.  Iron,  cop- 
per, and  manganese  ore  found,  but  not 
worked.  Limestone  abounds,  and  in  a 
few  places  marble  is  obtained.  The  soil 
is  generally  fertile,  although  bogs  are 
numerous  towards  the  center  of  ihe 
county.  The  rivers  Barrow  and  Nore 
both  rise  in  the  Slieve-Bloom  Mountains. 
ARriculture  is  not  generally  in  an  improv- 
ing state,  drainage  in  particular  ijeing 
much  wanted.  The  principal  crops  are 
oats,  barley,  potatoes,  turnips,  and  man- 
rel-wurzel.  Pop.  57,417. 
OnAATislaTiil      (kwCnznand),     one     oi 

uueensiana    jj,g  ^t^p,  „j  t^e  Com- 

monwoaltli  of  Australia,  comprising  the 
northeusteru  pai't  of  the  continent  north 
of  New  South  Wales  and  cast  of  South 
Australia  and  Northern  Territory,  bcint. 
elsewliero  bounded  by  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria, Torres  Strait  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  A  large  portion  Is  within  the 
tropics,  the  most  uorlLeru  P^rt  forming 
a  peninsula  known  as  Cart  Xork.  '  haa 
an  area  of  670,500  square  n<21e8,  and  ia 
divided  into  twelve  large  districtii, 
namely,    Moreton     (East    and     West) 


QnttBiUiid 


Darllnc    Downi,    Burnett,    Port    Curtto, 
MMnoM,  Ltichhardt,  Ksno^-   ',  MitclMll, 
W«rrt«o,    Or«|ory.     Burke,    •nd    Cook. 
Mwt  of  thww  diBtrictt  are  now  ■ubdlvlded 
Into  counties.    Townrdi  the  west  n  largt 
portion  of  the  aurface  it  dry  and  barren, 
but   towards   the   east,   and    for  a    Iouk 
■trvtch  along  the  coast.  boundleM  plains 
or  downa,  admirably  adapteil  for  Nhern- 
walka,  nnd  rangea  of  hillK,  generally  well 
wooded  ond  Intemected  by  fprtile  valleya, 
form  the  prevailing  fonturPH  of  tlie  coun- 
try.    The  coaut   i»  nklrt«l   by   nutneroua 
inlands,  and  at  some  distnnoe  is  the  Great 
Itarrier    Reef.    The    highPNt    mountains 
are  near  the  coast,  the  greatest  elevation 
being    about    6400    feet.    The    principal 
rivers  are  the  Brisbane,  the  Burnett,  the 
Pioneer,   the   Fit«roy.   ond   the   Hiirdekin 
flowing  into  the  Pociflc,  and  the  Klinders 
and  Mitchell  into  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria. 
Home  of  these  streams  are  navigable  for 
a  consideroble  distance  inland.     The  con»t 
is  indented  with  many  nolile  bays,  afford- 
ing some  capacious  natural  harbors,  which 
have  already  been  broujjht  into  practical 
use  as  the  outlets  for  the  produce  of  the 
adjacent      districts.      The      climate      Is 
healthy,    and    the    temperature   compara- 
tively equoble.     The  mean  temperature  at 
Brisbane  is  OO".  the  extreme  range  being 
from  Xi'  to  lOtJ".     In  the  more  northern 
parts  the  climote  Is  tropical.     The  rain- 
fall in  the  interior  is  scanty  nnd  variable; 
the  mean  at  Brisbane  is  about  3.'>  Inches. 
The   indigenous   animals  and   plants   are 
similar  to  those  of  the  rest  of  Australia. 
Crocodiles  may  be  mentioned  as  inhabit- 
ing some  of  the  northern   rivers.     There 
ar«  many  kinds  of  valuable  timber  trees, 
and  a  rare  thing  in  Australia,  a  few  good 
indigenous   fruits.     Sheop-farming   is   the 
chief   industry,   but    ogriculture    (includ- 
ing  sugar-growing),   cattle    rearing,   and 
mining  are  also  important.     The  soil  and 
climate  are  well  suited  for  the  production 
of   all   the   ordinary   cereals,   as   well   as 
malse.  tobacco,  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  ■'tc. 
The  chief  products  are  sugar,  maize.  !■  Aig- 
lish  and  sweet  potatoes,  arrow-root,  and 
semi-tropical     fruits.     Sugar-growinp     is 
becoming     a     very     important     industry. 
Gold,    tin,    lead,    and    copper    are    the 
principal    minerals.     The    gold-fields    ex- 
tend over  an  area  of  15,f)00  sn.  miles. 
Coal  and  plumbago  are  found  In  large 
quantities;      and      cinnabar,      antimony, 
and     manganese     are     also     among     the 
mineral      products.    The      coal-measures 
cover    about    24.000    sq.    miles ;    annual 
product  aboot  600.000  tons.     In  the  north 
pearl-fishing  is  actively  carried  on.    The 
manufactures     are      unimportant.     The 
principal    maiiiifactoriea,    or    works    that 
may  be  classed  as  such,  are  tugar^mills, 

IS— 8 


QUMBltOWA 

steam  saw^mills,  soap-works,  agrtcniMral 
Implement  works,  and  dlstlllenes.    Ban* 
cation  is  free  and  secular  in  the  public 
schools,  and  is  under  a  special  department 
controlled  by  the  minister  for  education. 
A    Queensland    university    is    about    to 
be  established.    Tli.re  Is  no  established 
church,  each  religious  denomination  beinc 
entirely    self-supporting.     The     principal 
imports  are  apparel  and  haberdasnery,  cot- 
tons and  woolens,   flour.  Iron  and  steel, 
boots  and  shoes,   tea,  spirits,  hardware, 
machinery,  wine,  etc.;  and  the  principal 
exports,  wool,  gold,  tin.  sugar,  nreserred 
meat,  cotton,  wood,  hides  and  akiM-     The 
staple  articles  of  export  to  the  United 
Kingdom  are  wool,  toilow,  and  preserved 
meats.     A  duty  of  5  per  cent,  is  charged 
on  imports  of  yarns,  woven  fabrics,  paper, 
stationerv,  etc. ;  and  duties  at  other  and 
even  hlKlier  rates  on  other  articles.     The 
first  settlement  of  Queensland  took  place 
in  1825,  when  the  territory  was  used  as  a 
place  of  transportation  for  convicts,  who 
continuwl  to  be  sent  there  till  1830.  In  1842 
the  country  was  opened  to  free  settlers. 
It  was  originally  a  part  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  was  organized  as  a  separate 
colony  in  1850.    The  constitution  for  the 
new  Australian  Commonwealth  was  rati- 
fied  by  Queensland   in  1809.     The  state 


has  a  separate  parliament  of  two  Houses, 
the  lii-KiHlative  Council  nnd  the  Legisla- 
tive Asscmltly,  the  Councillors  being  nom- 
inati'il  by  the  crown,  the  members  of  the 
Assembly  elected  for  three  years.  Women 
have  vote«i  since  1005.  Queensland  electa 
ten  members  to  the  Commonwealth  House 
of  Reiiresentntivcs.  The  chief  towns  are 
Brisbane,  Cooktown.  Maryborough,  Bund- 
nberg.  Population  in  1914,  exeluslTe  o^ 
15.000  aboriginahi.  678.864. 
aueen's  Metal.   »<»>  Britannia  MetO. 

Queen'B-pigcon,  ;,ord-»p?gloVfn- 

habiting  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
named  after  Queen  Victoria.  It  is  one 
of  two  species  constituting  the  genus 
Goura  (O.  Victoria),  and  Is  the  largest 
and  most  beautiful  species  of  the  order. 
AnAAnafAnrn    (kwena'town),    former- 

UueensTown  jy  ^^^^^  „,  cork,  a 

maritime  town  of  Ireland,  nnd  an  im- 
portant naval  station.  9  miles  southeast 
of  Cork,  on  the  south  side  of  (Jreat  Island, 
which  rises  abruptly  out  of  Cork  harbor 
to  a  considerable  elevation.  The  streets 
rise  above  one  another  and  present  a  very 
pjrturpsque  appearance.  Queenslown  Is 
defended  by  fortifications  on  Spike  Island 
and  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  which 
is  large  and  well  sheltered.  It  Is  the 
port  for  the  transmission  of  American 
mails,  and  a  chief  emigration  station.    It 


Queen't-yellow 


duMnay 


has  littl«  trade  and  no  manofacturet,  be> 
ing  almost  lolely  dependent  on  the  mili- 
taxjr  and  naval  eatabluhments  in  its  vicin* 


ity,  and  on  the  numerous  visitors  attracted 

by  the  singular  beauty  of  the  place,  and 

by  its  delightful  climate.    Pop.  7909. 

Oiie»n'B-v»11o^X7  *•>«  yellow  subsul- 
HUeeu  8-yeuow,  pj^^^^  ^^  mercury; 

nsed  as  a  pigment. 

OnAlnArt  (kwel'pftrt),  a  rock-bound 
HUeipaiT  ,g,^„^   QQ  n,j,gg  Jong  ^y  jj 

broad,  off  the  south  coast  of  Corea,  of 
which  it  is  a  penal  settlement.  The  soil 
is  fertile,  the  climate  temperate,  and  there 
is  a  large  population.  The  interior  is 
mountainous,  and  one  summit,  the  vol- 
canic Mount  Auckland,  is  6500  feet  higti. 
On^ntin  St.  (san  k&v-tao).  an  an- 
UueullU,  ^.jg^j   ^^^^  of   France,   dep. 

of  Aisne,  on  a  height  above  the  Somme. 
87  miles  ir.E.  of  Paris,  which  from  its 
position  on  the  frontiers  between  France 
and  the  Low  Countries  figures  much  in 
history.  The  French  were  defeated  here 
in  15d7  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1871,  in  the 
B'ranco-Prussian  war  the  French  were 
driven  out  uf  the  town  after  a  sanguinary 
struggle.  St.  Qucntin  was  shatterctl  in 
the  Euroi>ean  war,  1914-18,  many  of  its 
Gothic  buildings,  dating  back  to  the  13th 
and  15th  centuries,  boing  destroyed.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Germans  in  August, 
1914,  and  became  the  center  of  the 
strongly  fortified  Hindenburg  line.  It 
was  recaptured  from  the  Germans  on 
October  2,  1918,  in  the  great  Allied  drive 
that  culminated  in  the  armistice  of  No- 
vember 11.  The  staple  manufactures  of 
St.  Quentin  are  cotton  and  woolen  tex- 
tiles, machinery  and  sugar.  Pop.  55,571. 
Qn^rard  (kft-rUr),  Joseph  Mabib,  a 
^  French    bibliographer,    bom 

at  Rennes  in  1701 :  died  at  Paris  in  1865. 
He  was  author  of  La  Prance  LUt^raire, 
in  which  he  gives  a  complete  bibliography 
of  France  for  the  18th  and  the  l>eginning 
of  the  19th  century ;  La  Litt^ratwt  Fran' 
faUe  Contemporatne  1827-49;  and  other 
bibliofraphical  works. 


Onurfli trail   ( kwer'si-tmn),   the    in- 

est  Undoria,  a  species  of  oak  used  in 
manufactures  for  tanning  leather  and  dye- 
ing yellow. 

Qucrcus.  ^Oak. 

Onpr^tnrn  (  ka-rft'ti-ro ) ,  a  city  of 
linereiaro  Mexico,  capital  of  the 
state  of  the  same  name,  on  a  plateau 
6365  feet  above  sea-level,  110  miles  north- 
west of  Mexico  City.  Among  the  more 
noteworthy  public  edifices  are  the  prin- 
cipal chureh,  a  magnificent  and  richly- 
decorated  structure,  and  an  aqueduct 
about  2  miles  long,  with  arthes  00  feet 
high,  which  by  communicating  with  a 
tunnel  in  the  opposite  hills,  brings  a 
copious  supply  of  water  from  a  distance 
of  6  miles.  Maximilian  of  Austria,  made 
emperor  of  Mexico  by  Napoleon  III,  was 
made  prisoner  and  executed  here  in  1867. 
Pop.  33,152.— The  State  of  Queb£tabo 
has  an  area  of  3207  sq.  miles,  and  forms 
part  of  the  central  plateau  of  the  Cor- 
dillera, presenting  a  very  rugged  surface, 
traversed  by  mountain  spurs  and  lofty 
heights.  Grain  and  cattle  form  the  chief 
wealth  of  the  state.  The  minerals  are 
comparatively  unimportant  Pop.  232,- 
388 

Qucrimba  Wands  iiVfn'^oVC 

coralline  islands  extending  along  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  and  comprised  in  the 
Portuguese  territory  of  Moiambique. 
There  is  a  town  and  fort  on  the  chief  of 
them,  Ibo. 

On^m  (kwern),  a  hand-mill  f*r 
vaucAu  grinding  com,  such  as  is  or 
has  l)een  in  general  use  among  various 
primitive  peoples.  The  simplest  and  mcwt 
primitive  form  of  the  quem  is  that  in 
which  a  large  stone  with  a  cavity  in  the 
upper  surface  is  used  to  contain  the  com, 
which  is  pounded  rather  than  ground  with 
a  small  stone.  The  most  usual  form  con- 
sists of  two  circular  flat  stones,  the  up- 
per one  pierced  in  the  center,  and  revolv- 
ing on  a  wooden  or  metal  pin  inserted 
in  the  lower.  In  using  the  quern  the 
grain  is  dropped  with  one  hand  into  the 
central  opening,  while  with  the  other  the 
upper  stone  is  revolved  by  means  of  a 
stick  inserted  in  a  small  openinf  near  the 
edge.  Hand-mills  of  this  description  are 
used  in  parts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  to 
the  present  day. 

Oneanav  (kft-n§),  F*akcom,  a  French 
VUCBunjr  physician  of  some  eminence, 
but  chiefly  noted  as  a  writer  on  political 
economy,  bora  in  1694,  died  in  1774.  He 
was  appointed  surgeon-in-ordinary  to  the 
king,  and  subsequently,  bavins  taken  the 
degree  of  M.D.,  physician  to  Madame  da 


Qnenel 


Qnezal 


Pompadoor,   the  mittrew  of  Louis  XV, 
who  afterwards  got  him  appointed  phy- 
sician to  the  king.     He  was  the  author 
of  Tarious  surgical  and  medical  works ;  of 
several  articles  in   the  Etusi/clopMie,  in 
which  he  expounds  his  economical  views; 
and  tracts  on  politics,  including  a  treatise 
on  the  Pkyaioeratie  Syttem  (1768). 
Onesnel    (W-nel),    Pabquieb    (Pas- 
'***'*■***'*   CHASius),  a  theologian  and 
moralist,  born  at  Paris  in  1634;  died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1719.    He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  order  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Oratory  in  1697,  at  that  time  a  great 
nursery  of  Jansenism,  and  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  devotional  works,  one  of  the  most 
important  of  which  was  RSflemona  Mo- 
ralet  *ur  le  Nouveau  Teatament,  consist- 
ing of  thoughts  on  some  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful   maxims    of    the    evangelists.     This 
work  brought  him  under  suspicion  of  the 
church  on  account  of  its  Jansenistic  tend- 
encies,   and    in    1G85    he    had    to    quit 
French    territory    altogether.    Going    to 
Brussels,  he  there  applied  himself  to  the 
continuation  of  his  work  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament,  which  was  published  entire  in 
1693-94.     In  this  some  leading  points  in 
Roman    Catholicism    were    freely    ques- 
tioned.   Bossuet  and  Noailles,  archbishop 
of  Paris,  rather  approved  of  the  book; 
but    the    Jesuits    obtained    from     Pope 
Clement   XI   a   bull   condemning   101   of 
Quesnel's  propositions  as  heretical.    This 
bull,  known  as  the  Unigenitus   (promul- 
gated in  1713),  not  only  stirred  up  the 
Jansenists    (see  Janaenists),   but   awoke 
bitter   dissensions   in    the   bosom   of   the 
Oallican  Church.     Meantime  Quesnel  had 
been  compelled  to  seek  refuge  (1703)  in 
Holland,  where  he  resided  for  the  rest  of 
his  life. 

OTi*'f«lAf  (kat-l&),  Lambert  Adolphv 
WUCbCACit  jj^cQvm,  a  Belgian  statisti- 
cian and  astronomer,  was  bom  at  Ghent 
in  1796,  and  studied  at  the  lyceum  of  his 
native  town,  where,  in  1814,  he  became 
professor  of  mathematics.  In  1819  he 
was  appointed  to  the  same  chair  in  the 
Brussels  Athenteum.  In  1828  he  became 
lecturer  in  the  Museum  of  Science  and 
Literature,  holding  the  post  till  1834, 
whoi  the  institution  was  merged  in  the 
newly-established  university.  Quetelet 
superintended  the  erection  of  the  Royal 
Observatory,  and  became  its  first  director 
( 1828).  A  member  of  the  Belgian  Royal 
Academy,  he  became  its  perpetual  secre- 
tary in  1834.  Quetelet 's  writings  on  sta- 
tistics and  kindred  subjects  are  very 
numerous.  He  also  published  many  pa- 
pers on  meteorology,  astronomy,  terrestrial 
magnetiam,  etc.  He  died  in  1874. 
OnAtfa.  (kweftft),  a  town  of  Beluchis- 
WUCifUft  ^^   stratefioally  iapmtant  as 


being  at  the  entrance  to  the  Bolan  Pass, 
and  on  the  road  from  Candahar  through 
the  Pishin  Valley  to  Shikarpur  on  the 
Indus.  It  thus  commands  the  southern 
route  from  India  to  Afghanistan.  By 
treaty  with  the  Khan  of  Ketat  (1877). 
in  whose  territory  it  is,  QuetU  was  fur- 
nished with  a  British  garrison  and 
strongly  fortified.  It  contains  extensive 
magazines  of  war  material,  and  was  in 
1885  connected  with  the  Indus  by  a  line 
of  railway.  Quetta  lies  5500  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  and  is  surrounded  by  moun- 
tains from  five  to  six  thousand  feet  high. 

auctzalcoatl  JS'lf 'thrall  Vf  Si 

ancient  Mexicans,  who  presided  over  com- 
merce and  the  useful  arts,  and  was  said 
by  the  Toltecs  to  have  predicted  the  com- 
ing of  the  Spaniards  to  Mexico.  This 
tradition  aided  the  Spaniards  in  their  in- 
vasion. A  beneficent  deity,  he  was  finally 
superseded  by  the  terrible  Aztec  God  of 
War 

ancvedo  y  ViUegras  <tS.*K**DSi 

Fbancibco  de,  a  Spanish  poet  and  proee 
writer,  was  bom  at  Madrid  in  1580,  died 
in  1645.  In  consequence  of  a  duel,  in 
which  his  adversary  fell,  he  fled  to  Italy, 
where  his  services  gained  him  the  confi- 
dence and  friendship  of  the  Duke  of  Otr 
suna,  viceroy  of  Naples.  After  havinc 
visited  Germany  and  France  Quevedp  re- 
turned to  Spain,  and  on  account  of  his 
connection  with  the  duke,  then  in  dis- 
grace, he  was  arrested  and  confined  to  hia 
estate.  La  Torre  de  Juan,  for  three  yeara 
(1620-23).  After  his  liberation  he  lived 
for  some  years  in  retirement,  occupvinc 
himself  in  writing  political  satires,  bur- 
lesque poems,  and  pamphlets,  which  ob- 
tained an  extraordinary  degree  of  saccesa. 
A  second  long  imprisonment  for  hia  satir- 
ical writings  completely  shattered  hia 
health,  and  be  died  soon  after  his  libera- 
tion. His  humorous  productions  are  dis- 
tinguished for  playfulness,  wit,  and  in- 
vention. His  prose  works  are  mostly 
effusions  of  humor  and  satire.  His  Fuk 
iona  ('Suefios')  have  been  translated 
into  most  European  languages;  bis  VM« 
del  Gran  TaoaHo  is  a  comic  romance  of 
the  sort  called  pioareaque.  He  also  trans- 
lated the  Enchiridion  of  Epictetus  into* 
Spanish.  .         ,.  , « 

Onikvol     (kft'ial) ,  a  most  beautiful  Can- 
liUezai    ^j^j  American  bird  of  the  Tro- 

Son  family  {Trogon  or  Caluma  reaplen- 
ena).  It  is  about  the  siae  of  a  mupte, 
and  the  male  la  adorned  with  tail  feathers 
from  3  to  3|  feet  in  length,  and  of  a 
gorgeous  emerald  color.  These  featben 
are  not,  strictly  speaking,  the  true  UiJ 
feathen  (the  color  of  wUch  is  black  and 


mmm^'^^mm 


QuQzaltenango 


Qvilimane 


white),  bnt  are  the  upper  tell  cojtrtM  ot 
Oe  bW.  The  back,  head  (Including  the 
earioos  rounded  and  compreaaed  creat), 
throat,  and  cneet  are  of  the  »a=>e,,[;^c^ 
hue.  tte  lower  parta  being  of  a  brilliant 
■carlet.    The    female    lacka    theae    long 


Qneial   (.Trogon  retplendent). 


feathera,  and  la  otherwise  much  plainer. 
The  food  of  the  quezal  consists  chiefly 
of  fruita.  It  lives  m  forests  of  tall  trees. 
There  are  several  allied  species  of  birds, 
bnt  none  with  the  distinctive  feature  of 
the  QueaaL  . 

OiiAMl4-«TiaTi0>A  (kft  -  sai'ta  -  nan'gS) , 

Qnezaitenango  ^  ^0^^  of  central 

America,  In  Guatemala,  capital  of  a  de- 
partment of  the  same  name,  with  woolen 
manufactures  and  a  considerable  trade. 
It  waa  founded  by  Alvarado  m  1524. 
Pop.  (1905)  about  31,000. 
l\-ni\*An  (keb-do'),  a  town  in  the  state 
QXllDdO  if  cauca!  of  the  Republic  of 
(Colombia,  South  America,  on  the  Alvalo. 
Pop.  6866.  ^  .       , 

Oniberon  (keb-roo),  a  peninsula  on 
HUlBCruu  ^.jjg  y^estern  coast  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Morbihan,  contain- 
ing a  market-town  of  the  same  name  and 
aeveral  hamlets.  The  place  owes  its 
celebrity  to  the  defeat  of  a  small  army  of 
»  Chouana  and  6migr£s  which  took  place 
here  in  1795.         ^  .  ,r  i 

Onilinr  (kSTwr),  a  town  of  Venezuela, 
UUlDOr  JQ  ^j,g  gtate  of  Lara,  diviaion 
Barquiaimeto.  Pop.  7727. 
OninYina  (k6'chn-4),  the  name  of  a 
UulOnua  Native  race  of  South  Amer- 
ica, inhabiting  Peru,  parts  of  Ecuador, 
BoIiTia,  etc.  With  the  Aymaraa  the 
(^alchuaa  composed  the  larger  portion  of 
ue  pc^Hilation  of  the  empire  of  the  Incaa. 


The  Quichua  language,  which  waa  for' 
merly  the  atete  language  of  the  Incaa,  u 
atill  the  chief  apeech  of  Peru,  of  a  large 
portion  of  BoUvla,  of  the  part  of  Ecuador 
bordering  upon  Peru,  and  of  the  northern 
aection  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  It  ia 
one  of  the  moat  beautiful  and  at  the  aame 
time  comprehenaive  tonguea  of  America. 

amck  Grass,  §^^,  ""r^douck 

Orau.  ^  _ 

ftnick  Hedge,  Sfh^'TeSnSr'S 

live  hedge  of  any  kind ;  but  In  a  stricter 
sense  the  term  is  restricted  to  one  planted 
with  hawthorn. 

Quicklime.  s*«  ^^*- 

OiiiokfUl.nd  (kwlk'sand) ,  a  large  maw 
HUlCJWana  ^^  i^^^  o^  moving  sand 

mixed  with  water  formed  on  many  .lea- 

coasts,  and  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  or  at 

marshy  inland  places,  dangerous  to  v«i- 

sela  or  to  persona  who  trust  themaelvea  to 

it  and   find   It  unable  to  support  their 

weight.  ^      „ 

Quicksilver.      SeeMerc«n/. 

Oninfiam    (  kwl'et  -  izm  ) ,   a   religioua 
IHienSm  Movement    in    the    Roman 
Cktholic  Church  at  the  cloae  of  the  17th 
and  beginning  of  the  18th  centuriea,  a  pro- 
test   against    formality    and    worldliness, 
and   largely   of   a   mystic   character.    It 
owed    Its   origin   to   such   works   aa   the 
Spiritual     Ouide,     published     at     Rome 
(1675)     by     a     Spanish     priest    named 
Michael    Molinoa,    in    which    the    devout 
were  taught,  by  resigning  themselvea  to 
a  state  of  perfect  mental  inactivity,  to 
bring  the  soul  into  direct  and  immediate 
union  with  the  Godhead,  and  receive  the 
infused    heavenly    light,    which    waa    to 
accompany  this  atete  of  Inactive  contem- 
plation.   The   Spiritual   Outde  produced 
a  number  of  aimilar  worka  In  Germany 
and   France.    The  most  noted  promoter 
of  Quietism  in  France  was  the  celebrated 
Madame  Guyon  (which  see),  who  gained 
adherents  enough  to  excite  the  attention 
of  the  clergy.     Ftoelon  Ijecame  the  advo- 
cate of  Madame  Guyon  and  her  writings 
in  his  Explication  de«  Mo«imei  dea  8a%ntt 
aur  la   Vie  int4rieur0   (1607).    Boaauet 
obteined  (1699)  a  papal  brief  which  con- 
demned     twenty-three     positions      from 
F6nelon'8   book    aa   erroneoua;    but    the 
humility  with  which  the  latter  aubmltted 
deprived  his  enemies  of  the  fruita  of  their 
victory;   and   It  was  the  change  in  the 
spirit  of  the  timea  and  not  violence  that 
gradually  buried  Quietlam  in  oblivion. 
OnilimaTiA   (kil-l-ma'ne),   a   town    in 
Umumane  ^^^  Africa,  in  the  Portu- 
gueae  territory  af  Moiambique,  unhealthy 


(^uiUer-Conoh 


(^ninomuL 


Uy  lituated  about  15  miles  above  tbe 
mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name  (the 
northern  branch  of  tbe  Zambesi).  It 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  gold, 
Ivory,  wax,  etc.,  and  coal  of  good  quality 
is  reported  to  be  plentiful.  Pop.  about 
7000  * 

Oni'lli^r.nniiryi  (kwil'er  koch),  SlB 
UUmer-tiOllCU     abtuub  Thomas,  an 

English  novelist  and  essayist  (1863-  ), 
bom  in  (Cornwall.  He  was  on  the  staff  of 
the  Speaker  till  1899.  In  1897  he  was 
commusioned  to  finish  R.  L.  Stevenson's 
noved  8t.  Ives,  lie  was  knighted  in  li)10. 
Among  his  works  are  Dead  Man's  Ruck, 
The  Splendid  Spur,  Oreen  Buys  (verses 
and  parodies).  From  a  Garnish  Window, 
Nicky  Nan,  Keservist,  On  the  Art  of 
WriUng,  The  Ship  of  Stars,  The  White 
Wolf,  Poison  Island,  True  Tilda,  Waniler- 
ing  Heath,  Foe-Farrell,  etc.  He  wrote 
under  the  pen-name  of  '  Q.' 
Onillnfa  (kil-yO't&),  a  town  in  Chile, 
HlUliUbtt  jjj  ^Y^^  province  of  Aconca- 
gua, 23  miles  northeast  of  Valparaiso. 
The  copper  mines  in  the  vicinity  are  re- 
garded as  the  richest  in  Chile.  The  town 
has  suffered  severely  on  different  occa- 
sions from  earthquakes.  Pop.  9876. 
Onilla  (kwilz).  the  large  wing-feath- 
«(uuxB  gpg  qJ  birds,  and  in  a  narrower 
sense  the  shafts  or  barrels  of  these. 
Quills  are  still  in  some  localities  used 
for  making  pens,  although  they  have  been 
generally  superseded  by  steel  and  other 
metals  for  this  purpose.  The  best  quills 
for  pens  are  those  of  the  swan,  but  goose- 
quills,  are  commonly  used.  Crow-quills 
are  used  for  fine  writing  and  pen-and-ink 
drawing.  (See  Pen.)  Quills  are  also 
used  for  making  brushes,  artificial  flow- 
ers, imitative  horse-hair  work,  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  articles,  and  the  feather  ends 
have  even  been  woven  into  fine  tissues. 
Onilna  (k&l'o-ft),  or  Kilwa,  a  sea- 
HUXlUH    pQrt    Qf    Ejjgt    Africa    on    the 

Zanzibar  coast.  Pop.  6000. 
OnilA-n  (kw6-lon'),  a  coast  town  in 
VllUloa  Madras.  India,  in  the  stats 
of  Travancore,  35  miles  northwest  of 
Trivandrum,  the  capital,  with  a  consider- 
able export  trade.  It  has  a  bnrrack  for 
European  troops,  a  hospital,  and  an  Epis- 
copal church.  Pop.  15.691. 
OniltiTify  (kwilt'ing),  a  method  of 
«(uxxi.Aug  sewing  two  pieces  of  silk, 
linen,  or  stuff  on  each  other,  with  wool 
or  cotton  between  them,  by  working  them 
all  over  in  the  form  of  checker  or  dia- 
mond work,  or  in  flowers. 
OnimnAr  (kan-pftr),  a  town  and  port 
liUmper  J„  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Finistfere,  4  miles  southeast 
of  Brest,  at  the  head  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Odat,  an  old  town  partly  surrounded 


with  walls  flanked  by  towera.  Th«  prln* 
cipal  edifices  are  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral 
( 128»-1493)  ;  the  ruins  of  a  Cordelier 
cnurch  and  cloister;  the  college,  the  pre- 
fecture, military  hospital,  etc.  The  man* 
ufactures  are  earthenware,  leather,  cord* 
age,  etc  The  sardine  fiaherir  forma  ad  im- 
portant occupation.  Pop.  (1910)  21,001. 
OiiiTn-nprl^  (kap-oar-lfl ) ,  a  town  of 
UUimperie  Vrance,  dep.  Firiistire, 
beautifully  situated  among  hills  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Isole  and  E\16.  Pop. 
(•»093. 

OniTi  (kwin),  James,  an  eminent 
'*'"■"■  actor,  of  Irish  parentage,  bom  at 
London  in  1693;  died  at  Bath  in  1706. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage 
at  Dublin  in  1714;  shortly  afterwards  he 
obtained  an  engagement  in  London,  and 
gradually  acquired  celebrity  as  a  tragic 
actor  as  well  as  in  characters  of  comic  and 
sarcastic  humor,  like  Falstaff,  Volpone, 
etc.  He  retained  his  preeminence  nntll 
the  appearance  of  Garrick  in  1741.  Hia 
last  performance  was  Falstaff  (1753),  in 
which  character  he  is  supposed  never  to 
have  been  excelled.  He  spent  bis  latter 
years  at  Bath,  where  his  fund  of  anec- 
dote and  pointed  wit  made  him  much 
sought  after. 

Oninnp  (kwins),  the  frait  of  tbe 
«tiuui«c  (^yjonia  vulgaris,  nat  order 
Rosacete.  The  quince  tree,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  native  of  Westem  Asiiu 
IS  now  cultivated  throughout  Europe,  and 
in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  for 
its  handsome  golden  yellow  frnit,  which, 
though  hard  and  austere  when  plucked 


Quince  (.Cydonta  vulgirU), 

from   the   tree,    becomes    excellent   when 
boiled  and  eaten  with  sugar,  or  preserved 
in  sirup,  or  made  into  marmalade. 
QtlillC6y    Thomas  dc.    See  D«  Quin- 

OninpnnT  ( kwin'kungka),  an  ar- 
UUmCUnX  rangement  of  five  objects, 
especially  treea,  In  a  square,  one  at  each 
comer  of  the  square  and  one  in  the 
middle. 


Quinoy 


:K 


1 


A«i{«Av     (kwin'sl),  the  name  of  two 
QVinoy    ^Itie*  and  several  villagea  in 
dio  United  States     (1)  A  city,  cap  tal 
of  Adams   county,   Illinois,   on   the   left 
bulk  of  the  Mississippi,  160  miles  north- 
west of  St.  Louis.    It  is  an  important 
railway  center:   has  an  extensive  river 
traffic,  and  various  manufacturing  estab- 
lishmoits,  including  extensive  beer  work^ 
also  sash,    blind,    "tore,    furniture,    and 
various  other  factories.    A  railroad  bridge 
crosses    the    river    at    this    point    Pop. 
86,587.     (2)  A  city  of  Norfolk  Co.,  Mas- 
sachusetts, on  Quincy  Bay,  about  8  miles 
south  from  Boston.     Its  most  important 
and  lucrative  industry  is  the  working  of 
the   quarries,    which    furnish    the    well- 
known  Quincy  granite.    The  fisheries  also 
are  imporUnt,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  vessels  are  fitted  out  in  the  building 
yards.     Here  John  Adams,  and  his  son. 
John  Quincy  Adams,  both  Presidents  of 
the    United     States,    were    bom.    Pop. 
82,642. 

tl-^ii^^ir     JoBiAH,  an  American  writer, 
QmnCy,     ^^  ^t  Boston  in  1772 ;  died 
in  1864.     Educated  for  the  law,  he  made 
politics  his  profession,  and  was  a  member 
it  Congress  from  1804  to  1812.     Then  he 
was  elected  f  member  of  the  senate  of  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts,   a  position 
which  he  held  till  1821.  in  which  year  he 
held  the  office  of  Speaker  of  the  House. 
From   1823  to   1828  he   was  mayor  of 
Boston  and  effected  various  important  re- 
forms.   From  1829  to  1845  he  was  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College.     His  principal 
works  are   History  of  Harvard   Vntver- 
tity;  Municipal  History  of  the  Tovsn  and 
City  of  Boston  During  Two  Centunet; 
and  Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams. 
Onivi^f    (ke-na).  Edgab,  a  French  phi- 
HU1U.CI.   losopher,    poet,    historian,    and 
politician,  born   in   1803;   died   in   1875. 
He  first  attracted  attention  by  a  transla- 
tion   of    Herder's    Philosophic    der    Oe- 
achichte   in    1825.     In    1828   he   accom- 
panied   a    scientific    commission    to    the 
Morea :  and  in  1839  he  became  professor 
of  foreign  literature  at  Lyons,  a  position 
he  changed  in  1841  for  a  similar  chair 
tn  the  College  of  France.     In  consequence 
of  the   strongly   democratic   tone  of  the 
lectures    delivered    there    from    1843    to 
1846   his    class-room    was    in    the   latter 
year  closed  by  the  government,  and  was 
not  reopened  till  after  the  revolution  of 
1848.     After  the  election  of  Napoleon  as 
president     Quinet     was     expelled     from 
France,  and  refusing  all  Napoleons  am- 
nesties, his  exile  lasted  till  after  the  revo- 
lution of  1870.     His  works,  which  number 
about    thirty     volumes,     include    poems, 
dramas,      histories,      religious     mystical 
bo^s,  etc. 


Qniniy 

aninitiA  (kwin'in,     kwl'nln:     C»Hm- 
'*"*™*  NiO,),    a    white,    crystalline 
alkaloid  subsUnce,  inodorous,  very  bitter, 
and  poasmed  of  marked  antifebrile  prop- 
erties.   It  is  obuintd  from  the  bark  of 
several   trees  of  the  order  Cinchonac«B 
(see  CtncAofls),  but  perhaps  the  beat  is 
that  from  calisaya  bark.     It  waa  discov- 
ered about  1820,  and  has  entir«lsr  super- 
seded the  use  of  the  bark  itself  in  medi- 
cine, being  most  commonly  used  in  the 
form   of  sulphate  of   q^uinine.    The  ex- 
traordinary value  of  quinine  in  medicine 
as  a  febrifuge  and  tonic  has  given  ris«  to 
a  large  trade  in  Peruvian  bark,  and  has 
caused  the  cinchona  tree  to  be  extensively 
planted  in  India  and  elsewhere.    Quinine 
in  small  doses  is  stomachic,  in  large  doses 
it    causes    extreme    disturbance    of    the 
nervtrf,     headache,     deafness,     blindness, 
paralysis,  but  seldom  death.     ^.      .        . 
Oninnii    (kwi-no'a),    a    Soutti   Ameri- 
Uuinoa  ^^n  plant  (Ckenopodiwn  Qut- 
noa),  of  which  there  are  two  cnltivi  ted 
varieties,   one  yielding  white  seeds,   and 
sometimes  called  petty-rice,  the  other  r^ 
The  white  seeds  are  extensively  used  in 
Chile  and  Peru  as  an  article  of  food  m 
the    form    of   porridge,   cakes,  etc.    The 
seeds  of  the  other  variety,  red  mHnpa, 
are  used  medicinally  as  an  application 
for  sores  and  hruiaes. 


Quinquagerima   4^aT!Va'm"e';/*Si 

Sunday  before  Lent,  because  fifty  days 
before  Easter. 

O-ninair  (kwin'si),   the  common  name 
VUiusjr  for     cynanche     tonsittaru     or 
tonsillitis,    inflammation    of    the    tonsils. 
The  inflammation  is  generally  ushered  in 
by  a  feeling  of  uneasiness  in  the  part. 
The  voice  Is   thick,   and  there  is  often 
swelling  of  the  glands  of  the  neck,  with 
loss  of  appetite,  thirst,  headache,  and  a 
considerable    degree    of    general     fever. 
The   tonsils,   uvula,   and   even    the   soft 
palate  are  swollen  and  vascular,  and  the 
tongue    is    foul    and    furred.    In    severe 
cases  respiration  is  considerably  impeded, 
and   swallowing  is   always  difficult  and 
painful.    The  inflammation  of  the  throat 
may    terminate    either    in   resolution   or 
suppuration.    The   most   frequent   cause 
of  quinsy   is  cold,  produced  by  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.     But  in  a  great 
many  cases  it  will  be  found  that  the  pa- 
tient has  been  predisposed  to  the  disease, 
owing   to   a  bad   state  of  the  digestive 
organs.    The  best  treatment  to  ward  off 
an  attack  is  to  administer  a  dose  of  some 
strong  purgative  saline  medicine.    Bland 
soothing  drinks  should  be  given  during 
the  course  of  the  disease,   and  suckmg 
small  pieces  of  ice  wraally  fives  much 
relieL 


Ctnintain 


avirk  Holding 


OniTifoin     (kwin'tan),     a     figui 
muniain    ^j^er  object  formerly 


Eure    or 

^  act  Tip 

to  be  tilted  at'wlth  'a  'lance.  It  wa«  con- 
■tracted  in  various  ways ;  a  common  form 
in  Encland  consisted  of  an  upright  post, 
on  the  top  of  which  was  a  horizontal  bar 
taming  on  a  pivot ;  to  one  end  of  this  a 


Aneient  Quintain  at  OJfham,  Kent. 


Band-bag  was  attached,  on  the  other  a 
broad  board;  and  it  was  a  trial  of  skill 
to  tilt  at  the  broad  end  with  a  lance,  and 
pass  on  before  the  bag  of  sand  could  whirl 
round  and  strike  the  tilter  on  the  back. 
Onintftl  (kwin'tal),  a  weight  of  100 
iminiai  {jjg  or  thereby,  used  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  The  old  French  Quintol 
was  equal  to  100  Hvres,  or  nearly.  108 
lbs.  avoirdupois.  The  quintal  mitnque, 
or  modern  quintal,  is  100  kilogrammes,  or 
220  lbs.   avoirdupois.  , 

Oninfana  (kin-ta'n&),  '  wtho.  Josft, 
UUinxana  ^  Spanish  p-  .  bom  at 
Madrid  in  1772;  died  in  1857.  Ue 
studied  at  Cordova  and  Salamanca,  be- 
came an  advocate,  and  filled  various  of- 
fices connected  with  the  government  at 
different  times.  Almost  all  the  manl- 
festoes  in  the  war  against  the  French 
were  composed  by  him;  he  also  wrote  a 
series  of  patriotic  poems,  entitled  Odiu  a 
EspaAa  Libre.  He  was  eventually  ai^ 
pomted  director-general  of  education,  and 
became  a  senator.  His  poetical,  critical 
and  historical  works  are  held  in  hifca 
estimation.  .... 

Oninfft  (kwin-tef;  Italian,,  fluii*- 
UlUaieb  f^tf^)^  a  vocal  or  inatru- 
mental  composition  in  five  parts,  in  which 
each  part  is  obligato,  and  performed  by 
a  single  voice  or  instrament. 
Oninfilinn    (  kwin-til'yan  ) ,    Mabctjb 

27 — U — 6 


a  Roman  rhetorician,  bora  at  Calagurris 
(Calahorra)  in  8p«jn^  P"*J»Wy, J***'^ 
85  and  40  AJ).;  died  about  11&  Ha 
began  to  practice  as  an  advocate  at  Roma 
about  A.D.  08,  and  aubsequentlj  became  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric.  Some  of  the  moat 
eminent  Romans  were  his  pupils,  and 
the  Emperor  Domitian  bestowed  on  nim 
the  consular  dignity.  His  work,  D«  /«•- 
atitutione  Oratoria,  contains  a  system  of 
rhetoric  in  twelve  books,  and  includes 
some  important  opinions  of  Greek  and 
Roman  authors.  ^«#„. 

Qnintus  Cal'abcr,  -  gl^^t; 

author  of  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the 
Iliad  in  fourteen  books,  a  rather  dull 
imitation  of  Homer.  He  probably  flour- 
ished at  Smyma  in  the  4th  century  a.d. 

anintus  Curtius.    ^  ^*^*'"' 

Oninn  Q^'^u  (kwip'o,  kwip'5).  a  cord 
ttlUpO,  J'bout  2  feet  in  length,  tightly 
spun  from  variously  colored  threads,  and 
to  which  a  number  of  smaller  threads 
wee  attached  in  the  form  of  a  fringe : 
used  among  the  ancient  Peravlans  and 
Mexicans  for  recording  events,  etc.  The 
fringe-like  threads  were  also  of  different 
colors,  and  were  knotted.  The  colors  de- 
noted sensible  objects,  as  white  for  silver, 
yellow  for  gold,  and  the  like;  and  some- 
times also  abstract  ideas,  as  white  for 
peace,  red  for  war.  They  constituted  a 
rude  register  of  certain  important  facta  or 
events,  as  of  births,  deaths,  and  mar- 
riages, the  number  of  the  population  fit 
to  bear  arms,  the  quantity  of  stores  in 
the  government  magazines,  etc. 
Onif*  (kwlr;  French,  cakier),  twenty- 
Uuire  fo„p  oieeta  of  paper.  Twoity 
quires  make  a  rcow.  ,     *v.. 

Onirinal    (awir'i-nal),     one     of     tht 
Uuinnai  g^^^^  ^^^  ^t  ancient  Rome 

There  is  a  palace  here,  begun  in  1574, 
and  formerly  a  summer  residence  of  tm 
popes,  but  since  1871  the  residence  of  the 
king  of  Itoly.  See  Rome. 
Onirinns  (kwi-ri'nus),  among  the 
UuinuUB  Romans,  a  sumame  of 
Romulus  after  he  had  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  divinity.  Hence  Oiitrwolia, 
a  festival  in  honor  of  Romulus,  held  an- 
nually on  the  13th  day  before  the 
Kalends  of  March,  that  is.  the  17th  of 
February.  .      ^  ,    ,       ^^ 

OniritftftXkwi-ri'tea),  a  deslgnatloo 
UUnxeS  ^f  jjjg  citizens  of  ancJMjt 
Rome  as  In  their  civil  capacity.  The 
name  of  Quiritea  belonged  to  them  In  ad- 
dition to  that  of  Romani,  the  latter  des- 
ignation applying  to  them  in  their  po- 
litical and  military  capacity. 


Quirk  Molding,  2^o?T"?rc'blS^ 


M 


Qvit-elaim 


duo  Wumuito 


ton,  •  molding  whow  sharp  and  aodden 
return  from  iu  extreme  projection  to  the 
re-eutnnt  angle  Menu  rather  to  iwrtake 
of  a  etraight  line  (3  the  profile  than  of 
the  carve. 

^  v«»*«*,  jgjjj^  ^f  jjjjy  action  thit 
one  person  has  against  another.  It  signi- 
fies also  a  quitting  of  a  claim  or  title  to 
lands,  etc. 

Quito    (ItS'tO).  the  capital  of  Ecnador, 
^       **    in  a  ravine  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Tolcano  of  Pichincha,  8348  feet  above 
the   sea,   a   little    to   the  south   of   the 
equator.     Its  streets,   with  exception   of 
four   which   meet    in    the    large   central 
square,  are  narrow,  uneven,  badly  paved, 
.k         and  extremely  dirty.    The  more   impor- 
^|||        tant  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
^  several  other  churches  and  convents;  the 

town-house,  court-house,  president's  pal- 
ace, the  university,  the  episcopal  palace, 
orphan  asylum  and  hospital.  The  manu- 
factures consist  chiefly  of  woolen  and  cot- 
ton goods.  From  the  want  of  good  roads 
and  railways  trade  is  much  hampered. 
Quito  was  originally  the  capital  of  a 
native  kingdom  of  the  same  name,  but 
the  modem  town  was  founded  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1534.  It  has  repeatedly 
suffered  from  earthquakes.  Pop.  (lDl6) 
est  at  70,000,  largely  consisting  of  half- 
breeds  and  Indians. 

Quit-rent  ^  English  law,  a  small 
^  »«uv)  ^jjj  generally  payable  by 
the  tenants  of  manors,  whereby  the  ten- 
ant goes  quit  and  free  from  all  other 
■ervices.  Quit-rents  still  existing  are  re- 
deemable by  law. 

Onittftli  (kwit'ta),  a  town  on  the 
viubuui  jjQ^gj  Qf   ^    Africa,   in    the 

British  colony  of  the  Gold  Coast.  Pop. 
5000. 

Quoin  (''*'^)>  ^°  artillery,  a  wedge 
^  inserted  under  the  breach  of  a 

gun,  for  raising  or  depressing  the  muz- 
ale.  In  architecture,  one  of  the  stones 
forming  the  solid  comer  of  a  building. 


Quoitl  (It^oiti),  a  game  played  with 
iKuvAw  ^  flattish  ring  of  Iron,  gener- 
ally from  81  to  Oi  inches  in  external 
diameter,  and  between  1  and  2  inches  in 
breb.dth.  It  is  convex  en  the  upper  side 
and  slightly  concave  on  the  under  sid^ 
so  that  the  outer  edge  curves  down- 
wards, and  is  sharp  c  lough  to  cut  into 
soft  ground.  The  game  '.i  played  in  the 
following  manner: — Two  pins,  called 
hobs,  are  driven  into  the  ground  from 
18  to  24  yards  apart;  and  the  players, 
who  are  divided  into  two  sides,  stand 
beside  one  hob,  and  in  regular  succession 
throw  their  quoits  (of  which  each  player 
has  two)  as  near  the  other  hob  as  they 
can,  giving  the  quoit  an  upward  and  for- 
ward pitch  with  the  hand  and  arm,  and 
ct  same  time  communicating  t>  it  a 
whirling  motion  so  as  to  make  it  cut  into 
the  ground.  The  side  which  has  the  queit 
nearest  the  hob  countd  a  point  towards 
game,  if  the  quoit  rests  en  the  hob  it 
counts  two,  if  thrown  so  ns  to  *  ring '  the 
hob,  it  counts  three. 

QnOTTfl.  (kwor'ra),  a  name  given  to 
^  **   the  lower  portion  of  the  Niger 

(which  see). 

QllOmm  (tcwu'rum),.  a  term  used  in 
^  commissions,    of    which    the 

origin  is  the  Latin  expression,  quorum 
unum  A.  B.  ette  volumut  ('  of  whom  we 
will  that  A.  B.  be  one'),  signifying  orig- 
inally certain  individuals,  without  whom 
the  others  could  not  proceed  in  the  busi- 
ness. In  legislative  and  similar  assem- 
blies a  quorum  is  such  a  number  of  mem- 
bers as  IS  competent  to  transact  business. 

Quotidian  Fever.   ^««  ^<^*- 
Quo  Warranto.  *''*  °*'™?  *»'  *  '''** 

^~«  w.  «>>*«,»vw,  summoning  a  per- 
son or  corporation  to  show  by  wnat  right 
a  particular  franchise  or  o£Bce  is  claimed. 
In  the  rights  of  Charles  II  and  JameH  II 
this  writ  was  used  oppressively  to  de- 
prive cities  and  boroughs  of  their  lil^ 
ertifls. 


R 


Bis  tha  eighteenth  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  classed  as  a  liquid  and 
Bcmi-vowel.     In     the     pronunciation     ot 
Englishmen   generally   it   represents  two 
Fiomewbat  different  sounds.    The  one  is 
heard    at    the   beginning    of    words   a»0 
syllables,  and  when  it  is  preceded  by  a 
consonant;  the  other,  less  decidedly  con- 
sonantal, is  heard  at  the  end  of  words 
and  syllablea,  and  whsn  it  is  followed  by 
a   consonant.     In    the   pronunciation    of 
many  English  speakers,  r,  followed  by  a 
consonant  at  the   end   of   a   syllable,  is 
scarcely  beard  as  a  separate  sound,  hav- 
ing merely  the  effect  of  lengthening  the 
preceding  Towel ;  when  it  is  itself  final,  as 
in   bear,  door,  their,   etc.,  it  becomes  a 
TO*el    rather    than    a    consonant — The 
three  Rs,  a  humorous  and  familiar  des- 
ignation    for     Reading.     Writina,     and 
Irithmetio.     It  originated  with  Sir  Wil- 
liam Curtis,  who,  on  being  asked  to  give 
a  toast  said,  '  I  will  give  you  the  three 
Re,  Riting,  Reading,  and  Rithmettc. 
P«   (more  properly  Re),  the  name  oi 
**.  the  god  of  the  sun  among  the  an- 
cient Egyptians.     He  is  represented,  like 
Horns,  with  the  head  of  a  hawk,  and 
bearing  the  disk  of  the  sun  on  his  head. 
Turn,    Harmaehie,    and    other   gods    are 
mere  impersonations  of  the  various  at- 
tributes of  Ra.        ^  ..     ,, 
V^alt  (itb),  or  Gyor  (dyeiir),  a  town 
***"'  in  Hungary,  at  the  confluence  sf 
the  Raab  and  Rabnita  with  the  Danube, 
07  miles  W.N.W.  of  Buda.     It  is  the  see 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and  has  a 
due  cathedral,  an  episcopal  palace,  dio- 
cesan   seminary,    etc.    Its    manufactures 
are  woolen   cloth,  cutlery,  and   tobacco. 
Pop.  27,788. 

Holiat  (ra-btf),  a  maritime  town  in 
AKUHV  Morocco,  in  the  province  of 
Fez,  on  the  Atlantic,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Baregrcb,  is  surrounded  with  a  wall 
flanked  by  numerous  towers,  and  has  a 
citadel  and  batteries.  It  has  some  manu- 
faetnrea  (carpets,  woolens,  cottons,  and 
leather)  and  considerable  trade  in  wool 
and  com.  Pop.  abont  116.000.  On  the 
•ther  sid*  of  the  river  mmth  is  tM  town 
«f  Salke. 


ftahhtL  (rWhk),  a  town  of  the  West- 
AKUUH  ^^  Soudan,  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Gando,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Niger, 
some  360  miles  from  iu  mouth,  formerly 
populous  and  with  a  considerable  trade 
in  slaves  and  ivory,  and  manufactures  of 
woolen. 

Palih^f  (rab'et),  in  carpentry  .  ft 
AHDUCb  gioping  cut  made  on  the  sdge 
of  a  board  so  that  it  may  join  by  lapping 
with  another  board  similarly  cut;  also,  a 
rectangular  recess,  channel,  or  groove 
cut  along  the  edge  of  a  board  or  the  like 
to  receive  a  corresponding  projection  c«t 
on  the  edge  of  another  board,  etc.,  re- 
quired to  fit  into  it. 

Palilii  (rab'i),  a  title  of  honor  among 
AHUUi  ^jjg  Hebrews,  corresponding 
nearly  to  the  English  maeter.  There  are 
two  other  forms  of  the  title,  rohboni  and 
rabbani.  the  former  of  which  is  found  in 
the  New  TesUment.  It  is  supposed  that 
this  title  first  came  into  use  at  the  period 
immediately  preceding  the  birth  of  Christ. 
In  the  time  of  our  Lord  it  was  applied 
generally  to  all  religions  teachers,  aad 
hence  sometimes  to  Christ  himself.  Nour 
the  term  rabbi  or  rabbin  is  aPPlM  t» 
regularly  appointed  teachers  ot  Talmadi« 
Judainn. 

Kabbinic  Hebrew <St;'*'fm*'il 

Hebrew  in  which  the  Jewish  scholars  aad 
theologians  of  the  middle  ages  composed 
their  works.  Grammatically  it  differs 
but  little  from  the  ancient  Hebrew,  but 
in  many  cases  new  meanings  are  attached 
to  Hebrew  words  already  in  use,  in  other 
cases  new  derivatives  are  formed  from 
old  Hebrew  roots,  and  many  words  are 
borrowed  from  the  Arabic.  The  rab- 
binical literature  is  rich  and  well  repay* 
study.  .    .    . 

HaVhif  (rab'it;  Lepue  cuntcilua),  u 
jMiuMiii  g,nyg  of  rodent  mammala,  tat 

eluded  in  the  family  Leporidn,  to  wbkA 
also  belong  the  hares.  It  is  of  nnaller 
sise  than  the  hare,  and  has  sherttr  san 
and  hin'l  lags.  The  rabbit's  for  lo  its 
native  sUts  to  of  a  nearly  anifotai  browa 
color,  whil*  ander  doaieatloatisB  th* 
•olor  lujr  fcwi  pare  wUte,  »«(e  blaok, 


Babelais 


piebald,  gray,  and  otber  hoM.  Tb«  t«x> 
ton  of  tht  far  also  changM  under  do- 
meatkation.  The  rabbit  ia  a  native  of 
all  temperate  climatee,  and  in  iti  wild 
state  c(ui(regates  in  '  warrens '  in  sandy 
pastures  and  on  bill-slopes.  Rabbits 
Meed  six  or  seven  times  a  year,  beginning 
at  the  age  of  sii  months,  and  producing 
from  Bve  to  seven  or  eight  at  a  birth. 
They  are  so  prolific  that  they  may  easily 
become  a  pest,  as  in  Australia,  if  not 
kept  in  check  by  beasts  and  birds  of  prey. 
They  feed  on  tender  grass  and  herbage, 
and  sometimes  do  great  damage  to  young 
trees  by  stripping  them  of  their  baric. 
They  grow  exceedingly  tame  under  do- 
mestication, and  sometimes  exhibit  con- 
siderable intelllgenc-e.  RabbiU  are  sub- 
ject to  certain  diseases,  such  as  rot 
—  induced  probably  by  damp  and  wet  — 
parasitic  worms,  and  a  kind  of  madness. 
The  skin  of  the  rabbit  is  of  considerable 
value:  cleared  of  hair,  it  is  used  with 
other  skins  to  make  glue  and  size.  The 
tur  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
hats,  and  to  imitate  other  and  more  valu- 
able furs,  as  ermine,  etc. 

Babelais  (•**>-•»).  fbaw<^i^  a  hu- 

..wMVMMv  „,(j,oyg  jnjj  g^tirical  French 
writer,  bom  in  or  before  1496,  the  son  of 
an  apothecary  of  Cbinon,  in  Touraine. 
He  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at 
Fontenay-le-Comte,  in  Poitou,  and  re- 
ceived the  priesthood.  His  addiction  to 
profane  studies  appears  to  have  given 
otfense  to  his  monastic  brethren,  and 
through  the  influence  of  friends  he  ob- 
tained the  permission  of  Clement  VII  to 
enter  the  Benedictine  ,  order  (about 
1524).  He  then  exchanged  the  seclusion 
3f  the  monastery  for  the  comparative 
freedom  of  the  residence  of  the  Bishop 
of  Maillezais,  who  made  him  his  secre- 
tary and  companion.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  years  we  find  him  at  Montpellier, 
where  he  studied  medicine,  having  by  this 
time  become  a  secular  priest;  he  was 
admitted  a  bachelor  in  1530,  and  for 
some  time  successfully  practiced  and 
taught.  In  1532  he  went  to  Lyons, 
where  he  published  a  work  of  Hippo- 
crates and  one  of  Galen,  and  the  first 
germ  of  his  Oargantua  (1532  or  1533). 
The  first  part  of  his  Pantagruel  appeared 
under  the  anagram  of  Alcofribaa  Natier, 
within  a  year  or  so  after  the  former 
work,  and  its  success  was  such  that  it 
passed  through  three  editions  in  one  year. 
Soon  after  Its  publication  Rabeiais  ac- 
companied Jean  du  Bellay  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Rome.  On  his  return  to  France 
be  went  first  to  Paris:  but  not  long 
after  he  is  found  once  more  at  Lyons, 
where  the  Oarffantua,  as  we  now  have  it, 
first  saw  the  Ufht    (1586).    Tha  Omr- 


Baoilmnto 


fanltt*  and  Pantagruel  together  form  a 
single  work  professing  to  narrate  the  say- 
ings and  doings  of  the  giant  Oargantua 
and  his  son  Pantagruel.  In  1536 
Rabelais  was  again  at  Rome,  ai^  oa 
thia  occasion  he  obtained  from  the  pope 
absolution  for  the  violation  of  his  mo- 
nastic vows,  and  permission  to  practice 
medicine  and  to  hold  benefices.  Shortly 
afterwards  he  was  granted  a  prebend  in 
the  abbey  of  Saint  Maur-des-Foss^s  by 
Jean  du  Bellay.  In  1637  he  took  his  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Mont- 
pellier, and  lectured  on  Hippocrates. 
The  next  few  years  were  as  unsettled  ar 
regards  his  al>ode  as  any  previous  period 
of  Rabelais'  life,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
follow  him.  Probably  he  was  in  Paris 
in  164e,  when  the  third  book  of  his 
Oaraantua  and  Pantagruel  appeared,  but 
during  most  of  1546  and  part  of  1547  he 
was  physician  to  the  town  of  Metz.  In 
the  third  book  all  the  great  moral  and 
social  questions  of  the  day  were  dis- 
cussed with  the  gayety  and  irony  pecul- 
iar to  Rabelais,  and  with  a  freedom  that 
roused  the  suspicion  of  the  clergy,  who 
endeavored  to  have  it  suppressed.  The 
favor  of  the  king  secured  its  publication, 
but  it  was  with  more  difliculty  that  a 
license  was  obtained  for  the  fourth  book 
from  Henry  II,  who  had  succeeded 
Francis  in  1547.  This  book  did  not  ap- 
pear complete  till  1552.  About  1550  Ra- 
belais was  appointed  to  the  cure  of 
Meudon,  but  be  resigned  the  position  in 
1552,  and  died  a  year  later,  according  to 
most  authorities.  He  left  the  whole  of 
the  fifth  book  of  his  remarkable  romance 
in  manuscript.  By  many  Rabelais  has 
l>een  set  down  as  a  gross  buffoon,  and 
there  is  much  in  his  writings  to  justify 
the  harsh  judgment,  though  we  must  re- 
member what  was  the  taste  of  his  times. 
As  regards  the  purpose  of  his  work,  many 
have  looked  upon  Rabelais  as  a  serious 
reformer  of  abuses,  religious,  moral,  and 
social,  assuming  an  extravagant  masquer- 
ade for  the  purpose  of  protecting  himseif 
from  the  possible  consequences  of  his 
assaults  on  established  institutions.  The 
earlier  books  were  translated  into  Eng- 
lish bv  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart  (1653), 
who  found  a  continuator  in  Motteux. 
There  are  also  translaticms  into  German 
and  Italian. 

AabieS  (rftHbi-ez),  the  name  given  to 
^^  a     contagious     disease     with 

wMch  dogs,  horses,  cats,  wolves,  and 
other  animals  are  attacked,  and  to  which, 
indeed,  all  animals  are  said  to  be  liable. 
A  bite  from  some  rabid  animals  induces 
hydrophobia  in  man.     See  Hydrophobia. 

«M»v(Muiuvv   jj£   Sicily,   in   the   ptvh 


Kt  flint 


ince    of  Glrfenti.  with  minpi  of  aulpbur,  lUrc*  and  nnloTabU  temp«r,  dwtitvt*  of 
«lt.  and  quickHilver,   Pop,  16,988.     ^   -  ^"^^^Si%^  i^loU^'^'bfaA 

BAOnil  \.kt^   DrocMds  nearly   In  a 


VAAnalinnf  (rak'ka-hot),  a  atardt  or 

SaOOanOUt  ^„,^^i    prepared    from    tha         ,  ^^  „       --      .  .     .   ^  .     ^  ,„ 

edible  acorn  of  the  Bnrbary  oak  (gneroat  atraifbt  Una  from  tbe  DMa  to  tta  apn 

Omma),  recmmended  aa  food  for  in-  ?' t^«  inAoffS""  «' *  P\t"*:,  AT^JSS 
vallda.  Mix.d  with  augar  and  aromaUca  ia  alao  appUed  to  the  atalk  «' "^^^S* 
it  la  used  by  the  Arab*  of  Northern  »n  feme,  and  to  the  common  atalk  bearing 
Africa  as  a  aubsUtute  for  chocolate.  the  alteraate  apikeleta  in  •<>««»•  J"™^.,, 

juchom,  ^s-  r  ^nis*  '£  >••"«»  *f Srrw;i'""TL'^x 

content,  called  also  a  Blood-horte  and  ^  tion  of  t^e  •nine,  but  it  la  appl^^ 
Thorough-bred  Uorte.     Racing  baa  long  diaeaae  c«Ued  «•«*«*••  J5"^»*J™  ■"*• 
been  practiced  in   Europe,   with  the  re-  geated  tbia  aa  the  ■c'entific  mbMw 
ault  ot  greatly   developing   the   apeed   of   Wofilmiailinof  ^„«  v»-««^^*>S^ 
the  borae.     The  racing  horae  ia  of  three  MOamOMUim  on  VASSiuimCH,  « 

"5e?,  ^xmning,  pacing'and  trotting.  The  §»"»»°LiP^°i??9'°ii7§°"'^^;j^'T^ 
running  race  hlaa  for  centuries  held  a  Novgorod,  April  2. 1873.  He  ▼Wtrfl^ 
dominant  place  in  the  aporta  of  England  don  in  18W,  and  America  in  1909-10. 
and  Europe.  The  favorite  pace  in  Hia  work,  indnde  concertoa  and  piano- 
America  ia  the  trot,  and  horaea  of  tbia  forte  piecea  and  aeveral  ov^n*. 
type  are  in  great  demand  in  thia  country,  BaOllie  ^"■■!°  >'  *  ";'d*'J^^^! 
and  aince  1870  bave^  become  i»puUr  ^J^^^^^F^J^i^i^^'A^ 
abroad.  Tbe  apeed  of  trotting  horaea,  the  w.  riiore  of  Lake  Midiigan,  24  mUea 
from  the  earlieatknown  record  in  1818,  aouth  of  MUwaukee.  and  82  milea  norUi 
baa  ahown  a  steady  improvement  as  a  of  Chicago,  <m  Chicago  and  Nortt- 
reault  of  careful  breeding  and  training,  weatern  Railway,  with  one  of  the  beat 
The  horse  goes  into  training  in  its  second  harbors  on  V* ti-  ±-*-V  J?*whJSf!^ 
year  and  requires  expert  care  for  its  sue-  tant  manufacturing  oenter^th  ureaUag 
cesaful  development.  The  following  rec-  machine  worka,  plow  worka,  aatomobUe 
orda  ahow  the  gradual  increase  in  apeed  planta,  foundriea,  tonneriea,  oreraU  and 
during  the  last  century  over  the  one  mile  shirt  planta.  Pop.  40,UU0.  --,_^___ 
course:  1826,  Trouble,  2.43;  1839,  Dutch-  Ttacilie  i^L"*°'l  u'^S^'S.  ^*t"2"'  ' 
man,  2.32;  1851),  Fl^d  Temple,  2.19%;  TT  V~  ?*f**°f?*!?/tr.r'*°/''5i '^'W 
18tS,  Nancy  Hanks,  2.04;  1903,  ^Lou  tist  bora  at  La  FertfrMilon  (Ataie)  in 
DUlon,  1.58V4;  1912.  Uhlan,  1.58.  It.ia  l<p:  died  at  Paria  in  1690.  He  waa 
estimated  that  it  will  take  two  centuries  educated     at    Port-Royri,     the    ^mooa 

to  reach  the  1.30  mark.  I.«S'^°*'*J°"^**^^*?ii5!,  ^tv^^JSte 

■D a.^-U o1    (rA-ahell),     M ADEMOisnxB  d'Harcourt     His  first  tragedj,  tbe  TW- 
Jtacnei  '(Euzabcth  Rachel  Feux),  50.de,  or  Ua  Friret  Ennemta,  wu  per- 


in  the  streets  of  Lyons,  but  being  taken  Andromaqu^  wbkh  on  ita  per^mancB 
notice  of  she  was  enabled  to  receive  a  at  the  Hdtel  de  Bonrgogne.  in  1867,  pro- 
courae  of  instruction  at  the  Conservatoire,  duced  a  profound  unprMnon.  The  im. 
and  made  her  debut  in  1837  on  the  stage  mediate  succeaapr  of  Andromaque  wtm 
of  tbe  Gymnase  at  Paris.  She  attracted  LeaPUt^eun  (ie«3),  a  witty  and  de- 
no  special  attention,  however,  until  tbe  lightful  imitotion  of  the  Waapi  of  Aris- 
following  year,  when,  transferred  to  the  tophanes.  His  succeeding  pieces  were 
Theatre  Francaia,  ahe  took  the  Parisian  Br»*annloi«#  (1688)  :  BMnioe  a«70>  ; 
public  by  storm  by  the  admirable  manner  Bajatet  (1W2>  ;  Jtf«**nda««  (1678)  ; 
in  which  she  impersonated  the  classic  Iph*g4ni«  (1674)  ;  Phidre  (1677),  the 
creations  of  Racine  and  Comeille.  Her  laat  piece  that  Radne  produced  ex- 
reputation  was  speedily  established  as  the  preaaly  for  the  theater.  In  1673  be  ob- 
first  tragic  actress  of  her  day.  In  1841  tained  a  seat  in  tbe  French  Academy, 
she  visited  England,  and  waa  received  Hia  withdrawal  from  the  theater  in  1677 
with  tbe  greatest  enthusiasm.  Her  re-  waa  partly  due  to  chagrin  at  the  success 
nown  continued  to  increase,  and  for  many  of  a  hostile  group  of  theatrical  critics. 

fears  she  reinied  supreme  at  the  'RiSfttre  At  this  period  his  friends  persuaded  him 
'rancais,  nuiking  afso  tours  to  the  pro-  to  marry,  and  soon  after  (1678)  he  waa 
vincial  towns  of  France,  to  Belgium,  etc.  appointed,  aloog  with  Boireao,  Ustorio- 
Later  ahe  visited  America,  but  when  grapber  to  the  king,  whmn  be  aconm- 
there  caught  a  severe  cold,  which  termi-  panied  la  hia  campaign  to  Flanders, 
nated  in  consumption.     She  waa  of  a  After     a     tfence     of     twelye     yean 


Hnirfmy 


Racine,  at  th«  lolicitatioB  of  Madam* 
dt  lialiitenon,  wrote  two  other  pieeea  — 
Btthtr  (1U88)  and  AthalU  (1U9I).  Hia 
death  ia  mid  to  have  been  battened  by 
griaf  at  ioaing  the  favor  of  the  kins. 
AB  a  dramatist  Racine  it  uiuaily  con- 
aiderad  the  modei  of  the  French  claaaical 
tragic  drama,  and  in  eatimating  hia 
powera  in  this  fieid  it  is  necesaa  nr  to  talce 
into  account  the  ttllf  conventional  re- 
■trainta  to  which  thnt  drama  in  subjected. 
What  be  achieved  within  them  limits  ia 
extraordinary.  Besides  his  dramas  Ra* 
cine  is  the  author  of  epigrams,  odea, 
hymns,  etc. 
H&Ointr     ('■■*''°'^*     ^**  norte-radng. 

1^         H^ftV   (rail),    an    instrument    for    the 
*****^  Judlciai  torture  of  criminals  and 
suspected  persons.     It  was  a  large  open 
I  wooden  frame  within  which  the  prisoner 

f  was  laid  on  his  bacic  upon  the  floor,  with 

his  wrists  and  ankles  attached  by  cords 
to  two  rollers  at  the  end  of  the  frame. 
These  rollers  were  moved  in  opposite 
directions  by  levers  till  the  body  rose  to 
a  level  with  the  frame;  questions  were 
then  put,  ami  If  the  answers  were  not 
deemed     satisfactory     the    sufferer    was 

Gradually  stretched  till  the  bonesi  started 
rom  their  sockets.  It  was  formerly 
much  used  by  civil  authorities  in  the 
cases  of  traitors  and  conspirators;  and 
by  the  members  of  the  Inquisition,  for 
extorting  a  recantation  from  imputed 
heretical  opinions.  The  rack  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  the  rei^n  of  Henry 
VI,  and  although  declared  by  competent 
judgea  to  be  contrary  to  Rnclish  law, 
there  are  many  instances  of  its  use  as 
late  as  the  time  of  Charles  I. 
PonV  in  machinery,  a  straight  or 
****'*•'  slightly  curved  metallic  bar, 
with  teeth  on  one  of  its  edges,  a'lapted  to 
work  into  the  teeth  of  a  vrbwl  or  pinion. 


acraw  It  at  two-aftbs  of  tb*  iMftk  tC 
the  court  from  tha  back  wall,  tb*  amaUar 
area  being  again  diTid*d  into  two  aonal 
parts  by  a  line  at  right  angles  to  tnla, 
and  two  small  areaa  being  marked  olf  in 
the  other  space  next  tbe  snort  line,  called 
§ervice  apaoet.  Two  horiiontal  linaa  are 
also  drawn  across  the  front  wail,  one  2 
feet  2  inches  above  the  floor,  below  which 
if  a  ball  strike  it  is  out  of  play,  the  other, 
tb*  eut  line,  7  feet  0  inches  above  the 
floor.  The  game  moy  be  played  with 
either  one  or  two  persons  on  each  side. 
It  is  decided  by  lot  which  side  goes  in 
first,  and  the  flrst  player  assumes  which 
side  of  the  court  he  pleases  (usually  the 
right),  while  tbe  other  stands  in  the  op> 
posite  comer.  The  first  player  then  be- 
gins to  ttrve,  which  consists  in  striking 
the  ball  with  the  bat  so  as  to  make  it 
strike  the  front  wall  above  the  cut  line, 
and  then  rebound  into  the  opposite 
corner.  If  the  ball  is  properly  serve<l  the 
second  player  must  strike  it  before  it  haa 
made  a  second  bound,  so  that  it  strikes 
the  front  wall  <>t>ove  the  lower  line:  but 
in  returning  the  ball  in  this  manner  the 
player  may  if  he  likes  first  make  it 
strike  either  of  the  side  walls.  The 
player  may  also  return  it  before  it 
touches  the  floor.  The  first  player  then 
returns  the  ball  in  the  same  way,  and 
this  goea  on  until  either  player  fails. 
If  it  is  the  first  player  who  fails,  it  ia 
then  the  turn  of  the  second  player  to 
serve.  If  it  is  the  second  player,  tbe 
first  scores  one  (an  ace),  and  continues 
to  serve,  but  goes  to  the  opposite  side  of 
the  court.  In  general  fifteen  is  game. 
PanAATi  or  Raccoon  (ra-ktfn'),  an 
Attbuuii,  American  plantigrade  car- 
nivorous mammal,  the  common  raccoon 
being  the  Procyon  lotor.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  small  fox,  and  its  grayish-brown 
fur  is  deemed  valuable,  being  principally 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats.  This 
animal  lodges  in  hollow  trees,  feeds  oc- 
casionally on  vegetables,  and  its  flesh  ia 


Rack  and  Pinion. 

for  tbe  purpose  of  converting  a  circular 
into  a  rectilinear  motion,  or  vice  versa. 
Kackets  °^  Racquets  (rak'ets).  a 
****''^^  >  game  ployed  in  a  prepared 
court,  open  or  close,  with  a  small  hard 
ball  and  a  bat  like  that  u^ed  for  playing 
tennia.  The  close  or  ronfpfl  court  is  now 
generally  preferred  for  playing  in.  It 
IS  an  oblong  rectangular  area,  80  feet 
long  and  40  broad  when  of  full  dimen- 
sions, and  having  high  walls.  The  floor 
is  divided  into  two  chief  areas  of  unequal 
size  by  a  line,  called  the  akort  line,  drawn 


Oommon  Bseeoon    (Proey on  lotor). 


palatable  food.  It  inhabits  North  Amer- 
ica from  Canada  to  the  tropics.  The 
black-footed  raccoon  of  Texas  and  Cali- 
fornia is  P.  Hermandemi.  The  ageuara 
or  crab-catlng  raccoon  (P.  cttncriv6rus) 
is  found  further  south  on  the  American 
continent  than  the  above  species,  and  u 


Badants 


Badhanpw 


Itaenlly  largtr.  Although  denomiutcd 
^crab-Mtini  *  it  doM  not  appear  to  bt 
any  more  addicted  to  this  dieury  than  tho 
common  apeciet.  .   ^ 

llAilAntv   (rt'douta),  a  town  of  Au»- 
JMOauU  tria.  In  the  duchy  of  Buko- 
wina,  with  a  fovcmment  ituo  of  horaee 
and  manufacture*  of  machinery,  glaai,  pa> 
per,  beer,  and  eplrlta.     Pop.  14.403. 
Va<lAl{4P«     (rad'kllf),  a  town  in  Lan- 
AaaOUne    ^^n,  on  the  river  Irwell. 
7  mile*  w.  w.  of  Mancheeter  nnd  3  a.  w. 
of  Bury:  does  a  considerable  business  in 
caiico-printing,  cotton-weaving,  bleaching, 
etc..  and  has  extensive  collieries  in   its 
vicinity.    Pop.  (1911)  2«,085.      , 
PoHnlifP*    Ann   Ward,  novelist,  was 
JiaaOUne,  ^o^   j^   London   in    1704; 
died  In  1823.     She  married  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three  Mr.  William  Radcliffe,  after- 
wards editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Eng- 
lUk  Chronicle  newspaper.     She  published 
in  quicli  succession  The  CatHea  of  Athlin 
and  Dunbaj/tte,   a   Highland  story;   The 
BicUinn  Romance;  and  The  Romance  of 
the    Forctt.     Her    masterpiece    Is    fon- 
sidered  to  be  the  Myteriea  of  XJdolpho 
(17»4),    which    was    long   very   popular. 
The  last  of  her  novels  published  during 
her    life    was    The    Italian    (1797).    A 
posthumous  romance,  Qaaton  de  Blonde- 
vUle,  was  edited  by  T.   N.  Talfourd   in 
1820,  together  with  some  poetical  pieces. 
Mrs.  Radcliffe  had  considerable  power  in 
description,  and  linew  how  to  arouje  the 
ruriosity  of  her  readers;  but  her  charac- 
ters are  insipil,  and  the  conclusion  of  her 
stories  lame  and  impotent. 
VailAl'StfA    John,  a  celebrated  medical 
AaaCUae,    practitioner,  born  in   1050 
at  Wake6eld,  in  Yorkshire,  and  educated 
at  Oxford.     Having  studied  medicine,  and 
taken  the  degree  of  M.B.,  he  became  in 
lt)8e  physician  to  the  Princess  Anne  of 
Denmark,   and   was   frequently  consulted 
by    King   Willinm.     He    attended    Queen 
Maiy  in  1694  when  she  was  attacked  by 
small-pox,  but   was  unable  to  save   her. 
Rough  and  blunt  In  manner,  he  lost  the 
good  graces  of  Anne,  and  also  of  William, 
by   his  plain   speaking.     In    1714,    when 
the  queen  was  seized   with  her  last   ill- 
ness, he  was  sent   for,  but  either  could 
not  or  would  not  attend.    This  gave  rise 
to    great    ill-feeling     towards     him      He 
died  in  1714.  leaving  £40,000  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  for  the  foundation  of 
a    library   of   medical    and    phUosophical 
works.     See  Radcliffe  Librarv. 

Radcliffe  CoUege.  ^^.Zfify":''' 
RadoUffe  Library,  »,«^•^'^?„°°4 


^■,  —  connec- 
tion with  Oxford  nnirersity  oat  of  fnnda 
(tMtined  f'v  th»  parpovt  bf  Pr.  J«lm 


Radcliffe.  and  opened  In  1749.  The  build- 
ing erected  by  the  Radcllfft  trnstCM  for 
the  reception  of  the  books  forming  the  li- 
brary is  now  used  as  a  reading-room  la 
connection  with  the  Bodleian  Libntn. 
An  observatory  in  connection  with  IM 
university  was  founded  in  1772  by  th* 
Radcliffe  trustees. 

1ljii1fi)Miv  (ra'd«-berA),  •  town  In 
Aaaeoerg  ig^xony,  9  mllea  N.  K.  of 
Presilen,  on  the  Roeder;  has  imporUnt 
ronnufaetures  of  glass,  paper,  etc.  Pop. 
(190.-»)  ia.301 
llA(lf>t7kv  (ra-det'sk§).  JodEPH 

AHQClZKy    WeNCESLAUB.    CoUHT,    • 
famous  Austrian  roldier,  bom  at  Tr«6- 
nits,  in  Bohemia,  in  1700;  died  in  ISM. 
Commencing  bis  career  in  a  Hungarian 
regiment  of  horse  in  1784,  he  fought  in 
most  of  the  campaigns  In  which  Aastria 
was  engaged  from  that  date  nn  to  the  tlm« 
of    his    deatlfe,    ineluding    Hobenllndtn, 
Wagram,  and  LtipBlf.     But  his  most  sig- 
nal services  wtw  In  Italy,  whither  he  was 
called   by  the  commotions  following  tm 
French  revolution  of  1830,  and  what*  • 
great   part    of   his   subsequent    life   waa 
spent.     On   the  breaking  out   of  tb     In- 
surrection   at    Milan    in    March,    1848, 
Radetzky  maintained  a   fight  for  aeveral 
days   in   the  streets,  and   then   retrea'->d 
with  his  forces  to  Verona.     On  the  Sur- 
dlnlan    king    Charles    Albert    taking    tb« 
field  he  assumed  the  offensive,  and  after 
an    arduous,    and    for   a    time   doobttul. 
campaign  gained  the  victory  of  Ouatoaaa 
(July  25).  which  compelled  Charles  Al- 
bert  to  retreat  to  Milan,  and  then  eTmcn- 
ate  the  city  after  a  short  contest,  thua 
preserving  Lombardy  to  Austria.     An  ar> 
mistice  having  been  concluded  with  Bar* 
dinia  he  next  occupied  himself  with  tkt 
blockade  of  the  revolted  city  of  Venice^ 
but  hurried  from  it  in  March,  1840,  on  the 
resumption  of  hostilities  with  Charlea  Al- 
bert.    Assembling  his  army  at  Pavia  h« 
crossed    the    Ticino,    and    gained    so   de- 
cisive a  victory  at  Novara,  on  March  2S, 
that  the  king  abdicated   in  favor  of  his 
son,  Victor  Kmmanuel,  and  a  treaty  was 
concluded  which  secured  for  the  time  the 
Austrian    supremacy     in     Italy.     Venice 
surrendered  to  Radcttky  in  August  of  the 
same    year.     Radetzky    had    been    mad* 
field-marshal   in    1830.   and  other  bonoci 
and    rewards    were   now    showered   opoa 
him.     The    remainder    of    his    Ufa    wu 
spent  at  Milan. 

'Psillto-n'nTiT'  (rBd'hun-pOr).  a  petty 
JLaonanpTir    ^^^^^  ^j  Britleh   India. 

in  the  n.  w.  of  Gujerat,  with  an  area 
of  1150  square  miles.  The  state  came 
under  British  protection  in  1819.  Pop. 
61,548.— The  capital  of  the  state  bM 
t|i«  sAUM  m«M>    Pop.  11|879> 


Btdiate 


Badiih 


' 


RbiMpoda. 
by   powMtiof   I 
of  Mrcode 


central 
iDcloMd 


mat  diTfaioB  of  tb«  ulnwl  kingdom, 
uciodlttf  tboM  Nnlmate  whoM  iwrui  art 
•mogad  round  an  asia,  ana  diaplay 
mora  or  lata  of  tiia  'rajrod'  appaaranct 
or  conformation.  In  modern  loology 
Cuviar'a  divlalon  baa  bacn  aboliabad,  and 
tba  radlaU  bava  been  dlridad  Into  tbe 
Protoaoa.  Cmlanterata,  and  Annulolda  or 
EcbinoBoa. 

8—  Bett. 


^    _  ),  an  order  of 

Protoaoa    of    tba    claaa 

chancterlaed 


]ftadiation. 

Badioal  (rad'l.kal;  from  L.  ndia, 
*"**"*  root),  tbe  name  adopted  by 
a  laria  aectlon  of  the  Liberal  party  in 
Britain,  wbicb  dealres  to  bave  all  abuiea 
In  tba  mvemment  completely  rooted  out, 
and  a  larger  portion  of  tbe  democratic 
apirit  infttaed  into  tbe  conetitution.  The 
tarm  wai  flrat  naed  in  1818. 

or  Baoicau  (rad'i-kli), 
a  name  given  in  vbemiatry 
to  certain  groupa  of  elementa  which  re- 
main anited  tbrougbout  many  reactiona. 
Sea  Cktmittry. 


Eadiolet, 


BadiO-aOtivity   ('*'*"•*)•  ^^  vo^n   ant    energy 
*^  '    poaaeaaed  by  certain    of  four  crc 


in  a  poroua,  membranoua, 
or  cbltinooa  capaule  which 
la  aurrounded  -y  a  aar- 
coda  envelope.  They  of- 
ten poaaeaa  a  lilicpoua  or 
flinty  teat  or  silioeoua 
apiculea,  and  are  providpd 
with  paeudopodiu,  or  pro- 
longationa  of  their  aoft 
protoplaamic  bodiea, 
which  atnnd  out  like  ra- 
diating fliamenta,  and  oc- 
casionally run  into  one 
another.  The  Polycystina 
(which  aee)  belong  to  the 
Kadiolaria. 

Eadiometer  <•*;'']■ 

o  m  e  - 
t^r),  an  inatrument  de- 
signed for  measuring  the 
mechanical  effect  of  radi- 
It    consists 


-  -  -    crossed   arms  of 

anbatancea     (and     in     hlgb     degree     by   very  fine  glass,  supportpd         H«4i«h. 
radium)  of  giving  off  electrons  and  other    in  the  center  by  a  needle- 
eorpuadea  at.  high  velocity.    Thia  powar  point  having  at  the  extreme  end  thin  diaka 

of  pith,   black- 


ia  of  raoant  dis- 
covery, titonch 
*a  aarir  as  1869 
Bacquerel  dla- 
covered  that 
compounda  o  f 
oranium,  wham 
laft  in  tlie  nei|^ 
borhood  of  a 
p  h  o  t  o  g  rapbic 
Plata  in  a  dark 
room  affected 
the  plata.  Soma 

BhyMdata  b  e- 
ieve  that  it  ia 
poaaeaaed  by  all 
■Bbatancaa,  and 
raeent  azperi- 
menta  with  min- 
crala  and  even 
common  earth 
■  npp o r t  the 
thaury. 

Radiograph 

(•graf).  a  pic- 
tura  of  an  ob- 
ject or  objecta 
obtainad  1^ 
meana  of  tha 
Boentgen  raya 
Inataad  of  liiAt 
ray  a:  caUad 
•199    aUaipvph. 


S 

^  ^~ 

hk 

i 


Laaatfag  a  BaOat  ia  the  Read  by  tha  naa  of 
Badiegraphy, 


oned  on  one 
side.  Tbe  in- 
atrument ia 
placed  in  a 
glaHs  vessel  ez- 
naiiNted  of  air, 
and  wlien  ex- 
lMM«d  to  rays  of 
light  or  heat  tbe 
wheel  moves 
more  or  leaa 
rapidly  in  pro- 
portion to  tbe 
strength  or 
weakness  of  the 
rays. 

Radish  (™f 

I  s  D ; 
Raphinui  aaU- 
vut;  natural 
order,  C  r  u  c  i- 
fene),  a  well- 
kuown  cruci- 
ferous plant, 
unknown  in  a 
wild  state,  but 
cultivated  for  a 
number  of  cen- 
turiea  in  Eu- 
rope, and  for 
many  years  in 
America.  Tbe 
tender    lea^eg 


Idttmm 

an  oMd  H  •  HOad  !■  Mri^^fpriafi  tbt 
giMB  pod*  ut  uMd  H  •  inckM,  ud  tk* 
■noealMt  i  H>t»  ut  miiek  MttMMd. 
s-Jinni    (rA'di-an),    •>    tlwMiitoiy 
JiaqiTlin    chtmlwl    mbatuct    dtocwr- 
•rtd  to  Madame  Curit,  •  Poltoh       -rt- 
drt,  with  the  akl  of  lUr  hiulMUid,  I 
n*  propmrty  of  ndio-actlTity.  i 
of  th«  pruductiun  of  pbotomphic  •uncit 

Sccmlii  substancea  wlthoot  Um  aid 
Ufht  dlacovered  by  B«snierBl  in 
nraniiuB  ia  181W,  led  a  numbor  of  phyal- 
data  to  ezperimcnta  in  tbin  direction. 
In  tba  hope  of  findini  a  aubitance  in 
conbination  witb  urnnrum  to  which  thia 
property  waa  due  the  Curlea  began  a  ae- 
rice  M  chemical  reductlooa  of  pitch- 
blende, a  mineral  cooUinlnt  uranium,  and 
found  the  radlo-aetlTity  to  increaae  aa 
thia  anbatance  wan  reduced,  until  Anally  a 
minute  quantity  of  a  conatituent  of  piteU- 
Uende  waa  obtained  which  prored  im- 
roenaely  more  radlo-actiro  than  uranium. 
Thia  material  waa  thought  to  be  •  n«w 
element  It  waa  nt^ftrat  obt^ed  only  in 
comUnation  with  barium,  but  in  1910 
Madame  ('urie  succeeded  In  decompoung 
this  compound  and  isolating  radium,  thua 
demonatratina   its  elementary   character. 

Thia  rrmarKHblc  element,  originally  ob- 
tained from  the  pitch-blende  of  Central 
Europe,  is  pow  found  in  the  United 
Statea  in  grcnter  quantity  than  else- 
where, being  obtained  from  the  mineral 
camotite  of  UUh  and  Colorado.  The 
orea  of  Parpdise  Valley,  Colorado,  are  the 
richest  radium  producers  In  the  worid, 
but  thoae  of  Oreen  River  Valley,  Utah, 
are  principally  worked  on  account  of 
cheaper  transporUtioa  facllitiea. 

Thia  element  baa  a  hieh  atomic  weight 
(225   according   to  Curie,  267.8  ***2'*' 


iaa  to  HerUyV,  tlila  being  a  character- 
istic of  all  known  radio-active  bodiea. 
The  study  of  radium  proved  it  to  be 
posaeaaed  of  extraordinary  powers  pre^ 
vioualy  unknown  in  any  substance,  and 
giving  physicista  new  ideas  aa  to  the 
conatitution  of  matter.  Chief  among 
these  powera  was  that  of  emitting  rays  ot 
tijree  different  kinds,  which  were  thrown 
off  at  immense  speed.  One  of  tbeae, 
which  apparently  conrista  of  electrona 
(which  see),  is  given  off  at  a  speed  ap- 
proaching that  of  light  A  aecond, 
which  appears  to  conaist  of  helium,  * 
aubsUnce  heavier  than  hydiwn,  ia 
thrown  off  at  a  speed  of  20.000  miles 
per  second.  The  third  kind  is  ap- 
parently a  radiation,  perhaps  equivalent 
to  the  Rnftntiren  rav.  Another  strange 
property  of  radium  is  'ts  abilltar  Jo  maln- 
tainitaelf  at  a  temperh     ^  a  little  higher 


IM 

BuOdenlto  raiae  100  graouMa  of  waAtr 
1*  Q.    TUe  beat  production  may  ba  tka 
raault  of  energetic  dumgea  fotag  oa  » 
the  atoo.  ud  clying  riae  to  ito  radluit 
actios.    In  addition  radium — with  tlmr* 
ium  and  aranlum— fivea  off  emanattoM 
whli^  have  peculiar  qualitlea.    Thaaa  nra 
yielded  in  the  form  of  gaa,  but  «••  be 
solidiied  at  low  temperatures,  and  m 
then  themaelves  temporarily  radio-active. 
The  radium  emanation  appeara  to  cbang* 
gradually  into  helium,  and  the  apparent 
emtaaion  of  helium  aa  a  ray  would  is* 
dicato  that   It   hi  a   product  of  atomle 
rhangea   within    the   maaa.     The   whole 
quantity     f   radium   ao   far   iaolated   ia 
very  minute,  and  the  coet  of  operation 
keepa  it  at  a  very  high  price,  yet  it  p«e- 
aesaea  powers  of  action  on  organle  aub> 
stance  which  may  possibly  prove  of  great 
medical    value    when    fully    underatood. 
When  heedlessly  kept  near  the  skin  Ita 
raya  produce    severe    bums,    which    nre 
diflcult  to  heal,  and  it  is  thought  that  it 
may  prove  useful  in  treating  cancer  and 
other   external   affectiona.     Bxperimeat, 
however,  baa  not  yet  gone  far  enough  to 
demonstrate  ita  powers  aa  a  therapentie 
aeent  ,     . 

Vadix  (rU'diks;  L.,  a  root),  in 
*******  mathematica,  any  number 
which  is  arbitrarily  nude  the  funda- 
mental number  or  base  of  any  system  of 
numbers.  Thus  10  is  the  radix  of  the 
decimal  syHtem  of  numeration;  alao  ia 
Itriggs'  or  the  common  system  of  loga- 
rithms,  the  radix  is  10 ;  in  Napier'a  it  ia 
2.7182818284.  See  LognHthmt. 
HjiflTinr  (rad'nur),  or  B\D!fOMHn>, 
""**"'*'^  an  inland  county  in  South 
Walea;  area,  471  aquare  milea.  Pop. 
(1011)  22.588.  The  chief  towna  are 
Presteign,  New  Radnor  and  Knighton, 
all  small  placea. 


DailAin  (r&'dom),  a  town  in  lloaaiaa 
Jfcaaoin  toian^,  on  the  Radomka.  cap- 
ital  of  the  government  of  the  same  name. 
It  haa  manufactures  of  oil,  vinegar,  and 
leather.  Pop.  28.749.— The  government 
haa  an  area  of  4768  square  miles ;  forma 
the  most  elevated  portion  of  the  Polish 
plain;  ia  much  wooded:  agriculture  and 
cattie-ralsing  are  the  chief  occupationa  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  iron  induatry  ia 
important  Pop.  820,363. 
Pa*  (rt).  John,  an  Arctic  traveler 
■■**'  bom  in  the  Orkneys,  studied  medi- 
cine at  Edinburgh,  became  8ur|m>n  to 
the  Hudaon  Bay  Company's  service  la 
1838.  and  made  several  exploring  «pe- 
ditions  through  the  Northwest  "w  to 
the  Arctic  coaata.     He  accompanied  Sir 


5m '"ttat'^ol  "sufiroui wing"  matter,    a   John  Rlchardaon  in  hie  PranUto  aearch 
SSun?5f  it  givSSTottt  Inaa  hour  Wt    (1848)   In  tha  Mackenila  ud  Qoppw 


f 


I 


latlrani 


aioe  rtfkm;  condacted  an  expedition  in 
IflBO,  ud  acain  in  1858-54,  when  his 
party  diacovered  tlie  firat  tracea  of 
Franklla'a  fate,  for  wiiiclt  he  received 
tba  goTemment  grant  of  £10,000.  He 
pnbliahed  BmpediHon  to  the  Skorta  of 
the  Arctic  Sea  in  1840-47  (1850). 
Died  in  1803. 

Sftftblim  (ra'bum),  Sn  Henbt,  an 
«•»«  u  lu  u  eminent  portrait  -  painter, 
twm  at  BdinburKh  in  1750.     Bound  ap- 

?rentice  to  a  solasmith,  he  was  no  sooner 
ree  tlian  he  devoted  liiinself  to  potrait 
painting,  and  with  the  view  of  improv- 
ing in  his  art  repaired  to  London,  after- 
wards spending  two  years  in  Italy. 
Retaming  in  1787,  he  established  himself 
in  sdinbnnh,  and  soon  rose  to  the  head 
of  hia  profession  in  Scotland.  His  por- 
traita  are  distinguished  by  grasp  of  char- 
acter, breadth  of  treatment,  and  excellent 
color.  He  was  knighted  by  George  IV 
in  1822,  and  died  the  following  year. 
P.a#  (raf),  Joachim,  musical  composer, 
bom  in  Switzerland,  of  German 
parents,  in  1822;  died  in  1882.  He  was 
eBcoura([ed  by  Mendelssohn  and  Liszt, 
and  having  gone  in  1850  to  live  at  Wei- 
mar, in  order  to  be  near  Liszt,  bis  opera, 
KSniff  Alfred,  was  first  performed  there 
at  the  Ck>urt  Theater.  Hia  Dame  Ko- 
toM,  a  comic  opera,  was  produced  in 
1870,  but  hia  reputation  rests  chiefly  on 
his  symphonies  (Im  Wald,  Lenore,  etc.). 
He  wrote  also  much  chamber  music  o£ 
undoubted  excellence.  In  1877  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Conservatoire 
at  Frankfort,  where  he  died.  He  was  a 
sincere  supporter  of  the  Wagner  school  in 
muaia 
Eaffaello.    see  «op»oe». 

^jl^g^   See  Raphia. 

HtLJUfl  (<^''')>  '^  8a°>^  o'  chance,  in 
which  several  persons  each  de- 
posit part  of  the  value  of  a  thing  for  the 
chance  of  gaining  the  whole  of  it. 
BAflleS  (rarfelz).  Sir  Tbouab  Stau- 
TOMD,  an  English  naturalist, 
bom  in  1781.  died  in  1K2&  He  entered 
the  East  India  Company's  civil  service, 
and  in  1811,  on  the  reduction  of  Java  by 
the  British,  he  was  made  lieutenant-gov- 
emor  of  tht  island.  In  this  post  he  con- 
tinued till  1816,  when  he  returned  to 
England  with  an  extensive  collection  of 
the  productiona,  etc.,  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  The  vear  following  ap- 
peared his  Hittom  of  Java.  Having  been 
appointed  to  the  iieutenant-goveraorship 
of  Bencoolen,  Sumatra,  he  went  out  in 
1818  to  fill  this  post ;  founded  the  settle- 
omt  of  Singapore,  and  returned  to  Bu* 


Baften 


Baffletia  ^"^ :.!*'■,'■*  V  ■  lenua  ©f 

"  paraaitical  plants,  order 
Rafflesiacea,  of  which  the  chief  apeciea  is 
R.  AmoUi.  Thia  gigantic  flower,  one  of 
the  marvela  of  the  vegetable  world,  was 
discovered  in  the  interior  of  Sumatra  by 
Sir  Thomaa  Raflles  and  Dr.  Amold.  The 
whole  plant  seems  to  consist  of  little  else 
beyond  the  flower  and  root  The  peri- 
anth or  flower  forms  a  huge  cup  reach- 


Baffletia  Amoldi. 

ing  a  width  of  3  feet  or  more ;  it  weighs 
from  12  to  15  lbs.,  and  some  of  its  parts 
are  ]  inch  in  thickness.  It  is  fleshy  in 
character  and  appearance,  remains  ex- 
panded for  a  few  days,  and  then  begins 
to  putrefy,  liaving  quite  the  smell  of 
carrion,  and  thus  attracting  numerous 
insects. 

Mc»ui«.Ma,wfK;,  yj.jjj  ^j^pj.  ^j  parasiti- 
cal plants  or  rhizogens.  the  species  of 
which  are  found  in  the  East  Indies,  Java, 
Sumata,  etc.,  and  in  South  America. 
The  genus  Raffletia  is  the  type.  See 
Rafflesia. 

Bafinesqne  («'-Jn-«k').  constan- 

^^  "^"^  TixE  Samuel,  botanist, 
bom  in  Galatz,  Turkey,  in  1784.  He 
settled  in  the  United  States  in  1815,  and 
was  made  Professor  of  Botany  in 
Transylvania  University,  Lexington,  Ky., 
in  1818.  Later,  after  lecturing  in  vari- 
ous places,  he  removed  to  Philadelphia. 
His  publications  include  Ancient  Hxttory, 
or  Annalt  of  Kentucky,  Medical  Flora 
of  the  United  Statet,  etc.  He  died  Sept 
18,  1842. 

Vgff  a  sort  of  float  formed  by  a  body 
""^  ">  of  planks  or  pieces  of  timber  fas- 
tened together  side  by  side  so  as  to  be 
conveyed  down  rivers,  across  harbors, 
etc.;  also  any  rough  floating  structure, 
such  as  those  often  formed  in  cases  of 
shipwreck  of  barrels,  planks,  etc. 

Baften  ^™^*f?^  are  pieces  of  tlm- 
■"*"•**"  her  which,  resting  by  pain  on 
the  side  walla  of  a  buildinf,  meet  in  an 


Xagatz 


angle  at  the   top.  and   form   the  main 
wpport  of  th*  roof.  ^^  ^^ 

BJirate    fand?  cantoo  °'  ^t-  Gall.  •Itu- 
ated  at  the  junction  of  the  Tamina  with 
X.  Rhlir  1700  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
SnnSS 'by   railway  with   Zttrich  "d 
Coire     It  is  much  resorted  to  both  for 
ftS    beautiful    scenery    and    it.    mmeral 
watpra.     Pines    are    laid    from    fliliie™, 
In  thTmountain  side,  by  which  the  water 
is  broufht  down   from   the  hot  "Prings 
there  to  a  spacious  bathing  e«t«»WisWnt 
without     losing     its    hiKh    temperature 
The  permanent  population  Is  only  about 
5000    but    there    is   a   large   number   oi 
Srs.  for  the  accommodation  of  whom 
uSe  hotels,  restaurants,  etf-;  have  been 
provided.    There  is  also  a  bath.ng  esta»>- 
?l8hment    near    the    8P"°f  • .  "«^„^    *.° 
1704.    The  temperature  of  the  water  is 
97M00".    and    it    is    impregnated    with 
carbonate   of    lime.   maRnesia.  ?°d  Jf'*/ 

The  village  of  Pf ».« t?  n  %««"f 5 

^  Ragat.  at  a  heig^t^of  ^e96^£eet.^^^^^ 

BAgCC  ^[a,*  (ineuslne  corocdno).. very 
prolific,  b'ut  probably  tbe  'east  Putritious 
bf  all  grains.  In  the  form  of  cake  or 
norrid«e  it  is  the  staple  fo<^  of  the 
Sr  classes  in  Mysore  and  on  the 
Jjei, berries  institutions    snp- 

Bagged  ScnOOlS,  ^^ted  in  Britain 
by   voluntas   contributrons.  ;^hich   pro- 

SSe^ifts   differ   from   cerufi^   In; 

We'riSlon  S  v^a^^  cWM^n  i^ 
thLL  aK  of  slight  offenses:  but  the 
irinfflloS.  are  frequently  combined 
TT»  Idea  of  forming  such  achoota  waa 
in«  to  a  Portsmouth  cobbler,  John 
feunfi  who  about  1819  h««",  *«  ^fe 
ta  the  ragged  children  of  the  dlatr  ct  ta 
which  he  lived  and  teach  them  wh|  *  Jf* 
was  at  work.  The  name  of  Dr.  Guthri^ 
Tf  Edinburgh,  is  prominent  among  thoiw 
Shod*  eloped  thi.  «:heme  of  resc»e. 

Eaghuvansa  fi^iVofonl^Al'mS? 

celebrated  Sanskrit  poeras.  !*•  ■"JJ^J 
iT  the  legendary  history  of  the  solftt 
kinaa.  or  kings  dew^nded  from  the  aun. 
»/!!l-«    (rag'lan),     Fitzmt     Jamw 

kor&  iB  1788,  youngest  •««  °f  ?*?^,' 
Mth  duk*  of  fe«anfort.  «nt*rjdth.  army 
£  IBM:  waa  attached  In  1807  to  tba 
Hoi  Sir  ArthM  Paget'.  embM^r  to  T^i^ 
kev  •  ud  the  aame  year  swrvdl  on  Sir 
Arthi^Wdtodayt  ati«  In  tk»  «p«Utlo« 


Bagi 

to  GoDcnhagen.    He   acted  m^»»S*^2 
2crSi^Well«.ley  during  t^  P-^- 


Mcretary  to  weuesicj  uunu*  ^-w  ^t-j- 
SuJar  war,  In  which  he  greatly  dtotli*' 
SShed  hi'mself  at  the  capture  ofWj4«. 
At  Waterloo  he  loat  his  right  arm.    From 
1816  Sl8W  he  acted  ji.  aecrBt^fgg  th. 
embassy   at    Paria;   and   f'?",^"*^-^ 
18M  as  military  aecretary  to  the  DuM 
of   wluiMton^    In   1852  he  was  made 
m«atpr-aeneral  of  the  ordnance,  and  waa , 
SSSteltoThe  House  of  Peer.  "  Ba~>»^ 
Raalan     On    the    breaking    out    of    the) 
?r?m«n   w«   he^  received   the  JippohJ. 
ment  of  commander  of   the  forces,  ana 
Srolay^  much  personal  bravery  a.  well 
Jran'Mble  and  concUUtory  temper; 
but  he  had  no  great  fitnese  for  tne  po« 
t  inn   in   which  he  was  placed,  and  tne 
renulw  of    he  allies  in  their  atuck  on 
Ih?Kdan.  allied  with  other  causea.ar 
iravfted  the  mild  form  of  cholera  ttom 
which  he  was  suffering,  and  he  expired 

June  28,  ^^^{ia'o^in),  Zekaidb  Ai*X- 
BagOZin  iSv»«*!i;  a'RSlan  authj^ 
•M  who  became  a  cItiMn  of  the  Un»t«d 
sStOT    in    1874     She    wrote    Biegfrttd, 


HtatMi     in     loT*      one    wrow    "X^'      f/ 
•?•  Srir  "I  *i-  A  .,nin.Ramon:  and  aev- 


fA«  Hero  of  tn«  rteii»w-iB»»»«,   *"^-'"-i' 

eral  work,  for  the  Btonta  of  the  Hationt 

series. 


S^*"'*^  -D^n      the  name  of  the  col-  ^ 

Bagman  JtOU,  j^ctlon  of  thoee  In- 
struments by  which  the  noblUty  a^ 
gentry  of  Scotland  were  constrained  to 
fibscribe  allegUnce  to  Edward  lof  Bag- 
land  In  129tJ,  and  which  we"""^,.?*!; 
ticularly  recorded  In  f«"  .J'R  ~L'^ 

lU^arok  <S^rt;tho/iy.«7SS 

ally  twUIght  of  the  goda,  or  doof» '»'*?; 
mda.  the  day  of  doom  when  the  prcaent 

Wd  V  2e%nn'ti'M/ii.t  "^" 
Btmcted  on  an  Imperiahable  baala. 
T»-«!«.4.    (ra-gtt*;      French,      wgoftt.) 
BagOUt   i;^?or  fi.h  atewed  wlth^vef 
•tables,  and  highly  aeaaoned  to  exdU  ft 

KfL'^'thoih  Taloele-  for  moat  par- 

*ag»»    i^  are  yet  of  great  Impor- 

tance  In  theart^  particularly  In  P*P«^ 

makbig.     (Sea  Paper.)  „  B«"J«'«S.i*'*JSC 

SJle^  In  the  United  Stat",  the  aijida 

ia    imported    in    large    qnantUiea    wwb 

Tariooa  fweign  countriea.    Woolen  ran, 

Mt  WngVJSiable  for  PaP«'.  •«?  TSS 

n>>d  fiM^manare;  but  thoee  of  ft  woaa 

SStftnTaSuSt  too  m^ttch  wore,  are  nj^ 

r^M   bj    meana    of    auwAlnery.    an* 

bSi  np  wlS>>od  wool,  to  fom  what 

w«^  ^oda  ftte  made;  while  the  rewia 


SAgifone 

to  PulveriMd  and  dyed  various  colors,  to 

S!^kJ    «*2*^    "•***    ^f   paper-sUiners 
for  toeir  flock-papers. 

BantOne   ^^u'stdD),  a  stone  of  tho 
7^.  •iliceous    kind,     so-named 

..?  '*?.  ■'®"«'"  fracture.  It  effervesces 
with  adds,  and  gives  fire  witn  steel.  It 
U  used  for  a  wlieUtone  without  oil  or 
ywter  for  sharpening  coarse  cutting  tools. 
U  is  abundant  in  parts  of  England,  as 
Kent  and  Newcastle.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  certain  limestones  which  con- 
tain many  fragments  of  shells  resembling 
rags. 

Baensa  i '*■?'''«*  >'^*  ^pott  of 

I  «    I      ,     .  Austria,   in   Dalmatia,   on   a 

peninsula  in  the  Adriatic,  is  surrounded 
by  old  walls  flanked  with  towers,  and  has 
several  forts.  The  streets  rise  terrace- 
wise,  and  none  of  the  edifices  are  re- 
markable. The  trade  is  now  insignificant 
compared  with  former  times.  Ragusa  is 
rappost^     to     have     been     founded     by 

Sflf  J'i°  ?•*'•  P^-  ^"'""W  successively 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  and 
the   Greek   emperors.    It    finally   asserted 

inl  «:  }^Z°'^  J'V'°»  *o  P"y  tribute  to 
tS  ifli/i»*S  °l  **■  powerful  neighbors. 

Mon  of  Austria.    Pop.  18,174. 

"  ^«a,  t  if"™  °/  ^^^-  29  miles 
'  W.8.W.  of  Syracuse^  on  the 
bank  of  th«  fIva*  ^r  «».  ^.».    .i: 


Bdl 


Bagn'i 


name,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sal,  48  milM 

S.-  ait^"^^""^;  ^•••^  *■  •  bridge  over 
the  8ai,  wveral  interesting  ancient  struc- 
tures, and  the  usual  government  bolld- 
te-  ^?E-  *«>out  aO,C©0.— The  dtotrict 
forms  the  soutbemmoat  divtoion  of 
Oudh,  has  an  area  of  4881  aquare  miles, 
and  a  population  of  abont  8^,000. 
jtaibolini  (n-bo-lCnO,  FBAifocsco 
..  ,P'  Mabco  di  Oiacouo. 
usually   called    Fbawcesco    FiuKCL»^r  a 

i?«?°«II^'I;!Im"  K'"**''  fOK^ver,  medal- 
list, and  goldsmith,  was  bom  at  Bologna 
5}!2'J  *i»5„ "»idd'e  of  the  16th  century; 
died  in  1633.  He  excelled  particntarly  li 
^«;P  ??*'**°**  executed  a  number  of 
rS?iif""'t  frescoes  in  the  church  of  St. 
t^llia  at  Bologna,  but  bis  most  famous 
work  is  an  altar-piece  exhibiting  the 
A^odonna,  «.  Beiattian,  eta,  in  the 
church    of    St.    Giacomo    Mawiore    in 

»-*''f  ^'■,'*["*'  National  Gallery.  He 
RS?h!I?°.**l*''i***^  "■  *  port™**  !»«•»*•«•' 

s'ide«1le'3l£rif^    '"^    ■«"'*'^    «>° 

Biigarh    ^^'k**0'  •  o^tive  sutA 

,       "  _  of    India,    Central    Prov' 

taces;  area,  1486  squar^  mU*.;^p.  ig 


Baudae  it^-^h  *»>e  family  of 
/-v.*  .  ^  "J"*!*"  to  which  the  rays 
(akate,  ete.)  belong.     See  Bap.  ' 

BaikeS   («>»).    Robkbt,    an    Eng»7h 

„  ^  _  C-..J  1.  ^f&s,''  &ff.  v:^ 


1^52^  ¥^^  ®J^  *••*  river  of  its  name,  di- 
vided   into    Upper   and    Lower   Ragusa. 

itnSS"  ^^''*'*f  •'•^  manufactures  of  silk 
"i"K".  and  a  trade  in  com.  wine  oil 
etc.    Pop.  (1911)  30,850        '  '       ' 


-^i!?  o{  oom^g  pKVlheTnSs' 
«*iiecio,  found  in  Europe,  so-called  from 
ine    ragged    appearance   of    the    leaves. 

perennial    with    golden    yellow    flower^ 
SSrnSl  X  *?*   "''«   «'   'o«ds   aSd    ta 
S?  iiilm;  I'l  '"u"  *^"«  weed,   refused 
or  disliked  by  horses,  oxen,  and  sbeen 
but  eaten  by  liogs  and  goats.  ^^* 

Sanway   l,'»'wa).  a  city  of  union 

Rahwav  Hivpr  'lu^l^i  Je"ey.  on  the 
«Bnway  Kiver,  19  miles  s.  w.  of  New 
Yorlt.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of 
prtnUng  presses,  woolen  goods,  ^reals 
Cotton  waste,  automobilPs,  barreli.  hiMulfi; 
ware,  chemicals,  etc.    Pop  9y37^     ^"" 

Baiatea  iri-*-**''i)'.°''«  <»'  *•  so- 

.»  r»  1        1  **y    Islands    in    southeast- 

iSSo^w^^*^',''  "»."••  "^  «»■  »il«:  ??P. 
♦•     -1     u**  ^"'^  b^^JS  converted  to  Chrial 

iL'r^',^J*l  ^»1«'.'"''  "ni^lona^  and  iS 
gvemed  by  their  own  chiefs. 

Bai  Bareli  X!?. ba-rri«),  a  town  of 

tiM  k^4.     _   Oudh,  India,  administn- 
th%  hawlqnarten  of  dtotrict  of ^JTimS^ 


iS-      Tc    ,      ^  ojoicui  Qi   oonaay-scnoois 

5^ilSiS"f„°5  *°«*.*''"  *  °»»ber  if  street 
children  for  secular  and  religious  traln- 

Biikot  (rt-k6f ),  a  town  of  Hindn- 
mnnH-HK  •*«'».,  in, the  Punjab,  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  and  substantially  built, 
formerly  capital  of  a  native  state.^   pS 

Bldl  i^Xti  *!>•  common  name  of  the 
. ,  ,       KallidsB,  a  family  of  graltotorial 

rS«J?"^H?^°'""f  *^*  rails  proSt 
i,Sfc2.  Vi.*'**  "*°t^  water-hens,  Sd 
crakes.  They  are  characterized  bv  nos- 
sessinc  a  long  bill,  which  to^w  or^ 

S}i2™k"' J***.  "P  V"^  eompreaSed  at  SS 
sides,  by  having  the  nostrils  in  a  m«t- 

^'*'*'  i***,  **i'  "bort,  the  legs  and  Mm 
long  and  slender,  the  hlnd-tS^ph^^ 
a  revel  with  th«  others.  Mort^tte 
members  of  the  family  are  aquatic  or 
^ni^°'  "«"•>«• ; ,  but  some,'  M  th' 
*^!?*^  frequent  dry  situations  Th» 
principal  species  of  tfie  g«iu?  «Slii*  ar^ 

•boat  11  iochei  la  toogtb,  op«9  9^y^ 


Bailroad 


lailioftd 


brown  color,  marked  with  black  aboy^ 
and  of  a  bloiah-aih  color  beneath,  with 
white  tranaverae  markinn  on  the  beU7> 
modi  cateemed  for  the  table;  the  Virgin* 
ian  rail  of  America  (B.  virginianut) . 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  water  rail 
of  Europe,  but  a  favorite  game  bird; 
and  the  great-breaated  rail  or  fresh- 
water marsh-ben  {B.  elegant),  about  20 
inches  long,  which  inhabits  the  marshes 
of  the  Southern  States  of  America.  The 
land  rail,  so-named,  is  the  corn-crake 
ICrem  pratentit).    See  Com-crafce. 

Railroad,KaUway  ^fiSf 'SOT^ 

placing  on   the   ground,   on   a   specially 
prepared  track,  continuous  parallel  lines 
of   iron   or   steel    rails,   on    which   cars 
with   flanged  wheels  are  run  with  little 
friction  and  at  consequent  high  Telocities. 
These  are  usually  called  railroads  in  the 
United  States  and  railways  in  other  Eng- 
lish-speaking countries,   though   the  use 
of    the    word    railway    ia    growing    in 
the  former.    The  necessity  for  railways 
originated    in    the    requirements   of    the 
coal     traffic     of      Northumberlandahire, 
where  the  first  of  these,  formed  on  the 
plan  of  making  a  distinct  surface  and 
track  for  the  wheels,  were  constructed. 
In    1676,    near    Newcastle-on-Tyne,    the 
coals  were  conveyed  from  the  mines  to 
the  banks  of  the  river,  'by  laying  rails 
of  timber  exactly  straight  and  parallel; 
and  bulky  carts  were  made,  with  four 
rollers  fitting  those  rails,  whereby  the  car- 
riage was  made  so  easy  that  one  horse 
would  draw  4  or  6  chaldrons  of  coal.' 
Steam-power    was    firat    used    on    these 
tram-roads  early  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  inauguration  of  the  prownt 
great   railway  system  of  England  datea 
from  1821,  when  an  act  was  rassed  for 
the    construction    of    the    Stockton    and 
Darlington  Railway,  which   was  opened 
in  ISra.    The  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Ifaie  was  opened  in  1830  and  other  ihiea 
quickly   followed    until   1840,  when,  up- 
wards of  250  acts  for  the  construction 
of  railway  lines  were  passed,  the  specu- 
lating mania  culminating  in  a  disastrous 
panic.    The    United   States  quickly   fol- 
lowed Great  Britain  in  railway  construc- 
tion.   Indeed,    it    preceded    England    in 
steam   transportation,   as   Oliver  Evaua, 
of    Philadelphia,    constructed    a    steam- 
dredging  machine  in  1804  which  propelled 
itaelt  on  wheels  a  distance  of  U  miles 
through  the  atreets.    The  use  of  steam 
engines  on  railroad  tracks  in  the  United 
States  quickly  followed  their  introduction 
in  England,  the  firat  road  for  paaaenger 
traffic    being    the    Baltimore    and    Ohio, 
built   1828-^   an   American-built   loco- 
motive bting  oaad  od  it  in  1880.    From 


that  tima  forward  the  railroad  aratam 
was  rapidly  eztendad,  ontil  the  United 
States  reached  and  anrpasaed  all  other 
countries  in  this  means  of  travai  and 
freight  carriage.  Then  wa  no  develop- 
ment of  the  railway  system  Prance  till 
about  1842,  when  several  gr  ,  t  lines  wen 
establiahed:  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands 
followed,  but  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Rusaia  wera  aomewhat  oehind  the  Weat- 
em  European  nationa  in  their  railway 
development.  Within  recent  yean  the 
system  haa  developed  with  remarkable 
rapidity  and  is  being  introduced  «-ith 
considerable  activity  in  Afrtea  and  Aaia, 
where  an  extensive  railway  constructioq 
is  now  under  way. 

The  modem  railway  consists  of  one  or 
more  pain  of  parallel  lines  of  iron  or 
steel  ban,  called  raiU,  these  ban  Join- 
ing each  other  endwise,  and  theparallel 
lines  being  several  feet  apart.  The  enda 
of  the  rails  are  held  together  by  two 
strips  of  metal  known  as  /bk-platet 
which  are  bolted,  one  on  either  aide,  to 
the  ends  of  the  rails.  The  width  between 
rails  is  called  the  gauge.  What  ia  known 
as  the  national  or  standard  gauge  used 
in  the  United  States  and  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  and  formerly  called  the 
narrotp  gauge,  measures  4  feet  8i  inches 
between  the  •^ils;  the  broad  gauge  (now 

going  out  of  use)  being  7  feet.  It  is 
elieved  to  have  originally  represented 
the  width  suitable  for  the  coal  wagona 
of  the  north  of  England,  and  haa  been 
found  on  the  whole  very  satisfactory. 
In  Ireland  the  gauge  ia  5  feet  8  faichea, 
in  India  5  feet  6.  Narrower  gauges 
are  used  in  certain  special  lines  in  all 
countries.  A  pair  of  parallel  linea  of 
rails  constitutes  a  tingle  line  of  railway, 
two  pain  a  double  line,  and  so  on.  The 
rails  are  fastened  by  heavy  spikes  or 
bolts  to  wooden  or  iron  (sometimes  stone 
or  concrete)  supports  called  tleepert  or 
tie»,  placed  at  frequent  intervals  and  em- 
bedded in  the  material  of  the  roadway. 
A  railway,  in  general,  approaches  as 
nearly  to  a  straight  line  between  its  two 
extremes  as  the  nature  of  the  country 
and  the  necessities  of  the  intermediate 
traffic  will  permit.  It  is  carried  over  val- 
leys, either  by  tmbankmenU  or  viaducta, 
and  through  nills  or  elevated  ground  by 
deep  traces  tailed  eut$,  or  by  tun- 
nels. In  favorable  cases  the  surface  Una 
of  the  railway  is  so  adjusted  that  the 
materiala  excavated  from  the  cuttings 
will  Just  serve  to  form  the  embankmenta. 
Should  the  exvaval«U  materials  be  in  too 
small  quantity  to  form  the  embankment, 
recourse  ia  had  to  an  excavatioo  along 
the  aidea  of  the  site  of  the  Utter  to 
supply  the  dallciaBcy.    Tha  Una  of  rati- 


BailioAd 


lUllnmd 


wajr  c*n  MMom  run  for  any  diatanc«  on 
•  level,  and  ite  varioua  ilopes  are  termed 
grtiienU,  the  arrangement  of  the  riaes 
and  falls  being  termed  the  ffroding  of 
Che  line.  A  more  or  less  steep  ascent  is 
termed  an  incline.  When  the  line  is 
formed  its  surface  Is  covered  with  broken 
stones  or  clean  gravel  called  balUuting, 
and  in  this  the  sleepers  for  sustaining 
the  nils  are  embedded.  The  wooden 
skraers  are  laid  across  the  roadway  2 
or  3  feet  apart  from  center  to  center, 
and  to  them  the  rails  are  spiked.  When 
the  railway  inck  is  thus  completed  the 
work  is  called  the  permanent  toay,  and  it 
furnishes  the  route  over  which  railway 
cars  of  various  kinds  are  drawn  by  a  loco- 
motive engine,  a  number  of  these  vehicles 
forming  a  tratn. 

In  the  railway  of  a  single  line  of  rail 
it  is  necessary  to  make  provision  for 
permitting  meeting  engines  or  ctra  to 
pass  each  other  by  meuns  of  aidingt, 
which  are  short  additional  lines  of  rail 
laid  at  the  side  of  the  main  line,  and 
so  connertof?  with  it  at  each  extremity 
that  a  trbin  can  pass  into  the  siding  in 
place  uf  proceeding  along  the  main  line. 
In  double  lines,  in  addition  to  sidings, 
which  are  in  them  also  required  at  many 
places,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  for 
trains  or  cars  crossing  from  one  line  of 
rails  to  another.  This  change  in  the 
direction  of  the  carriage  is  effected  by 
*«itch«$.  Btoitchee  are  short  movable 
rails  close  to  the  main  rails  connected 
by  rods  to  suitable  handles,  che  extrem- 
ities of  these  short  rails  being  formed 
BO  as  to  guide  the  flanges  of  the  wheels 
of  a  car  from  one  line  of  rail  to  another. 
Switches  are  usuallv  coupled  or  inter- 
locked with  the  signals  or  signaling 
apparatus,  so  necessary  for  properly  car- 
rying on  the  traflic  —  coupled  when 
they  are  moved  simultaneously  with  the 
signals,  interlocked  when  the  necessary 
movement  of  the  swit^ches  is  completed 
before  the  signal  is  moved.  Signaling  is 
effected  by  means  of  semaphores  in  day- 
light and  l.ghts  of  three  colors,  white, 
green  or  blue,  and  red,  at  night.  The 
telMTaph  is  also  used  la  regulating  the 
tnfie.  (See  Block  System.)  The  vari- 
•M  places  along  the  line  of  railway, 
where  trains  stop  for  taking  up  or  de- 
positing freight  or  passengers  are  termed 
atattona  or  depdta,  with  the  prefix  of 
fretffht  or  paaaenger,  as  they  are  allotted 
to  the  one  or  the  other;  the  sta.ions  at 
the  extre-nities  of  a  railway  are  called 
terminala.  In  England  coaches  are  called 
cmrringta:  can  trueka,  freight  aooda, 
Mumge  lupgtga. 

1%«  mode  in  which  the  locomotive  acts 
la  awrinc  tha  trains  of  loaded  can  is 


that  by  its  weight  and  the  f ricHon  of  Its 
wheels  on  the  nib  a  tractive  force  is 
provided  sofllclent  to  enable  it  to  move 
at  a  high  rate  of  velocity,  and  to  drag 
great  loads  after  it    In  some  particular 
cases  a  fixed  engine  is  employed  to  give 
motion  to  a  rope  by  which  the  can  an 
drawn,  the  rope  being  either  an  endless 
rope  stretched  "ver  pulleys,  or  mie  which 
winds  and  unwinds  on  a  cylinder.    Such 
engines    are    termed    atationary   engines, 
and  are  used  chieflv  on  inclined  planes, 
where   the   ascent   u   too  steep   for  the 
locomotive    engine.     In    some    cases    the 
can  are  impelled  by  atmospheric  pressure 
or     by     electricity.     (See    Atmoaphario 
RaUvsay,   Electrio  Ratltoay.^     The  loco- 
motives, passenger  cars,  freight  cars,  etc., 
constitute  the  rolling  atock  of  a  railroad, 
jn  Britain  the  railway  can  are  usually 
from  20  to  80  feet  in  length,  and  an 
divided  into  compartments.    There  also, 
as    in    Europe    generally,    three    classes 
of  can  are  used,  to  meet  the  varied  de- 
mands  of   the   traveling  public.    Ameri- 
can can  are  from  40  to  60  feet  long 
with  a  center  passage,  the  doors  being 
at   the   ends  — with   the  seats   arranged 
transversely  on  each  side.    A  platform  at 
the  end  enables  a  person  to  go  from  end 
to  end  of  the  train.    There  is  generally 
in  the  United  States  only  one  class  of 
passengers,     though     on     long    journeys 
Fullman  and  other  sleeping-cara  are  used 
at    extra    fares.     (See    PMmon    Car.) 
Railways  for  the  local  servic*  af  large 
cities  run  usoailly  on  the  street  surface, 
but  a  aystem  of  overhead  railr^ays  exists 
in  some  cities,  as  in  New  Tork,  and  sub- 
ways or  underground  railways  are  rap- 
idly extending,  as  in  London.  Paris.  New 
York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago. 
Some  of  the  tunnels,  bridges,  and  via- 
ducts constructed  iu  connection  with  rail- 
ways are  among  the  engineering  triumphs 
of    the   age.    Of    the    former    the    most 
notable  are  the  Mt.  Cenis,  St.  Gothard, 
Arlberg,  Simplon,  and  Loetschberg  tunnels 
m  the  Alps;  the  Severn  Tnnnel  in  Eng- 
land,  the   Hoosac  Tunnel  in  Massachu- 
setts, the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Tunnel 
under   New   York   City  and   the   Trans- 
Andlne   Tunnel   between   Chile   and    Ar^ 

gentlna.  The  greateat  of  the  railway 
ridges  are  those  over  the  Forth  and  the 
Tav  in  Scotland;  the  Britannia  Tubular 
Bridae  over  the  Menai  Straits,  in  Wales : 
the  Victoria  TubuUr  Bridge,  Bfontreal; 
the  Eads  bridge  over  the  Mississippi 
at  St.  Louis,  and  the  recent  great  canti- 
lever bridge  at  Quebec.  See  Forth  Btiige, 
Toy  Bridga.  also  Bridga. 

In  Britain  the  railways  are  the  prop- 
erty of  Joint-stodc  companies,  who  cmi- 
Btroet  aac  work  c!:r"  under  the  powui 


ftftflroftd 


Bailroad  Batai 


I 


cnnted  by  act  of  parliament,  and  tb« 
MOW  to  the  cat*  in  tlie  United  Stataa. 
the   railroada   being   owned    by   private 
companies,  though  to  mme  extent  con> 
trolled   in  their  operation   by   Congreaa. 
In    Europe   generally    the    railwaya   are 
owned  and  operated  to  a  large  extent  by 
the    government,    this    system    existing 
everywhere  except  in  the  United  States 
and    Britain.    Railways    were    at    first 
local    undertakings,    bat    in    the    United 
States  and  Britain  they  have  now  come 
under  the  control  of  a  few  ^iant  com- 
panies.   Generally    the    American    rail- 
ways   have    hitherto    been    of    a    much 
less  solid  and  substantial  character  than 
those  of   Britain,   but  this  condition   Is 
rapidly  being  changed  in  the  great  trunk 
lines,  some  of  which  have  been  made  or 
very    substantial    structura.    The   trans- 
continental lines   of   the   United   States 
include     the     Northern     Pacific,     from 
Lake  Superior  to  the  Pacific  Coast;  the 
Union    Pacific,    from   San   Francisco   to 
the  Eastern  States:  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
ft  Santa-Fe,   the  Southern   Pacific,  and 
the  Great  Northern,  five  systems  in  all, 
these  ranging  from  6000  to  over  10,000 
miles  in  length  of  track  controlled.    The 
only  railway  which  competes  with  these 
great    lines    is    i'.e    Trans-Siberian,    of 
nearly  7000  miles'  length  of  mr'n  Une. 
In  Canada  the  most  important  line  in  the 
Dominion  is  the  Canadian  Pacific,  of  gov- 
ernment construction,   which,  conn»;ting 
with  the  Intercolonial  at  Montreal,  forms 
a   through  line  of  4200  miles  from   the 
West  coast  of  British  Columbia  to  Halt- 
lax  in   Mova  Scotia.     Other  railways  to 
the  Pacific  are  now  in  operation.     (See 
Canadian  PaciHn  RailwjavA 

In  all  countries  the  government  exer- 
trlses  the  right  of  granting  or  refusing 
permission  to  construct  and  operate  rail- 
roads. Abuses  of  the  United  States 
management  in  America  led  to  a  move- 
mentin  1871  which  secured  laws  adverse 
to  the  companies,  limiting  rates  and 
prohibiting  discrimination.  This  led  in 
1887  to  the  IntersUte  Commerce  Act, 
passed  to  rq^ilate  rates,  etc.,  and  re- 
cently to  an  act  prohibiting  rebates  in 
freight  charges.  Other  legislation  af- 
fecting railroad  management  has  been 
passed  by  Congress,  and  the  railroads 
are  coming  gradually  under  government 
control  in  the  details  of  their  operative 
methoda.  In  1910  Congress  created  a 
spaeial  court,  called  the  Court  of  Com- 
merce, having  juriM]icti<m  over  railroad 
Judicial  cases,  such  as  may  be  instituted 
by  the  Interstate  Commerca  Commisaion. 
The  purpose  o!  this  court  ia  to  axiiedite 
the  haarmg  of  caaea  ariaint  from  rail' 
IQ«4 ' 


Withlii  raesit  yaam  there. tea  _--_ 
great  prograaa  in  railroad  building,  taa 
ooBstractioo  of  loeoinotivej  am.  can,  aM 
the  adoption  of  safety  appliances  in  rail- 
road operation.  For  an  important  IB- 
stance  of  this  see  Block  8v$tem.  Than 
has  been  great  improvement  in  signal- 
ing, the  telephone  ia  beginning  to  anpat^ 
■ede  the  telegraph  in  train  handling,  and 
station  accommodation  has  greatly  Im- 
proved. Notable  instances  are  the  maih 
nificent  new  Pennsylvania  and__Graiid 
Central  Stations  in  New  York.  The  siae 
and  weight  of  locomotivea  have  cnw- 
monsly  Increaaed  over  those  of  wrly 
days,  some  of  the  passenger  locomotivea 
weighing  more  than  200,000  pounds.  !%• 
freight  locomotives  are  still  heavier,  the 
Mulct  compound  weighing  as  high  aa 
700,000  pounds.    The  same  may  be  saM 


weighing  over  IfSOfiW  pounda.  In  re- 
tard to  speed  the  same  may  be  aud,  taa 
original  20  miles  or  less  per  hour  having 
climbed  up  gradually  until  00  miles  per 
hour  for  considerable  distances  is  not  in- 
frequent, while  even  greater  speed  has 
been  attained.  The  fastest  time  on  rec- 
ord for  a  distance  of  over  440  milea  was 
made  by  the  Lake  Shore  and  MicUgan 
Southern  R.  R.  in  1905,  runninc  from 
Buflfalu  to  Chicago,  525  miles,  in  7  b.  QO 
m.,  an  average  of  69.69  miles  per  hour. 
For  shorter  runs  speeds  ranging  from  70 
to  84  miles  per  hour  have  been  made,  ttaa 


greatest  on  record  being  a  run  of  5  tnUea 
24  min.,  a  rate  of  UO  milea  per  hoar, 
the  Plant  System.    The  railroad  mile- 


rn2 

on  tuC   XIUUI.   UJOI.VUI.    _-H.C    .~...»_~  _... 

age  in  the  United  States  baa  gnvm 
enormously,  reaching  in  1916  the  great 
total  of  about  259,201  miles.  At  the  sama 
date  the  length  of  railway  in  the  whole 
world  was  about  640,000  miles,  so  that 
this  country  possesses  about  40  per  cent, 
of  the  totiu.  America  as  a  wnole  has 
about  300,000  mil  m,  Europe  200,000,  Asia 
60,000,  Africa  20,000  and  Australia 
20,000.  In  1918  the  railroads  of  the 
United  States  were  brought  under  govern- 
ment operation  and  control  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  war  and  for  twenty  months 
thereafter.  William  Gibbs  McAdoo  was 
appointed  director  general  of  railroads. 

Bailroad  Bates.    S>eM[S3id.^ 

the  United  States  have  been  accused  of 
unjustly  favoring  large  shippen  to  frM|^ 
charges,  and  efforts  to  restrain  tavsattea 
this  pnetiea  bv  legislation  kave  basn 
■ade.  Tba  giTtng  of  nasjaa  t»  favorad 
parsons  has  been  restrictad  by  law.  aad 
ahill  was  passed  In  1910  by  which  Aa 
fofremment  waa  glTeo  coatroi  over  tM 


e 


Baimondi 

rnilroad  freight  rates  ui#  all  diaerimlna- 
tions  U^twecr.  shinpcm  by  the  givinc  of 
r«-baie8  or  in  other  ways  strictly  for- 
biddea.  under  itenalty  of  fine  and  impris- 
onment. The  government  was  given  the 
right  to  control  and  adjust  rates,  and 
prescribe  just  and  reasonable  rates,  to 
investigate  abuses,  and  in  other  ways  to 
oversee  and  control  railroad  operations, 
nnd  a  court  of  commerce  was  Instituted 
with  the  power  of  dealing  with  all 
charges  of  unjust  dealing  by  'common 
carriers.'  As  the  matter  now  stands, 
the  independent  power  of  the  railroads 
Is  greatly  restricted,  and,  aside  from 
direct  ownership,  they  have  been  made 
in  some  degree  government  institutions. 

Baimondi  (rt-mon'de),  mabk  an- 

*.»uuvu«u   TONIC,    a   famous    Italian 
engraver;    bom   in    1488,  died   in   1534. 
lie  was  a   friend  of  Raphael,  who  em- 
ployed him  to  engrave  some  of  his  paint- 
ings, and  was  the  first  Italian  engraver 
to  attain  great  celebrity. 
BfliTt    (ran),  the  water  that  falls  from 
the  heavens.     Rain  depends  upon 
the  formation  and  dissolution  of  clouds. 
The  invisible  aqueous  vapor  suspended  in 
the  atmosphere,  which  forms  clouds,  and 
is  deposited  in  rain,  is  derived  from  the 
evaporation  of  water,  partly  from  land, 
but  chiefly  from  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
ocean.    At     a     given     temperature     the 
atmosphere  is  capable  of  containing  no 
more  than  a  certain  quantity  of  aqueous 
vapor,  and   when  this  quantity  is  pres- 
ent the  nir  is  said  to  be  saturated.    Air 
may  at  any  time  be  brought  to  a  state  of 
srturation  by  a  reduction  of  its  tempera- 
ture, and  if  cooled  below  a  certain  point 
the  whole  of  the  vapor  can  no  longer  be 
held    in    suspension,    but   a   part   of    it, 
condensed  from  the  gaseous  to  the  liquid 
state,  will  be  deposited  in  dew  or  float 
about    in    the    form    of   clouds.    If    the 
temperature    continues    to   decrease,    the 
vnicles    of   vapor   composing    the   cloud 
will    increase    m   number   and   begin    to 
descend  by  their  own  weight.    The  larg- 
est of  these  falling  fastest  will  unite  with 
the  smaller  ones  they  encounter  during 
their  descent,  and  thus  drops  of  rain  wiU 
be  formed  of  a  size  that  depends  on  the 
thickness,   density,  and  elevation  of  the 
tioud.    The  point  to  which  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  must  be  reduced  in  order 
to  couse  a  portion  of  its  vapor  to  form 
clouds  or  dew  is  called   the  dew-point 
riie  use  of  the  spectroscope  has  become 
to  some  extent  a  means  of  anticipating 
•  rail  of  ram.  since  when  light  that  has 
P«»''«a.  through  aqueous  vapor  is  decom- 
posed bv  tlie  speclrotxrope  a  dark  band  is 
•ijn  (the  ratn-bani).  which  is  the  more 
iJiteB«t  tbe  greater  tb«  MD9ust  pf  vapor 


Bainbow 

present    The  average  niinfall  in  a  year 
at  any  given  place  depends  on  a  great 
variety    of    circumstances,    as    latitude, 
proximity    to   the   sea,   elevation    of   the 
region,  configuration  of  the  country  and 
mountain    ranges,   exposure   to   the   pre- 
vailing   winds,    etc.     When    the    vapor- 
laden     atmosphere     is     drifted     towards 
mountain    ranges   it    is    forced    upwards 
by   the  latter,  and  is  consequently  con- 
densed,  partly   by   coming    into    contact 
with  the  cold  mountain  tops,  and  partly 
by  the  consequent  expansion  of  the  air 
due  to  the  greater  elevation.    The  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  vegetation  has  also 
considerable  influence  on  the  rainfall  of 
a    district.     Land    devoid    of    vegetation 
has  its  soil  intensely  heated  by  the  fierce 
rays  of  the  sun,  the  air  in  contact  with 
it  also  becomes  heated,   and   is  able  to 
hold  more  and  more  moisture,  so  that  the 
fail  of  rain  is  next  to  impossible.    On 
the  other   hand,    land   covered    with   an 
abundant  vegetation  has  its  soil  kept  cool, 
and    thus    assists    in    condensation.    Al- 
though more  rain  falls  within  the  tropics 
in  a  year,  yet  the  number  of  rainy  days 
is  less  than  in  temperate  climes.    Thus 
m  an  average  year  there  are  80  rainy 
days  m  the  tropics,  while  in  the  temperate 
xones  the  number  of  days  on  which  rain 
falls  is  about  l(iO.    At  tbe  equator  the 
average  yearly  rainfall  is  estimated  at  95 
inches.    At  a  few   isolated  stations  the 
fall    is    often    very    great.    At    Cherra- 
pungee,  in  the  Khasia   Hills  of  Assam. 
015  inches  fall  in  the  year,  and   there 
are  several  places  in  India  with  a  fall  of 
from  190  to  280  inches.     The  rainfall  at 
Paris   is   22  in.;    London   22.50.;    New 
lork,  43  in.;  Washinnrton,  41  in.;  San 
Francisco,  22  in.;  Sitka,  Alaska,  90  in.; 
Honduras,   153  in.;  Maranhao,  280  in.: 
Singapore.  97  in.;  Canton.  78  in.;  New 
South  Wales,  46  in. ;  South  Australia,  19 
in.;  Victona,  30  in.;  Tasmania,  20  in.; 
Cape  Colony,  24   in.    The  greatest  an- 
nual rainfall  hitherto  observed  seems  te 
be  on  the  Khasia  Hills. 
Bainbow    (rftn'bO),  a  bow,  or  an  are 
""^    «w  "    Qf  ^  ^.jppjg^  consisting  of  all 
the  prismatic  colors,  formed  by  the  re^ 
fraction  and  reflection  of  rays  of  light 
from  drops  of  rain  or  vapor,  appearmg 
in   the  part  of  the  heavens  opposite  to 
the  sun.     When  the  sun  is  at  the  horizon 
the  rainbow  b  a  semicircle.     When  per- 
fect the  rainbow  presents  the  appearance 
of  two  concentric  arches ;  the  inner  iwing 
called   the   primary,   and    the  outer   the 
secondary   rainbow.    Each   is  formed  of 
the  colors  of  the  solar  spectrum,  but  the 
colors  are  arranged  in  the  reversed  order^ 
the  red  forming  the  exterior  ring  of  the 
primary  bow,  and  the  iot«rior  «{  tbe 


Rain-gauge 

■ecoDdary.  The  primary  bow  is  formed 
by  the  eun's  rays  entering  the  upper  part 
of  the  falling  drops  of  rain,  and  und«: 
going  two  retractions  and  one  reflecuon, 
and  the  secondary,  by  the  suns  raya 
entering  the  under  part  of  the  drops,  ana 
undergoing  two  refractions  and  two  re- 
flections. Hence,  the  colors  of  the  sec- 
ondary bow  are  fainter  than  those  of  the 

ttr),  an  instrument  used  to  measure  the 
auantity  of  rain  which  falls  at  a  given 
place.  It  is  variously  constructed.  A 
Convenient  form  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
tube  of  copper,  with  a  funnel  "t  the  top 
e  the  rain  enters.    Connected  with 


BsiD-gauge. 


where  me  ruiu  cuvj.-.     ""t— -  _.„.- 

the  cylinder  at  the  lower  prt  w  a  ijass 
tube  with  an  attached  scale.    The  water 
which  enters   the   funnel   stands  at   tne 
same  height  in  the  cylin- 
der and  glass  tube,  and 
belnK  visible  in  the  latter 
the  height  is  read  imme- 
diately on  the  scale,  and 
the  cylinder  and  tube  be- 
ing  constructed    so    that 
the  sum  of  the  areas  of 
their  sections  is  a  given 
part,  for  instance  a  tenth 
of  tre  area  of  the  funnel 
at  its  orifice,   each   inch 
of  water  in  the  tube  is 
equivalent    to    the    tenth 
of  an  inch  of  water  en- 
tering the  mouth  of  the 
funnel.    A  stop-cock  is  added  for  drawing 
off  the  water.     A  simpler  form  of  gauge 
consists  of  a  funnel  having  at  the  mouth 
a  diameter  of  4.U97  inches,  or  an  area  of 
17.33    square    inches.    Now    as    a    fluid 
ounce  contains  1.733  cubic  inches,  it  fol- 
lows that  for  every  fluid  ounce  collected 
by  this  gauge  the  tenth  of  an  inch  of 
rain     has     fallen.    Recently-constructed 
automatic     gauges     give     a     continuous 
record  of  rainfall,  indicate  the  duration 
of  each  shower,  the  amount  of  rain  that 
has  fallen,  and  the  rate  at  which  it  fell. 
H a i n i <kr     (ra-nSr' ) ,  Mount,  or  Mount 
AHiuicx      Tacoma.  a  mountain  of  the 
Cascade  Range,  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  State  of  VVashiugton,  40  miles  from 
Tacoma.    It  is  one  of  the  highest  peaks  of 
the  United  States,  being  14,303  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.     Sulphurous  fumes 
issue  from  its  crater,  but  it  is  regarded  as 
an  extinct  volcano.     Well  wooded  below, 
there  are  14  glaciers  on  the  higher  slojies. 
Hain  V  T  alrfk    or  RfiNti  Lakc,  a  body 
Aainy  XiaKC    ^^  ^.^ter  forming   part 
of  the  boundary  between  Minnesota  and 
Canada.    It  is  about  60  miles  long,  and 
U  irreKolar  br«adth:  ree^ve*  the  waters 

88— U-« 


Bajdi 

of  numerous  small  l«k«a  from  the  «Mt 
and  northeast,  and  emptiaa  itself  by 
Rainy  River,  about  00  miles  long,  int* 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  .   ,   .. 

Painnr    (rt-pfif),  a  town  of  India, 
'"**P*'^    headquarters    of    district    ol 
sams  nam«  in  the  Cbbattiagarh  division. 
Central    Provinces.    It   has   an   andsot 
fort,  the  usual  government  bnildings,  Im* 
porunt  schools,  and  does  a  large  trada 
In    grain,    lac,    cotton,    etc.    Numerpna 
water-tanks   are    in    the   vicinity.    Pog. 
32,114. —  The  district  includes  within  ito 
limits  four  Brunll   feudatory  states  with 
a  total  area  of  14,663  square  miles. 
Pais    or  Rrrz  (rft  or  rfts),  OiUM  W 
•■»'**■»  Laval,    SEiawium    iw.    Fr«idi 
marshal,  bom  in  1396,  died  in  1440.    He 
distinguished   himself  in   the  wars  wItt 
the  English,  and  acqnired  a  disgiaotfai 
celebrity    for   outraging   and   murderlM 
140  or  160  children,  and  for  other  atroa- 
ties.    He   was   hung  and  burnt  for  hia 
crimes.     Bee  Bluebeard. 

Baiscd  Beaches,  ^f  •••*•*• 

**^**"'    various  species  of  vines,  con^ 
paratively  rich  in  sugar.    They  are  dried 
by  natiual  or  artificial  heat  .The  nat- 
ural and   best   method   of  drying  is  by 
cutting    the    stalks    bearing    the    finest 
grapes  half  through  when  ripe,  and  allow- 
hig  tiiem  to  shrmk  and  drv  on  the  Tua 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun.    Another  mctii- 
od  consists  of  plucking  the  grapes  frmn 
the    stalks,    drying    them,    and    dippins 
them  in  a  boiling  lye  of  wood-ashes  and 
quicklime,  after  which  1'ify  are  expoMd 
to  the  sun  upon  hardies  of  basket-wonb 
Those  dried  by  the  first  method  are  called 
raisins  of  the  sun  or  snn-raisins,  rnoa* 
catels,  or  Wooms;  those  by  the  second, 
lcxin$.    The  inferior  sorts  of  grapes  art 
dried  in  ovens.     Raisins  are  produced  in 
large  quantities  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
I'^gypt,     Asia     Minor,     California,     etc 
Those    known    as    Malagas,    Alicantes, 
Valencias,    and    Denies    are   well-known 
Spanish  qualities.    A  kind  without  se«d^ 
from   Turkey,  are  called  tultanat.    TOB 
Corinthian  raisin,  or  currant,  is  obtamca 
from  a  small  variety  of  grape  peculiar 
to  the  Greek  islands.    The  uses  of  ratoins 
as  a  dessert  and  culinary  fruit,  and  ia 
the  manufacture  of  wine,  are  well  Imown. 
Hainli    or   RAjI    (rt'tt),    in    India. 
**^'"^i  originally    a    title   which   be- 
longed to  those  princes  of  Hindn  race 
who.  either  as  independent  ml«8  or  as 
feudatories,  jgovemed  a  territory;  sabse- 
quently,  a  title  giv«i  by  the  native  gar- 
ernments,  and  In  later  times  b/  the  Brit- 
ish government,  to  Hindus  of  rank.    It 
is  a«w  not  onfreqaently  asstuBed  by  tit 


BAjipnr 


B|]0 


MBiindara  or  landholden,  the  title  MahA' 
rif»h   (great   rajah)    being   in  our  daya 
generallv   reserved   to   the   more  or  lew 
powerful  native  princes. 
SAiinnr'     (ra'jU-piir),   two   towna   fai 

bar  Presidency,  at  the  head  of  a  creeli  15 
miM  from  the  sea.  Pop.  744a  (2)  In 
the  N.  W.  Provinces,  on  the  Jumna. 
Pop.  7329. 

Sllmahil  (rftJ-m&-hAl').  a  town  in 
M«jiuMM«  Hindustan,  province  of 
Bengal,  on  the  Ganges,  US  miles  w.  N.  w. 
of  Manhidal)ad,  formerly  an  important 
place,  now  little  more  than  a  collection 
of  mnd-bato. 

EAjmahendri  {j^Vt'^'fffitan'; 

capital  of  the  Oodavari  district,  Madras 
Presidency,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Oodavari,  just  above  its  subdivision  into 
two  arms,  40  miles  from  the  sea.  Pop. 
about  30,000. 

B.41mnla  (raj-p«'plu),  a  native  state 
«M>j^«y«a>  Qf  India,  in  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, watered  by  the  Nerbndda.  Area, 
1514  sq.  miles;  capital  Nnndod. 
BiJDntana  ^  raj-po-til'nu  ).  a  large 
•mmwtjjm»w»*^m  pjovlnce  of  India,  under 
the  suserainty  of  Britain  since  1817,  in 
the  west  part  of  Hindustan  proper,  ex- 
tending from  the  Jumna  and  Chumbul 
Riven  west  to  Sind  and  Bhawalpur, 
and  comprising  the  greater  part  of  the 
Indian  Desert.  It  includes  the  British 
district  of  Ajmere-Merwara  and  twenty 
autonomous  states,  each  under  a  separate 
chief;  has  a  total  area  of  127.540  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  9,730,000.  RAjpu- 
tana  is  intersected  by  the  Aravali  Moun- 
tains, to  the  north  of  which  the  country 
is  desert,  and  part  of  it  wholly  destitute 
of  inhabitants,  water,  and  vegetation. 
The  soil  is  remarkably  saline,  containing 
many  salt  springs  anJ  salt  lakes,  and 
much  of  the  well-water  is  brackish.  To 
the  south  of  the  range  the  country  is 
more  fertile,  being  waterefl  by  the  drain- 
age of  the  Viudhya  Mountains.  The 
dominant  race,  though  not  the  most 
numerous,  is  the  Kiijput,  numbering 
about  700,000.  They  are  the  aristocracy 
of  the  csuntry;  and  to  a  large  extent 
they  hold  the  land  cither  as  receivers  of 
rent  or  as  cultivators.  They  are  essen- 
tial'' a  military  people,  and  many  of 
their  institutions  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  feudal  customs  which  pre- 
vailed in  Europe  in  the  middle  ages. 
They  have  likewise  been  celebrated  for 
their  chivalrous  spirit,  so  unlike  the  ef- 
fmainacy  and  duplicity  of  many  of  the 
•rieotal  nations.  The  province,  which  Is 
trnverasd  by  two  railway  lines,  is  admin- 
vtvno  bjr  «  ^0T«iii9r-f tMtnU's  aceot. 


Bdjputl     <'>J'P<(ti).    Sm  Biipufna. 

BiJthihi  (njthi'he),  «  division  or 

— .^— TT---    commissionersbip    of    B«n- 

fal,  extending  from  the  Oanns  to  Sik- 
im  and  Bhutan.  Area,  17,^93  squan 
miles:  pop.  9,130,072. —  Capital,  lUmpur 
Beauleah. 

Hake  (^^^^*  <">  implement  which  In 
"  ^  its  simplest  form  consists  merely 
of  a  wooden  or  iron  bar  furnished  with 
wooden  or  iron  teeth,  and  firmly  fixed 
at   right  angles   to   a   long   handle.    In 


^    _ 


^^^m 


Horse-rake. 

farming  it  is  used  for  collecting  kay, 
straw,  or  the  like,  after  mowing  or  reap- 
hig;  and  in  gardening  it  is  used  for 
smoothing  the  soil,  covering  the  seed,  etc. 
Large  raxes  for  farm  work  are  adapted 
for  being  drawn  by  horses ;  and  there 
are  many  modifications  both  of  the  hand- 
rake  and  the  horse-rake. 
Kakoczv  (ri-kd'tsi),  a  famous  prinee- 
'  ,  family  QQ^  extinct  in  th« 
male  line,  which  for  some  time  ruled  tks 
principality  of  Siebenbfirgen  »  Transyl- 
vania, and  by  maintaining  the  dvil  and 
religious  rights  of  the  inhabitants  made 
itself  equally  serviceable  to  them  and 
formidable  to  the  house  of  Austria.  Tb« 
first  prince  of  the  name  was  Stoisuuiin 
Rakoczy,  who  obtained  the  government 
in  1G0«.  The  line  ended  with  Prince 
Francis  Leopold,  bom  1«7«.  He  led 
the  Hungarian  insurgents  against  Austria 
in  1703,  and  died  in  exile  in  1735. 

Eakoczy  March,  ^.^Hi^Xby' « 

unknown  composer,  and  a  very  favorite 
one  with  the  army  of  Francis  Rakoeiy 
(see  above).  It  was  adopted  by  the 
Magyars  as  their  national  march. 
RakshasaS  (rtlk'«h«-hax),  in  Hlnda 
mythology,  a  class  of  evil 
spirits  or  genii,  cruel  monsters,  fre- 
quenting cemeteries,  devouring  human 
beings,  and  assuming  any  shape  at  pisair 
ure.  They  are  generally  hideous,  bat 
some,  especially  the  females,  allars  by 
their  beauty. 

•Rilft  (rUl),  in  pathology,  a  noise  or 
•"""  crepitation  caused  by  the  air 
n««daf  tbxoufb  bqciw  is  tk«  broKhW 


XUeigli 


Bakifli 


tubM  or  win*  There  are  Ttrfoui  rtlM  Inc  y«»«.  pUntlnf  colonlw  on  RouMriM 
-X  cr«^JSr«.  ttS  gurgling,  tb«  .iMIaiit.  litand.  ti«  co»on»»t«  «' J^^^'^^  P*^ 
the  tonofoM.  etc.  The  rftle  or  rattle  In  16d4.  «»■«;»'•  obtained  a  large  abart 
which  precedea  death  ia  cauaed  by  the  of  the  forfeited  Iriah  eetatw,  and  Intro- 
air  pHMlng  through  the  nmcna.  of  which  duced  there  the  cultivation  of  the  potato, 
the  lunM  are  unable  to  free  themaelvea.  Through  the  queen  h  favor  he  obtained 
VaUivli  (ral'D.acity  of  North  Cai^  liceMea  to  •«»«'«  and  to  export 
JUieign  gjina.  capital  of  the  Bute  woolens,  was  knighted  and  made  lord- 
and  coanty  aeat  of  Wake  Co.  It  la  near  warden  of  the  Stannaries  or  tin  minea 
the  center  of  the  State,  148  milea  ir.  w.  w.  (1585),  vice-admiral  of  Devon  and  Cor^ 
of  Wilmlnaton.  Among  the  prinHpnl  wall,  and  captain  of  the  aaeena  ga«rd 
nnblic  buUdinga  are  the  Capitol  in  Union  (15H7).  In  1588  he  rendered  excellent 
Square,  the  State  Museum,  and  the  Olivia  service  against  the  Spanish  Armada,  and 
Raney  Public  Library.  It  is  an  Inipor-  aubscquently  vessels  were  fitted  out  by 
-      -  him   to  attack  the  Spaniards.     In   1592 

he    incurred    the  queen's   displeaanre   by 
an  amour  with  one  of  her  maids  of  honoiv 


tant  cotton  and  tobacco  center,  and  has 
varied    industries.    inr1ii<"n«r    cotton,    oil, 

and    hosiery    mills,     fertilizer    and    car- -^        ,  „,     „,  .    .  _  m.«.^i_/»«. 

works,    etc.      RaleiVh    was    tirst    settled  the  daughter  of  Sir  Nicbolaa  Throckinor- 


iii  1792.     Pop.  i  0.21 8. 

BAlftifrh     fmi'i).    or    Ralegh,   -Bn 

juueii^u    ^'ALXE,^  navigator,  warrior. 


ton.    Although    he    made    the    best    rep- 

■BiB  aratlon  in  his  power,  by  marrying  that 

lady,  he  was  imprisoned  for  soma  months. 


statesman,  and   writer   in   the  reigns  o\  and  banished  frj*'S.f?dJ^r^..^J^ 

Elizabeth   and  .Tames  I.  was  the  second  discover  the  fabled  El  I>oraaoof  ««»«» 

son  of  a  gentleman  of  ancient  family  in  of    gold    he    planned    an    "Potion    to 

Devonshire,  and  was  bom  in  1.552.     He  Guiana,  in  which  he  ''•''f'ked  In   l*«Sl 

■•  *  Oxford,    and   at   the   age   of  ana  reached  the  Orinoco ;  l)Ut  was  obliged 


studied    at 


seventeen  he  joined  a  body  of  gentlemen 
volunteers  raised  to  assist  the  French 
Proteatauta.  Little  is  known  of  his  ad- 
ventures  for  some  years,  but  in  1580-81 


to  return  after  having  done,  little  more 
than  take  a  formal  possession  of  the 
country  in  the  name  of  Elisabeth.  In 
l?K\Vt  fie  held  a  naval  command  against 
Spain  under  Lord  Howard  and  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  and  assisted  in  the  defeat  of 
the  Spanish  fleet  and  the  capture  of 
Cadiz.  I  Next  yc.f  he  captured  Fayal  ia 
the  AzdTes ;  in  1600  he  became  governor 
of  Jersey.  James  I,  on  his  accesaton  in 
1603,  had  his  mind  soon  poisoned  agalnat 
Raleigh,  whom  he  deprived  of  all  hia 
offices.  Accused  of  ccmplicity  in  Lord 
Cobham's  treason  In  favor  of  Arabella 
Stuart,  Raleigh  was  brought  to  trial  at 
Winchester    In    November    1603,    foand 

fuilty  of  treason,  and  sentenced  to  deatli. 
le  was,  however,  reprieved  and  confined 
to  the  Tower.  Here  he  remained  for 
twelve  years,  devoting  himself  to  scientifie 
and  literary  work.  In  1616  he  obtained 
his  release  by  bribing  the  favorite,  Vil- 
liers,  and  by  offering  to  open  a  mine  of 
gold  which  he  believed  to  exist  near  the 
Orinoco.  The  enterprise  proved  disas- 
trous. Raleigh's  force  had  attacked  the 
Spaniards,  and  on  bis  return  Jamee,  to 
favor  tlie  Spanish  court,  with  his  usual 
meanneas  and  pusillanimity  determined 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  Iriah  re-   to  execute   him   on   his  former  sentence. 


Sir  Walter  Baleigh. 


hellion,  both  by  ability  and  aeverity, 
He  now  became  a  favorite  at  court,  a 
r««nU    which   has    been    traditionally    at 


After  a  trial  before  a  commission  of  the 
privy-council  the  doom  of  death  waa 
pronounced  against  him,  and  waa  carried 


trihuted  to  an  act  of  gallantry,  namely,  into  execution   October  2U,   1«18.     4"i  ? 

his  throwing  his  embroidered  cloak  in  a  politician   and   public  nbaricter  Raleigb 

puddle   In   order   that    the  qneen   might  is  doubtless  open  to  much  auiiudversion; 

pass.     In  1584  he  obtained  a  charter  of  but  in  extent  of  capacity  and  vigcr  (tf 

colonisation  and  unsuccessfally  attempted  mind  he  had  few  equals,  even  in  an  afe 

the  aetttement  of  Virginia  in  the  follow  of  great  bma     Bis  writinji  are  on  ik 


Balleattsdo 


Bamte 


rari»t7  of  topics,  bcaidtt  a  few  pottieal 
piece*  of  great  merit.  Hie  HUtorif  of 
the  World  ie  one  of  the  beet  epecimens 
of  the  E^ilinh  of  liis  day,  luTing  at  once 
the  Btyle  of  the  atatenman  and  tlie  echolar. 

Sallentando  /™»-«n-t«n'do).  aiw 

TAiTDO  (Italian),  in  muiic,  Indicntea  that 
tbe  time  of  tiie  pnaaage  over  which  it  ia 
written  in  to  be  irradualiy  retarded. 

*"~*"**~  birds.  Bee  Rail. 
Horn  a  steam  iron-clad  ahip-of-war, 
'  armed  at  the  prow  l>elow  the 
water-iine  with  a  heavy  iron  or  steel 
beuic  intended  to  destroy  an  enemy's 
ships  by  the  force  with  which  it  is  driven 
against  them.  The  beak  is  an  inde- 
pendent adjunct  of  the  ship,  so  that,  in 
the  event  of  a  serious  collision,  it  may 
be  either  buried  in  the  opposing  vessel  or 
•  nrried  away,  leaving  uninjured  the 
vessel  to  which  it  is  attached.  By  naval 
experts  the  ram  is  considered  an  impor- 
tant element  in  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  coast  defense. 
1^.11111    Battebino.     See  Battering^am. 

J^m   Htdbaouc.  See  Bi/draulia  Ram. 

Ttamft    (rl'ma),   in   Hindu  mythology, 
"   the  name  common  to  a  person- 
age appearing  as  three  incarnations  of 
Vishna,  all  of  surpassing  beauty. 

Bamadan  ('^'ga-dan),  rhamazaw, 

■■miiimHUk  jjp  Ramadzan,  the  ninth 
month  in  the  Mohammedan  year,  dur- 
ing which  it  is  said  Mohammed  received 
his  first  revelation.  It  is  devoted  to 
fasting  and  abstinmce.  From  sunrise 
to  sunset  for  the  thirty  days  of  its  dura- 
tion the  Mohsmmedans  partake  of  no 
kind  of  nourishment.  After  sunset  nec- 
essary wants  may  be  satisfied,  and  this 
permission  is  liberally  taken  advantage 
of.  Believers  are  exempted  in  peculiar 
circumstances  from  observing  the  fast. 
As  the  Mohammedans  reckon  by  lunar 
time,  the  month  begins  each  year  eleven 
days  earlier  than  in  the  preceding  year, 
BO  that  in  thirtv-three  years  it  occurs 
successively  in  all  the  seasons. 

B&mftyana    (j*-«n*'ya-n*).  the  oWer 
•  of    the    two    great    San- 

skrit epics  (see  Mah&bh&rata)  ascribed 
to  the  poet  Valmiki,  and  dating  probably 
from  the  6th  century  b.  c.  The  hero  is 
Rama,  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  as  the 
son  of  the  King  of  Oudh.  It  relates  his 
marriage  with  Site,  their  wanderings  in 
the  forests,  the  seisure  of  Sita  by  the 
giants  of  Ceylon,  her  recovery,  and  the 
restoration  of  Rama  to  the  throne  of  his 
ancestors.    It    contains    24,000    verses. 


and   is   divided    into   seven   books.    Ie* 
Butuhrit  Lanf««fe  surf  LiUnturo. 
BambOOtan   (»n>-W'tan),   the   frolt 

luppocevm,  nat.  order  Saplndacea,  much 

Itriaed  in  the  Malayan  ^.chipelago.  It 
s  about  the  sise  of  a  p.geon's  egg,  and 
of  a  red  color.  It  is  said  to  be  rich  and 
of  a  pleasant  acid. 

Eambouillet  i'*»-bo-yf).  "town  of 

**«»u*wwtMu«ii  pfgnce,  department  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  In  a  beautiful  valley  near 
the  extensive  forest  of  same  name,  27 
miles  southw'St  of  Paris.  It  is  remark- 
able only  for  its  chftteau,  long  the  resi- 
dence of  the  kings  of  France,  and  a  fine 
fark,  in  which  the  first  model  farm  in 
'ranee  was  esUblished.  Pop  ( 190U)  S965. 

MMIXUVUXAACV    jjjg    pj    VlVOIflfl,    MA»- 

?uisc  DE,  bom  at  Rome  in  1588,  died  In 
005.  In  1000,  when  only  twelve  years 
old,  she  married  Charles  d'Angennes,  son 
of  the  Marquis  de  Rambooillet,  to  whose 
title  and  estates  she  succeeded  on  the 
death  of  the  latter  in  IGll.  Her  resi- 
dence at  Paris,  the  HOtel  Rambouillet, 
for  more  than  fifty  years  formed  the 
center  of  a  circle  which  exercised  great 
influence  on  French  language,  literature, 
and  civilization.  Her  circle  is  said  to 
have  suggested  Moliftre's  comedy  of  the 
Pricieu$et  Ridiemlet,  but  this  play  was 
not  so  much  directed  against  it  as  against 
the  numerous  ridiculous  coteries  wliick 
sprang  up  in  imitation. 
Bamean  ii'*-°><^)i  Jeait  Philippe,  a 
^^  French  musical  writer,  bom 

at  Dijon  in  1683.  died  at  Paris  in  1704. 
He  was  appointed  orranist  in  Clermont 
Cathedral,  and  in  1722  printed  a  treatise, 
entitled  Traits  de  VHarmonie,  followed 
by  Nouvelle  Syttime  de  MuHque,  etc. 
His  fame  as  a  theorist  chiefly  depends  on 
his  Demonttration  of  the  Principlet  of 
Harmony,  published  in  1750.  This  work 
procured  him  an  invitation  from  the  court 
to  superintend  the  opera  at  Paris.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  several  operas, 
and  a  great  variety  of  ballets,  concertos, 
gavottes,  songs,  etc.  Louis  XV  acknowl- 
edged his  merits  by  the  grant  of  a  patent 
of  nobility  and  the  order  of  St  Michael. 

Bamee.   ®**  Ramie, 

PiiTn^A  (ra-me),  Louise  de  la 
xutiuec  ^oniDA),  an  English  novelist 
of  French  extraction,  bom  at  Bury  St 
Edmunds  In  1840.  She  pubHsh«l  her 
first  novel.  Held  in  Bondage,  in  1803, 
and  was  subsequently  a  very  prolific 
writer.  Among  her  l)e8t  woAs  are 
Strathmore,  Chandoi,  Puck,  iIotk».  Prin- 
ceu  Naprosine,  A  Houto  Partjf,  CHUoroif, 


Btnte 


Sampaat 


mttl*,  introdaoKl  Into  Q*nunj  m  •  flbtr 
lUat 


•te.     Bh«  di«d  in   Italy,  where  ih*  had 

bant,  13  milea  north  of  Namnr,  and  X 


■*»"••*•    (In  Egyptian,  'the  Child  of   •outheart    of     BrnaaeU.    On     Hay    » 
_      ..      .  <o<vn    ^t_   »»..  trliMroiiin  jniBao 

„,.^    „    , _.,    over    tha    Fl 

under  Manbal  Villeroi 


tha  Ban ') ,  the  name  given  to  a  num 
her  of  Egyptian  kinaa. —  Ramkheh  I 
waa  the  nrat  king  of  tha  nineteenth 
dynaaty,  but  in  no  way  notable. — 
RAiuan  II,  grandMm  of  the  preceding. 
waa  the  third  king  of  the  nineteenth 
dynaity,  and  was  bom  in  the  quarter 
of  a  wntury  prweding  the  year  1400  B.  C. 
He  la  identified  by  many  with  the  8e»- 
oatria  of  Greek  writeni.  (See  Scioatrit.) 
Hia  flrat  achievement  was  the  reduction 
of  Ethiopia  to  nu Ejection.  He  defeated 
a  confederation,  amunK  whom  tlie  Khita 
or  Hittitea  were  the  chief,  in  a  great  bat- 
tle near  the  Oronten  in  Hyria,  and  in  a 
■ubaequent  stage  of  the  wnr  took  Jerusa- 
lem and  other  placea.  He  was  a  aealous 
builder  and  a  patron  of  art  and  science. 
He  Is  supposed  to  have  been  the  kioR  who 
oppressed  the  Hebrews,  and  the  father 
of  the  khig  under  whom  the  exodus  took 
place. —  Kameses  III,  the  Rhampsini- 
tus  of  Herodotus,  belonged  to  the  twen- 
tieth dynasty,  and  was  uniformly  success- 
ful In  war.  He  endeavored  to  surpasa 
his  ancestors  in  the  magnificence  of  hia 
buildings.  ,  , 

1>oT*i«a*«  one  of  the  treasure  cities 
Aameses,  ^f  ^gypt  built  by  the  He- 
brews during  the  oppression,  and  prob- 
ably named  after  Ramesea  II.  It  haa 
been  identified  by  Lepslus  with  Tell-el- 
MaskhOta  on  the  Fresh-water  Canal 
(about  12  miles  west  of  the  Sues  Canal), 
and  by  Brugsch  with  Tanis,  the  modem 
San. 
1lAmA«T!7iLnLTn    (  i«-mes'wu-mm  ),    a 

the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  between  the  main- 
land of  India  and  Ceylon.  It  is  alwut 
11  miles  long  and  6  broad,  and  contains 
one  of  the  most  venerated  Hindu  temples 
in  India,  the  resort  of  thousands  of 
pilgrims.  Pop.  17,854. 
R4niirArll  (rtim-gur'),  a  town  of  In- 

tana.    Pop.  11,313. 

VaTnia  Rahdb  (ra-mfi'),  a  name  at 
■■*'*"*"^>  piled  to  various  fiber-plants  of 
the  nettle  family  or  to  the  fiber  yielded 
by  them.  The  chief  of  these  are  Both- 
meria  nivea,  or  China  grass  (also  called 
IJrtica  nivea)  and  Boehmeria  tenaeiaaimia 
(or  U.  tenocittima) ,  which  some  main- 
tain to  be  the  trae  ramie  plant.  (See 
China  Grass.)  A  kind  of  ramie  has 
also  been  prepared  from  a  common  Euro- 
pean nettle  (Vrttea  ^idea),  and  from 
LsfWftMi  oonodeiwit,  a  North  Amerieaii 


1706,  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  jpiaed 
here  a  great  victory  over  the  Freaen 
under  Marshal  Villeroi.  ^  ,  .. 
"RAiniata  (ram'iata),  the  followert  or 
**°""*  disciples  of  Peter  Ramna. 
See  Ramnt.  .    ^      ^ 

Bammolmn  Eoy  JWi'iTV*'" 

founder  of  the  Brabmo-SomaJ  (which 
see)  sect  of  theists;  born  at  Bordwan, 
Bengal,  In  1770;  died  near  Bristol  in 
1^.  His  parents  were  Brahmana  of 
high  rank.  He  acquired  a  mu^trr,  of 
Saiwkrit,  Persian,  Arabic,  ^  Enflif^ 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  A  cu^l 
study  of  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hin- 
dus had  convinced  him  that  the  orifinal 
Hindu  religion  was  thelstic,  and  ha  b^ 
came  anzioua  to  reform  the  creed  and 
practice  of  his  countrymen  in  this  dirae* 
tlon.  From  the  perusal  of  the  New 
Testament  he  found  the  doctrinca  M 
Christ  more  in  harmony  with  hia  own 
opinions  than  any  othera  which  had  conw 
to  his  knowledge,  and  in  1820  he  accord- 
ingly published  a  work  entitled  the  Fr0' 
f*pt»  of  Jeaut  the  Guide  to  Pmc9  •«• 
Uappineii,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  aalee" 
tion  of  moral  precepta  from  the  Evan* 
gelista.  Rammohun  Roy,  in  hb  do^ 
trinal  views,  waa  a  Unitarian,  or  Arlai^ 
holding,  however,  the  pre-exlatenee  and 
auperangellc  dignit/  of  Chriat  In  1888 
he  visited  England  aa  ambaaaador  froaa 
the  King  of  Delhi,  and  while  there  wu 
seized  with  a  fever,  which  proved  fatak 
H^mniil  (rftm-nftd'),  a  town  of  Ib> 
J&ainnaa  ^j^  prealdency  of  Madnu^ 
near  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  It  haa  a  fort, 
a  palace,  a  Proteatant  and  two  Rooiaa 
Catholic  churches.  Pop.  14,000. 
IK'n    lotrar   (rlm-nng'or),  a  town  of 

jtanaagar  f„j,j  *^.,^  district. 

Northwestern  Provincea,  about  2  milca 
above  Benarea  city.  It  is  a  eonaidarabl* 
commercial  center,  and  the  residence  of 
the  Maharajah  of  Benares.  Pop.  about 
10.000.  ^      ,^ 

Hiimnant  (ram'pant),  in  neraldry, 
HAmpani  Standing  upright  upon  its 
hind-iega   (property  on  one  foot)   aa  if 


Ba»>aa«i  Basipaat  gardaat' 


ItBptrt 


•ttaeUac ;  Mid  of  •  bMst  of  pny,  m  tbo 
UcM.  It  difftn  from  «oK«n<.  which 
mMoa  ia  th«  pootarw  of  ■priacinc  for- 
ward.  B9mp*nt  garitnt  Is  tht  mom  ■• 
rMNjNml.  but  with  tb«  ftainuil  looking 
full-facfld.  JtMijMMl  regmriMt  li  whtn 
tbc  •aiawl  la  a  rampant  poaltion  looks 
btblad. 

BftmiMrt  (ram'pArt),  an  elsTatlon  or 
"■'"r"**  mound  of  earth  around  a 
plaeai  capable  of  reaietinc  cannon-shot, 
and  on  which  the  parapet  Is  raised.  The 
rampart  is  built  of  the  earth  taken  out 
of  the  ditch,  though  the  lower  part  of  the 
oater  slope  is  usually  constructed  of 
masonry.  The  term  in  general  usage  in- 
cludes the  parapet  Itself. 

BamvhaitOB  (""-'■■'t");  J^e  gen- 
■nHiii|f«wavwa  ^^  name  of  the  tou- 
cans. 

Aamnion  (ram'pi-un),  CampanUa 
""'"r**"*  Rapuncilui,  a  plsnt  of  the 
aatj  order  Oampanulaces,  or  bellworts, 
indigenous  to  various  parts  of  Europe. 
Its  root  may  be  eaten  in  a  raw  state  like 
radish,  and  is  by  some  esteemed  for  its 
pleasant  nutty  flavor.  Itoth  leaves  and 
raot  may  also  be  cut  into  winter  salads. 
SAmniir  (rfim-rdr'),  capital  of  a  na- 
-"■'"l"**  tive  state  of  the  some  name, 
Northwestern  Provinces  of  India,  on  ^.he 
Mt  bank  of  the  Kosila  River,  18  miles 
■.  of  Moradabad.  It  is  the  residence  of 
the  nawab,  and  has  manufactures  of  pot- 
tery, damask,  sword-blades,  and  Jewelry. 
Pop.  78,768. —  The  state,  which  is  under 
ths  political  superintendence  of  the  gor- 
•mment  of  the  Northwest'^rn  Provinces, 
has  an  area  of  045  squart^  miles  and  a 
pop.  of  633,000. 

Simpnr  Beanleah    i^^lrM^ii 

capital  of  RftjsbflhI  district,  Bengal,  on 
tbt  N.  bank  of  the  Ganges.  It  has  a 
Urge  traffic  bv  river  with  the  railway 
station  of  Kusbtia  on  the  opposite  bank. 
Pop.  21,589. 

ttAmrsMi  (rum-re),  or  Rambi  l8i.Ain>, 
•"•""^  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  oflf  the 
coast  of  Burmah,  is  40  miles  long  and 
15  in  breadth.  Produces  rice,  indigo, 
■agar,  petroleum,  etc. 
VAmiaw  (ram'zS),  At.t.ait,  a  Scottish 
""■  •    poet,  born  in  IGSB,  at  Lead- 

hills,  in  Lanarkshire;  died  at  Edinbuivh 
in  1758.  His  father,  who  was  superm- 
tsndent  of  Lord  Hopetoun's  mines,  died 
when  Allan  was  yet  an  infant  He  re- 
moved to  Eidinbnrgh  in  hia  fiftenstb  year 
and  was  apprenticed  to  a  wig  maker,  an 
occnpation  which  he  followed  till  his  thir- 
tieth year.  His  poems,  most  of  them 
printed  as  broadsides,  soon  mad«  him 
wIMj  known  among  all  classes,  and  ha 
■•w  abaadonsd  wic  0"\ldng,  and  com- 


menced business  as  a  bookstllor.  Bt  wm 
the  first  to  surt  a  circnlatlng  librarr 
in  Scotland.  In  1720  ha  publlsbsd  a  col- 
lection of  his  poems  in  one  volume  qoartA 
In  1724  the  first  volume  of  Tk«  Tm-Tahh 
l/lseeltoRV,  a  CoUeetiom  of  Bonga,  ap- 
peared. The  rapid  sale  of  this  compila- 
tion induced  Ramsay  to  publish  anothar, 
entiHcd  TAe  Ewtrgreen,  being  •  CoUection 
of  Scott  PoesM  «rro(e  bp  tht  IngeniMU 
before  1600,  which  was  equally  succts»> 
ful.  His  next  publication  established  his 
fame  upon  a  sure  and  lasting  basis.  This 
was  Tht  Qentlt  Shepherd  (1725)— the 
best  nostoral  perhaps  in  any  language. 
In  1<28  a  second  quarto  volume  of  his 
poeniii  apr^enred;  snd  in  1730  his  Thirtp 
Fallci,  which  concluded  hia  pub!ie  poet- 
ical labors.  He  did  not  give  up  his  shop 
until  within  three  years  of  his  decease. 
He  rendered  great  service  to  the  vernac- 
ular literature  by  editing  and  imitating 
the  old  Scottish  poetry,  but  his  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  the  inimitable  Otmtit 
Shepherd. —  Hia  son  Allan,  bom  1700, 
died  1784,  became  famous  as  a  portrait 
painter  in  Ix>ndon.  In  17G7  be  was  ap- 
pointed princiiml  painter  to  Qeorge  HI. 
Pjt.maft'v  »IR  ANUiuEW  Gboubie,  geol- 
■"■^^'^y*  ogist,  bom  in  Qlaagpw  in 
1814.  He  Joined  the  Geological  Sarvey 
in  1841;  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 

feology  at  University  College,  London. 
848;  was  lecturer  at  the  School  ot 
Mines  1851;  president  of  the  Geological 
Society  1802;  director-general  of  the 
Geological  Survey  and  of  the  Museum 
of  Practical  Geology  from  1872  to  1881. 


He  was  the  author  of  Phj/tical  Oeoiofy 
and  Qeognphy  of  Britain,  etc.  Ha  diad 
in  180L 

PAmRftV  AiTDiiEW  MiCHAKi.,  known 
■■*»*""»J»  as  the  ChevaUer  Ramsay, 
was  bom  in  Ayr  in  1086,  died  at  St. 
Germain-en-Laye  in  1743.  After  spend- 
ing some  time  at  the  Universities  of 
Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews  he  went  to 
Leyden.  In  1710  he  repaired  to  Cam- 
bray,  where  he  was  converted  to  the 
Roman  Cotholic  faith  br  Ftoeion.  Ha 
procured  the  preceptorship  to  the  Dnke 
of  Chiteau-Thierry  and  the  Prince  of 
Turenne,  and  was  afterwards  engaged  to 
superintend  the  education  <rf  Prince 
Charles  Edward  Stuart  and  his  brother 
Henry,  afterwards  Cardinal  York.  Ha 
acquired  distinction  by  his  writings, 
which  are  chiefly  in  French.  The  chiaf 
of  tbeae  are  a  Lift  of  Vuooanf  THrtnnm, 
a  Life  of  Finelon,  the  Traoete  of  Cyrttt, 
a  romance,  and  a  large  work  on  the 
Principltt  of  Natural  and  Bmmled  JSa- 
Ugion. 

'RAmaa.'v  Datid,  aa  Amarican  patriae 
■■*****"*'>   aad  UatwrltB,  bora  ia  FsMi. 


BiBttty 


H^Bfl^ 


•▼iTMita  In  1T40:  died  at  CtMrlwtoii  in 
UIB.  Ht  Mrvwl  M  mirgton  daring  tlw 
HtvoltttkHurv  war.  waa  a  delMatr  to  the 
OoDtlntntal  CoofrcM  In  ITKi-SB.  and 
nraaldent  of  >b«  Botith  Cnrolina  Sonata 
for  atvra  n.  Up  was  ahot  by  a  luna- 


«c.  Chief  «  kn :  lliatory  of  the  Revoln- 
U  BoHth  VanAiM,  llUtory  oj  l*« 
■tea*    Hevoiut' 

Vmited  State;  etc. 


fiOII 

l«ier<eaN 


Revolution,    Uiatorp    of    tkt 


1 


,r'    M.  c1>r  1...  .,  waa 

o'-;)   I' I    *tln»?f,«*,   •    otland, 

iJiif     I  at  the  Unl- 


HAmuiir  Edward  Bannekmak,  aon 
**"'**/>  o(  Alexander  Burnett,  advo- 
cate, bom  at  Aberi|p«-n  in  171)3:  died  at 
Edinburgh  in  18T((.  He  adopted  tbe 
name  of  his  grar'  tinrle,  8ir  Alox.  Rnin- 
aay.  by  whom  h-  <  i  educated.  Kducated 
at  CambrUlk''  '•>'  ■   holy  orders,  and 

came  to  E«'''ili,ir  'i  in  IS*^  f«  a  Hergjr- 
man  of  th'  St,  ,.1,  .",  ..|)u  Church, 
becoming  il'.'.ti  of  ch»*  •ucxr*-.  ■>  1S46. 
He  la  ht.A  ,\.'.o .  a  liv  t.is  /C.  mi/i  icencea 
0?  Soot'-  k  ..  fc  -ad  rk'aucur.  v  '  ^h  had 
a  grea.  i  '     '-m- 

Oct.  '^  1  i'.2,   iv  - 

veralt  -"H  .)f  (.'l^^^?ol■  mi  Tiibi'i'en,  and 
became  T'lofp*  n  ii  C'i  pinUnry  at  Uni- 
veraity  t!o!iei.  o.ou('.u.  ilie  new 
atmospheric  oleiii"n'  nrg'^T!  .-..it-  diwovered 
by  him  In  asS' r-'  "  -^  itn  i^or  .  Rayleigh, 
and  he  added  tr  the  el^Meuts  neon, 

krypton,  uud  a<.....  ».^  wum  uiiiKUted 
in  19(K2,  and  was  couBidered  ime  of  the 
ablest  chemists  of  tli*>  day.  Died  lUlU. 
Vomai1*ii  (ramz'den).  Jessr,  optic- 
'"*'"■***"  ian  and  philosophicnl  in- 
strument maker,  born  at  Halifax,  York- 
Bhire,  in  1735;  died  at  Brighton  in  1800. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  Doltond,  the 
celebrated  optician,  and  acquired  a  share 
of  bis  father-in-law's  patents.  He  gained 
great  celebrity  for  his  divided  circles  and 
transit  instruments,  and  effected  vast  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  other 
instraments.  He  was  chosen  a  fellow 
of  tbe  Royal  Society  in  1780,  and  of  tbe 
Imperial  Academy  of  St  Petersburg  in 
1794,  and  aach  waa  hia  reputation  that 
be  received  orders  for  his  instrumenta 
from  every  part  of  Europe. 
PAmuiir  (ram'ii),  a  aeaport  on  4 
■■**"'"^'  northeast  coast  of  the  • 
of  Man,  14  miles  N.  v.  k.  of  Douglas.  1.  e 
attractive  scenery,  fine  sands,  promenade, 
and  pier  make  it  a  favorite  resort  of 
tourists  and  pleasure-seekers.  Pop.  about 
4729. 

Bamnrate  i^^S^X^'^lSSi^l 

eoonty  of  Kent,  in  the  lale  of  TbanatjjBT 
miles  east  by  aqnth  of  London.  The 
older  parts  occupy  a  natural  hollow  or 
valley  in  tbe  chalk  cliffs  diat  line  this 
part  of  tL«  oout.  while  Um  nawer  por- 


tions occupy  the  higher  ground  oa  altlMr 
aide.  It  fa  a  well-built  town,  poasiaaia 
a  fine  stretch  of  sand  and  a  promanada 
pier,  anri  is  much  frequented  by  viaiton. 
The  ha  /,  which  acrvea  as  a  harbor  of 
refuge  e  the  Downs,  is  nearly  circtttar. 
rompriaes  an  area  of  -'■>  ut  (M)  arres,'an4 
includes  a  dry  dock  .ad  a  iMtent  alip 
for  tbe  repair  of  veasels.  It  is  protactea 
by  two  stone  piers  SOOO  and  loUO  feet 
long,  witfa  an  entrance  of  240  feet.  Ship- 
building and  rope-making  are  carried  on ; 
there  is  some  trade  in  coal  and  timber, 
and  a  coniiiderable  flsltery.  Ramagata 
was  formerly  a  meml)er  of  the  Cinqoe 
Ports,  and  attachfd  to  Sandwich;  it  ia 
now  a  separate  muniripai  borough.  Pop. 
(1011)  2U,(i06. 

Ilamann     (ram'sun),  Allimm  arafnaai, 
AauiBOn    g    ,p^i„    o,    p,p,|c    found 

wild  in  many  parts  of  Britain,  and  for- 
merly cultivated  in  gardena. 
1>omf*1r  (riim'teK),  a  town  of  India, 
AamieK  Nagpur  district.  Central 
Provinces.  24  miles  v.  of  Nagpur  city, 
celebrated  as  a  holy  place,  and  the  resort 
of  great  numbers  of  pilarims.  ^op.  7814. 
PAintil  Oil  (  ram'tU  >,  a  .and  oil 
AamXll  \tU  .jmiiar  to  aei^mum  oil, 
expressed  from  the  seeds  of  a  compoaite 
annual  herb,  Ouizotia  oleifero,  coltivated 
in  Abyssinia  and  varioua  parts  of  India. 
VoTnna  (r&-mus),  Petsb,  or  Pmn 
■n*™»*S  pj,  jj^  HAMtE,  a  French  laft- 
clan  and  classical  scholar,  bom  ia  Var- 
mandois  in  1516;  killed  in  the  maaaaars 
of  St.  Bartholomew  in  1572  He  went  to 
Paris  atwut  1523,  and  studied  under  great 
difficulties.  He  attack(>d  Aristotle  and 
tbe  scholastics,  and  excited  violent  opp^ 
sition.  In  1551  he  was  appointed  royal 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  pbtiaoopby  at 
Paris.  In  1561  he  became  a  Protaataat. 
He  published  a  7rea(Me  on  Logic  ia  1548, 
which  obtained  great  succeaa,  aa  did  atoo 
his  other  works  on  grammar,  mathe- 
matics, philosophy,  theology,  etc.  Hia 
doctrines  were  widely  diffuaeid.  France, 
England,  and  particularly  Scotland  were 
full  of  Ramists.  Hia  logic  waa  intro- 
duced into  the  University  of'OIaagow  \a 
Andrew  Melville,  and  made  considerable 
progresa  in  the  German  universitica. 
Sana,     see  Fro,. 

Sano^  (r*P-«*).  AaifAKD  JaAir  ui 
**^"*^  BouTHnxRB  DE,  the  fonnder 
of  the  reformed  order  of  La  Trappe,  bom 
at  Paris  in  1^6:  died  in  1700.  He  em- 
braced the  eccieaiasticai  profanaioa,  and 
held  no  fewer  than  six  benefleea.    Reeid- 


ing  at  Paria,  he  gave  bimaelf  np  to  a 
life  of  dissipation.  In  1657,  however,  a 
mariced  change  took  place  in  hia  char- 
acter.   Ha  dtmittad  all  hia  benefices  e*> 


Banoh 


Bangooa 


ctpt  the  priory  of  Bonlom*  and  the 
abbey  of  La  Trapp*.  Battrinf  to  tha 
latter  place  in  166(1,  he  began  thoee  re- 
forau  which  have  rendered  hie  name 
famooa.  (Bee  L»  Tnppe.) 
Tt^n/kh  a  large  farming  area  for  the 
***^''**»  rearing  of  cattle  and  horses. 
The  word  ii  derived  from  the  Spanish, 
rancho,  meaning  mess-room,  but  used  in 
Mexico  for  a  herdsman's  hut  and 
finally  for  a  graihig  farm.  The  business 
of  ranching  baa  long  been  pursued  in 
the  thinly-settled  region  of  the  United 
Sutes  from  the  Mississippi  westward, 
eapecially  in  Tezaa  and  the  great  plains 
of  the  West  The  advance  of  the  farm- 
ing population  is  narrowing  the  ranching 
country,  and  threatens  eventually  to 
bring  the  ranching  business  to  an  end, 
farm    animals    replacing    those    of    the 

ranch.  „ 

Pa  Till  Thi,  or  White  Waters  Range, 
**"**»  the  name  given  the  gold  mining 
trail  of  the  Transvaal  region,  extending 
2B  milea  on  each  side  of  Johannesburg, 
South  Africa.  The  yield  of  gold  here 
has  developed  until  now  it  surpasses  any 
other  minmg  region  of  the  earth. 
Voniloll  (ranMal),  SAMtJEt  J.,  states- 
**"***'■•  man,  bom  in  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvaoia,  in  1828.  In  1862  he  was 
elected  to  Congreea,  serving  continu- 
ously until  his  death.  He  was  speaker 
of  the  House  from  1876  to  1881.  As 
such  he  used  his  influence  in  guiding  the 
House  through  the  dangerous  crisis  pro- 
duced by  the  uncertainty  of  the  Presi- 
dential election  of  1876.  He  died  in 
1890. 

PAndolnh  (ran'dolf),  Eomukd  Jkn- 
AauaOipu  ijiKos,  statesman,  born  at 
WUliamsbarg,  Virginia,  Aug.  10.  1753. 
He  studied  at  William  and  Mary  College 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  becoming  in 
1775  the  first  Attorney  General  of  Vir- 
ginia. He  helped  to  frame  the  constitu- 
tion of  Virginia,  was  its  governor 
1786-88,  and  in  1787  a  member  of  the 
convention  that  framed  the  Constitution 
wf  the  United  States.  He  entered  Wash- 
ington's Cabinet  as  Attorney  General  in 
1^^,  and  become  Secretary  of  State  in 
1704  He  died  Sept  13,  1813. 
nanflAlnli  JoHiT,  statesman,  'of  Ro- 
lianaoipa,  anoks  •  bom  in  Cawsons, 
Virginia,  hi  1773.  As  member  of  Con- 
greea he  was  preeminent  for  his  poetic 
eloquence,  his  absolute  honesty,  and  the 
scathing  wit  with  which  he  exposed  ev- 
ery corrupt  scheme.  He  died  in  1833. 
•PftwoA  (rlnj),  in  gunnery,  the  hori- 
*'^^o  aontal  distance  to  which  a  shot 
or  other  projectile  is  carried.  When  a 
cannon  lie*  horiiontally  it  is  called  the 
point-blank  ranfe;  when  the  munle  ia 


elevated  to  45  degrees  it  la  called  tha  nt- 
most  range.  To  this  may  be  added  tha 
ricochet,  the  skipping  or  bounding  shot, 
with  the  piece  elevated  from  8  to  6  de- 

'Ra.ntrf'r  (>*n'i«f).  '«»  England,  for- 
*"*"f  *  merly  a  sworn  officer  of  a 
forest,  appointed  by  the  king's  letters 
patent,  whose  business  was  to  watch  the 
dec-r,  prevent  trespasses,  etc.;  but  now 
merely  a  government  official  connected 
with  a  royal  forest  or  park.  The  word 
generally  signifies  a  mounted  soldier  em- 
ployed on  foraging  or  exploring  expedi- 
tions, or  a  forest  keeper. 


Pjitiv*  TiSn^^r     &»    instrumcat    for 

nange  Jiinaer,  l^f,^^^^g  the  posi- 
tion—  direction  and  distance  —  of  a 
moving  object,  as  a  hostile  war-veaaeL 
Large  guns,  with  an  effective  range  oi 
several  miles,  are  often  placed  behind 
an  embankment,  and  the  gtinrers  need 
some  means  of  determining  quickly  and 
accurately  the  position  of  a  vessel  or 
other  object  which  is  to  be  fired  at  A 
system  of  triangulation  is  need,  telescopea 
being  placed  on  eacli  side  of  the  gun.  the 
distance  between  them  forming  the  base- 
line of  the  triangle  and  the  angles  found 
with  it  and  the  object  yielding  the  length 
and  direction  of  the  other  lines.  Very 
accurate  information  is  attainable  by  these 
instruments  and  by  their  aid  the  waste  of 
projectiles  ia  largely  obviated. 
P^nvnAll  (rttn-gon'),  the  capital  of 
itangOOU  f^wer  Burmah,  and  the 
chief  seaport  of  Buminh,  is  situated  at 
the  junction  of  the  Pegu,  Hlaing  or  Ran- 
goon, and  Pu-zun-doung  rivers,  about 
21  miles  from  the  sea.    Since  its  occu- 


1^ 

iRAWAOnb 

IIMtim  BNM 

•K     i^J- vwaroB^nK  B. 

cs^:.r^v^;^:^ 

o   ^^^^ESBlnii 

"^  f«j#l 

Kffi&l 

Siff 

»             Kkm 

I  --W1 

^H.     Ak^j^.'^ 

tt^blSH 

Ayr-  M^m 

^qL^^ 

'"-^•SBjilr 

'v^v^SUL 

,1^^ 

0    o'i  A   M 

i 


Sangpur 


KS 


tncy  by  the  British  In  1852  Ranfoon 
DM  undergone  inch  changes  that  it   M 
oraetically  a  new  town,  and  Iti  poppla- 
tlon  haa  increased  fivefold.    The  principal 
streets    are    broad,    »od^  contain    many 
large  and  not  a  few  handsome  buildiDga. 
There   are    the    law-courts,    post   offices, 
Bank  of  Bengal,  custom-house,  Analican 
and  Roman  Cfathollc  churches,  St  John  s 
C!oUege,  high-school,  etc.    A  large  and  In- 
creasing   commerce    is   carried   on    witn 
British.  Indian,  and  Chinese  ports ;  and 
an  extensive  trade  is  conducted  with  in- 
land  towns   as   far  as   Mandalay      ine 
chief   exports    are    rice,    timber,    cotton, 
hides,  gums  and  resins,  mineral  oil,  ivorv, 
precious  stones ;  the  imports  being  mainly 
manufactured  goods.    A  number  of  rice- 
mills  have  been  erected ;  there  is  a  govern- 
ment, docltyard,  and  steam  tram-cars  have 
been     intrwiuced.     Pop.     293,216.— The 
district  of  Rangoon  produce  rice,  cot- 
ton, catechu,  gambler,  etc. ;  has  an  area 
of  4286  sq.  miles,  and  pop.  of  780,000. 

Bangpur  {^rUhahV  VvSo^  ?f 

Bengal;  area,  3486  sq.  miles.  This  ter- 
ritory Is  flat  and  well-watered,  the  cUlel 
product  being  rice.  R^N?,"^.  *?«  .^aP" 
ital,  is  situated  on  the  Ghaah&t  river, 
270  miles  N.  e.  of  Calcutta.    Pop.  about 

TjfS'«.Tii     (rtl-ne-gunj'),  a  town  of 
Samg^nj     J„ji.    •jq    BardwHn    dis- 
trict of  Bengal,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
mmodar  river,   ISOjniles  nw.  of  Cal- 
cutta.    It    is    notable    chiefly    for    ito 
bituminous  coal,  the  seams  of  f  n'chare 
of  great  thickness.    Pop.  about  15.05?:. 
S«Vit      a     line     of     soldiers     standmg 
AaUK)    abreast  or  side  by  side:  often 
used    along    with    file,    which    is    a    line 
running  from  the  front  to  the  rear  of  a 
company,    battalion,    or    regiment,     the 
terra  rank  and  file  thus  con  prising  the 
whole  body  of  the  common  soldiers. 
'RanlrA     (r&n'k*),     Leopold     von,     a 
Aau&o      German    hi8ti>riau,    bom    in 
1795.     He  stndiwl   at  Halle  and   Berlin, 
became  a  teacher  in  the  Bymnasium  of 
Frankfurt-on-the-Oder  in  181S,  and  pro- 
fessor   of   history    at    the    Lniversity    of 
Berlin  in  1825.    His  first  nnblisliwl  work 
(1824)    was  n  HUtory  of  ''^p,^,'' '""'•// 
and  Teutonic  Jfatiotts  from  U9-i  to  lojts. 
This    was    followod    by    other    historical 
works,    notably    JMorv    iLf'^SLV^  tV! 
the  Seventeenth  Cetiturv  (I80O-68) .    He 
died  May  23.  1886.  ^    -    ,       „„„ 

ItonlriTi  Jeannette,  the  first  woman 
AUniuu,  member  of  Congress,  was 
bom  at  Missoula,  Mont.,  in  1882 ;  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Montana, 
School  of  Philanthropy,  New  York,  ^nd 
the  tlniversitv  of  ■Washington  at  Seattle. 


In  1916  she  was  elected  «i?"^****TS*J' 
large  on  the  Republican  ticket  for  Mon- 
tana. She  votetf  •  no '  on  the  war  mmIu- 
Hon  introduced  in  the  House  of  Reprfr 
sentatives  in  April.  1917,  after  being 
called  three  times.  She  prefaced  her  vote. 
In  a  voice  choked  with  emotion,  with  the 
words :  •  I  want  to  stand  bjr  ^l^^^l^rz 
hut  I  cannot  vote  for  x^ar.*    She  aefeuded 


Ubor  and  criticised  the  Roye™"*?! J°Z 
failing  to  prevent  the  lynching  of  Frank 
H.  Little,  an  Imlnstrial  Workers  ot  tne 
World  leader,  in  1917. 
-Ronlrivi     a  borough  in  Allegheny  Co., 
■tmTI"»>   Pennsylvania,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Braddock.    It  has  ■teel,  wire,  chain, 
and  bridge  works.     Pop.  6042. 
TUnkine     (rank'in),  Wcluam  Jotn 
JtanKine     i;iacQcobn,  cIvIl  «ngipe«r, 
bom  at  Edinburgh  in  1820;  died  in  1872. 
He   received   his   instroction   in  natnral 
philosophy   from   Professor   Fortws,   hia 
practical   training  as  *«  «»»«i'»"'  '"S 
Sir  J.  Macnelll,  and  he  became  himadf 
professor    of     engineering    at    Glaagow 
University  in  18®.  ^  His  numerous  con- 
tributions to  the  technical  journals  have 
been  reprinted   (London,  1881),  and  he 
was   the   author   of   text-boolis  on   (7«wJ 
Engineering,  The  Steam  Engtn«,A.ppltei 
Mechanica,    Shipbuilding,    etc.     He    was 
especially     successful     in     inyestlgatlng 
mathematically  the  principles  of  mechani- 
cal and  civil  engineering.    He  was  also 
well  known  as  a  song  wnter. 
Ponanm     (ran'sum),    the    money    or 
itanSOm    ^^^^^  ^^^^  f^r  the  redemp- 
tion of  a  prisoner,  captive,  or  slave,  or 
for  goods   captured   by   an   enemy,   and 
formerly  a  sum  paid  for  prisoners  of  war. 
VanfAv*     (ran'ten),  a  name  given  by 
AKUbCAa    ^jjy   q(   reproach   to  a   de- 
nomination  of  Christians  which  sprai« 
up    in    1646.    They    called     themselvea 
Seeker$,   the  members  maintaining   that 
they  were  seeking  for  the  true  church 
andf  its  ordinances,  and  the  Scriptures, 
which  were  lost    The  name  ««•««;•» 
also  vulgarly   applied   to   the   Primitive 
Methodists,  who  formed  themselves  Into 
a  society  in  1810.  and  who  were  in  favor 
of   street    preaching,    camp-mMtings    for 
religious  parpoaca,  as  also  of  females  be- 
ing permitted  to  preach. 

Eammculacett  iTaroSefoni: 

ogenous  polypetalons  plants.  In  almost 
all  cases  herbaceous,  Inhabiting  the  colder 
parts  of  the  world,  and  unknown  in  hot 
countriea  except  at  considerable  eleva- 
tions. They  have  radical  or  alternate 
leaves  (opposite  in  Clematis),  regular 
or  irf«fuUr,  often  large  and  handsome 
fiowersT  ani  fruits  consisting  of  one- 
seeded  acbenea  or  many-aeeded  follicles. 


Btmuioiiliii 


^n]|ffl<it 


Tban  are  abont  80  gmen  tod  500 
■pwiM.  Thty  have  araally  poiaonous 
qoalitiM,  as  eviaced  by  aconite  and  helle- 
bore in  particular.  Some  of  them  are 
objecti  of  beauty,  aa  the  larkapun, 
ranoncalua,  anemone,  and  paony.  See 
Mzt  article. 
BaiLimClllllS  (r»-niinTifl-laB),a«nu« 

■""" wi»*«»"  ^f     herbaceous     plants, 

the  type  of  the  nat.  order  Ranunculaces. 
They  have  entire,  lobed,  or  compound 
leavea,  and  usually  panicled,  white  or 
yellow  flowers.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, and  almost  exclusively  inhabit  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Almost  all  the  spe- 
cies are  acrid  and  caustic,  and  poison- 
ous when  taken  internally,  and,  when 
externally  applied,  will  raise  blisters. 
The  varions  species  found  in  the  United 
States  are  known  chiefly  by  the  common 
names  of  crowfoot,  buttercup,  and  spear- 
wort.  R.  flammHa  and  sceter&tus  pro- 
duce a  blister  on  the  skin  in  about  an 
hour  and  a  half.  Beggars  use  tliem  for 
the  purpose  of  forming  artificial  ulcers 
to  excite  the  compassion  of  the  public 
R.  Ficaria  is  the  lesser  celandine.  R. 
aquotUia  is  the  water  crowfoot,  a  nutri- 
tive food  for  cattle. 

simple  melodies  of  the  Swiss  moun- 
taineers, commonly  played  on  a  long 
trumpet  called  the  olpenhom.  They  con- 
sist of  a  few  simple  intervals,  and  have  a 
beautiful  effect  in  the  echoes  of  the  moun- 
tains. 

Kaoid  Eochettc.  «He.frr«*.^l?)! 

BaDOllO  (ri-pailO).  a  town  of  Italy, 
Miw^iMAv    pfoyince    of    Genoa,    on    a 

small  bay  Is  miles  B.  s.  e.  of  Genoa.  It 
is  a  winter  residence  for  persons  in  deli- 
cate health.  Pop.  5839. 
BaTIA  (>''lp)'  the  carnal  knowledge  of  a 
***™  woman  forcibly  and  against  her 
will.  By  the  English  law  this  crime  is 
felony,  and  is  punishable  with  penal 
serviti'-de  for  life.  In  the  United  States 
tbe  crime  is  treated  as  a  felony,  and  the 
punishment  is  imprisonment  for  life  or 
a  term  of  years. 

TIjUMt  a  division  of  the  county  of  Sus- 
**^tr^f  aex,  an  intermediate  division  be- 
tween a  hundred  and  a  shire,  and  con- 
taining three  or  four  hundreds.  The  like 
parts  in  other  countries  are  called 
tithings,  lathes,  or  wapentakes. 
Van*  (firoMtca  yapua),  a  plant  of  the 
^*^"  cabbage  family,  cultivattid  in 
Enrope  and  India  for  its  seeds,  from 
which  oil  is  extracted  by  grinding  ind 
praasure.  It  is  also  cultivated  in  Eng- 
uad  for  the  succulent  food  which  its  thick 
m4  fleehy  st«Q  tad  leaves  supply  to 


sheep  when  other  fodder  it  acarcc  The 
oil  obtained  from  the  seed,  whi^  is  mach 
tbe  same  aa  colsa  oil,  is  used  for  various 
economical  purpoaes,  as  for  burning  In 
lamps,  for  lubricating  machinery,  in  med- 
icine, etc.  Tlie  oil-cake  is  used  as  food 
for  sheep  and  cattle,  and  as  a  fertiliser. 
See  next  article. 

"RAn^-AAlrfk  <i  l><u^  cak*  formed  of 
AHjpe-vlUie,   ^^g    residue   of  the   seed 

and  busies  of  rape  after  the  oil  has  been 
expressed.  This  is  nsed  for  feeding  oxen 
and  sheep,  but  it  is  inferior  to  linseed 
cake  and  some  other  kinds  of  oil-cakes; 
it  is  also  used  as  a  rich  manure,  and  for 
this  purpose  it  is  imported  into  Britain 
in  large  quantities.  Bee  i£ap0. 
BAnhael  (r&'fa-el,  raf'a-el;  or  Rat- 
M*a>|MM»vj.   y^jjj^)    Sanzio  or  Santi, 

one  of  the  greatest  painters  that  ever 
lived,  was  born  at  Urbino,  April  6,  1488. 
His  father,  Giovanni  Saniio,  a  painter  of 
some  merit,  'rom  whom  young  Raphael 
received  bis  Urft  instruction,  died  in  1404, 
and  he  was  then  intrusted  to  the  care  of 
an  uncle.  His  studies,  however,  were 
not  interrupted,  and  at  the  early  age  of 
twelve  he  was  received  into  the  studio  of 
Perugino  at  Perugia  as  one  of  his  pupils, 
and  continued  with  that  celebrated 
painter  for  six  or  eight  years.  The 
pupil  was  soon  permitted  to  share  in  the 


Raphael   Ssniio. 

mnster's  work,  and  when  he  came  to 
paint  independently  he  was  seen  to  have 
acquired  Perugino's  manner.  About  this 
time  the  painting  of  the  library  of  the 
cathedral  at  Siena  was  intrusted  to 
Pinturicchio,  a  fellow-pupil,  and  Raphael 
is  said  to  have  assisted  in  the  work.  In 
1504  he  visited  his  native  town,  and 
while  there  painted  Chriat  Pnym§  oi» 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  a  8t.  Michael,  and  a 
8t,  fHoTQe,  the  last  two  of  which  are 


XapihMl 


BOW  in  the  Louvre.    Towardt  the  end  of 
the  eame  year  he  proceeded  to  Florence, 
attracted    thither  V    the   fame   of    ita 
nnmerona  artiata,  and  in  this  center  of 
the  hiriieat  artiatic  life  of  the  time  he 
atodiea  diligently  over  a  period  of  four 
year*,  with  short  intervals  of  return  to 
hia  native  city.     In  Florence  he  rapidly 
cained  a  wider  knowledge  of  hia  art,  and 
Boon  began  to  forsake  the  manner  which 
he    had    adopted    from    PeruKino.    The 
aouicea  from   which  he  sought  and  oi>- 
tained  the  artistic  knowledge  which  en- 
abled him  to  develop  his  new  style  were 
varioua.    From      Michael      Angelo      he 
learned  simplicity  and  strength  of  out- 
line, from  Leonardo  da  Vinci  he  acquired 
grace    of    expression    and    composition, 
while  from  Fra  Bartolommeo  he  gained 
a   subtler  depth  of  coloring,   and   from 
Masaccio  a  broader  treatmoit  of  drapery 
and   dramatic   effects.    During   the   last 
two   years  of  his  stay  in   Florence  he 
painted,  in  what  is  known  as  his  Floren- 
tine manner,  many  of  what  are  now  con- 
sidered  his  most   important   works.    Of 
auch  may  be  mentioned  the  Madonna  del 
Oran   Duoa    (Florence) ;    Madonna    del 
CHardino  (Vienna);  Holp  Family  (Mad- 
rid) ;  Chritt  Bearing  the  Cro»»( Madrid)  ; 
Marriage    of    Joaeph    and    the    Virgtn 
(Brera,   Milan)  ;    the   Ansidei  Madonna 
(National   Gallery)  ;   Madonna    (belong- 
ing to  Lord  Cowper)  ;   Tempi  Madonna 
(Munich);    and    the    Bridgewater    Ma- 
donna     (Bridgewater      House).    About 
this  time  Pope  Julius  II  had  employed 
Bramante  in  rebuilding  St.  Peter  s  and 
in    embellishing   the    Vatican,    in    which 
work    Raphael    was    invited    to    assist. 
Here  he  executed  the  Di»puta,  or  Dtt- 
pute  of  the  Fathert  of  the  Church,  m  the 
wall  of  the  second  chamber,  called  the 
ttanza  delta  Segnatura,  next  to  the  great 
hall    of    Constantine.    In    this   painting 
we  recognise  the  transition  to  his  third 
manner,  which  is  still  more  clearly  mani- 
fested in  the  Softool  of  Athent,  the  sec- 
ond painting  in   this  chamber.     Besides 
these    he    painted    as    Vatican    frescoes 
(150^11)     the     allegorical     figures     of 
Theologv,    PhUotophy,  Justice,   and   Po- 
etry,  in  the  comers  of  the  ceiling;  the 
Fall  of  Adam,   Astronomy,   Apollo   and 
Martyat,   and   Solomon's   Judgment,   all 
having   reference   to   the   four   principal 
figur«i  of  the  apartment;  and,  lastly,  on 
the  fourth  wall,  over  the  windows,  Pnt- 
denca,  Temperanoe,  and  Fortitude:  below 
them  the  Emperor  Justinian  DAi»«ring 
the  Roman  Lau)  to  Trihonian,  and  Qreg- 
ory  X  CUv^p  the  Decretals  to  an  Advo- 
cate, and  onder  them  Moses  and  an  armed 
allecorical    figure.    After    the   accession 
«C  toe  sew  nop«,  I,<eo  X,  Ba^iael  piUnted, 


In   the   ttaiimi  fBlioiore,  hia  Leo   Uf 
Cheat  Stopping  the  Progress  of  AHtm, 
the  DMveranee  of  Peter  from  Prkam, 
and,  on  the  ceiling,  Ifotet  Viewimg  ike 
Buruina  Bush,  tts  BuUiinp  of  the  Arit, 
the  Baerifiee  of  Isaac,  and  Jacob's  DreoM. 
With  the  Conflagration  of  the  Borgo  Ba- 
aiumisked  by  the  Prayers  of  Leo,  Raph- 
ael began  the  third  stanea  of  the  Vatican. 
It  was  followed   by   the  Coronation  of 
Charlemagne,   Leo   Ill's   Viniieation   of 
Himself    before    Charlemagne,    and    the 
Victory  of  Leo  IV  over  the   Saracena 
at  Ostla.    During  this  time  Raphael  pr»> 
pared    designs    for    several    palaces    In 
Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy  (notable 
among  which  were  the  series  of  deaigna 
in  the  Villa  Fameaina  to  illustrate  the 
story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche),  finislwd  the 
Madonna  for  the  church  of  St  Biztns 
in    Piacenza     (now    In    Dreaden),    and 
pahated    the    portraits    of    Beatrice    of 
Ferrara,  of  the  Fomarina,  of  Carondelet 
(now  in  England),  and  of  Count  Cas- 
tiglione.    It    was    probably    at    a    later 
period  that  Raphael  prepared  for  Aogn^ 
tino  Ghigl  designs  for  the  building  and 
decoration  of  a  chapel  in  Sta.  Maria  del 
Popolo   and   for   Leo   X   the  celebrated 
cartoons  for  the  tapestry  of  one  of  the 
chambers  of  the  Vatican.     Seven  of  these 
cartoons  are  now  in  the  South  Kenaing- 
ton  Museum.    To  this  period  also  belong 


his  easel-pieces  of  John  in  the  Desert  (m 
which  there  exist  several  copiea) ;  hia 
Ifad&nna  and  Child,  on  whom  an  angel 
is  strewing  flowers;  a  St.  Margaret 
(Louvre) :  the  Madonna  deUa  Seggiola 
(Florence),  and  Bt.  OecUia  (Bol<wna). 
Raphael's  last  and  unfinished  painting 
—  the  Transfiguration  of  Christ  —  la  in 
the  Vatican.  Attacked  by  a  violoit 
fever,  which  was  increased  by  improper 
treatment,  this  great  artist  died  at  the 
age  of  thirty-seven  years,  and  was  boded 
with  great  pomp  in  the  Pantheon.  His 
tomb  is  indicated  by  his  boat,  executed 
by  Naldini,  and  placed  there  by  Cario 
MarattL  His  blograiAy  has  been  written 
by  Vasarl,  B*nsell,  QoatremKre  de  Quincy, 
Paasavant,  Crowe  and  Cavakaselle,  and 
by  many  others.  He  died  at  Rome,  April 
6,  1520. 

n.fl.nyia.Bifl.  (  ™-^ '  ni  -  a  ) ,  a  diaeaae 
Jtapnaua  attended  with  spaam  of 
the  joints,  trembling,  etc.,  not  uncommon 
hi  Germany  and  Sweden,  and  said  to 
arise  from  eating  the  seeds  of  BaphAnms 
Raphhanisirum,  or  field  radiah,  which 
often  get  mixed  up  with  com. 

BapUniu.    8««  B«di.». 

BaDhe  ,(«''•)._,»»»  boUny,  the  vaacn- 
**~r***'  lar  cord  communicating  be- 
tween the  nucleua  of  an  ovule  and  the 


Baphia 


BmM 


(riacentt,  when  tlw  bcM  of  tb*  fomwr 
u  r«noT«d  from  tb«  btM  of  tho  omlum. 
»«nlti«  (trfi-«),  a  tmxa  of  palms, 
**P"**  rather  low  trwa  with  Im- 
menae  leavea,  inhabitinf  swampy  coasts. 
R.  vwifin,  a  native  of  W.  Africa,  Mad- 
agascar, Polynesia,  etc.,  besides  yielding 
palm-wine,  supplies  materials  for  the 
roofs  and  other  parts  of  houses,  for 
baalcet  and  other  works,  etc.  The  R. 
tadigira  is  equally  useful ;  and  the  R. 
or  8tt0ua  Rumo,  a  palm  of  Madagascar, 
yields  sago.  The  fiber  of  these  palms  is 
known  in  Europe  as  rapi^Ja  or  ra0a,  and 
is  used  for  matting,  for  tying  up  plants, 
etc.  See  also  Jupati  Palm. 
PanYiiH^x  (  rafi-des ),  a  term  ap- 
AapmaeS   ^„^     ^^  \^i     crysUlllne 

formations  occurring  in  plant  cells.  They 
consist  of  oxalate,  carbonate,  sulphate, 
or  phosphate  of  lime. 

Eapid-Firc  Gun,  ;„irhr°fr^m '" 

machine-gun  by  the  fact  that  the  former 
is  loaded  by  hand,  and  may  be  fired  by 
hand  or  machinery.  Generally  it  is  of 
larger  caliber  and  has  but  one  barrel, 
while  the  machine-gun  may  have  more. 
The  Hotcbkiss  varies  in  caliber  from 
the  1-pounder  1.46  in.,  to  the  100-pounder 
a  10  in.  The  Driggs-Schroeder  was  in- 
vented in  the  United  States  and  is  very 
effective.  The  Nordenfeldt  is  another 
type.  The  Maxim  is  a  semi-automatic 
gun,  t.  e,,  after  the  fin^  fire  all  the 
operations  are  performed  by  the  gun  it- 
self, except  the  insertion  of  the  cart- 
ridge by  hand.  Other  notable  types  are 
the  Armstrong,  Canet,  Gruson  and 
Krupp.  The  caliber  of  rapid  fire  guns 
has  been  increased  until  the  vessels  of 
the  United  States  navy  are  equipped  with 

§un8  of  this  type  of  4,  5,  and  6  in.  bore, 
ee  Cannon,  Machine-Oun,  etc. 
BATlier  (ra'pl-^r),  a  light,  highly- 
'"^tr  ^  tempered,  edgeless  aud  finely- 
pointed  weapon  of  the  sword  kind  used 
for  thrusting.  It  is  about  3  feet  in 
length,  and  was  long  a  favorite  weapon 
for  duels.  Its  use  now,  however,  is  re- 
stricted to  occasions  of  state  ceremonial. 
iRftDD     ^'^^^^    ^^  HarmonUU. 

"Rajm  <™P^>  J>tAW,  Count,  a  French 
*"^r*'  general,  was  born  at  Colmar  in 
1772,  and  in  1788  entered  the  military 
service.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war 
against  Austria,  in  1805,  he  accompanied 
Napoleon  as  aide-de-camp  at  the  battle 
of  Austerlits.     He  died  in  1821. 

Kappahannock  i  ™r/e'r''"f°°vii: 

ginia,  which  rises  in  the  Blue  Ridge, 
runs  E.  s.  E.  about  130  miles,  and  flows 
into    Chesapeake    Bay.     It    passes    the 


towna  of  Falmouth,  Fradarkkabnrg,  Port 
Royal,  asd  Lsods,  and  is  navigable  to 
Frederkkabarg,  110  miles. 
V^nn**  (ra-pS'),  a  strong  kind  of 
*»PP««  snuflTof  either  a  black  or  a 
brown  color,  made  from  the  ranker  and 
darker  kind  of  tobacco  leaves. 

EappoltiweUer  {o^^'^jroSiny'! 

in  Upper  Alsace,  at  the  foot  of  the  Vos- 
ges  Mountains.     Pop.  6008. 
'RiLntnr#«    (raptft'res),  birds  of  prey, 
AapiOreS   ^^„  •'^^p^     „,     birds,     also 

called  Aecipitre;  including  those  which 
live  on  other  birds  and  animals,  and  are 
characterised  by  a  strong,  curved,  sharp- 


BAFTOKSS. 

A.  Foot  of  Peregrine  Falcon.     B.  Head  of 
Bustard. 

edged,  and  sharp-pointed  beak,  and  robust 
short  legs,  with  three  toes  before  and  one 
behind,  armed  with  long,  strong,  and 
crooked  talons.  The  eagles,  vultures, 
falcons,  and  owls  are  examples. 

Baratonsra  (r*-«*-to°'?a).  of  R^^ 

^^  "  »"  TONGA,  an  island  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean,  belonging  to  the 
group  of  the  Hervey  Islands.  It  is  about 
30  miles  in  circuit,  and  consisting  of  a 
mass  of  mountains,  becomes  visible  at  a 
great  distance,  ana  has  a  very  romantic 
appearance.  The  inhabitants,  about 
4000,  have  been  converted  to  Christianity. 

BAritftn.  ^  '  *  ''■"*  *  °  ^ »  *  river  of 
■^^  New  Jersey,   formed   by   two 

branches  which  unitedly  flow  s.  E.,  and 
fall  into  Raritan  Bay  near  Perth  Am- 
boy.  It  is  navigable  as  far  as  New 
Brunswick. 

Voa  an  Arabic  word  signifying  '  head,' 
^^^  prefixed  to  the  names  of  promon- 
tories or  capes  on  the  Arabian  and  Afri- 
can coasts. 

TlAacrrftrl  (rilz'grat),  a  town  of  Bul- 
ASB^rtia         j^   34  ^jij^g  southeast  of 

Rustchuk.  Pop.  13,871. 
Pflgli  an  eruption  of  red  patches  on 
'  the  skin,  diffused  irregularly 
over  the  body.  The  eruption  is  usuallj 
accompanied  with  a  general  disorder  of 
the  constitution,  and  terminetes  in  a 
few  days. 

•Raalii     (rash'i),  properly  Rabbi  Sauv 

UON-BEN-ISAAK,  a  great  Jewish 

rabbi,  bom  at  Troyes,  France,  in  1040; 


Badit 


dkd  in  1106.  Hi»  flnt  iiutrpctor  in 
Talmodic  literature  waa  bis  fatiier,  wlio 
WM  chief  rabbi  at  Worme.  To  perfect 
bis  Imowledge  be  made  extensive  journeys 
throngb  Italy,  Greece,  Palestine,  Egypt, 
Persia,  and  Germany,  wbere  be  was 
particular  in  visiting  tbe  towns  wWcb 
possessed  learned  Jewish  schools.  Uis 
most  famous  work  is  a  Commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch;  he  also  wrote  commen- 
taries on  the  PropheU,  tbe  Talmud,  and 
various  treatises  on  miscellaneous  sub- 
jects. 

Easht.  ^  '*"**• 


HaA    Rasmus  CJhkistian,  a^  Danish 
***'"*■»   philologist,  born  in   1787;  died 
in  1832.     After  be  had  studied  at  the 
University   of   Copenhagen  he  journeyed 
through  Sweden,  Russia,  and  Iceland  to 
increase  his  knowledge  of  northern  lan- 
guages, with  the  result  that  be  published 
An  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  the 
Ictiandic  or  Old  Norae  Tongue  (1811)  : 
an  edition  of  Haldorsen's  Icelandic  Dic- 
tionary    (1817)  ;    and    an    Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar  (1817).     In  1817-22  be  made, 
at  the  expense  of  the  government,  a  sec- 
ond journey  to  Russia,  Persia,  and  India. 
He  then  returned  to  Copenhagen  in  1822, 
was  appointed  professor  of  literary  his- 
tory  and   subsequently   professor  of  ori- 
ental languages  and  librarian  to  the  uni- 
versity.    During  this  period  he  published 
a    Spanish    Grammar,    a    work    on    th« 
Frisian  language,  and  a  treatise  on  the 
Zendave$ta,  in  which  he  showed  that  the 
language  was  closely  akin  to  Sanskrit. 
VoaVnlTiilrs    ( ras-kol'niks ;      Russian, 
HaSKOiniKS     KatkoMki.  from  makol, 
schism) ,  the  collective  name  given  to  tha 
adherents    of     the    dissenting    sects    in 
Russia,  which  have  originated  by  seces- 
sion from  the  state  church.    Tbe  great 
majority   of    these   sects   date   originally 
from  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century, 
when  the  liturgical  books,  etc..  were  re- 
vised   under   the    patriarch    Nikon.    The 
Raskolniks  clung  fanatically  to  the  old 
and  corrupted   texts,  and  regarding  the 
czar  and  the  patriarch  as  the  representa- 
tives   of    Antichrist,    called     themselves 
Staro-obryadtty  (old  ritualists)  or  Staro- 
vertty     (followers    of    the    old    faith). 
They  Iiave  tplit  up  into  a  laree  number 
of  sects,  whioh  may  be  grouped  generally 
in  two  classes;  those  who  have  a  priest- 
hood,  and    those   who   have   none.    The 
tendoicy   of  the   Raskolniks   is   commu- 
nistic;   anu    they    have    done    much    to 
spread   Russian   influence   by   advancing 
colonies  on  tne  outskirts  of  the  empire. 
They  have  undergone  much  persecution 
at  the  Iiands  of  the  government,  but  are 
now  genemlly  unmolested.    They  inclndt 


aboui,  one-third  of  tbe  mercliant  class, 
•sd  nearly  all  the  Cossacks,  but  none 
of  tbe  noble  or  cultivated  class.  Their 
numbers  are  variously  estimated  at  from 
3  to  11  millions;  tbe  last  number  is  per- 
haps  not  far  from  the  truth. 
TrAiAms  (ra-s6'r«B),  gallinaceous 
**■*'"■  birds  or  scratcheis,  an  or- 
der of  birds  comprising  the  suborders 
Gallinacei,  or  fowls,  tnfteys,  Mrtridges, 
grouse,  etc.,  and  tbe  Columbacei,  or 
pigeons  which  are  often  made  a  distinct 
oraer.  The  common  domestic  fowl  may 
be  regarded  as  the  type  of  the  order. 
They  are  characterised  by  the  toes  termi- 
nating in  strong  claws,  for  scratching 
up  seeds,  etc.,  and  by  the  upper  mandible 
being  vaulted,  with  tbe  nostrils  pierced 
in  a  membranous  space  at  its  base,  and 


covered  by  a  cartilaginous  scale.  The 
rasorlal  birds  are,  as  a  rule,  polygamous 
in  habits;  tbe  pigeons,  however,  present 
an    exception    to    this    rule,    and    their 

Soung  are  also  produced  featherleas  and 
elpless.  ,       .  „.     .    ^  . 

Ha  an  a  coarse  species  of  file,  but  hay- 
•■*'*"*r»  Ing,  instead  of  chisel-cut  teeth, 
its  surface  dotted  with  separate  protrud- 
ing teeth,  formed  by  the  indentations  of 
a  pointed  punch. 

HoanTiArrir  (raz'ber-i),  the  fruit  of 
Aaspoerry  j,j^  well-known  shrubby 
plant  Rubua  Idaus,  natural  order  Ro- 
saces, and  tbe  plant  itself,  which  is  of 
the  same  genus  as  the  bramble  or  black- 
berry, dewberry,  and  cloudberry.  It  is  a 
native  of  Britain  and  most  of  fhirope  as 
well  as  Asia.  Species  arc  also  found  in 
America.  Several  varieties  are  cultivated, 
either  red,  flesh-colored,  or  yellow.  Rasp- 
berries are  much  used  in  cookery  and  con- 
fectionery, and  the  juice,  mixed  with  a 
certain  portion  of  sugar  and  brandy,  con- 
stitutes the  liquor  called  ratpherry 
brandy.  Raspberry  vinegar,  a  refreshing 
summer  beverage  and  cooling  drink  for 
invalids.  Is  composed  of  raspberry  juice.' 
vinegar,  and  sugar. 

Pa  awn  fill  Gregobt.  a  Russian  monk, 
Aaspnim,  y^^^  ^^  Petrovsky,  Siberia, 
about  1870.  Although  of  peasant  origin, 
he  made  his  way  into  society  circles  in 
Petrngrad.  and  oven  became  intimate  with 
Emperor  Nicholas,  over  whom  he  was 
held  to  exercise  mystic  powers.  He  was 
believed  to  lead  an  immoral  life,  and  was 
stabbed  by  a  woman  friend  of  a  girl  be 
had  betrayed,  but  recovered  by  aid  of  the 
Emperor's  physician.  He  was  assassi- 
nated in  1916  by  enemies  who  feared  his 
influence  over  the  Csar. 
PAawk  (ws;  Viverra  Malaeeeneu),  n 
**"'""^  carnivorous  quadruped,  closely 
allied  to  the  dvet,  spread  over  a  great 
extent  of  Asia,  including  Java,  various 


BMtadt 


Batel 


put*  of  India,  Singapore,  Nopil.  and 
otlior  loealltict.  lu  perfume,  wbicli  is 
Mcteted  in  a  double  pouch  like  that  of 
Ihe  eiyet,  la  mudt  valued  by  the  Javaneae. 
For  its  lake  the  animal  ia  often  kept  in 
captivity.  It  i>  eavage  and  irriuble, 
and  when  provoked  can  inflict  a  very 
ievere  bite. 

£2gf|^t  (ri'etat),  or  Rastatt,  a 
jMMvnuv    ^^y^fj^  ju  ^1,^  grand-duchy  of 

Baden,  on  the  river  Murg,  about  15  milea 
■onthweat  from  Carlaruhe.  Ita  only 
notable  building  ia  the  old  caatle  of  the 
Marcravea  of  Baden,  and  it  derivea  ita 
chief  modem  importance  from  being  a 
atrong  fortreaa  commanding  the  Black 
Foreat  Pop.  (190B)  14,404. 
Vflt  one  of  the  rodent  mammalia, 
*•  »  forming  a  typical  example  of  the 
family  MuridiB  or  mice.  The  t>e8t 
known  apeciea  are  the  (ao-called)  Nor- 
way or  brown  rat  (Mut  decumUnus) ,  and 
the  true  Engliah  or  black  rat  (Mut 
ratiua).  The  brown  rat  grows  to  about 
0  inchea  in  length,  baa  a  shorter  tail  than 
the  other,  amall  ears,  is  of  a  brownish 
color  above  and  white  below,  and  ia  alto- 

Sither  a  much  larger  and  stronger  animal, 
uppoaed  to  have  belonged  originally  to 
Inola  and  China,  it  l>ecame  known  in 
Europe  only  about  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century;  but  it  is  now  found  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  habitable  globe,  and 
where  It  baa  found  a  footing  the  black 
rat  haa  diaappeared.  It  is  a  voracious 
omnivorous  animal,  awims  readily  in 
water,  breeda  four  or  five  times  in  the 
year,  each  brood  numbering  about  a 
doaen,  and  theae  again  breed  in  about 
six  montha.  The  black  rat  is  usually 
about  7  inchea  in  length,  has  a  sharper 
heed  than  the  other,  larger  ears,  and  a 
much  longer  tail.  It  is  much  less  nu- 
meroua  than  the  brown  rat  and  more 
timid.  To  thia  Uut  rattua  variety  be- 
longa  the  white  raL  which  is  sometimes 
kept  aa  a  household  pet  Various  other 
animals  are  called  rats.  The  rat  is  now 
believed  to  disseminate  the  germ  of  the 
bubonic  plague,  and  great  numbers  have 
lieen  killed  in  places  where  this  disease 
haa  appeared.  See  Kangaroo-rat,  Mole- 
rmt,  lliak-rat,  and  Vole. 
•Rafa  (ra'ta),  a  New  Zealand  tree. 
^^  See  Metronderot. 
Hafofla  ( rat-a-fe'a ) ,  a  fine  spirituous 
xtrMLMiiin  liquor  flavored  with  the  ker- 
nels of  several  kinds  of  fruits,  particu- 
larly of  cherries,  apricots,  and  peaches. 
Ratafia,  in  France,  is  the  generic  name 
of  liquors  compounded  with  alcohol, 
sugar,  and  the  odoriferous  and  flavoring 
prmd^ea  of  plaata 
BTltfT*^     ^^  ^^^''^  CoiMt. 


BAtftnv  (rafa-ni;  Krameria  irUnt' 
*■*"•*"'  «ro),  a  shrubby  plant  found 
in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  having  an  excea- 
aiveiy  aatringent  root.  It  ia  aometimea 
used  as  an  astringent  medicine  in  paaaing 
bloody  or  mucous  diachargea,  weakness 
of  the  digeative  organs,  and  even  in  putrid 
fevers.  It  baa  ailver-gray  foliage  and 
pretty  red  atariike  flowera.  Written  alao 
Rhatmny. 

Patehet  (»ch'et),  an  arm  or  piece 
MWkvvuvw  jjj  mechaniem  one  extremity 
of  which  abuta  againat  the  teeth  of  a 
ratchet-wheel ;  called  alao  a  dick,  pawl, 
or  detent.  If  employed  to  move  the 
wheel  it  ia  called  a  paUet.  See  next 
article. 

BAtchet-whccl,  ;,J^%«',  lli^. 

lar  teeth,  againat  which  a  ratchet  abuta, 
used  either  for  converting  a  reciprocating 
into  a  rotary  motion  on  the  shaft  to 
which  it  is  fixed,  or  for  admitting  of 
circular  motion  in  one  di- 
rection only,  as  in  a 
winch,  a  capstan,  etc. 
For  l>oth  purposes  an  ar- 
rangement is  employed  I 
similar  to  that  shown  in 
the  figure,  in  which  a  is 
the  ratchet-wheel,  b  a  re- 
ciprocating lever,  to  the 
end  of  which  is  joined 
the  small  ratchet  or  pal- 
let c.  This  ratchet,  when 
the  lever  is  moved  in  one 
direction,  elides  over  the 
teeth,  but  in  returning  draws  the  wheel 
with  it.  The  other  ratchet  d  permits  of 
the  motion  of  the  wheel  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrow,  but  oppoaea  its  movement 
in  the  other  direction. 
S,atel  (rft'tel),  or  Honst-badoer,  a 
*^  *^  carnivorous  quadruped  of  the 
genua  ilellivoraj  and  of  the  badger 
family,  found  chiefly  in  South  and  East 
Africa,  and  in  India.     The  Cape  or  South 


Ratrhet-wheel. 


Honey-ratel  IMeU^Zra  rvM). 


Afiican  rate!  (M.  ratel)  averages  about 
3  feet  in  length,  including  the  tail,  whi<* 
measures  8  or  9  inches  in  length.  The 
fur  is  thick  and  coarse,  the  oolor  is  Uadc 


BathMiow 


Ititiftiitl^fiH 


<Mi  the  oodtr  parts,  on  the  moiile,  and 
iimbe,  while  the  tail,  uyper  lurface, 
•idee,  and  necli  are  of  grajriah  hue.  It 
is  celebrated  for  the  destruction  it  makes 
among  the  nests  of  the  wild  bee,  to  the 
honey  of  which  it  is  very  partial. 
^tliAnour     or     Kathknau     (rft'ta- 

province  of  Brandenburg.  alMut  44 
miles  w.  and  by  K.  of  Berlin,  on  the 
Havel.  It  has  a  church  of  the  14th  and 
16th  centuries,  and  various  manufactures, 
especially  of  optical  instruments,  wooden 
wares,  machinery,  etc.  Pop.  23,0i)5. 
nAflilmalA  (rath-kel').  a  market 
Aain&eaie  ^^wn  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Limerick,  on  the  Deel,  about 
10  miles  southwest  of  Limerick.  Pop. 
2549. 

Puflilin  (rath'lin),  or  Rachlik,  an 
XMbJUiu     jgjg^jj  pj  Ireland,  belonging 

to  the  county  of  Antrim,  5  miles  N.  of 
Ballvcastle.  On  it  are  the  remains  of  a 
castle  in  which  Robert  Bruce  took  refuge 
when  driven  from  Scotland  in  1300.  The 
island  is  about  Hi  miles  long  by  IJ 
broad. 

Patihor  (ra'te-bOr),  a  town  of  Prus- 
MAbxuvx    gjjj^    jjj    ,j,g    government   and 

40  miles  s.  s.  E.  of  Oppeln,  on  the  loft 

bank  of  the  Oder,  about  10  miles  from  the 

Austrian  frontier.     It  lias  a  gymnasium 

and  deaf  and   dumb  institute,  etc. ;  and 

manufactures    of    machinery    and    other 

iron  goods,  sugar,  paper,  glass,  tobacco, 

etc.     Pop     (190B)    32.G90. 

1lil.tifiefl.tion  (  rat-i-fi-ka'shun  ) ,  in 
Aauucutiuu    j3^^    j|,g    confirmation 

or  approval  given  by  a  person  arrived 
at  majority  to  acts  done  by  him  during 
minority,  and  which  has  the  effect  of 
establishing  the  validity  of  the  act  which 
would  otherwise  have  Ijeen  voidable. 
Patio  (r&'shi-d),  the  numerical  meaa- 
^^  ure  which  one  quantity  hears  to 

another  of  the  same  kind.  espreaMd  by 
the  number  found  by  dividing  the  one 
by  the  other.  The  ratio  of  oae  <^oandty 
to  another  is  by  some  mathematiciaits  re- 
gaided  as  the  quotient  obtained  by  divid- 
ing the  second  quantity  by  the  first;  by 
others,  as  the  quotient  obtained  by  divid- 
ing the  first  bj  the  second ;  thus  the  ratio 
of  2  to  4  or  «  to  b  may  be  called  either 

1  and  -ror-a  and  —     Propertioo,  in  the 

aMtbematical  sense,  has  to  do  with  the 
comparison  of  ratios,  proportion  being 
the  equality  wr  similarity  of  ratioa. 
Ratio  in  the  above  aeeae  is  aamftinsss 
called  99ometrie^  rati*,  in  o^o^tioa  t* 
mritkm*ti<ml  ratio,  w  the  «UKreee«  be- 
twem  two  qnantities.  BmHo  is  ef  vari- 
o«B  kinda:   C«mp9mmi  rm$io.    Wiwa  the 


one  quantity  Is  connactad  with  two  othan 
In  such  a  manner  that  if  tha  iint  bt  in- 
creased or  diminiahed  tha  product  of  tba 
other  two  is  increased  or  diminiahad  in 
the  same  proportion,  then  the  lint  qoan- 
tity  is  said  to  be  in  the  ooffipoaiid  rmtio 
of  the  other  two. —  Direct  ratio.  Whaa 
two  quantities  or  magnitudes  have  •  cer- 
tain ratio  to  each  other,  and  are  at  the 
same  time  subject  to  increew  or  diminn* 
tion,  if  while  one  increaaes  the  other  In- 
creases in  the  same  ratio,  or  if  while  one 
diminishes  the  other  diminishes  in  the 
same  ratio,  the  proportions  or  compari- 
sons of  ratios  remain  unaltered,  and  those 
quantities  or  magnitudes  are  said  to  be 
in  a  direct  ratio  or  proportion  to  each 
other. —  Inverte  ratio.  When  two  quan- 
tities or  magnitudes  are  such  that  whan 
one  increases  the  other  necessarily  di- 
minishes, and  vice  versa  when  tba  one 
diminishes  the  other  increases,  tha  ratio 
or  proportion  is  said  to  be  invertt. 
BAtion.  (r&'shun),  in  the  armr  and 
■^^  navy,    the   allowance  of  pro- 

visions given  to  each  officer,  non-commia- 
sioned  officer,  private,  and  sailor. 

Nationalism   5™ffi;Tffl^iiii.2: 

the  prerogative  and  right  of  reasftn  to 
decide  on  all  matters  of  faith  and  morale 
whatever  so-called  '  authority '  may  have 
to  say  on  the  matter.  Rationalism  has 
had  perhaps  its  chief  center  and  wideat 
success  in  Germany;  but  its  source  may 
fitly  be  found  in  the  English  deim  of 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
The  first  step  taken  by  the  English  deists 
was  to  attempt  to  eliminate  from  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  whatever  ia  above 
the  comprehension  of  human  reasoop;  their 
next  step  was  to  discard  from  Christian- 
ity whatever  in  the  way  of  fact  was 
such  as  could  not  be  verified  by  any  man'a 
experience,  and  this  led  to  an  attempt  to 
get  rid  or  Ckristwnity  alt<^ether.  Ocr- 
mam  ratiooaMsB  was  also  influenced  by 
the  writings  ti  Tahaire,  the  Encyclo- 
pedwts,  and  tke  skeptical  freedom  of 
thoagfat  wUdi  obtaiaad  among  tha 
PreiKh  mvamtt  at  the  coart  (1740-86) 
of  Fredarick  the  Great  It  majr  be  said 
to  have  bcgtm  with  the  tnoalatka  into 
QemaB  af  TindaTk  Ckristiamtp  m  aid 
m  the  Crmtion  (1741),  the  appHcatiaB 
of  a  ratioBalktir  method  by  ProfiMnr 
Wolf,  of  Halle  CMversity,  to  the  philai 
phy  of  Uibnita  (1738^50),  and  tka  a*> 
vent  of  Prederick  the  Great.  The  ii  ^ 
moremeats  <rf  rationalism  were  fa 


np  by  such  spholars  and  theoloriaaa  aa 
Ebrrbard,  Eiehhom.  Paulus,  TeDac,  aai 
BtoWMart.  WHh  the  beginning  af  the 
itb  cmmrf,  bswever,  a  aaw  da- 
acearred,  vtea  SchManaacbet 


Bfttitbon 


Xattmi 


Jtubliahed  in  1790  his  DitcourtM  on  £•- 
foJoN.  In  his  tMcbinc  Im  souf  ht  to  «•■ 
tsblish  a  distinction  between  the  dry 
rationalism  of  the  anderatanding  and  the 
spiritual  rationalism  of  what  he  called  the 
rallgious  consdouBoesB.  Instead  of  ac- 
ccptinf  the  Old  and  New  TesUmcnts  as 
the  supreme  standard  of  relisious  truth 
Bchleiermacher  rec<vnised  them  as  only 
the  recorded  consciousness  of  the  early 
church;  instead  of  finding  in  revelation 
a  divine  mode  of  conveying  doctrine,  he 
found  it  to  be  that  illumination  which 
the  human  mind  receives  from  historical 
personages  who  have  a  genius  for  re- 
ligion. In  this  form  of  reconstructive 
rationalii^m  he  was  followed  by  De  Wette. 
Fries  and  Jacobi,  and  this  second  period 
continued  until  1835.  In  this  year 
Strauss  published  his  Leben  Jen  ('Life 
of  Jesus ' ) ,  a  work  in  which,  from  the 
Hegelian  standpoint,  and  in  a  destruc- 
tive spirit,  he  discusses  the  origin  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  movement  which 
ttiis  originated  h::s  talien  a  tendency 
which  is  chiefly  associated  with  scientific 
materialism,  agnosticism,  etc.,  and  ration- 
alism as  a  distinctive  phase  of  religious 
controversy  may  l>e  said  to  have  then 
ceased 

P-sfiaTinn  (  rat'is  -  l>on ;  German,  Re- 
JMIMDOU  gentburg),  a  town  of  Ba- 
varia, capital  of  the  province  of  Ober- 
pfalz  or  Upper  Palatinate,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite  the 
junction  of  the  Regen,  (i5  miles  a.  N.  E. 
of  Munich  and  53  miles  8.  E.  of  Nurem- 
l>erg ;  1010  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  very 
irregularly  built,  and  the  streets  are 
generally  narrow  and  winding.  The 
houses*  are  more  remarkable  for  their 
venerable  appearance  than  for  arehitec- 
turai  merit,  though  some  of  them  are 
imposing,  having  once  l>een  residences  of 
the  mediKval  nobles,  and  having  towers 
intended  for  defensive  purposes.  There 
are,  however,  several  spacious  and  hand- 
some streets  and  squares,  and  numerous 
fountains.  Tho  most  remarkable  public 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  founded  in 
1275,  restored  in  18riO-38,  a  noble  ex- 
ample of  German  Gothic,  with  a  lofty 
and  imposing  front,  flanked  by  two  towers 
with  open-work  spires,  and  having  a 
richly-sculptured  portal;  the  Rathhaus, 
where  the  German  diet  held  its  sittings 
from  1646  to  1806;  the  Romanesque 
church  of  St.  Emmeran;  the  palace  of 
the  princes  of  Thurn  and  Taxis  (formerly 
abbey  of  St.  Emmeran)  ;  the  ducal 
and  episcopal  palace,  the  royal  villa,  the 
mint,  theator,  synagogue,  public  library, 
antiquarian  museum,  picture-gallery,  etc. 
The  suburb  Stadt  am  Hof,  on  the  op- 
•aaite  bank  of  the  Danube,  is  connected 


with  Ratisbon  by  an  old  stone  bridge. 
The  mannfacturas  embrace  lead  and 
colored  pencils,  porcelain  and  stoneware, 
hosiery,  woolen  cloth,  leather,  machinery, 
hardware,  gloves,  sugar,  and  tobacca 
There  are  also  breweries  and  other  works. 
The  river  trade  is  important.  About  tf 
miles  to  the  east  is  the  celebrated  Wal- 
halla  (which  see).  Ratisbon  existed 
under  the  Celtic  name  of  Radatbona  in 
pre-Roman  times,  and  was  a  Roman 
frontier  fortress  under  the  name  of 
Vrj)tra  Regina.  SulMequently  it  became 
the  residence  of  the  old  dukes  of  Bavaria, 
rose  to  the  rank  of  an  imperial  city,  and 
continued  long  to  be  the  chosen  seat  of 
the  imperial  diets.  TLe  sieges  which  i 
has  stood  number  no  less  than  seven- 
teen. Pop.  (1010)  .'S2,624. 
Pa4-itw  (ra-tl'te),  Huxley's  second 
BMUW  division  of  the  class  of  Aves 
or  birJi,  the  other  two  being  the  Saurune 
and  Carinatte.  See  Ornithology. 
Votlam  (  rat'lam  ),  .i  native  Indian 
**•"*■'**' state,  governed  by  a  rajah 
and  under  the  British  Central  Indian 
Agency ;  area,  729  so.  miles ;  pop.  87,314. 
It  has  a  capital  of  the  same  name,  which 
is  the  center  at  the  Malwa  opium  trade. 
Pop.  36,321. 

SAtlinM  (rat'lins),  small  lines 
AaiUUes  ^^|p^  traverse  the  shrouds 
of  a  ship  horizontally,  at  r^lar  dis- 
tances of  about  15  to  16  inches,  from  the 
deck  upwards,  forming  a  variety  of  lad- 
dera  reaching  to  the  mast-heads. 

Aaiua^n  ^j^^  district  of  India  in 
the  Konkan  division  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency.  Are-,  3922  sq.  miles;  pop. 
1,167,927. —  Ratnaoibi,  the  capital,  on 
the  Malabar  coast,  170  miles  a.  of  Bom- 
bay.   Pop.  16,094. 

Paf^TioIr*  a  snake  destitute  of  poi- 
Aai-BUaKe,    ^^     j^^g,    (Coryphodon 

BlumenhachH),  domesticated  in  Ceylon 
on  account  of  its  usefulness  in  killing 
rats.  It  can  easily  be  tamed. 
SAttO-Ti  (ra-tan'),  the  commereial 
Mia  b  bait  name  for  the  long  trailing 
stems  of  various  species  of  palm  of  the 
genus  Caldmut,  such  as  C.  Rotang,  C. 
rudentum,  C.  verua,  etc.,  forming  a  con- 
siderable article  of  export  from  India 
and  the  Elastera  Archipelago.  They 
have  all  perennial,  long,  round,  solid, 
jointed,  unbranching  stems,  extremely 
tough  and  pliable.  All  the  species  are 
very  useful,  and  are  employed  for  wicker- 
work,  seats  of  chain,  waiking-stiiks, 
thongs,  ropes,  cables,  etc. 

Kattany.    se«  «•««.«»• 

PAttftyH  (rat-tat's«),  Ubbaicc  an 
*********  Italian   sUtesman,   bon     in 


IMS,  died  In.  18IS.  Ht  practlasd  at  an 
ajticaf  in  hia  native  Piedmont ;  Ui  1848 
«M  retnraed  a*  deputjr  to  the  Cliamber 
at  Turin;  became  leader  of  the  demo- 
cratic party,  minister  of  »h*J  Interior,  and 
in  1Mb  practically  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. He  became  rromiuenily  uniK>pu- 
lar  In  1862  on  account  of  hU  opj)08ition 
to  Garibaldi's  advauce  on  Home. 
ITAtflMTialce  (rat'l^nait),  a  name  of 
Aai)MCBUaA.c  V  a  r  i  o  u  H  venomous 
American  maka  of  the  genus  CroiUlus, 
family  CrotnlidiE,  diuinRuished  from  the 
ether  members  of  the  family  by  the  tail 
terminating  in  a  series  of  articulated 
homy  pieces,  which  the  animal  vibratci 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  malie  a  rattling 
sound.  The  function  of  the  'rattle 
is  dubious.  The  rattlesnake  la  one  of 
the  most   deadly   of  poisonous  serpents, 


Rsttletnake  (Crotalus  durissus) 


but  hogs  and  peccaries  kill  and  eat  it, 
finding  protection  In  the  tliitkness  of 
chelr  hides  and  the  depth  of  their  layers 
of  fat.  A  number  of  species  belong  to 
the  United  States  and  Mexico.  East  of 
the  Mississippi  the  C.  horridua,  or  banded 
rattlesnake,  is  the  best  known  and  most 
dreaded  species.  It  Is  naturally  a  slug- 
gish animal,  ready  to  defend  it-self  but 
seldom  commencing  the  attack.  It  feeds 
on  mts,  squirrels,  small  rabbits,  etc..  and 
reaches  a  length  of  5  or  G  feet.  Other 
species  are  the  C.  duriaaua,  or  striped 
rattlesnake,  found  from  Mexico  to  Brazil ; 
C.  adamanteut,  the  diamond  rattlesnake; 
C.  lucifer,  tlie  western  black  rattle- 
snake; V.  confiuentus,  the  prairie  rattle- 
snake; C.  cerastes,  the  homed  rattlesnake 
of  the  American  deserts.  Other  rattle 
snakes  belong  to  the  allied  genus  Candi- 
sona,  as  C.  tergemina,  the  black  rattle- 
snake; C.  mUiria,  the  ground  rattlesnake. 

Eattlesnake-root,  J.rri^/'^S'n 

American  plant  used  to  cure  tlie  bite  of 
the  nttleiiiake. 
2»— U— 6 


Battleinakcweed,  ^Int^'K'ig 

tint  vWginitmm,  used  as  a  cure  for  the  bite 
of  the  rattlesnake.  .    , 

Vannli     (ron*),  Chrihttan,  one  of  the 
jMkUUU    mQgj  distinguished  of  Oerman 
sculptors,  bom  at  Arolsen  in  1777;  died 
In   1857.     lie  received  some   Instructions 
from  the  sculptor  Uuhl,  at  Cassei,  after- 
wards proccj'dpd  to  Berlin  to  act  as  one  of 
the    royal    lackors,    modeled    a    bust    of 
the  queen,   and   in   1804  went   to  Rome, 
where     he    made     the     acquaintance     oj 
Thorwaldsen   and   Canova,   and   obtained 
the  patronage  of  Wilhehu  von  Humboldt. 
He  received   an  Invitation  in   1811   from 
the   king  of   I'russia   to  design   a   monu- 
ment of  (Juoen  Louisa,  and   produced   a 
noble    work    which    established    the   fame 
of   the  artist.     From   this   time  onwards 
he  was  the  sculptor  of  an  Immense  num- 
ber of  works  In  all  the  branches  of  the 
statuary  art.     He  was  especially  great  in 
ideal  figures  aud  In  p/rtralture.     Among 
his    chefs    d'    ecitvre   may    be    mentioned 
the  monument  of  King  Frederick  William 

III  and  Queen  Louisa  In  the  Charlotten- 
burg  mausoleum,  the  colossal  equestrian 
statue  of  Frederick  the  Great  at  Berlin. 
having  the  base  surrounded  by  groups  of 
his  most  distinguished  contemporaries, 
and  forming  altogether  one  of  the  most 
notable  monuments  in  I^urope;  the  six 
colossal  figures  of  Victory  In  the  Wal- 
halla,  and  a  group  representing  Motet 
with  his  hands  supported  hy  Aaron  and 

S.9.vailla.C  <  r4-v4-y&k  ),  FRANCOIS. 
AHVluuiil/    ^jjg    murderer    of    Henry 

IV  of  France;  bom  in  1578.  He  com- 
menced life  as  valet  to  an  attorney,  and 
afterwards  became  attorney's  clerk,  and 
schoolmaster.  He  afterwards  took  serv- 
ice in  the  order  of  the  Feuillants,  but 
was  expelle<l  as  a  visionary.  His  vari- 
ous disappointments  and  his  religious 
fanaticism  led  him  to  plan  the  assassina- 
tion of  Henry  IV,  which  he  successfully 
accomplished  May  14,  lOlG.  Upon  this 
he  was  seized,  horribly  tortured,  and  put 
to  death. 

PovAlin  (ravlin),  a  detached  tri- 
A»vcuu  angular  ^ork  in  fortifica- 
tion, with  two  embankments  which  form 
a  projecting  angle.  In  the  figure  b  b  is 
the  ravelin  with  a  Its  redout,  and  c  c  its 
ditch,  D  D  being  the  main  ditch  of  the 
fortress,  and  e  the  passage  giving  access 
from  the  ^rtress  to  the  ravelin. 
'QavPii  (ra'vn),  a  large  bird  of  the 
^***^"  crow  family  and  genus  Vorvus 
(C.  coroa>).  Its  plumage  is  entirely 
black;  it  is  above  2  feet  in  length  frcm 
the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  extremity  ef  the 
tail,  and  about  52  iacties  from  tip  to  tip 


4 


I  iriWhr-i    ii Anftimi 


laTtnali 


BaTt&Miilt 


of  tte  tiUMdid  wiags.    It  OM  b*  Ua^ 
M  twttM  kawui  fpMCli.  and  in  a  ' 


IUt«Ub. 


dc  atate  is  remarkable  for  Iti  dcatructlrt- 
MM,  tbieviabnesa,  and  love  of  glittering 
tbinga.  It  fllea  bigh,  and  acenta  car- 
rion, wbirh  ia  ita  favorite  food,  at  tbe 
diatance  of  aeveral  milea;  it  feeda  all* 
on  fruit,  amall  animala,  etc.  It  ia  found 
in  every  part  of  tbe  gl<rt)e. 
SATenftl&  (rav-e-nala),  a  fine  large 
JWyenaia  p,im.iiite    tree    of    Mada- 

gaacar,  order  Muaacea  (plantaina),  witb 
TeaTea  6  to  8  feet  lone.  It  is  called 
tr9va«r$'  tree,  becauae  of  the  refreabing 
water  found  in  tbe  cup-like  abeatba  of 
tbe  leaf-atalka.  Ita  leaves  are  naed  for 
thatcb  and  tbe  leaf-atalka  for  partitiona. 
Tbe  aeeda  are  edible  and  tbe  blue  pulpy 
fiber  aurrounding  tbem  yielda  an  eaaentuu 
oiL 
SAvenna.   (tk-  ▼en'n& ) ,   a   town  of 

ince  of  tbe  same  name,  on  tbe  MoDtone, 


8t.  Apollinare  ad  Classem,  Ravenn*. 


4bout  4  milea  woat  of  the  Adriatic,  and  43 
milea  eaat  by  south  of  Bologna.  It  atands 
in  a  marshy  district,  has  a  circuit  of 
about  three  milea,  and  its  streets  ar«  ia 


fomral  Nfalar  aad  .    .   

dpal  adlfiew  art  tbo'iitMML  1* 
in  the  (oartii  bat  rfboUt  dnrtailho  l    _ 
toentb  eoBtarr,  comiaUng  of  aavt  aad 
atatea  with  a  doBo,  and  adoniod  with  nmo 
of  Ouido'a  flaait  paintings ;  tho  aadoat 
baptlaterr,  an  octagonal  atnietnre;   the 
eborcb  of  Baa  Vitale,  an  octagonal  build- 
iag  with  a  large  dome  ia  the  pure  Bnaa* 
m»  ttJlt,  on*  of  th*  aarUeat  (d  Chria- 
Uaa  ebnrcbea,  having  been  cooaecrated 
bt  M7:   tho  BaaUica  of  Ban  Oio?anai 
Bvanfeliata,  founded  ia  414,  bat  mndi 
altered  by  reateration ;  the  church  of  Baa 
ApelUnaro  Nuovo  (or  Ban  Martino).  an 
tzeellent  apecimen  of  the  ancient  basUloa ; 
tbe  mauaoleun  of  tbe  empreaa  Oalla  Pla- 
cidia,  daughter  of  Thaodoaiua  tbe  Great, 
dating  from  the  fifth  century ;  the  ttalace 
of  Tbeodoric,  king  of  tbe  Oatro-Gotha; 
tbe    tomb    of    Dante;    tbe    town-bonae, 
library,  museum,  etc.    Tbe  manufacturea 
are  of  little  importance.    Ita  harbor  was 
in  early  timea  large  enough  to  contain  the 
fleeta  of  Auguatua,  but  it  gradually  silted 
up. .  It  ia  now  connected  with  the  Adri- 
atic by  tbe  Canale  Naviglio  at  Porto-Oor- 
ainL    Bavenna  la  an  ancient  placa^  and 
during  the  decline  of  Rome.  a.d.   404, 
Honoriua  made  it  tbe  seat  of  t»e  Western 
Empire.     In  bis  reign  and  tbe  regency  of 
bia  aiater  Hacidia  ic  was  adorned  with 
many  of  ita  nobleat  edificea.    Thereafter 
it  fell  into  the  bands  of  Odoacer,  who  in 
his  turn  waa  expelled  by  Tbeodoric,  under 
whom  it  became  tbe  capital  of  tbe  Ootba. 
It   waa   recaptured   by   Beliaariua,   who 
made  tbe  town  and  ita  territory  an  ex- 
archate.   Tbia  exarchate  was  terminated 
by  Aatolphua,  king  of  the  Lombarda,  who 
made    Ravenna    the    metropolia    of    the 
LongolMirdic  Kingdom  in  752.    Pepin  and 
Charlemagne,  having  aucceeded  in  expell- 
ing the  Lombards,  made  a  present  of  Ra- 
venna and  its  exarchate  to  tne  pope,  under 
whose  control  it  remained  till  the  year 
1860.    Pop.  35,543,  or  as  commune  64,- 
031.    The  province  baa  an  area  of  715 
square  milea;  pop.  236,485. 
'Rftvii'nTiA.    <>  village,  capital  of  Portage 
AHYennai  ^o.,  Ohio,  88  milea  s.*.  of 
Cleveland.       It  has  iron  worka,  carriage 
and  bearae  factoriea,  and  other  induatriea. 
Pop.  6310. 

EaveMbnrg  iS;r^^i^^i>^^, 

in  a  valley  on  tbe  Schuaaen,  22  miles 
B.  N.  E.  of  Constance.  It  ia  irregularly 
built,  and  baa  manufacturea  of  paper, 
silk,  flax,  cotton,  etc.  Pop.  14,til4. 
XATAnieroft  (rt'vena-kroft), 
««Ten8croxi  tHoiiAa,  an  BBgiiah 
composer;  bom  in  1582;  died  in  1640. 
He  was  trained  in  St  Paul's  choir,  and 
received  tbe  degree  of  bachelor  of  muaio 


BiWftipfadi 

horn  GUBbrMM.  In  1011  b«  pub!lib«d 
a  ooUcetloD  of  twtnty-tbrae  part-aonst, 
umin  tb«  Utit  of  MilitmrnUj  in  1614  ap- 
DMnd  anothtr  colloctioD  of  part-Mnci, 
pnflzod  b7  an  mm7  ;  and  In  Ifal  bt  pnb- 
Itehtd  bU  Wkel9  Book  of  Ptolmt,  con- 
talnlnf  a  tana  for  «acb  of  tb«  ISO  paalma, 
haraoBiMd  in  four  parts  by  all  tbe  sreat 
nnaielaiM  of  tb«  period. 
VAVAlmnilf  (ri'wiil-ptn'd#),  a  town 
AaWUpUUU  If  i,rtti,*h  India,  in  tbt 
Punjab,  capital  of  the  district  of  ita  own 
name,  situated  in  the  doab  formed  by  tha 
Indus  and  the  Jbilam.  The  barrack*, 
capable  of  accommodating  2500  soldiers, 
are  separated  from  tbe  native  town  by  the 
small  river  Leh.  It  has  a  good  basaar 
and  a  thriving  transit  trade  between 
Hindustan  and  Afghanistan.  Pop.  87,- 
088, 

HAvnny  (r&'vich),  or  RAwmoH,  a 
JMWICZ  jQ^^  of  Prussia,  in  the  gov- 
ernment and  B6  miles  south  of  Posen.  It 
has  manufactures  of  machinery,  furni- 
ture, etc.,  and  a  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  and 
wool.  Pop.  (1006)  11.403. 
"RAvrlinann  ( ra'lio-aun ) .  Geoboe, 
J&aWUnSOn     {,„^   j^    ^g^^^   educated 

at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  took  a 
first-class  in  classics:  became  public  ex- 
aminer in  1854;  preached  the  Bamptnn 
Lectures  in  1850;  was  elected  Camden 
professor  of  sncient  hiatorv  in  1861,  and 
made  a  canon  of  Canterbury  iu  1872. 
Besides  various  short  works  on  antiquitv 
he  publiabed  a  translation  of  Herod' 
otmt  with  a  ecnnmentary  (1858-00)  ; 
TAa  Fivt  Cfreat  Monorehiea  of  the  Ait- 
nmt  Baatern  World  (4  vols.  1862-07), 
followed  by  the  Simth  (1878)  and  the 
Vtvomth  Oriental  Monerchu  (1876)  ;  Hie- 
tonf  of  Anoient  Bgvpt  (2  vols.  1881)  ; 
Bnpt  tnd  Bakylon  (1886)  ;  Phemicia 
(iaa»),  etc.  He  died  Oct  6.  1902. 
PAwlinann  ^^  Heitbt  Creswicke, 
JMWlUUOn,  brother  of  the  above, 
bom  in  1810;  educated  at  Ealing  School; 
entered  the  Bombay  amy  in  1827;  went 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Persia  in 
18S8;  proceeded  afterwards  to  Afghanis- 
tan as  political  agent;  became  consul  at 
Bagdad  in  1844;  a  member  of  tbe  Indian 
Council  in  1868;  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1865-68:  and  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety 1871-76.  He  published  A  Com- 
menfary  on  the  Cuneiform  Interipiiont 
of  BoMon  and  Aaeyria  (1850)  :  Outline 
of  the  Bietory  of  Aaeyrim  (1862)  :  Jfotea 
on  the  Barlp  Hietory  of  Bmbvlon  (1854)  ; 
and  the  Cuneiform  Inicriptione  of  Wett- 
era  Aii»,  edited  in  association  with  B. 
Nerris  and  G.  Smith  (5  vola  186110). 
He  was  made  a  baronet  ia  IMl  «ad  died 
Maick  6,  18e6w 


Bawmunh  igg^S^li  •^J-^^J 

in  tbe  soath  of  the  West  Riding,  2  milea 
from  Rotberham,  with  iron-works  and 
collieries.    Pop.   (1011)   17,190. 

BawtenitaU    </«'2SSiirer  8S 

land,  8  miles  north  of  Bury,  with  cotton 
and  woolen  manufactures  aiui  coal  mlnaa. 
Pop.  (1011)  80,616. 

Vav  (rft)i  a  family  of  elasmobranchlatt 
'*"<'  fishes,  including  the  skate  and 
allied  forms!  recognised  by  the  flattened 
body  and  by  the  extreme  broad  and 
fleshy  pectoral  fins,  which  seem  to  be 
mere  continuations  of  the  bodv.  Theso 
fishes  produce  large  eggs  which  are  la- 


Rays 

I .  skate  (top  view) ;    3,  lame  form  below] 
3,  thom-back 

dosed  in  cartilaginous  capsnlea  Qoadrl* 
lateral  in  form,  with  processes  at  tne  cor- 
ners, and  known  familiarly  as  '  mermaids' 
purses,'  etc.  The  most  common  members 
of  tliis  group  are  tlie  thomback  ray  or 
skate  (icata  clavd^a),  so  named  from  the 
curved  spines  which  arm  the  back  and 
tail ;  and  the  common  gray  or  blue  skate 
(i£.  butia),  which  nosttcHses  an  acutely 
pointed  muzzle,  the  ixxly  being  somewhat 
lozenge-sbaped,  and  the  color  ashy-gray 
above.  The  starry  ray  (R.  radidta)  is 
so-called  from  having  a  number  of  spines 
on  its  upper  surface  rising  from  rayed  or 
starlike  bases;  it  reaches  a  length  of  90 
inches.  The  sting  ray  ( Trygon  paatindea) 
occurs  in  the  Mediterrnncan  sea,  and  has 
the  tail  armed  with  a  long  spine. 
1)o«r  John,  an  Knglish  naturalist,  bom 
■■**'»  in  1628;  died  in  1705.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
a  fdlow.  He  was  elected  a  mentl>er  of  the 
Boyal  Society.  His  chief  scientific 
wwu  are:    Methodiu  Plantarum  Nova 


MlOOCOfy   RfSOlUTION  TBST  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


194 


|3j2 

13.6 


u 

Mbu 


^ 


I 


2.0 


1.8 


^  APPUEO  IIVMGE    I 

S^  '653   Eost   Main   Strwt 

Z^S  Rochester,    Neo  York        14609       US* 

^B  (716)   482 -0300 -Phone 

^S  (7'6)  288-S989-Fa« 


Itayleigh 

(London,    1703,    8vo) ;    HUtoria    Plan- 
{arun,  Oeneralia  (three  vols,  folio,  1680- 
1704)  ;    Bynopaia   Methodica   Animalium 
Quodrupedum  et  Serpentini  Qeneria  Vul- 
^arium    ( 1693.    8vo)  ;    Hiatoria   Inaecto- 
rum    (1710.    4to)  ;    Svnopaia   Methodica 
Avtum  et  Pxacium  (1713,  8vo)  ;  the  Omi- 
thologia    of     WMughby,     arranged     and 
translated    (1670,   three  vols.)  ;   also  an 
edition  of  his  friend's  Hiatoria  Piacium 
(1686,    two    vols,    folio).     Besides    his 
numerous   scientific   writings.    Ray    pub- 
lished several  works  on  divinity  and  other 
subjects,  the  best  known  of  which  are: 
The   Wiadom  of  Ood  Manifeated  in  the 
Worka  of  the  Creation,  a  work  which  has 
run  through  many  editions;  VoUection  of 
Engliah  Proverba;  Collection  of  Travela 
and    Voyagea,    etc.     In    1844    a    society 
named  after  Ray,  the  Rag  Society,  was 
formed    in    London    for    the    promotion 
of   natural    history    by    the   printing    of 
original  works,  new  editions,  rare  tracts, 
translations,  etc.,  relating  to  botany  and 
zoology,   and   which   has   issued   a   large 
number  of  valuable  works. 
S,avlei&rh     (•■a'H),     John     William 
T*   -^       o        Stbutt,   Lord,   born   Nov. 
12,  1842,  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege,   Cambridge,    where    he    was    senior 
wrangler  and  first  Smith's  prizeman   in 
1865.     He  was  president  of  the  British 
Association  in  1884-85,  was  professor  of 
experimental  physics  at  Cambridge,  and 
succeeded  Professor  Tyndall  as  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Royal   In- 
stitution.    With    Prof.   Ramsay   he  dis- 
covered  a  new   gaseous   element,    argon, 
for  which  they  received  the  $10,000  Hodg- 
kins  prize.    They  subsequently  discovert 
the  rare  element  krypton. 
Raymond    (ra'mond),  Kenbt  Jabtis, 
•^  **   journalist,     was     born    at 

Lima,  New  York,  in  1820.  He  became 
managing  editor  of  the  Aetc  York  Tribune 
in  1841,  and  founded  the  21ew  York 
Timea  in  1851.  Elected  to  the  Assembly 
in  1849,  he  was  made  speaker,  was  sub- 
sequently elected  lieutenant  governor  of 
New  York,  and  in  1864  was  elected  to 
Congress.  He  died  June  18,  1868. 
BavnOUard  (ra-no-Ur),  FaAwgois 
'  Juste  Mabie,  a  French 

poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Brignoles, 
Provence,  in  1761;  died  in  1836.  He 
studied  for  the  bar;  was  elected  as  a 
deputy  to  the  Legislative  Assembly;  took 
part  in  the  revolution  and  the  affairs  of 
the  first  empire ;  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Corps  Legislatif.  He  wrote  several 
tragedies,  such  as  Scipinn,  Don  Carlos, 
Charlea  1,  and  Lea  Templiera,  but  he  is 
chiefly  remembered  as  a  philologist  who 
revlTtd  the  study  pf  Provencal  by  hia 
Vhvtm  OM  Poeaiea  Origmalea  dea  Trouim- 


lU 

&)«r«  (1816-21,  six  vols.  Svo)  ;  Lewique 
Roman,  ou  Dictionnaire  de  la  Langue  dea 
Troubadoura,  and  a  Comparattve  Cfram' 
mar  of  the  Latina  and  Bomanoiata. 
Va2n]*  (ra'zur),  the  well-known  keen- 
""'~^*  edged  steel  instrument  for  shav- 
ing off  the  beard  or  hair.  The  edge 
and  back  of  the  blade  are  more  or  less 
curved,  and  the  sides  are  slightly  hollowed 
in  grinding.  It  is  usually  made  with  a 
tang,  which  is  fastened  to  the  handle  by 
a  rivet.  The  handles  are  made  of  a  great 
vanety  of  materials.  The  great  center 
of  the  razor  manufacture  has  long  been 
Sheffield,  though  great  numbers  of  razors 
are  now  made  in  Germany  and  the  United 
States.  The  savages  of  Polynesia  still 
use  two  pieces  of  flint  of  the  same  size, 
or  pieces  of  shells  or  shark's  teeth  ground 
to  a  fine  eoge.    See  Safety  Razor. 

HaZOr-back.  °.°®  '^t.  ^^^  largest  spe- 
T^  „  "^^^'^f  cies  of  the  whale  tribe, 
the  Balwnoptera  or  Rorquilua  boreilia, 
the  great  northern  rorqual.  See  Ror- 
qual. 

AaZOr-bill.    *°  aquatic  bird,  the  Aloa- 
'     torda    or    common    auk. 
See  Auk. 

BaZOr-fish.     *  species  of  fish  with  a 
/     compressed    body,   much 
prized    for   the    table.     It    is    the    Cory- 
phtena  novacula. 

Bazor-shell  /*'<'if»>v?  «™"  o^ 

lamellibranchiate  mol- 
lusca,  forming  the  type  of  the  family 
Solenidse.  They  are  common  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic:  the  shells  are  rab- 
cylindrical  in  shape ;  the  hinge-teeth  num- 
ber two  on  each  valve;  and  the  liga- 
ment for  opening  the  shells  is  long  and 
external  in  position.  The  mantle  is  open 
m  front,  to  give  exit  to  the  powerful 
muscular  'foot,'  used  by  these  molluscs 
for  burrowing  swiftly  into  the  sandy 
coasts  which  they  inhabit  The  familiar 
species  are  the  Solen  ailiqua,  S.  enaia,  8. 
vagina,  8.  marginatus,  and  8.  pellucidua. 
Bazzi  (f&t'se).  Giovanni  Antonio 
(Gianantonio),  sumamed  fifo- 
doma,  an  Italian  r  inter,  bom  in  1479 
at  Vercelli  in  Piedmont;  died  in  1549  or 
lo54.  At  an  early  age  he  was  brought  to 
Siena,  and  as  most  of  his  life  was  spent 
there  he  is  considered  one  of  the  painters 
of  the  Sienese  school.  He  painted  chiefly 
in  fresco,  and  was  employed  by  Julius  II 
to  decorate  in  the  Vatican,  but  hia  best 
work  is  in  the  churches  of  Siena. 
B6.  ST  ^°^  <'"'*)'  ^^^  OE,  an  island  of 
o  .,  France,  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  about 
2  miles  off  the  coast  of  department  Char- 
ente-lnf6rieure,  8  miles  west  of  Rochelle: 
greatest  length,  18  miles;  breadth,  aearljr 
4  miles;  area,  18,250  acres.  The  cmMs 
on  the  south  and  west  are  lofty  and  fif 


Sea 


Beal 


dpitous,  bat  there  are  several  good  har^ 
bora.  Capital  Saint  Martin  de  R6.  Pop. 
(1006)   13,073. 

V^a  (r&),  Samuel,  an  American  rail- 
'*^"'  way  official,  born  at  Hollidaja- 
buric,  Pennsylvania,  September  21,  18o5. 
He  occupied  various  positions  on  tbe 
Pennsylvania  and  other  railroads,  and  in 
January  1913,  became  president  of  tbe 
Pennsylvania  Railroad.  Previously,  as 
vice-president,  he  had  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  New  York  tunnel  exten- 
sion and  station,  for  the  successful  com- 
pletion of  which  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania conferred  upon  him  the  honor- 
ary decree  of  doctor  of  science  in  1910. 
S.ea.fition.  (re-ak'shun),  i»  physics, 
ACMpUbiuu  counteraction,  the  resist- 
ance made  by  a  body  to  the  action  or 
impulse  of  another  body,  which  endeavors 
to  change  its  state,  either  of  motion  or 
rest.  It  is  an  axiom  in  mechanics  that 
'action  and  reaction  are  always  e^ual 
and  contrary,*  or  that  the  mutual  actions 
of  two  bodies  are  always  eqtial  and 
exerted  in  opposite  directions.  In  chem- 
istry, the  term  is  applied  to  the  mutual 
or  reciprocal  action  of  chemical  agents 
upon  each  other.  In  pathology,  reaction 
is  the  action  of  an  or^an  which  reflects 
upon  another  the  irritation  previously 
transmitted  to  Itself. 

VAod  (rM),  Thcmas  BtrcHANAN, 
'*^'*'*  painter  and  poet,  born  in  Chester, 
Co.,  Pennsylvania,  in  1822 ;  died  in  1872. 
His  poems  are  marked  by  fervent  patriot- 
ism and  artisticpower  in  the  description 
of  rural  life.  They  embrace  The  House 
by  the  Sea,  The  New  Pastoral,  Sylvia,  or 
the  Lo»t  Shepherd,  The  Wayoncr  of  the 
AlleghetUea,  etc.  Among  his  best  pictures 
are  LongfeUow'a  Children  and  Sheridan's 
Ride. 

"DAaJa  (red),  Chables,  novelist,  was 
Aeaae  bom"  in  Oxfordshire  in  1814; 
died  in  1884.  He  was  educated  at  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  and  was  called  to 
^he  bar  in  1S43.  He  became  tirst  known 
by  his  novel  of  Peg  Woffington,  which  he 
afterwards  dramatized,  in  conjunction 
with  Tom  Taylor,  under  the  title  of 
Masks  and  Faces.  This  was  followed  by 
Christie  Johnstone,  and  A'eirr  Too  Late 
to  Mend,  in  which  he  attacked  the  Enir- 
lish  prison  system.  The  most  artistic  of 
his  writings.  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth. 
dealing  with  the  lives  of  tbe  parents  of 
Erasmus,  appeared  in  ISGl. 

XtaaA^r  (  re'de  •  ),  specifically,  one 
Acaucx  ^iiose  office  it  is  to  read 
prayers,  lessons,  lectures,  and  the  like  to 
others;  as,  (a)  in  tbe  Roman  Catholic 
Church  one  of  the  five  inferior  orders  of 
the  priesthood;  (b)  in  the  English  Church 
a  deacon     appointed    to    perform    divine 


service  in  churches  and  chapels,  of  which 
no  one  has  the  cure;  (c)  a  kind  of  lec- 
turer or  professor  in  universities,  etc. ; 
(d)  in  printing  offices,  a  person  who 
reads  and  corrects  proofs.  See  Printing. 
PjiailiTio*  (red'inc>,  Rufus  Danik. 
iieaain^  Isaacs,  nrst  earl  (ISeO-  ). 
an  English  jurist,  bom  in  London  and 
educated  at  University  College  School  and 
in  Brussels  and  Hanover.    Prom  1904  to 

1913  he  was  member  of  Parliament  for 
Reading.  He  became  lord  chief  justice  of 
England  in  1913  aud  in  1918  was  aii- 
pointed  High  Commissioner  and  Special 
Ambassador  to  the  United  States.  He 
was  knighted  in  1910,  created  baron  in 

1914  and  earl  in  1917. 

i^Ao flinty  a  parliamentary  and  mu- 
Aeaain^,  njpfjjai  borough  of  Eng- 
land, capital  of  the  county  of  Berks.  The 
industries  include  a  biscuit  factory,  iron 
foundries,  breweries,  etc.  Pop.  75,214. 
Ilj^a^itiv  a  city  of  Pennsylvania, 
ACaoiIll^,  capital  of  Berks  Co.,  beau- 
tifully situated  amid  mountains  on  the 
Schuylkill  River,  59  miles  N.  w.  of 
Philadelphia.  It  is  seated  in  a  rich  agri 
cultural  district  and  in  the  vicinity  of. 
large  anthracite  coal  fields  and  depositH 
cf  iron  ore,  which  give  it  abundant  in- 
dustrial opportunities.  Its  chief  indus- 
try is  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel, 
which  give  employment  to  many  thou- 
sands of  workmen,  and  is  represented  by 
blast  furnaces,  rolling  mills,  sheet-iron, 
boiler-plate,  tube  and  car-wheel  works, 
stove  foundries,  etc.  There  are  also  largo 
manufactures  of  fur  an<l  woolen  hats, 
leather,  paper,  lumber,  cotton  goods,  hos- 
iery, glass-ware,  etc.  Here  are  extensive^ 
railroad  shops.  Mount  Penn  and  Mount 
Neversink,  surrounding  the  city,  aic 
favorite  places  of  resort  in  the  summer. 
Pnr>.  100,000. 

PAailiiiv  a  village  of  Middlesex  Co., 
ACituiug,  Mas-sacbusetts,  12  miles  N. 
by  w.  of  Boston.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude organ-pipes,  rubber-goods,  wire- 
brushes,  etc.  Pop.  5818. 
T(  ga ~pn4-  (  r  e  -  a'j  e  n  t  ) ,  in  chemical 
o*'**"  analysis,  a  substance  em- 
ployed as  a  test  to  determine  the  presence 
of  some  other  substance.  Thus,  the  in- 
fusion of  galls  is  a  reagent  which  detects 
iron  by  a  dark  purple  precipitate;  the 
prussiate  of  potash  is  a  reagent  which 
exhibits  a  blue  with  tbe  same  metal,  etc. 
Real  ('■«'*1)'  ^°  '^w>  pertaining  t» 
*^  things    fixed,    permanent,    or   im 

movable.  Thus  real  estate  it  landed 
property,  including  all  estates  and  in- 
terest in  lands  which  are  held  for  life  er 
for  some  greater  estate,  and  whether  such 
lands  be  of  freehold  or  copyhold  tenure. 
8o  a  real  aetion  is  an  action  brought  for 


Beal 


Beapinf-maoliiiit 


the  spacifie  recovery  Af  lands,  teneatntt, 
and  her«dltam«nU. 

PaaI'  a  Spanish  tllrer  coin  worth 
•■*~**  *  nearly  5  cents.  In  the  course 
of  exchange  100  reals  are  rated  at  $5.00. 
The  real  Is  also  a  Portusuese  money  of 
account,  equal  to  40  rets,  or  about  4 
cents. 

H^alvar  (r&'al-s&r),  a  mineral  con- 
oeK^pu-  Bigtin-  of  a  combination  of 
■ulphnr  and  arsenic  in  equal  equiralents; 
red  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  which  is  found 
native. 

Healiam  (r§'al-izm),  in  metaphysics, 
^^""^  as  opposed  to  idealitm,  the 

doctrine  that  there  is  an  immediate  or  in- 
tuitive cornition  of  external  objects,  while 
according  to  idealism  all  we  are  conscious 
of  is  our  ideas.  AccoiJing  to  realism 
external  objects  exist  independently  of 
our  sensations  or  conceptions;  according 
to  idealism  they  have  no  such  independent 
existence.  As  opposed  to  nominaliam,  it 
is  the  doctrine  that  asserts  that 
general  terms  lllte  man,  tr^e,  etc., 
are  not  mere  abstractions,  but 
have  real  existences  corresponding 
to  them.  In  the  middle  ages  there 
was  a  great  controversy  between 
the  realists  and  the  nominalists, 
the  chief  controversy  which 
divided  the  schoolmen  into 
rival  parties.  The  realists 
maintained  that  things  and 
not  words  are  the  objects  of 
dialectics.  Under  the  de- 
nomination of 
realists  were 
comprehended 
the  Scotists  and 
Thomists,  and 
all  other  sects  of 
schoolmen,  except 
the  followers  of  Oc- 
cam  and  Abelard, 
who  were  nominal- 
ists. 

Beal  Presence.  *''?  doctrine  of  the 

^^  *.*ww*<*»w«,  ^(.(.ygi  presence  of 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  eu- 
charist  See  Contuhttantiation,  Eleva- 
tion of  thg  Hott. 

Eeal  Schools  Sj™?" 'th JTS^cH: 

tional  institutions  of  Germany  l}etween 
the  elementary  school  and  the  university 
having  for  their  special  object  the  teach- 
ing of  science,  art,  the  modern  languages, 
etc.,  in  contradistinction  to  the  ordinary 
grammar-schools  and  gymnasiums,  in 
which  the  classical  languages  hold  a  more 
important  place. 

Ttjutnt  ( >^i>>) t  a  quantity  of  paper,  con- 
**'*"*    sisting  of  20  quires  of  24  sheets 


each.  The  printer's  ream  coaaittB  ot 
21i  quires  or  516  sheets. 

Eeaping-hook   ill^'?«>  w^' ,«£ 

blade  with  a  cutting  edge  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  crescent,  and  set  in  a  wooden 
handle,  used  for  cutting  down  com,  grass, 
etc.  It  is  about  18  inches  in  length,  and 
tapers  from  a  breadth  of  about  2  inches 
at  the  handle  down  to  a  more  or  less  sharp 
point 

Eeaping-machine,  Sfa^cht'e'^ifo? 

cutting  down  standing  grain,  etc  usually 
worked  by  a  pair  of  horses,  the  cutting 
machinery  being  driven  by  bemg  connected 
with  the  wheels  on  which  the  machine  is 
drawn  over  the  field.  The  cutting  is  ef- 
fected rather  in  the  manner  of  a  pair  of 
scissors  than  in  that  of  a  scythe,  and  a 
series  of  small  toothed  wheels  have  to  be 
connected  with  the  main  wheel  or  wheels 
so  as  to  produce  the  fast  motion  necessary 
for  driving  the  cutting 
knives.  These  knivea  gen- 
erally consist  of  triangu- 
lar pieces  of  steel  riveted 
to  an  iron  bar, 
and  are  some- 
times smooth- 
edged  and  some- 
times tooth-edged. 
The  knife-bar 
projects  horizon- 
tally from  the 
side  of  the  ma- 
chine at  a  short 
distance  above 
the  ground,  and 
moves  back- 
wards and  for- 
wards on  guides 
fixed  at  the  back 
of  a  number  of 
pointed  fingers, 
which  enter  the 
standing  grain 
and  guide  the  straw  to  the  edges  of  the 
knives.  The  motion  of  the  bar  being 
very  rapid,  the  grain  is  cut  down  with 
correspondmg  speed,  and  as  it  is  cut  it 
is  received  on  a  platform  fixed  behind 
the  knife-bar.  In  most  cases  a  revolving 
rake  with  four  inclined  arms  is  attached 
to  such  machines,  and  set  in  motion  by 
the  driving-wheel.  Two  of  the  arms 
bring  the  grain  well  on  to  the  knife-bar, 
and  the  others  deliver  grain  cut  at  the 
back  of  the  machine.  Many  of  the  re- 
cent machines  are  also  fitted  with  a  bind- 
ing apparatus.  Ab  endless  apron  re- 
ceives the  grain  as  it  is  cut,  and  deposits 
it  in  a  trough  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
machina    By  an  ingenious  mechanical  ar- 


Single-wheel   Baek-delivery   Reaping-machine. 


Beason 


B^oamier 


rangement  the  loose  straw  is  caught  and 
coBipraned  by  two  iron  arms;  wire  from 
a  r«el  is  passed  round  the  sheaf,  fastened 
bv  twistinf,  cut  away,  and  the  bound 
sMaf  is  tossed  out  of  the  trough  by  one 
of  the  arms  by  which  it  was  compressed. 
Other  apparatuses  are  constructed  so  as 
to  bind  with  cord,  straw  rope,  etc.  See 
Affrieulture.  ,    . 

TlAaanTi  (rS'zn),  a  faculty  of  the  mind 
JbCHAOa    j,y     ^ijjpjj     jt     distinguishes 

truth  from  falsehood,  and  which  enables 
the  possessor  to  deduce  Inferences  from 
facts  or  from  propositions,  and  to  com- 
bine means  for  the  attainment  of  partic- 
ular  ends.    Reason   is   the   highest   fac- 
ulty of  the  human  mind,  by  which  man 
is  distinguished  from  brutes,  and  which 
enables  him  to  contemplate  things  spirit- 
ual as  well  as  material,  to  weigh  all  that 
ran  be  said  or  thought  for  and  against 
them,  and  hence  to  draw  concl'" '    is  and 
to  act  accordingly.    In  the  If       age  of 
English  philosophy  the  terms  reason  and 
understanding  are  sometimes  nearly  iden- 
tical, and  are  so  used  by  Stewart;  but  in 
the  critical  philosophy  of  Kant  a  broad 
distinction  is  drawn  between  them. 
IliaTiTnTir     (ra-O-mllr),  Ren*  AlT- 
ACHUIUUX     xoiNE    Ferchault    df,    a 
French  physicist  and  naturalist,  bom  in 
1683  at  La  Rochelle;  died  in  ItoT.     He 
is  celebrated  for  the  invention  of  an  im- 
proved    thermometer,     which     he    made 
icnown   in  1731    (see    l^hermometer) ,   in 
the  scale  of  which  the  space  l>etween  the 
freezing  point  and  the   boiling  point  of 
water    is    divided    into    ?0    uegrces.     He 
also  di:  covered  the  porcelain  named  from 
him.     His  chief  work  is  the  Siimoiret 
pour   servir   d   VHistoire   Naturelle   de» 
Inaectet,  1784-42. 
Rebate   (r6'bat).theterm 
A*«wnvv    applied  to  a  dis- 
count made  to  a  purchaser 
in  consideration  of  a  cash  or 
prompt     payment;     in     the 
United  States  also  popularly 
applied     to    discriminations 
made  by  common  carriers  in 
favor  of  large  shippers:     It 
is  claimed  that  many  corpo- 
rations have  been  built  up 
by  secret  arrangements  with 
railroad  and  shipping  com- 
panies, and  that  even  outside 
the  trusts  rebate  agreements 
have  been  made.    Rebates  in 
this  restricted  sense  are  il- 
legal in  the  United  States. 
BebeO     (re'bek),  a  medi- 


(re'bek),  a  medi-   »,b.eofth« 
aval  stringed   in-      .ixtwoth 

•trament  somewhat  similar       esatnry. 

t»  the  violin,  having  prop- 

tifij  tM^  ftriBfi  twed  ia  fifUw.  and 


played  with  a  bow.  It  was  of  Oriental 
origin  and  was  introduced  by  the  Mo«n 
into  Spain.  ,         ^ 

Eebellion  i,?ili'nUVr  b^%i55 

subjects  or  others,  residing  in  the  country, 
against  a  settled  government  Bjr  inter- 
national law  rebellion  is  con«id«r»da 
crime,  and  all  persons  voluntanlT  abet- 
ting it  are  criminals,  whether  subjects  or 
foreigners.  When  a  rebellion  has  attained 
such  dimensions  and  organization  a*  to 
make  of  the  rebel  party  a  state  4e  faoto, 
and  its  acts  reach  the  dimensions  of  war 
de  facto,  it  is  the  custom  of  the  state 
to  yield  to  the  rebels  such  belligerent 
privileges  as  policy  and  humanity  require, 
and  to  treat  captives  as  prisoners  of 
war,  etc. 

S^hnix     (rtlJus),  a  poup  of  word*  or 
ACUUB     j^  phrase  written  by  figures  or 
pictures  of  objects  whose  names  resemble 
in  sound  the  words  or  the  syllables  of 
which   they  are  composed;  thus,  'I  can 
■ee  you'  might  be  expressed  by  pictures 
of  an  eye,  a  can,  the  sea,  and  a  ewe. 
V,>/ta11    (rC-kul'),  in  politics,  the  power 
xiiCbiUJ.    g(  jjjg  neople  to  dismiss  from 
office   an   unsatisfactory    public   servant. 
A   number  of  constituents — usually   not 
less  than  one-fourth — must  petition  for  a 
recall  election,   naming  some  person   as 
successor.      Other    petitioners    may    pre- 
sent other  names.     The  election  is  then 
held,  with  the  offending  officer  as  one  of 
the  candidates.    In  the  United  States  the 
principle  of  recall  has  been  adopted  by 
Biany  dties  and  a  number  of  states.    A 
number   of  cities  have   used   the   recall 
against  their  ezecutivee  and  eouncumen, 
among  them  Loe  Anceks,  Seattle,  Taco- 
ma  and  Wichita.    The  chief  ground*  for 
the  recall  are  incompetency,  corrupt  con- 
duct, and  failure  to  respond  to  the  popu- 
lar  will.    The    advocates   of   the   recall 
claim  that  it  gives  to  the  people  the  im- 
mediate means  of  abolishing  abuse*  and 
makes  officers  more  keenly  consdous  of 
their  duties  as  public  servants.    The  re- 
lated questions  of  the  Recall  of  Juigea 
and  Recall  of  Deeitiona  are  warmly  ad- 
vocated by  those  who  seek  to  reform  the 
character    of    the    American    judiciary, 
daiming  that  the  courts  htix^  assumed  po- 
litical   and    legislative    powjr    and    have 
shown     themselves     in     sympathy     with 
special    privilege    more    than    with    the 
people.    The    Recall    of   Dedsions   is   a 
popular    referendum    for    court    dedara- 
tions  that  acts  of  legislature  are  uncon- 
atittttional.    It  was  a  prominent  issue  ir 
the  presidential  campaiini  in  1012. 
S.^nfliniftr  (rft-kft-mi-a),      Jbannb 
Acoaauer   p^j^potse    Jttlib    Anft- 
LAlos,  wboee  roaldeni  name  was  Bernard, 


Eeoanati 


Bedprodty 


•  I 


was  born  at  ^yons  in  1777;  died  in  1849. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  abe  went  to  Paris, 
and  was  there  married  to  Jacquca  Rfcam- 
ier,  a  rich  banker,  more  than  double  her 
own  age.  From  this  time  lier  aim  was  to 
aurround  herself  with  personal  admirers, 
and  to  attract  to  her  salon  the  chief  person- 
asea  in  French  literature  and  politics. 
Iter  husband  becoming  banltrupt,  she  went 
to  reside  with  Madame  de  Slafil  in  Swit- 
serland,  but  in  1811  was  banished  from 
Paris  by  Nnpoleon  on  account  of  her  in- 
timacy with  his  enemies.  At  i:he  downfall 
of  Napoleon  she  returned  to  Paris  and 
again  opened  her  salon,  which  as  l>efore 
continued  to  be  a  resort  of  men  of  in- 
tellect till  her  death.  Shi  had  very  inti- 
mate relations  with  Benjamin  Constant 
and  Chateaubriand. 

Becanati  i/a-ka-na'ts),  a  town  of 

^^  """"*  Italy,  province  of  Macer- 
ato,  situated  between  Ancona  and  Rome. 
It  contains  many  fine  palaces,  a  Gothic 
cathedral,  and  a  monument  to  Leopardi, 
who  was  Iwrn  here.     Pop.  14,590. 

Kecaption  iS^l^tt^^l^  fercet 

violence,  of  one's  own  goods,  chattels, 
wife,  or  children  from  one  who  has  taken 
them  and  wrongfully  detains  them. 
ILeceint  ( re-set') f  a  written  acknowl- 
"  edgment  or  account  of  some- 
thing received,  as  money,  goods,  etc.  A 
receipt  of  money  may  be  in  part  or  in 
full  payment  of  a  debt,  and  it  operates 
aa  an  acquittance  or  discharge  of  the 
debt  onl^  as  far  as  it  goes.  In  Britain 
if  a  receipt  for  a  sum  of  £2  or  upwards 
does  not  bear  the  penny  government 
stamp  it  is  inadmiF-^ible  as  evidence  of 
payment.  The  stamp  may  be  either  ad- 
hesive or  impressed  on  the  paper.  In  the 
United  States  during  and  after  the  civil 
war  receipts  required  internal  revenue 
stamps,  but  this  tax  was  abolished  in 
1870. 

Receiver  (re-sSv'er).  a  person  spe- 
cially  appointed  by  a  court 
of  justice  to  receive  the  rents  and  profits 
of  lands,  or  the  produce  of  other  property, 
which  is  in  dispute  in  a  cause  in  that 
court  The  name  is  also  given  to  a  per- 
son appointed  in  suits  concerning  the  es- 
tates of  infants,  or  against  executors,  or 
between  partners  in  business,  or  insol- 
vents, for  the  purpose  of  winding  up  the 
concern. 

Beceiver    of    Stolen    Goods, 

one  who  takes  stolen  goods  from  a  thief, 
knowing  them  to  be  stolen,  and  incurs 
the  guilt  of  partaking  in  the  crime.  In 
the  Lnited  States  the  penalty  is  fixed  by 
statutes  in  the  several  States;  in  Britain, 
if  the  theft  amo«Ots  to  felony,  it  is  pun- 


ished by  penal  sefrltude  or  ij  Imprisoa* 
ment 

Becent,  or  Fost-Olaoial,  fo/*^; 

epoch  which  extends  from  the  dose  of  the 
Ice  Age  (or  Pleistocene)  to  the  present 
day.  It  ia  also  called  the  Human,  as  the 
implements  and  weapons  of  man  are  its 
most  charactcriatic  and  important  fossils. 
Nevertheless,  there  la  much  evidence  to 
show  that  in  Europe,  at  leaat,  man  ex- 
isted in  I'leistocene  time.  In  America  the 
existence  of  mah  has  not  been  so  success- 
fully traced.  The  principal  sources  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  epoch  are  the  peat 
bogs,  the  calcareous  formations  and  red 
earth  of  caves,  the  silt  of  fresh-water 
lakes,  the  gravel  terraces  of  existing 
rivers,  and  the  finer  alluvial  deposits. 

Beohabite  (rek>-b").  amone  the  an- 
***^*^"  cient  Jews,  one  of  a  family 

or  tribe  of  Kenites  whom  Jonadab,  the 
son  of  Rechab,  Iwund  to  abstain  from 
wine,  from  building  houses,  from  sowing 
seed,  and  from  planting  vines  (see  Jer. 
XXXV.  6,  7).  In  modem  application  the 
licchabites  are  a  benefit  society  composed 
of  total  abstainers. 

Becife  (re-se'fa),  or  PEBNAifBTJCO,  cap- 
*^  ^  ital  of  the  state  of  Pemambuco. 
The  city,  called  the  '  Venice  of  America,* 
:s  located  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  Be- 
beribe  and  Capal>eribe,  lying  between  the 
two  farther  shores  of  both  rivers.  It  is 
the  nearest  South  American  port  to  Eu- 
rope, and  has  an  extensive  maritime 
trade;  it  is  the  landing  place  for  two 
trans-atlantic  cables  and  a  coast-line 
cable.  Pop.  (1913)  125,000;  with  sub- 
nrbs,  225,000. 

Reciprocal  L"-a;,S'|J«™ 

ciprocal  of  a  quantity  is  the  quotient 
resulting  from  the  division  of  unity  by 
the  quantity :  thus,  the  reciprocal  of  4  ia 
1/4.  and  conversely  the  reciprocal  of  %  ia 
4;  the  reciprocal  of  2  ia  ^,  and  that  sf 

a+x  is . 

a+x 
BeciDrOCitV  .(res-i-pros'l-tl),   a    term 
••vw«^Avv.^wj    jjj    economics    commonly 

applied  in  international  relationships  to 
the  arrangement  whereby  two  nations 
mutually  agree  to  import  to  each  other 
certain  goods,  either  duty  free  or  with 
duties  wiiich  are  equivalent.  It  has  been 
frequently  applied  of  late  years  in  tariff 
relations  between  the  United  States  and 
other  countries,  and  in  the  Tariff  bill  of 
190D  is  a  maximum  and  minimum  clause 
as  a  means  of  obtaining  trade  concessions 
from  foreign  countries,  on  the  reciprocal 
principle  of  granting  similar  concessions. 
A  bill  i|i  favor  of  reciprocity  in  U9i,i9 


Becitative 


Beooraer 


with  Canada  was  paased  by  Confrew  in 
1911,  but  the  meaanre  waa  rejected  by 
Canada.    See  Free-trade. 
HjimtAtiv^    (ree-i-ta-tev').   *   ■!>«- 

tion  which  differs  from  an  air  in  haTing 
no  definite  rhythmical  arrangement,  and 
no  decided  or  strictly  constructed  melody, 
bat  approaches  in  tonal  succession  and 
rhythm  to  the  declamatory  accents  of 
language.  It  is  used  in  operas,  oratorios, 
etc.,  to  express  some  action  or  passion, 
or  to  relate  a  story  or  reveal  a  secret  or 
design.  There  are  two  kinds  of  recita- 
tive, unaccompanied  and  accompanied. 
The  first  ia  when  a  few  occasional  chords 
are  struck  by  an  instrument  or  instru- 
ments to  give  the  singer  the  pitch,  and 
intimate  to  him  the  harmony.  The  sec- 
ond, which  is  now  the  more  common. 
!e  when  all,  or  a  considerable  portion,  oi 
the  instruments  of  the  orchestra  accom- 
pany the  singer. 

Eeclamation    («''-.'«^-."*'!^°°>  •  .,^^« 

Mivv<.a.ui.a.vAvu,  reclaiming  to  fertility 
of  arid  and  semi-arid  lands.  A  reclama- 
tion act  was  passed  by  the  United  States 
government  in  1002,  under  which  the 
government  is  building  irrigation  works 
and  selling  the  water  thus  obtained  to 
settlers  at  prices  sufficient  to  repay  the 
cost  of  construction,  the  funds  set  aside 
for  this  purpose  being  the  receipts  from 
the  sale  of  public  lands.  As  a  result 
about  $60,000,000  has  been  received  and 
$48,000,000  spent  up  to  1910.  The  total 
cost  of  ail  irrigation  projects  now  in 
view  is  estimated  at  about  $120,000,000. 
and  the  amount  of  land  to  be  reclaimed 
over  3,000,000  acres.  The  cost  per  acre 
is  less  than  $40. 

B-eclns  (r^i^i^i)!  -Tean  Jacques 
■"^  Eijs£e,    a    French    geograph- 

ical writer,  bom  in  1830.  He  left  France 
in  1851  and  spent  several  years  in  travel, 
afterwards  publishing  a  great  numl>er 
of  works,  the  results  of  his  voyages  and 
geographical  researches.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  La  Terre,  the  English 
edition  of  which.  The  Earth,  has  been 
very  popular,  aiid  an  exhaustive  Qio- 
graphte  Vniveraelle,  which,  voluminoua 
as  it  is,  he  lived  to  complete.  Being  an 
extreme  democrat,  he  became  involved  in 
the  Paris  commune  of  1871,  and  was 
sentenced  to  transportation  for  life,  but 
was  amnestied  in  1879.  He  earned  a 
certain  notoriety  from  his  extreme  views 
on  social  questions.  He  died  July  4, 
1905.  He  bad  three  brothers,  two  af 
them  writers  of  some  distinction  and  one 
a  distinguished  surgeon  of  Paris,  and 
three  sisters  who  engaged  in  literary 
work. 


Becognizanoe  i^^^^-^^^u^ 

of  record  which  a  man  enters  into  be- 
fore some  court  of  record,  or  magistrata 
duly  authorized,  with  particular  condi- 
tions; as  to  appear  at  the  assises  or 
quarter-sessions,  to  keep  the  peace,  etc. 
n^AAll^f  (rek'o-la),  or  Rxc'ollect, 
■n*«0"**  KlABS  or  Nuns,  the  name 
given  to  a  reformed  body  of  Franciscans. 
The  society  was  founded  in  Spain,  and 
thence  spread  throughout  Europe,  so  that 
in  France,  before  the  Revolution,  they 
had  168  houses.  The  otder  still  exisU 
at  a  few  places. 

H.^nnnnftiiiiULTin^  (rS-kon'ft-sAns),  in 
reconnaissance  military  affairs,  an 
examination  of  a  territory  or  of  an 
enemy's  position,  for  the  purpose  of  di< 
recting  military  operations.  In  future 
wars  flying  machines  are  likely  to  Im 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  term  is  also 
used  in  geodetics,  etc.,  a  reconnaissanct> 
being  an  examination  of  a  region  as  Ui 
its  general  natural  features,  preparatory 
to  a  more  particular  survey,  as  for  de- 
termining the  location  of  a  road,  a  rail* 
way,  a  canal,  or  the  like. 
Record  (rek'ord),  specifically,  an  offi- 
xhcuv&u    pjjjj  jjQpy  q£  mjy  writing,   oi 

account  of  any  facts  and  proceedings, 
whether  public  or  private,  entered  in  a 
book  for  preservation  In  a  popular 
sense  the  term  record*  is  applied  to  all 
public  documents  preserved  in  a  recog- 
nized repository.  The  public  records  of 
England  have  been  regularly  preserved 
since  1100.  In  1857  the  master  of  the 
rolls  began  the  publication  of  the  valu- 
able series  of  chronicles  and  memorials 
known  as  the  Rolls  Series.  The  records 
or  archives  of  the  United  States  are 
easily  accessible,  and  proper  recommenda- 
tion will  open  them  to  any  one  who  wants 
to  use  them  for  scientific  purposes.  In 
the  legal  sense  of  the  term  records  are 
authentic  testimonies  in  writing  of  judi- 
cial acts  and  proceedings,  contained  in 
rolls  of  parchment  and  preserved,  the 
courts  of  which  the  proceedings  are  thus 
preserved  being  called  court$  of  record. 
In  Scots  law  the  record  consists  of  the 
written  statements  or  pleadings  of  parties 
in  a  litigation,  and  tne  'closing  of  the 
record'  is  a  formal  step,  sanctioned  by 
the  judge,  after  each  party  has  put  for- 
ward all  he  wiphes  to  say  by  way  cf 
statement  and  answer. 
"aaptxrPiitr  (  re  -  kor'd^r  ) ,  in  England, 
AeCOraer  ^^  ^,^5^^  judicial  officer  of 

a  iwrougb  or  city,  exercising  within  it, 
in  criminal  matters,  the  jurisdiction  of 
a  court  of  record,  whence  his  title  is 
derived.    The  appointment  of  recorders  is 


Eeoorder 


Eedbank 


T«t«d  is  tb«  erowo,  and  the  Mlwtioa  ia 
floafliMd  to  bkrriatan  of  five  yoan'  lUnd- 
lac.  Tho  nine  name  b  giTtn  to  limilar 
Mgal  faactionariM  alMwbere,  aa  in  somo 
American  citiea. 

BiAOOrdAr  "■  mnalcal  lutniment,  foi> 
~V  »   merly   much   uaed,   resem- 

bling a  flaieolet  in  ehape.  The  instru- 
ment was  wider  in  the  lower  half  than 
in  the  upper;  its  tones  were  soft  and 
pleasing,  and  an  ocUve  higher  than  the 

Beomitillg.      ^^  SnlUtment. 

*  '^  angled  paraUelogram,  or  a 
anadrilateral  figure  haTing  all  its  angles, 
nght  angles  and  its  opposite  sides  equal. 
Ertrj  rectangle  is  said  to  be  contained 
by  any  two  of  the  sides  about  one  of  its 
right  angles. 

Seetifv  («lt'ti-fl),  in  chemistry,  to 
*  refine  by  repeated  distillation 
or  sublimation,  by  which  the  fine  parts 
of  a  substance  (as  some  kind  of  spirits) 
are  separated  from  the  grosser.  To 
rectify  liquors.  In  the  spirit  trade,  is  t* 
convert  the  alcohol  produced  by  the  dis- 
tiller into  gin,  brandy,  etc.,  by  adding 
flavoring  materials  to  it.  Thus  in  order 
to  convert  the  spirit  into  London  gin, 
juniper  l>erries  and  coriander  seeds  are 
added  previous  to  the  last  rectification. 
(X<nantnic  ether  and  other  things  give  the 
flavor  of  brandy. 

Beotor  j^l^'''*?'^'  ,^°  ^^^  English 
Church,  a  clergyman  who  has 
the  charge  and  cure  of  a  parish,  and  has 
the  parsonage  and  tithes;  or  the  parson 
of  a  parish  where  the  tithes  are  not  im- 
propriate. The  beads  of  Exeter  and  Lin- 
coln colleges,  Oxford,  are  also  so-called, 
and  the  chief  elective  officer  of  the  Scot- 
tish universities  receives  the  same  title. 
In  Scotland  it  Is  also  the  title  of  the 
head-master  of  an  academy  or  important 
public  school. 

Beotam  («K'*°™)'  '°  anatomy,  the 
third  and  last  part  of  the 
large  intestine  opening  at  the  anus:  so 
named  from  an  erroneous  notion  of  the 
old  anatomists  that  it  was  straight. 

Bccurriiiff  Series  .fe^-h>^,i° 

in  which  the  coefficients  of  the  successive 
powen  of  »  are  formed  from  a  certain 
number  of  the  pr-cedicg  coefficients  ac- 
cording to  some  invariable  law.  Thus 
a+  Ca  +  l)  »+  (2  o  -f  2)  w' +  (3  a 
+  3)  w^+  iHa  +  h)  a*4-  .  .  .'  is 
a  recurring  series. 

history,  after  the  Refor- 
mation, a  person  who  refused  or  neglected 
t»  cttand  divine  service  ou  Sundays  and 


holidays  in  the  Established  Church,  or 
to  worship  according  to  its  forms. 
Heavy  penalties  were  formerly  Inflicted 
on  such  persons,  but  they  pressed  far 
more  lightly  on  the  simple  recusant  or 
nonconformist  than  on  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic recusant.  In  23  Elisabeth  the  fijs 
was  msde  for  every  month  £20;  and 
later  in  the  same  reign  it  was  enacted 
that  if  recusants  did  not  submit  within 
three  months  after  conviction  they  might, 
upon  the  requisition  of  four  Justices  of 
the  peace,  be  compelled  to  abjure  and  re- 
nounce the  realm;  and  if  they  did  not 
depart,  or  If  they  returned  without  due 
license,  thev  were  to  be  treated  as  felons, 
and  suffer  death  without  benefit  of  clergy. 
VLmA  one  of  the  primary  colors,  the 
>  color  of  that  part  of  the  spectrum 
which  is  farthest  from  the  violet.  The 
red  rays  are  the  least  refrangible  of  all 
the  rays  of  light.  (See  Color.)  Red 
pigments  or  coloring  matters  Include  ver- 
milion, realgar,  cochineal,  lakes  and 
madders,  coal-tar  colors,  etc.  The  differ- 
ent forms  of  oxide  of  Iron  are  Indian 
red,  which  Is  pure,  finely  ground  hema- 
tite; Venetian  red  and  cohothar,  which 
are  coarser  forms  of  the  same  substance. 
Minium  or  lead  oxide,  and  another  form 
of  the  same  substance  containing  a  little 
carbonate,  are  known  as  Parit  red. 

Bed  Admiral  Butterfly^  taTaZ 

ta),  the  popular  name  of  a  common  but- 
terfly. The  anterior  wings  are  marked 
by  a  broad  red  band,  outside  of  which  are 
six  white  markings,  while  a  bluish  streak 
follows  the  wing-margin.  The  posterior 
wings  are  bordered  with  red,  dotted  witli 
blacK  spots,  and  have  two  bluish  mark- 
ings. 

Bedan  (re-dan'),  in  field  fortifica- 
tion, the  simplest  kind  of 
work  employed,  consiating  of  two  para- 
pets of  earth  raised  so  as  to  form  a 
salient  angle,  with  the  apex  towards  the 
enemy    and    unprotected    on    the    rear. 


Redans. 


Several    redans    connected    by    curtains 

form   Hues  of  intrenchment. 

B.efili    nir      ^     ^o^'Q     ^^     Monmouth 

Shrewsburv  River,  26  miles  s.  of  New 
York.  It  nas  manufactures  of  iron,  car- 
bon   paper,  carriages,  cigars,  etc.    Pep. 

JOvO. 


B«d-bird 


Sedeemable  JBtigliti 


It^A  \at>A     t'je  popular  naoM  of  kt- 
Sed-Dira,    e,^i*b/rd«   in    the   United 
States,  at  th«  Tanogra  aitlva  or  Hum- 
mer  red-bird,  the  Tanogn  rubra,  and  the 
Baltimore  oriole  or  hanc-Beat. 
PWI.VmaV      •     boo''     containing     the 
Aea-DOOK,     names  of  all  the  persons 
in  the  senrice  of  the  English  sovemment. 
The  rci-book  of  the  exchefuer  in  an  an- 
cient English  record  in  which  are  regis- 
tered the  names  of  all  that  held  lands  per 
baroniam  in  the  time  of  Henry  II. 
DA^Ilii'Aaaf'      or     Robin     Rbdhreabt 
JMaoreMl,     (ErythUcua  ruhecdla),  a 
species   of   bird   belonging   to   the  I>en- 
tirostral  section  of  the  Insessores,  and  to 
the  family   Sylviadw,  or  warblers.    The 
red  breast  of  the  male  is  the  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  these  well-known  birds,  the 
female  possessing  the  breast  of  a  duller 
yellowish-brown  color.    The  young  are  of 
a  dull  yellowish-green  color,  and  wnnt  the 
characteristic  breast-coloring  of  the  adult. 
In  Britain  the  redbreast  Is  a  permanent 
resident,  but  in  more  northern  countries 
it  appears  to  be  migratory,  flying  south- 
wards in  winter.     It  Is  a  permanent  bird 
in  all  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  and 
it  also  occurs  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  North 
Africa.    The  nest  is  made  of  moss  and 
leaves,     and     is     lined     internally     with 
feathers.     The  eggs   number  five  or  six, 
and  are  white,  spotted  with  pale  brown. 
The    robin    redbreast    of    America    is    a 
thrush,  the  MerUlu  migratoria,  congeneric 
with  the  British  blacltbird :  and  one  of  the 
bluebirds,    the    Bialia    aialis,    is    usually 
called  the  blue  robin.     The  species  of  the 
Australian  genus  Petraca,  allfed  to  the 
wheatears,     and     remarkable    for     their 
bright  plumage,  ere  called  'robins. 
P^J  r*<1ar      «     species     of     junipefj 
MKm\*C%Mi:,     (^juHiperua    virgtnulna), 
found  in  the  United  States  and  the  West 
ladiw;  the  heartwood  is  of  a  bright  red, 
flMOOtb,  and   moderately   soft,   and  ^  is  in 
m«'^  request  for  the  wooden  covering  of 
Vauk-Iead  pencils.     The  demand  for  t'lis 
pvrpoae  is  so  great  that  the  tree  is  be- 
OBOiuig  very  scarce. 

Bed  Chalk.    BwReddle. 

HaA  0^n•nA  a  noted  chief  of  the' 
Mta.  t»iOaa,  gio„j  Indians,  bom  about 
1S20.  and  Ae  last  of  the  famous  chiefs 
of  the  Sioux  nation.  He  first  came  into 
BOtice  as  the  leader  in  the  Petterman 
maaaacre  of  1860  in  Wyoming,  when  100 
Ben  commanded  by  Contain  Fetterman 
were  aurrounded  and  all  killed.  Made 
leader  of  tiie  Bionx  warriors,  he  became 
a  terror  to  the  whites  in  the  region 
wbua  he  ruled,  making  frequent  raids 
and  eoBo^ttiac  numy  depredations. 
After  *t  battle  af  Wounded  Knee,  in 


1800,  he  and  his  followers  stampeded  to 
the  hilbi.  In  his  later  years  he  was  kept 
at  the  Pino  Ridge  Agency,  where  he  died 
December  10,  190G,  about  90  yeart  of  age. 
UmA  finral  {CoralHum  rubrum),  an 
JV6U  vuiOA     important  genus  of  adero- 

basic  corals  belonging  to  the  order  Afcy- 
onaria.  Red  coral  is  highly  valued  for 
the  manufacture  of  jewelry,  and  Is  ob- 
teinod  from  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  Italy,  and 
other  parts  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Bed  Cross  Societies,  ^^^^^  Z 

tablished   immediately  after  the   Geneva 
Convention   of  18«3  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting   the  wounded   in   time  of  war. 
A  central  international  committee  maia- 
tnins  the  connection  between  the  various 
societies.     The  distinctive  badge  of  the 
aodeties  is  a  red  Greek  cross  on  a  white 
ground.       Since    their    institution    they 
have  done  much  to  alleviate  the  horrors 
of  war  and  have  lent  their  aid  in  dis- 
asters  of   various  kinds.      (See   Ge»et;o 
Convention.)     An  association  bearing  the 
title  of  the  American  National  Red  Crosa 
was  incorporated  by  Congress  in  1901,  on 
the  lines  of  the  Geneva  Red  Cross  Society 
of    1883.      During    the    European    war 
(g.  V.)   the  American  branch  of  this  or- 
ganization    became    mnrvelousiy    active, 
brinffing  relief  to  every  nation  engaged  In 
warlike  operations.     Before  the  entiT  of 
the  United  States  into  the  war  money  and 
supplies  valued  at  $4,000,000  had  been 
contributed  for  this  work  and  within  six 
months  thereafter  an  additional  fund  of 
over  1100.000.000  had  been  raised.    The 
membership,  280.000  on  Dec.  1.  101^  had 
become   moro    than   3,500,000   in    Sept., 
1917,  while  12,000  nurses  were  enrolled. 
The  headquarters  of  the  society  were  at 
^Washington,   with  Woodrow  Wilson   as 
president  and  William  H.  Taft  aa  vice- 
president,  but  in  every  town  and  village  of 
the  United  States  materials  for  the  use  of 
the  society  were  being  diligently  prepared, 
while  throughout  the  warring  countries  of 
Europe  the  agents  of  the  society  were 
everywhere  engaged  in  the  work  of  relief. 
P»A  r.TirraTif     ( Rihea    rubrum),    a 

jiea  i^nrrani    deciduous  shrub  much 

cultivated  for  its  fruit,  indigenous  in  the 
northern  portions  of  Europe  and  America. 
The  juice  of  the  fruit  is  used  for  making 
jelly,  and  a  well-known  fermented  liquor 
called  currant  wine. 


Red-deer,    see  stag. 

•D^AA^4-n\%  (red'dich),  a  town  of  Eng- 
AeaOltCn  ^^nd,  county  of  Worcester. 
12%  miles  s.  s.  w.  of  Birminghajn.  It  is 
irrSulariy  but  generally  wdl  built,  and 
haa  manufactures  of  needles,  hooto  and 
^eyes,  and  Hsblng-tacile.    Pop.  15,463. 


Eedemption  ("^•"'•J'on).  J"  tiw-  n^  Sand.  *°  »»««W'7.  •rwn.iiy  tht 

"7^     .    '    ^"    olofjr,  the  puichMt  of  ■*~**  **«*»,  ,,^„„  ^^  j|,^  prorlnce  of 
Ood'i  faror  by  the  ■uffci'infi  and  death  of   Ulster,  but  granted  to  baroneta  as  their 

dtitinfuishinf   badge   on    the    institntion 
of  the  order  in  1611.    It  consists  of  a 
sinister  (or  left)  hand,  open,  erect,  show- 
ing the  palm. 
Bed  Indiam.       see  Indian,. 


Christ ;  the  ransom  or  deliverance  of  sin 
ners   from   the  bondage  of  sin  and   the 
penalties  of  God's  Tlolated  law  by  the 
atonement  of  Christ 
Bedemptioil)  Equitt  or.  see  Equitit. 

Bedemptorists  i"A&ur;,5j',>: 

Tstion  founded  in  Naples  by  Ligaorf  in 
782.  They  devote  themselves  to  the 
tdacatioD  of  voutb  and  the  spread  of 
Roman  Catholicism.  They  style  them- 
selves members  of  the  congregation  of 
the  Holy  Redeemer.  By  the  law  of  1872 
they  were  ezjpelled  from  Germany,  and 
in  the  year  1880  France  treated  them  in 
the  same  manner.  They  are  also  called 
lAguoriati. 

^j^AmHtih  *■  species  of  fish  (8eba»te$ 
OKO.  nsa,  marlnua)  found  on  the  At- 
lantic coast  of  North  America,  a  large 
red  fish  caught  in  considerable  numbers 
for  food.  A  smaller  species  (8.  vivi- 
pdrua)  receives  the  same  name,  and  is 
called  also  Red-perch,  Bote-fisk,  etc.  The 
bergylt  (which  see)  Is  closely  akin. 
B.edin>fl.ve  (red'grfiv),  Richard,  bom 
ACa^ave  in  London  in  1804;  be- 
came a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy 
In  1826;  his  first  notable  picture  was 
Qnlliver  at  the  Farmer't  Table;  in  1840, 
when  he  exhibited  The  Reduced  Oentte- 
man'a  Daughter,  he  was  elected  an  As- 
sociate, ana  in  1851  became  a  Royal 
Academician.  He  Produced  other  valu- 
able paintings  ana  from  being  tiead- 
master  of  the  Government  School  of 
Design  he  became  inspector-general  of 
art  schools,  and  arranged  the  Museum  of 
Art  at  South  Kensington.  He  was  joint 
author  with  his  brother  of  A  Century  of 
Painter$  (1863.)  Among  his  later  pic- 
tures were  Sermona  in  Stonea  (1871)  ; 
The  Oak  of  the  Mill  Head  (1878)  ;  Fri- 
day Street,  Wotton  (1878)  ;  and  Hid- 
den Among  the  Hilla  (1881).  He  died 
Dec.  14,  1888.— His  brother  Samubx, 
born  1802;  died  1876,  is  chiefly  Icnown 
for  his  Dictionary  of  Artiata  of  the 
British  School. 

Bed  Gum.  tl>e  popular  name  of  a 
^^  ^^'  florid  eruption  usually  oc- 
curring in  infants  before  and  during  first 
dentition,  and  appearing  on  the  most 
exposed  parts,  as  the  face,  neclc,  arms, 
and  hands.  It  is  almost  always  an  in- 
nocent disease,  and  seldom  lasts  over  a 
month. 

Bed  Onm-tree    o°®  °^  the  Austra- 

ACa  uum  tree,  j,^  Eucalypti  (Eu- 
ealyptua  reainifdra),  yielding  a  gum-resin 
vahied  for  medicinal  uses. 


Bedlandl  ■  city  in  San  Bernardino 
ACaianOB,  ^o..  California,  8  miles 
B.  E.  of  San  Bernardino.  It  is  in  the 
center  of  the  orange  country  and  has 
canning  and  paclcing  industries,  etc. 
Also  a  health  resort.     Pop.  10,440. 

protoxide  in  contact  with  air.  It  is  much 
used  as  a  pigment,  and  is  commonly 
known  as  Mtmum. 

Bed-Hen.   impwovid  qbdeb  or,  • 

mm^'m.  m^v*M.f    gQ^.^!  ^^j  bwievoleut  or 

?anisation  founded  in  the  United  States 
n  1763,  and  again  in  1834.  It  is  based 
on  the  customs  of  the  American  aborig- 
ines and  is  the  oldest  society  of  its  kind 
founded  in  the  United  States.  The  order 
is  composed  of  subordinate  bodies  called 
tribes,  officered  by  sachems,  sagamores, 
prophets,  etc.  There  are  over  5200  of 
these  tribes,  with  a  membership  of  nearly 
500,000. 

BAdmonrl  John  Eowabd,  Irish  states- 
ACamoua,  n,^^   ^^  ^^  ivaterford  in 

1851,  became  a  barrister  at  Gray's  Inn 
1886.  and  in  Ireland  1887.  He  was  a 
member  of  Parliament  from  New  Ross, 
1881-85;  North  Wpxford,  1885-91,  and 
Waterford  since  1891.  He  was  leader  of 
the  Irish  Nationalist  party  and  under  his 
leadership  the  Home  Rule  Bill  was  passed 
in  1914.  Redmond  agreed  to  the  post- 
ponement of  the  bill  during  the  war.  He 
died  March  6,  1918,  John  Dillon  succeed- 
ing him  as  Nationalist  leader.  His 
brother.  Major  William  Hoey  Redmond, 
was  killed  in  action  in  Franco  in  1917. 

Bed  Ochre,   SiJvT*  n*i^r.«**',f.h5; 

'  nety  or  pigments,  rather 
than  designating  nn  individual  color,  and 
comprehending  Indian  red,  light  red,  Ve- 
netian red,  scarlet  ochre,  Indian  ochre, 
reddle,  bole,  and  other  oxides  of  iron.  As 
a  mineral  it  designates  a  soft  earthy 
variety  of  hmmatite. 

BedondillaS  (red-on^dll'yas),  the 
name  given  to  a  spe- 
cies of  versification  formerly  used  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  consisting  of  a  union 
of  versm  of  four,  six.  and  eight  syllables, 
of  which  generally  the  first  rhymed  with 
the  fourth  and  the  second  with  the  third. 
At  a  Ipter  period  verses  of  six  and  eight 
syllables  in  general,  in  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  poetry,  were  called  redondil- 


Aed  Orpiment 


Bad  Bm 


Im,  whethtr  they  mad*  perfect  rhjrmM  or 
•MonancM  oaljr. 

Bed  Orpiment.    »»»•  "  *••*»«•• 

Bedont  (f^oyf).  in  fortlflcatlon.  a 
Mvwvuw  general  name  for  nearly  every 
clasa  of  works  wholly  incloacd  and  un* 
defended  by  reentering  or  flanking  an- 
glee.  The  word  is,  however,  most  gen- 
erally used  for  a  small  inclosed  work  af 
various  form  —  polygonal,  square,  trian- 
gular, or  even  circular,  and  used  mainly 
as  a  temporary  field  work. 
Ht^il  Pin  A  <^  species  of  pine  (Pinu$ 
Aea  nne^  ^^^^^^  also  called  Nor- 
way Pine.  Its  wood  is  very  resinous 
and  durable,  and  is  much  used  in  house 
and  ship-building.  It  produces  turpen- 
tine, tar,  pitch,  resin,  and  lampblack. 

Bed-pole,  ?e^r^^pl|,ro'f'!ireS 

TJe  greater  redpole  is  the  lAnOta  oan- 
nablna;  the  mealy  red-pole  is  the  L. 
boreilit  or  conescens;  and  the  little  red- 
pole  is  the  L.  linaria.  The  same  name  is 
given  to  the  Sylvicdla  petechia  of  Amer- 
ica, also  called  the  red-headed  warbler  and 
yelloiv  red-pole. 

l&ea  HlVer,  united  states,  the 
southernmost  of  the  great  tributaries  of 
the  Mississippi.  It  rises  in  northern 
Texns,  and  has  several  sources,  the  chief, 
besides  the  main  stream,  being  called  the 
North  aud  South  Forks,  which  unite  with 
it  on  the  boundary  line  between  Texas  and 
eastern  Oklahoma.  The  stream  then 
flows  E.  s.  E.,  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween Texas,  Oklahoma  and  Arlcansas: 
cuts  off  a  comer  of  the  latter  state,  and 
then  flowing  through  Louisiana,  falls 
iato  the  Mississippi,  125  miles  northwest 
of  New  Orleans;  total  course  estimated 
at  1550  miles:  chief  affluents  —  the 
Wasnita,  which  joins  it  in  Louisiana,  and 
the  False  Washita,  which  it  receives  in 
Oklahoma.  Much  of  its  course  is 
through  rich  prairies.  About  1200  miles 
of  the  river  are  useful  for  navigation, 
but  its  mouth  at  low  water  can  be  entered 
only  by  boats  drawing  2  feet. 
DaiI  1liv*r  or  Song-ka,  a  large 
Aea  AlTer,     ^j^^^  ^^  Tonquln,  formed 

by  the  junction  of  the  LeteSn  and  Song- 
shai,  the  former  risiag  in  China,  the 
latter  in  Laos.  It  flows  a.  e.,  passes 
Hanoi,  and  fails  by  several  mouths  into 
the  Oulf  of  Tonquin. 

Eed  Eiver  of  the  North,  ^^i^;" 

America,  which  rises  in  Elbow  Lake,  in 
Minnesota,  flows  south  and  southwest, 
and  then  nearly  north,  crossing  from  the 
United  States  into  Manitoba,  whete  it 
falli    into    Lake    Winnipcff.    Its    entin 


Itngtb  Is  66S  milaa,  625  of  which  are  in 
tlM  Unltad  States.  In  Manitoba  it  rt- 
eeivea  the  Aaainiboine,  another  largo 
stream,  at  its  Junction  with  which  stands 
the  town  of  Winnipeg. 

Bed  Biyer  Settlement,  '.^.^t^t 

ed  in  1812  In  Canada  by  the  Earl 
of  Selkirk  on  the  banks  of  the  above 
river:  repurcliased  by  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  in  1830:  finally  transferred 
t'>  the  Canadian  government  in  1870. 
and  now  made  pa^t  of  the  province  of 
Manitoba. 

Bed  Boot,  •,  °»"«  «''«^  }?  *^^ 
Mw««  «pww»,     plants,  one  of  them  Ceo- 

nOlhu$  Americdnut,  natural  order  UhaoK 
nace».  It  has  simple  alternate  leaves 
and  large  red  roots,  and  is  found  in 
North  America,  where  the  leaves  are 
used  sometimes  to  make  an  infusion  of 
tea. 

Bedmth  i^  tn%'n^a.  ?o,S?yM  &^- 
wall,  Oi  miles  northwest  of  Falmouth. 
Ihe  inhabitants  are  principally  employed 
in  the  tin  and  copper  mines  of  the 
neighborhood.  Pop.  (1911)  10,815. 
1Ia<1  S»a  or  Arabian  Quo*,  a  branch 
Aeu  oca,  jjf  j^g  j^j.^jj  Ocean,  com- 
municating with  it  by  the  Strait  of  Bab> 
el-Mandeb,  stretching  in  a  N.  N.  w.  direc- 
tion between  Arabia  on  the  east, 
Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and  Egypt  on  the  west, 
and  connected  with  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  north  by  the  Suez  Canal.  It 
forms  a  long  and  narrow  expanse,  stretch- 
ing for  1450  miles,  with  a  breadth  which 
averages  about  180  miles,  but  diminishes 
gradually  at  its  extremities.  At  the 
northern  end  it  divides  into  two  branches, 
one  of  which,  forming  the  Oulf  of 
Akaba,  penetrates  into  Arabia  for  alwut 
100  miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of 
about  15  miles ;  while  the  other,  (•  loiDg 
the  Oulf  of  Sues,  penetrates  t»*-tweeB 
Arabia  and  Egypt  for  about  200  miles, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  about  20 
miles.  The  shores  consist  generally  of  a 
low,  sandy  tract,  varying  m  width  from 
10  to  -30  miles,  and  suddenly  terminated 
by  the  abutments  of  a  lofty  table-land  » 
3000  feet  to  6000  feet  high.  Occupying 
a  long  deep  valley  this  water  expauK 
has  gradually  been  divided  into  thrat 
channels  formed  by  coral  reefs  and  is- 
lands. In  the  mam  channel  the  depth 
reaches  in  one  place  1054  fathoms,  but 
diminishes  towards  the  extremities  to  40 
fathoms,  while  in  the  harbor  of  Suez  It 
.amounts  to  only  3  fathoms.  From 
October  to  May,  when  the  wind  sets 
steadily  from  the  south,  a  strong  current 
flows  \a  from  tlw  Strait  of  Bsb-el- 
Mandeb :  while  from  May  to  Oetttber.  the 


Eedihaiit 


Bed-wood 


^ii 


■ortb  wUd  (wiitina«i  to  blow,  whi^ 
fivM  tb«  oomnt  ■  waUMrn  dlnetioa. 
Tb«  rMult  of  this  ia  to  niM  tb«  Ma- 
Itvd  by  MTtnl  fttt  Bortb  and  Mutb 
•Ittmately.  Tb*  atuuMpbcre  is  czcw- 
■iT«)7  bot  in  tbe  w«rm  MMon.  Tb«  prin- 
cipal harbon  of  tbe  Bad  Baa  are.  oa 
tba  African  coast,  Suai,  Ko««ir,  Buakin, 
and  Maaaowa :  and  on  tba  Arabian  coast, 
Jadda  (the  port  of  Mecca),  ilodeida, 
and  Mocba.  Tba  croaa  trade  consists 
cbiefly   of   slaves    from    Africa  and   pil- 

Kims  to  Met-ca.  but  tbe  tbroufb  traffic 
M  been  iiDmensely  Increaaed  by  tba  Saaa 
Canal.  Tbe  Isruelitai  are  supposed  te 
bare  croased  tbe  Red  Sea  at  its  nortbem 
eitremity  in  tbo  Oulf  of  Sues,  and  near 
tbe  town  of  tbat  name,  bat  opiniona 
vary  as  to  tbe  precise  spot.  ^ 

PA<1elian1r  a  bird  of  tbe  genus  T»> 
Aeainanx,  Wnn*.  tbe  T.  oalidrit.  sa 
railed  from  its  red  lega.  It  is  about  11 
incbes  long,  and  ia  known  as  a  summer 
bird  of  passage  in  tbe  northern  parte  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  occurring  in  winter  as 
far  south  as  India.  Tbe  spotted  red- 
shnnk  (T.  /m«o««}  visits  Northern  Europe 
in  its  spring  and  autumn  migrations. 

Bed-inow.    ^^  ivotoooooa*. 

PjMlafaH:  •  bird  (RutMlla  phcmt- 
nmOMWn,    ^^^     belonging    to    the 

family  Sylviadn,  nearly  allied  to  the 
redbreaat,  but  having  a  more  alender 
form  and  a  more  slender  bill.  It  is 
found  in  almost  all  .  arts  of  Britain  as 
a  summer  bird  of  passage,  and  has  a  soft 
awaet  aong.    Tbe  tail  is  red,  wbotce  tbe 


Sadrtart  (SutieOla  phmnieUrm). 


name,  ttart  l>eing  Anglo-Saxon  $teort,  a 
tail.  Tbe  forehead  is  white,  the  throat- 
black,  the  upper  parts  lead-gray  or 
brown.  The  black  redstart  (Phcenicurf 
tithyt)  is  distinguished  from  the  com- 
mon redstart  by  being  sooty  black  on  the 
breast  and  belhr  where  the  other  ia  red- 
dish brown.  The  American  redstart  is 
a  small  bird  of  the  family  Musicapidn 
or  fly-catchers,  common  in  moat  patta 
of  Nortk  Amarict. 


valfiHa,  highly  valued  in  United  Sutea 
for  pasturace  and  bay  for  cattle.  Called 
also  BmtUtk  Or«$$  and  Umri't-grait. 

Bednotio  ad  abfurdnin,  "i^^*; 

argument  much  uaed  in  geometry,  which 
proves  not  tbe  thing  asserted,  but  the 
absurdity  of  everything  which  contra- 
dicts It  In  this  way  the  proposition  is 
not  proved  in  a  direct  manner  by  prlnci- 
plea  before  laid  down,  but  it  is  shown 
that  the  contrary  is  absurd  or  impossible. 

^•vuuvbAwu  jjjtjg^  tijg  bringing  of 
numbers  of  one  denomination  into  an- 
other, as  farthings  to  shillings,  or  shil- 
lip^  to  farthings ;  pcunds,  ounces,  penny- 
weights, and  grains  to  grains,  or  graina 
to  pounds. 

Bed-water.  *  <ll»f«»«„o'  cattle,  an* 
M)vu  wnKViA,      occasionally    of    alieep, 

in  which  tbe  appetite  and  rumination 
become  Irregular,  the  bowels  speedilv  be- 
come constipated,  and  the  urine  reddened 
with  broken-down  red  globules  of  blood. 
It  is  caused  by  eating  coarse.  Indigestible, 
innutritive  food,  by  contiiiued  exposure 
to  inclement  weather,  and  other  causes 
which  lead  to  a  deteriorated  state  of  the 
blood.  Called  also  Bloody  Urina,  Hema- 
turia, and  ifoor-tA. 

Hjulurinir  *  speclea  of  thrush  (T«r- 
ACttWiui^,  j^^  UiicHt),  well  known 
as  a  winter  bird  of  passage.  It  spends 
the  summer  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  its  winter  range  ex- 
tending to  t!ie  Mediterranean.  It  ia 
about  equal  to  the  song  thrush  in  sise, 
congregates  in  large  flocks,  and  haa  an 
exquisue  song. 

H.^flvnncr  &  city,  the  capital  of  Qood- 
ACUWiui^,  hue  Co.,  Minnesota,  on  the 
Mississippi  River  at  the  upper  end  of 
Lake  Pepin,  41  miles  s.  &  of  St.  PauL 
It  Is  an  important  market  for  wheat, 
and  has  manufactures  of  flour,  stoneware, 
iron,  sewer-pipe,  boats,  furniture,  etc. 
Pop.  9048. 

Bed-wood,  *!l*  °'"^*  "J  various  sorts 
>  of  wood  of  a  red  color, 
as  an  Indian  dyewood,  tbe  produce  of 
Pterooarput  Mantallnui;  tlie  wood  of 
Oordonia  Hmmatomylon,  the  red-wood  of 
Jamaica;  that  of  Pterocarput  dalhergio- 
idet,  or  Andaman  wood;  that  of  Cean6- 
tku$  oolubrinut,  the  red-wood  of  the 
Bahamas:  that  of  Sequoia  tempervirens, 
a  coniferous  tree  of  California,  the  red- 
wood of  the  timber  trade;  that  of 
Sofftnida  febrifupa,  of  which  the  bark  ie 
used  in  India  for  fevers,  and  has  been 
employed  successfully  in  Europe  for 
i^nhaiL    Tbe  Californion  red-wood  la  tht 


Bee 


Beef 


b««t  knowii.  The  tro«  ivarhet  n  very 
gr«at  aii^e  and  forma  foreata  in  the  conat 
mountaina  of  California.  It  la  cluaely 
related  to  the  giant  treea  of  California. 
Til*  red-wood  treoM  range  from  4  to  B 
feet  in  diameter.  The  luinber  from  it  la 
of  a  deep  red  color,  takes  a  benutiful 
poliah,  and  ia  much  valued  for  decora* 
live  purpoaea.  .      ,    .  . 

p»»    IjOI?oii,  a  lake  of  Ireland,  formed 
**">  by  the  Shannon,  between  the  coun- 
tlea  of  Longford,   Weatmeath,  and   Itoa- 
coaimon,  17  milps  long  nnd  1  mile  to  6 
miloa  broad,   studded  with   l&landa. 
'RaaYiaV     'ra'l'ok;   that  ie  rof-buck),  a 
ACeuUK    Bpeciea  of  South  African  ante- 
lope, the  Antitupe  capredluB.    The  boma 
are  amootb,  long,  atraight,  and  alender. 
The    reebok    ia     2i    feet    bigh    at    the 
ahoulder,  of  a  aligbter  and  more  graceful 
form  than  the  generality  of  other  ante- 
lopea,  and  extremely  swift. 
•QmmA     (tM),   a   name  usually  applied 
***'*'    Indiacrlminatelytoall  Ull,  broad, 
leaved    graasea    which    grow    along    the 
banka  of  streama,  pools,  and  lakea,  and 
even  to  other  plants  fihb.  aimilar  leavea, 
growing  in  such  situations,  aa  the  bam- 
boo.    Strictly    apeaking,    however,    it    ia 
the  name  given  to  plnnta  of  the  genera 
Arundo,    P»amma,    and    Phragn  Ilea,   and 
especially   to   Phraamltea  commflnta    (the 
common  reed).    This,  the  largest  of  all 
the  grasaes  of  northern  climates,  is  used 
far  rooting  cottages,  etc.     It  is  exceeded 
in  size  by  the  Arundo  donaw  of  Southern 
Europe,   which   sometimes   grows    to    the 
height  of  12  feet.     The  sea-reed  or  mat- 
grnss    (Ammophila    (or   Pjamma)    arm- 
aria)   is    often    an    important   agent   in 
binding  together  the  maases  of  loose  aand 
on      sea-shores.    The     bur-reed      (reed- 
grass)  is  of  the  genus  Sparganium  of  the 
reed-mace  order.    See  Reed-mace. 
Tt»»A      in     music,     a     vibrating     slip 
A>ccU)    ^,p    tongue    in    the    mouthpiece 
through   which    a    hautboy,   baasoon,   or 
clarinet    is    blown,    originally    made    of 
reed;  or  one  of  the  thin  plates  of  metal 
whose   vibrations   produce   the   notes   of 
on  accordion,  concertina,  or  harmonium, 
or   a  similar  contrivance   in   an   organ- 

P'pe. 

1>  Aarl  Sib  Edward  James,  naval  an. :  • 
'fceca,  j^t  born  in  jgyg.  He  waa  at 
one  time  connected  with  Sheerneaa  dock- 
yard, and  having  become  an  authority 
on  naval  architecture  he  was  appointed 
cb'pf  constructor  to  the  navy,  lor  which 
be  desired  a  number  of  iron-clad*  and 
other  Tessels.  He  vrote  several  books 
on  naval  subjects.  Pied  in  1906. 
DaaJ  Thomas  Bbackgtt,  atateaman, 
*»*'"»  was  bom  in  Portland,  Maine, 
Ov-t  19»  1939.    Co  gradual  Hi  PowdoJn 


in  1800  and  atndied  law.  "  v.m  «  nxa* 
ber  of  the  Maine  iegialatb  >-rl8-70  and 
attorney-general  of  the  sia.e  1870-7'J. 
In  187<I  he  was  elected  to  Congreaa,  and 
was  Speaker  of  the  Honae  for  thrae 
terms.  As  auch  he  proved  an  aVe 
parliamentarian,  and  became  widely 
known  for  hia  energy  and  arbitrary  de- 
cision in  1800  of  counting  a  quornm  of 
members  proaent  despite  their  declining 
to  vote.  Thia  deciaion  aa  to  actual  pret- 
ence and  eonatructlve  absence  made  bin 
bitter  enemies,  but  waa  suatained  by 
the  Supreme  Court.  He  realgned  in 
1^  and  engaged  in  legal  business  in 
New  York,  where  he  died  Dec.  6,  1002. 

Beed  Bird.  ^  ^"*  Bunting. 

S.Md>infl.e«  (rtd-mla).  a  plant  of  the 
Aeea-maoe  ^^nna  Typka,  natnral 
order  Typbace*.  Two  apecios  are  com- 
mon, T.  lati^olia,  or  greater  reed-mact, 
and  T.  aniruttifolia,  the  lesser.  These 
planta  are  also  known  by  the  name  of 
aH-taU,  and  grow  in  ditches  and  marshy 
places,  and  on  the  borders  of  ponds,  lakes, 
and  rivers.  They  are  tall,  stout,  erect 
plants,  sometimes  6  or  8  feet  high,  with 
creeping  root-stocks,  long  flag-like  leaves, 
and  long  dense  cylindrical  brown  spikee 
of  minute  flowers.  They  are  sometimes 
erroneously  called  bulrush. 
l).AAf  (ref),  a  certain  portion  of  a  sail 
'*'^*  between  the  top  or  bottom  and 
a  row  of  eyelet-holes  running  across  tbs 
sail,  one  or  more  reefs  being  folded  or 
rolled  up  to  contract  the  aail  in  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  of  the  wind.  Tbers 
are  seta  of  cords  called  reef-point$  at- 
tached to  the  sail  for  tying  up  the  reefs, 


Wherry  with   fore-sail   reefei*,    the  main-sail 
showing  rsef-baada  and  rMl-polnta. 

and  the  aail  is  also  strengthened  by  r*ef- 
bandt  across  it.  There  are  several  reefs 
parallel  to  eadi  other  in  the  superior 
sails,  and  there  are  always  three  or  four 


Beef 


Beilectioii 


the  chief  Mils  which  are  extended  upon 
booms.  Many  ships  are  now  fitted  with 
sails  which  can,  by  a  mechanical  ap- 
pliance, be  reefed  from  the  declc 
TL^mf  a  chain,  mass,  or  range  of 
^W^  f  roclts  In  Tarions  parts  of  the 
ocean,   lying  at  or  near  the  surface  of 

VaaI  (rel),  a  machine  on  which  yam 
'*^^*'  is  wound  to  form  it  into  hanlts, 
siceins,  etc.  Also  a  siceleton  barrel  at- 
tached to  the  butt  of  a  fishing-rod, 
around  which  the  inner  end  of  the  line 
is  wound,  md  from  which  it  is  paid  out 
as  the  fish  runs  away  when  first  hooked. 
DaaI  ^  lively  danoc  originating  in 
*»^^*'f  Scotland,  in  one  part  of  which 
the  couples  usually  swing  or  whirl  round, 
and  in  the  other  pass  and  repass  each 
other,  forming  the  figure  8.  The  music 
for  this  dance,  called  by  the  same  name,  is 
generally  written  in  common  time  of  four 
crotchets  in  a  bar,  but  sometimes  in  jig 
lime  of  six  quavers.  A  variation  of  this 
dance,  known  as  the  Virginia  Reel,  is 
popular  in  the  United  States. 
T»AA'm  (rem),  the  Hebrew  name  of  an 
Mtcciu  unimai  mentioned  in  Job  xxxix, 
9,  and  translated  as  unicorn.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  a  two-horned  animal  was 
intended  by  the  name,  and  the  common 
belief  now  is  that  the  reem  was  the 
aurochs  or  urus. 

■R*-pnfrv  (r6-en'tri),  in  law,  the  re- 
AC-eutry  3„niing  or  retaking  the 
possession  of  lands  lately  lost.  A  pro- 
vito  for  re-entry  is  a  clause  usually  in- 
serted in  leasas,  that  upon  non-payment 
of  rent,  etc.,  the  term  shall  cease. 
IIaas  (res;,  Abbahah,  editor,  was  bom 
ACes^j  Wales  in  1743;  died  in  1825. 
He  was  educated  at  Hoxton  Academy, 
where  he  remained  as  tutor  for  over 
twenty  years ;  became  pastor  of  a  Presby- 
terian churcli  in  Southwark,  and  after- 
wards in  the  Old  Jewry.  He  edited  E. 
Chambers's  Cyclopedia  (177G-8ti)  ;  and 
used  this  as  the  basis  of  a  larger  and  very 
valuable  work  called  Rees's  Cyclopedia 
(1802-19,  45  vols.). 

TIaaita  (rSv),  the  name  given  to  the 
Xl.ee  vc  femaje  of  the  bird  called  the 
ruff.     See  Ruif. 

Paatta  the  title  of  the  official,  existing 
Accvc,  jq  ggpiy  times  in  England,  who 
was  appointed  by  the  king  to  carry  into 
execution  the  judgments  of  the  courts 
presided  over  by  the  ealdorman  (earl) 
and  other  high  dignitaries,  to  levy  dis- 
tresses, exact  the  Imposts,  contributions, 
tithes,  and  take  charge  of  prisoners. 
Vaavaq  Johx  Sims,  tenor  singer,  bora 
iX,eeves,  ^^  shooters'  Hill,  Kent,  in 
1822;  appeared  as  a  baritone  on  the 
•tafe  At  NewcMtl9  la  1838,  m4  for 


many  yean  afterwards  was  very  popular. 

He   devoted    himself   more   especially   to 

oratorio    and    ballad    sinking,    and    long 

held  the  reputation  of  l>eing  the  first  ot 

modem  tenors.     He  publisned   an  ante 

biography  in  1889.     He  died  October  25. 

19()0. 

Beference    (ref'er-ena),   in   law,   the 
M>vx«A»uvv   pro<.egg     of     assigning     a 

cause  depending  in  court,  or  some  par- 
ticular point  in  a  cause  for  a  hearing 
and  decision,  to  persons  appointed  by  the 
court. 
1I.Af  ATA-n  Anm    (  ref  •  er  •  en'  dum  >.     a 

neierenaum  ^^^  ^^^  j^  ^^^^  ^^,,3 

Confederation  to  denote  the  reference  to 
the  citizen  voters  of  resolutions  or  laws 
passed  by  their  representatives.  If 
these,  when  so  referred,  are  accepted  by 
the  majority  of  the  voters  of  the  canton, 
then  they  biecome  part  of  the  law  of  the 
land;  but  if  they  are  rejected,  then  the 
rejection  is  final.  The  referendum  is 
obligatory  when  the  law  or  resolution 
affects  the  constitution;  in  other  eases 
it  is  optional.  The  referendum  has  long 
been  used  in  the  United  States  for  several 
purposes,  such  as  the  adoption  of  con- 
stitutions and  of  amendments  to  consti- 
tutions. As  a  constitutional  provision 
giving  the  people  the  ri^ht  to  control  and 
revise  general  legislation  it  was  first 
adopted  by  South  Dakota  in  1898,  and 
by  Oregon  in  1902.  Since  these  dates 
other  states  have  adopted  it,  the  numbei 
up  to  January  1,  1911,  being  ten, 
though  of  these  only  five  had  effective 
measures,  the  others  being  in  various 
ways  incomplete  or  defective.  The  ques- 
tion of  referendum  amendments  to  state 
constitutions  was  a  prominent  issue  in 
1911.  While  defeated  in  most  cases,  it 
was  adopted  by  California  and  in  the 
new  constitutions  of  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico.  Up  to  the  date  named  it  had 
been  fairly  tried  only  in  Oregon,  its 
operation  there  being  viewed  as  very 
satisfactory.  This  state  alone  has 
adopted  an  effective  system  of  informing 
the  electors  concerning  the  measures  to 
be  submitted  to  popular  vote,  a  pamphlet 
containing  an  official  copy  of  the  meas- 
ure, together  with  arguments  for  and 
against  it,  being  mailed  to  every  voter 
prior  to  the  election.  See  Initiaxiyie 
AND  Referendum. 

Eefining  of  Metals,  t^  ^^,f{^^ 

various  metals  are  extracted  from  their 
ores,  and  obtained  in  a  state  of  purity. 
See  the  .irtioles  on  the  several  metals. 
ItAflAAfinn    (re-flek'shun),  specifically, 
ACneCUOn   J^  physics,  the  change  of 

direction  which  a  ray  of  light,  mdianl 
beati  sQUOd,  or  other  torn  of  radiaot 


Befleotor 


Beftmuition 


energy,  experiences  when  it  itrikea  np«i 
a  surface  and  is  thrown  back  Into  the 
same  medium  from  which  it  apprwjched. 
When  a  perfectly  elastic  body  strikes  a 
hard  and  fixed  plane  obliquely  it  re- 
bounds from  it,  making  the  angle  of  re- 
flection equal  to  an  angle  of  incidence. 
This  is  also  the  case  with  light,  but  the 
light  undergoes  the  change  known  as 
polarization.  See  Polarization,  Op*tc». 
P^fl^pfnr  (re-flek'tur),  a  polished 
JieneClOr  Surface  of  metal,  or  any 
other  suitable  material,  applied  for  the 
purpose  of  reflecting  rays  of  lifht,  heat, 
or  sound  in  any  required  direction.  Re- 
flectors may  be  either  plane  or  curvi- 
linear; of  the  former  the  common  mirror 
is  a  familiar  exampl".  Curvilinear  re- 
flectors admit  of  a  greav  variety  of  forms, 
according  to  the 
purposes  for 
which  they  are 
employed;  they 
may  be  either  con- 

j. vex    or    concave, 

"l-JZnn  spherical,    ellipti- 
— "T™  Cfi'j  parabolic,  or 

~" hyperbolic,    etc. 

The    parabolic 

— -——  form    18    perhaps 
::::L' — 'Z  the  most  generally 

serviceable,  being 

used  for  many 

purposes  of  illu- 
mination, as  well 
as   for   various 


Parabolic  Reflector 


highly  important  philosophical  instru- 
ments. The  annexed  cut  is  a  section  of 
a  ship  lantern  fitted  with  an  argand 
lamp  and  parabolic  reflector,  a  a  is  the 
reflector,  6  the  lamp,  situated  in  the  to- 
rus of  the  polished  concave  paraboloid, 
c  thf  oil  cistern,  d  the  outer  frame  of  the 
lantern,  and  e  the  chimney  for  the  es- 
cape of  the  products  of  combustion.  See 
Optica,  Lighthouae. 

Reflexive  Verb,  ';^hfc™TarfV  u5 

direct  object  a  pronoun  which  stands  for 
the  agent  or  subject  of  the  verb,  as  I 
bethought  myaelf;  the  witness  fortwore 
himaelf.  Pronouns  of  this  class  are 
called  reflexive  pronouna,  and  in  Eng- 
lish are  generally  compounds  with  aelf; 
as,  to  deny  one'a  aelf;  though  such  ex- 
amples also  occur  as :  'He  bethought  *ti» 
how  be  should  act ' ;  *  I  do  repent  me.' 

Eeflex  Nervous  Action,  J^^i?,^ 

those  actions  of  the  Bervons  system 
whereby  an  impression  is  tnuumitted 
along  sensory  nerves  to  a  nerve  center, 
from  which  again  it  is  refectsd  to  a 
motor  nerve,  and  so  calls  iato  play  some 
musci*    wlMTsby    move«i«Bt«    vn    pr9- 


duced.  These  actions  are  performed  itf 
voluntarily,  and  often  nnoonsciously,  a« 
the  contraction  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
when  exposed  to  strong  light.  See 
Nerve,  .,      „ 

1l*fnrai  (re-form'),  Pamjamentait. 
AeiOrm    ^^  Britain,  Hiatory. 

Reformation   J.'S^-^Si'r^Wppua 

to  the  religious  revolution  in  the  sixteenth 
century  which  divided  the  Western 
Church  into  the  two  sections  known  as 
Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant. 
Before  this  era  the  pope  exercised  atao- 
lute  authority  over  the  whole  Christian 
Church  with  the  exception  of  thoee 
countries  in  which  the  Greek  or  Eastern 
Church  had  been  established.  He  atoo 
had  an  influence  in  temporal  affair* 
wherever  his  spiritual  authority  was 
recognized.  Various  abuses  in  discipline 
sprung  up  in  the  Church,  and  attention 
had  often  been  called  to  these  both  by 
laymen  and  clerics.  An  important  move- 
ment in  the  direction  of  a  reformatiwi 
was  begun  by  WicklilEe  (1334-84)  bi 
England,  a  movement  which,  on  tte 
Continent,  was  developed  by  Huss  (13TO- 

1415)  and    Jerome    of    Prague    (13w- 

1416)  with  their  Bohemian  followers. 
But  the  times  were  not  ripe  for  com- 
bined opposition.  New  and  powerful 
influences,  however,  were  soon  at  wo». 
The  Renaissance  increased  the  nnmhor 
of  scholars;  the  new  art  of  printing  dif- 
fused knowledge;   while   the   jniversities 

fave  greater  attention  to  the  Greek  and 
lebrew  languages,  and  grew  in  numbers. 
Much  of  the  intellectual  force  and  fear- 
lessness brought  forth  by  the  Renais- 
sance was  turned  against  the  corrupt 
practices  referred  to.  In  the  writings 
of  Erasmus  (1467-1536),  as  well  as  Ui 
a  host  of  satires,  epigrams,  etc.,  the 
ecclesiastics  of  the  time  were  held  up 
to  a  derision  which  thoughtful  men  recof' 


nized  as  just.  The  condition  of  the 
Western  Church,  indeed,  was  such  that 
a  reformation  of  some  kind  was  now  in- 
evitable. The  great  movement  usually 
known  as  the  Reformation  was  started 
by  Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine  monk 
of  Erfurt,  professor  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Wittenberg;  and  what  im- 
mediately occasioned  it  was  the  preach- 
ing of  hidulgences  in  Germany  by  a  duly 
accredited  agent,  Jobann  Tetzel,  a  Domin- 
ican monk  of  Leipzig.  Luther  con- 
demned Tetzel's  methods,  first  in  a  ser- 
mon and  afterwards  in  ninety-five  theses 
or  questions  which  he  affixed  to  the  door 
of  the  great  church,  October  31,  151  <. 
This  at  once  roused  pablic  interest  and 
gained  him  a  number  of  adherents,  aaeaf 
tken  am  #f  isflaoice  i»  ckarcb  9» 


Kefozmatioii 


Beformation 


■tate.  Lnther  arged  hli  ipiiitaal  auperl- 
on  and  the  pope  to  put  a  stop  to  the  do- 
ing* of  Tetiel  and  to  reform  the  corruj)- 
timu  of  the  church  in  general.  In  oon- 
Bequence  a  heated  controvemy  aros^ 
Lather  was  fiercely  assailed,  and  in  1520 
excommunication  was  pronounced  against 
him  by  Pope  Leo  X.  (See  Luther.) 
Upon  this  the  dissenter  appealed  to  a  gen* 
eral  council:  and  when  his  works  wera 
homed  at  Mains,  Cologne,  and  Loovain, 
he  publicly  committed  the  bull  of  excom* 
municatlon  with  the  papal  canons  and 
decrees  to  the  flames  (December,  1520). 
From  this  time  Luther  formally  sepa- 
rated from  the  existing  Church,  and 
many  of  the  principal  German  nobles, 
Hutten,  Sickingen,  Schaumburg,  etc., 
Fome  very  eminent  scholars,  and  the 
Uuiversity  of  Wittenberg,  publicly  de- 
clared in  favor  of  the  reformed  doctrines 
and  discipline.  Luther's  bold  refusal  to 
recant  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  (April 
17th,  1521)  gave  him  increased  power, 
while  the  edict  of  Worms  and  the  ban 
of  the  emperor  made  h?s  cause  a  political 
matter.  By  his  ten  months'  seclusion 
In  the  Wartburg,  after  the  Diet  of 
Worms,  Luther  was  secured  from  the 
first  consequences  of  the  ban  of  the  em- 
pire, and  the  emperor  was  so  much  en- 
gaged by  French  and  Spanish  afCairs 
that  he  almost  wholly  lost  sight  of  the 
religious  ferment  in  Oermanv. 

Leo's  successor,  Adrian  VI,  now  con- 
sidered It  necessary  to  interfere,  bnt  in 
answer  to  his  demand  for  the  extirpation 
of  the  doctrines  of  Luther  he  received  a 
list  of  a  hundred  complaints  against  the 
papal  chair  from  the  German  states  as- 
sembled at  the  Diet  of  NUrnberg  (1522). 
While  Luther  was  publishing  his  trans- 
lation of  the  New  'Testament,  which  was 
soon  followed  by  the  translation  of  the 
Old;  and  while  Melancbthon  was  en- 
gaged on  his  Loci  Communet  (the  first 
exposition  of  the  Lutheran  doctrines) 
serious  preparations  for  the  reform  of 
acclesiasticail  abuses  were  made  in 
Pomcrania,  Silesia,  in  the  Saxon  cities, 
in  Soabia,  etc.,  and  the  Reformation 
made  rapid  progress  in  Germany. 
Luther's  Liturgy  had  no  sooner  appeared 
(1522),  than  It  was  adopted  in  Magde- 
burg and  elsewhere.  New  translations 
of  the  Bible  into  Dutch  and  French  ap- 
peared, and  at  Meux  In  France  a  Luth- 
eran church  was  organized.  In  vain  did 
the  Sorbonne  condemn  the  principles  of 
Luther,  and  powers  political  and  eccie- 
■laatlcal  endeavor  to  stop  ttiis  movement 
In  1625  John,  the  successor  of  Luther's 
first  patron  Frederick  In  the  Saxon  elec- 
tonte,  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and 
AHmP  9t  9iWdept)uiy,  da|ce  of  Prussia. 


publicly  declared  themselves  Luthertins. 
Aided  in  great  measure  by  the  state  of 
political  affairs,  the  movonent  continued 
to  spread  rapidly.  In  these  circum- 
stances the  emperor  convened  the  Diet  of 
Augsbuiv  (June,  1580),  at  which  Me- 
lancbthon read  a  statement  of  the  re- 
formed doctrine,  now  known  as  the  Con- 
fettion  of  Augsburg.  The  Catholic  pre- 
lates replied  to  this  by  requiring  the  re- 
formers to  return  to  the  ancient  church 
within  a  certain  period.  The  princes 
who  favored  the  new  movement  refused 
to  comply  with  this  demand,  and  in 
March  of  the  following  year  they  as- 
sembled at  Schmalkald  and  formed  the 
famous  league,  in  terms  of  which  they 
pledged  themselves  to  uphold  the  Protest- 
ant cause.  This  decisive  step  soon  at- 
tracted powerful  support,  largely  because 
of  Its  political  importance,  and  among 
others  who  joined  the  Schmalkald  League 
were  Francis  I  of  France  and  Henry 
VIII  of  England.  After  the  death  of 
Luther  (154U)  war  broke  out,  but  at 
the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  the  Ref- 
ormation may  be  said  to  have  finally 
triumphed,  when  each  prince  was  per- 
mitted t»  adopt  either  the  Reformed  or 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  Protest- 
antism thus  received  legal  recognition. 

The  doctrines  of  the  German  reformer 
found  a  willing  adherent  In  Gustavus 
Vasa,  who  in  1523  became  King  ef 
Sweden.  Gustavus  induced  the  estates 
of  the  realm,  in  the  Diet  of  Westeriis 
(1527),  to  sanction  the  confiscation  of 
the  monasteries,  and  declared  himself 
supreme  in  matters  ecclesiastical.  The 
last  remains  of  Catholic  usages  were 
abolished  at  a  second  Diet  of  Westerns 
in  1544.  The  first  systematic  measures 
in  favor  of  the  Reformation  in  Denmark 
were  taken  by  Frederick  I,  instigated 
by  his  son  Christian,  who  had  studied 
in  Germany  and  became  an  enthusiastic 
Lutheran.  At  a  diet  held  in  1530,  at 
which  no  member  cf  the  clergy  was  al- 
lowed to  be  present,  the  assembly  de- 
creed the  abolition  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
worship  in  the  Danish  dominions.  In 
Hungary,  where  numerous  Germans  had 
settled,  bringing  Lutheranism  with  them, 
the  new  faith  for  a  short  time  made 
rapid  progress,  especially  in  the  cities 
and  among  the  nobles.  In  Poland  the 
Reformation  found  numerous  adherents 
also.  In  Italy  and  Spain,  however. 
Protestantism  was  mostly  confined  to  the 
higher  and  cultivated  classes,  the  Re- 
formed faith  taking  scarcely  any  hold  on 
the  people  at  large.  In  NaplM,  Venice, 
Florence,  and  other  cities  Proteetant 
churches  were  opened;  but  Protestantisat 
was  extirpated  lo  Italy  bj  tk»  vifwow 


AefomatioA 


EefomutttoA 


aetloa  of  the  InqniiitioD  and  tb«  UMtro> 
mtnulity   of   the   Indtm   EmpunatorUu. 
In  Spain  a  few  Protestant  chutchea  were 
catabliehed,  and  many  pewona  of  mark 
adopted    the    views    of    the    Reformerik 
But  here  also  the  Inquisition  succeeded 
in  arresting  the  spread  of  the  religious 
revolution.     In    the     Swiss     states     the 
progress  of  Protestantism  was  of  much 
more  Importance.     It  found  a  leader  in 
Ulrich    Zwingli,    a    preacher    at    ZUrich, 
who,  by  sermons,  pamphlets,  and  public 
discussions,  induced  tliat  city  to  abolish 
the  old  and  inaugurate  a  new  Reformed 
Church.     In  this  course  ZUrich  was  fol- 
lowed by   Bftle,  Berne,  and  other  cities. 
Ultimately  this  movement  was  merged  in 
political     dissensions     between    the     Rfr 
formed    and    the   Catholic   cantons,    and 
Zwingli    himself   fell    in    battle    (1531). 
Between  Luther  and  Zwingli  there  were 
differences  of  opinion,  chiefly  concerning 
the  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  the  former 
showed    considerable    acrimony    towards 
his    fellow-reformer.     The    Inatitutea    of 
Calvin    formulated    the    doctrines    of    a 
large   body    of   the    reformers,    who   also 
accepted  his  ordinances  regarding  church 
discipline.     (See    Calvin.)     After    many 
tedious  contesita  Calvin's  creed  was  vii> 
tually  accepted   in   the   Netherlands  and 
elsewhere,    and    it    was    introduced    into 
Scotland  by  Knox.     In  France  the  Ref- 
ormation seemed  at  first   to  find  power- 
ful   support.     Margaret,    Queen    of    Na- 
varre,   sister    of    King    Francis    I,    and 
many  of  the  higher  ecclesiastics  favored 
the  reformed  doctriae.     The  New  Testa- 
ment     was      translated      into^French, 
churches    to    tiie    number   of   20(X)   were 
established  by  1558,  and  the  Huguenots, 
as   the   Protestants  were  called,  formed 
a    large    religious    party    in    the    state. 
Here    also,    however.    th«»    religious    ele- 
ment was  mixed  with  political  and  ar- 
senal   hatreds,    and    in    the    -jivil    strues 
before    and    after    the    Massaf-re    of    St. 
Bartholomew   (1572)   the  religious  move- 
ment     declined.    The      abjuration      of 
Protestantism  by  Henry  IV   (155)3)   was 
a    blow    to    the    Huguenots,   and    though 
they     obtained     toleration     and     certain 
privileges  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (which 
see)    this  was  finally  revoked  in  1685. 

The  Reformation  in  England  was  only 
indirectly  connected  with  the  reform 
movement  in  Germany.  Wicklifife  and 
the  Lollards,  the  revival  of  learning,  the 
writings  of  More,  Colet,  and  Erasmus, 
the  martyrdom  of  Thomas  Bilney,  had 
all  combined  to  render  the  doctrine  arid 
discipline  of  the  church  unpopular.  This 
fe''ling  was  greatly  increased  when  the 
writings  of  Luther  and  Tyndale'a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  foand  «»fer  readers. 
22-S 


Then  the  political  elesMOt  eune  in  t* 
favor    the    popular    reform    moveoMBt. 
Henry  YIII.  in  hie  efforts  to  obtain  a 
divorce  from  Catherine,  found  it  advi*- 
able   to  repudiate  the  papal  supremacy 
and  declare  himself  by  act  of  parliament 
(1534)  the  siipreme  head  of  the  Chnrcb 
of  England.    To  this  the  pope  replied  by 
threats  of  excommunication,  which  wen 
not,      however,      immediately      executed. 
Yet  the  breach  with  Rome  was  complete, 
so   far,  at  least,  as  the  king  was  c<m- 
cemed.    Under  the  new  laws  of  suprem- 
acy  and   treason   several   of   the   clergy 
suffered  at  Tyburn;   Sir  Thomas  More 
and    Fisher,   bishop   of   Rochester,    were 
beheaded  at  Tower  Hill;  and  the  lessnr 
and  greater  monasteries  were  suppreased. 
At  this  time  there  were  three  important 
parties    in    the    state.    There    was    the 
party  who  still  held  the  pope  to  be  the 
supreme  head  of  the  church:  the  kinrs 
party,  who  rejected  papal  authority  but 
retained   the    Catholic   faith;    and   there 
was    the    reformed    party,    who   rejected 
both   the  authority  and  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.    The  doctrines 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  however,  wetv 
still  thi.  established  religion,  and  in  1539 
the    Statute    of    the    8ia    Artidea    com- 
pelled  all   men,    under  penalty   of   burn- 
ing,  to  admit  six   points  of   the   Roman 
doctrine,    of    which    the    chief    was    the 
doctrine  of   transubstantiation.     Yet   the 
king    (1544)    allowed    some    progress    to 
be   made  in   the  direction   of  change  by 
the  publication  of  the  Litany  and  some 
forms  of  prayer  in  English.     This  move- 
ment was  continued  and  the  Reformation 
effected    in    all    essential    points    during 
the  reign  of  Henry's  successor,  Eklwara 
VI.    The   penal    laws   against    the   Lol- 
lards were  abolished;  the  Statute  of  ike 
Siw  Artidea  ceased  to  be  enforced;  the 
Protestant     ritual     and     teaching     was 
adopted  by  the  church;  all  images  were 
removed  from  churches;  a  new  commun- 
ion service  took  the  place  of  the  mass;  a 
Firat  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  com- 
piled by  Cranmer  and  purged  of  distinc- 
tive Catholic  doctrine;  ana  in  1549  the 
First    Act   of    Uniformity    enjoined    the 
use    of   this   book    in   all    the  churches. 
Still  further,  in   1561,  the  newly  estab- 
lished    faith     of     the     Reformers     was 
summed  up  in  the  Forty-two  Artidea  of 
Bdiffion,  which,   in   the  reign  of  Elisa- 
beth, became  the  Thirty-nine  Artidea  of 
the  Chmreh  of  England.    By  these  nd 
other  means  the  Reformation  was  estab- 
lished gradually  throoghout  England. 

In  Scotland  the  movement  was  more 
directly  c<mnected  with  the  Continent 
and  tai  particular  with  Geneva.  The 
first  indication  of  the  strufide  for  refom 


&ef omifttory  Sohooli 


Xef onned  Tretbyteriant 


I 


b  foand  fai  the  iiuirtTrdom  (1B28)  cf 
Pfttrldc  Huniltmi;  and  thla  pelier  •£ 
•uppitMioa  WM  continued  (15W-46) 
with  neat  eereritr  by  Cardinal  Beaton, 
until  ne  hinuelf  oecame  the  victim  ef 
popular  vengeance.  Perhaps  the  meet 
important  reault  of  this  persecution,  and 
the  martyrdom  of  (Jeorge  Wishart,  which 
Beaton  had  brought  about,  was  that  it 
determined  John  Knox  to  embrace  the 
new  reformed  faith.  In  154047  this 
Scottish  reformer  established  himself  as 
preacher  to  the  Protestant  congregation 
which  held  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews. 
When  the  castle  was  captured  by  the 
French  fleet  Knox  was  made  prisoner 
and  treated  as  a  galley-slave,  but  re- 
gained his  liberty  after  about  eighteen 
months'  hardship,  and  settled  in  Eng- 
land. During  the  Marian  persecutions 
he  withdrew  to  the  Continent  and  visited 
the  churches  of  France  and  Switzerland, 
but  returned  to  Scotland  in  1559.  Here 
he  at  once  joined  the  Protestant  party; 

S reached  in  Dundee,  Perth,  and  St.  An- 
rewB,  amid  public  tumult  and  the  de- 
struction of  images,  altars,  and  churches; 
and  inally,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Lords  of  the  Congregation,  be  estab- 
lished himself  as  a  preacher  of  Protest- 
antism in  St.  Giles',  Edinburgh.  From 
this  center  Knox  traveled  all  ever  Scot- 
land teaching  the  reformed  faith;  and 
such  was  the  roused  spirit  of  the  people, 
that  when  the  Scottish  parliament  as- 
aembled  (1560)  a  popular  petition  was 
presented  demanding  the  alralition  of 
popery.  This  was  promptly  accom- 
plished, and  at  the  assembling  of  the 
new  Church  of  Scotland  shortly  after- 
wards Knv,x  presented  bis  reformed  sys- 
tem of  government  under  the  name  of 
the  First  Book  of  Discipline,  which  was 
adopted  by  the  Assembly.  (See  Knox.) 
The  position  thus  secured  by  the  re- 
former was  maintained  and  the  Reforma- 
tion successfully  established  in  Scotland. 
In  Ireland  for  various  causes  the 
Reform*'  'never  made  much  progress, 
and    h  Catholicism    remained    the 

prevalent  ..tigicn  in  that  country,  as  it 
Is  to-day  the  established  religious  sys- 
tem in  France,  Spain  and  Italy. 

iefor'matory  Schools,  f^fs^'Jutld 

for  the  training  of  juvenile  offenders 
who  have  been  convicted  of  an  offense 
punishable  by  imprisonment.  The  first 
reformatory  managed  under  legislative 
control  was  the  one  established  m  New 
Xork  in  1824,  known  as  tlie  New  York 
House  of  Refuge.  Its  success  was  so 
marked  that  at  present  there  are  fifty- 
six  institutions  in  the  United  States  for 
the  reformatian  of  the  JuTenile  offenders. 


The  trwtmcnt  la  noetly  tdocational, 
although  ia  many  institutions  the  in* 
mates  are  employed  in  productive  labor 
nearly  one-half  of  the  time.  In  some 
reformatories,  in  late  years,  attention 
nas  been  given  to  industrial  training, 
with  marked  success.  Reformatories 
throughout  the  United  States  compare 
favorably  with  the  best  in  other  coun- 
tries, and  are  rapidly  progressing,  much 
attention  having  been  given  of  late  years 
to  this  means  of  dealing  with  the  crim- 
inally hiclined  young.  See  Induatrial 
School*. 

Reformed  Churches,  t^°^j,  ^f^ 

their  standards  and  confessions  markedly 
Calvlnistic,  and  which  usually  adhere  to 
the  presbyterial  as  distinguished  from 
the  episcopal  form  of  church  government. 
In  Germany  the  term  is  used  to  distin- 
guish the  churches  which  follow  the  doc- 
trines of  Calvin  rather  than  those  of 
Luther.  There  are  in  the  United  States 
four  reformed  churches:  The  Reformed 
Church  in  the  United  States — for  many 
years  known  as  the  '  German  Reformed 
Church' — traces  its  origin  chiefly  to  the 
German,  Swiss,  and  French  people  who 
settled  in  America  early  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury. In  1916  it  had  1217  ministers 
and  320,600  communicants.  Its  coctus 
was  organized  in  1747,  and  its  synod  in 
1792.  Its  symbol  is  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism.  The  Second  Reformed  church 
in  the  United  States  in  size  is  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church,  now  known  as  the 
Reformed  Church  in  America,  which  was 
organized  in  1628  under  the  Dutch  con- 
trol of  New  York.  In  1916  it  had  774 
ministers  and  127,000  communicants.  Its 
symbols  are  the  Heidelberg  Catechism, 
the  Belgic  Confessions  and  the  canons  ot 
Dort.  The  Christian  Reformed  Church 
originated  from  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Holland  in  1835.  There  is  also  a  Hun- 
oartan  Reformed  Church. 

Reformed   Episcopal   Church, 

a  reliaious  body  organized  in  New  York 
City,  December  2.  1873,  under  the  leader- 
shin  of  Bishop  George  David  Cummins, 
D.D.,  to  perpetuate  the  old  evangelical 
or  low  tendency  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church.  In  1913.  the  church  mid 
83  ministers  and  10,#00  communicants. 

Reformed  Presbyterians,  ^f^.J'^ 

NiANS,  a  sect  of  Scottish  Presbyteriana, 
originating  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century.  For  upwards  of  sixteen  years 
after  they  had"  pnblidy  avowed  their 
principles  they  remained  in  an  nn- 
organized  condition  and  without  a 
regular  ministry.     The  first  who  exer 


Befraotion 


Segalla 


cisei  this  office  ww  the  Bwr.  JcAjB 
McMilUn,  who  in  1706  demitted  hta 
chane  as  parish  mioister  of  Balmaslue, 
and  in  1743  he  met  with  a  coadfutor 
in  the  Rev.  Thomas  Naime,  whereupoii 
these  two  constituted  a  Reformed  Pres- 
bytery in  1743.  In  1810  three  presby- 
teries were  formed,  and  in  1811  a  synod 
was  constituted.  The  number  of  presby- 
teries was  afterwards  increased  to  six, 
and  the  number  of  ministers  rose  to  about 
forty.  In  1876  a  large  portion  of  them 
united  with  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land. The  Reformed  Presbyterians  have 
established  themselves  in  the  United 
States  but  constitute  a  small  fraction 
of  the  total  Presbyterian  membership. 

Infraction  J^tSf orctng?*of  £ 

rection  impressed  upon  rays  of  light  ob- 
liquely     incident      upon     and      passing 
through  a  smooth  surface  bounding  tw« 
media    not    homogenous,    as    air    and 
water, —  or     upon     rays     traversing     a 
medium,  the  deotiny  of  which  is  not  uni- 
form, as  the  atmosphere.     (See  Opttct.) 
A  familiar  instance  of  refraction  is  the 
broken    appearance    which    a    stick    pre- 
sents   when    thrust    partly    into    clear 
water,    the    portion    in    the    water    ap- 
parently taking  a  different  direction  from 
the    other    portion.    Glass,    water,    and 
other  solids  and  fluids  each  have  a  dif- 
ferent   power    of    refraction,    and    this 
power    in   each  case   may   be   expressed 
numerically  by  a  number  known  as  the 
indem     of     refraction.    Atmosphertc     re- 
fraction is  the   apparant   angular  eleva- 
tion of  the  heavenly  bodies  above  their 
true  places,  caused  by  the  refraction  of 
the  rays  of  light  in  their  passage  through 
the  earth'b  atmosphere,  so  that  in  con- 
sequence of  this  refraction  the  heavenly 
bodies   appear   higher   than    they    really 
are.     It  is  greatest  when  the  body  Is  •m 
the  horizon,  and  diminishes  all  the  way 
to  the  zenith,  where  it  is  nothing.    DOU' 
ble  refraction  is  the  separat'jn  of  a  ray 
of  light  into  two  separate  parts,  by  pass- 
ing through  certain  transpai>'nt  mediums, 
as  Iceland-spar,  one  part  being  called  the 
ordinary  ray,  the  other  the  extraordinary 
ray.    All    crystals    except    those    whose 
three  axes  are  equal  exhibit  double  re- 
fraction. m__ 
Itmfrttotnr    or     Refbactino     Tele- 
ACIZUt/bur,   ggopB,    See  Teletcope. 

■»  Af in  v ArATi  +  ( r6-f ri j'er-ant ) ,  a  cool- 
AeingeranX  j^^  medicine,  whicli 
directly  diminishes  the  force  of  the  cir- 
culation, and  reduces  bodily  heat  with- 
out any  diminution  of  nervous  energy. 
The  agents  usually  regarded  as  refriger- 
ants are  week  vefetable  acids,  or  very 
greatly  diluted  mineral  adds;  eferreK- 


ing  drinki,  Mline  purgatiTea,  etc  B*- 
frigeranta  in  medicine  and  aarfenr  art 
also  applied  externally  in  the  form  of 
freeiiBg-mixtnrea  prepared  with  salt  and 
pounded  ice  for  the  purpose  of  lowerinc 
the  temperature  of  any  particolar  part 
of  the  body. 
Befrigeration.    See  Be/r*ffero«or. 

Befrigerator    L^n^pTi'e^'t'o^.^ooi^ 

ing    apparatus    of    various    kinds.    One 
kind  is  an  apparatus  for  cooling  wort, 
beer,  etc.,  consisting  of  a  large  shallow 
vat     traversed    by    a    continuous    pipe 
through  which  a  steam  of  cold  water  to 
passed.    The  wort,  etc.,  runs  in  one  di- 
rection   and    the    water    in    another,    m 
that    the   delivery    end   of   the   wort    u 
exposed  to  the  coolest  part  of  the  stream 
of  water.    Another  kind  of  refrigerator 
is  a  chest  or  chamber  holding  a  supply 
of    ice    to   cool    provisions    and    prevent 
them   spoiling   in   warm  weather ;    or  a 
vessel  surrounded  by  a  freexlng-mixtuni 
used    in   the  manufacture  of   ice-cream, 
ices,  etc.    Refrigeration  is  now  conductetl 
on  a  large  scale  in  cold-storage  establish- 
ments, in  which  air  cooled  to  a  low  tem- 
perature is  employed  as  the  agent. 
BefUffe    tref'<y)..  i^rriES    of.       See 


Cities  of  Refuse. 
K*fii<rAA   ( ref-Q-jS'  ),    a    person    who 
jveiu^cc  gggj.g    safety    in    a    foreign 

country  to  escape  persecution  for  re- 
ligious or  political  opinions.  A  large 
historical  movement  of  thto  kind  oc- 
curred when  the  Edict  of  Nantea  was 
repealed  in  France  (1686).  Such  were 
the  oppressions  then  put  upon  the  Prot- 
estants by  the  dominant  Roman  Gatholle 
party  that  800,000  of  the  former,  it  to 
estimated,  sought  refuge  fat  England, 
Denmark,  Holland,  Switierland,  and 
Germany,  France  suffering  seriously  by 
the  forced  emi([ratiom  of  its  ablest  tai- 
dustrial  population. 

H  A<vo  1  ( re'gal ) ,  a  small  portable  organ 
•"-^B*"  played  with  the  fingers  of  the 
right  hand,  the  left  being  used  in  work- 
ing the  Vllows.  It  waa  much  used  dur- 
ing th;  'xteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies. 

Tt^trai  (re-gMi-a),  the  emblems  or 
ACgHU.^  insignia  of  royalty.  The  re- 
galia of  England  consist  of  the  crown, 
scepter  with  the  cross,  the  verge  or  rod 
with  the  dove,  the  so-called  staff  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor,  several  swords,  the 
ampalla  for  the  sacred  oil,  the  spurs  of 
chivalry,  and  several  other  articles. 
These  are  preserved  in  theJewc!-room  in 
the  Tower  of  London.  The  regalia  oC 
Scotland  consist  of  the  crown,  the  sc^ber, 
and   th*  aword   of   state.    They,    wim 


Iv^ttft 


Beggio  ntSV  Emilia 


f!!f!?J  •*l'l'.  "i?'  decorations,  are  «• 
mourn   wlUdn   tiM  crown-room   in   th* 


Bagal.  from  an  old  paiating. 

eutle  of  Edinburfh.  The  term  ia  also 
improperly  applied  to  the  insignia,  deco- 
rationa,  etc.,  of  orders,  secret  societies, 
etc.,  and  similar  institutions. 
ReSratta  (re-gafa),  originally  a  gon- 
T;**  *  dola  race  held  annually 
with  great  pomp  at  Venice,  and  now  ap- 
plied to  any  important  showy  sailing  or 
vowing  race,  in  which  a  number  o£  yachts 
or  boats  contend  for  prizes. 
Beffelation  /  re-Jel-a'shnn  ),  refreea- 
"~»  "*"  inff,  a  name  given  to 
«•  phenomena  presented  by  two  pieces 
of  melting  ice  when  brought  into  con- 
tact at  a  temperature  above  the  freezing 
point.  In  such  a  case  congelation  and 
cphesIoB  take  place  Not  only  does 
this  occur  m  air,  but  also  in  water  at 
■ach  a  temperature  as  100*  Fahr.  The 
phenomenon,  first  observed  by  Faraday, 
is  of  importance  in  the  theory  of  glacier 
movements.  See  Glaciert. 
Begeneration  (re-jen-er-a'shun).  in 
-1.  T  ^  u  .V  ^^^}°«y'  is  the  equiv- 
fv  *T>???^  ^J  *•••  English  translators  of 
the  Bible  for  the  Greelt  word  palin- 
Mfi.na    which  occurs  only  twice  in  the 

Su'  ^!?*V"*°T*'  '1  M""-  ^'^'  28  and  Id 
Xltua  ill,  6.  In  the  former  passage  tl'e 
term  is  applied  generally  to  the  gospe. 
fJ'S?"?*!?"  f.  ?  P''>cem  of  renovation ; 
m  the  latter  it  is  used  as  descriptive  of 
the  process  of  individual  salvation.  An 
eonlvalent  term  is  used  in  1  Peter  1.  3. 
where  it  is  translated  •  begotten  us 
•cun;  and  in  one  or  two  other  pas- 
Wfee  regeneration,  as  a  theological  term, 
refers  to  the  doctrine  of  a  change  effected 
upon  men  by  divine  grace,  in  order  to  fit 
than  for  being  partakers  of  the  divine 
favor,  and  for  being  admitted  into  the 
nagoom  of  heaven. 

ent  ('*'^e°t)i  a  person  who  gov- 
erns   a    kingdom    during    the 


minority,  absence,  or  disability  of  tke 
king  or  queen.  In  most  hereditary  gov- 
ernments the  maxim  is,  that  this  offlce 
belongs  to  the  nearest  relative  of  the 
sovereign  capable  of  undertaking  it; 
but  this  rule  is  subject  to  many  limita- 
tions.-—In  the  English  universities  the 
name  is  given  to  members  with  peculiar 
duties  of  instruction  or  government. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  regents 
*"...^*'l**""  educational,  benevolent  and 
public  institutions. 

tocephilut),  a  very  beautiful  bird  of 
Australia,  belonging  to  the  family  Meli- 
pbagidn  or  honey-eaters.  The  color  of 
the  plumage  is  golden  yellow  and  deep 
velvety  black.    It  was  discovered  during 


Begent-bird  BfieHtv  ehr]ftoe*pkttu$) 


Begei 


the  regency  of  George  IV,  and  was 
named  in  compliment  to  him. 

Reggio  di  Calabria  if«l'^«U  J"- 

T  ...V  clent.    Bheg' 

turn  Jultt),  a  seaport  of  South  Italy, 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Strait  of  Mes- 
sma,  a  handsome  and  beautifully-situ- 
ated town.  The  principal  edifice  is  the 
cathedral,  a  spacious  basilica.  The 
seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  with  manu- 
factures of  silk,  linen,  pottery,  perfume, 
etc..  It  was  destroyed  by  a  violent  eartii- 
quake  in  December,  1908,  together  with 
many  smaller  places  in  the  province,  and 
the  city  of  Messina,  in  Sicily.  The 
f^^'  part  of  its  population  of  about 
45,000  perished. 

Beggio  nell'  Emilia  i?*f//""» 

town  of  North  Italy,  capital  of^he  prov* 
ince  of  the  same  name,  15  miles  w.  w.  w. 
of  Modena.  It  is  surrounded  by  wal^  and 
ramparts,  has  regular  streeto,  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  has  an  ancient  cathedral 
with  a  lofty  dome,  and  several  ether 
churches,  a  handsome  town-house,  mu- 
seum, library  theater;  manufactures  ol 
linen  and  silk  goods,  and  a  trtK.e  in 
cattle     and     wme.     Pop.     70,4l!i -.-The 


Segillui       

province   of   Reggio   Met   between   thoM 
of  Parma  on  the  west  and  Modana  ea 
tbc  east;  area,  877  sqaare  milea. 
PiMrillna     (  r  « -  j  i  I'u  •  ) .  anciently  a 

ium,  to  the  Boutheaat  of  Rome  (aite  un* 
certain),  celebratetl  for  a  great  battle 
between  the  Romana  and  Latina  in  B.O. 
490. 

PjurinKkut  (rej'i-ment),  a  Iwdy  of 
XM^meui.  regular  soldiers  forming 
an  administratiTe  division  of  an  army, 
and  consisting  of  one  or  more  battalions 
of  infantry  or  of  several  squadrons  of 
cavalry,  commanded  by  a  colonel  and 
otber  officers.  A  regiment  is  tlie  largest 
permanent  association  of  soldier's,  and 
the  third  subdivision  of  an  army  corps, 
■everal  regiments  going  to  a  brigade, 
and  several  brigades  to  a  division. 
These  combinations  are  temporary,  while 
in  the  regiments  the  same  officers  serve 
continually,  and  in  command  of  the  same 
body  of  men.  The  strength  of  a  regi- 
ment may  vary  greatly,  as  each  may 
comprise  any  number  of  battalions.  In 
the  United  States  army  an  artillery 
regiment  consists  of  twelve  batteries, 
and  has  595  enlisted  men;  a  cavalry 
regiment  comprises  twelve  troops  each 
numbering  seventy-eight  privates;  an  in- 
fantry regiment  contain!!  ten  companies, 
the  numl)er  of  privates  varying  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  men  in  each  company. 
In  Britain,  under  the  new  army  organi- 
zation, the  country  is  divided  into  regi- 
mental  districts. 

VAviTia  (rS-j!'na),  capital  of  the 
Aei^xutt  Province  of  Saskatchewan, 
in  the  Canadian  Northwest,  a  rising 
town  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway, 
situated  near  the  fertile  wheat  district 
of  the  Qu'appelle  Valley.    Pop.   (1911) 

Ee^imontanTis  <JsS-,^^t"a?m1i 

astronomer,  whose  real  name  was  Johann 
Mil  Her,  was  born  at  Kttnigsber^f  (in 
Latin  Regiomontum) ,  in  Franconia,  in 
1436;  died  in  1475.  He  was  educated 
at  Leipzig;  studied  mathematics  at 
Vienna;  accompanied  Cardinal  Bessarion 
K  Rome,  where  Beza  gave  him  further 
inf'.rnctions  in  Greek  literature,  which 
enabled  him  to  complete  a  new  abridg- 
ment in  Latin  of  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy 
(Venice,  1496).  In  1471  he  built  an 
observatory  at  NUmburg,  but  he  re- 
turned to  Rome  on  the  invitation  of 
Sixtus  IV,  who  employed  him  in  the  re- 
formation of  the  calendar. 
p  Aivi  atAr  (  re' jis-t*r ) ,  a  device  for  au- 
AegllXer  tomatlcall.  Indicating  the 
number  of  revolutions  made  of  amount 
of  work  done  by  machinery;  or  record- 


Segiiaiilt 


Ing  ateam,  air,  or  watar  praaaan,  or 
other  data,  by  meana  of  apparatna  «• 
riving  motion  from  the  object  wboM 
force,  diatajsce,  velocity,  direction,  alava- 
tion,  or  namerical  amount  it  ia  denied 
to  aacertain.  In  mnaic,  the  compaaa  of 
a  voice  or  inatmment,  or  a  portion  of 
the  compass  of  a  voice;  as  th«  npptr, 
middle,  or  lower  register.  Also,  an 
organ  stop,  or  the  knob  or  handle  bjf 
means  of  which  the  performer  commanai 
any  given  stop.— CASfl  Rboibtei,  an 
apparatus  now  widely  in  ose  In  storaa 
for  registering  the  amount  of  cash  re* 
ceived  for  sales. 

Eegistratioii  of  Birtlu,  Deathf 
and  Marriages.    L'ilttm?'^-':? 

riages,  and'  bnrials  were  instituted  by 
Lord  Cromwell  while  he  was  vicar-gen- 
eral to  Henry  VIII,  and  snbseqaently 
regulated  by  various  acts  of  parliament. 
No  thorough  system,  however,  exiated 
until  in  1836  a  Registration  Act  was 
passed  applicable  to  England  and  Walca, 
which  has  been  amended  by  subsequent 
acts.  Somewhat  similar  systems  exist 
in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  the  United 
States  the  record  of  deaths  has  alwaya 
been  tolerably  accurate.  The  officiating 
minister,  priest,  or  magistrate  at  a  wed- 
ding, and  the  physicion  or  midwife  at  a 
birtn,  are  required,  under  penalty  for 
failure  to  do  so,  to  report  to  the  pnmtr 
office  the  name,  age,  sex,  nativity,  color, 
and  social  condition  of  the  persona  who 
marry,  and  the  sex  and  color  of  children 
born,  with  nativity  of  the  parents.  Aa 
registration  is  not  within  the  scope  of 
federal  legislation,  much  dependa  upon  the 
co-operation  of  the  States  and  dties. 

Begistration   of    Electors. 

Iif  the  United  States  there  ia  no  general 
law  requiring  the  r^gistratim  of  voters; 
but  34  States  have  registration  laws, 
without  compliance  with  which  no  man 
can  vote.  Partinl  registration,  as  In 
cities,  or  cities  and  villages  is  required 
in  several  other  States. 

Eegiitration  of  Titles.  fZai"^ 

tem. 

Eegius  Professors  \S  ^LZ  W 

to  those  professors  in  the  English  uni- 
versities whose  chairs  were  founded  by 
Henry  VIII.  In  the  Scotch  universities, 
the  same  name  is  given  to  those  profes- 
sors whose  professorships  were  founded 
by  the  crown. 

Eegnanlt  i'*-^'„eh^»^„i2'^ 

thysicist,  bom  in   1810;   died  in  1878. 


Begnlnf 


Keid 


Ht  WM  educated  «t  the  £cole  Polytech* 
nique,  Paria;  became  profeaaor  at  thla 
iiutitatioB  in  1840,  and  profeeaor  of 
phyaice  at  the  ColUfe  de  France  the  fol- 
lowlnc  year;  chief  engineer  of  mine*  in 
1841 ;  and  director  of  the  porcelain  man* 
afactare  at  SAvreii  in  1864.  He  pub- 
lished Court  Bl4meHtaire  de  Cktmie,  and 
Pnmien  EUment$  4e  Chimie,  both  pop- 
ular worka. 

BefflllUI  /  fef'fl-lo«  h  •  name  oria- 
■■■*»•"•*■  inairy  applied  by  the  al- 
chemistB  to  antimony.  The  term  is  now 
used  in  a  generic  sense  for  metals  in 
different  staies  of  purity,  but  whkh 
still  retain  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
the  impurities  they  contained  hi  the 
state  of  ore. 

X.MP'llllU  Mabotts  ATnuTTB,  a.  Ro- 
mmv^  luiw)     ujj^jj    general,     who    was 

made  consul  a  second  time  in  256  B.O., 
and  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Car- 
thage, in  which  he  destroyed  their  fleet 
ana  landed  his  army  in  Africa.  In  the 
following  year,  however,  he  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Carthaginians. 
Salt  to  Rome  on  parole  by  his  captors 
to  negotiate  peace,  Regulus  patriotically 
persuaded  his  countrymen  to  continue 
the  war  and  returned  to  captivity,  where 
lie  died  under  torture. 

Eeichenbach  irX-JSt^'/roS 

of  Silesia,  30  miles  southwest  of  Breslau, 
on  the  Peile.  It  has  woolen  and  cotton 
manufactures.    Pop.  (1910)  16,581. 

_«  »«»w«rwu,  jjj  ^jjg  circle  and  7 
miles  southeast  of  Zwickau.  It  has  man- 
ufactures of  woolen  and  cotton  goods: 
worsted  and  cotton  mills;  dye-worka  and 
bleachfields;  machine  works,  foundries, 
etCj,  and  a  large  trade.  Pop.  (1910) 
29,685. 

Eciclicnbach,   ^^%,^tn^t^. 

entist,  bom  at  Stuttgart  in  1788;  died 
in  1869.  He  studied  law  and  natural 
science  at  Tabingen;  established  exten- 
sive works  in  Moravia,  at  which  ma- 
chinery, castings  (statues,  etc.),  wood 
vinegar,  tar,  etc.,  were  produceid;  pub- 
lished a  mon<wraph  on  geology ;  and  gave 
his  attention  to  animal  magnetism,  in 
connection  with  which  he  believed  he 
had  discovered  a  new  force  called  od, 
regarding  which  he  published  various 
works.  This  supposed  discovery  is  no 
longer  credited.  He  is  credited  with 
some  chemical  discoveries,  in  particular 
of  paraffin  and  creasote. 

Icichenberg  i«'*^SaV  o'n*"5S 

Neiase,  66  miles  it.  k.  b.  af  Prague.    It  ia 


the  center  of  the  woolen  manufacture  of 
Northern  Bohemia,  in  connection  with 
which  faidustry  there  are  a  great  number 
of  establishments  in  the  town  and 
neighborhood.    Pop.  (1010)  86,860. 

Beiohenball  (rt'^n-hAi),  a  town 

«>««vu«<uu»u,  Qf  Bavaria,  66  miles 
southeast  of  Munich,  situated  in  the 
midst  of  romantic  scenery,  on  the  SaaL 
It  has  one  of  the  most  important  salt- 
works in  the  kingdom,  the  salt  being 
obtained  from  brine  springs.  The  brine 
is  also  used  for  bathing  purposes.  Fop. 
4927. 

Keicbstasr  ^l^"'*?*'  German  retch, 
—V  wau>«ng    ^  kingdom,  and  tag,  a  day, 

a  diet),  the  imperial  parliament  of  Ger- 
many, which  assembles  at  Berlin.  See 
Bundearath,  Oermany, 
Reid  (r«d),  Matke,  invenile  writer, 
*^**'  born  in  the  north  of  Ireland  in 
1818;  died  in  1883.  His  love  of  adven- 
ture took  him  to  America,  where  be 
traveled  extensively  as  hunter  or  trader; 
joined  the  United  States  army  in  1846 
and  fought  in  the  Mexican  war.  He 
afterwards  returned  to  London,  where  he 
became  well  known  as  a  writer  of  thrill- 
ing juvenile  stories,  many  of  them 
based  on  his  American  experiences,  such 
as  the  Rifie  Rangers,  Scalp  Hunters, 
The  War  TraU,  The  Beadiest  Horse- 
man,  etc. 

V«i j  Thomas,  a  Scottish  philosopher, 
■**^***»  born  in  1710  at  Strachan,  Kin- 
cardineshire. He  was  educated  at  Mari- 
schal  College,  Aberdeen,  and  in  1737  was 
presented  to  the  I'ving  of  New  Macbar 
in  Aberdeenshire.  His  first  philosophical 
work  was  an  Essay  on  Quantity  (1748), 
in  which  he  replied  to  Hutcheson,  who 
had  maintained  that  mathematical  terms 
can  be  applied  to  measure  moral  quali- 
ties. In  1752  the  professors  of  King's 
College,  Aberdeen,  elected  Reid  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  in  that  college;  and 
in  1764  he  published  bis  well-known 
work.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind 
on  the  Principlea  of  Common  Sense. 
The  same  year  he  succeeded  Adam 
Smith  as  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
in  Glasgow  University,  a  position  which 
he  occupied  until  1781.  His  other  writ- 
ings are,  Essays  on  the  Intellectual 
Powers  of  Man  and  Essays  on  the  Ac- 
tive Powers  of  the  Human  Mind.  His 
philosophy  was  directed  against  the 
principles  and  inferences  of  Berkeley  and 
Hume,  to  which  he  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  Common  Sense  (which  see).  He 
was  the  earliest  expounder  of  what  is 
known  as  the  Scottish  School  of  Philos- 
ophy, in  which  he  was  followed  by  Du- 
gald  Stewart  and  Sir  William  Hamilton. 


Baid 


BdiSEIt 


Hi>  doctrisM  were  adopted  alio  by  aev 
eral  eminent  French  pbiloeopbera.  He 
died  in  October,  1796. 
Pji{(I  Whitclaw,  editor,  was  bora  in 
'■**'*>  Xenia.  OJiio,  Oct  27,  1837.  He 
fraduated  at  Miami  University  in  1856. 
During  the  Civil  war  he  was  a  cor- 
respondent on  the  Cincinnati  Qazette, 
and  in  1863-66  was  iibrarian  of  the 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives.  After 
editorial  work  on  several  Ohio  papers 
be  was  made  in  1808  managing  editor 
of  the  New  Yorlc  Tribune  and  became  its 
editor-in-chief  and  principal  proprietor 
in  18T2.  He  was  Minister  to  France  in 
1889,  reslttnlntf  April,  1S;»2,  after  nego- 
tiating valuable  reciprocity  treaties.  In 
1892  ne  was  defeated  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency. He  died  December  15,  1912. 
Reiffate  (rl'gat).  a  municipal  bor- 
**~*o**''^  ough  of  England,  county  of 
Surrey,  beautifully  situated  19  miles 
B.  8.  w.  of  London,  a  place  of  considerable 
antiquity.    Pop.  (1911)  28,505. 

Eeign  of  Terror,  l^e^'nch"'  nlvot 

tion,  conspicuous  for  its  horrors  and  cruel- 
ties, under  the  leadership  of  Robespierre 
and  Marat.  It  is  genornlly  considereti  to 
extend  from  .Tantiary  21.  179.3,  the  datp 
of  the  execution  of  Louis  XIV,  to  .July  28, 
1794,  when  Roespierre  ami  other  san- 
guinary leaders  were  gnillotinwl  on  the 
spot  where  their  victims  had  been  killed. 
P^iTiilAAT  (rfin'dPr),  a  species  of 
XliCiuucci  ^ggj  found  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  the  Cervus 
tarandua  or  Tarandua  rangifer.     It  baa 


Reindeer  (Ctrnu  lariuidiu) 

branched,    recurved,    round    antlers,    the 
«ummita  of  which  are  palmated ;  the  ant- 


lers of  the  male  are  much  larger  thaa 
those  of  the  female.  These  antlers, 
which  are  annually  shed  and  renewed  by 
both  sexes,  are  remarkable  for  the  aiie 
of  the  branch  which  comes  off  near  the 
base,  called  the  brow  antler.  The  l>ody 
is  of  a  thick  and  square  form,  and  the 
legs  shorter  in  proportion  than  those  of 
the  red-deer.  Their  size  varies  much  ac- 
cording to  the  climate,  those  in  the  higher 
Arctic  regions  being  the  largest ;  about  4 
feet  6  incites  may  be  given  as  the  average 
height  of  a  full-grown  specimen.  The 
reindeer  is  keen  of  sight,  swift  of  foot, 
being  capable  of  maintaining  a  speed  of 
0  or  10  miles  an  hour  for  a  long  time, 
and  can  easily  draw  a  weight  of  200 
lbs.,  besides  the  sledge  to  which  they 
are  usually  attached  when  used  as  beasts 
of  draught.  Among  the  Laplanders  the 
reindeer  is  a  sul)stitute  for  the  horse, 
the  cow,  and  the  sheep,  as  he  fumisheii 
food,  clothing,  and  the  means  of  con- 
veyance. The  reindeer  has,  of  late  years, 
been  introduced  into  Alaska  and  Labra- 
dor, and  promises  to  be  of  great  utility 
to  the  natives. 

Reindeer  Moss,  *  "*'.'J«°  (CenomSoe 

,MVAuu«<«/x  jMM.waaf  rangtfcritia)  which 
constitutes  almost  the  sole  winter  food 
for  reindeer,  etc.,  in  high  northern  lati- 
tudes, where  it  sometimes  attains  the 
height  of  1  foot.  Its  taste  is  slightly 
pungent  and  acrid,  and  when  boiled  ft 
forms  a  jell;^  possessing  nutritive  and 
tonic   properties. 

Reineke  Fuchs  iZ^^^^^J,^^'^' 
Reinforced  Concrete.    ^^^  ^•"- 

Reis  (i^&'>b)>  a  Turkish  title  for  various 
persons  of  authority,  as  for  in- 
stance the  captain  of  a  ship.  Reis 
Effendi  was  formerly  the  title  of  the 
Turkish  chancellor  of  the  empire  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

Reisner-work   ^^'^'-^lia  *  A^X 

work  composed  of  woods  of  contrasted 
colors,  named  after  Reisner,  a  German 
workman  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  See 
Buhl-^cork. 

Relapsing  Fever  /^Ite^f  Sued 

from  the  fact  that  during  the  period  of 
convalescence  a  relapse  of  all  the  symp- 
toms occurs,  and  this  may  be  repeated 
more  than  once.  It  is  usually  regarded 
as  an  epidemic  and  contagious  disease. 
See  Fever. 

Release  (r?-l^').  '"  'aw,  signifies,  in 
general  a  person's  giving  up 
or  discharging  the  right  or  action  he  has 
or  claims  to  have  against  another  or 
against  his  laodq, 


BtUoi 


XeligioB 


SalilM  (nl'ika),  maains  of  Mints  and 
'^"'^  mtrtjn  or  objtcti  oona«et«d 
wlA  tbtin,  and  «p«cla)lj  inamoriala  of 
tb«  lift  and  paMioa  of  our  Lord,  to 
which  worship  or  a  raecial  Tcntratlon 
is  nnctioned  and  practiced  both  in  tht 
Roman  Catholic  and  Greak  Churchra. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  In  regard  to  relice  was  fited  by 
the  Council  of  Trent,  which  decreed  in 
1668  that  veneration  ahould  be  paid  to 
relic*  as  instruments  through  which  Ood 
iMstows  benefits  on  men;  a  doctrine 
wh<ch  has  been  rejected  by  all  Protest- 
ant churches.  The  veneration  of  relics 
i  is  not  peculiar  to  Christianity,  but  has 
I  found  a  place  In  nearly  every  form  of 
I  religion.  Buddhism  is  remarkable  for 
'  the  extent  to  which  relic-worship  has 
been  carried  in  it.  The  origin  of  relic 
worship  or  veneration  in  the  Christian 
<  church  la  generally  associated  with  the 
(  reverence  paid  by  the  early  Chriatians  to 
the  tomba  of  the  martyrs  and  to  objects 
associated  with  their  memory.  Roman 
Catholics  l>elleve  that  relics  are  some- 
times made  by  Ood  instruments  of  heal- 
ing and  other  miracles,  and  that  they 
are  capable  of  bestowing  spiritual  graces. 
The  Council  of  Trent  required  bishops 
to  decide  on  their  authenticity.  In 
course  of  time  great  abuses  grew  up  ia 
regard  to  relics;  and  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  add  that  the  articles  venerated 
a*  relics  multiplied  beyond  measure. 
Not  only  did  those  of  which  the  supply 
was  necessarily  limited,  as  the  wood  of 
the  true  cross  and  the  relics  of  apostles 
I  end  early  martyrs,  become  common  and 
I  accessible  to  an   astonishing  degree,   but 

1         the  most  puerile  and  even  ridiculous  ol>- 
I  jects    were   presented   as   fitting   symlx>ls 

for  veneration  from  their  association 
with  some  saint  or  martyr,  and  were 
credited  with  the  most  astounding  mira- 
cles. Such  abuses  have  been  greatly 
modified  since  the  Reformation. 
B.elief  (i*^!^'')'  i°  sculpture  and  archi- 
tecture,  is  the  projection  of  a 
figure  at>ove  or  beyond  the  surface  upon 
which  it  is  formed.  According  to  the 
degree  of  projection  a  figure  is  described 
as  in  high,  middle,  or  low  relief.  High 
relief  (alto-riUevo)  is  that  in  which  the 
figures  project  at  least  one-half  of  their 
apparent  circumference  from  the  surface 
upon  which  they  are  formed ;  low  reiief 
(oosso-HItevo)  consists  of  figures  raised 
but  not  detached  from  a  fiat  surface; 
while  middle  relief  {mezso-rilievo)  lies 
between  these  two  forms.  Bee  Btu-relief, 
Altiy-rilievo. 

Rellfirion  (™-'U'an),    the    feeling    of 
^^    o  reverence  which  men  entcr- 

tais  towards  a  Supreme  Being  or  to  ao^ 


order  of  beings  eoaeeired  by  them  as  de- 
manding rtvtrence  from  the  posseaaion 
of  superhuman  cmitrol  over  the  destiny 
of  Baa  or  th*  powers  of  nature;  mora 
especially  the  recognition  of  Ood  as  an 
object  of  worship,  love,  and  obedience. 
Religion  denotes  the  influences  and  mo- 
tives to  human  duty  which  are  found 
In  the  character  ana  will  of  the  deity, 
while  morality,  in  its  ordinary  sense,  Is 
concerned  with  man's  duty  to  his  fellows. 
As  distinguished  from  tHecHogy,  religion 
is  subjective,  inasmuch  as  It  relates  to 
the  feelings;  while  theology  is  objective, 
as  It  denotM  the  system  of  beliefs,  ideas, 
or  conceptions  which  man  entertains 
respecting  the  Ood  whom  he  worships. 
Religion  in  one  sense  of  the  word,  ac- 
cording to  Max  Mtiller,  is  a  mental  fac- 
ulty by  means  of  which  man  is  enabled 
to  apprehend  the  Infinite  under  different 
names  and  under  varying  disguises,  and 
this  independent  of,  or  even  in  spite  of, 
sense  and  reason;  being  also  a  faculty 
which  distinguishes  man  from  the  brutes. 
Another,  and  a  very  common  use  of  the 
term,  applies  it  to  a  body  of  doctrines 
handed  down  by  tradition,  or  in  canonical 
books,  and  accompanied  by  a  certain  out- 
ward system  of  observances  or  acts  of 
worship.  In  this  sense  we  speak  of  the 
Jewish,  the  Christian,  the  Hindu,  etc., 
religions.  Religions  in  this  sense  are 
divided  into  two  great  classes,  polythe- 
istic and  monotheistic;  that  Is,  those 
recognizing  a  plurality  of  deities  and 
those  that  recognize  but  one.  ( See  Poly- 
theiam,  Monotheitm.)  A  dualistic  class 
may  also  be  established,  in  which  two 
chief  deities  are  recognized,  and  a 
henotheitiic,  in  which  there  are  one  chief 
and  a  number  of  minor  deities.  In  some 
religions  ma^ic,  fetishism,  animal  wor- 
ship, belief  in  ghosts  and  demons,  etc., 
play  an  important  part.  The  most  re- 
markable religious  conquests  in  tiistory 
are  that  of  Judaism,  which  effected  the 
establishment  of  a  national  religion, 
originally  that  of  a  single  family,  In  a 
hostile  territory  by  force  of  arms  and 
expulsion  or  extinction  of  the  previous 
inhabitants;  that  of  Christianity,  which, 
by  the  power  of  persuasion  and  in  the 
midst  of  persecution,  overthrew  the 
polytheism  of  the  most  enlightened  na- 
tions of  antiquity;  that  of  Mohamme- 
danism, which,  partly  by  persuasion,  but 
more  by  force,  established  itself  on  the 
site  of  the  eastern  empire  of  Christianity, 
and  extended  its  swav  over  a  population 
partly  idolatrous  and  partly  Christian; 
and  that  of  Buddhism,  which,  being  ex- 
pelled by  persecution  or  otherwise  from 
India,  where  it  had  widely  disseminated 
itself   by   conversion,   spread   its^if   by 


XtUgioa  XtmtetA't 

Dioral  •a«*ioo  o»tr  tbt  laiftr  portion  .•£  adopted  tnlMt  J>\jmifn  lu  tho  jrain 

EMttrn  Atiiu    AH  th»*  wllgloM,  with  of  l^iJw  Aanj.    l»tii  in  th«  rjjm  U 

tho  txetptlon  of  ButJbltm,  which  nay  Otorgt  III  eonditloM  wtfo  atuehod  to 

Mrhapt  b*  contldewd  athttatie.  art  mono-  tht  toleration  of  Dtoatntina  Pw«chM» j 

thviattc  iratt-ma.  ■nd    fM\    MMctnonta    atalMt    Roman 

VarioOT  fttlmatM  have  b«n  madt  of  Cathollca  hart  betn  rtptartd  only  within 

tht    dlffiwlon    of    Ihe    varlout    rtllglout  tht  nlnrt wot h  century.     IteUglout  Ubtrti 

creeda  over  the  world.     Thtte  art  necta-  waa  Introduced  in  PruMia  by  Frederick 

urily  very  Ioom  and  offn  dlfer  widely  tht  Great,  but  contravened  by  hia  Immadi- 

from  each  other.    A   recant  eatlmatt  la  ate  tucceMor.     The  atate  at   P,"»rnt  »«> 

the  followlni :  —  Prutala,  without,  perhana.  actually  dlctat- 

iiie  loiiowiuf.  j^^  ^^   private   individuala.  mainuina  a 

Roman  Cntholica,   230.000.000       ylgilant  control  over  eccleeiaitlcai  organ- 

IToteatnrtH. 150.000,000       liation.  the  wincatlon  of  the  clerty,  and 

Eaatern  (^inrche^ 100.000.000       all    public    matt  era    connected    with    rt- 

Mohanini<>dana 180.000.000       lif ion.     Rellaious   liberty    ha«   only   been 

BuddW.fs. 150,000.000       eatablithtd    In    Au.trla    by    ntatutea    of 

Brahmani.ta 200.000.000       1807-68.     Italy    fli«t    enjoyed    the    aame 

FollowerK  of  Confuclua,  2t».000.000       advantage   under    Victor    Emmanuel    II. 

Tavint* 43,000.000       Tht   government      f   France,   "ver   ainct 

Shinto  Religion,   14.000.000       tht    revolution,    bat   alwaya   been   of   • 

j.wt.    ...7. 10,000,000       paternal    character,    and    practically    re- 

^  tigioua     liberty     U     limited     there.     In 

1l*1iffiATi     EsTABuaiiED,  the  form  of   Spain,    at   one    time    the    moet    deapotic 
ACU^OU,   religion    recognized   at   na-   atate    in    Europe,    rentricted    liwrty    of 
tionai    In    a    country.    Set    £«(ab{t«Aed  wonhip  waa  aitowed  in  1876.     Hellgioua 
nurch  peraecution      waa      activelv      conducted 

>3«1ia^An«  TiV»»r+ir  c  LIBERTY  OF  against  the  Roman  Cat  hoi  ica  In  Ruaaia 
JAtll^OJa  Aiioen^,  CoifsciENCE.  la  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Nicho- 
the  recogi.;tion  and  assertion  by  the  atate  lai,  and  full  religious  liberty  does  not 
of  the  rlglit  of  every  man,  in  the  profee-  yet  exist.  Since  the  CrimeHn  war  re- 
sion  of  opinion  and  in  the  outward  forma  ligious  liberty  has  been  reiogniaed  in 
and  requirpments  of  religion,  to  do  or  Turltey.  Toleration  has  thrii  been 
ntMtain  from  doing  whatever  hia  In-  slowly  advancing  in  Europe  Hince  the 
dividual  conscience  or  sense  of  right  Reformation,  and  ita  recent  progress  baa 
Ktiggests.  Religious  liberty  is  opposed  to  been  extensive:  yet  even  in  the  most  ad- 
the  imposition  by  the  state  of  any  arbi-  vanced  countries  the  state  of  public 
trary  restrictions  upon  forms  of  worship  opinion  on  this  subject  is  still  far  from 
or  the  propasation  of  religious  opinions,  being  satisfactory.  In  the  Utiited  BtatM 
or  to  the  enacting  of  anv-  binding  forma  religious  liberty  has  always  been  recog- 
of  worsliip  or  belief.  The  limit  of  re-  niaed,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  the  freest 
Hk'ou*  liberty  is  necessarily  the  right  of  nation  on  the  earth, 
the  state  to  maintain  order,  prevent  ex-  Kelioiiary  ^  u  1' .  """i.'..  '  iT2?-?! 
cessft:,  and  guard  agaimt  encroachments  ■'•''"H'****^  caslict  in  which  reUca  aie 
upon  private  right.     In  the  organization    kept.     See  Kclic«.  ,,.  v     ,     ,         , 

of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  government  Remainder  ^"".^'"l?  j  VV '°  *  '  i! 
which  prevailed  from  Constantine  to  the  **«*"»*"«^*  a  limited  eatate  or  tenure 
Reformation  persecution  extended  to  all  in  lands,  tenements,  or  rents,  to  be  en- 
dissenters  from  tlie  establisbrd  creed,  and  joyed  after  the  expiration  of  another 
universal    submission    to    the    dominant   particular  estate. 

church  became  the  condition  of  reliKioua  P*Tnlianflr  (rem-bBng  ),  a  town  of 
peace  throughout  Christendom,  religious  ■•^"'""-"e  Java.  In  the  province  of 
liberty  being  unitnown.  The  contest  of  same  name,  00  miles  w.  N.  w.  of  Sama- 
opinion  bejiun  at  the  Reformation  had  rang.  Ita  hr  -bor  is  one  of  the  best  in  tho 
the  effect  of  establislilng  religious  liberty,  island;  it  hr  a  go->d  trade  in  ship-timber 
as  far  as  it  at  present  exists,  but  the  and  in  shii  ouilding.  and  near  it  art- 
principle  Itself  was  so  far  from  being  valuable  salt-pan^.  Pop.  14.000. 
underatnod  and  accepted  in  its  purity  by  PAinhriinflt  (  rem'brant ) ,  in  full 
either  nartv  that  it  hardly  Riixgetited  It-  A'SuiBniaut  fiEiinRANDT  Hebmanpt 
■elf  even  to  the  most  enlightened  rea-  Van  Rtn,  the  most  celebrated  paintei 
aonen  of  that  age.  In  Great  Britain  and  etcher  of  the  Dutch  school,  was  born 
even,  civil  liberty,  jealously  maintained.  June  15,  1806.  at  Leyden.  where  his 
waa  not  understood,  by  the  dominant  father  was  a  well-to-do  miller,  li-ari.; 
party  at  leaat,  to  impart  religions  liberty,  displaying  a  passionate  love  for  art.  h" 
Activt    neaaurea    of    intolerance    were  received  Inatroctiona  from   van  Swanec- 


S«m1)M!idt 


SsmlttMit  Tvfn 


bnrch  of  Leyden,  a  painter  of  little  note, 
«nd  afterwards  etadied  in  Amsterdam 
onder  Bieter  Lastman.  But  he  soon  re- 
tamed  home,  and  parsued  bis  labors 
there,  taking  nature  as  his  sole  gaid& 
and  confining  himself  to  delineations  of 
common  life.  In  1630  he  removed  to 
Amsterdam,  which  he  never  left  again. 
In  1634  he  married  Saskia  van  Uilen- 
borg,  daughter  of  the  burgomaster  of 
Leeuwarden.  Rembrandt  has  rendered 
her  famous  through  numerous  etched  and 
painted  portraits.  She  died  in  1012. 
Rembrandt  became  the  master  of  numer> 
ous  pupils,  Gerard  Douw  being  among 
the  number.  His  paintings  and  etchings 
were  soon  in  extraordinary  demand,  and 
he  must  have  acquired  a  large  income  by 
his  work,  but  his  expenditure  seems  t* 
have  been  greater;  and  in  1G56  he  was 
declared  bankrupt,  his  property  remain- 
ing b  the  hands  of  trustees  till  his  death. 
Xhis  took  place  at  Amsterdam  in  1069. 


Bembrandt  Vui  Bya. 


Be  had  married  a  second  time,  but  the 
second  wife's  name  is  not  known.  Rem- 
brandt excelled  in  every  branch  of  paint- 
ing, and  his  treatment  of  light  and  shade 
lias  never  been  surpassed.  His  worlts 
display  profound  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  patlioe,  tragic  power,  humor,  and 
poetic  feeling.  His  eminence  in  portrait- 
ure may  especially  be  noted,  in  portrait- 
groups  in  particular.  Ilis  artistic  ^  de- 
velopment may  be  broadly  divided  into 
three  periods.  To  the  first  of  these 
(1627-^),  which  shows  less  mastery 
than  the  succeeding  two,  belong  bis  8t. 
Paul,  Sanuon  in  Pri»on,  Simeon  in  the 
Temple.  Le$aon  in  Anatomy  (Tulp,  the 
anatomist),  and  various  character  por- 


Th0  Niffht  Wntdi,  The  Wommt  Takm  to 
Adultery,  Tobit  and  Hi$  WV«,  The 
Buroomatter  and  Hit  Wife,  Deecentfnm 
the  Crote.  Portrait  of  Coppenol,  Batk- 
aheha,  and  Woman  Bathina.  Among  tha 
works  of  his  last  period  (1665-68)  maj 
be  mentioned  John  the  Baptiet  Preaehinff. 
Portrait  of  Jan  Biw,.  The  Adoration  of 
the  Magi,  The  Si/ndioa  of  Amtterdamt 
and  various  portraits  of  himself.  His 
etchings  in  technique  and  deep  suggestion 
have  not  yet  been  equaled.  He  was  the 
first  and  as  yet  the  greatest  master  of 
this  department  of  art.  Some  of  them 
have  been  sold  at  lar^e  prices — Jeau* 
Healing  the  Sick,  known  as  the  Hundred- 
guelder  Piece  (1st  state),  having  been 
sold  at  the  Buccleuch  sale  in  1887  for 
1300  guineas;  and  two  others,  a  Cop- 
penol and  Jeaua  Before  Pilate,  bringing 
1190  and  1150  guineas  respectively. 
Their  existing  values  are  much  greater 
than  this.  Of  his  works  there  are  alMUt 
280  paintings  and  320  etchings  exunt 
and  accessible,  dating  from  1623  to  1668. 
PikTnYfyiTia  ;(re-mij'yas),  the  nanui 
HCmiglUS  ^t  threi  eminent  French 
ecclesiastics,  the  most  famous  of  whom 
;(St.  Remigins  or  St.  Bemy)  was  bishop 
of  Rheims  for  over  seventy  years,  and  in 
^6  baptized  Ciovis,  king  of  the  Franks, 
and  founder  of  the  French  monarchy. 

****"**"»"*'•**  ICK,  author  and  sculiH 
tor,  bom  in  St.  Lawrence  Co.,  New  Tork, 
in  1861.  He  is  liest  Imown  in  sculpture 
for  his  faithful  delineations  of  western 
scenes,  The  Broncho  Buater  and  The 
Wounded  Bunkie,  His  works  embrace 
Pony  Tracks,  Crooked  TraHa,  Frontier 
Sketchet,  etc  Died  1909. 
TLATniTKH-nTi  Philo,  inventor,  bom 
Aemin^On,  ^^  LltchfieH,  Ne^York, 
in  1816;  died  in  1889.  For  25  years  he 
was  superinten  lent  in  the  small  arms 
factory  of  his  father,  and  by  his  inven- 
tive skill  perfected  the  Remington  breech- 
loading  rifle  and  the  Remington  type- 
writer. 

«wvuxj,Avuj.wuw  ^j  France,  department 
of  the  Vosges,  picturesquely  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Vosges,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Moselle.  It  is  famous  for  its 
ancient  abl)ey,  and  has  manufactures  of 
muslin,  lace,  etc.,  with  a  considerable 
trade,  principally  In  cheese.    Pop.  8582. 

Ecmittent  Fever  }eTe?i'S{^«f* 

fen  a  decided  remission  of  its  violence 
during  the  course  of  the  twenty-four 
hours,  but  without  entirely  leaving  the 
patient  It  differs  from  an  intermittent 
fever  in  this,  that  there  is  never  a  total 
absenca   of    fkrer,    Kemittent   f«T«r   ie 


Bemo 


BenaiManoe 


MTcre  or  otherwise  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  climate  in  which  the  poison 
is  generated.  The  autumnal  remittents 
of  temperate  limc.tes  are  comparatively 
mild,  while  t^e  same  fever  in  the  tropics 
is  often  of  a  very  severe  type,  and  not 
unfrequently  proves  fatal.  The  period 
of  remission  varies  from  six  to  twelve 
hours,  at  the  ent'  of  which  time  the 
feverish  excitement  increases,  the  ex- 
acerbation being  often  preceded  by  a 
feeling  of  chilliness.  The  abatement  of 
the  fever  usually  occurs  in  the  morning; 
the  principal  exacerbation  generally  takes 
place  towards  evening.  The  duration  .-^f 
the  disease  is  generally  about  fourteen 
days,  and  it  ends  in  a  free  perspiration, 
or  may  lapse  into  a  low  fever.  This 
fever  is  often  cured  by  the  administra- 
tion of  quinine,  which  should  be  given  at 
the  commencement  of  the  remission.  A 
simple  yet  nourishing  diet  must  also  be 
attended  to.  No  stimulants  must  be  al- 
lowed 

B.enio   ^*^'   ^^  '^"'*  ^®''**** 
Eemon'strants.    ^^  ArmMans. 

HamnrtL  (rem'u-ra),  a  genus  of  fishes 
Aemora.  included  in  the  Goby  family, 
and  of  which  the  common  remora 
(Echeneia  remora),  or  sucking-fish,  is 
the  typical  example.  These  fishes  have 
on  the  top  of  the  head  a  peculiar  sucking- 
disk,  composed  of  a  series  of  cartilaginous 
plates  arranged  transversely,  by  means 
of  which  they  attach  themselves  to  other 


a^^5^. 


Bemors  (EehtnU*  remora). 


fishes  or  to  the  bottoms  of  vessels.  The 
common  remora  attains  an  average  length 
of  one  foot  and  possesses  a  general  resem- 
blance in  form  to  the  hening.  It  is 
common  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Other  species  are 
of  larger  size.  The  ancients  attributed  to 
the  remora  the  power  of  arresting  and 
detaining  ships  in  full  sail. 
pAvnanlipifl  (rem'shlt),  a  town  of 
UemSCneia  Rhenish  Prussia,  18  miles 
£.8.1!.  DilBBeldorf,  mostly  on  a  rugged 
Ijeight  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Gerw 
man  hardware  industry.  Pop.  72,176. 
b  a,m  «*n    (  rem'sen  )  ,"I«A,  chemist,  bom 


was  graduated  In  the  N.  T.  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  was  proffMor 
of  chemistry  at  Williams  College  1872- 
76,  and  at  Johns  Hopkins  University 
after  1876.  In  1901  he  succeeded 
Daniel  E.  Oilman  as  president  of  the 
latter  institution.  He  wrote  numerous 
text  books,  including  The  Princtplea  of 
Theoretical  Chemistry,  Inorgamo  C*««- 
igtry,  and  Chemical  Ewperimenta. 

Eemus.    ^^^  Romuiut. 

tUm-naai  (rft-mii-ztt),  Chabucs  Pa^K- 
Aemusai.  ^^^^  Marie,  Comtk  de,  poli- 
tician and  man  of  letters,  was  bom  at 
Paris  in  1797;  died  in  1875.  He  was 
educatfd  at  the  Lyc6e  Napolfion,  and  en- 
tered life  as  a  journalist  and  lawyer.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Dep- 
uties from  1830  to  1848,  was  minister 
of  the  interior  for  a  few  months  in  1840, 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1871- 
73,  in  both  cases  in  the  cabinet  of  M. 
Thiers.  During  the  second  empire  he 
lived  in  retirement,  devoting  himself 
chiefly  to  literary  pursuits.  His  works 
include  several  on  English  subjects,  such 
as  L'Angleterre  au  XV III  Siicle  (1856), 
Bacon  (1857),  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
hury  (1874),  Hiatoire  de  la  Phtloaophte 
en  Anglcterre  depaia  Bacon  juaqua 
Locke  (1875).— His  mother,  Claibe 
Elizabeth  de  Vebgennes,  Comtesbe  db 
RfiMUSAT  (born  in  1780;  died  in  1824), 
was  a  very  remarkable  woman.  Her  essay 
on  Female  Education,  published  after 
her  death,  received  an  academic  oo«ronne, 
and  her  Memoirea,  published  in  1879;W, 
are  particularly  valuable  for  the  hght 
which    they   throw   on    the  court   of  the 

first  empire.  .  ^  ^ 

P^mnaflf  (rfl-mu-za),  Jean  Pnguoi 
HemUSai  ^gj.^,  a  French  orientalist, 
bom  in  1788.  He  studied  medicine,  but- 
devoted  himself  principally  to  the  study 
of  Eastern  languages,  especially  Chinese 
In  1811  appeared  his  Easai  aur  la  Langue 
et  la  Littirature  Chinoiaea,  which  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  learned.  Ib 
1814  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Chinese  and  Manchv  at  the  College  de 
France,  a  chair  established  speclhlly  for 
him.  He  died  in  1832. 
DpTiftiAftdTirP  (  re-na'sftns  ) ,  a  term 
renaissance  applied,  in  its  more 
specific  sense,  to  a  particular  movement 
in  architecture  and  its  kindred  arts,  but 
in  a  general  sense  to  that  last  stage  of 
the  middle  ages  when  the  European  races 
began  to  emerge  from  the  bonds  of  ec- 
clesiastical and  fpud-il  institutions,  to 
form  distinct  nationalities  and  lan- 
guages ;  and  when  mediaeval  ideas  became 
largely  influenced  by  the  ancient  classical 
arts  and  literature.    It   was   a  gradual 


XenaiHanoe  Arohiteotim 


Btaair 


tMDdtion  fram  the  middle  ages  to  the 
modern,  chanieteriMd  by  a  revoiation 
in  the  world  of  art  and  literature 
brought  about  by  a  reTlval  and  applica- 
tion of  antique  classical  learning.  The 
period  was  also  marlced  by  a  spirit  of 
exploration  of  lands  beyond  the  sea,  by 
the  extinction  of  the  scholastic  philos- 
ophy, by  the  new  Heas  of  astronomy 
promulgated  ^by  Copernicus,  and  by  the 
mvention  of  printing  and  gunpowder,  etc. 

Benaissance  ArcMtecture, 

a  style  which  originated  in  Italy  in  the 
first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
afterwards  spread  over  Europe.  Its 
main  characteristic  is  a  return  to  the 
classical  forms  and  modes  of  ornamenta- 
tion which  had  l>een  displaced  by  the 
Byzantine,  the  Romanesque,  and  the 
Gothic.  The  Florentine  Brunelleschi 
(died  1446)  may  be  said  to  have  origi- 
nated the  style,  having  previously  pre- 
pared himself  by  a  careful  study  of  the 
remains  of  the  monuments  of  ancient 
Rome.  His  buildings  are  distinguished 
by  the  use  of  the  three  classical  orders, 
with  much  of  the  classical  severity  and 
grandeur,  but  in  design  they  are  made 
conformable  to  the  wants  of  his  own  age. 
He  sometimes  retains,  however,  elements 
derived  from  the  style  which  he  super- 
seded; as  for  instance  in  his  master- 
niece,  the  cathedral  of  Florence,  where 
be  malces  a  skilful  use  of  the  pointed 
Gothic  vault.  Frotn  Florence  the  style 
was  introduced  into  Rome,  where  the 
noble  and  simple  works  of  Bramante 
(died  in  1514)  are  among  the  finest  ex- 
amples of  it,  the  chief  of  these  being 
the  palace  of  the  Chancellery,  the  founda- 
tions of  St  Peter's,  part  of  the  Vatican, 
the  small  church  of  San  Petro  in  Mon- 
torio.  It  reached  its  highest  pitch  of 
grandeur  in  the  dome  of  St.  PeterV  the 
work  of  Michael  Angelo  (died  in  1564), 
after  whom  it  declined.  Another  Renais- 
sance school  arose  in  Venice,  where  the 
majority  of  the  buildings  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  are  distin- 
guished by  the  prominence  given  to  ex- 
ternal decoration  by  means  of  pillars 
and  pilasters.  From  this  school  sprung 
Palladio  (1518-80),  after  whom  the  dis- 
tinctive style  of  architecture  which  he 
followed  received  the  name  of  Paradian. 
The  Renaissance  architecture  was  intro- 
duced into  France  by  Lombardic  and 
Florentine  architects  about  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  flourished 
there  during  the  greater  part  of  the  fol- 
lowing century,  but  especially  in  the  first 
half  under  Louis  XII  and  Francis  I. 
The  early  French  architects  of  this 
period,  while  adopting  the  andeat  elat* 


■ioal  orders  and  other  featnraa  of  the 
new  style,  still  retained  many  of  the 
features  of  the  architecture  of  the  pre- 
ceding ages;  later  on  they  followed 
classical  types  more  closely,  as  in  the 
palace  of  the  Louvre.  As  applied  to 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  the  Renaissance 
style  of  architecture  is  charged  in  France 
as  elsewhere  with  depriving  them  of 
religious  character.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century  the  Renaissance 
style  degenerated  in  France  as  it  bad 
done  in  Italy,  and  after  passing  through 
the  degenerate  phase  known  as  the 
Baroque  style,  it  gave  rise  to  the  insipid 
and  overdecorated  productions  of  the  so- 
called  Rococo  style.  Into  England  the 
Renaissance  style  was  introduced  during 
the  time  of  Elizabeth,  and  it  is  there 
represented  by  the  works  of  Inigo  Jones 
(1572-1652),  Sir  C.  Wren  (If  32-1723), 
and  their  contemporaries,  ..  Paul's, 
London,  being  a  grand  example  of  the 
latter  architect.  A  great  many  of  the 
princely  residences  of  Germany  belong  to 
the  Renaissance  style,  but  not  to  its  best 
period.  Renaissance  architecture  pre- 
sents many  phases  and  varieties  of  style. 
It  has  been  much  used  in  modem  work. 
The  prevailing  style  employed  in  the  re- 
buildmg  of  Paris  is  Renaissance. 
'Bjttia^'iy  (r6-nfi;  Flemish,  Rome),  a 
^^^^^  town  in  Belgium,  province  of 
East  Flanders,  24  miles  south  of  Ghenc; 
has  manufactures  of  thread,  lace,  linen 
and  woolen  cloth,  tobacco,  etc.  Renaix 
dates  from  the  eighth  century.  Pop. 
(1904)  20,760. 

Renan  (r^n^)>  Joseph  Ebnxst, 
orientalist,  historian,  and  es- 
sayist, was  born  at  Tr^uier,  in  Brittany, 
Feb.  27,  1823,  and  studied  at  the  sem- 
inary of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  but  in  1845 
gave  up  all  intention  of  liecoming  a 
priest,  and  devoted  himself  to  historical 
and  linguistic  studies,  especially  the 
study  of  oriental  languages.  In  1848  he 
obtamed  the  Volney  prize  for  an  essay 
on  the  Semitic  languages.  In  1848  he 
was  sent  by  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
and  Belles  Lettres  on  a  mission  to  Italy, 
and  in  1860  on  a  mission  to  Syria.  In 
1862  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Syriac  in  the 
CoU&ge  de  France,  but  the  skeptical 
views  manifested  in  his  Vie  de  J4»m 
(1863)  raised  an  outcry  against  him, 
and  he  was  removed  from  his  chair,  to 
be  restored  again,  however,  in  1871. 
This  work,  the  publication  of  which 
caused  intense  excitement  throughout 
Europe,  was  the  first  part  of  a  compre- 
hensive work  on  the  HUtorf  of  the 
Origin$  of  Chrietianitif,  which  includes 
Im  Ap6trea   (1886),  Bt.  PmI   (1867), 


Eeiujrd  tiiA  Fos 


Benfrew 


VAnt4ekritt   .(1873),     I^t     EvangiUi 

il877),  L'EglUe  ChrHienne  (1879),  and 
ton  AurUe  (1880),  all  written  from 
the  standpoint  of  one  who  diibelieves  in 
the  ■upemataral  claims  of  Christianity. 
Kenan's  latest  important  work  is  the 
Hiatory  of  the  People  of  Itrael  titt  tht 
Time  of  King  Davtd.  Other  works  are 
Hiffotre  G^n4rale  et  8y»time  C(mpar4 
det  Langues  Simitiquet,  and  Etudet 
d^Hittoire  Religieuae.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  in  1878.  Died 
October  2,  1892.  ,    ^  x      .t. 

EenardtheFox  i-°M>i.*eJi? 

fable  in   which  the   characters  are  ani- 
mals,  the  fox  being  the  hero,  and  which 
in  various  forms  was  extremely  popular 
in    Western   Europe   during    the    middle 
ages,    and    for   many    years    afterwards. 
It  is  known  in  several  forms,  differing 
from    each    other    in    the    episodes.^  In 
Latin  it  appears  in  a  poem  of  consider- 
able length  belonging  to  about  1150;  the 
oldest  known  German  version  is  that  of 
u  minnesinger,  Heinrich  der  Glichestere, 
leionging   to  a   period   not   much   later. 
An  excellent  Dutch  version  of  ♦he  fable 
appeared  in  Flanders  about  >uh),  under 
the  title  Reinaert  de  Vos   ('  ^^enard  the 
Fox ') ,    and    this    subsequen         received 
modifications       and       enlargtments.     In 
1498  a  version  in  Low  German,  probably 
by    Herman    Barkbusen,    a    printer    of 
Rostock,     appeared.     It     was     evidently 
taken  from  the  prose  version  in  Dutch, 
of   which   Caxton   published    an   English 
translation.    On  this  Low  German  ver- 
sion    was    founded     Goethe's    rendering 
(1794)  into  modem  German  hexameters. 
In   France  the  history   of   Renard  waa 
enormously   popular,   and   from   the  end 
of    the    twelfth    to    the    middle    of    the 
fourteenth   centuries  many   forms  of   it 
appeared.    It   relates  the  adventures  of 
the   fox    at    ihe    court   of    the    Ving   of 
beasts,  the  lion,  and  details  witn  great 
spirit  and  humor  the  cunning  modes  in 
which   the  hero  contrives  to  outwit  his 
enemies,   and   to   gain   the  favor  of  his 
credulous  sovereign.    The  poem  may  be 
regarded  as  '  a  parody  of   human   life.' 
There   is   no  personal  satire  in   ic,   but 
the  allusions  to  the  weak  points  in  the 
social,  religious,  and  political  life  of  the 
time  are  numerous  and  unmistakable. 
'Rftiifla'kTirv    (rents'borg),   a   town   efi 
itenOSDUrg  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Scbleswig-Holstein,  on  the   Eider,  54 
milra  K.  K.  w.  of  Hamburg.    It  is  advan- 
tageously situated   for  trade,  being  con- 
nected with  the  North  Sea  by  the  Eider, 
and  with  the  Baltic  by  the  Eider  Canal, 
and   being   on   the   line   of   the   Kaiser 
WUhelm    canaL    It    baa    a    thirtewth 


century  church  and  a  quaint  old  town- 
hiOL    Pop.  (1911)  17,315.      .  ,       , 

"QmyxI  lr*-ii4').  or  RBaJA'TCS  I  of 
**"^  Anjou,  titular  king  of  Naples, 
second  son  of  Loois  II  of  Naples,  duke 
of  Anjou,  and  lolante,  daughter  of  John, 
king  of  Aragon,  was  born  at  Angers  in 
1409.  Having  in  1420  married  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Charles  II,  duke  of  Lor- 
raine, on  the  death  of  his  father-in-law 
in  1431  he  laid  claim  to  that  dukedom; 
but  Count  Antony  of  Vaudemont,  son 
of  the  brother  of  Charles  II,  contested 
bis  right,  drove  him  out  of  Lorraine, 
captured  him,  and  held  him  a  prisoner 
for  several  years.  In  1434  his  elder 
brother,  Louis  III  of  Anjou,  who  had 
lieen  in  actual  possession  of  the  throne 
of  Naples  and  Sicily,  died  and  left  to 
him  Provence,  Anjou,  Naples,  Sicily,  and 
Jerusalem.  In  1437  Ren6  bought  bis 
liberty  and  the  acknowledgment  of  bis 
right  to  Lorraine  for  400,000  florins, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  led  an  army 
to  Naples,  where  his  claims  were  dis- 
puted by  Alfonso,  king  of  Aragrj. 
Ken£  was  unsuccessful,  and  in  144?  re- 
turned to  Lorraine,  the  government  of 
which  he  gave  up  to  his  son  John,  who, 
after  his  mother  Isabella's  death,  en- 
tered into  full  possession  under  the  title 
of  John  II.  On  this  Ren£  retired  into 
Provence,  and  devoted  himself  to  agri- 
culture, manufactures,  literature,  and 
art.  His  subjects  called  him  the  Ckiod, 
and  his  court  was  the  resort  of  poets 
and  artists.  His  closing  years  were 
spent  in  the  company  of  his  daughter 
Manaret,  the  exiled  queen  of  Henry  YX 
of  England.  His  sons  having  all  died 
before  him,  he  made  a  will  in  favor  of 
Louis  XI  of  France,  and  at  his  death, 
which  took  place  at  Aix  in  1480,  most 
of   his   possessions   fell   to   the   French 

crown.  

H^nfi^xu     (ren'fra),    or    Ruincw- 

land,  bounded  by  Ayrshire,  Lanarkshire 
Dumbartonshire,  and  the  river  and 
Firth  of  Clyde;  area,  240  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  uneven,  the  highest  point 
being  about  1300  feet  above  sea  level. 
Its  principal  rivers  are  the  White  Cart, 
Black  Cart  and  Gryfte.  The  southeast 
part  of  the  country  is  included   in  the 

5;reat  coal  district  of  the  west  of  Scot- 
and.  Good  freestone  for  building  Is 
quarried.  Renfrewshire  derives  ita  yln- 
cipal  importance  from  its  manutecinres 
and  shipping,  including  as  it  does  Baisley, 
Greenock,  and  Port-Glasgow,  as  wtflas 
the  county  town,  Renfrew.  Pop.  288,- 
900.— The  town  of  Renfrew  is  an  an- 
cient royal  and  parliamentary  burgh,  P 
miles  w.  V.  w.  of  Glasgow,  close  to  tb« 


Xeni 


Clyde.  In  1404  it  gave  the  title  of  baron 
to  the  heir-apparent  to  the  Scottish 
throne,  a  title  atill  borne  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales.  The  principal  industries  are 
iron  shipbuilding,  engineering,  and  iron- 
founding.  Pop.  9297. 
B>eilit       ®*®  Quido  Rent. 

Hennell  (ren'el),  James,  an  English 
Acuiicu  geographer,  born  in  1742; 
died  in  1830.  At  thirteen  he  entered 
the  navy,  whence  he  passed  into  the 
East  India  Company's  military  service. 
In  which  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  major. 
He  was  chiefly  employed  in  ergineering 
and  surveying  work,  and  later  held 
the  appointment  of  survej'or-genenl  of 
Bengal.  He  retired  on  a  pension  in  1776, 
returned  to  England  in  1778,  and  hence- 
forth lived  in  London.  The  remainder 
of  his  long  life  he  devoted  to  geographi- 
cal labors,  maintaining  a  correspondence 
with  many  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
Europe,  and  giving  to  the  world  from 
time  to  time  numerous  geographical 
works  of  great  value.  These  include 
Bengal  Atlat,  Memoir  of  a  Map  of  Bin- 
dustan,  Ueographical  System  of  Herod- 
otus, Treatise  on  the  Comparative  Geog- 
raphy of  Western  Asia,  On  the  Topog- 
raphy of  the  Plain  of  Troy,  Illustra- 
tions of  the  Expedition  of  Cyrus,  etc. 
AenneS  ('■^'•n)'  »  city  of  France,  for- 
merly  capital  of  Brittany,  at 

f resent  capital  of  the  department  of 
lle-et-Vilaiue,  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  rivers  Ille  and  Vilaine.  It  is 
tiaversed  from  east  to  west  by  the 
Vilaine,  which  divides  it  into  the  High 
and  the  Low  Town,  and  is  crossed  by 
four  bridges.  The  High  Town  is  hand- 
some and  regular,  having  been  rebuilt 
after  a  dreadful  conflagration  which  took 
place  in  1720.  The  most  remarkable 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  a  modem 
Grecian  building,  the  Palais  de  Justice, 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  the  Lyc^  The 
industries  include  sail-cloth,  linen,  shoes, 
hats,  stained  papei,  etc.  Rennes  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop,  the  headquarters 
of  a  corps  d'armee,  and  has  a  large  ar- 
senal and  barracks.  Duguesclin  and 
Sainte  Foix  were  born  hero.  I'op.  79,- 
372. 

B,eil"8t  (J^o'et).  the  prepared  inner 
surface  of  the  stomach  of  a 
young  oalf.  It  contains  much  pepsin, 
and  us  the  property  of  coagulating  the 
casein  of  milk  and  forming  curd.  It  is 
prepared  by  scraping  off  the  outer  skin 
and  superfluous  fat  of  the  stomach  when 
fresh,  keeping  it  in  salt  for  some  hours, 
and  then  drymg  it.  When  used  a  small 
piece  of   the   membrane   is  cut   off  and 


soaked   in   water,  which   ia  poured  into 
the  milk  intended  to  be  curdlecL 
Bennet    °'  Reinettk,  a  kind  of 

*  apple,  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  England  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  It  is  much  grown  in  France  and 
Germany.  The  rennet  is  highly  es- 
teemed as  a  dessert  fruit. 
Bennie  (ren'nS),  GEOBac,  civil  engi- 
^^^^  neer,  eldest  son  of  John 
Rennie  (see  next  article),  was  born  in 
Surrey  in  1791,  and  was  educated  at 
St.  Paul's  School,  London,  and  at  Edin- 
burgh University.  In  1811  he  became 
asscciated  with  his  father  in  business, 
and  on  his  father's  death  he  formed  a 
partnership  with  his  brother  John,  and 
afterwards  with  his  two  sons.  He  con- 
structed manv  of  the  great  naval  works 
at  Sebastopol,  Nicolaiev,  Odessa,  Cron- 
stadt,  and  in  the  principal  ports  of  Eng- 
land, and  executed  several  English  and 
continental  railways.  He  died  in  I860. 
Hennie     John,  a  celebrated  civil  engi- 

'  "T,  son  of  a  farmer,  was 
bom  at  Fh.i  assie,  East  Lothian,  in 
1761,  and  waj  educated  at  Dunbar  and 
Edinburgh,  v  here  he  attended  the  lec- 
tures of  Dr.  Robinson  and  Dr.  Black 
on  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry. 
He  labored  for  some  time  after  this  as 
a  workman  in  the  employment  of  An- 
drew Meikle.  a  millwright.  In  1780  he 
went  to  Birmingham,  with  letters  of 
introduction  to  Messrs.  Boulton  and 
Watt  at  Soho,  near  that  city,  and  by 
that  firm  he  was  afterwards  employed 
in  London  in  the  construction  of  ma- 
chinery for  the  Albion  flour  mills,  near 
Blackfriars  Bridge.  In  London  his  repu- 
tation rapidly  increased,  until  he  was 
regarded  as  standing  at  the  head  of 
the  ci\il  engineers  of  Great  Britain. 
Numerous  bridges,  canals,  docks,  and 
harbors  bear  testimony  to  his  skill: 
among  them.  Southward  Bridge,  Water- 
loo Bridge,  and  London  Bridge  across  tha 
Thames ;  the  government  dockyards  ut 
Portsmouth,  Cnatham,  Sheemess,  and 
Plymouth,  the  London  docks,  the  pier 
at  Holyhead,  etc.  He  died  in  l&l. 
His  sons  George  (see  p'ove)  and  John 
were  associated  with  him  in  business, 
and  afterwards  with  each  other.  John 
( 1794-1874 »  succeeded  his  father  in 
building  the  London  Bridge^  and  on  its 
opening  in  1831  he  was  knighted.  He 
was  a  high  authority  in  hydraulic  engi- 
neering. 

SiCnO  ****  larjjest  city,  commercial 
>  metropolis,  and  railroad  center 
of  Nevada  on  the  Truckee  River.  It  hap 
various  manufactures,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  state  university  and  state  insane  asy- 


Benaselaer 


Sep 


Inm.  The  climate  is  dry  and  healthfuL 
Pop.  12.000. 

B^naMlaer  (ren'sel-er),  formerly 
aaivua*vMi.«A  jtno^n    jjg    Qreenbuah,    a 

city  of  Rensselaer  Co.,  New  York,  on 
the  Hudson,  opposite  Albany.  It  has 
felt  mills,  color . vi'orlu,  coal  elevator  and 
chain  mills,  railroad  and  machine  shops, 
pork  packing  establishments,  etc.  Pop. 
10,711. 

Vanf     in  the  strict  economic  sense,  the 
Aicub)  payment  which,  under  conditions 
of   free   competition,   an   owner  of    land 
can  obtain  by  lending  out  the  use  of  it 
to   others.     This   will   be   found    to   con- 
sist of  that  portion   of   the  annual   pro- 
duce which  remains  over  and  above  the 
amount  required  to  replace  the  farmer's 
outlay,   together   with   the   usual  profits. 
The  explanation    of   the   existence   of   a 
permanent    surplus    in    the    product    be- 
yond   what    is    thus    needed    to    replace 
with   profits    the   productive   outlay   was 
first    given    by    Anderson    in    1777,    the 
theory    being    developed    more   at    length 
by  Ricardo,  with  whose  name  it  is  com- 
.nonly     assoc^ted.     In     Adam     Smith's 
opinion,  the  demand  of  food  is  always  so 
great  that  agricultural  produce  can  com- 
mand in  the  market  a  price  more  than 
sufficient    to   maintain    all    the    lal>or   to 
bring  it  to  marlret  and  to  replace  stock 
with  its  profits,  the  surplus  value  going 
naturally    to    the    landlord.     As    against 
the    insuflSciency    of    this    statement    to 
meet   the  central   difficulty   in   the  prob- 
lem, the  Ricardian  school  of  economists 
pointed  out  that  agricultural  produce  is 
raised  at  greater  or  less  cost  according 
to  the  degree  of  fertility  of  different  soils, 
and  that  even  on  the  same  soil,  by  the 
law  of  diminishing  returns,  a  more  than 
proportionate   outlay   is,   after  a  certain 
point,    required    for   each    additional    in- 
crease in  the  produce.     The  uniform  price 
of  agricultural  produce,  however,  as  de- 
termined  in  a  free  market,   tends  inevi- 
tably to  be  such  as  to  cover  with  ordi- 
nary   profits    the    cost    of    that    portion 
of  the  p»-oduce  which  is  raised  at  great- 
est  expense;    anu    there   will,    therefore, 
be   ca   all    that    portion    of   the   produce 
ra'.<ed    at    les^.    expense    a    surplus    iwer 
and  above  what  is  required  to  remunemte 
the  farmer  at  the  usual  rate  of  profits. 
As  a  corollary  to  this  theory,  it  will  be 
apparent    that    rent   does   not    determine 
the  normal  value  of  produce,  but  is  it- 
self determined   by   it;    in   other  words, 
that  rent  is  no*^  an  element  in  the  cost 
of  production.     The  Ricardian  theory  of 
rent  has  been  frequently  called  in  ques- 
tion, as  by  Rogers  in  Enir^and  and  Cfarey 
in  America ;   but   it   has  obtained,  with 
•ertain  obirieus  limitations  in  respect  of 
31— U— 5 


the  conditims  of  land  tenure,  the  aseeat 
of  the  majority  of  modem  economists. 

Rent,  as  a  legal  term,  is  the  considera- 
tion given  to  the  landlord  by  a  tenant 
for  the  use  of  the  lands  or  buildings 
which  he  possesses  under  lease.  There 
is  no  necessity  that  this  should  l>e,  as  it 
usually  is,  money;  for  horses,  corn,  and 
various  otiier  things,  may  be,  and  occa* 
sionally  are,  rendered  by  way  of  rent; 
it  may  also  consist  in  manual  labor  for 
the  landlord's  benefit.  It  is  incidental  to 
rent  that  the  landlord  can  distrain  — 
that  is,  seize  and  sell  the  tenant's  chat- 
tels  in  order  to  liquidate  the  rent.  Some- 
times the  owner  transfers  to  another  by 
deed  or  otherwise  the  right  to  a  certain 
rent  out  of  the  lands,  that  is  termed  a 
rent-charge,  and  the  holder  of  it  has 
power  to  distrain  for  the  rent,  though 
ordinarily  he  has  no  right  over  the  lands 
themselves. 

Hf^Tiwipk  (ren'wik),  James,  a  Scot- 
ACUW11/&  jjg^  Covenanter,  bom  at 
Minnihive,  Dumfriesshire,  in  1662.  He 
studied  at  Edinburgh  University,  where, 
on  declining  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance, he  was  refused  a  degree.  On 
the  advice  of  the  Covenanters,  with 
whom  he  threw  in  his  lot  after  the 
execution  of  Cargill  in  1681,  he  went  to 
Holland,  aud  was  ordained  at  Qronin- 
gen,  immediately  returning  to  Scotland, 
and  engaging  in  the  difficult  and  danger- 
ous duties  of  a  minister  of  the  'hill- 
folk.'  On  the  proclamation  of  James  II 
in  1685  he  went  with  200  men  to  San- 
quhar, and  published  a  declaration  dis- 
owning him  as  a  papist,  and  renouncing 
his  allegiance.  A  reward  was  then  set 
upon  his  head,  and  after  manv  wonderfni 
escapes  he  was  captured,  condemned,  and 
executed,  Feb,  17,  1688. 
Pftniirinlr  James,  physicist,  bom  at 
JtenWlOK,  Liverpool  in  179^;  died  at 
New  York  in  186.3.  He  was  educated  in 
Columbia  College,  New  York,  and  from 
1820  to  1860  was  professor  of  physics 
and  chemistry  in  that  institution.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  works  connected  with 
the  sciences  in  which  he  had  to  give  in- 
straction,  such  as  Outlines  of  Natural 
Philoawahy;  Treatite  on  the  Steam  Eit- 
gine;  Elements  of  Mechanics,  etc. ;  also 
lAfe  of  John  Jay  and  Alemander  HamU' 
ton;  Life  of  De  Witt  Clinton;  besides 
editing  various  other  works. —  His  son 
James,  bom  1819,  became  a  distin- 
guished architect,  designing  many  chnrebes 
and  other  buildings,  including  vhe  R«nan 
Catholic  cathedral  of  New  York,  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Vassar  College, 
etc 

or  Repp,   a   woolen   dress   fabric 
')  with   a   finely-ribbed   surface,   so 


Ecp, 


Atfaiit 


l«portl]it 


i 


i  ■■ '. 


woTtB  tiiat  tiM  ribs  ran  truuverMly  and 
Bot  taoftliwaT*  M  in  corded  fabrica.  ^ 
SjiTiAirt  (re-pftn'),  in  law,  ia  the 
ACpun  j,p„  danottof  the  repalra 
done  to  a  houae  or  tenement  by  the  land- 
lord or  tenant  during  the  currency  of  a 
leaae.  In  England,  unleaa  there  ia  an 
ezpreea  atipulation  to  the  contrary,  re- 
palra muat  be  performed  by  the  tenant; 
but  it  ia  usually  aUted  in  the  leaae 
wbJch  party  ia  to  do  the  repairs.  In  the 
United  Btatea,  unleaa  otherwise  stipu- 
lated, repalra  are  made  by  the  landlord; 
be  muat  keep  the  property  in  tenantable 
condition. 

Eepeid  Movement  ^^^'^^,'^1 

the  agitation  for  the  repeal  of  the  Union 
between  Great  BriUin  and  Ireland.  This 
agitation  commenced  almost  at  the  mo- 
ment of  the  Union,  and  has  continued  to 
the  present  time.  Robert  Emmet  sacri- 
ficed his  life  to  the  cause  of  repeal  in 
1808.  But  the  word  repeal  is  most  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  name  and 
career  of  Daniel  O'Connell,  the  Irish 
•  Liberator.'  O'Connell  died  in  1847,  and 
the  cause  of  repeal  was  taken  up  by  the 
Young  Ireland  party  of  1848:  by  the 
Fenians,  whose  operations  came  to  a  head 
in  186&^7:  and  finally  by  the  Home 
Rule  party,  organised  under  the  leade1^ 
ahip  first  of  Isaac  Butt,  in  1870,  and 
afterwards  under  the  leadership  of  G.  S. 
Pamell.  During  the  celebrated  Pamell 
Commission  of  1888-89,  however,  the 
Home  Rule  party,  through  their  counsel, 
disclaimed  all  desire  for  repeal,  maintain- 
ing that  their  aims  were  confined  to  the 
obtaining  of  Home  Rule  in  the  strict, 
or  restricted,  sense  of  the  word.  A  bill 
in  favor  of  home  rule  in  Ireland  was 
finally  passed  in  1914,  but  the  war  in 
Europe  delayed  its  establishment 
v^Tuiat  (re-p«f ),  in  music,  a  sign  that 
^'^r^**  a  movement  or  part  of  a  move- 
ment ia  to  be  played  or  sung  twice. 

Bepeater  Watch,  ^rr?h?  hoS?: 

striking  the  hour,  or  hour*  and  quarters, 
or  tven  the  hour,  quarters,  and  odd  min- 
utaa  «B  the  compression  of  a  spring. 
lepeating  Pistol,    see  B«roJ«er. 

P^nUvin    (  re  -  plev'in  ) ,    in    English 
AepieVin  ^^^  ^  „   .^tion  brought 

to  vscorer  possession  of  goods  illegally 
■elaed,  the  validity  of  which  seizure  ft 
la  the  regular  mode  of  contesting. 
PjmliM*     (rep'H-ka),  in  the  fine  arts, 
Mnjfixom,   J,  j^g  j^py  of  n  picture,  etc., 

■ada  by  the  artiat   who   executed    the 

•rigfaMl. 

VAWAvfiiKT  (re-pOr'ting),  is  the  proc- 

JMpOnmf  ^esaniy   which   legislative 


debataa  and  other  public  addrsaasa  are 
made    known    to   the   public.    Pravioua 
to  the  year  1711  no  ragular  publlcatioo 
of  reporta  can  be  said  to  have  been  made. 
After  1711  apeecbea  in  the  Britlah  Par- 
liament, reproduced  from  notea  furnished 
sometimes   by   the   members   themselves, 
began  to  api>ear  regularly  in  periodical. 
Boifer't  Ht$torical  BegUter,  an  annual 
publication,   gave   a   pretty   regular  ac- 
count of  the  debates  from  the  acceasion 
of    Qeorge    I    to    the    year    1737.    In 
1735    the    Oentleman't   Maffatinv   began 
a  monthly  publication  of  the  debates,  the 
names  of  the  speakers  being  suppressed, 
with  the  exception  of  the  first  and  last 
letters;  but  the  reports  were  necessarily 
very  inaccurate,  as  mey  be  judged  from 
the  manner  in  which  they  were  prepared. 
Cave,  the  bookseller,  and  his  assistants 
gained  admission  to  the  houses  of  parlia- 
Bient,     and     surreptitiously     took     what 
notes  of  the  speeches  they  could,  and  the 
general    tendency   and   substance   of  the 
arguments;  this  crude  matter  was  then 
brought   into   shape   for   publication   by 
another      hand  —  work      upon      which 
Quthrie  the  historian  and  Dr.  Johnson 
were  employed.     In   1729,  and  again  in 
I'^S,  the  House  of  Commons  had  char- 
acterised  the  publication  of  debatea  as 
'an  indignity   to,  and  a  breach  of  the 
privilege   of    this    house,'   and    in    1747 
Cave  was  called  to  account;  but  the  re- 
ports continued   to  appear  without   the 
proper  names  of  the  speakers,  and  un- 
der   the    heading    of    '  Debates    in    the 
Senate    of    lalliput.'     In    1771    several 
printers  were   ordered   into  custody   for 
publishing    debates    of    the    House    of 
Commons.    The  sympathy  of  the  public 
was  with  the  printers,   the  lord  mayor 
and  Alderman  Oliver  were  committed  to 
the  Tower  for  refusing  f     recognize  the 
Speaker's  warrant  for  the  arreat  of  the 
printers,  and  the  i>opular  excitement  was 
intense;    but    in    1772    the    newspapers 
published  the  reports  as  usual,  and  the 
House    quietly    gave    up    the    struggle. 
Thenceforth  the  system  of  reporting  par- 
liamentary   debates    gradually    developed 
till   it   reached   its  present  very  perfect 
condition.     For  a  long  time  it  was  con- 
siderably hampered  by  the  want  of  any 
special  place  in   the  house  for  the  re- 
porters; but  in  the  new  houses  of  par- 
liament special  galleries  and  rooms  have 
been  fitted    up   for    them,   and    all   nec- 
essary convoiiences  provided.    The  sys- 
tem quickly  extended  from  England  to  the 
United  States,  in  the  Cangrem  of  which 
no  restriction  was  laid  upon  reportere. 
VerlaUm  reports  of   the  proceedings  in 
the    Senate   and    House   of    Representa- 
tivea  are  taken  daily  in  shorthand  dur 


—      I     Btporli 


t 


ioc  the  Mniona  by  aa  offleial  eorpt  of 
nporten   and   printed   In   the   Conarf- 
rioMj    jBeoortf.    The    newipapwi    1i«t« 
their   reporters    sIm    at    hand    to   take 
down  mattere  of  interest  to  the  geaeral 
pnblic,  and  the  art  of  reporting  haa  ex- 
to^  in   this   country   until   it  coren 
lectures,  debates  and  public  speeches  of 
every  kind.     Every  newspaper  has  a  corpa 
of    raporters    devoted    to   these   various 
duties.  Slid  nowhere  else  in   the  world 
is    there   such    enterprise    and    activity 
shown  in  the  gatherini;  of  news  of  this 
character  as  in  the  United  States. 
P^nnrtii    (re-p6rts'),     in     regard     to 
AepuriB   courts  of  law,  are  statements 
containing-  a  history  of  the  several  casM, 
with  a  summary  of  the  proceedings,  the 
arguments  on  t>oth  sides,  and  the  reason 
the   court   gave    for    its   judgment.    In 
England  reports  of  law  cases  are  extant 
from   the  reign   of   Edward   II.    Dp   to 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII  the  reports  were 
taken    oflBcially    at    the   vxpense   of    the 
government,  and  were  published  annually 
under  the  name  of  Year-books ;  but  after- 
wards, until  18C5,  the  reports  were  made 
by    private    individuals    in    the    varioua 
courts.    In  1865  an  improved  syBtem  of 
law  reporting  was  instituted  by  the  Bngj 
lish    bar    under    the    superintendence    of 
the    Council    of    Law    Reporting,    who 
publish  the  '  authorized  reports.'    In  the 
United   States   the   Supreme   C^'^'^iSS 
ports  form  a  complete  series  from  ITWS 
to   date.    Each    State   also   publishes   a 
regularly  authorised  series  of  Reports  of 
decisions  of  its  judicial  tribunals  of  last 
resort.  ,^       ,.,     , 

VAtinnaa^  (rft-pS-sft')  a  kind  of  oma- 
iiepOUSSe  \nental  metal-work  in  re- 
lief. It  resembles  embossed  work,  but 
is  produced  by  beating  the  metal  up  from 
the  back,  which  is  done  with  a  punch 
and  hammer,  the  metal  being  placed  up«a 
a  wax  block.  By  this  means  a  rude 
resemblance  to  the  figure  to  be  produced 
is  formed,  and  it  is  afterwards  worked 
up  by  pressing  and  chasing  the  front 
surface.  The  finest  specimens  of  this 
style  are  those  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  of 
the  sixteenth  century. 

Bepresentative      Government 

(rep-re-«en'ta-tiv),  is  that  form  of  gov- 
ernment in  which  either  the  whok  af  a 
nation,  or  that  portion  of  it  whose  su« 
perioi-  hitelligence  affords  a  sufficient 
guarantee  for  the  proper  exercise  of  the 
privilege,  is  called  upon  to  elect  repre- 
sentatives or  deputies  charged  with  the 
power  of  controlling  the  ptddic  expendi- 
ture, imposing  taxes  and  assisting  the 
execotive  in  the  framing  of  laws.  The 
most  natable  exaoiple  <n  a  fovaouMBt 


SitpiOdllQtIflS 

of  this  kliid  it  that  axlstiiiff  la  th*  Ualtad 
Stttea.  In  Britain  onbr  tha  Honaa  d 
Commons  is  represenUtiva.  tba  Heoaa  «l 
Loids  behig  composed  of  hersdltaiy  !•» 
islators.  In  the  nations  of  Eunm  alsoi 
except  France  and  Switserland,  tM  latia> 
lative  bodiea  are  nowhere  fully  tepreaw 
tative  of  the  people.    See  CoimMiiMm. 

tence  paaMd  upon  a  criminal  fbr  a  eapl< 
tal  offense.  A  reprieve  mta  ba^graaM 
in  varioua  ways:  — Tlrst,  by  the  bmt^ 
pleasure  of  the  executive:  secooo,  whan 
the  judge  Is  not  satisfied  with  the  verdict 
or  any  favorable  drconutance  appaara  Ii^ 
the  criminal's  character ;  third,  when  i| 
woman  capitally  convicted  pleads  prtgt 
nancy;  and,  finally,  when  the  criminal 
becomes  insane. 

Bepri'sal,  KST'or  ^'''^ 
Beprobation  <h«^^-5f'-a?>'d5 

trine  that  all  who  have  not  been  elwt«4 
to  eternal  life  have  been  reprobated  to 
eternal  damnation.  This  doctrine  waa 
held  by  Augustine  and  revived  by  Oalvln  j 
but  most  modem  Calvlniats  repodlate  it 
In  the  sense  usually  given  to  It 

Eeproduction   iS?^tAT^ 

animals  perpetuate  their  own  species  w 
race.    Reproduction   may  take  place  bf 
either  or  both  of  two  chief  modea.    Tbf 
first  of  these  may  be  termed  aeMMl,  siaet 
in  this  form  of  the  process  the  eleoMBtf 
of  sex  are  concerned — male  and  (aiaala 
elementa  nniting  to   form   the  esseatial 
reproductive  conditions.    The  second  may 
be  named  otewnal,   aince  In  thia  lattai 
act  no  elementa  of  aex  are  aonoemed. 
The  distinctive  character  of  aezoal  ra> 
production  consists  In  the  esaenttal  ele* 
ment  of  the  male  (Mena-oeO  or  spersfi 
iozoSn)   being  brought  in  contact  witq 
the    essential    element    of    the    female 
(fferm-oell,  oiwm,  or  «gg),  whereby  tha 
latter  is  feitilised  or  impregnated,  and 
those  changes  thereby  Induced  which  r» 
suit  In  the  formation  of  a  new  being. 
Whether   these   elements,   male   and   fe< 
male,  be  fnniahed  by  one  individual  oi 
by    two  —  or    in   other   worda   whetbea 
the  sexes  be  situated  ir   separate  indi- 
viduals or  not— is  a  fact  of  Immaterial 
consequence  in  the  recogniti<m  and  daft* 
nition  of  tue  sexual  form  of  the  proceom 
The  reproductive  process,  therMora,  mu 
be  (I)  SemMJ,  including  (A)  Hsmaph 
rodite    or    Moacecious    parenta    poesesst 
ing  male  and  female  organs  in  the  samt 
i^ividual.  and  theae  may.  be   (a)   eelt 
ImprMMtinc    (for    example,    the    tape; 
w<»BTror    (%)    mutually   impregnatini 

2&-8 


Boprodiiotioii 


B«ptae 


(for  ezunpte,  the  mail) ;  and  (B)  Dk»- 
doiM  rarcnti,  which  may  be  (1)  Oripar- 
ous  (for  example,  moat  fiahea,  blida, 
etc.),  (2)  Ovo-Tiviparooi  (for  example, 
aome  amphibiaaa  and  reptilei),  or  (8) 
VWlpaiona  (for  example,  mammala). 
Or  the  reproductive  proceea  may  be  (II) 
Aiemmal,  inclading  the  preceesea  of  (A) 
Qemmation  or  badding  (internal,  «x« 
ternal,  continuoui,  or  discontinuooa), 
and  (B)  Fiaalon  (transrene,  longitudi- 
oajL   irregular). 

The  most  perfect  form  of  the  reproduc- 
tiva  process  Is  best  seen  in  the  highest  or 
▼ertebrate  animals,  where  the  male  ele- 
ments are  furnished  by  one  individual  and 
U  the    female    elements    by    another.    The 

I  male    element,     with    its    characteristic 

sperm-cells  or  spermatozoa,  is  brought 
Into  contact  with  the  female  ova  in  vari- 
ous ways.  The  ova  when  impregnated 
may  undergo  development  external  to  the 
body  of  the  parent,  and  be  left  to  be 
developed  by  surrounding  conditions  (as 
in  the  eggs  of  fishes)  ;  or  the  parent 
may  (as  In  birds)  incubate  or  batch 
them.  Those  forms  which  thus  produce 
eggs  from  which  the  young  are  after- 
wards batcned  are  named  ovip^rotu  ani- 
mals. In  other  cases  (as  in  the  land 
aalamanders,  vipers,  etc.)  tLe  eggs  are 
retained  within  the  parent's  body  until 
such  time  as  the  young  are  hatched,  and 
these  forms  are  hence  named  ovo-vivip- 
urout;  while .  (as  in  mammalia)  the 
younjr  are  generally  completely  developed 
within  the  parent's  body,  and  are  born 
alive.  Such  animals  are  hence  said  to 
be  vMparoua.  In  the  higher  mammals, 
which  exhibit  the  viviparous  mode  of 
reproduction  in  fullest  perfection,  the 
mother  and  embryo  are  connected  by  a 
structure  consisting  partly  of  foetal  and 
partly  of  maternal  tissues,  and  which  is 
known  as  the  placenta.  (See  Placenta.) 
In  the  tapeworms  we  fii*d  familiar  ex- 
amples of  normal  hermaphrodite  forms. 
EsLch  segment  or  proglottit ^ot  the  tape- 
worm—  which  segment  constitutes  of  it- 
self a  separate  zooid  or  part  of  the  com- 
pound animal  —  contains  a  large  branch- 
ing ovary,  developing  ova  or  eggs,  and 
representing  the  female  organs,  and  also 
the  male  organ  t  testis.  These  organs 
between  them  produce  perfect  or  fertilized 
eggs,  each  of  which  under  certain  favor- 
able conditions  is  capable  of  developing 
into  a  new  tapeworm.  The  snails  also 
form  good  examples  of  hermaphrodite  ani- 
mals, and  illustrate  organisms  which  re- 
quire to  be  mutually  impregnated  in  order 
to  produce  fertilised  eggs  —  that  is  to 
say,  the  male  element  of  one  hermaphro- 
dite onanism  must  be  brought  in  contact 
with  the  iemale  alement  of  another  her- 


maphrodita  form  before  the  eggs  of  the 
latter  can  be  fecnndated.  See  also  Fia- 
«fc»,  GemmoUon,  Qenention,  Ovum, 
Parthenogenetit,  etc.  4s  to  reproduction 
in  pknts,  see  Botan 

BeVtile    (,«*'«').    or    Rcftilu,    a 
.'  class   of   vertebratea,   consti- 

tuting with  the  birds,  to  which  they  are 
most  closely  allied.  Huxley's  second  divi- 
sion of  vertebrates,  Sauropsida.  Rep- 
tiles, however,  are  generally  regarded  as 
occupying  a  separate  place  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  between  birds  and  amphibians. 
Reptiles  differ  from  amphibians  chiefly 
in  breathing  through  lungs  during  the 
whole  period  of  their  existence ;  and  from 
birds  in  being  cold-blooded,  in  being 
covered  with  plates  or  scales  instead  of 
feathers,  and  in  the  forelegs  (as  far,  at 
least,  as  living  reptiles  are  concerned) 
never  being  constructed  in  the  form  of 
wings. 

The  class  may  be  divided  into  ten 
orders,  four  of  which  are  represented  by 
living  forms,  while  six  are  extinct.  The 
living  orders  are  the  Chelonia  (tortoises 
and  turtles),  the  Ophidia  (serpents  and 
snakes),  the  Lacertilia  (lizards),  and 
Crocodilia  (crocodiles  and  alligators). 
The  extinct  orders  are:  Icbthyopterygia 
(Ichthyosaurus),  Sauropterygb>  (Plesi- 
oaaurua),  Anomodontia  ( Rbyncuosaurus, 
etc.).  Pterosaur ia  (Pterodactylus),  Dei- 
noeauria  (Megalosaurus,  etc.),  and  The- 
riodontia.  The  class  is  also  divided  into 
two  sections,  Squamata  ana  Loricata, 
according  as  the  exoskeleton  ;  insists 
simply  of  scales  or  of  bony  plates  in  ad- 
dition to  the  scales. 

The  exoskeleton  varies  greatly  in  ite 
development  throughout  the  class.  As  in 
the  tortoises  and  turtles  and  crocodiles  it 
may  attain  either  separately  or  in  com- 
bination with  the  endoskeleton  a  high 
development  In  serpents  and  many  liz- 
ards it  is  moderately  developed,  while  in 
some  lizards  the  skin  is  comparatively 
unprotected.  The  skeleton  ia  always 
completely  developed  and  ossified.  The 
vertebral  column  in  the  quadrupedal 
forms  is  divided  into  four  or  five  regions, 
less  distinctly  differentiated,  however, 
than  n  the  mammals.  The  ribs  differ 
consii  rably  in  their  mode  of  attachment 
to  the  vertebrs,  but  are  always  present, 
and  in  a  state  of  greater  development 
than  in  the  amphibians.  The  body,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  the  tortoises,  is  of  an 
elongated  form.  The  limbs  are  very  dif- 
ferently developed  in  the  different  species. 
In  the  serpents  and  some  lizards  they 
are  completely  wanting  or  atrophied;  in 
other  lizards  they  are  rudimentary ;  whilb 
in  the  remainder  of  the  class  sometime! 
the  anterior  and  sometimes  the  posterior 


Btpnblio 


SepuUioan  Partsr 


UbIm  are  developed,  and  not  the  others. 
In  no  caM  are  the  limba  developed  to 
the  extent  to  which  they  are  developed 
in  birds  and  quadrupeds,  these  members 
■eMom  being  of  sufficient  lenath  to  keep 
the  body  from  the  ground.  In  some  of 
the  forms,  living  or  extinct,  the  limbs 
sre  modified  for  swimming  or  for  dight. 
The  lower  jaw  is  connected  with  the 
skull     through     the     intervention     of    a 

Siuadratc  bone,  and,  as  this  often  pro* 
ects  backward,  the  opening  of  the 
mouth  is  very  great,  and  may  even  extend 
beyond  the  base  of  the  skull.  Teeth,  ex- 
cept in  the  turtles  and  tortoises,  are  pres- 
ent, but  are  adapted  rather  for  seizing 
and  holding  prey  than  masticating  food, 
and,  except  in  the  crocodiles,  are  not 
sunk  in  sockets.  The  skull  possesses  a 
single  occipital  condyle,  by  .means  of 
which  it  articulates  with  the  spine.  The 
brain  is  small  compare*^,  with  the  size  of 
the  skull.  The  muscular  system  is  de- 
veloped more  like  that  of  the  birds  and 
mammals  than  that  of  the  amphibians  or 
fishes.  The  intestinal  tract  is  generally 
differentiated  into  an  oesophagus,  stom- 
ach, small  intestine,  and  large  intestine. 
It  terminates  in  a  cloaca,  which  is  also 
common  to  the  efferent  ducts  of  the 
urinary  and  generative  systems.  In  some 
forms  (as  snakes)  the  stomach,  like  tho 
gullet,  is  capable  of  great  distention. 
The  heart  has  only  three  cavities,  viz., 
two  separate  auricles  and  a  single  ven- 
tricular cavity,  usually  divided  into  two 
by  an  incomplete  partition.  Ueypiration 
is  always  performed  by  the  lungs,  which 
are  highly  organized,  and  often  attain  a 
great  size.  The  ova  are  in  general  re- 
tained within  the  body  of  the  parent 
until  the  development  of  the  young  has 
proceeded  to  u  greater  or  less  extent,  and 
then  expelled  and  left  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun;  but  in  some  forms  (as  snakes 
and  lizards)  they  are  hatched  in  the  in- 
terior of  tho  body.  Reptiles  are  found 
in  greatest  number,  and  in  most  typical 
form  and  variety,  in  the  warm  or  tropical 
regions  of  the  earth.  During  winter,  or 
in  the  colder  se.  -ons  of  the  year,  most 
reptiles  hibernate,  and  snakes  are  notable 
as  periodically  molting  their  skin  or  epi- 
dermis. See  the  different  orders  in  sepa- 
rate articles. 

Ilitnilhlio  (re-pub'lik;  Latin,  ret  pub- 
Acpuuiib    j-^^  jjjg  common  weal,  the 

state),  a  commonwealth  in  which  the 
supreme  power  of  the  state  is  vested, 
not  in  a  hereditary  ruler,  but  in  the  citi- 
zens themselves.  According  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  governing  body,  a  republic 
may  vary  from  the  proudest  aristocracy 
to  the  most  absolute  democracy.  •  In  the 
small  states  of  ancient  Greece  the  su- 


preme power  was  vested  In  the  wbk>le 
body  of  the  eitisens,  who  met  in  commoa 
assembly  to  enact  their  laws;  ttaoush 
under  them  was  a  large  slave  population 
devoid  of  all  political  rights.  In  the 
oligarchic  republics  of  (3enoa  and  Venice 
the  supreme  power  was  consigned  to  the 
nobles  or  a  few  privileged  individuals. 
In  all  modem  republics  the  representa- 
tive system  prevails.  Besides  the  di- 
minutive republics  of  San  Marino,  in 
Italy,  and  Andorra,  on  the  south  si^  of 
th«  Pyrenees,  tho  republics  in  Europe  at 
the  present  day  are  those  of  Hwitaerland, 
France  and  Portugal.  Switzerland  has 
been  a  republic  ever  since  it  lil>erated 
itself  from  German  rule ;  and  Franco  has 
been  thrice  a  republic — from  1798  to 
1804,  from  1848  to  1852,  and  after  1870. 
Holland  was  a  republic  from  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  sevenprovinces  from  Spain 
until  1815 ;  Great  Britain  was  nominally 
a  republic  from  164»  to  1600;  Spain  pos- 
sessed a  brief  republican  government,  and 
Portuzal  has  had  once  sincn  1910.  In  tin 
New  World  the  republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment prevails  universally  among  the 
independent  states,  the  most  important  of 
all  the  reoubllcs  there  being  the  United 
States.  The  United  States,  like  Switser^ 
land,  is  a  federative  republic,  consisting 
of  a  number  of  separate  states  united  by 
a  constitution,  and  having  a  central  gov- 
ernment, with  power  to  enact  laws  bind- 
ing on  all  the  citizens.  The  same 
condition  exists  in  others  of  the  American 
republics.  Argentine  became  a  republic 
in  181G.  Mexico  has  been  a  republic 
since  1824,  except  during  the  short-lived 
empire  from  1803  to  18i37.  Braxil  has 
been  a  republic  only  since  Novemlter,  1889. 

Kepublioan  Party,  fZ,%  t^^^ 

cal  parties  of  the  United  States.  The 
term  was  first  used  shortly  after  the 
formation  of  the  Constitution,  to  replace 
that  of  the  old  Anti-Federalist  party, 
composed  of  those  who  were  opposed  to 
the  adoption  of  this  great  state  paper. 
The  name  Republican  was  given  to  the 
new  organization  by  Thomas  Jefferson, 
who  became  its  leader.  During  the  French 
Revolution  many  'Democratic  Clubs' 
were  formed  in  this  country,  and  during 
1794-95  a  union  was  made  between 
these  and  the  Republicans,  the  compound 
title  of  Democratic-Republican  beiiu( 
adopted.  The  Federal  party,  to  which 
this  was  opposed,  died  out  after  1816, 
and  the  Democratic-Repablican  party  ex- 
isted alone.  After  1824  it  became  known 
simply  as  the  Democratic.  In  1828  a 
National  Republican  party  was  formed, 
but  this  name  gradually  changed  into 
that   of'Whic   party.    Tlie   Republican 


Stpndiatioii 


Htm  yttlou 


pftrtjr  new  nbtiof  la  tb*  IhUttd  Uutm 
WM  formad  la  laSO,  oat  of  an  orguiiM- 
tloa  kaowB  ••  *  AaU-Ncbmaka  lltn,'  who 
•d^od  thb  titl*.  Into  it  wa*  mtrgcd 
tho  mnalns  of  tbo  okter  Whig,  Fno  Soil, 
ABMricsn  and  other  minor  organisationi. 
Tbt  ntw  party  advocated  a  high  pro- 
teetlTO  tariff  and  faTored  a  atronc  cen- 
tral government,  in  oppoaition  to  the 
Demoeratie  policjr,  wlucb  oppoeed  the 
proteetlTt  tariff  and  maintained  the  doc- 
trino  of  ttate-righta.  The  new  party 
alao  advocated  the  non-citension  of  elaT- 
err,  thia  alao  being  in  oppoaition  to  the 
poUcjr  of  the  Soutnem  and  a  large  aec- 
tion  of  the  Northern  Democrats.  But 
the  reaalt  of  the  Civil  war  removed  the 
alavery  iarae  from  the  domain  of  party 
politic  and  there  remained  only  those 
of  centraUiation  and  protection.  In  the 
yean  which  have  paned  since  the  two 
partlea  have  In  a  measure  approached 
each  other  on  these  questions  and  the 
marlced  distinction  between  them  has 
passed  away,  both  of  tbem,  for  instance, 
now  advocating  tariff  reduction,  though 
to  a  different  extent.  Other  issues  be- 
tween the  two  parties  have  arisen  from 
time  to  time,  such  as  that  of  the  gold 
and  silver  standard,  but  at  present  their 
difference  in  policy  is  far  lean  strongly 
marked  than  formerly.  The  Kepubiican 
party  ha*  l>een  succesHful  in  electing  all 
ito  candidatps  for  the  Prwidfiicv  oxfent 
in  1856.  1884.  1802.  1012  anl  11tl»!. 

Bepndiation  i^T^'tfllli%r^ 

government  to  pay  the  debts  contracted 
By  the  governments  which  have  preceded 
it.  Repudiation  has  sometimes  been  re- 
sorted to  by  the  smaller  American  re- 
publics and  by  some  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  Europe  there  are  also  instances  of 
a  similar  kind. 

BepnUion  i't'S;S'Slen'°ap&tt 

the  action  which  two  bodies  exert  upon 
one  another  when  they  tend  to  increase 
their  mutual  distance.  It  is  manifested 
between  two  magnets  when  like  poles 
are  presented  to  each  other,  and  by 
electrified  bodies  when  like  charges 
(positive  to  positive  or  negative  to  nega- 
tive) are  presented.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence of  any  other  form  of  physical  re- 
pulaion  existing. 

SAflllAna,  (re-k&'ni),  a  town  of 
^^"  Southern  Spain,  province  of 

Valencia,  41  miles  w.  of  that  city;  has 
industries  connected  with  the  culture  of 
ailk,  saffron,  grain,  fruit  and  wine.  Pop. 
16,23a 

B^aniem  (rSlcwi-em),  in  the  Roman 
ACt^iucia  ^gt,,o,|c  Church,  a  solemn 
musical  mass  for  the  dead,  which  begins 


ia  Latia,  Btqukm  mtmrmm  Jmm  $1$, 
(*QlTt  to  thtm  attiaal  raat').  lloaart, 
Jmnelli,  aad  CbaruMal  compoiMd  Caaooa 
nquiema. 

BaredOl  ('^t.^^*  ^  acelaalaftkal 
MWAwwwv  architecture,  a  acraea  or  par" 
titioa  wall  behind  an  altar,  which  is 
invariabi/  ornamented  in  aome  manner, 
and  ia  fwqoently  highly  enriched  with 
sculptured  decorationa^r  with  painting, 
Riding,  or  tapeatry.  The  reredoa  of  St 
Paul'B,  London,  the  last  Bngilah  cathe- 
dral to  be  provided  with  a  reradoa,  waa 
unveiled  in  January,  188& 
BAafirint  ( rt'akript ;  Latin,  reaoHp- 
•n«»cnpi  }^  written  back),  ia  Bo* 
man  law,  the  answers  of  popes  and  em- 
perors to  questions  in  Jurisprudf  ict 
propounded  to  them  officially;  hence  an 
edict  or  decree.  The  rescripts  of  the  Bo- 
man  emperors  constitute  one  of  the  an- 
thoritative  sources  of  the  civil  law.  The 
rescripts  of  the  popes  concern  principally 
theological  matters. 
H^aATiA    (resn^a).  in  law,  tha  forcibib 

or  thing  (as  a  prisoner  or  a  thing  law- 
fully distrained)  out  of  the  custody  of 
thfi  Ihw 

Bescction  {ST^^Sk  'o°f  •?u'?S 

out  the  diseased  part  of  a  bone  at  a  Joint 
It  frequently  obviates  the  necessity  of 
amputating  the  whole  limb,  and,  by  the 
removal  of  the  dead  parta,  leavea  tbt 
patiCkXt  a  limb  which,  though  shortened. 
Is  in  the  majority  of  cases  better  than  an 
artificial  one.  Resection,  which  is  one 
of  the  triumphs  of  modem  surgery,  be- 
came a  recognized  form  of  surgical  opera- 
tion in  18M. 

Beseda  t^"*!^>'  *  «e'>™  «'  ?'»?«**• 

^^  biennial,  and  perennial  herba 

and  undershrubs,  nat.  order  Reaedaces, 
of  which  it  is  the  type.  Of  the  genus 
two  species  are  quite  familiar:  B.  odordta 
(mignonette)  and  R,  lutedla  (wild 
woad).  The  latter  yields  a  beautiful 
yellow  dye,  for  which  it  was  formerly 
cultivated. 

Besedacese  (re-se^^a'se^),  a  small 
MivBvtM»w«««<  natural  order  of  plants, 
consisting  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs, 
more  rarely  shrubs,  with  alternate  or 
pinnately  divided  leaves,  and  small,  irr%- 
ular,  greenish-yellow  or  whitish  flowers. 
It  inhabits  Europe  and  all  the  basin  of 
the  Mediterranean.  With  the  ezceptioi) 
of  Reteda  odor&ta  (mignonette)  and  R. 
luteola  (wild  woad),  most  of  the  species 
are  mere  weeds. 

Beservation  i^T'^^'inT. 

United  States  to  designa'-e  a  tract  of  the 
public  land  set  aside  for  somr    .padal 


BadiidPadia 


ost.  Ib  aont  of  th«  States  contidtnblt 
tracts  bava  been  thus  dooatad  for  tba 
■apport  of  public  acboola.  Mocb  larger 
Iracta  bave  Men  set  aalda  for  tba  uaa  of 
Indian  tribes,  wbich  have  been  reraored 
to  tbese  locations,  supported  by  tbe  gov 
vmment  and  kept  under  superrislon. 
Tbe  moat  notable  of  tbese  resenrattons 
waa  tba  Indian  Territory,  now  tbe  State 


of  Oklaboma  but  still  Urcely  inbabited 
br  Indian  tribes.  Other  large  reserva* 
tions  hkf  been  set  aside,  especially  in 


tbe  West,  and  tbe  system  bas  glTen  rise 
to  many  evil  practices,  in  wbicb  the  In- 
diana have  been  oppressed  and  robbed  by 
diabonest  agents  and  others.  Tbese  evils 
are  gradually  being  eliminated. 
njia*nr«  (reHMrv'),  in  miliUry  mat* 
AeaervQ  ^^^  i,„  aeverai  significa- 
tions. In  bnttle  the  reserve  consists  of 
those  troops  not  in  action,  and  destin^ 
to  supply  fresh  forces  as  they  are  needed, 
to  support  thoae  points  which  are  shaken, 
and  to  be  ready  to  act  at  decisive  mo- 
ments. The  reserve  of  ammunition  is  the 
magasine  of  warlike  stores  placed  close 
to  the  scene  of  action  to  allow  of  the 
supply  actually  in  the  field  being  speedily 
rep^nlsbed.  The  term  reserves  Is  also 
applied  to  those  forces  which  are  liable 
to  he  called  into  the  field  on  great  emer- 
gencies, for  the  purposes  of  national  de- 
Tense;  which  have  received  a  military 
training  but  follow  the  ordinary  occu- 
pations of  civil  life,  and  do  not  form 
part  of  tbe  standing  army.  Such  re- 
KerA-es  now  form  a  part  of  all  national 
troops  organized  on  a  great  scale.  Lia- 
bility to  serve  in  the  reserves  contlnuea 
generally  from  about  the  age  of  twenty 
to  forty-two.  In  Qreat  Britain  the  re- 
serves consist  of  the  army  reserve  and 
the  auxiliary  forces,  namely,  tbe  militia, 
the  yeomanry,  and  the  volunteers.  In 
the  United  States  the  National  Guards 
of  tbe  States  constitute  such  a  reserve. 
(See  Armjf,  Militia,  Naval  Reterte, 
etc.) 

PJkaatrvA  i°  banking  and  insurance, 
A>CBCxvc,  that  portion  of  capital  which 
is  set  aside  to  meet  liabilities,  and  wbich, 
in  banking,  is  therefore  not  employed  in 
discounts  or  temporary  loans. 
TtAaAitrniT     (res'6r-vw&r),  an  artificial 

quantity  of  water  is  stored.  Tbe  con- 
struction of  a  reservoir  often  requires 
great  engineering  skilL  In  the  selection 
of  a  site  the  great  obj«t  should  be  to 
choose  a  position  which  will  give  the 
means  for  collecting  a  large  supply  of 
rainfall  with  as  little  recourse  aa  poosible 
to  artificial  stmctures  or  excavations. 
Thfe  embankmoita  tr  dama  may  be  coa- 
•tnicttd  ^tbar  of  vaumxj  9r  atrtliw^b 


Raatrvoira  in  wbkb  tba  duM  ara  bnUl 
of  aartbwofk  Boat  ba  provkUd  wMi  • 
waate-wair,  to  admit  of  tna  anrploa  watar 
flowing  ovar;  lo  tba  rauanroira  of  wbldl 
tba  duna  ara  botlt  of  maaoary  tbara  la 
no  necessity  for  a  waata-wair,  aa  tban 
tba  watar  may  ba  allowed  to  evarflew 
tba  wall,  then  balng  no  faar  of  ita  an* 
dangerlof  tba  works.    Tba  outlet  at  tba 
bottom,  by  which  tba  watar  to  ba  oaad 
ia  drawn  off  from  tba  laoarrolr,  may  coo- 
sist  either  of  a  tanneU  ealvart,  or  Iron 
pipes  provided  with  suitable  aluieaa.    A 
vast  aystem  of  reaervoira,  eallad  *  taakm' 
exists  in  India,  constructed  for  parpoosa 
of   irrigation.    Tba   reoenroira  upon   tba 
irrigation   canala    of   Spain   ara   all   of 
masonry;  they  ara  circular  or  polynnal 
in  abape.  and  the  interior  faca  of  tba 
wall,    wnicb    fi    conatmctad    of    Iai|a 
aabbirs,    la    vertical.    In    Tarlona    omw 
countriea    tbe    preference    la    givan    to 
earthen  dama.    In   tbe  Weatam  United 
Statea  •  aeriea   of   immanaa   raaarrolia 
are  now  in  process  of  construction.  In 
which  tbe  watera  of  mountain  atraaaM  are 
held   back    by   great   stone   dama    bnilt 
acroaa  their  ontleta.    These  ara  Intandad 
for  irrigation  pnrpoaea,  for  tba  veclaaBa- 
tion    of    great    areaa    of    aterlla    landa. 
In   these  cases   means  are  adopted   for 
raising  or   lowering   tbe  surface  of  tba 
water,  the  difference  between  tba  lowaat 
and   tbe   highest    level   of    tba  anrfaca^ 
multiplied  by  tbe  area  of  tba  lake,  flvlof 
the    measnre    of    its    available   atMagti 
Distributing    reaervoira    for    towna    ai« 
generally  built  of  masonry,  bat  ara  aoma* 
timea   of    Iron.    They   are   placad    higb 
enough  to  command  tba  bigbeat  part  o< 
the  town,  and  are  capadooa  anoofb  to 
contain  half  a  day'a  aopply,  thalr  ehlaf 
use  being  to  store  tbe  surpnn  watar  dai^ 
ing   the  night    BelnforMd  ooaerata  la 
now  frequently  employed  bck  tba  balkttng 
of  reaervoir  dtuna.    Several  cataatropbaa 
have  occurred  from  tba  burating  of  im- 
perfectly formed  reaervoira.    ^e  burat- 
ing   of    the    reaervoir    at    Jobnatown, 
Pennsylvania,    bi    1889   waa   a   notable 
instance    of    thia    kind,    2200    parstma 
being  drowned  and  |10,000,000  worth  of 
property  destroyed.    The  breaking  of  a 
concrete  dam   at   Austin,   Pennsylvania, 
in   1011,  led  to  the  death  of  bundrada 
of  persons  and  tbe  loss  of  tbonaanda  ot 
dolura'  worth  of  property.    Sea  Jokmt- 
town. 

Eeshid  Pasha  i^J^a'  ^>:^^ 

bom  at  Constantinople  in  1800;  died  in 
1868.  He  represented  tbe  Porta  bi  tbe 
conrta  ot  France  and  Britain,  was  sev- 
eral thnas  made  grand  vislar,  supported 
tba  Dolky  of  Sir  Stratford  Caanlnf,  and 


XMht 


Soipiratloi 


WM  tbt  cbl«f  of  the  part7  of  pragriM 
In  Tnrktjr. 

SAftlit  (vMbt),  a  town  of  Pcnla,  mm- 
*•■"'  to!  of  tio  proTlnco  of  OltaB,  160 
nilcB  -  Bortbwflot  of  Ttbtnn,  b«w  Um 
CmpUw  Bm.  RMht  :■  m  weli-built 
town,  ana  U  the  ccnttr  of  tbt  tllk  trade 
of  Ptnla,  and  tbrougb  its  port  EnaeHI, 
16  miles  distant,  carries  on  a  considei^ 
able  trade  witb  Russia.    Pop.  41.000. 

Beiidiiary  Legatee    }JJ;j!aW 

law,  tbe  person  to  wbom  the  surplus  of 

tbe  personal  estate,  after  tbe  dlwb'  « 

of  all  debts  and  particular  legaclc  «a 
left  bjr  tbe  testator's  will. 

t^  --w-Mw/   In   ji,^  prorlnce  and  6  miles 

sontbeast  of  Naples,  on  tbe  Qulf  of 
Naplese  It  is  built  over  tbe  ruins  of 
Hercnlanenm,  and  is  the  usual  sfartiag- 

flace  for  tbe  ascent  of  Vesuvius.  Pop. 
9.766. 
Pj>«iiin  (res'ins),  a  class  of  vegetable 
^^■^^  substances  insoluble  in  water, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  and  easily  softened  or 
melted  bj  heat.  Resins  are  either  ne'^> 
tral  or  acid;  they  are  transparent  or 
translucent;  they  have  generally  a  yel- 
iow-brown  color;  are  sometimes  elastic, 
but  more  generally  friable  and  hard. 
TbeT  become  electric  when  rubbed. 
Resins  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes:  —  (1)  Those  which  exude  spon- 
taneously from  plants,  or  trow  'nr'-'^nq 
in  tbe  stems  and  branches.  They  ai-e 
generally  mixtures  of  gum-resins  and 
volatile  oils.  The  principal  resins  be- 
longing to  this  class  are  benzoin,  drag- 
on's-blood, Peru  balsam,  storax,  copaiba, 
copsl,  elemi,  guaiacum,  iaiap,  lac, 
myrrh,  sandarach,  and  turi)entine.  (2) 
Resins  extracted  from  plants  br  alcohols ; 
they  generally  contain  definite  carbon 
compounds.  The  principal  resins  be- 
longing to  this  class  are  gum  ammoni- 
acum,  angelica-root,  Indian  nemp,  cubebs, 
manna,  and  squill.  (3)  Fossil  resins, 
occurring  in  coal  or  lignite  beds,  amber, 
asphalt,  copaline.  fossil  caoutchouc,  etc. 
VMngf  (re-zisf),  in  calico-printing,  a 
^~''^"  paste  applied  to  calico  goods  to 
prevent  color  or  mordant  from  fixing  on 
the  parts  not  intended  to  bt  colored. 
Resists  may  be  used  either  mechanically 
or  chemically. 

Resistftnoe  (re-zlst'ans),  Eiacrw- 
ACBiBiAUUC    j,^  ^^^^  opposition  whicb 

a  conductor  offers  to  the  flow  of  elec- 
tricity, the  conductor  being  removed  so 
far  from  neighboring  conductors  that 
their  action  will  be  very  amail,  and 
maintained  at  the  temperature  of  0*  C. 
Tbe  unit  of  resistance  now  in  use  is 
wiM  «p  oto  (wbicb  «ee). 


BeMlntion  ir-?;2i^V"a"dSiS 

Banc*  into  tbe  consonant  harmony  for 
which  it  creates  in  tbe  ear  an  expecta- 
tion. This  is  effected  by  raising  or  de- 
pressing tbe  note  a  tone  or  a  semitone, 
according  to  tbe  rules  of  barmonicai 
progression. 

ieionance  iS^^TreWSninTo^ 

■ound.  Resonance  includes  such  strength- 
ening of  sound  as  occurs  in  sounding- 
boa  raa  and  tbe  bodies  of  musical  instru- 
ments. 

BeiOnator  i»»-a-n?'t«iP).  «  device 
Mw«waM*«v«    f^^    analysing    compound 

sounds  and  for  detecting  a  particular  note 
by  sympathetic  vibrations.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Helmholtz,  and  in  its  simplest 
form  consists  of  a  hollow  bulb  or  round 
tube,  with  one  aperture  to  be  applied  to 
th.  ear,  and  an  opposite  aperture  of  a 
certain  size  whicb  sen-es  to  admit  the 
vibrations  of  one  musionl  note  to  whicb 
it  is  adapted  and  to  exclude  all  others. 
A  set  of  these  may  be  formed  oac-h  of 
whicb  corresponds  to  a  note  of  tbe  musi- 
cal scale. —  EucoTBiCAL.  A  conductor 
having  one  open  circuit,  designed  for  de- 
tecting the  electromagnetic  radiation 
from  a  nearby  circuit,  which  is  mani- 
fested br  a  sparit,  as  a  result  of  sympa« 
thetic  electricni  vibrations. 
5.ei0rQm  (  re-zor'sln),  a  colorless 
^^  crystalline     compound     pre- 

pared on  the  large  scale  by  the  action  of 
sulpbnric  acid  on  benzine,  and  by  the 
treatment  of  the  resulting  compound  with 
caustic  soda.  It  yields  a  fine  purple-red 
coloring  matter  and  several  other  dyes 
used  in  dyeing  and  caiico-pi.nting. 

Eespiration    <^-P/-*ipW'  »;? 

breathing.  Respiration  is  that  great 
physiological  function  which  is  devoted 
to  the  purification  of  the  blood  by  the 
removal,  through  the  media  of  tbe 
breathing  organs,  of  carbonic  acid  and 
other  waste  products,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  the  revivifying  of  the  blood  by 
the  introduction  of  the  oxygen  of  atmos- 
pheric air.  It  is  thus  partly  excretory 
and  partly  nutritive  in  its  character. 
The  other  waste  products,  l>eside8  car- 
bonic acid,  which  are  given  off  in  the 
process  of  animal  respiration,  are  water, 
ammonia,  and  organic  matters;  but  car- 
bonic acid  is  by  far  the  most  important. 
In  man  and  the  higher  animals  res- 
piration is  carried  on  by  the  breathing 
organs  or  lungs.  The  blood  is  conveyed 
to  tbe  breathing  organs  by  special  ves- 
sels, tbe  right  side  of  the  heart  in  birds 
and  mammals  being  exclusively  employed 
in  driyiof  blood  to  tbe  lun^  for  puriQq^ 


Ueipirfttioii 


tloB.    Th«    blood    b    wnt    througb    tb« 
pulmoMrjr  or  lung  capillarle*  In  a  stMiay 
MrMm,  and  pnmea  throiifh  theae  nlnuta 
Tcaaela  at  a  rate  autBcicnt  to  •xpoM  it 
to  tho  action   of   the   oijrfen   contalnad 
In  i».t  alr-cell«  of  the  lung.    Tha  e«»n- 
tUI  part  of  the  function  of  reaplratloo, 
namely,   the   exchange    of   carlMnic   acid 
gaa  f'jr  oxygen,  thui  talieB  place  In  the 
lung,  where  the  dingy-hued  venoua  blood 
becotnea    convertwl    into    the    florid    red 
arterial  blood.     Iteapiration  Include*  the 
pbyiicai  acta  of  Inapiration  and  explri'.- 
tlon,  both  involuntary  wcte.  altliough  tliey 
may  be  voluntarily  raodiCed.     From  tour- 
teen    to   eifhtpcn    respiratory    *cta    take 
place  per  minute,  the  average  Quantity  of 
air  Inhaled  by  a  healthy  adult  man  be- 
ing   about    80    cubic    iuches,    a    •lightly 
■mailer    quantity     being    exhaled.    Thia 
definite   volume  of   air   which  «bb8   and 
flowa  la  termed  tidal  air.    The  quantity 
(about  100  cubic  Inches)   which  may  be 
taken  In  a  deep  inspiration,  in  addition 
to  the  tidal  air,  la  termed  complemenm 
air.     The    quantity    of    oir    (75    to    100 
cubic  Inches)  remoining  in  the  chest  after 
an  ordinary   expiration   hos  expelled   the 
tidal  air  ia  named  supplemental  or  re- 
serve  air,    and   this    muy    be    In   greater 
part    expelUd    by    a    deeper    expiration; 
while  a  quantity  of  nir  always  remains 
in    the   luugs   after    the   deci>e«t   possible 
expiratory  effort,  and  cannot  be  got  rid 
of.     This  latter  Quantity  is  therefore  np- 

Fropriately  named  rcttdual  air.  The  dlr- 
prence  in  the  mode  of  breathing  between 
the  two  »cxe«  is  '•leorly  perceptible.  In 
man  it  Is  chieily  abdominal  in  its  char- 
acter; that  is  to  soy,  the  lower  part  of 
the  chest  and  sternum,  tOReiher  with  the 
abdominal  muscles,  participate  before 
the  upper  portions  of  the  chest  in  the  re- 
spiratory movements;  while  in  women 
the  breathing  movements  are  chiefly 
referable  to  the  upper  portions  of  the 
chest.  In  women,  therefore,  breathing 
ia  said  to  be  pectoral. 

Every  volume  of  inspired  air  loses 
from  4J  to  5  per  cent,  of  oxygen  and 
gains  rather  less  carbonic  acid.  The 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  given  oft  va- 
ries under  different  circumstance*.  More 
carbonic  acid  is  excreted  by  males  than 
by  females  of  the  same  age,  and  by  males 


•cM  rrralta  ia  taptrfiet  os/ftMitloB  •! 
..    ,   . i^  -r  lolloi 


between  eight  and  forty  than  in  old  age 
or  in  infancy.  An  average  healthy  adult 
man  will  excrete  more  than  8  ox.  cC  car- 
bon in  '24  hours.  Hence  the  necessity  '  r 
repeated  currents  of  fresh  air  in  meet  ; 
places  and  places  of  public  entertai^i- 
meut,  in  halls  and  in  churches,  and  Tor 
the  proper  ventilation  of  sleeping  apart- 
nenta.  The  breathing  of  an  atiAoaphere 
vitiated  by  oi^iinic  matter  and  canxmic 


tb*  blood,  la  aeconpantad  or  lollowad  bf 
bMdaches,  drowalaww.  and  laaaitnd*.  and 
ia  tha  aouret  of  many  aarioiM  and  araa 
fatal  diM>rd*n.  .     .^  , ... 

Wbilt   In   man   and   th»  mora  U^^ 
organlied  animate  reaniration  It  e»ttM 
on  by  iht  lanes,  In  flahea  It  te  tfractad 
by  the  gilla.    The  csaential  faatara  of  any 
breathing  organ  la  a  thin  mambran^  bat- 
ing tha  blood  on  on*  aid*  and  air,  or 
water  containing  air,  on  tb*  otbar;  and 
the  caaential  feature  of  respiration  te  ao 
Intercbanga    of     products    b«twt«i     tb* 
blood  and  th*  atuo»  ihere,  oxygen  paaa- 
Ing  from  the  atmuspher*  or  V7»ter  Into 
the  blood,  and  carbonic  add  and  otbar 
excretory  substance*  from  tb*  blood  into 
the  atmosphere  or  water.    In  tb*  pro- 
tosoa  no  respiratory  organs  ar*sp«!lal- 
Ized,   but   the   protoplasm   of   which   tb* 
bodies  of  these  animals  ar*  compo«*d  baa 
doubtless  the  power  of  excreting  waste 
matters,  aa  well  as  of  abaorbing  nutritive 
material.    Even    in    compawtWely    bigb 
organisms,   where  no  specialised  oreatn- 
Ing  organs  are  developed,  the  function  of 
respiration    may    be   carried   on    by    tbe 
skin   or  general   body   surface  —  the   In- 
tegument being,  as  in  tbe  highest  forms, 
intimately  correlated  In  Its  functions  to 
the    breothing   process.    Thus    in   ••rtb- 
worms,  lower  Crustacea,  etc.,  the  breatbing 
appears   to   be  solely   subserved  by   tbe 
boqy-surfaces.  .       .  „ 

Respiration  goea  on  in  plants  as  wail 
as  In  animals,  the  plant  in  the  proanc* 
of  light  exhaling  oxygen  and  inhaling 
carbonic  acid,  and  tbos  reversinf  tbe  ac- 
tion of  tbe  animal.  ^ 

Eespiration,  ABTx^oiAL.    s*. 
Kcspirator  JStr?.'^**"^  Tv- 

warmth  to  the  air  Inhaled,  and  te  naed 
by  persons  liaving  delicate  Inngs.  .It  u 
constmcted  of  a  series  of  layers  of  very 
fine  silver  or  gilt  wires  placed  closely 
together,  which  are  heated  by  tbe  «k- 
halation  of  tbe  wanp  breath,  and 
turn  heat  the  cold  air  before  it  u  m- 
haled.  Other  respirators,  designed  to  ex- 
clude smoke,  dust,  and  other  noxloua 
substances,  are  tised  by  firemen,  miners, 
cutlers,  grinders,  and  the  like^  BMently 
a  form  of  respirator  has  been  adopted 
by  divers  in  which  a  store  of  compressed 
air  or  oxygen  to  contained  in  the  helmet 
for  breathing  purposes.  A  similar  et- 
pedient  has  bwn  adopts  by  firemen  and 
those  entering  mines  after  an  explosion 
to  avoid  tbebreathlng  of  vitJ  d  ai.:  or 
poisonoas  gases. 


Eespir'atory  Sounds,  l.^iaVthi 


Bespite'' 


Betnrreotion 


Bounds  made  by  the  air  when  being  in« 
haled  or  exhaled,  as  heard  by  the  ear 
applied  directly  to  the  chest,  or  indirectly 
through  the  medium  of  the  stethoscope. 
The  respiratory  soonds  are  of  the  highest 
importance  in  the  diagnosis  of  diseases 
of  the  chest  and  bronchial  tubes. 
Besnite  i^^'p^^)*  the  temporary  sus- 
t^  pension  of  the  execution  of 
a  capital  offender.    See  Reprieve. 

Ecspondent  iTTslSik  "It  '^he 

narty  requiring  to  answer  in  a  suit,  par- 
ticularly in  a  chancery  suit. 

Eeipondentia  &^rtl°e'1t'ir'itj 

of  a  ship's  cargo.  It  is  made  on  the 
condition  that  if  the  goods  are  lost,  the 
lender  shall  lose  his  money.  A  similar 
loan  on  the  security  of  the  ship  itself 
is  called  bottomrv. 

V*g4;  in  music,  an  interval  cf  silence 
•*"'*'"'*  between  two  sounds,  and  the 
mark  wbich^  denotes  such  interval.  Each 
note  has  its  corresponding  rest.  See 
Mutio. 

Best-liarrOW.  f  common  European 
^^  **     »     leguminous      plant 

(Ondnia  »pin6aa),  aliin  to  the  brooms. 
It  is  plentiful  in  stiff  clay  land  in  some 
parts,  and  derives  its  name  from  its  long 
and  strong  matted  roots  arresting  the 
progress  of  the  harrow.  The  stems  are 
annual,  often  woody  or  shrubby,  and 
hairy;  the  leaves  are  generally  simple, 
entire  towards  the  base;  the  flowers, 
mostly  solitary,  large,  and  handsome,  are 
of  a  brilliant  rose  color.  Best-harrow 
is  also  called  oammock. 
ftestiacese  (res-ti-a'se-e),  a  natural 
***  order  of  plants  allied  to 
the  Cyperaces  or  sedges,  and  confined  to 
the  southern  hemisphere,  being  found 
chiefly  in  South  Africa  and  Australia. 
They  are  herbs  or  undershrubs,  with 
matted  roots  which  bind  shifting  soil, 
bard  wiry  stems,  simple  narrow  leaves, 
the  sheaths  of  which  are  usually  split, 
and  inconspicuous  brown  rush-like  pan- 
icles of  flowers.  Rettio  tectomm  is  em- 
plmred  in  South  Africa  for  thatching, 
and  the  stems  of  other  species  are  manu- 
factured into  baskets  and  brooms. 

o  which    separates    New 

Brunswick  from  the  province  of  Quebec, 
flowing  N.  B.  into  the  Bay  of  Chalenrs  at 
Dalhousie.  It  is  200  miles  loig.  is 
navigable  for  16  miles  to  CampV'*on, 
and  forms  a  tidal  estuary  for  24  ales. 
It  drains  4000  square  miles,  a  .  its 
basin  Buppiies  great  quantities  of  t  nber 

^  ^  uw  w  .    English  history,  tb«  re- 

tetabUshoMnt  of  Charles  II  oa  the  tbione. 


May  29,  1660.  The  restoration  was  held 
as  a  festival  in  the  Church  of  England 
till  1859. 

Eestorationist   i„Ti"ho*bSie?«*i.' 

a  temporary  future  punishment,  but  in 
a  final  restoration  of  all  to  the  favor  and 
presence  of  Ood.  The  name  is  applied 
to  all  of  whatever  sect  who  hold  this 
belief,  including  the  Universalists  and 
especially  a  particular  sect  of  Univer- 
salists. 

Eesurrcction  &r-gain"°Jf  {hi 

body  from  the  dead  to  be  reunited  to 
the  soul  in  a  new  life.  It  has  formed 
a  part  of  the  belief  of  the  Christian 
Church  since  its  first  formation,  and  has 
been  embodied  as  an  article  in  each  of 
the  creeds.  There  are  traces  to  be  found 
of  such  a  belief  among  heathen  nations 
from  a  very  early  period.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  Jews  of  later 
times  held  the  doctrine,  though  it  would 
be  difiicult  to  point  to  any  express  in- 
dication of  it  in  the  Old  Testament.  It 
appears,  however,  to  be  alluded  to  in 
Isaiah,  xxvi,  19,  and  is  distinctly  affirmed 
in  Daniel,  chap,  xii,  1-3.  That  the  be- 
lief in  the  resurrection  was  generally 
held  among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
Christ  is  evident,  particularly  from  the 
position  occupied  by  the  Sadducees.  a 
sect  having  as  its  most  characteristic  fea- 
ture the  denial  of  the  resurrection.  Be- 
yond doubt,  however,  it  was  the  gospel 
that  '  brought  life  and  immortality  to 
light  At  best  the  notions  of  a  resurrec- 
tion and  future  state  current  prior  to 
the  advent  of  Christ  were  dim  and  un- 
defined. With  regard  to  the  information 
conveyed  to  us  in  the  New  Testament 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  we 
are  taught  that  it  will  be  univertal,  ex- 
tending to  the  wicked  as  well  as  to  the 
righteous,  John,  v,  28,  29;  Rev.,  xx,  13; 
that  there  shall  be  identity,  in  some  sense, 
between  the  body  which  died  and  the 
body  which  shall  be  raised,  2  Cor.,  v,  10; 
that,  as  regards  the  resurrection  of  the 
righteous,  the  .body,  though  identical, 
shall  be  wonderfully  altered,  Phil.,  iii, 
21;  1  Cor.,  xv;  Luke,  xx,  35,  36;  and 
that,  as  regards  the  time  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, it  shall  be  at  the  end  of  this  present 
earthly  state,  and  that  it  shall  be  con- 
nected with  the  coming  of  our  Lord  to 
judge  the  world,  1  Thess.,  iv,  16. 

Connected  with  this  subject  is  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  himself  from  the 
deed,  the  cornerstone  of  the  Christian 
Tstem.  The  evidoice  in  supnort  of  it 
iS  maAed  by  the  following  characteris- 
tics:—  (1)  The  varietif  of  eirounutaneea 
nnder  wliicb  tin  riwn  Saviour  appeared 


Begnrreotion 


Br '  iariiu 


ra^    The  eircumttantiality  o£   the  testi- 
iiy   gfven   by   the   different   witnesMj. 

r-nms  have  been  made  to  explain  away 
i;;  >s.  rr^tion  of  Christ.    There  is  the 

'.ippc: V.ion  (1)  of  f;a»^  ti'^i^rt^; 
ID*  t  the  statement  of  the  Jews,  tne 
^"iciles  stole  the  body,  and  then  pub. 
i.«^'l  the  story  that  their  Lord  was 
ris^n  (2)  That  Jesus  had  not  really 
dSd  on  the  cross;  that  bis  anparent 
death  was  only  a  «woon.  from  wUch  he 
afterwards  recovered.  (3)  3^^"^  7^!! 
had  been  no  real  resurrection,  but,  that 
Jhe  dSles  had  been  <Jeceiv«i  by  vision- 
arv  appearances  or  hallucinations.  (4) 
ThVX   assertion   of    the    re«"r^t^n 

roV^itl'^n^cWiltr^^^^^^ 
Christ  It  was  (believers  assert)  the 
c^rSwSng  evidence  of  the  <ijvi°ejba'act«r 
of  his  mission,  he  himself  had  spoKen 
of  it  as  what  should  be  the  most  con- 
?  ncng  pr^f  to  the  world  that  he  really 
wM  what  he  professed  himself  to  be, 
Tnd  in  this  lig^t  it  was  constantly  a^ 
pealed  to  by  the  apostles  in  addressing 

the   world.  CONOBEOATIONOFTHB, 

BeSUrrectlOn,  l^^^society    of    Roman 

wk    J.    '  fre-tftn'ir),  in  law,  the  act 

Eetainer  Jp;  cW^t  by  which  he  en- 
«.<raa  nil  attomcv  or  counselor  to  man- 
Si  a  "si  ^e  effect  of  a  retainer  is 
?f  wnfw^n  the  attorney  all  the  powers 
exereSwS^by  the  forms  and  usages  of  the 
wurt  in  which  the  suit  i8.P«»dinfr  It 
ta  VmcSi  when  given  for  the  purpose  of 
Mcffil  the  cJunsel's  services  for  a 
SrSar   case;,  general,  jten   for   se- 

SUa^  fee  caned  a  retainjig^fee.^ 

BetainULg  Wall,  fo,  the  purpose 
of  confining  a  body  of  water  in  a  reser- 
voir? or  for  resisting  the  thrust  of  the 
ground  behind  it.  As  a  general  rol«  t^ 
thickness  of  retaining  walls  is  "l^^Z 
their  height;  in  reservoir  and  dock  walte 
of  mawnrr  the  thickness  to  about  one- 
half  their  ^eight.  ^.^hnn  ) .  to 

Eetardation  ifa^st£%he  dtoitoutioa 

of  the  velocity  of  a  body  from  the  f ricttaj 
of  the  medium  in  which  the  bedy  mowe 
Ot  fxom  the  attraction  of  giaTltj.    TM 


laws  of  retardation  are  the  converse  of 
those  of  acceleration.  wx»-„«^ 

■ii  X  -  ir «  « A<m  m  ( re  te  ma-k6  sum ) , 
Bete  MUCOSUm  i^^  anatomy,  the 
deepest  layer  of  the  epidermis  or  scarf- 
skin,  restng  on  the  cutis  vera  or  true 
IkS  It  is  the  seat  of  the  color  of  the 
Ikin   and   in   the   negro   contains   black 

pigment.  /je.ten'shmi),   to   law,   a 

BetentlOn  i\^;  the  right  of  with- 
holding a  debt  or  of  retaining  property 
until  I  debt  due  to  the  person  claiming 
this  right  is  duly  paid. 

Eetention  of  unne,  ^   condition 

in  which  the  urine  cannot  be  expelled 
from  the  bladder  at  a  1,  or  only  with 
great  difficulty;  to  be  distinguished  from 
f upprMsion  of  urine,  a  condition  m  which 
?he  bladder  is  empty,  the  urine  not  hay- 
ine  been  secreted  by  the  kidneys.  It 
m!y  ^  due  to  some  mechani<al  ^truc- 
K  a^  a  calculus,  a  clot  of  blood.  <,r» 
tumor,  or  to  paralysis,  etc  If  not  re- 
liev^  by  meanVof  the  catheter  or  other- 
wlsfit  mS  cause  rupture  of  the  bUidder 

S^*i*"J;i'  (ret'ford),  East,  a  munici- 
Betford  J^'boroigh  in  Nottingham- 
shire, England,  32  miles  E.  N.  k- of  Not- 
tingham, on  the  Idle,  here  crossed  by  a 
bridge  connecting  East  Retford  with 
West  Retford,  ft  has  foundries,  m- 
chine-shops,  paper  and  com  mills,  etc. 
Pop  13  336.  ^  ^  j^^  ^ 

Aetnei  ^artment  of  Ardennes,  on  the 
Aisne.  23  miles  K.  e.  <>«  Rbeim8,j^ 
manufactures  of  mennos  and  casbmerea. 
Pop.  (1900)  5254.  n.^.„ 

V.4-1««1  (rft'tel),  AVTBMD,  a  Gennan 
iteinei  ^igtorlcal  painter,  Iwra  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  In  1816 ;  studied  at 
DUsstldorf'^ (under  Schadow),Fragort 

(under  Veit  and  Schwmd).  »^Bo"^ 
He  died  at  Dttsseldorf  In  18B9.  His 
Seatest  works  are  four  frescoes  in  the 
f^Xr^ZS  Aix-la-Chapelle  repr««nt. 
{na  incidents  connected  with  the  lite  oi 
Charlmag^,  other  four  there  being  exe- 
cuted from  his  deigns  after  hiTaes^ 
These  are  among  the  finest  modeiti  worts 
of  the  kind.  German  history  and  tne 
Bible  atoo  furnished  him  with  varioua 
rublKtlwd  he  painted  in  water-wlor 
IwriS  <rf^picturM  illustrative  of  Haap 

nibal's  passage  of  the  Alps. , 
««    ^  . !-! /  rft.ahi-11'ri-us 


T'L'^^^^^hi-i^ri^^h  to  Roma* 
BetUUnUB  iSSuitleil  a  gUdlator  who 
wore  onlT  a  short  tunic  and  carried  a 
Trktant  wd  ne£  with  which  he  end«w^ 
onrfto  entangle  and  despatch  his  adve^ 
2S.  who  wJs  armed  witrhelmet,  sbieM, 
ana  two(4. 


Betionlated  Molding 


Eetz 


Betionlated  Moldin&r  .l"/^*^'''?- 

archltectiire,  a  member  enriched  with  a 
niaed  fillet  interlaced  in  various  ways 
like  netwprli.  It  is  seen  chiefly  in  build- 
ings in  the  Norman  style. 

Betionlated  Work,  ^   "p^^^  <>' 

'  masonry  very 
common  among  the  ancients,  in  which 
the  stones  are  square  and  laid  loienge- 


B«tienUt«d  Work  —  Roman. 

Wise,  resembling  the  meshes  of  a  net. 
and  producing  quite  an  ornamental  ap- 

?i!!?'^°*^®-  '  '*■**•«  <^«»  reticulatum  of 
the  Romans. 

Betionlnm   /re-tlk'tt-Ium),    the 
honeycomb    bag    or    sec- 
ond  cavity  of   the  complex  stomach  of 
ruminants. 

Betina  (ret'i-na),  in  anatomy,  a 
K-  -  membrane  of  the  eye,  formed 

Dy  an  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  an^ 
so  constituted  as  to  receive  and  transmit 
to  the  nerve  the  impressions  which  result 
in   vision.     See  Eye. 

Betinite  i"*?:°").  »  fossii  resin 

Tk«        u.        «>nnd  in  the  lignite  beds  of 
Devonshire,  Hanover,  and  efsewhere; 
Betirement      (re-tir'ment),     in     the 

M  Mh^'arSiy^a'irnaly^Te: 
tlrement  of  officers  may  be  vofuntary!  bu^ 

^^.f  ***  i?*'r  "°''»  receiving  c^rre- 
^?2  -*m,^*ii^  ^^'  i°  the*  Uni^ 
ttt^^t^TJ  ^^^  ?*''y  °.®*=«™  are  "tired 
after  forty  jears'  service,   or  at  sixty- 


for  distilling  liquids.  Retorts  consist  of 
flask-shaped  vessels  to  which  long  n  cks 
or  beaks  are  attached.  The  liqui>  to 
be  distilled  is  placed  in  the  flask  and 
heat  applied.  The  products  of  distillation 
condense  in  the  cold  neck  of  the  retort, 
and  are  collected  in  a  suitable  receiver. 
In  gasmr!dng,  retorts  of  iron  or  fire-clay 
are  used  ior  distilling  the  coal. 
Betreat  /.w-tref),  a  military  opera- 
i.1  u  ,  "°°'  '°  which  an  army  re- 
tires before  an  enemy;  properly,  an  or- 
derly march,  in  which  circumstance  it 
differs  from  a  flight.  Also  a  military 
signal  given  in  the  army  by  beat  of  drum 
or  sound  of  trumpet  at  sunset,  or  for 
retiring  from  exercise  or  from  action. 
BetrieVer  Doe  (re-trev'er),  a  dog 
=«„i,      J  r  .  u  specially   trained   to 

seeK  and  fetch  game  which  has  been  shot, 
and  greatly  valued  by  sportsmen  for  its 
sagacity  in  the  field  and  in  the  water, 
Xhe  larger  and  more  familiar  breed  of 
retrievers  is  formed  by  crossing  the  New- 
foundland and  setter;  the  smaller  breed 
IS  formed  by  crossing  the  water-spaniel 
and  terrier.  The  typical  retriever  is  20 
or  more  inches  hieh,  with  a  stoutly-built 
body,  strong  limbs,  webbed  toes,  and 
black  and  curly  fur. 

BetrOSrrade  l.refro-grad),  a  term 
^^ti^^      t  P^^^    *°    *•»«   apparent 

^hil,^*^^'^  P'*""^'  a™onK  the  stars 
wnen  it  is  m  opposition  to  the  motion  of 
the  sun  in  the  ecliptic.  The  motion  of 
a  planet  m  the  direction  from  right  to 
left  18  said  to  be  direct. 

Betrogression  of  the  Moon'g 

Nodes  (ret'ro-gresh-un),  the  motion 
•  .  -  °'  .t.°®  moon's  nodes  —  the  two 
points  in  which  the  moon's  orbit  meets 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  —  in  the  direc- 
tion oppc-^te  to  that  of  the  sun's  motion 
m  the  ecliptic.  The  moon's  nodes  slowly 
change  at  each  revolution  of  the  moon, 
in  the  direction  from  left  to  right,  ani 
make  a  complete  revolution  round  the 
earth  in  18.6  years. 

Betnm  .(re-turn'),  Jn  law,  the  send- 
ing  back  of  a  writ  or  other 
process  to  the  court  from  which  it  issued 
bjr  the  officer  to  whom  it  was  addressed, 
with  a  written  account  of  what  he  haa 
done  m  executing  the  process,  to  be  filed 
for  reference  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of 
the  court. 

Betnminir  Officer,  ^h  ®   presiding: 

,1     *  .     .  »  officer  who  con- 

ducts an  election  and  who   retuma  the 
persons  duly   elected.    He  is  styled   the 
judm  of  election,  he  and  the  inspectors 
signing  the  certificate  of  elecUoiu 
]|tetZ,  GnxESDE.    Seeiiat*. 


Betz 


P**»    (rft).  Jean  FBAwgois  Paul  db 
**'*    GONDI,  Cardinal  de,  wm  born  at 
Montmirail  in  1614 ;  died  at  Paris.  1679. 
Contrary  to  his  own  inclinations,  he  was 
designed  by  bis  father,  who  was  general 
of  the  galleys,  for  the  church.     His  in- 
structor  was   the   celebrated    Vincent   de 
Paul.     As  a  young  abb6  he  led   a   very 
improper  life,  but  his  brilliant  gifts,  his 
eloquence,    his    audacity,    and    his    great 
connections     nevertheless     enabled     him 
to   advance   in   his   ecclesiastica.   career. 
In   1643   he  received  a  doctorate  at  the 
Sorbonne,   and   was   appointed  coadjutor 
of  his    uncle,   the   Archbishop   of   Paris. 
He  was  the  implacable  enemy  of  Mazarin, 
and  in   1648  became  the  most  energetic 
find  unscrupulous  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Fronde.     On  the  fall  of  Mazarin  he  was 
selected  as  minister  by  t»e  queen-regent, 
Anne   of   Austria,   and   in   16ol   received 
the  cardinal's  hat ;  but  on  Mazarin  a  re- 
turn to  power  in   1652  he  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned,  first  at  Vincennes,  then 
at  Nantes.    He  escaped,  however,  after 
tv/o  years'  captivity,  and  for  nex.rly  eight 
years  wandered  through  Spain,  Italy,  Hol- 
land, Germany,  and  England.     After  the 
death  of  Mazarin  in  1661  he  was  allowed 
to  return   to   France,   on   condition   that 
he  should  resign  his  claims  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Paris,  receiving  instead  the 
rich  abbey  of  St.  Denis.     During  i      last 
seventeen  years  of  his  life  he  In       re- 
tired, paid  his  immense  debts,  and  occu- 
pied himself  with  the  composition  of  his 
M^moireg,  which  are  inimitable  for  their 
historic  truth  and  narrative  skill. 
'B.pf7«pVl      (rech),    MoniTZ,   a  ^erman 
■ttclZSCn     ^r^igt^  ^.^g  born  "t  Dresden 

in  1779;  died  there  in  1857.  Ke  studied 
at  the  art  academy  of  his  native  city,  of 
which  he  was  appointed  a  professor  In 
1824.  His  most  celebrated  works  are 
bis  outline  illustrations  of  Shakespere, 
Goethe,    Schiller,    Fouqufi,   and   others 


Beuu 

of  hi«  worits  had  considerable  popularity 
in  their  time.  He  aympathixed  deeply 
with  Luther  in  the  earlier  stage,  bntmaln- 
tained  his  connection  with  the  Boman 
Catholic  Church  to  the  last. 


P*iipih1iTi     (roifc'lln) ,  Joiiawn,  a  Ger- 
HeUCJUin    ^^^  scholar,  born  in  1465 
at  Pforzheim;  died  in  1622.     He  studied 
at  Freiburg,  the  University  of  Paris,  Bale, 
and  elsewhere,  and  became  familiar  with 
Latin,    Greek,     and     Hebrew.     He    was 
patronized    by    several    of    the    German 
princes,  and  was  engaged  on  various  po- 
litical missions.     From  1502  to  1513  ne 
was    president    of    the    Swabian    federal 
court.     His  opposition  to  the  proposal  to 
bum  all  Hebrew  books  except  the  Bib'e 
raised  a  host  of  fanatical  enemies  agains^ 
him,  but  did  him  no  harm.     In  1519  he 
was  appointed  professor  at  Ingolstadt;  In 
1621  the  plague  drove  him  to  Stuttgart. 
During  a  great  part  of  his  life  Reuchlin 
was   the  real   center   of  all   Greek   and 
Hebrew  teachinf  in  Germany.    Several 


'D««'».A'n4>    (  roi'mont ),   Alfbed   von, 
AeumOIll    ^   German   historian,  bom 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1808,  was  educated 
at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg,  and  entered  the 
Prussian  diplomatic  service,  filling  posts 
at    Florence,   Constantmople,   and   Rome. 
From   1851   tiil    I860,   when   he   retired 
into    piivate    life,    he    was    successively 
Prussian  minister  at  Florence.   Modena, 
and  Parma.     He  died  in  1887.     He  was 
the  autaor  of  several  valuable  works  on 
the  history  of  Italy,  including  Con<r»6u- 
tiona  to  Italian  History,  The  Carafat  of 
Maddaloni,  History  of  the  Ctty  of  Rome. 
etc.     He  also  wrote  on  the  history  of  art. 
P  ^11  n  i  nn    ( ra-u-ni-09 ) ,  formerly  BoiiB- 
i&euUlOU  ^jj^  an  island  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  between  Mauritius  and  Madagas- 
car,   115    miles    from    each;    area,    11^:7 
square  miles.     It  was  annexed  by  France 
in    1(;43,    and    is    an    important    French 
colony,   now  sending  a   representative  to 
the    chamber    of    deputies,    and    forming 
practically     almost     a     department     of 
France.     It    is    very    mountainous,    tiie 
Piton    des    Nei;,'es    reaching   a    height   of 
10.069  feet,   nntl   the   Piton  de   'a    *our- 
nnise,    an    active    volcano,   of   oJy*   i     -. 
The  soil  produces  tropical  products,  sugar 
being  the  principal  crop.     Coffee,  cloves, 
and  vanilla  are  also  grown.     Destmctive 
hurricanes   are   frequent.     There   are   no 
natural  harbors,  but  an  artific.al  harbor 
has  been  constructed  at  Pointe  des  Galets, 
at  the  northwest  side  of  the  island;  and 
this  harbor  is  connected  by  railway  with 
St  Denis  (the  capital),  and  all  the  prin- 
cipal places  on  the  coast.     The  popula- 
tion,  which   consists  of   Creoles,   negroes, 
Indian  coolies,   Chinese,   Malays,   etc.,  is 
173,315. 


P«ii«    (ra'6s),  a  city  of  Spain,  in  Cata- 
■"'^"^*   Ionia,    in    the    province    and    10 
miles  west  of  Tarragona,  in  a  plain  at 
the  base  of  a  chain  of  hills,  about  4  milea 
from  the  port  of  Salou  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean.    Reus  is  now,  next  to  Barcelona, 
the  most  flourishing  manufacturing  town 
of  Catalonia,  the  staples  being  silk  and 
cotton.     Imitation     French     wines     are 
largely  made.     Pop.  26,681. 
Pjknss    (roi»)'     two    principalities    at 
ACUSS   ^tral  Germany,  consisting  of 
several   separate   territories  situated  be- 
tween Prossia,  Saxony,  and  Havana,  and 
belonging  to  an  older  and  younger  line  ot 
the   family   of   Reuss.     Reu»-Greiz,   the 
territory  of  the  elder  line,  comprises  an 
area  o£  122  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  ol 
70,808;  th»  territory  of  the  younger  line, 


Benter 


Beyerlieratory  Tnmaot 


Beoat-Sehleix-Gen.  hu  an  area  of  31  ^ 
(Miuan  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  144,r 
Both  principalities  have  Men  mem 
of  the  Qsrman  Empire  since  1871,  taota 
sendina  one  member  to  the  federal  coun- 
cil and  one  representative  to  the  Reich- 
stag. 

H^ntAr  (roi'tir),  Fbitz,  a  German 
Acuver  immopist^  ^^s  Iwm  in  1810, 
and  educated  at  Rostock  and  Jena.  He 
became  an  active  meml>er'  of  the  student 
society  '  Qermania,'  which  cost  him  seven 
years  imprisonmenf  in  Prussian  fort- 
resses. Returning  home  in  1840  he  sup- 
ported himself  first  by  farming,  then  by 
teaching,  and  finally  by  literary  worli. 
His  first  literary  venture  was  a  volume 
of  humorous  poems  in  Low  German 
(Laiiachen  and  i£icmel<,  1853),  which 
met  with  extraordinary  success.  His 
greatest  worlt  is  Olle  Kamellen,  a  series 
of  prose  tales,  which  stamped  LI: .  as  the 
greatest  writer  of  Plattdeutsch  and  one 
of  the  greatest  humorists  of  the  century. 
He  died  at  Eisenach  in  1874. 
lt.»Tif»r  (roi'tir),  Faui.  Juiiua, 
iieUXer  ^ABON/'born  at  Cassel  in 
1821,  was  connected  with  the  electric 
telegraph  system  from  the  beginning,  and 
in  1849  established  Renter's  News  Agency 
at  Aiz-Ia-Chapelle.  In  1851,  on  the  lay- 
ing of  the  cable  l)etween  Calais  and 
Dover,  he  transferred  his  chief  ofBce  to 
London,  and  became  a  naturalized  Eng- 
lishman. As  the  telegraphic  system  ex- 
tended he  increased  his  staS  of  agents, 
until  the  newspaper  press,  Mie  foreign 
bourses,  and  all  banking,  shipping,  and 
trading  companies  became  dependent  in 
a  great  measure  on  Renter's  Agency  for 
the  latest  information  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  In  1865  he  converted  his 
agency  into  a  limited  liability  company, 
of  which  he  was  managing  director  until 
1878.  In  1871  he  received  the  title  of 
baron  from  the  Duke  of  Coburg-Gotha. 
He  has  laid  down  several  important  tele- 
graphic cables.  Died  Feb.  25,  1899. 
B^ntlineren  (roit'ling-*n),  a  town 
ACUI^UUgea  ^^  WUrtemberg,  20  milea 
south  of  Stuttgart;  has  manufactures  of 
cottons,  woolens,  lace,  leather,  etc.  It 
is  of  consideral)le  antiquity,  and  long 
maintained  the  rank  of  a  free  imperial 
city.  It  was  incorporated  with  WUr- 
temberg in  1802.  Pop.  23,850. 
Reval  °'  Revjx  (re-vel'),  a  fortified 
•**""*»  seaport  of  Russia,  capital  of 
Esthonia,  on  a  small  bay  in  the  Gulf  of 
Finland.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
old  or  upper  town,  surrounded  by  walls 
and  situated  on  a  rocky  height,  and  the 
lower  town  on  the  beach.  Beval  was 
in  important  seaport  of  the  Hanseatic 
t^ngoe,  and  camt  into  the  powcwiwi  of 


Russia  in  1710.  Its  trade  is  ehidly  in 
grain,  flax,  beer,  animals  and  machinery. 
The  construction  of  a  naval  harbor  was 
begun  in  1912,  and  it  was  the  base  of  the 
Russian  Baltic  fleet.  The  port  was  cap- 
tured by  German  forces  in  1918  during 
the  European  war.  The  population  in 
1910  was  98,995,  of  whom  one-iourth  were 
(lermans. 

PAVAill^  (re-vel'yft,  from  French,  re; 
Xbeveme  ^g.,^^^  ^^  awaken),  the  sif, 

nal  given  in  garrisons  at  break  of  day, 
by  beat  of  drum  or  sound  of  bugle,  for 
the  soldiers  to  rise  and  the  sentmels  to 
forbear  challenging  until  the  retreat  is 
sounded  in  the  evening. 
B.pve1  fl.ti  ATI  (  rev-e-I&'shun ) ,  the  knowl- 

tion  to  the  world,  claimed  to  be  given  to 
men  by  God  himself,  and  for  the  Chris- 
tian contained  in  the  Bible.  The  earliest 
revelations,  made  in  the  patriarchal  age, 
were  preserved  till  later  times,  and  grad- 
ually enlarged  during  the  Mosaic  period 
by  successive  revelations  to  chosen  indi- 
viduals, with  whom  the  Bibie  makes  us 
acquainted  under  the  name  of  prophets, 
from  Moses  to  Malachi,  the  revelations 
finally  completed  being  through  Clirist 
See  Christianity. 

Eevelation,  gjjf,  <>'•  »««  -^i«<'- 
Ecvelganj  («-i^;)^  ZS^'^ti 

India,  in  Bengal,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Ganges  and  Ohagra.  It  has  an  impor- 
tant local  trade.  Pop.  about  15,000. 
Bevels  (i^v'elz).  Masteb  or  ths,  an 
officer  formerly  appointed  in 
England  to  superintend  the  revels  or 
amusements,  consisting  of  dancing,  mask- 
ing, eta,  in  the  courts  of  princes,  ti>e 
inns  of  court,  and  noblemen's  nouses,  dur- 
ing the  twelve  Christmas  holidays.  He 
was  a  court  oflScial  from  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII  to  that  of  George  IIL 
Hevenne  (rev'e-na),  the  income  of  a 
"  nation  derived  from  taxes, 
duties,  and  other  sources,  for  public  uses, 
See  articles  on  the  different  countries, 
also  Ta»,  etc. 

Bevenue  Cntter,  *,  "harp-buut  sin. 

M>««.vuww  w »»!>«,&,  gle-masted  vessel, 
armed  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
smuggling  and  enforcing  the  custom- 
house regulations. 

Beverberatory  Fnrnaoe 

(re-verT)er-a-tu-ri),  a  furnace  in  which 
the  material  is  heated  without  coming 
into  contact  with  the  fueL  Between  the 
fireplace  a  and  the  bed  on  which  the 
material  to  be  heated  6  lies,  a  low  par- 
tition wall,  called  a  fire-bridge,  is  placed. 
Th*  flame  passes  ovar  this  bridge,  and 


Severe 


nlays  along  the  flat  arch  which  aur- 
mounta  the  whole,  reflecting  or  reverber- 
atiDf  the  heat  downwards.    The  rever- 


Seetion  of  Bereiberatory  Fnmace. 


beratory  furnace  gives  free  access  of  air 
to  the  material,  and  is  employed  for  ox- 
idizing impurities  in  metals,  and  for  other 
similar  purposes.  . 

•D^^tx-^1    (re-ver'),  Paui.,  was  born  at 
Aevere    ^ston,     Massachusetts,    Jan. 
1.  1735,  was  one  of  the  earliest.  American 
engravers  and  an  active  patriot  in  the 
Revolution.     He  was  one   of   those   who 
destroyed  the  tea  in  Boston  harbor    atj 
he  earned  fame^by  riding  from  Charles- 
town   towards  Concord  on   the  night  ol 
April  18,  1775,.  to  give  warning  of  the 
British    expedition,    which    was    resisted 
next  day  at  Lex  ngton  and  Concord ,  a 
service     immorta  ized     in     Longfellow  a 
S., Vfce  Midniiht  Ri<i^  of  Paul  Revere 
f)uriM  the  war  te  rose  to  be  I'eatenan^ 
colonel  of  artillery.     In  1801  he  erectea 
wo?k8  for  rolling  copper  a*  Canton   Mas- 
sachusetts, stni  carried   on  by  hia  sue- 
cessors.     He  died  May  10,  1818. 
P«vArik     a     village     of    .Suffolk    IX)., 
iievere,    Massachusetts,  4  miles  w.  B. 
of  Boston,   on   Massachusetts   Bay.   is  a 
favorite  place  "/j^^/^njf^P'tirie  of  re- 
Eeverend     g^t^'^ven'to  clergymen 
and     other     ecclesiastics.     In     Enfland 
bishops    are   right   reverend,   archbishops 
most  reverend,  deans  very  reverend,  ^i 
the  lower  clergy  reverend.    !»  Scotland 
the    principals    of    the    «'»5v«"'*'«8',,v" 
clergymen,  are  very  reverend,  and   like- 
wise the  moderator  of   the  General  As- 
sembly; all  the  other  clergy  reverend,  as 
also  in  the  United  States. 
T»!^™«.«     (re-vers'),    in    numtematics, 
Beverse    ^^e  of  a  medal  or  coin 
opposite  to  that  on  which  the  head  or 
principal  figure  U  impressed.    The  latter 
18  called  the  obverte. 

Eeversion  S3[;ir««ut?7eit*S 

the  granter,  to  commence  in  possession 
after  the  determination  of  the  particrUar 
^ate  granted  by  him.  The  ertate  i*- 
tana  to  the  gnmter  or  bis  bein  after  the 


Bevival 

«rant  is  over.     lu  insurance  business  a 
reversion  is  an  annuity  or  other  beneBt, 
the  enjoyment  of   which  begins  after  a 
certain  number  of  years,  or  after  some 
specified  event,  as  a  death  or  birth. 
■oIvAl-TnAnl-    (re-vet'ment;  French,  re- 
B-evetment    litemcnt),    in    fortifica- 
tion, is  a  retaining  wall  placed  against 
the  sides  of  a  rampart  or  ditch.     In  field- 
works  it  may  be  of  turf,  timber,  hurdles, 
and  the  like;  but  in  permanent  works  it' 
is  usually  of  stone  or  brick.    The  exterior 
faces  of  these  walls  are  considered  as  the- 
scarp  and  counterscarp  of  the  ditcti. 
PjixriPW      (  re-vQ  ),  an  inspection  of 
JiCView      military  or  naval  forces  by 
an  officer  of  high   rank   or  by  a  distin- 
guished personage,  which  may  be  accom- 
panied with  maneuvers  and   evolutions. 
EevieWS.     see  Pmod<c«»«. 


llAvia*  (re-viz').  among  Printers,  a 
J&evlSc  Second  or  third  proof  of  a  sheet 
to  be  printed,  taken  off  In  order  to  be 
compared  with  the  last  proof,  to  see 
that  all  the  mistakes  marked  in  it.  have 
been  corrected.     See  Proof  Impr^non. 

Eevising  Barrister.  !f„eofSCm: 

ber  of  barristers  appointed  annually  for 
the  purpose  of  examining  or  revising  the 
list  of  parliamentary  voters,  and  settling 
the  question  of  their  qualification  to  vote 
—  duties   performed   in   Scotland  by   tne 
sheriff-substitute.    The     revising    barris- 
ters' courts  are  held  in  the  autumn. 
PoinVal     (re-vl'val),   a   term   appliad 
Jfcevlvai    t\,    religious    awakenings   in 
the  Christian  church,  and  to  the  occur- 
rence   of    extensive    spiritual    quickeniTtg 
and  conversion  in  the  general  communis. 
The  first  great  revival  in  Europe  was  the 
Reformatmn    in    the    sixteenth    century, 
which  awoke  the  church  from  the  sleep  of 
centuries.    When    religion    had    dMeneiv 
ated  into  formalism  in  England  m  the 
seventeenth  century  a  second  revival  ol 
spiritual      interest      was      accomplished 
through     the     instrumentality     of     the 
Puritans.    When    the    church    had    once 
more   sunk   into   a    state    of    sloth   and 
apathy  in  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was 
aroused  by  the  preaching  of  Whitfield,  the 
Wesleys,  Rowland  Hill,  and  other  earnest 
men.    Coincident  with  this  movement  was 
the  origin   of  missions   to   the  heathen. 
But  it  was  reserved  for  recent  tim«jto 
witness  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
BriUin  perhaps  the  moat  remarkable  reH- 
gioas  reVival  which  has  be«  witnwjjed 
HDce  the  era  of  the  RefonBatimj.    Move- 
ments of  this  nature,  but  of  limited  ex- 
tant, have  not^been   tifrwjent   in   the 
Anwrican  drarehes.  as  in  1736  and  1^. 
bat  the  great  reTival  which  originated  in 


Kevival  of  Learning 


Eevolver 


the  United  SUtes  in  1858  Bubsequently 
extended  to  tiie  British  Islands,  and  was 
experienced  with  more  or  less  power 
throughout  almost  every  part  of  the 
world.  New  York  and  Philadelphia  were 
the  principal  centers  of  the  movement, 
which  became  universal  in  the  United 
States,  embracing  all  denominations  and 
all  classes  of  society.  In  the  summer  of 
18I5Q  the  revival  extended  to  the  north  of 
Ireland,  chiefly  through  the  agency  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  and  from  there  to 
Scotland,  Wales  and  various  parts  of  Eng- 
land. A  later  revival  movement  was 
that  initiated  by  the  two  American 
'  evangelistti,'  D.  L.  Moody  and  Ira  D. 
Sankey,  the  latter  a  singer,  whose  hymns 
aided  Moody's  sermons  in  arousing  reli- 
gious feeling.  The  movement  commenced 
in  1873  in  England,  but  it  attained  no 
Kreat  prominence  until  the  arrival  of 
tlie  two  evangelists  in  Edinburgh.  Their 
ministrations  in  that  city,  and  after- 
wards in  Glasgow,  Dundee,  and  other 
towns  in  Scotland,  and  also  in  England 
and  Ireland,  up  to  August,  1875,  were  at- 
tended daily  by  multitudes  of  people,  a 
remarkable  feature  of  these  assemblies 
being  the  presence  in  great  numbers  of 
the  upper  ranks  of  society,  even  'o  mem- 
bers of  the  peerage  and  royal  family. 
On  their  return  to  the  United  States  they 
headed  a  similar  movement  there;  and 
they  paid  a  second  and  equally  successful 
visit  to  Britain  in  1883-84.  The  Salva- 
tion Army,  which  was  originated  in  1865 
and  organized  under  its  present  name  in 
1878,  may  be  regarded  as  a  permanent 
revival  orgonization.  See  Salvation 
Army.  In  1896  'Billy'  Sunday  (see 
Sunday)  began  a  scries  uf  remarkable  re- 
vivals in  various  cities  of  the  United 
States,  and  after  the  campaign  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1915  his  converts  were  reported 
to  number  about  300,000.  His  sermons, 
in  racy,  colloquial  English,  carried  a  very 
strong  popular  appeal ;  and  his  campaigns 
were  notable  for  their  careful  business  or- 
ganization. He  required  an  appeal  from 
the  churches  of  a  city  before  undertaking 
a  revival,  and  their  active  co-operation 
during  the  campaign  period. 

Bevival  of  Leaminsr.     ^'^.^  ^^' 

EeVOlntion  (rev:«-Hi'sl>un),  the  more 
Mn/wvA,u.v«wu    Qj.   jggg    sudden,    and    it 

may  be  violent,  overturning  of  a  govern- 
ment or  political  syc^tem,  with  the  substi- 
tution of  something  else.  The  term  '  rev- 
olution '  is  applied  distinctively  in  Eng- 
lish history  to  the  convulsion  by  whidi 
James  II  was  driven  from  the  throne  in 
l^;  in  Aioeri^u^  history  to  the  war  ot 


independence  of  1775-83;  in  French  Us- 
tory  to  the  upheaval  of  1789;  and  in 
Chinese  history  to  the  overturning  of  ths 
fovernment  in  1911.  Subsequent  French 
revolutions  were  those  of  1830,  1848,  and 
1871. 

Bevolntionary  War.    %^lt^,f*'^ 

Revolver  (re-vol'v^r),  a  variety  of 
•^^  firearm  m  which  a  number 

of  charges  contained  in  a  revolvJ-s 
cylinder  are,  by  pulling  the  trigger, 
brought  successively  into  position  and 
fired  through  a  single  barrel.  For  the 
introduction  of  the  revolver  in  its  present 
form  we  are  indebted  to  Colonel  Samuel 
Colt,  of  the  United  States,  though  re- 
peating pistols  had  long  been  known  in 
other  countries.  These  were  made  from 
one  mass  of  metal  bored  into  the  requis- 
ite number  of  barrels,  but  were  so  clumsy 
as  to  be  almost  useless.  In  Colt's  weapon 
there  is  a  revolving  cylinder  containing 
six  chambers  placed  at  the  base  of  the 
barrel,  each  chamber  having  at  its  rear 
end  a  nipple  for  a  cap.  These  contain 
the  cartridges,  which  are  put  in  from  the 
front  of  the  breech-piece  and  driven  home 
by  a  lever  ramrod  placed  in  a  socket 
beneath  the  barrel.  The  revolver  i^  fired 
through  the  single  barrel,  the  cylinder 
being  turned  by  mechanism  connected 
with  the  lock,  until  each  chamber  in  suc- 
cession is  brought  round  so  as  to  form 
virtually  a  continuation  of  the  barrel. 
Various  modifications  of  Colt's  revolver 
have  been  introduced,  with  the  view  in 
some  cases  of  increasing  the  rapiditjr  and 
facility  of  firiug,  in  others  of  diminishing 
by  safeguards  the  risks  to  which  inex- 
perienced hands  must  ever  be  exposed  in 
the  use  of  these  weapons.  In  the  Smith 
and  Wesson  revolver,  one  of  the  most  re- 
cent (adopted  by  Austria  and  Russia), 
facility  in  loading  is  a  feature,  the  cylin- 
der and  barrel  together  being  pivoted  to 
the  front  of  the  stock,  so  that  by  setting 
the  hammer  at  bnlf-cock,  raising  a  spring- 
catch,  and  lowering  the  muzzle,  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cylinder  is  turned  up  to  receive 
fresh  metallic  cartridges.  When  this  is 
done  the  muzzle  is  pressed  back  until 
the  snap-catch  fastens  it  to  the  back  plate, 
and  the  revolver  is  again  ready  to  be 
fired.  In  the  latest  form  of  this  revolver 
the  spent  cartridges  are  thrown  out  of 
the  cylinder  jy  means  of  an  automatic 
discharger.  Several  other  forms  of  the 
revolver  are  in  use,  their  principal  fea- 
tures being  means  to  facilitate  loading 
and  firing.  The  revolver  principle  bai 
also  been  applied  to  rifles,  and  to  guns 
for  throwing  small  projectiles  as  in  the 
Gatliny  and  ct^t^^  ^^"o^in^  fuiM 


devolving  Furnace 


Bhabdomanoy 


Ecvolving  Furnace,  'uVa'SjurJ 

motion,  used  in  some  chemical  manufac- 
tures  of   malleable   iron.     The    revolving 
furnace  has  superseded  the  reverberatory 
furaace  in  many  processes.     ,.  ,^. 
EeVOlving  Light.    »««  Lighthouse. 

•O^rniL  (ra'wft),  a  native  state  in  Cen- 
***'**  tral  India,  more  or  less  r-ider 
British  control  since  1812.  Area,  nliout 
10,000  square  mile«:  pop.  (chiefly 
Hindus)  about  2,000.000.  The  state  is 
rich  in  minerals  and  forest  produce.—  1  he 
town  of  Rewa  lies  76  miles  B.  w.  of  Alla- 
habad; it  is  surrounded  by  three  ram- 
parts, the  innermost  of  which  encloses 
the  palace  of  the  maharaja.  Pop.  about 
25  OuO 

Eewk  Ktotha  <Jf °;*->j  Ug;«„t 

ordinate  to  the  government  of  Bombay. 
It  was  established  in  1821-26,  and  has 
under  its  control  61  separate  states,  great 
and  small,  on  the  Nerbudda,  most  of 
which  are  tributary  to  the  Gaekwar  of 
Baroda.  Area,  4792  square  miles;  pop. 
479.065.  ,     ,   .. 

npwari  (re-wars'),  a  tovyn  in  India, 
Aewan,  j^  Ourjraon  district,  Punjab, 
a  place  of  consideiable  commercial  im- 
portance, with  manufactures  of  brass  and 
pewter  vessels  and  fine  turbans,  and  a 
great  trade  in  Krajn.Pog.  27.295^ 

Eeyjkavik  ISKIiand.  pop.8ooo. 
Reynard  the  Fox.   seeBenord. 

ppvnnldfi    (ren'oldz).  John  Fulton, 
■n-eynoias  ^  goldler,  was  born  at  Lan- 
caster, Prut  ylvania,  in  18«);  was  gradu- 
ated from  .Vest  Foint  in  1841,  served  in 
he  Mexican  war,  and  in  1859  became  com- 
mandant at  West  Point.     He  entered  the 
Civil  war  in  1861  as  lieutenant  colonel  of 
volunteers,  was  soon  promoted  brigadier 
general,  and  major-general  in  1802,  suc- 
ceeding Hoolter  in  command  of  the  first 
army  corps.     He  commanded  in  the  farst 
day's  fight  at  Gettysburg,  July  1,  1863, 
and  was  liilled  on  the  field. 
QA^mAl/la     Sib  Joshua,  an  English 
IfceyUOiaB)  jportrait-painter,  was  born 
at  Plympton,  Devonshire,  July  10,  1723, 
and  was  educated  by  his  father,  a  clergy- 
man and  the  master  of  the  free  grammar 
school  oi  that  place.    He  studied  his  art 
for  two  years  under  Thomas  Hudson,  a 
Devonshire  man  then  popular  in  London 
as     a     portrait  -  painter.     Subsequently, 
through  the  kindness  of  Captain   (after- 
wards Admiral)   Keppel,  he  was  enabled 
A>  visit   Italy,   where  he   studied   three 
yeanu    Rttuming  to  London  in  IToo,  and 
finding  goietoaa  iMttrons  in  AtoivM  l^ep* 


pel  and  Lord  Edgcumbe,  his  studio  WM 
thronged  with  the  wealth  and  fashion  of 
the  metropolis,  and  the  most  famous  men 
and  the  fairest  women  of  the  time  were 
among  his  sitters,  so  that  he  rapidly  ac- 
quired opulence,  and  was  the  acknowl- 
edged head  of  his  profession.  Among  the 
more  notable  of  his  portraits  are  the 
Dueheaa  of  Hamilton  (1768),  the  Dukf 
of  Cumberland  (1759).  Mtti  Pal- 
mer (1770),  ilr».  Heibttt  a$  Ctrce 
(1781),  Mrs.  Siddont  at  the  Traqto 
Muse  (1784).  the  Duchess  of  Devonshtre 
and  Chad  (1780),  and  Af»»»  Owatktn  as 
Smplicity  (1788).  In  1708,  on  the 
foundation  of  the  Royal  Academy,  he  was 
chosen  president,  and  received  the  honor 
of  knighthood;  and  in  1784  he  was  ap- 
pointed principal  portrait-painter  to  the 
king.    As  president  of  the  Royal  Acad- 


Bix  Jothus  Reynolds. 


emy  he  delivered   his  celebrated  annual 
Discourses  on  Painting,  the  last  of  which 
was  delivered  in  1790.     He  was  the  inti- 
mate friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  Goldsmith, 
Garrick,  Burke,  and  other  literary  celeb- 
rities, with  whom  he  was  associated  in 
founding   the  'Literary   Club'  in    1764. 
His  portraits  are  distinguished  by  dignity 
and  grace,  and  above  all  by  a  peculiar 
power  of  color  which  he  had  caught  in 
Italy  from  the  great  Venetian  masters. 
Apart  from  portraiture  the  other  pictures 
which  may  be  mentioned  are  his  Death  of 
Cardinal  Beaufort,   Macbeth,  Puck,  and 
several    Eoltf    FamiUea    and    2V«»ct#»c»j 
He  died  unmarried  Feb.  23,  1792,  and 
was  interred  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

Bhabdomancy  ^^rX%Vo^:i 

rod,  and  numteia.  divination),  diidnatioa 
by  m^mif  ^  ^  «T$sin9-rod  (q.  v.  . 


Bheims 


! 


I 


Blwdunuitliiu  Ir'a^T'wSli: 

ogy,  a  MB  of  Zciu  and  Eoropa,  and 
brother  of  Minoo,  kins  o(  Crete,  whom  he 
•Mbted  In  his  ■overelmty,  •nd  whoee 
Jeaknwjr  he  arooaed  b/  hu  infleiible  iattg- 
rity,  which  earned  for  him  the  admira- 
tion of  the  Cretana  Rbadamanthus  then 
fled  to  BoBOtia,  where  he  married  Alcmene. 
Aftur  hie  dMth  be  became,  on  account  of 
his  sapreme  Justice,  one  of  the  three 
Judges  of  the  lower  world. 
1l.1i»4!ia  (rC'sbe-a),  a  province  of 
■MiniBWa  ^,  Roman  Empire,  which 
included  great  part  of  the  Alpine  regions 
between  the  valleys  of  the  Danube  and 
tba  Po,  and  corresponded  with  the  dis- 
tricts occupied  in  modem  times  by  the 
Austrlui  province  of  Tyrol  and  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Orisons.  The  Rbstians,  who 
are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  of 
Etruscan  origin,  were  subdued  by  Drusus 
and  Tiberius,  15  B.a,  and  shortly  after- 
wards Bhstia  was  incorporated  as  a  prov- 
ince in  the  Roman  Empire.  During  the 
last  days  of  the  Roman  Eimpire,  when 
the  baitarians  devastated  the  provinces, 
Rbetia  was  nearly  depopulated ;  and  after 
the  fail  of  tba  Roman  Empire  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Alemanni  and  SnevL 

Sbetian  Alps,  s-^ip* 


S.1l»tifi  Beds  (  r 6't Ik  ) ,  in  geology, 
AUBUO  J»eaB  ^^  uppermost  strata 
of  the  triassic,  or.  according  to  others, 
the  lowest  of  the  liaasic  croup ;  well  rep- 
resented in  England  and  Oermanv,  but  «_  u 
most  extensively  developed  in  the  RhBtian  PJieijng  or  Redcb  (r«ms ;  French 
■'  •                —^ **4»«-«.*i»«,    nnn.    rans),    a    town    of 


together,  and  dii,  a  song),  were  the  wan- 
dering minstrels  among  the  ancient 
Oreelis.  who  sang  poems  oi  Homer  (these 
were  also  called  Hometidm)  and  of  other 
poets.  After  he  poems  were  committed 
to  writing  thi  rhapfadists  lost  tlisir  im- 
portance. 

Eh6.  »••'«• 

TLhmtL  (re'a).  In  Orttk  mythology,  the 
•"^'*  daughter  of  Uranos  and  CM 
(Heaven  and  Earth),  sister  and  wife  of 
Cronos  (Saturn),  and  mother  of  Hestia 
(Veiita),  D«m«ter  (Ceres),  Hera  (Juno), 
Hades  (Pluto),  Poseidon  (Neptune), 
and  Zeus  (Jupiter).  She  was  the  sym- 
bol of  the  reproductive  power  of  nature 
and  received  the  appellation  of  '  Mother 
of  the  Gods,'  and  'Great  Mother,'  behig 
later  identified  with  Cybele. 
RheE.  "^^^  '*  ^"'"^  *"^  RtuMe  (which 

PliAO  the  generic  name  of  the  nandu, 
AUCtt)  or  South  American  ostrich,  a 
close  ally  to  the  true  ostrich,  differing 
chiefly  in  having  three-toed  feet  and  each 
toe  armed  with  a  claw.  The  best-known 
species  is  B.  Americana,  the  nanda,  or 
naiid«0«a^  of  the  Brazilians,  inhabit- 
ing the  great  South  American  pampas. 
It  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  true 
ostrich,  and  its  plumage  is  much  inferior. 
R.  DanoinU,  a  native  of  Patagonia,  is 
still  smaller.  A  third  species  Is  the  R. 
macrorhyncSa,  so-called  from  Its  long  bllL 
EhegiTim.     Ste  Reggie. 


I'  i 


Alps,  whence  their  name.    Thev  are  more 
highly  fossiliferous  than  any  of  the  other 
memDers  of  the  triassic  period. 
B^hftwiftgHTi.    Se«  Ramadan. 

D-liainiianii*    (ram-nft'se-e),   a  natn- 
JULamnaceflB    J^,  ^^^^^  ^f  exogenous 

plants,  consisting  of  trees  or  shrubs,  with 
simple,  alternate,  rarely  opposite  leaves, 
smiHl  greenish-yellow  flowers,  a  valvate 
calyx,  nooded  petals,  opposite  to  which 
their  stamens  are  inserted,  and  a  fruit 
which  Is  either  dry  or  fleshy.  This  order 
contains  about  250  known  species,  dis- 
tributed very  generally  over  the  globe. 
There  is  a  remarkable  agreement  through- 
out the  order  between  the  properties  of 
the  Inner  harit  and  the  trult,  especiallv 
in  seveiml  species  of  Rhamnut,  in  which 
they  are  both  purgative  and  emetic,  and 
in  some  degree  astringent  Many  species, 
however,  bear  wholesome  fruit;  and  the 
berries  of  most  of  them  are  used  for  dyes. 
(See  Hrenek  Berriet.)  The  bncktbom 
aad  jnjabe  belong  to  this  order. 


jfrance,  in  the  department  of  Mame.  in 
an  extensive  basin  surrounded  by  vine- 
clad  hills.  82  miles  B.  N.  s.  of  Paria  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  cathedral, 
erected  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  struc- 
tures now  existing  in  Europe,  specially 
remarkable  for  its  western  facade  with 
three  portals,  rose-window,  and  numerous 
statues;  the  archiepiscopal  palace  (1^8- 
1509),  occupied  by  the  French  kings  on 
the  occasion  of  their  coronation;  the 
church  of  St.  Remy  (eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries),  the  oldest  church  in 
Rheims,  partly  Romanesque,  partly 
Gothic;  the  Porte  de  Mars,  a  Roman 
triumphal  arch  erected  In  honor  r>f  Julius 
Cesar  and  Augustus;  the  town-hou'«e.  of 
the  seventeenth  century:  and  several  an- 
cient mansions,  particularlv  the  hotel  of 
the  counts  of  Champagne,  furnishing  fine 
specimens  of  picturesque  street  architec- 
ture. The  staple  Industriss  are  the  manu- 
facture of  tho  wine  known  as  diampagaa, 
and  of  woolen  fabrics,  sn^  a*  flaantla, 
aerioot,  blankets,  etc    Ehtiwi  was  $m 


BheiAgan 


wportant  pl*c«  In  the  umt  of  0«Mr,  thj 
SplUl  o£  tht  Btml.  and  •ubMQumtly  of 
BSflc  OauL     H«re  8tR*my  converted 
Kr  baptlted  Clovl*  and  almoet  all  the 
l^kiA  chief.  In  498.^  It  waa  made  the 
Lat  of  an  archbtabop  in  tha  eighth  cen- 
^;.  and  from  the  time  of  Philip  Augu^ 
IS"ill79)  to  that  of  Charle.  X  the  kW 
6f   France   were   crowned   here,     it   naa 
♦offered  much  from  war.  and  waa  at  one 
time  in  possession  of  the  Engliah.  who 
w",^  expelled  by  tlje  Ma  d  of  Drlean.    n 
1429      It   wBB  held   by    the  Germana  in 
1870-71.     During   the   Buioiifan   *»'  .»^ 
woH  bombarded  aicain  ami  aB«»°  *>y  ^Ij; 
(!..rman8,  and,  wh«  the  targi^t  /or  jnany 
amal  raid*,  the  jfroater  part  of  the  city 
being    reduced    lo    ashes.      The    fainous 
cathedral    suffered    irreparable    damage, 
■  iine«l  and  the  roof  and 


the  interior  was  niine«l  «.."  .^"- -j-- 

many  of  the  beautiful  windows  were  de- 
Htroyed.    Population  in  1011.  115,178. 

Ehenish  Prussia  i'-^J.  ''SaV^ 

prwim),  the  most  westerly  province  of 
tnissia,  touching  w    and  N.  Luxembtirg. 
Belgium,     and     Holland;     area,     10,420 
square  miles;  greatest  length  from  N.  to 
s;  about  200  miles,  greatest  breadth  about 
90.     In  the  aouth  It  is  ^illy.bcmg  tra- 
versed by  the  ranges  of  the  Eiffel,  Hoch- 
wald,  etc.     It  is  watered  by  the  Rhine, 
the  Vfoselle.   and  some  fOuents  of  the 
Meuse.     A   large  proportion   of  the  sur- 
fa«Ts  in  forest     feesVdes  the  usual  cereal 
crops,  tobacco,  hops,  Aax,nm,  fcf"P^*°a 
beet-root  are  raised;  fruit  culture  and  the 
vine  culture  are  also  carefully  attended 
to.    Cattle  are  extensively  reared.     It  ta 
the  most  important  mineral  district   m 
Germany,  abotinding  in  coal,  iron,  lead, 
Bine,  etc.     It  is  likewise  an  active  manu- 
facturing district,  there  being  numerous 
ironworks  and  machine-shopa,  textile  fac- 
torie?,  breweries,  distilleries,  etc.     It  is 
divided  into  the  five  governments  or  dis- 
tricts    of     Coblenta,     Treves,     Cologne, 
Aachen    (Aix-U-Chapelle),    and    D^el- 
dorf.    The  city  of  Coblenti  is  the  official 
capital  of  the  province,  but  Cologne  is 
the    town    of    most    importance.        lop. 
6,759,798,    the    majority    of    whom    are 
Roman  Catholics.  ,  ,    -    , 

Khcnisli  Wines,  STtioT'T^r'^S 

wines  produced  in  the  region  watered  by 
the  Rhine,  and  specifically  for  those  of  the 
Rheingau,  the  white  wines  of  which  are 
the  finest  in  the  world.  The  red  wines 
are  not  so  much  esteemed,  being  consid- 
ered inferior  to  those  of  Bordeaux.  Good 
wines  are  also  prodoeed  in  the  valleys  oC 
the  Neckar.  If  oaelle,  and  other  tribntariea 
of  the  Rhine.  The  vineyarda  are  mainly 
between  Mannheim  and  Boon,  and  tha 


moat  valuable  brands  ?i/^^**^'*JSST 
S    Johanniabtrf,    Btelnberg,    Bochh^ 

slstancea.  invented  by  SirlCharlea  Wheat- 
stoned  The  rheostat  is  very  convenient 
for  measuring  small  «w^«*»«*;.S"*  f" 
practical  purpoaes.  ""c^^  M, "•^'i?t'. 
the  resistance  of  telegraph  <»o'«^,'*p«fl 
stone's  bridge  (an  «?!»•«*"  °'^JiSJ 
there  are  several  forma)  is  always  nsed. 

EliesTis  Monkey  ffi^iT^'sAri-o? 

monkeys,  the  brush  or  pig-taited  monkw 

tlie  Malay  Peninsu  a  and  «»•  J*™^ 
the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  «•  often  do- 
mesticated; and  the  MacaMW  »*«•«*.  • 
species  of  monkey  held  "cred  in  India, 
where  they  awarm  in  large  numbers  about 

P^1>SS    ("t'o.rlk).  In  It.  wld«t 
AnetOnC    ^^^^  „»y  be  regarded  aa 
the  theory  of  eloqnence,  whether  wkro 
or  written,  and  treats  of  the  «en«al  rnl« 
of  prose  style,  in  view  of  the  end  to  be 
served  by  the  composition.     In  a  narrower 
MMe  rhetoric  i.  the  art  of   persuashre 
soaking,  or  the  art  of  the  orator,  which 
Ki?*ihe  composition  and  ^delivery  of 
discourses  intended  to  move  the  feellMS 
or  sway  the  will  of  others.    In  the  wider 
sense  rhetoric  treata  of  proae  compo^Im 
in  general,  purity  of  style,  •tn>ctore  of 
sentences,  figures  of  speech,  etc.;  in  short, 
of  whatever  relates  to  clearness,  preclse- 
ness,  elegance,  and  strength  of  expression. 
In  the  narrower  sense  it  treats  of  the  in- 
vention and  disposition  of  the  matter,  the 
character  of   the  style,   the   delivery  or 
pronunciation,  etc.    Aristotle,  Cicero,  and 
Quintilian  are  the  principal  writers  on 
rhetoric  among  the  ancients.    Those  of 
modem  times  are  numeroua. 
i>i..««io4-iam  (rO'mi-tiam)   is  a  sya- 
BJLenmatUm  \e„ic  disease  that  «^ 

fects  the  muscles,  Joints,  and  heart.     It 
occurs  in  acute,  chronic,  aud  muscular 
forms.     The  acute  form  is  characterued 
by    heat,   inflammation,   serous   effusion, 
and  ezcruciatinc  pain  in  the  joints,  in- 
creased by  movemenrt;  fever,  profuse  acid 
sweats,  great  thirst,  constipation,  redUMi 
of  the  skitt  over  the  joints,  and  a  «>wft 
tion  of  the  skin  akin  to  pnckly  heat.    It 
suddenly  ceasea  in  some  joints  and  Im- 
mediately begina  in  others.    It  lasU  ham 
two  to  aix  weeks  or  even  longer,     am 
chronic  f<wm  is  marked  by  pain  and  atiff; 
neaa  in  the  jointa  or  musdes,  afgwvate^ 
by    stormy    weather.      It    may    become 
acute    on    Aght    provocatioio.      UBuaa 


Bb«7dt 


Bliiiit 


tiwroufhljr  cimdicated  it  may  Mrioualjr 
impair  th«  Joiata.  The  muacular  torm 
may  kffeot  almoat  any  of  the  moaclea. 
That  ot  the  moaclea  of  the  back,  lumbago, 
ia  a  well-knowa  and  frequent  conditiun. 
Uheomatiain  ia  caused  oy  chilling  of  the 
body  by  a  cold  and  moist  atmosphere, 
especially  when  following  in  succession 
to  a  warm  one,  such  as  occurs  in  spring  or 
autumn,  though  it  may  occur  at  any  sea- 
son  of  the  year.  Acute  cases  or  those  of 
long  duration  may  ave  involvement  of 
the  heart  as  a  consequence.  A  large  per- 
centage of  heart  diseases  are  ciused  by 
rheumatism,  which  ought  never  to  be 
neglected.  There  seems  to  be  a  relation 
among  rheumatism,  St.  Vitus'  dnuce  and 
tonsiUtis.  It  is  treated  by  rest  in  bed, 
heat,  use  of  woolen  bedclothes  and  cloth- 
ing (to  avoid  chilling  by  linen  and 
cotton),  alkaline  drinks  and  appropriate 
medication  adapted  to  the  particular 
case.  Advertised  rheumatic  remedies  are 
dangerous,  as  each  case  must  be  treated 
on  its  merits.  After  the  subsidence  of  the 
acute  condition,  massage  and  passive  and 
active  movements,  judiciously  attempted, 
accelerate  recovery. 

Rhevdt  i"^')'  *  to^'™  o'  Rhenish 
Aueyai.    Pr^„i^     „„    ^^e    Nlers.    14 

miles  w.  of  DUsscldorf,  has  manufactures 
of  cotton,  silk,  woolen,  and  mixed  fabrics. 
Rheydt  is  an  ancient  place,  which  has 
risen  to  industrial  importance  during  the 
last  century.  Top.  (1910)  43,780. 
"KhivtLH  (re'gaa),  Constantho:,  a 
AJU^IM    ^^^^   pj^j     j^g   Tyrtffius   of 

modern  Greece,  the  first  mover  of  the 
war  for  Grecian  Independence,  was  born 
about  1753.  He  formed  the  bold  plan  of 
freeing  Greece  from  the  Porte  by  means 
of  a  great  secret  association,  and  com- 
IH>sed  in  his  native  language  a  number  of 
patriotic  songs,  calculated  to  inflame  the 
imaKlnation  of  the  Greek  youth  and  to 
embitter  them  against  the  Mussulmans. 
He  was  arrested  and  put  to  death  by  the 
Turkish  authorities  at  Belgrade  in  May, 
1798.  During  the  Greek  war  of  inde- 
pendence, his  songs  were  in  the  mouth 
of  every  one. 

•Rliin  (r«n),  Bab-  and  Haut-,  that  is 
Lower  and  Upper  Rhine,  former 
departments  of  France,  on  the  west  of 
the  Rhine,  now  forming  part  of  the  Ger- 
man territory  of  Alsace-f-orraine. 
EhinanthnS  (jJ-nan'thus),  a  genua 
"  of  annual  herbs,   natu- 

ral order  scrophulariacese,  with  opposite, 
serrate  leaves  and  nodding  spikes  of  yel- 
low flowers.  The  species  are  parasitic 
on  the  roots  of  plants.  Two  of  them 
grow  in  pastures  in  the  United  States, 
and  are  known  as  vettow  rattle. 


Wisconsin,  65  miles  n.  c  of  Waoaau. 
Its  hadustrles  include  refrigerators,  paper, 
beer,  and  lumber.     Pop.  6637. 
1l.1iin«    (jlD**  German,  Rhein;  Dutch, 

many,  and  one  of  the  most  Important 
rivers  of  Europe,  Its  direct  course  being 
4(S0  miles  and  lu  Indirect  course  800  miles 
(about  250  miles  of  Its  course  being  In 
Switzerland,  450  in  Germany,  and  lOiO  in 
Holland)  ;  while  the  area  of  Its  basin  is 
75,000  square  miles.  It  Is  formed  In  the 
Swiss  canton  Grisons  by  two  main 
streams  called  the  Vorder  and  Hinter 
Rhein.  The  Vorder  RheIn  rises  In 
the  Lake  of  Toma,  on  the  8.  K. 
slope  of  the  St.  Gothard,  at  a  height 
of  7090  feet  above  the  sea,  near  the  source 
of  the  Rhone,  and  at  Reichenau  unites 
with  the  Hinter  Rhein,  which  issues 
from  the  Rheinwald  Glacier,  7270  feet 
above  sea-level.  Beyond  Reichenau, 
which  Is  7  miles  west  of  Coire,  the  united 
streams  take  the  common  name  of  Rhine. 
From  Coire  the  Rhine  flows  north 
through  the  Lake  of  Constance  to  the 
town  of  that  name,  between  which  and 
Bftle  it  flows  west,  forming  the  boundary 
between  Switzerland  and  Germany.  At 
Bftte  it  turns  once  more  to  the  north  and 
enters  Germany ;  and,  generally  speaking, 
it  pursues  a  northerly  course  until  It  en- 
ters Holland,  below  Emmerich,  when  it 
divides  Into  a  number  of  separate 
branches,  forming  a  great  delta,  diked  on 
both  sides,  and  falling  into  the  sea  by 
many  mouths,  through  sluice  gates.  The 
chief  of  these  branches  are  the  Waal  and 
Lek,  which  unite  with  the  Maas;  the 
Yssel  and  Vecht,  which  diverge  to  the  Zuy- 
der  Zee;  and  that  which  retains  the 
name  of  Rhine,  a  small  stream  that  passes 
Leyden  and  enters  the  North  Sea.  In 
the  German  part  of  its  course  the  chief 
tributaries  it  receives  on  the  left  are  the 
111,  Nahe,  Moselle  (with  the  Saar),  Ahr, 
and  Erft;  and  on  the  right  the  Neckar, 
Main,  Lahn,  Sieg,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe.  In 
Switzerland  its  tributaries  are  short  and 
unimportant,  and  this  part  of  its  course 
is  marked  by  the  Falls  of  the  Rhine  at 
SchafHiausen,  where  the  river  is  precipi- 
tated in  three  leaps  over  a  ledge  of  rocks 
48  to  60  feet  in  height,  and  by  the  cata- 
racts of  Lauterberg  and  the  rapids  of 
Rhelnfelden.  The  chief  towns  on  Its 
banks  are  Constance  and  Bale  In  Swlt- 
lerland;  Spires,  Mannheim,  Mainz,  Co- 
blenta^^Bonn,  Cologne,  and  DUsseldorf, 
with  Worms  and  Strasburg  not  far  dis- 
tant, in  Germany ;  Arnheim,  Utrecht,  and 
Leyden,  in  Holland,    Ita  breadth  at  Bftia 


Bliine 


Bliinooerot 


!■  760  feet ;  b«twc«n  Btraibari  and  SpirM 
froiriOOO  to  1200  fe«t:  attaint  1000 
to  1700  feet;  ud  at  Emmericb,  where  it 
enten   the   Netherlanda,   2160   feet.     Ita 
depth  varies  from  5  to  28  feet,  ond  at 
DUueldorf  amounta  even  to  CO  feet.     It 
abounds  with  tiah,  eape- lally  pike,  carp, 
and  other  white  flab,  but  the  produce  of 
ita  aalmon  flaheriea  have  been  aerioualy 
interfered  with  aince  the  introduction  of 
ateam    vensela.     It   ia   navigable   wltliout 
interruption  from  Bftle  to  ita  mouth,  a 
diatance  of  550  miles,  and  much  timber  in 
rafts,   coal,    iron,   and    agricultural   pro- 
duce are  conveyed  by  it   Xarge  anma  are 
apent  every  year  in  lieeplng  the  channel 
in  order  and  in  the  erection  or  repair  of 
river  harbors,  both  in  Germany  and  Hol- 
land.   The  shipping  has  greatly  Increased 
aince  the  introduction  of  ateam  vemela, 
which  also  ply  on  the  Main,  the  N«H'ltar, 
the  Maaa,  and  the  Moaelle.     The  Rhine 
anciently   formed   the   boundary   between 
the    Roman    Empire    and    the    Teutonic 
hordes.    After  the   partition   of   the  do- 
mains of  CharlemBjne  in  843  it  lay  within 
the  German  Empire  for  nearly  800  yeara. 
France  long  caat  eovetous  eyes  upon  the 
Rhine,  and  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  in 
1648  gave   her  a   footing  upon    the   left 
bank.    In  1801  the  whole  of  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  waa  formally  ceded  to  France. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815  restored 
part  of  the  Rhenish  valley  to  Germany, 
and  the  cession  by  France  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  after  the  war  of  1870-71  made 
the     Rhine     once     more     German.    The 
Rhine  is  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of 
its  scenery,  which  attracts  many  tourists. 
For  a  large  part  of  its  course  it  has  hills 
on  both  sides  at  less  or  greater  distances. 
Pleasant  towns  and  villages  lie  nestled  at 
the  foot;  above  them   rise  rocky  steeps 
and  slopes  clothed  at  one  time  with  vines, 
at  others  with  natural  wood,  and  every 
now  and  then  the  castles  and  fastnesses 
of  feudal  times  are  seen  frowning  from 
precipices    apparently    inaccessible.    The 
finest  part  for  scenery  is  between  Bingen 
and   Bonn;    after   entering   Holland   the 
views  are  generally  tame  and  uninterest- 
ing on  accoimt  of  the  lack  of  elevation  in 
the  bordering  country. 

THiiviA      COWFEDEBATION  OF.       See  COH- 

J&nine,    federation  of  the  Rhine. 

Ehinc  Province,  sg^  «»«»^*  i*n«- 
Ehine  Wine.  ^  **«**•*  ^*"*'- 

DTiinnliatiilcp  (  rl  -  no-bat'i-d6  ) ,  the 
JtninODaTKUe  ii^rk.ra,g    or.   beaked 

rays,  a  family  of  fishes,  of  which  the  saw- 
fish is  the  moat  remarkable  member, 
gen  BawMk. 


ttnlnOOerOI    ^(  y^^^ttd  mammals,  ba- 
it uging  to  the  per issodacty late  or  odd-toed 
division,    allied    to   the   elephant,    hippo- 
potamus, Uplr,  etc.    They  are  large,  un- 
gainly nnimiils,  having  short  legs    and  a 
very  thick  Rkin,  which  is  usuail*  thrown 
into  deep  fold*.     There  are  seven  molars 
on  each  side  of  each  jaw;  there  are  no 
canines,    but    there    are    usually    incisor 
teeth   in  both  Jaws.    The  feet  are  fur- 
nished  with  three  toes  each,  encased  In 
hoofs.    The  nasal  bones  usually  support 
one  or  two  horns,  which  are  of  the  na- 
ture   of    epidermic    growths,    somewhat 
analogous  to  hairs.    These  animals   live 
in  marshy  plsfes,  and  subsist  chiefly  on 
grasses    and    foliage.     They    are    exclu- 
sively confined   to  the  warmer  parts  of 
the   eastern    hemisphere.     The   most    fa- 
miliar species  is  the  one-homed  or  Indian 
rhinoceros    (Rhinoceroa   vnicornit  or   in- 
dicut),  which,  like  all  the  Asiatic  spwiea, 
has   the   skin    thrown    into   very   definite 
folds,  corresponding  to  the  regions  of  the 


Indian  Rhinoesroa  (Khinoetro*  indteiu). 

body.    The   horn   is   black,   and   usually 
very  thick.    The  upper  lip  is  very  large, 
and  is  employed  by  the  animal  somewhat 
as  the  elephant  uses  his  trunk.    Though 
possessed  of  great  strength,  it  is  quiet  and 
moffensive   unless  provoked.    The   Java- 
nese  rhinoceros    (ft.   tondaicua)    is   dis- 
tinguished from  the  Indian  chiefly  by  its 
smaller  size.     It  has  been  trained  to  bear 
a  saddle  and  to  be  driven.     It  occurs  in 
Java,    Sumatra,   and    Borneo.    The    8u- 
matran  species  (ft.  $umatren»t»)  is  found 
in   Sumatra   and   the   Malay   Peninsula. 
It  has  two  horns,  the  foremost  beinK  the 
longer  and  sharper.    The  typical  African 
rhinoceros    (B.    bicorntM),    is    found    In 
Southern    Africa   generally.    Like   otMr 
African  species,  it  possesses  no  skin-lolda 
The  horns  are  of  very  characteristic  con- 
formation,  the   front   horn   being   bro^ 
and  raised  as  on  a  base,  sharp-polntecl, 
and    curved    slightly    backwards,    while 
the   binder   bom   ia   abort  and   conic^' 


IhSBPOtm-Uzd 


BUwp«&l 


Tkis  aalBMil  fai  ot  fcraclotta  dlBpositim, 
is  oviek  and  sctlT*,  «iid  l^t'/  (w«l  l>7 

•rt   tiM    ktitiM    or   BkMn'i   rhlBocOTW 
{R.  XcUfM).  the  wblt*  rhinoMKM,  (^ 


town,  ud  toflM  «  wpMloOT  baton 
whoro  largo  vomoIs  tod  onchonf^  wr* 
rioo  on  a  couidcnblo  tnd«.     It  it  tbo 


or  CtnMherium  Bimmt),  ood  tbo  JTo 
ol«  or  lonrbomod,  wblto  rhinoceros  fit. 
or  C.  OmmU).    The  kdtlos  c«n  r^dlljr 
bo  roeogniaod  by  tbo  bonw.  wblch  aro  of 
eowddorablo  Iraicth.  and  unarly  Kiual  to 
osdi  otber  in  moaaurraient.    Thiii  la  ai* 
wan  a  morooo  and  ill-tempered  animal, 
ana  on  account  of  its  siie,  atrengtb,  and 
laagth  of  bom  is  a  dangeroua  opponent. 
Tbo  common  "bite  rbinoeeron  is  larcer 
than  tbe  keitloa,  bat  ita  temper  ia  remark- 
ably oniet,  and  it  ia  devoid  o*  tbo  reatleos 
IrrttaMUty  and  aodden  rage  that  charac- 
terlaes  tbe  kdtk>a.     Tbe  foremoat  bora 
of  this   animal   ia   of  very  conaideraWe 
Icngtb:    tbe  aeeond   horn   ia   ahort   and 
oonieal.    The  kobaoba  mokea  ita  home  far 
in  tbo  interior  of  tbe  continent.    The  long 
bora  of  this  animal  ia  over  four  feet  In 
length  and  is  uaed  by  the  Kaffira  to  make 
'  knobberries '     or     knob-hcnded     atlcka, 
which  tb-y  employ  ;  s  dube  to  be  uaed  In 
hand-to-bud  encountera  or  to  be  thrown 
at  an  anUgonist  after  the  manner  of  a 
hand  grenade.    FossU  spedea  are  numejv 
oM.  tind  range  from  the  Miocene  tertiary 
Smogh   tbe   PUocene  and   PostpUoeme 
depodts.      B.    IfcJkoHkfcMM,    the    "wooUj 
^i^ras,'   formeriy  inhabit^   England 
and  ranged  over  a  great  part  of  Europe. 

Ehinoceros-bird,  ^^^°^. 
BhinolopUcUe  /,S.iy°"Si' '^tic'tiv^ 

oroua  bate,  including  tbe  greater  and 
hjaaer  boraeahoe  bata.    See  Bat. 

Ehinoplastio      Operation 

(rm-n-plaa'tik),  the  aurgioal  operation 
^  reatoring  the  noae  when  partly 
lost     by     diaease     or     injury      (early 

gracticed  in  India  by  the  Brabmana), 
y  means  of  a  triangular  piece  of  akin 
cut  from  the  forehead,  and  drawn  down 
to  its  new  position  while  atUl  attached 
to  ths  face  by  the  lower  angle.  A  piece 
9t  skin  belonging  to  the  arm  baa  been 
employed  fot  the  same  purpose,  and  the 
extreme  Joint  of  a  finger  baa  been  uaed 
to  support  such  an  artificial  nose,  it  is 
popularly  known  aa  tbe  Taliacottttn  oper- 
atioH,  fnnn  the  name  of  tbo  lulian  Bur- 
geon who  iu  the  sixteenth  century  Dtsc 
mads  it  public.         ,.     ,.  .  u_ 

"RIiIa  ot  RIO0W  (ri-ou').  a  seaport  be- 
JIUUO)  longhig  to  the  Dutch,  in  tbe  In- 
dian Archipelago,  on  an  ialet  50  miles 
aootbsast  of  Singapore.  It  oonsists  of  a 
Soropeaa  town,  and  a  Chinese  or  native 


capiUi  of  a  Dutch  residency,  coir  rialng 
ths  islands  of  the  Rbio  Arcbtpela.o  and 
other  groups  ss  well  as  dlBtricta  on  the 
east  coast  of  Sunutra.  The  populatlM 
of  the  residency  ia  estimated  at  90,00a 
The  Rblo  Arcbipelago  is  a  group  of 
amall  iaianda  lying  chiefly  aouth  and  eaat 
of  Singapore.    Chief  iaiand  BlnUng. 


able  group  of  plants,  considered  by 
Lindley  aa  forming  a  separate  claas, 
which  he  places  in  a  position  Interme- 
diate between  the  Thallogens  and  tbe 
Endogena.  It  conalata  of  planta  deatltute 
of  true  leavea,  but  with  short,, amorphous 
atema  paraait*cal  on  rooto,  and  ia  divided 
by  Undley  Into  the  three  ordera,  Balano- 
phoraoen,  Cytinacec,  and  Rafflealacete. 
Br  othet  botanlata  tbeae  ordera  aro  placed 
widely  apart.  ^    .       .^    »..     .  v     ..u 

EhizolK)laoe«(„'i-:^-Sl-*Sir  *i? 

planta,  of  which  only  a  few  species  sre 
known,  conaiating  of  largo  exogenous 
trees  growing  in  the  forests  of  South 
America.  One  of  them  ,  (Csrifoeor 
butyrCtum),  a  gigantic  tree  of  .Dsmerara. 
yields  tbe  auwarro,  or  souarl  nut,  the 
kernel  of  which  ia  esteemed  as  ths  mosl 
agreeable  of  the  nut  kind.  Ths  timber  n 
uaed  in  shipbuilding.  ^.    ,     .     .   ^ 

Bhizomania  ^^J^^^'^S^^  ^ 

velopment  of  aomeplants,  as  tbe  vino  and 
laurel,  by  which  they  throw  out  adventi- 
tious loota,  indicating  that  there  is  some- 
thing wrong  with  tbe  pn^ier  root 
HViiKAmA  ( n'som),  or  BooT-nooK, 
AniZOme  \^  botany,  a  sort  of  stem 
running  along  the  surface  of  tbe  groond, 
or  partially  subterranean,  suiding  forth 
shoots  at  ita  upper  end  and  decaying  at 
the  other.  It  occurs  in  the  ferns.  Iris, 
etc.;  and  in  the  feras  it  may  be  wholly 
covered  with  the  aoil. 

Ehizophaga  <aVe™?S^e*&'\Lo'S: 

tions  of  the  Jfortspislio  (ifhich  see). 
Dlii^Anlinm   (  rl-ioru-ra  ),  the  man- 
AAlZOpJlOra  ^„y^   g^as  of  plants. 

See  Mtngrove.  .    ^  »     ^.      , 

IMiiKAnoflfl.  (rl-sop'o-da).  the  lowest 
iUlUOpoaa  ^ja,,  of  the  ProtoBoa, 
comprehending  animals  which  are  desti- 
tute of  a  mouth,  are  si_»-le  or  cotnponnd, 
and  possess  the  power  of  emitting 
paeodopodla.  They  are  mostiy  minute, 
frequently  microscopical,  but  some  (ouch 
as  the  bpongea)  attain  considerable  size. 
Stroctarally  the  rhiso«s*i  consist  sC  a 
mass  of  Barcode,  are  destltnts  of  organs 


Shod*  Idud 


ShodM 


north 


f»  rfiM.ttMi.  ate    Vh»  eluractartaUe  tnm  Ibt  fix  Ntw  ■ulaBd  itaM^  tad  ***^ 

fj^m  th*' Biiv    thf  Pawtuxet  and  Paw-   the  mlntotry   in   1^  ••>?«X'ft,  >"*5»^ 
I^fc.t    L    BUckStone    Rivew,    are    the  tniniater  of  Cape  Colony  18B(V«6,  when 
iSS^  ^t  \,^^^^n  oowetdeYeloomtnt  be  migned  on  account  of  charge,  of  Ua 
SKalntalTtregreaTtMtiir^^         connection   with   the   Jameaon   raid.     In 
Mtli  alona  Ve  bank"    The  climate  ia  1888  he  procured  a  charter  for  the  Brlt- 
mild  aSd  Mua^le  ind  well  adapted,  from  Uh  Sooth  Africa  Company,  conducted  a 
ui  DlSraXumme™  and  tempSrati  win-  war  with  tlie  Mtiwa  in  bjchuanatand 
tlr«f  fSf  tavalWa^  from  the  abuth.     The  In  1898,  and  In  1896  put  down  a  tw- 
SSd?al    mtoeSa    iSduatry    conaUita    of  midable    riring   of    Jhe    MaUa)etaj.    Hto 
iranite    whidi   ia  mined  extenaively  at  aerricee  In  aecnring  thia  reaioo  for  Grejt 
lESterW       Oririnidly     an    agricultural  Britain  were  acknowledged  by  Ita  being 
St? tte  growtffof  the  ciSea  lia.  created  named  Rhodeda.  ^He  waa  fa»  Kimberto^ 
Kiy  atoSdSned  farma.   .nt  the  increaae  during  ita  aiege  by  the  Boeni  in  1«J, 
^foreign  population  ha^  cauaed  many  of  thej  being  eager  to  capture  him,  a«  they 
tSeae  fanna  to  be  cultivated  anew  and  held  himlargely  reaponalble  for  the  war. 
Stenaive  fruit  orcharda  planted.    Aquid-  An   ambitioua  project   of   hia   wae   the 
I«k.  or  the  laland  of  Rhode  laland,  haa  building  of  a  railway  from  the  Cape  to 
M^fientwil  and  haa  developed  fanna  of  Cairo,   traveralng   the   entire   lengtli   of 
meat   wealth.     Manufacturea   form   the  Africa.    Thia  project  haa  been  in  part 
StaDle  indaiSry;   they  conaiat  of  cotton,  accompUahed.   ^e  died  March  26,  1902, 
^len,  woS   wd  mixed  texUlea.  Jew-  eatablfihln,  by  hta  will  Rhodea  Schok^ 
clw  and  foundry  and  machlne-ahop  prod-  ahlpa  inlfcfotd  Univeraity  for  ■tudentt 
S^lvemare,  rubber  and  elaatlc  woda.  fn^  the  Britlah  colonlea  and  the  United 
The  higher  education  la  provided  for  by  Statee,  alao  from  Germany.     ,     .       ,. 
Brown  Univeraity  at  Providence,  ©ge  of  SllodM   tE'*^*^',,  •"  u  ^''^-  S  nS!t 
the  oldest  collegea  in  the  country.    There  ■»BOa«»   ^Bgean  Sea,  belonging  to  Tu^ 
ia  a  atate  college  at  Kingrton  and  a  atete  kev,   off   the   ■oothweat   coaat   of   Aai* 
normal  adiool  at  Providence.    The  chief  Mbior,  from  which  It  la  •eP«'»t«' P'  * 
dtiea  are  Providence,  Pawtndrat.  Wo«m-  channel   10  mlka  bwyd;  area,  *24  aq. 
locket.  and  Newport,  the  firat  three  nana-  milea.    It  ia  traveraed  north  and  aoutu 
tcturing  dtiea.    Rhode  laland  ia  ona  of  by    an    tteffttad    moontain    range,    tha 


Bhodesia 


Ehdne 


hishest  point  of  which,  Atairo,  reacbM 
a  height  of  4560  feet.  Great  part  of 
the  teat  of  the  iaiand  is  occupied  by  hills 
of  more  moderate  elevation,  which  are 
covered  with  woods  of  ancient  pinea. 
The  climate  is  delightful,  and  the  soil 
fertile,    producing    grain,     grapes,    figs, 

Simegranates,  oranges,  etc.  Steam  nuv- 
ation  direct  to  the  island  has  been 
established,  and  commerce  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing. Pop.  est.  30,000  to  35,000,  of 
whom  two-thirds  are  Greeks,  the  re- 
mainder Turks  and  Jews.  Rhodes  was  a 
celebrated  island  in  antiquity.  It  was 
settled  by  Dorians  from  Greece,  and  the 
Rhodians  soon  became  an  important 
maritime  people,  and  for  several  cen- 
turies the  island  was  a  great  seat  of 
literature,  art,  and  commerce.  In  A.i>. 
44  it  was  made  part  of  the  Roman 
province  6f  Asia.     It  is  famous  for  its 

Srolonged  defense  by  the  Knights  of  St. 
ohn  from  1309  till  1522,  when  they 
were  forced  to  abandon  the  island  to  the 
Turks,  with  whom  it  has  remained  ever 
since. —  Rhodes,  the  capital,  stands  at 
the  Dortheastera  extremity  of  the  island, 
rising  from  the  sea  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheater,  with  fortifications  mainly 
ttM  work  of  the  Knights  of  St  John. 
There  are  few  remains  of  the  ancient 
dtr.  which  was  founded  by  the  Dorians 
40»  B.a,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
splendid  of  ancient  Greek  cities.  The 
celebrated  Colossus  of  Rhodes  stood  for 
fifty-six  years,  and  was  prostrated  by  an 
earthquake  224  B.O.  (See  Colot«u$.) 
Pop.  about  10,000. 

Eliodesia    ffif  k?iw\t1S  by' 

the  British  in  1889  and  so-called  from 
Cecil  Rhodes  (a.  v.),  who  was  chairman 
of  the  British  South  Africa  Company. 
The  country  is  administered  by  this  com- 
pany. It  is  divided  by  the  Zambesi  into 
two  sections:  (1)  Northern  Rhodesia; 
area  about  201,000  square  miles;  native 
population,  875,000;  white  population, 
1600;  the  industries  are  maize,  cotton, 
rubber,  tobacco,  zinc,  gold,  copper,  lead 
and  coal;  (2)  Southern  Rhodesta,  which 
consists  of  two  provinces,  Mashonaland 
and  Matabeleland ;  area,  149,000  square 
miles;  native  population,  745,0005  white 
population,  25,000;  the  industries  are 
goM,  coal,  copper,  silver,  com,  tobacco. 
The  chief  towns  in  Southern  Rhodesia  are 
Bnluwayo,  Salisbury  and  Hartley.  There 
have  been  several  uprisings  of  the  native 
Matabele,  but  since  18ft7  the  country  has 
for  the  most  part  enjoved  peace.  The 
Cape-to-Cairo  railroad,  built  north  from 
Bmawayo,  was  continued  to  the  border  of 
tbt  Bdgian  Congo  in  1909. 


Bhodinm    (••O'.'li-um),   a   metal  be- 
^     *^    longing    to    the    platinum 

froup,  discovered  by  Wollaston  in  1804. 
t  is  of  grayish-white  color,  very  ductile 
and  malleable,  hard  and  very  Infusible, 
unaltered  in  the  air  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, but  oxidizes  at  a  red  heat.  It  has 
been  used  for  the  points  of  metallic  pens. 

EhodiumOil,   o"u5gK',^fe 

nary  Island  rosewood,  the  woody  root  of 
Convolvulua  aeoparius  and  fioridua.  It 
is  employed  as  a  perfume,  but  there  is 
also  an  artificial  perfume  so-called. 

Bhododendron  (rO-du-den'dron),  a 
*»uvwvtkXM«kAvu  genus    of    evergreen 

shrubs  with  alternate,  entire  leaves,  and 
ornamental  flowers  disposed  in  corymbs, 
belonging  to  a  suborder  of  the  Ericacen 
(heaths),  and  chiefljr  inhabiting  the 
mountainous  regions  in  Europe,  North 
and  South  America,  and  Asia.  The 
varieties  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
much  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  colors 
of  the  flowers  range  through  rose,  pink, 
lilac,  scarlet,  purple,  red  and  white.  B. 
chrytanthutn,  a  Siberian  species,  possesses 
narcotic  properties;  R,  ferrugineutn, 
found  in  Switzerland,  is  called  the  rose 
of  the  Alps.  R.  DalhouBtvB  is  an  epi- 
phytic species.  Dr.  Hooker  found  R. 
nivale  on  the  Tibetan  mountains  at  a 
height  of  1(J,000  to  18,000  feet.  Major 
Madden  states  that  in  Kumaon  R. 
arboreutn  grows  to  a  height  of  40  feet. 
BhodODe  (rO'do-pe).  the  ancient 
*  name  of  a  range  of  moun- 
tains in  European  Turkey,  partly  form- 
ing the  western  boundary  of  Eastern 
Roumelia,  and  now  called  Despoto- 
Planina. 

EhombUS  (rom'bus),  in  geometry,  a 
quadrilateral  figure  whose 
sides  are  equal  and  the  op- 
posite sides  parallel,  but 
whose  angles  are  unequal, 
two  being  acute  and  two 
obtuse. 

Vlinnfldfl.  (rond'da),  a  river  in  Gla- 
AUOnaaa  morganshire.  South  Wales, 
which  flows  14  miles  s.  E.  through  the- 
Rhondda  Valley  to  the  Taff  at  Ponty- 
pridd. The  Rhondda  parliamentary  di- 
vision of  Glamorgan  consists  of  the 
township  of  Ystradyfodwg  (which  see). 
Rhfine  (>^°;  Latin,  Rhoddnua),  a 
**  *  river  in  Europe  which  rises  in 
Switzerland,  near  the  east  frontiers  of 
the  canton  of  Valais,  about  18  miles 
w.  8.  w.  of  the  source  of  the  Vorder- 
Rhein.  Its  precise  origin  is  the  RhOne 
Glacier,  5581  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  It  passes  through  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  and  enters  France,  flowing  first 


Bhfite 


southwards  and  then  westwards  to  the 
city  of  Lyons,  where  it  turns  almost  doe 
sooth,  ancl  so  continues  till   (after  pass- 
ta«    Avignon   and    Aries)    it    falls    into 
th*  Gulf  of  Lyons  by  a  greater  and  a 
sSalter  mouth/forming  here  an  extensive 
delta.     (See    Camargue.)     Its    principa 
JfflSitls  the  Sadne,  which  enters  it  at 
the  city  of  Lyons:  other  large  tributaries 
are  the  IsferS  and   Durance.     Its  whole 
courw  is  about  500  miles;  its  drainage 
kreais  88,000  mileii:  and  It  is  navigab  e 
for  360  mfles.    The  great  obstacles  to  its 
navigation  are  the  rapidity  of  its  current, 
the  shifting  character  of  Its  channel,  and 
the    variations   that    take   place    m   the 
volume  of  its  water;  but  these  obstacles 
have  to  a  great  extent  been  removed  by 
a    recent   scheme   of    regularization    and 
canalization,    intended    to    secure    every- 
where a  depth  of  over  5  feet.    By  means 
of    a    serie^    of    magniBcent    canals    the 
navigation  of  the   RhOne  has  been  con- 
tinued,    without     interruption,     to     the 
Rhine   (through  the  Saftne),  the  Seine, 
fnd  the  Loire:  and  to  the  Meuse  and  the 

ptfAnV'"a''department  in  France,  ta 
BJlOne,  the  basin  of  the  Rhone,  to 
which  it  sends  its  .waters  by  the  Satoe 
(with  the  Azergues)  and  the  Gier,  area, 
1077  square  miles.  The  soil  is  only 
moderately  fertile,  and  the  v?ealth  of  the 
Krtment  Is  derived  from,  its  mamifa^ 
tures.  the  chief  of  which  is  silk,  others 
being  cottons  and  woolens,  linens,  ma- 
ffiry  and  metal  goods.  The  city  of 
Lyons' is  the  capital.  P«Pa558.907j^ 
■Di.ft«,A     BoucHES   DU.    See   Boucnet- 

iinone,  i„.ith6ne. 

VlinliorYi     (rS'barb;  Rheum),  a  genu* 
UnnDarD    ^^  plants  belonging  to  the 
\at.  order  Polygonaceie.    The  species  of 
this   gmm   arl  large-leaved,   herbaceous 
plants,  natives  of  a  considerable  portion 
bf  Central  Asia,  with  strong  branching, 
almost    fleshy    roots    and    erect    branch- 
ing stems  6  to  8  feet  high.    They  usually 
pwsess   more   or   less   purgative  and  as- 
tringent   properties ;    this    is    essentially 
the  case  with  their  roots,  and  hence  these 
are  largely  used  in  medicine.    The  prin- 
cipal   kinds   of   medicinal    rhubarb    have 
received  such  names  as  Russian  or  lur- 
key    East    Indian,    Himalayan,   Chinese, 
and  English,  according  to  their  source  or 
the  route   by   which   they   have  reached 
Europe.    At  present  most  of  the  Asiatic 
rhubarb    comes    from   China,    the   plant 
yielding    it    being    mostly    R.    ofictnaie. 
English    riiubarb    is    derived    from    K. 
ftJkapon/tcum.  which  has  long  been  culti- 
vated for  medical  purposes  In  some  parts 
of  England  as  well  as  on  the  European 
coptioeot,  and  la  widely  grown  In  the 


Bliyme 

United  States  as  a  garden  plant  The 
leaf-stalks  of  this  species,  as  well  as  ot 
R.  undulatum  and  others,  are  now  largely 
used  for  tarts,  puddings,  Jam.  etc.,  and 
the  juice  is  made  into  a  kind  of  wine. 
Ehnmb-Une.     see  Lo^odro«»c  C«rre. 

Pliinnha    (rums),   the   points  of   the 
iUlUlIlDS    Compass.     See  Comptt»$. 

BhUS.     SeeSumacfc. 

■Pliirl    Cril).  a  watering-place  of  North 
Anyi   ^ales,    in    Flintshire,    near    tlie 
mouth  of   the   Clwyd.     It   has   pure   air 
and    a    fine    sandy    beach,    with    all    the 
equipments  of  a  watering-place,  and  pos- 
sessM   the  charm   of   a   most  interesting 
country  at  the  back.     Pop.  iW. 
Illivm^    {^°^lf  more  correctly   RiMlt 
jmyme    ^    gaxon.  rim.  number),  in 
Doetry,  a  correspondence  in  sound  of  the 
terminating  word  or  syllable  of  one  line 
of  poetry  with  the  terminating  word  or 
syllable  of   another.    To  constitute  this 
correspondence    in    single    words    or    in 
syllables  it  is  necessary  that  the  vowel 
and  the  final  consonantal  sound  (if  any) 
should  be  the  same,  or  have  nearly  tne 
same   sound,    the    initial    consonants    be- 
ing  different.     English   writers    have   al- 
lowed themselves  certain  licenses,  and  we 
find    in    the    best   English   poets    rhymra 
which  strike  an  accurate  ear  as  incorrect, 
such  as  tky  and  liberty,  hand  onA  com- 
mand,   gone    and    alone.    Such    rhymes 
may  be  tolerated  if  they  only  occur  at 
rare  intervals,   but  they  must  certainly 
be  regarded  as  blemishes.     If  the  rhraie 
is  only  in  the  last  syllables,  as  \n  Jor- 
gave  and   behave,   it  is  called   &   nngle 
rhyme;  if  in  the  two  last  syllables,  as 
Utter  and  glitter,  it  is  called  a  dotiMe 
rhyme;  If  in  the  last  three  syllables,  as 
calloiity  and  reciprocxty,   it   is  called   a 
triple  rhyme.    This  last  sort  of  rhymes 
is  principally  used  in  pieces  of  a  comic 
or      conversational      character.     Rhymes 
which  extend  to  more  than  three  syllables 
are  almost  confined  to  the  Arabians  and 
Persians  in   their  short  odes    {gazelle*), 
in  which  the  same  rhyme,  carried  through 
the    whole   poem,    extends    sometimes    to 
four    and    more    syllables.     The    modern 
use   of   rhyme   was    not    known    to    tbe 
Greeks     and     Romans;     though     some 
rhymed   verses   occur   in    Ovid.    It    nas 
been  used,  on  the  other  hand,  from  time 
immemorial  among  the  Chinese,  Hindus, 
Arabs,     and     other     oriental     nations. 
Rhyme   began    to    be    developed    among 
western  nations  in  the  Latin  poetry  oj 
the  Christian  church.     It  is  found  used 
as    eariy   as    the   fourth   century.    The 
early   English,    German,    and    Scandina- 
viao  \xfm»  «te  distin^tshed  by  •lliterff 


XliyiiiAr 


i& 


tkn  lai«Md  ^  rimna.  (8«e  Attttvn- 
ihm.i  Tbe  Tronbuonn  first  attempted 
a  variety  «f  artificial  combinatioiis  of 
rbTBM  in  the  aoimet,  canzone,  etc.,  and 
tbe  Snaniarda  and  Italians,  with  their 
musical  lanfoages  and  delicacy  of  ear, 
perfected  the  Tarioos  forms  of  InTOlved 
riiyme. 

BllViner  (I'lnto),  Thohas,  of  Ercel- 
Mu^4u«A  ooune,  or  Earlston,  in  Ber- 
wicEshire,  otherwise  called  Thomas  thb 
BimaEB,  was  a  half-legendary  Scottish 
poet  or  romancer  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tnry.  He  is  mentioned  by  Barbour, 
Blind  Harry,  and  Wyntonn,  was  credited 
with  prophetical  powers,  and  his  Proph- 
eoUt,  a  collection  of  oracniar  rhymes, 
were  long  popular  in  Scottish  folk-lore. 
The  old  metrical  romance  of  Sir  Tria- 
tnm  is  doubtfully  ascribed  to  him. 
BJlvmnev    (ifm'ni),  a  town  in  South 

mouthshire,  partly  in  Brecknock,  on  tbe 
rirer  Rhymney,  22  miles  v.  of  Cardiff, 
has  large  iron  and  steel  works,  includ- 
inc  blast  furnaces  and  rolling-mills.  Pop.- 
(19U)    18,336. 

SliynollOnella  (rin-ko-neina),  a 
«M>juv«wMv«M*    genus   of  brachiopo- 

dous  molluscs.  As  many  as  250  fossil 
species  are  numbered  from  the  lower 
Silurian  upward,  but  only  two  or  three 
living  species  are  known,  inhabiting  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
Oceans. 

BliyiLchops  JS'*°^'^*  ^  *^""" 

Shvtlim  (rithm),  in  general,  means 
mmm^j  ««»«,  ^  measured  succession  of  di- 
Tisi<nis  or  intervals  in  written  composi- 
ti<»,  music,  or  dancing.  The  rhythm  of 
poetry  is  the  regular  succession  of  ac- 
cent, emphasis,  or  voice  stress;  or  a  cer- 
tain succession  of  long  and  short  (heavy 
and  light)  syllables  In  a  verse.  Prose 
also  has  its  rhythm,  and  the  only  dif- 
ference (so  far  as  sound  is  concerned) 
between  verse  and  prose  is,  that  the 
former  consists  of  a  regular  succession 
of  similar  cadences,  or  of  a  limited  va- 
riety of  cadences,  divided  by  grammatical 
pauses  and  emphases  into  proportional 
clauses,  so  as  to  present  sensible  re- 
sponses to  the  ear  at  regular  proportioned 
distancea.  In  music,  rhythm  is  the  dis- 
position of  the  notes  of  a  composition  in 
respect  <^  time  and  measure;  tbe  meas- 
ured beat  which  marks  the  character  and 
expression  of  tbe  music. 
fiilvtinA  (n-tl'na),  a  genus  of  mam- 
*«jn«»  malia.  closely  allied  to  the 
nanatae  and  dngong,  which  has  become 
»tiiict  within  th«  last  century  or  so. 
mia  jBDiy  known  tpwiies  of  Rhythia 
i9kfttn$   9kfhn)    WM  discowrvd   in 


1741  by  the  Russian  naturalist  Stellar 
on  an  island  in  Bering's  Straits,  on 
which  he  and  ara'^7  <>'  sailors  had  been 
shipwrecked.  The  animals  were  fish-like 
in  shape,  and  of  great  sise  —  spMimens 
measunng  25  feet  in  length  and  20  feet 
in  greatest  circumference.  Tbe  head  was 
small.  The  tail-fin  was  crescoitic  in 
form,  and  front  limbs  only  were  de- 
veloped. 
BialtO     ('^'^1'^^)-    S^  Tenica. 

Biazan.  ?'  R^^z^  (ryA-«4n'),  capl- 
'  tal  of  a  government  of  the 
game  name  in  Central  Russia.  The 
town  is  situated  on  the  Trubesh,  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Oka,  in  the  center  of  a 
rich  agricultural  dtotrict,  and  has  a  large 
trade,  more  especially  in  rye.  Manufac- 
tures include  woolens,  linens,  needles, 
and  leather.  Pop.  MJK2. —  The  govern- 
ment has  an  area  of  16,SS4  square  miles, 
and  is  wholly  drained  by  the  Oka  and 
its  tributaries.  The  surface  on  the  right 
of  the  Oka  is  largely  swampy  and  has 
extensive  forests;  on  the  left  it  is  gener- 
ally fertile.  Cereals  of  all  kinds  are  pro- 
duced for  export  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  cotton,  linen,  leather,  and 
spirits.  Pop.  1,827,085. 
feti  the  name  given  to  the  curved 
^^  '  bones  which  in  man  and  the  other 
vertebrates  spring  from  either  side  of  the 
spine  or  vertebral  column,  and  which 
may  or  may  not  be  joined  to  a  sternum 
or  breast-bone  in  front.  The  ribs  ordi- 
narily agree  in  number  with  tbe  verte- 
bne  of  the  back  or  dorsal  region.  Thus 
in  man  twelve  dorsal  vertebra)  and 
twelve  pairs  of  ribs  exist.  The  true  or 
sternal  ribs  are  the  first  seven,  which 
are  articulated  at  one  extremity  of  the 
spine,  and  at  the  other  to  the  sternum 
by  means  of  cartilages.  The  false  or 
short  ribs  are  the  remaining  five;  the 
uppermost  three  being  united  by  their 
cartilages  to  tbe  cartilage  of  the  last 
true  nb.  The  others  are  free  at  tbeir 
sternal  extremity,  and  hence  bave  been 
called  '  floating  ribs.'  Ribs  are  wanting 
in  such  lower  fishes  as  lampreys,  lance- 
lets,  etc.,  and  in  amphibians  such  as  frogs 
and  toads.  Tbe  number  of  these  bones 
mav  be  very  great  in  certain  species, 
and  the^  are  occasionally  developed  in 
the  cervical  and  pelvic  regions  in  reptiles 
and  birds  respectively. 
•Rill  in  architecture,  a  term  applied 
*  variously,  as  for  Instance  to  an 
arch-formed  piece  of  timber  for  support- 
ing the  lath  and  plaster  work  of  a  roof; 
a  plain  or  ornamented  molding  <m  the 
interior  of  a  vaulted  roof;  to  the  mold- 
ings of  timber  roofs,  and  those  forming 
tracery  oq  walls  «n<  to  wUidowi. 


Bilibte 

2tn2^  of  tSelrish  Sea.  Since  18W 
^t  river  diversion  worio,  and  the  cott- 
rtSction  of  a  dock  at  Prerton,  have  been 
MtaTon,  which,  when  completed,  will 
greatly   improve   the   navigation  of   the 

&^vi«A«i  (rib'un).  a  narrow  web, jwn- 
BlDOOn    ^^tiy  oV  Bilk,  n«!d  for  tying 

and  ornamental  purpose*  R»»>»»°^T1"^J: 
tog  is  a  special  branch  of  the  textile  in- 
duBtries  Tn  modem  looms  as  many  as 
forty  ribbons  are  simultaneouslv  woven 
[n  on"  machine.  Rlibpn-weavlng  was 
MtabHshed  near  St.  Etienne  in  S^rwce 
S    the    eleventh    Mutury.    In.^J^'f^" 

t^rJ^bhon  an-  often  used  to  daig. 

aate  the  orders  of^Ae  Qa'/e'  "°*  ^S 
rMoectively,  the  badge  of  the  former 
bT^r  supported  by  a  blue  ribbon,  and 
that  of  the  latter  by  a  red  ribbon. 
wI^iLiL  i:.i.Afl  the  name  of  ceroun 
Rlbbon-nsneS,    deep^    flBhes    met 

with  in  all  parts  of  the  ocean,  gfne«"y 
Tound   floating  dead   on  the  »»rface^r 
thrown  ashore  by  the  waves.    The  ho^ 
la  iiir«»  ft  band  from  15  to  JXt  leet  ions, 
10  to  12  inches  broad,  and  an  inch  or 
Jw6    thick.    These    fishes    are    generally 
Svery   in   color.    They   live  at  such   a 
depth  that  when  they  reach  the  surface 
the  expansion  of  gases  in  the  hoay  «» 
o^ens^all   parts   of   the  rawujM  a»d 
bonv    system    that    some    po/.V"""^^ 
nearly    always   broken    on    lifting   them 
SS?  of  the  wVter.    The  fin  pys,  ^"^  5«"2f 
?ibbon-fi8hes    are    extraordinarily    deve^ 
nnpd    some  of  them  being  several  timM 
Sr Than    the    body.    The    deal-fish 
iTflchvptenit    arctitru$)    is    often   met 
with  to  theNorth  Athintic  and  tasome- 
dmes  found  after  gales  on  the  Scottish 
^sts.     See  Deal-m  Oar.fi,h. 

Eibbon-grass,  ^^^^^^^'tJ^ 

with  green  and  white,  of  Phalarta 
IrZdiK^,  a  grass  which  is  found  to 
>g  wild  state  by  the  sides  of  rivers, 
■failed  also  gardener'a  garter: 
<niW<k«>'mA'n  the  members  of  a  seerw 
SiDDOIuueil,  ,o(.{ety  oinnised  among 
the  Roman  Catholics  to  Ireland  about 
the  beginning  of  the  last  century  to  op- 
DOsiH^  to  Ihat  of  the  Orangemm.  It 
Originated  In  Armagh,  and  ■!>«•£  th«Me 
to    Down,    Antrim,    Tyrone    and    Per- 


muiach.    The  ownlMtioo^  At  ijodj^ 


^S-Skiia-to-a^t  oj  tjT^Sf-Sj 


^benhip  from  tbt  flrtt  WM  tonm 
almost  exclnsively  from  th«  lowest  daaw* 
of  the  population. 

Bibbon-woriM,  foirSimii.'X 

lonainc   to   the    suborder    N«nertid«,   a 
d°?£toi  of  the  order  Turt«llarla  of  tkw 
PlatyelmS  or  « FUt-worms.'    The  lead- 
tog  chSarteristics  of  ribbpn-wonM  are 
a?el(»gated,  worm-like  body,  an  allmen- 
tory  SMltermlnating  in  a  distinct  anus. 
«i7a^trusibleproSo8ds.    These  forms 
S^  marine  to  haCits,  and  »"«»»»««- 
sitic    The  sexes  are  generally  •fW***' 
Sd  rejroduction,  may  be  »±^^  Jy 
ova    by   gemmation   or  budding,   or  by 
divi'rion  of  the  body  subsUnce. 
T»Vl»»     (rtTje).  or  BOTBK.   »  town  e* 
Albe     V^nmark,  «»  the  southwest  of 
Juthind.^the'Blbe,    'bout   »•[[*»?; 
from  its  mouth.    It  has  a  cathedral  of 
the   twelfth   century,   »nd   was   once   a 

XibeauTiUe  ^ppou»»tatr.    ,^ 

Bibe'ra.  Q"^"pf«.    Se*  apagnoUtto. 

tavern  (rfbes),  *  genus  of  plants  of 
BlOeS  ^Mtural  order  Grossolaria- 
ce»,  comprehending  the  «oo«Aeny  and 
^' cuninta.  A  ^species  with,  acariet 
flbwers  (B.  mtng^ineum),  and  a  TarietJ 
of  this  with  white  flowers,  ai«  moch 
cultivated  as  ornainmtal  «"**         -^ 

Eicardo  i^St^^/'^'^^p 

political  economy,  was  the  son  of  a  Jjw- 

tme.  His  first  publication  waa  on  the 
iSbiwt  of  the  depredation  of  tha  .national 
SjSTc;  (1810).  He  then  PoWJ«hed  an 
Bmaw  on  Bettt,  and  his  name  is  usually 
SSSatrf^'a^rtafa  distinctive  vtew 
on  this  nibject  (See  ««»«.)  In  1810 
he  wrote  a  pamphlet  entitled  Fropotaia 
^^Bcon^  and  SeonrBCnfttnoy. 
tettt  his  mort  important  work  Is  htt 
T^atiM  on  PoUtiealSconomi,  •^J^ 
tion,  which  app«ired  to  Wll'"^ 


Bicoio 


Biee-lmatiiig 


name  of  Daitoxb  da  Voltxbra,  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Volterra  in  1509. 
He  Btucued  painting  at  Siena,  and  after- 
wards repaired  to  Rome,  wbiere  lie  was 
moch  indebted  to  the  friendship  of 
Michael  Angelo,  who  not  only  instmcted 
him,  bat  gave  him  designs  for  some  of 
bis  most  celebrated  works.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  a  series  of  frescoea  in 
the  church  of  La  Trinit&  de'  Monti, 
Rome;  and  of  these  the  De$cent  from  the 
Croat  is  well  known  by  Toschi's  admir- 
able engraving.  Ricciarelli  was  employed 
by  Paul  IV  to  partially  drape  the  nude 
figures  in  Michael  Angelo's  Laat  Judg- 
ment in  the  Sistine  Chapel  of  the  Vati- 
oan.  By  this  act  he  earned  for  himself 
the  soubriquet  of  II  Braghettone  (The 
Rreecbes-maker).  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  Ricciarelli  applied  himself  also 
to  sculpture.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1566 
or  1567. 
RiCCiO.     See«M««o. 


Rice 


(ris;    Oryza    natlva),    a    cereal 
plant,  natural  order  Graminacee 
or    Grasses.     This    important    food-plant 
was   long   known   in  the   East  before   it 
was  introduced   into   Egypt  and   Greece, 
it  is   now  cultivated   extensively   in   the 
low   grounds   of    the   tropical   and   aub- 
tropical     parts     of     soutneastem     Asia, 
Egypt,    Japan,    part    of    the    Southern 
United  States,  and  in  several  districts  of 
Southern     Europe.       The 
culm  of  the  rice  is  from 
1   to  6  feet  high,  annual, 
erect,    simple,    round,    and 
jointed ;     the     leaves     are 
large,    firm,    and    pointed, 
arising    from     very     long, 
cylindrical,       and       finely 
striated  sheaths;  the  flow- 
ers    are     disposed     in     a 
panicle   somewhat   resemb- 
ling that  of  the  oat;   the 
seeds    are    white   and    ob- 
long, but  vary  in  size  and 
form  in  the  numerous  va- 
rieties.      In  the  cultivation 
of  this  plant  a  high  sum- 
mer    temperature     is     re- 
quired,      combined       with 
abundance  of  water.      Thus 
the  seaboard  areas  nnd  river  deltas  which 
are  subject  to  inundation  give  the  best 
conditions,  otherwise  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary.    The  amount  of  water  required  by 
the  plant  depends  upon  its  strength  and 
stafre  of  growth.     lu  Egypt   it  is  sown 
while  the  waters  of  the  Nile  cover  the 
land,  and  the  rice  plant  ^rows  luxariandy 
in  the  rich  alluvia!  deposits  left  by  the  re- 
ceding   flood.     The   Chinese   obtain    two 
crops  a  year  from  the  srme  ground,  and 


cultivate  it  annually  on  the  aame  aoil,  and 
without  any  other  manure  than  the  mud 
depofited  bv  the  water  of  the  river  need 
in  overflowing  it  The  young  plants  are 
transplanted  into  plowed  furrows,  and 
water  is  brought  over  them  and  kept  on 
till  the  plants  begin  to  ripen.  The  first 
crop  is  cut  in  May,  and  a  second  is  im- 
mediately prepared  for  by  burning  the 
stubbie,  and  this  second  crop  ripens  in 
October  or  November.  In  India  two 
harvests  are  obtained  in  the  year,  espe- 
cially in  Bengal,  and  frequently  two  crops 
are  taken  from  the  same  field.  In  Japan, 
the  Philippines,  Cevlon,  and  Java  rice 
is  cultivated  much  in  the  same  manner. 
Mountain  rice  is  a  hardy  variety  which 
thrives  on  dry  soil ;  and  in  India  it  is 
cultivated  at  an  altitude  of  8000  feet 
Rice  can  be  profitably  cultivated  only  in 
warm  countries,  but  has  for  some  time 
past  been  grown  in  South  Germany  and 
Italy.  In  the  United  State  it  is  grown 
chiefly  in  the  swampy  districts  of  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Louisiana  and  Texas. 
In  the  husk  rice  is  known  by  the  name 
of  'paddy.'  Rice  is  more  largely  con- 
sumed by  the  inhabitants  of  the  world 
than  any  other  grain,  the  people  of  East- 
ern Asia  and  its  islands  largely  living 
on  it;  but  it  contains  less  flesh-forming 
matter  (nitrogenous),  than  the  others, 
this  element  being,  in  100  ptirts  of  rice, 
only  6.5.  At  one  period  Europe  was  sup- 
plied from  America,  but  this  source  has 
l>een  almost  entirely  superseded  by  Lower 
Burmah,  India,  Siam,  Japan,  and  Cochin- 
China.  The  inhabitants  of  the  East  ob- 
tain from  rice  a  vinous  liquor  more 
intoxicating  than  wine;  and  araok  is 
also  made  from  it.  See  Arack. 
j^Qg     Indian.    See  OatMin  Bioe. 

JWOe  DUniing,  distinct  birds.  The 
first,  also  known  by  the  name  '  bob-o'- 
link,'    is    the    Emheriza    oryzw6ra    (or 


Rice  (Orj^xa 
aativa). 


Bice-bunting  \OrjpMna*  <wvziv?ro). 

DolichonyiB  oryzwdrua),  a  bird  ut  the 
bunting  family,  which  migrates  over  N. 
America  from  Labrador  to  Mexico,  ap- 
pearing in  Massachusetts  about  the  b«- 


Bice-paper 

■inninc  of  May.  Itt  food,  ta,  i^MctM, 
SSSSf  and  ■eedS.  Including  rke  In  South 
CarSlia.    It  to  the  reed  bird  of  the  MlJ^ 

die  SUtea.  P«""'°«, '? JML  "ffl^"^ 
feed  on  tae  aeed  of  the  riverside  reeo^ 
^  wnf  of^e  male  to  alngular  and 
2Kaa~t^  When  fat  their  flesh  be«)me8 
rit«r  inferior  in   flavor   to   that  of   the 
European    ortolan.    The    other    spw^ies 
knoiTOM  the  rice-bunting  is  the   Orf- 
tomit  orvzivdra,  also  known  as  the  Java 
sDMiowlsnd  piddy  bird.     It  .belongs  to 
?SJ  trae  finchS,  a  group  nearly  a  Led  to 
the    buntings.     It    possesses    a    laf«ely- 
developed   bill;    the   head   and    tail    are 
Stack,  the  belly  rosy,  the  cheeks  of  the 
mle   white,   and    the    legf. fle«'»-<^°i°"?; 
It  to  dreaded  in  Southern  Asia  on  account 
of  the  ravages  it  commits  ^\^^f^^^ 
fields.    It  to  frequently  brought  to  Eu- 
rope, and  to  found  in  avianes.  ^. 
■nH.^^  «a«Av     a     substance     prepared 
iUCe-paper,    ^ j^n,  thin,  uniform  slice* 

of  the  snow-white  pith  otAralia  paPVf^f- 
era  which  grows  in  Formosa.  Kice- 
paMf  is  prepared  in  China,  and  is  used 
Fn  the  manufacture .  of  artificial  flowers 
and    by    native    arttots    for    water-color 

i'frvT'^^EDMxmD,  an  English  ecclesias- 
AlCn,  Jic.  bora  «*  Abingdon  about 
1195  He  studied  theology  at  Paris, 
Rftfrwards  taught  the  Aristotelian  logic 
Snd  Xlastic  philosophy  in  Oxford,  and 
was  prebendary  and  trwisurer  of  Sali^ 
bury  Cathedral  1219-22.  He  preached 
fheVth  crusade  in  1227,  gcame  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1J».  "»«  « 
hibiA  gr^t  energy  as  a  reformer     Hie 


h  bited  great  energy  «»  ~  iZ  fvZl  nt  thi 
anthoritv  was  snperseded  by  that  of  tne 
fegate'  Carilnal        ^    --*  *-'"'  """»'»« 


\o,  and  being  unable 
io"  obtain  redress     ^  Rome  he  retired  to 
France  to  1240  and  died  in  1242.    He 
was  canoniaed  in  1249.  .    _    ,     ,     _„^ 
•Oi^-u^-mA   T     King    of    England,    sui^ 
BlCnard  l,   ^^^^    Coeur    de    Lion, 
second  son  of  Henry  II  by  Eleanor  of 
Aqultaine,  was  born  at  Oxford  m  1157. 
Hi    several    times    rebelled    agairist    hto 
father   and   in    1189,   supported  by   the 
Kng  of  France,  he  defeated  the  forces 
of  Henry,  who  was  compelled  to  acknowl- 
edge Richard  as  his  heir.    Cta   Henry  a 
deith  at  Chinon,  Richard  sailed  to  Eng- 
land  and   was   crowned   at   Westminster 
(September,  1189).    The  principal  eyrate 
of  his  reign  are  connected  with  the  third 
crusade,  in  which  he  took  part,  uniting 
hto  forces  with  those  of  Philip  of  France. 
In  the  course  of  this  crusade  he  married 
the  Princess  Berengaria  of  Navarre  In 
Cyprus.    In  the  crusade  he  showed  him' 
self    a   warrior   of   great   strragth   and 
boldness,  bat  made  oiemies  of  hto  ftl- 
km    ^rinae  br  bia  aatoeimtie  daseanor. 


Biohard  n 

Richard  left  Palestine  .In  1192  and  aailed 
tor  the  Adriatic,  but  was  wrecked  n^r 
Aqnileia.    On    hto    way    home    through 
oSmiany  he  was  sei^"*  ^y  the  DiAe  of 
Austrta,  whom  he  had  oftended  in  PalM- 
tine,  and  was  given  up  a  prisoner  to  the 
Emieror  Henry  VI.     During  hia  captiy|^ 
htoVrother  John  headed  an  insumctl^ 
in  England  in  concert  with  the  King  ol 
France,  but  Richard,  who  WM  ransomed 
returned   to  Engtand   in   1194,   ^d   the 
movement     came     to    nothing.     R>chatd 
then  passed  over  to  Normandy,  and  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  thwe  in  warfare  of 
no  dectoive  character.     He  died  in  April, 
1199.    of    a    wound    received    while    be- 
sieging   the   castle    of    Chains.     Richard 
waP  thoroughly  neglectful  of  his  duties 
as  a  king,  and  owes  hto  fame  chtofly  to 
hto  personal  bravery.         -  „     ,     j    .„„ 

BiSard  H,  §'°l,»'.JirtaKJ 

ceeded  the  tetter  in. 1377.     In  1381  took 
place    the   insurrection    headed    by.  Wat 
Tyler    in  the  suppression  of  which  tne 
boy-king    showed    considerable    oapacjty 
^d  boldness,  but  hto  after  life  did  not 
correspond   with  this  eariy  promise.     In 
hto    sfxteenth    year    (ISaJ)    J^f^  ^rr>«i 
Anne,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charlw 
IV.    Wars   with    France   and   Scotland, 
and  the  ambitioua  intrigues  of  the  l>u«c 
of    Lancaster,    one    of    hiS    uncles,    dia- 
auieted     some     succeeding     years,     xne 
oroper  government  of  the  ktogdom  waa 
Interfered   with   by.  contests   "r    POwer 
between  the  ktog  with  hto  'avoiitM,  and 
hto  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  backed 
by  the  pariiament.    In  1389  the  king  dte- 
missed  Gloucester  and  hia  adherenU  from 
hia  council,  and  took  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment himself.    In  1394  Anne  of  Bohemia 
died,  and  two  years  later  Rlc>»ard  mar- 
ried Isabelta  of  France.    Thto  marriage 
was   strongly  opposed   by   the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,    who,    in    conseouence,    was 
suffocated  in  Calaia,  where  he  had  been 
sent  for  safe  custody..  A  quarrel  having 
broken  out  between  Richard's  cousin,  the 
Duke  of  Hereford,  son  of  John  of  yaunt, 
and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  Richard  ban- 
ished them  both.    The  next  yea^  JS 
the  Duke  of  Lancaster  died,  and  RichMd 
confiscated  hia  estates.    Thto  nnjoat  act 
waa  the  ImmedUte  cause  o'  **»«  ^W 
fall.    During    hto  ^absence    in  Jfetand. 
Bolingbroke,   as   the   Duke   of  Het^ord 
waa  ^Ued.  landed  in  Yorkshire  with  a 
■mall  foreS,  and  the  king  on  i»iVi«*"rS 
to   Biucland   was    aolemnly    deposed    oy 
parlSi^t.  September  80.  1M«.  and  the 
crown    waa    awarded    to    Henry.     (Bee 
Hmrv    IT.)    BicbMxi    waa    Imprlaon«4 


Bkhaid  m 


Biohardioii 


la  ^  oMtto  of  FMtfNt,  whve  bt  tai 
ramlljr  iiarooMd   to  have  been  mnr- 


Biohard.     ^'^  <>'  Cornwall  and  BBf 

'^^"^y  jMtot  of  Qcrmaiijr  between 

^I't""  V^.u    wi.-  -#11.    1     J    *u     '*5^    ■•»*'    1272,    during    the    ao-called 

Biehard    m,  5S«  »/  "Sf'^;-^'  taterregnam.  wm  a  «>n  5f  KiM^Sn^ 

»  lart    of    the    Planta^   EngUind,  and  was  bom  in  1200.    In  hi* 

youth   he  commanded  with   succri*  the 


tenet  Unga,  bom  at  Fotheringhay  Caatle 
m  14B0,  was  the  yoangeit  son  of  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  who  was  killed  at  Wake- 
field.   On  the  accession  of  his  brother, 
Bdward   IT,   be  was   created   Duke  of 
Gloucester,   and   during    the   early    part 
of    Edward's    reign    served    him     with 
great    courage    and    fidelity.    He    took 
for  wife  in   1478  Anne   Neville,  Joint- 
heiress  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  whose 
other  daughter  was  united  to  the  Duke 
of  Clarence,  and  quasrels  soon  rose  be- 
tween    the     two     brothers     over     their 
wives'    inheritance.    On    the    death    of 
Edward  in  1483,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester 
was  appointed  protector  of  the  kingdom ; 
and  he  immediately  caused  his  nephew, 
the   young    Edward    V,    to    be   declared 
king,  and  took  an  oath  of  fealty  to  him. 
But  Richard  soon  began  to  pursue  his 
own    ambitious    schemes.    Earl    Rivers, 
the  oneen's  brother,  and  Sir  R.  Grey,  a 
son  OT  her  first  husband,  were  arrested 
and    beheaded    at    Pomfret,    and    Lotd 
Hastings,    who    adhered    to    his    young 
sovereign,  was  executed  without  trial  in 
the  Tower.    It  was  now  asserted   that 
the  king  and   his  brother  were  illegiti- 
mate, and  that  Richard  had  a  legal  title 
to  the  crown.    The  Duke  of  Buckingham 
supported  Richard,  and  a  body  of  peers 
and  citisens  having  offered  him  the  crown 
in  the  name  of  the  nation  he  accepted  it, 
and  on  July  8,   1483,   was  crowned  at 
Westminster.    The     deposed     king     and 
his   brother   were,   according   to  general 
belief,  smothered  in  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don by  order  of  their  uncle.    (See  Edward 
F.)     Kichard   governed   with   vigor  and 
ability,  but  was  not  generally  popular, 
and  in  1485  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond, 
head  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  landed 
with  a  small   army  at   Milford   Haven. 
Richard  met  him  on  August  23d   with 
an  army  of  15,000  men  at  Bosworth,  in 
Leicestershire.    Richmond  had  only  6000 
men,  but  relied  on  the  secret  assurances 
of  aid  from  Stanley,  who  commanded  a 
separate   royal    force   of   7000.    In    the 
midst  of  the  battle,  Stanley,  by  faUhig 
Ml  the  flank  of  the  royal  army,  secured 
the  victory  to  Richmond,  Richard  being 
slain   on  the  field.     (See  Henrt   VII.) 
Richard    possessed    courage    as   well    as 
capacity ;  but  his  conduct  showed  cruelty, 
d&ssimulation,    treachery,    and   ambition. 
He   has   been   represented   as   of   small 
statllr^  deformed,   and  of  a  forbidding 
amet :   but   his  personal   defects   have 
vnbOiT  bean  ma^lfied. 


armv  of  his  brother  Henry  III  in  Fmnce. 
In  1236  he  took  the  cross  and  went  to 
the  Holy  Land,  but  waa  not  able  to 
effect  much  in  the  East.  In  1256  he 
was  chosen  Emperor  of  Germany  by  a 
faction,  and  was  crowned  King  of  the 
Romans  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1257.  He 
was  unable  to  obtain  general  recognition^ 
and  was  more  than  onre  driven  to  take 
refuge  in  England,  where  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Simon  de  Montfort  at  tM 
battle  of  Lewes  in  1264.  In  1268  ht 
again  visited  Gtermany.  and  held  a  die? 
at  Worms  in  the  following  year.  He 
died  in  England  April  2.  1272. 

Sioliard  of  Cirencester,    ^^j 

CoBiNENSis,  a  monkish  chronicler  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  sometimes  called  the 
Monk  of  Westminster.  He  entered  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  St  Peter's, 
Westminster,  residing  there  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life;  in  1391  he  visited 
Rome.  He  died  in  his  monastery  aliout 
1402.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Latin 
history  of  England  to  the  year  1348. 
The  so-<»lled  Itinerary  of  RicharO,  '  Di 
8ftu  BrttannitB,'  published  in  lUSS,  and 
formerly  much  referred  to  as  an  author- 
ity on  Roman  Britain,  was  a  forgery 
perpetrated  by  Dr.  C.  J.  Bertram  <4 
Copenhagen. 

/  was  bora  at  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylva^a,  Nov.  14,  1838;  died  Nov. 
8,  1905.  He  studied  art  in  Europe,  had 
a  studio  in  London  1878-80,  and  resided 
many  years  in  his  native  city.  Amon^ 
his  well-known  pictures  are  MidBummai 
Woods  in  June,  Old  Ocean's  Gray  ant 
Meiandkolv  Wtnute,  and  The  WinaMckon, 
the  last  exhibited  at  the  Centennial  Ex- 
positim  in  1876.  His  later  works  ar« 
chiefly  marine  pictures. 

■^  ■—"'*  BEHjAMnr  Wam),  was 
bom  at  Smnerby,  Leicestershire  in  1828, 
was  graduated  in  medicine  at  St  An- 
drew's University  in  1864.  In  1885  h« 
edited  the  JonmeU  of  Health;  and  he 
gained  the  Astley  Cooper  prise  by  hia 
treatise  on  The  Cause  of  the  Coagtdation 
of  the  Blood,  and  the  FothergillUn  gold 
medal  by  a  disquisition  on  the  Diseases  of 
the  Fmtus,  in  18S&  He  originated  the 
use  of  ether  spray  for  the  local  abolition 
of  pam  in  snivical  operatioiu,  and  iatro* 
dnoed  methylene  bichloride  aa  a  general 
■'WMthetk.    Ha   wm  a   fallow  of   tbM 


Jtiduurdioii 


BiehdiM 


wu  Its  popnUrity  that  It  tarn  Hkna^ 

omBMDdtd  fropn  tin  palpltin  1M»^ 
apDMnusc*  of  a  aMond  wrnL  CtoriMa 

GrttuUion  appeared   In   1788.  uA  ^^ 
m  io«,  •""-•-  cSr;;i:£i.   iezlco«apher,  also  received  with  ftMit  prals^    la  1TO4 

-     -  ■     '— —    tioners'  Oompany,  and  In  17W  pordiassa 

a  moiety  of  the  patent  of  taw  printer  to 


Boyal  College  of  Physicians  "d  of  the 
loyal  8oei«tr.  and  was  tht  presMeiit  of 
the  Medical  Society  of  London.  He  pulh 
tidied  soreral  jfoikm  upon  medicine  and 
hyiiene,  and  was  an  earnest  moIMit  ud 
towrance  reformer.  He  was  knighted 
in  1888  and  diet  tu  1896. 


in  1865.  He  was  trained  as  a  barrister, 
but  deroted  himself  to  literature.  In 
1818  he  pablished  /Ilstlrstioiw  of  Bna- 
Uak  PhiMoaif.  In  1818  he  undertook  Uie 
lezicographical  articles  in  the  EnencU- 
ptMa  McirotHMtana,  and  afterwardto  pub- 


of  Lamgnage$  (18M),  and  contributed 
frequently  to  the  OentlemaM'a  and  other 

lOi^t-mAaivn  8n  JoHir,  naturalist  and 
BlOnanUOn,  ^^i^  triveler,  bom  at 
Dumfries  In  1787;  died  near  Grasmere 
in  1868.  After  studying  medicine  at  the 
UnlTersity  of  Edinburgh  he  entered  the 
royal  na^,  in  1807.  as  aesistant^urjeon 


He  served 'on  various  stations  till  1819, 
and  was  surgeon  and  naturalist  to  Uie 
Swtlc  expeditions  of  1819-22  and  ia»- 
27.  under  Sir  John  Franklin,  exploring 
on  the  latter  occasion  the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  between  the  Mackensie  and 
Coppermine  rivers.    He  wrote   Geo^ot- 
tioal  Ob»ervaUon$  as  an  appendix  to  m 
Varrative  published  by  Franklin   U^, 
Lmidon),  and  edited,  along  wiUi  Kjrbv 
and  Swainson,  the  Fosno  Boreol»-As»erl- 
^(4  vote..  1829-37).     1°  1838  he  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  fleet,  and  to 
1846  was  knighted.     In  March,  1848.  he 
took  charge  of  an  expedition  to  search 
for   Franklin,  and   on  his   return   pub- 
lished The  Aretic  aearMnp  EmP^tton 
(1851)  and  The  Polar  Regtoiu  (1861). 
QJAliaWlanvi     Samttel,     an     English 
BlOnaraSOn,    noveUsC  was   bom    to 
1688  to  Derbyshire,  and  received  only  a 
common     school     education.    He     early 
tnanifested  a  talent  for  story-telling  and 
letter-writing,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen 
was  the  confidant  of  three  young  women 
in   their  love  secrets,  and  employed  by 
them   to    their   amatory    correspondence. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  Richardson   was 
bound  apprentice  to  Mr.  John  Wilde,  a 
London  printer,  and  afterwards  set  up  as 
a    printer    for    himself    and    developed 
a   successful    business.    When    he   was 
nearly  fifty  be  was  asked  by  two  book- 
sellers   to    compose    a    *famiUar    lettei 
writer.'    In    doing    this    he   threw  ^the 
letters  into  the  form  of  a  stwy,  which 
he  published   (1741)   under  the  title  of 
P*m<i9,  or  virtue  Bewariei,    Bo  gnat 


Thritog.    He  dlid  July'i  176Laiid  was 
buried  in  the  Church  of  8t  Brid^  to 

Sirfiftffi  (rt-h-ly«i),ABUii0  J«aH 

Duo  w,  a  famous  Fr«K*  igtemian,  bom 
at  ParTs.  September  9,  1888;  died  there. 
I^b«tVl642.    Ho  was  tte  son  of 
Francois  Duplessis,  seigneur  ds  ^^«!» 
In  Touratoe,  and  was  originally  desthwd 
for  the  army;  but  his  brother,  Al^ass, 
having  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Luc^ 
this  was  bestowed  on  him  by  Hanry  Iv 
(1606).    He  obtained  frwn  the  popo  * 
dispensation  allowing  hhn  to  accept  tts 
office  though  under  age,  and  to  1607  WM 
consecrated  by  the  CJ*J*»n«l  de  Givry  to 
presence  of  the  pope  hhnself  (P*« /). 
For  several  years  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  duties  of  his  see,  refoiming  abuses, 
and  taboring  for  the  converdon  of  Prot- 
estants.   But  his  ambition  always  made 
him  tum  his  eyes  towards  the  court,  and 
having  come  to  Paris  to  1614  as  deputy  oC 
the  clergy  of  Poitou  to  the  8tat«Miene»M, 
he  managed  to  insinuate  himself  toto  the 
favor^M    the   queen-mother,    MarM   de 
Medici,  who  obtatoed  for  him  t^  post 
of  grand-abnoner,  and  to  1616,  that  of 
secretary  of  sute  for  ^r  *»*  ^^^m 
affairs.    When    I^n**    Mil    qnarretad 
with  his  mother    (1617)    BIcfadien  fell 
with  her,  and  was  banished  first  to  Blois 
and  then  to  Avignon.    In  1620,  nowever, 
he  managed  to  effect  a  tecondUatkm  be- 
tweoi  Mary  of  Medld  and  her  son.    He 
now  obtdined,  through  the  influence  of 
the  queen-mother,  the  cardinal's  hat,  and 
to  1624  was  admitted  toto  the  council  of 
state.    From  this  data  he  was  at  the  head 
of  affairs,  and  he  at  once  began  systemat- 
ically to  extend  the  power  of  the  crown 
by   crushtog  the   Huguenots,   and   over- 
Growing  tho  privileges  of  the  great  vas- 
■als;  and  to  Increase  the  toflomce  of  the 
French  monarchy  by  nndermtoing  that 


of  the  Hapsbons,  both  beycS  the 
Pyrenees  andto  Germany.  The  ndlylng 
peint  of  the  Hognoiots  was  Bochdle; 
and  RicheUeu  laid  siege  to  that  dty,  com- 
mandtog  the  amy  In  person.  BocAelle, 
siutported  by  sullies  from  Itogland, 
hdd  out  for  some  time,  but  w?"  «g»- 
pelM  to  mnMBder  bgr  famine  (Oct  8^ 


Bi(dinunid 


mn|iiff^4 


w 


1028).  In  ordor  to  orerthrow  tb«  power 
of  the  great  noblei  be  ordered  the  den* 
olition  of  all  the  feudal  fortreeeti  which 
ooukl  not  be  uaed  for  the  defenae  of  the 
frontiers.  After  the  auppreasion  of  the 
Huguenota  his  next  step  was  the  re- 
moval of  the  queen-mother  from  court, 
she  having  endeavored  to  effect  his  fall. 
This  he  accomplished  in  November.  1630. 
But  this  step,  and  the  almost  teal  an- 
nihilation of  the  privileges  of  the  parlia- 
ments and  the  clergy,  united  all  classes 
against  the  despotism  of  the  cardinal,  and 
several  risings  and  conspiracies  took  place, 
which  were  suppressed  by  prudent  and 
vigorous  measures.  In  1631  Richelien 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  duke.  In  1U32 
a  rising  in  favor  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
the  king's  brother,  was  suppressed  by 
the  royal  forces  directed  by  Richelieu,  ana 
the  Duke  of  Montmorency  was  executed. 
The  whole  period  of  liis  government  was 
marked  by  a  series  of  conspiracies  of  the 
feudal  Mobility,  the  queen-mother,  the 
queen  herself,  and  even  Louis,  against 
tne  royal  power  exercised  by  Richelieu. 
But  he  was  prepared  at  every  point  and 
his  vengeance  sure.  During  the  Thirty 
Years'  war  the  cardinal  employed  atl  the 
arts  of  negotiation  and  even  force  of 
arms  to  protect  the  Protestants  of  Ger- 
many, for  the  purpose  of  humbling  the 
power  of  Austria.  For  the  same  object 
he  declared  war  against  Spain  in  1635, 
and  the  separation  of  Portugal  from 
Spain    was    effected    by    his    assistance 

il640).  He  also  endeavored  to  weak«i 
ustrian  influence  in  Italy,  and  procured 
the  transfer  of  the  duchy  of  Mantua  to 
the  Duke  of  Nevers.  Among  the  last 
to  be  crushed  by  him  were  Cinq-Mars 
and  De  Thou,  who,  with  the  king's 
approval,  attempted  to  ruin  the  great 
minister.  Before  his  death  he  recom- 
mended Cardinal  Mazarin  as  his  suc- 
ceseor.  Richelieu  was  a  great  statesman, 
but  he  was  proud,  arrogant,  and  vindic- 
tive. He  was  a  patron  of  letters  and 
art,  and  founder  of  the  French  Academy 
and  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 
Richmond  (rJch'mund),  an  ancient 
municipal  borough  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  county  of  and  42  miles  north- 
west of  York  (North  Riding),  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Swale.  It  is  pictur- 
esquely situated,  and  has  numerous  inter- 
esting remains  of  antiquity,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  the  castle,  com- 
prising an  area  of  nearly  6  acres,  and 
oue  of  the  most  majestic  ruins  in  Eng- 
land.   Pop.   (1911)   3934. 

Biohmond.   5u  *°^°  °*  England,  in 

„  "**»    the  county  of  Surrey.  12 

n»iles  w.  s.  w.  of  London,  partly  on  an 

•odivitjr  of  Bichmood  Uili,  and  partly  on 


a  plain  along  the  Thamea.  It  la  a  fa- 
Torltt  resort  of  Londonera  for  boating 
and  other  recreations,  the  scenery  In 
the  vicinity  being  very  beautiful.  Ridi- 
mond  was  a  favorlt*  reaidence  for  manr 
centuries  of  the  monarchs  of  England, 
several  of  whom  died  there.    The  great 

eark  of  Richmond,  formed  by  Charles  I, 
I  enclosed  by  a  brick  wall  8  miles  In 
length.     Pop.  (1011)  83,223. 

Eichmond,  'coi%:^to^^'^i^u 

oil  refineries,  wine  industries,  steel  plants, 
porcelain  factories,  car  shops,  bride  indus- 
tries, etc.    Pop.  18,300. 

Bichmond,  Va^^e  cr  °Sdia"n'a!  ^ 
miles  E.  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant industrial  center,  with  manufactures 
of  farming  implements,  threshing  ma- 
chines, machinery,  furniture,  undertakers' 
Hupplies,  brass  and  iron  goods,  underwear, 
automatic  tools,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Rnrlham  College  and  other  institutions. 
I'op.  22,324. 

Bichmond.  ?  *^*y  ?'  ?*?,*°S^y'  ~.V°" 

M>«,wu«uvuu)  jy  ggjjj  ^£  Madison  Ca, 
25  miles  8.  B.  of  Lexington.  Live  stock  is 
raised  and  shipped  and  there  is  a  to- 
bacco industry.  The  Central  Univer- 
sity (Presbyterian)  and  Madison  Female 
Institute  are  situated  here.    Pop.  5340. 

Biohmond.   !•»*«  capital   of   Virginia. 
"--iivsiu,    jg  g^^iy  Bitnated  on  the 

north  side  of  James  River,  at  the  head 
of  tidewater,  100  miles  a.  by  w.  of 
Washington.  The  streete  are  generally 
wide  and  well  built,  and  moatly  intersect 
each  other  at  right  angles.  There  are 
many  fine  buildings,  Inoiudhig  the  capitol, 
govemor'a  house,  city  hall,  federal  build- 
ings, buildings  of  Richmond  College,  the 
Jefferson  Davis  Mansion  (now  a  museum 
of  Confederate  relics),  the  Chief  Justice 
Marshall  residence,  exposition  buildings. 
Soldiers'  Home,  etc.  The  State  House  or 
Capitol  contains  Houdon's  celebrated 
marble  statue  of  Washington,  and  in  the 
Capitol  grounds  are  Foley's  bronze  statue 
of  General  T.  J.  ('Stonewall')  Jackson 
and  Crawford's  bronze  statue  of  Wash- 
ington, 25  feet  high,  on  a  pedestal  42 
feet  high,  surrounded  by  otner  bronze 
statues.  There  is  a  fine  system  of  parks, 
a  national  cemetery  and  the  famous  Holly- 
wood Cemetery  in  which  are  the  graves 
of  Presidents  Monroe  and  Tyler,  John 
Randolph,  Jefferson  Davis,  and  others  of 
note.  There  are  a  number  of  collegiate 
institutions.  Water-power  is  almost  un- 
limited, and  the  various  mills  and  fac- 
tories give  employment  to  numerous 
workmen,  the  tobacco  and  Iron  industries 
being  of  great  importance.  The  trade 
staples  are  tobacco,  Iron,  grain,  and  flouR 


^Xii^iiiioiid 


BiolMti 


Th«  flnt  oceupation  of  ttnj  part  of  itodmth   of   bis  only   Mm   in   18911.    Jms 

S/wSTbraStah  Mttlon ViaiW;  tho  Paal'f  work,  (ht  wroto  »nif,i"ll2!K> 

StT  WM  tomflly  founded  in  1742,  and  are  cbaracteriied  by  a  den>ly  r«fl«tl»« 

bSiMTthe  ™t  of  forernment  in  1780.  and    phlloaophlc   bnmor.   but   aw   ofUn 

DurSf  the  CiTil  war  It  wa.  the  awit  of  whlmateal  and  '"»"««•    Tbey  ara  full 

tiw  Cmifederate  govemment    It  waa  in-  of  good   tblnga,  but  ahow  no  mom  of 

veated  by  tha  Fedaral  annle.,  "d  lurten-  prpportlon,  "«"««»«*»•'  fhln^thS 

d*red  on  April  8,  1865.    Pop.  127,028.  Uh.    Hia    writlnpi,    othar    »«>*»*«»;• 

»4!ai«*mwI     BoBOUOH     OF,     dreater  noted   above,    Include   Blamen-^FnicW-. 

SlOAmona,   g^     York,  ainbracea  the  und  DornetutUcke  (•  Flower,  Prult,  mi 

whole    of    StatenlslandT  Pop.    86,969.  Thorn^Pie«^^^1796).^^^    D«  US 

S?«Sti7  'Svfit),  BUO.W,  a  German  ian^^Thal  (1797)ra^J«a«  ,(1^|.  %e«; 

SlOnter    iinticiaiC    bom    at    DUsael-  jahre  (translated  by  Carlyle  '  WUd  (W 

dorf  in  1838/    He  entered  the  Prussian  1804).    Dte     Vortckute    far    Am<A««M 

Diet  in  1869,  and  the  ImperJal  Diet  In  ('Introduction  to  ^thetics'),  hlaflrat 

1871,  and  became  the  able  and  acknowl-  important   philosophical   work,  appearea 

XU  leader  of  the  Progressist  Liberals,  in  1804.    It  was  followed  by  I^wi-J^  ^ 

VJa1i4-«i>     Gustav,  a  German  painter,  ErztekMng$lekn  (1807),  a  work  on  •«»• 

BlOnter,   ^^  at  Berlin  in  ISfflT;  died  cation.    His   works   connected   with   tha 

then  in  1884.    He  was  a  member  of  the  history  and  politics  of  tbe  J««nV;'«2i 

Academiea     of     Berlin,     Munich,     and  Friedentpredtgt     (1808),    D&mmermn§9n 

vfrawrlxerated  £res^  in  the'Beriin  f^r    DjuUckhnd     (1809);    jTart    i^ 

MMeum.  and  attracted  attention  by  his  Pfcfiftaa'    T*ron»co*«eJ    U    J»*rJSii 

BaSSag    o*    Jaifwa'    Daughttr   and    hU  (1814),   and   PoJ«««c*e  FattrnpreHgtm 

BuiWmtf  0/ rte  Pyromtd«,  a  colossal  pic-  (1817).  /_,,.,*     «.    v     iii..»* 

^re  (Milxmicb^rit  is  on  his  portraits,  EichthOVeil  iU'^^B^i'voH    tiSJ 

however,  that  his  fame  chiefly  rests,  his  *^*'  StZl^  mu^^m  ht'-Mol' 

"cSSStik"*^  '"*'"'"'  ""'        "^  ^^  te"l&.^*For"t^elvS1S;£  ^Sol 

V{/>li4-.Y>     Jkaw  Paul  Fbiedbich,  com.  72,  be  traveled  in  Europe  and  the  Weat- 

SlCnter,   ^ionly  called  Jean  Paui^  a  em  United  States  and  waa  aubaequenti* 

German  writer,  was  bora  March  21,  1703,  professor   of   geology   at   Rome,   and  of 

at  Wunaiedel,  in  the  Fichtelgebirge,  and  feo«rapby  at  §**l^i«  *°%  **"™V|,S! 
died  November  14,  1825,  at  Baireuth.  19C5  he  was  made  dirertor  of  the  Inatltot 
Hta  fathw  wli  at  the  tiie  of  his  birth,  fttr  Meeneskunde.  His  worta  on  tkc 
a  teacher  andorganist  at  Wunsiedel;  at  geography  and  geology  of  China  at*  of 
a  later  period  pastor  at  Schwaracnbach   high  value.  .  ,  ,,     ^  .  ,  ^  .   ^ 

on  the  fiaale.  In  1781  Richter  entered  lUcimcr  i'^l*-"!'^'  ■*«*°K*'*i2Si*rtS; 
"he  University  of  Leipzig  in  order  to  ■""'J""''*  barian  descent  who  ruMtta 
■tudy  theolo^.  but  soon  changed  his  western  Roman  Empire  by  emp«on 
plan;  and  devoted  himself  to  literature,  whom  he  set  up  and  put  down  at  iriU. 
In  i784  he  was  forced  by  poverty  to  He  dethroned  Avitua  in  466,  and  ■» 
leave  Leipaig.  In  1787-94  he  was  a  pri-  pointed  Majorlanus  ,«nperor,  whom  he 
•»ate  tutor,  but  in  the  meantime  he  had  caused  to  l»  assarelnated  in  461.  He 
published  his  Gr6nlandiache  Proceate  then  placed  Livius  Severus  on  the  throne, 
V  Greenland  Lawsuits,'  1783-84).  Aut-  and  on  his  death  m  4®  he  carried  on  the 
tbsM  OM  de*  TeufeU  Papieren  ( •  Selec-  government  for  some  time  alone.  In  467 
tion  from  the  Devil's  Papers.'  178©),  and  ArtheiLUS  was  put  on  the  throne,  and 
Die  untichtbare  Loge  (*  The  Invisible  gave  his  daughter  In  marriage  to  Ricim«f. 
Lodge.'  1793).  This  brought  him  fame  The  latter  soon  took  up  arms  againat  bla 
and  money,  and  was  followed  by  another  father-in-law,  who  was  assassinated  in 
romance,  Hetperua  (1795),  and  The  Life  472.  Riclmer  died  soon  after. 
of  Qumtua  Fislein  (1796),  a  humoristic  TMc'iniU.  ^**  Caator-oa. 
idyl,  works  which  made  his  name  one  of  **  ^  "**"   ^ 

the  best  known  in  Germany.  In  1796  he  HicketS  <«'ik'ets),  a  disease  pecuUai 
went  to  Weimar,  and  subsequently  moved  <■**««•«•"  to  infancy,  chiefly  chaxactei^ 
to  other  towns,  finally  settling  at  Baireuth  iaed  by  changes  in  the  texture,  chemtoU 
In  1804.  He  shortly  afterwards  received  e<^tpo3ltlon,  and  outward  '<»aa  of  too 
a  penaioa  from  ihe  prince-primate.  Dal-  bony  skeleton,  and  by  altered  fnnctiona 
berg,  which  waa  afterwarda  continued  of  the  other  organs,  transient  for  tlw 
6j  the  King  of  Bavaria.  While  ataying  moat  part,  but  oonsionally  peimanent 
in  Berlin  in  1801  he  married  Karoline  The  chief  external  featurea  are  the  lege 
Mayer,  a  union  which  provad  very  happy,  bent  outward,  cheat  unduly  projectuw. 
Hia  laat  yeais   woe  aa^kned  by   the  head  burge  and  forehead  projecting,  aplor 

83— U— 6 


HI 


i  i 


llMektt  fifing 


litud 


•CHa  cnrrad.  Joints  krtt  and  promiiMiit, 
gHMiAl  torn  itonted,  etc.  Bkktto  is 
ehtefly  a  dlMtM  of  lam  citi««,  and  its 
dtvtl^MMnt  ia  favorad  by  want  of  nonr- 
iiidoff  food,  OTticrowdlnt,  and  neg  laet  of 
■aaitaiy  and  hjvianfe  pncautlona  gen- 
aralijr.  In  tba  traatment  of  rickeU  all 
moaaa  an  amploTad  bf  which  the  aya- 
ttm  la  inviaorated,  incloding  good  food, 
fraah  air,  and  csardae.  The  ate  of 
aplinta  for  the  Icga  ia  often  beneficial,  and 
aa  the  diUd  growa  up  nature  often  reme- 
diea  the  worst  featorea. 

Biooohet  Rring  (,^{,f  ",Ve"fi'rin-J 

of  gana,  nortars,  or  bowitsers  with 
small  chargea  and  low  elevation,  ao  as 
to  cause  tM  balls  or  sheUB  to  bound 
along.  It  ia  very  destructive,  and  is 
frequently  used  in  sieges  to  clear  the 
face  of  a  ravelin,  bastion,  or  other  work, 
dismounting  guns  and  scattering  men; 
and  may  also  be  used  against  troops  in 
the  field. 

Udean  Canal  <.'i-^ftn."..S5Sft? 

tween  Kingston  on  Lake  Ontario  and 
Ottawa  as  a  through  waterway  by  meana 
of  the  liver  Ottawa  to  Montreal,  the  St. 
Lawranoe  route  being  interrupted  by 
rapldap  Canala  have  since  been  built 
along  the  St.  Lawrence  to  avoid  these, 
and  the  RIdeau  is  now  little  used. 

EidgeWOOd,  U'''ferSy.^?rnS& 
fnm  New  York,  and  6  miles  K.  s.  of 
Paterson.  Pop.  M1&. 
HiAtmriLjr  borough,  capital  of  Elk  Co., 
JUagWay,  Pennsylvania.  118  mUes 
a.  K.  of  Brie.  Ehigines.  macbinen,  dyna* 
moa, .  edge-tools,  etc.,  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  6408. 

Bider's  Bone,  ?•  J^°™'"  l^^^  * 

Ma,u«A  B  wuv)  jjupj  i^mp  ^hich  some- 
timea  forms  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
thi^  in  persons  who  ride  much. 
BidilUr  (rtd'lng)  is  the  art  of  sitting 
'"•"'••  on  horseback  with  firmness, 
eaae,  and  gracefulness,  and  of  guiding 
the  noise  and  keeping  him  under  perfect 
comtiand.  Walking,  trotting,  and  gal- 
loping are  the  three  natural  pacep  of  the 
,  horse,  but  thme  may  be  converted  into 
'artificial  paces  by  art  and  skill,  by  short- 
ening or  quickening  the  motion  of  the 
horse.  The  position  of  a  rider  should 
be  upright  in  the  saddle;  the  legs  and 
thighs  should  be  turned  in  easily,  so  that 
the  fore  part  of  the  inside  of  the  knees 
may  press  and  grasp  the  saddle,  and  the 
lags  hang  down  easily  and  naturally,  the 
feet  being  parallel  to  the  horse's  sides, 
ndthar  turned  in  nor  out,  only  that  the 
toea  ahould  be  kept  a  little  higher  than 
tba  ha^    The  hand  holding  the  reina 


ia  ganarally  kept  clear  of  tba  body,  aad 
lauaadlataly  over  tba  pommal  <rf  tba  aa4> 
dlA  A  firm  and  watl-k^t  balanead  pool* 
tlon  of  tba  body  ia  of  tba  utmoat 
conaaquance,  aa  it  affacta  tba  boraa  ia 
every  motlmi,  and  tba  taaada  and  laga 
ought  to  act  in  correnoadenca  with  each 
other  in  everything,  the  latter  being  al- 
ways subservient  to  the  former.  The 
art  of  riding  is  not  difficult  of  attain- 
ment, bat  it  is  one  which  can  only  be 
mastered  by  practical  instruction  ana 
constant  practice. 

HiHincra     (rld'inga),   tba  three  Juria- 
JUOUgl    aictiona  into  which  the  Bug. 
liah  county  of  York  la  divided  on  account 
of  iu  extent    They  are  called  the  North, 
East,  and  Weat  Ridinga. 
KitllAv     (rid'ii),  NiOHOLAB,  Biabop  ot 
*"*"«/     London  in  the  reins  of  Ed- 
ward VI,  and  bia  successor  Mary,  was 
bom  about  the  commencement  of  the  six- 
teenth  century,   and   educated   at   Cam- 
brldse.    He  afterwarda  traveled  on  the 
continent  for  three  yeara,  and  on  bia  re- 
turn filled  the  office  of  proctor  to  Cam- 
bridge    Univeraity.    In     1547     he    was 
chosen  to  the  see  of  Rochester,  and  in 
1550   auperaeded    Bonner   as    Bishop   of 
London.    On   the   death   of   Eklward   he 
waa  involved  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
Protestant    ascendency    by    placing    the 
Lady  Jane  Orey  upon  the  throne.    Thht, 
together  with  his  connection  with  Cran- 
mer,  led  to  bia  being  tried  for  hereay,  and 
after  a  formal  disputation  on   the  con- 
troverted   points   with    a   deputation   of 
Roman    Catholic    bishops    he    was   con- 
demned to  the  stake.    This  sentence  he 
underwent  with  the  greatest  fortitude,  in 
company  with  his  friend  and  fellow-suf- 
ferer Latimer,  Oct.  16,  1565,  in  Oxford. 
lliilnAfli    (rid'path),     John     Clamk, 
JUapaiU    higtorlan,   bom   in   Putnam 
Co.,  Indiana,  in  1840;  died  Aug.  1,  1000. 
He  became  professor  of  English  literature 
in  Asbury  University.  Ind.,  in  1867  and 
its  vice-president  in  1879.    He  published 
a  Eiatorv  of  the  United  Btatea  in  1875. 
a  Cyclopedia  of  Vniveraal  Hittory,  1880- 
84.  and  Great  Races  of  Mankind,  1894. 
HiaI     Louis,  a  Canadian  revolutionist, 
^»>*^h    bora  at  Boniface.  Manitoba,  In 
1844,  son   of   a  half-breed    Indian.     He 
became  a  leader  of  revolts  against  the 
English,   was   elected   to   the   Dominion 
parliament,  but  not  allowed  to  take  bis 
seat,    and    after    this    twice    organised 
rebellions  among  the  Indians  and  western 
settlers.    He  waa  takoi  prisoner  in  1880, 
tried  for  trsaacm  and  executed. 
ViMvivi  ir«-«i'sS),  Cola  di,  a  native 
■*"*^^of    Rome,    bora    abiut    1812. 
Ha  waa  tha  aoD  of  a  tevem-keeper,  ac- 
quired a  good  aducatlon,  and  early  dla- 


tiafaMMd  Wmtelf  by^bto  t*»«J\.H^ 
MBWlally  by  hla  attaclu  on  tb«  tyranny 
ySTnibli.  In  1342  b«  «id«Jorad  to 
tndoct  Pop*  Cl«n«nt  VI.  tlwn  nt  ATl£on, 
to^UiltlaUrafonni.  but  nothing  *"  «o»«: 

IB  18*7.  daring  A*  ■«»««fj?' .^^^ffi 
•nior  of  Borne.  Sufano  Coloonn,  RI«m1 
vamnoned  a  Mcnt  anemblv  of  bta  ]"«>« 
upoi  Mount  Avwtln*.  ■»»  Induced  them 
»ir  to  rob*!Tibe  an  oath  for  the  aatab- 
liabmtnt  of  a  plan  of  goveminent  which 
ho  oTlIed  tho  'food  etUte.'    The  pjoplo 
conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  tribune, 
with   all   the   attrlbntea   of   •oTereifnty. 
He  banished  aeveral  noble  famlllea,  and 
compelled  Colonna   to  quit   Rome.    He 
Slrt  regard   to  justice  and   the  public 
Mod  In  the  flnit  exerclee  of  hie  power 
Induced   even   the  pope   to   countenance 
him.    But  he  •uboeqnently  became  ambl- 
tlouB  and   haughty,  and  «»«""«.  5*  SS^ 
lost  the  confidence  of  the^people  he  with- 
drew from  Rom*  In  1348.     He  returned 
sMiretly  to  Rome  in  1850,  but  was  dis- 
covered, and  fell  Into  the  hands  of  Pope 
Clement  at  AvignMi.  who  imprisoned  him 
for   three   years.     Innocent    VI    released 
Rlenil,  and  sent  him  to  Rome  to  oppose 
another  popular  demagogue  named  Bpron- 
celll.     But  after  a  turbulent  admlnletrn- 
tlon  of  a  few  months  he  was  killed  In 
1*154 

•pill-  (rft'si).  a  town  In  Saxony,  on 
Bi«»  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe.^  It 
bu  a  large  river  trade  and  various  Indus- 
X^    P?p.   (1906)  14.OT8. 

Eiesengebirge  iSn'*t?-ifo;Juin'?); 

a  mountain  range  of  Europe,  separating 
Silesia  from  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  till 
it  loins  the  Carpathians;  but  the  name 
is  properly  applied  to  that  part  of  this 
range  which  llee  between  the  sources  of 
the  Neisse  and  the  Bober.    It  conUins 
the  loftiest  mountains  of  the  north  or  cen- 
tral parts  of  Germany,  the  Schneekoppe 
being    6257    feet    high.    The    geologl^l 
structure  of  the  range  consists  of  granite, 
Koelss,  and  mtca  slate,  and  In  the  valleys 
there  are  coal  and  Imsaltic  strata. 
PiMi     (re-ft'se),  a  town  in  Sicily.  prpT- 
■"**"    toce    of    CaltanissetU.     It    haa 
large  sulphur  mines,  and  the  oHv-e  and 
vine    are     here     extensively    cultivated. 

irffff.liAlr  (ret-bok),  the  Dutch  name 
iUei-DOK  ^gp  ^n  antelope  of  South 
Africa,  which  Uvea  in  ree'?y  marshes 
(£|eotr40««  arKndinacewfl).  Called  also 
itewl-bao*.  .     ,    ,     ,     ^v 

JtimH  («•»  «)i  *  town  in  Italy,  in  tha 
***•"  Evince  of  Perugia;  *2  mllea 
H.  H.  ■.  of  Rome.  It  ia  the  aee  of  a 
Mriiop,  haa  aa  imporing  cathedral,  and 


manttfacturcs  of  ailk  and  woolen  atofi. 

SJff^'S;  S%t  (.if),  a  dlatrictjjj.  tb. 

*"*»   north  coast  of  Morocco,  long  tm 

home  of  pirates,  who  gave  W*  »«3jl 

to  the  European  powen  by  their  depNM' 

tlons  hi  the  Mediterranean. 

"Q^m    (*!•«).  »  portable  flraarm,  tba 

*"*•    interior  surface  of  the  barral  of 

which  is  grooved,  the  channels  being  cut 

in  the  fora  of  a  screw.    Th« i»«"»»>«'Si 

these  spiral  channels  otthnt^y^^ 

aa  their  depth,  varies  In  ;i>«««t,.r*2! 

the  most  approved  form  being  *•»  the 

channels   and    ridge*    of   «!«•>    b"**«fe 

and  the  spiral  turning  mora  ?\«Jcklyae  W 

nean   the   mussle.    The   bullet   «red    to 

now  always  of  an  elongated  w™-    T** 

great  advantage  gained  by  a  weapon  M 

this  construction  Is  that^th*  bullet  dto- 

charged  from  the  piece,  by  ha..ng  ajo- 

tatory  action  imparted  to  Ita  axta  «wn; 

cldent  with  Its  line  of  flight,  is  pr***!^ 

In  Its  direct  path  without  Wng  subtect 

to  the  aberrations  that  Injur*  preclalon 

of  aim  In  firing  with  n'''fl«$  ■';?J!lJ2 
a  necessary  consequence  of  the  prolecUl* 
being  carried  mo>  i  directly  m  Its  line  of 
aim*  Its  length  of  range,  is  well  as  Ito 
certainty  in  hitting  the  f^bject.  Is  mU- 
rlally  Increased.     RlPcs  were  invented  m 
Germany  In  1498,  and  have  been  nscdM 
military   weapons  since  1631,   «>»t  ,wm 
not  used  In  the  British  army  until  tM 
latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  centwy :  aaid 
tin  1851  the  British  Infantry,  with  the 
exception  of  those   regimento  hw^"™  •• 
rifle  corps,  was  universally  arngd  w^ 
the   smooth-bore   musket    In    1»1    t»* 
firat  rifle  firing  an  elongated  bullet  cum 
in  under  the  name  of  the  MInle.    Alter 
this  date  came  the  leneral  adopUon  eC 
the  breech-loading  rifle,  the  reductlOBai 
bore  and  weight  of  weapon,  and  saM*- 
quently    the    development    of    aagaalM 
rifle*,  now  commonly  In  use  in  •"  •""•••r 
In    the    United    States    the    Springfield 
rifle  waa  the  army  weapon   fnmi   1878 
to   1882,    when   it   was   replaced   bjr   a 
Scandinavian  magaslne  rifle.   th«  Kr«f- 
Jorgensen.    In  1902  the  Springfield,  now 
converted    Into    a    magazine    rifle,    vra* 
adopted  as  the  army  weapon.    In  ordi- 
nary use  the  Winchester  has  long  beatt 
a  favorite.    In  European  armies  yarioa* 
weapona    are    in    «8e.    In    Br  tain    th* 
Martini-H«iry    was, adopted    to    18W: 
now  replaced  by  the  Lee-Metford  weapMi. 
In  Europe  the  Mauser  is  the  weaptm  m 
nae  in  aevcral  countries;  the  Chasaepot, 
Krac>Jorgeaaen,    etc.,    in    others.    Tma 
daisoflSSlne  rifle  is  being  replaced 
to   amn*   countrie*   by   <me   whloh   acti 
antomatlcally,   ajecting   the  empty   shell 

aR>-8 


Bifle 


Bigft 


•ad  brlafiiif  forward  anotbtr  cartridn 
b7  tb«  forct  of  tlM  diKbarge.  Tb«M  will 
Art  800  bvlltts  p«r  nianto.  but  tbtir 
waifbt  and  complrslty  and  toe  want*  of 
anaaaltloii  in  tbis  rapid  scattering  of 
balltta  art  objections  to  tbeir  oee.  Since 
1006  a  new  abarp-pointed  bullet  baa  been 
adopted  in  the  United  Sutea  and  aereral 
otber  countries. 

Tha  reneatinc  rifle  is  a  development  of 
n  Tonr  old  typa  of  weapon.  In  the  Sprn- 
ear,  ua  flrat  used  with  signal  success, 
tba  cartridgea  are  placed  in  tbe  stocit  of 
tba  aim:  In  tba  Winchester,  tbe  best 
known  of  repeating  rifles,  they  are  in  a 
tuba  nndemeath  tbe  barrel.  More  mod- 
em military  magasine  rifles  draw  their 
supply  of  cartridgea  from  a  reserve  con- 
tained In  a  detachable  magaiioe,  the  ad- 
vantage being  tbe  greater  efficiency  of  the 
w«ap«I  aa  a  ringle  loader.  The  Lehel 
riflaa,  originally  furnished  with  a  tubular 
magasine,  are  now  being  converted  to 
tba  more  modern  type.  The  breech  mech- 
aniam  usually  preferred  Is  that  upon 
tba  *  door-bolt '  principle,  of  which  the 
Chaasepot  and  Prussian  needle-gun  are 
wdl-known  types:  tbe  Winchester  is  one 
of  tba  few  actuated  by  an  under  lever, 
and  tha  Colt  is  worked  by  a  sliding  boss 
placad  nnder  tbe  Iwrrel.  In  tbe  Mann- 
licber  tba  bolt  is  drawn  iMck  simply;  in 
others  it  haa  to  be  turned  to  tbe  left  be- 
fore it  can  be  withdrawn.  With  the 
Lebd  tba  breech-bolt  hns  two  projec- 
tions, which,  when  the  bolt  is  turned, 
aecnrely  lock  the  bolt  close  to  the  base  of 
tha  cartridge;  in  the  Enfield-Lee,  a  simi- 
lar double-locking  arrangement  is  placed 
where  the  projecting  knob  to  actuate  the 
mechanism  Joins  the  breech-bolt.  The 
maguine  of  tbe  Enfield-Lee,  containing 
eight  cartrid«Bs,  is  placed  under  the  stock 
banind  the  Iwrrel.  to  the  level  of  which 
a  spiral  spring  in  the  maKozine  raises 
tbe  cartridges.  The  breech-bolt,  which 
etmtaina  the  firing  mechanism  and  ex- 
tractor, when  pushed  furward  forces  the 
raised  cartridge  into  the  barrel.  The 
magasine  is  detached  by  pressing  a 
*  catch.'  or  blocked  by  a  "^  cut-oft,'  when 
the  rifle  may  be  used  as  a  single  loader. 

When  Whitworth  produced  his  hexag- 
oual  bore  rifle  of  .450  caliber,  it  was 
thought  that  the  bullet  was  of  insuflScient 
diameter,  and  the  Ji77  was  adopted  in  its 
stead;  later,  after  twenty  years'  exper- 
ience with  tbe  .460  Martini-Henrv,  tbe 
bore  has  been  still  further  reduced, 
diiefly  owing  to  the  discoveries  of  Hebler, 
whose  Swiss  rifle  of  7i  millhneters  was 
fonnd  to  give  increased  velocity,  greater 
range,  equal  accuracy,  and  at  the  same 
«■•  parmitted  of  lighter  ammunition 
baiat  mtL    Tb«  bollet  is  coated  with 


thin  ateel,  ferro-nickei  or  other  hani 
metal,  so  that  it  shall  not  strip  In  tbe 
rifling,  which  has  a  sharp  twist,  one  com* 

filete  turn  in  less  than  12  incbea,  and 
Mvea  tbe  mussle  at  a  velocity  of  2000 
or  m'  e  feet  per  second,  thus  giving  an 
extreme  range  of  8500  yarda.  Improved 
explosives,  almost  sniokeless  and  which 
do  not  foul  tbe  barrel,  have  added  to  tbe 
success  of  the  small-bore  rifle.  Sporting 
rifles  have  a  shorter  range  and  Inferior 
velocity  to  the  best  military  ones. 

The  Mauser  is  a  magasine  rifle  in 
which  tbe  cartridge-bolder  or  clip  conaists 
merely  of  a  strip  of  metal  curved  at  its 
edges  to  enfold  the  flanged  heads  of  tha 
cartridges.  The  magasine  is  placed  cen- 
trally under  the  receiver  and  shells  are 
forced  from  the  clip  into  the  magasine 
from  aliove.  The  breech  mechanism  has 
tlie  ordinary  sliding  and  turning  bolta  for 
the  operation  of  charging  tbe  rifle.  The 
bore  Is  0.256  in.  A  charge  of  80  graioa 
of  smokelesa  powder  ejects  a  bullet  of  220 
grains  with  deadly  force  to  over  1000 
yards.  The  bullet  is  a  lead  slug  Mcketed 
with  a  thin  cover  of  steel,  the  length 
being  about  3  calibers. 

XiflTft  (i^'eA),  a  seaport  of  Russia, 
*^o"  capital  of  the  government  of 
Livrnia,  on  both  sides  of  the  Duna  or 
Dwina,  about  5  miles  above  its  mouth  in 
the  Oulf  of  Riga.  It  is  situated  on  a 
sandy  flat,  and  in  the  older  parts  consi»ts 
of  narrow,  windiug  streets,  huddled  to> 
gether,  while  the  more  modem  parts  are 
much  better  built.  The  river  ia  croaaed 
by  a  bridge  of  boats,  und  on  both  sides 
are  spacious  quays,  which  afford  excellent 
promenades.  The  public  buildings  are 
numerous,  but  few  of  them  are  deserving 
of  particular  notice,  except  the  cathedraL 
a  Gothic  building  of  the  thirteentb  and 
sixteenth  centuries,  8t.  Peter's  Church, 
the  castlo  or  governor's  residence,  and  the 
town-hall.  The  manufactures  are  not  of 
greut  importance,  but  the  trade  is  very 
•extensive,  tbe  principal  exports  l)eing  flax, 
hemp,  timl>er,  linseed,  grain,  etc.  Shipa 
can  come  up  to  the  town,  or  they  soay 
unload  and  take  cargo  in  at  Dunamiinde, 
the  port  and  fortress  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  Half  of  tbe  trade  is  with  Britain- 
Pop.  370,000,  of  whom  nearly  half  are 
Germans,  and  Protestants  by  relMon. 
About  23  per  cent  are  Letts  and  2o  per 
cent  Russians.  Tbe  wealth  of  Riga  Is  for 
the  most  part  in  tho  hands  of  Ofinnan 
tradesmen  and  bankers. 

In  the  winter  campaign  of  1015  fa  the 
European  war  the  Germann  almost  forced 
their  way  to  Riga,  but  ware  halted  by  the 
stout  resistance  of  the  Russian  troops. 
The  seaport  fell  to  tho  Germans  two  years 
later  following  the  revolution.  On  August 


llaiiai 


The  town  wm  ev«cuat«l  Aujnwt  23.  nnd  har.  »?«  ~°f??"!li*  oDoSltt   Sfc 

TiSftM  Sy  "it¥G^nny.  .iicn.Hl  b^  loomotive.      Hotels     •»*     ilmaM 

M«W.h  a  1918.  and  raUftwJ  at  Moscow  Bi-^- VAffi*  (rli'ur  mOr'tto),  »• 
Kwh  &  BlS  and  tl^ wholo  of  Uvonl.  BlgOr  «Ortli  h.^j  o«  U-S^a-J 
and  E«thOTla  were  to  bo  '  ownpiiMl  by  a  followB  death.  It  ia  oM  of  the  aifM  OC 
Qerman  wHco  for**  nntU  Hocnritv  wa«  cessation  o(  life. 

nuarantml  by  their  own  natloiiHl  iimtltu-  «.  ,         (rifTe'dft),.th«  to*  ui 

Wimn  and  oAltr  in  the  atatw.  wna  rej  Blg-VCOa  ^p;fnclp«l  of  tho  ▼•*«•» 
Btored.'  RlKtt  la  atrateKlcally  aituated  ^^.^.^  hymna  of  the  Uindoa.  Baa  VtiM. 
with  rpfen-noo  to  Potniynid.  .       j  AuotjaT,    bom    at    RIba, 

wj--  or  LivoifiA,  Gyur  or.  a  gulf  of  RuS,  i,enmarC  May  8, 1840,  amlgniMl 
■»*8»>  the  Daltic,  wbkh  wu.he-  the  jj^^^fP^^  "nd  bJcaie  a  poUSe  fa- 
coaata  of  Courland.  Livonia,  nud  hHtho-  J^^^^^Q^he  Sun.  Hla  book.*Hoia  «• 
nia.  and  contract*  In  the  wwt  to  a  torn-  g"™^  ^  j .  ^  .  (i883),  created  a  •»• 
paratlvely  narrow  entrance,  the  island  of  ""yoQ  |n  '  uiiauthroplc  drclea  In  Naw 
Sael  almoat  closing  It  on  the  north weat.  5?"ef  ^j  U  becama  a  leadar  In  aodal 
The  chief  river  which  It  receive,  ia  the  J3^{!'„,"'^ther  publiahed  worka  iaduda 

ilht  .£  way.  xxv«?5  R;i?ii.'fsi.i!'^Va2r^isi^ 

pwn.  Rlghta  of  thla  kind  are  public  ij  WjUv  (rt'U),  JaMM  WHITOnttrPOJit, 
enjoyed  by  everybody:  private.  If  enjoyed  »"Cy  V^rn  at  Qreenfield,  pi«JUM. 
by  a  certain  peraon  or  claaa  of  peraona.  1849.  He  becama  a  alfn-palntar,  aRar> 
Wherever  there  is  a  public  right  of  way,  ward  a  strolling  pUyer,  and  w«'»,"J2l 
there  la  a  highway.  The  origin  of  a  torial  writer  on  the  IndlanapoUa  yoaniafc 
highway  ia  generally  said  to  be  In  a  dedl-  in  1873  he  began  <»ntributinif  to  naw»- 
cation  thereof  by  an  owner  to  the  public:  papers  poems  in  tlia_„Hoosieir^  .^y^S 
and  such  dedication  may  be  expressed  Among  his  books  are :  2'»«  Otd  awmi^mr 
or  implied.  It  will  be  implied  from  the  Hole,  AJtenekile».Pip^  o  jP«»  •*  f% 
use  of  the  highway  by  the  public  for  a  lury.  Green  Ftetdt,  B^oedp  f,'*'^.^ 
moderate  number  of  years.  But  a  high-  Schoolday  Rpmanoee,  Bonam  o  Vheer, 
way  may  also  be  eatablished  by  act  of  Orpkant  Annie  Booh,  etc.    Died  IWtJ. 

Eighta  ol iiL,  t^^rsur,  ^ss^Ai  12.'«S2 


i 


Aimiky-KorMkof 


BiBgedfiB«k« 


bor  has  lUted  ap  to  u  to  admit  only  mudl 
▼wwls.    Pop.  (1910)  28345. 

Eimsky-Korsakof   i^^g: 

•Un  compowr  and  conductor,  bom  at 
TlkhTin.  Match  18,  1844;  died  at  St. 
PetenboM,  Jnne  22,  1908.  He  waa  pro- 
feaor  of  instnunentation  at  the  St 
Petcrrinixf  Conaervatonr,  1871*78;  and 
inspector  of  naval  iianda,  1873-84.  His 
compoaitiong  include  several  operas, 
•ymidionic  poems,  three  symphonies,  and 
aonga 

Simn  (rt'mfl),  a  New  Zealand  tree 
*^^'*  (DooryiMMm  ouprei$inum)  of 
til*  yew  family.  It  crows  to  a  height  of 
80  to  100  feet,  and  irom  2  to  6  feet  in 
diametec^  Its  wood  is  valued  for  general 
building  purposes. 

BinderDOlt  <**'  ?*' ■  R^'*  •  German 
***'****'* r^*""  name),orGATTix-PLAouE, 

a  contagious  disease  which  attacks  ani- 
mals of  the  oz  family,  and  is  attended 
with  the  most  deadly  results.  The  disease 
appears  to  be  identical  with  what  was 
formerly  known  as  murrain,  and  is  some- 
times called  the  steppe-murrain,  from  the 
Russian  steppes,  which  are  its  habitat. 
this  disease  has  caused  great  havoc 
MBong  cattle  for  at  least  a  thousand 
nara,  q>reading  occasionally  like  a  pesti- 
lence over  Europe.  In  1805-67  there 
was  A  very  serious  visitation  of  it  The 
treatment  of  the  disease  having  proved  a 
failure,  die  policy  of  'stamping-out'  or 
killing  all  infected  animals  was  adopted. 
Durinc  tills  outbreak  between  200,000 
and  800,000  cattle  died  nf  the  plaxue  in 
Britain,  or  were  ordered  to  be  killed  on 
account  of  it  In  1806  a  serious  epi- 
demic broke  out  in  Africa,  and  spread 
with  great  rapidity,  reaching  South  Africa 
by  the  end  of  the  year  and  destroying 
thousands  of  antelopes  and  other  wild 
animals  in  addition  to  cattle.  Tlie  prob- 
able cause  of  the  disease  is  a  micro-organ- 
ism which  is  found  in  tlie  blood  and  all 
the  discharges  of  the  infected  animals, 
and  is  capable  of  being  transmitted  in- 
directly by  any  of  these  to  great  distances. 
Sheep  and  other  animals  can  be  affected 
by  the  disease,  but  in  a  less  intense  form. 
The  period  of  incubation  varies  from  two 
to  ten  days.  The  symptoms  are  elevation 
of  th«  temperature  of  tbe  body,  followed 
by  a  heii^tened  color  of  tbe  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  and  granular, 
yellowish  eruptions  on  the  gums,  lips, 
tongue,  pafaite,  and  cheeks. 
P.lin»  an  ornament  for  the  fingers 
**  which  has  been  worn  from  the 
most  ancient  period  of  civilization. 
Among  the  ancient  nations  who  are 
known  to  have  attached  special  Impor- 
taact  to  the  wearing  of  rings  were  the 


Assyrians,  Ecyptiaas,  Hebrews,  Qreeka. 
and  Romana  The  nos^  ears,  arms,  and 
even  the  legs  and  toes  have  also,  among 
various  people,  been  decorated  with  them. 
Rings  have  also  from  a  very  early  period 
been  reckoned  as  symbols  of  authority, 
which  could  be  delegated  by  merely  de- 
livering the  ring  to  an  agent;  they  were 
also  used  as  symbols  of  subjection.  The 
earliest  mention  of  rings  is  in  the  book  of 
Genesis,  and  relates  to  the  Hebrews. 
Among  the  Egyptians  rings  of  gold  were 
worn  in  great  profusion.  The  common 
people  wore  porcelain  rings.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  used  them  for  sealing  con- 
tracts, closing  coffers,  etc.  The  modem 
use  of  wedding  rings  was  probably  de- 
rived from  the  Jews.'  A  nng  appears 
from  an  early  period  to  have  been  one  of 
the  insignia  of  a  bishop.  Doctors  were 
formerly  expected  to  wear  a  ring  on  the 
third  finfcer  of  the  right  hand. 

Eingbone,  SiV^^^S"  m°et  %'h  ?n 
the  coronet  of  overworked  horses,  but 
sometimes  seen  on  colts,  or  even  newly- 
dropped  fupls.  Itingbone  is  practica]' '^ 
incurable. 

Bing-dotterel  J,^*r?X*orte: 

ver  pretty  common  in  Britain,  where  it 
frequents  the  shores  of  bays  or  inlets  of 
the  sea  and  rivers,  feeding  on  worms,  in- 
sects, small  Crustacea,  etc  It  has  its 
name  from  a  white  ring  round  tbe  neck. 
'Rino'.Hnvp  <»^  Cushat  (Columba 
iUng-aOVe,  p^lumbuB),  the  largest  of 
the  pigeons  inhabiting  Europe,  occurring 
very  generally  throughout  the  .wooded 
parts  of  the  continent.  It  is  migratory  in 
countries  in  which  the  severe  winters  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  its  obtaining  a 
due  supply  of  food,  and  appears  on  the 
approach  of  winter  to  assemble  in  flocks, 
and  to  perform  a  limited  migration,  prob- 
ably in  search  of  food.  A  bluish-gray 
color  prevails  generally  over  the  head, 
cheeks,  neck,  back,  and  rump,  while  the 
breast  and  under  parts  of  the  neck  are  of 
a  purplish  red,  the  belly  and  thighs  dull 
white.  A  patch  of  white  on  either  side  of 
the  neck  forms  a  sort  of  ring  or  collar. 
The  average  length  is  about  18  or  17 
inches.  The  food  of  the  ring-dove  consists 
of  grain,  acorns,  berries,  the  leaves  and 
tops  of  turnips,  etc.  The  nests  are  com- 
posed of  sticks  and  twigs  loosely  placed 
together.  The  birds  are  wary  ana  shy, 
and  rarely  breed  in  confinement. 

Binged  Snake,  laAe  (^apidmeuu 

or  Cohtber  nafria),  with  teeth  so  small 
as  to  be  incapable  of  piercing  the  ^n. 
It  k  eommoa  in  Eng^nd.    It  feeds  on 


ling-money 


BiodeJuiAiro 


iTta^ew  tend  of  water  Mid  fa  an  excdlent 
S^tafflTe".  wmetimes  diving  with  groat  ease 
and  fniining  below  the  surface  for  a 
coniideraUe  length  of  time,  and  swimming 
for  artonishingly  long  distances. 
1>;«<»  vMATiAv      a    fo""    "'    currency 
Sing-mOney,     consisting     of     nngs, 
which  seems  to  have  originated  with  the 
Bn^tians.     It  is  still  used  in  PWts  of 
Afnba,  and  is  manufartured  in  Birming- 
ham for  the  use  of  African  traders.    A 
similar   form   of   money   was   found   by 
CiBsar  among  the  Celts  of  Gaid,  and  ap- 
iSw  aS  to  have  prevaUed  in  Britain,  as 
S^l  as  among  the  Scandinavian  nations 
of  Northern  Europe. 

EingOnzcl.    seeo^wi. 

V  J«<»nrA-iTn  a  parasitic  disease  raused 
BingWOTni)  ^^  one  or  more  of  sev- 
eral kinds  of  fungi,  usualh-  one  of  Ae 
kyphomyeete$  or  mould  ™o8>-  JL**^ 
hwe  a  predUection  for  the  «P?«  o^ 
lomy  layer  of  the  skin,  together  with  the 
h2w  ai^hair-folUdes.  Bingworm  may 
attack  almost  any  part  of  the  human 
bodyTbut  the  hairy  parts,  such  as  the 
»»&,  are  the  least  amenable  to  treatment. 
Oriliarily  cleanliness  combined  with  tiie 
^rsistent  application  of  "onje  a°^"»: 
Jdtic  agent  wiU  suffice  *<>,  ^rf°£- *°?"*  f 
cure.    Tnie  agents  commonly  a»ed  f"  su}- 

Shur.  oleate  of  mercury.  "^UTfrnm  on^r 
cyUc  acid  and  pyrogallic  add,  from  one  or 
more  of  which  anwotntinent  is  »ade. 

When  tiie  scalp  is  affected  the  ordinary 
methods  are  too  slow  and  unwitnin  and 
■m  very  likely  to  be  abandoned  by  either 
P^t  OT  p&teian.^  The  dijjase  is  not 
alw^  tiie  mild  affair  the  older  writers 
wouia^have  us  believe:    anf  (is  fie  ha^^ 
follides  are  the  parts  in  which  the  imec- 
tion  iTnSSily  foSnd  it  becomw  necessan^ 
to  remorethe  hairs  before  there  am  be 
UT  posaibiUty  of  a  cure.    In  order  to  do 
m  property   tiie ,  patient   reQ«i««   *« 
^(^  6f  a  physidanor  a  nurse  or  otiier 
qualified  attendant.    The  X-ray  method,  a 
very  eflSdent  means  of  cure,  has  bera  in 
RtoMdy  use  since  1004;    and  i».  a  wdl- 
T^lsed  agent  in,iiU  modern  hospttab 
^Tdinics  and  in  aU  large  wid  ProPrew- 

X-ray  is  pecufinr;  it^does  not/yii«? 
parSte.  bSt  removes  tiie  hair,  and  during 
SheTrSess  of  depilation  the  P«««*t^ 
^<^ed  witii  the,  hair.  There  are  two 
S^thodi  In  general  nw.  In  tito  one.  ^ 
whdfl  M«lp  is  treated  •»*  ^«  ^  H" 
m^:  in  the  other,  only  the  part  af- 
S«»aU  treated.  In  cmms  treated  by  the 
^S»  th?™  begtai  to  fan^out  atAe 
^dhrt  ibwit  two  w«*i,  Mid  the  fTonm 


(A  deflation  is  cwnplete  in  "»th«  gro 
wediSoon  after  Jl  tiie  hair  basf^ 
out,  tiie  new  hair  sUrU  to  grow :  »J»  *»»• 
varying  in  different  persons.  At  tlw  md 
ofSoSt  tiii«>  montiis  tiie  -^^P.  ^  ""^ 
covered  with  a  new  crop  of  hair.  J.M 
S^p  m^t  be  kept  thoroughly  ctew^ 
through  the  treatment.  ,  The  hair  wMg 
faUs  out  Wngs  with  it  the  foUide  and  tte 
iSSrfflfK  both  of  which  •"  fP*"^ 

of  spreading  the  i^ff^°f  J^J^fJ^^ 
of  the  same  person  as  weU  as  other  people. 
AU  tiie  hairs  in  tiie  area  treated  wmWl 
out,  whether  they  are  healthy  or  dlBeaaea. 

iL'^SnWe^r;^:^--- 

Eiobamba   <Sf-^own^of"Bcffi; 

80  miles  nortiieast  of  Guayaaull.  Pop. 
18.000.  chiefly  Indims. 

EioBranco.    ^  franco. 


•w%'    !>-«.«*<%      or    Rio     Gbardb    va. 
BaO  Bravo,     gfoBm    SeeWor«6._,    ^ 

Biode  Janeiro   \i,e  capital  of  tiu 

repubUe  of  Braril,  and  tiie  »«o^.|*'?,iw 
dty  of  South  America,  is  most  beau^Jy 
Sd  advantageously  situated  on  the  sooth- 
^tem  coast,  on  a  fine  natural  harbor 
formed  by  a  bay  of  tte  same  name.    The 
city,  which  has  a  picturCTque  appcanjue 
from  the  bay,  la  biAt  on  flat  ground  ^ 
the  shore  or  on  the  dopes  of  |ow  «»• 
Upon  nearer  approach  it  Is  found  titat  ttj 
houses  are  smiQl  and  mean  loddnf.  tha 
Btreets  narrow  and  ill  paved,  espodaBjlB 
the  older  part,  and  tiiat  ^en  i^  pt«M 
buildings  are  without  much  ar^tecttw 
merit.   The  finest  buildinp  are  the^P2»- 
house,    senate-house,    military    Mrraon. 
and    the    national    museuin.    ^Jiile    «• 
hurdles   aw   cMefly   noSfle   «or   Ag 
gaudy  interior  decoration*     A.  atrfittWr 
feature  in  tiie  dty  is  the  «fln«dw^^JSS 
brings  the  water  a  dfatance  of  12  b^ 
andcroeses  a  wide  vaUcy  on  a  beautiful 
double-tier    of    granite    arch«.  -Among 
boievdent  institutions  are  the  Casa  da 
Misericordia,  several  other  hoepitala,  and 
a  large  lunatic  asylum..    There  are  two 
coUeges,   medical   schoote.    «   naval   and 
military  academy,  numerous  .wien^  «^ 
tablishments,    public     wchools,     national 
library,  a  botanical  garden,  and  obwnra- 
tory.    kt  Rio  is  the  chief  milita»  arwart 
of  tiie  republic,  while  on  one  of  thelj- 
lands  in  the  bay  there  is  a  navalMrMWU 
^tii  dodui  and  bnjWing  raids.    The  bv 
has  ita  entrance.  1700  yards  wW%brtw«« 
Fort  St.  JufiB  and  Fort  B«»2tiP!r^dS 
extends  inwards  15  miles.  ^*.  %,^S. 
varying  from  2  to  8  m««i,.I*^  *ISS 
flrf  irtth  nuBWOna  l«l«iid^  wroniliW 


Bio  Orande 


Sionero  in  Yolture 


by  hilli  covered  by  luznriant  tropical 
vetetation,  and  affords  aafe  aochorage  for 
Uw  largest  Teeaela.  Manufactures  are 
unimportant,  but  there  is  an  extensive 
trade  in  coffee,  sugar,  hides,  tobacco,  tim- 
ber, etc.  The  principal  imports  are  linen, 
woolen,  and  cotton  tissues ;  iron  and  steel 
goods,  and  provisions  and  preserved 
meats.  The  city  is  the  central  terminus 
of  the  railways  of  the  country ;  tramways 
have  also  been  worked  for  some  time. 
The  first  settlement  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  formed  by  some 
French  refugees  in  1655.  A  Portuguese 
force  took  possession  of  the  settlement  in 
1867,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  a  new 
city,  which  has  grown  into  the  present 
capital  of  Rio  Janeiro.  Pop.  1,128.632. 
•—'The  state  of  Rio  de  Janefro  has  an 
area  of  26,660  sq.  miles,  and  is  decidedly 
biountainons  in  the  center.  It  is  the  bKsst- 
cnltivated  section  of  Brazil,  the  chief  crop 
being  coffee.  Immense  herds  of  cattle  are 
reared,  and  the  forests  are  rich  in  timber. 
Pop.  1300,000. 
Ain  Arfi.ii«1«k   (^  'i^er  of  West  Africa, 

tic  by  an  estuary  opposite  the  Bissagos 
Islands;  upper  course  not  well  known. 

Bio   Grande   del  Norte 

irB'O  grin'de  del  nor'te),  a  river  of  the 
'nited  States,  rising  in  s.  w.  Colorado, 
crossing  New  Mexico,  and  from  £1  Paso 
to  the  gulf  forming  the  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico.  Its 
length  is  estimated  at  1800  miles,  but  it 
is  generally  shallow  and  obstructed  by 
rapids  and  sandbanks.  Its  waters  are 
much  used  for  irrigation  in  New  Mexico. 

Bio   Orande  do  Korte 

<dg  nor'te;  Grand  River  of  the  North), 
a  maritime  state  in  the  northeast  of 
Brazil;  area  22,196  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  and  not  gener- 
ally fertile.  Agriculture  and  cattle-rear- 
ing form  the  principal  branches  of  in- 
dustry. The  capital  is  Natal  or  Rio 
Orande  do  Norte  (pop.  10,000),  a  sea- 
port  at  the  mouth  of  the  small  river,  Rio 
urande  do  Norte,  exporting  some  cotton, 
sugar,  etc.    Pop.  estimated  at  410.000. 

Bio  Orande  do  Sid  <^9,  "i^.V^hiH? 

most  poutbem 
state  of  Brazil,  bounded  partly  by  the 
Atlantic,  and  bordering  with  Uruguay 
and  the  Argentine  Republic,  has  an  area 
of  91,836  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about 
1JM)0,000.  It  is  well  watered,  contains 
mach  fertile  land,  and  has  a  healthy  cli- 
mate. On  the  coast  is  the  large  lake  or 
lagoon  of  Patos,  besides  others.  The 
diief  occupations  of  the  inhabitants  are 
c«ttie-rMnii|    and    a|ricultuie.    Amonf 


the  popnlation  are  100,000  Germans,  there 
being  a  number  of  flourishing  German 
settlements.  There  are  some  600  miles  of 
railway.  Hides,  tallow,  horse-hair,  bones, 
etc.,  are  exported. —  Rio  Gbandb,  or  Slo 
Pedbo  do  Rio  Obaitde,  its  former  capital, 
is  situated  on  a  peninsula  near  where  the 
Lake  of  Patos  communicates  with  the 
Atlantic.  Its  houses  are  mostly  of  earth, 
and  its  streets  unpaved.  It  has  an  active 
trade  in  hides,  horse-hair,  wool,  tallow, 
etc.    Pop.  19,000. 

Bioia  (re-d'M),  Fbaitcibco  de,  a 
^J*  Spanish  lyric  poet,  born  at  Se- 
ville about  1600;  died  in  1669.  He  be- 
came assessor  of  the  supreme  tribunal  of 
the  Inquisition.  As  a  poet  he  followed 
classic  and  Italian  models,  and  his  poems 
exhibit  purity  and  grace  of  diction,  deep 
feeling,  and  a  vigorous  imagination. 
Biola  (r6-0'A&),  La,  one  of  the  west- 
•  em  provinces  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.  It  is  well  watered  on  the  west, 
but  in  the  east  and  south  there  are  salt 
and  sand  deserts.  The  climate  is  dry  and 
healthy.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  en- 
nged  in  agriculture  and  cattle-rearing. 
Eixcellent  wheat,  wine,  and  fruits  are 
produced.  Pop.  82,099. —  Chief  town.  La 
RiOJA,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  V  lasco, 
in  the  midst  of  vineyards  and  <  "ange 
groves.     Pop.  8000. 

Biom  (J*^?).  a  town  of  Fran  ;,  in 
the  department  r'  Puy-de-  Ome, 
10  miles  north  of  Clermont  The  t  reets 
are  spacious,  but  the  houses,  being  built 
of  dark  lava,  present  a  somewhat  gloomy 
appearance.  The  chief  manufactures  ara 
linen,  silk,  and  hardware.    Pop.  7839. 

Bion.  ®*«  i***^. 

BioKerrO  <n6'gra;  Spanish  'black 
^  »  ^  river'),  the  name  of  nu- 
merous streams,  of  which  two  are  im- 
portant:—  (1)  A  river  of  S.  America, 
and  principal  tributary  of  the  Amazon, 
/t  rises  in  Colombia,  and  joins  the  Ama- 
■/eon  after  a  course  of  about  1000  miles  at 
Manaos,  Brazil.  Through  its  affluent, 
the  Cassiquiari,  there  is  direct  communi- 
cation between  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco. 
See  Cassiquiari.  (2)  A  river  of  S. 
America  forming  the  boundary  between 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  Patagonia. 
It  rises  in  the  Andes  in  Chile,  and  is 
about  TOO  miles  long.  Its  current  is  very 
rapid,  and  its  bed  ol>structed  with  shoals 
and  sand  banks. 

Tiinnt'^trrn  '^  town  in  the  S.  Ameri- 
Aiuuc  ^lu,  j.^^  Republic  of  Colom- 
bia, prov.  Antioquia,  12  miles  s.  w.  of 
Medellin.     Pop.  18.64& 

Bionero  in   Voltore  if*^.^^ 

rt),  a  town  of  South  Italjr,  province  of 


Bio  Saliido 


Bitomello 


Pottwiia,  at  the  loot  of  Mt.   Volturt. 
Pop.  11488.         ^      „  ,  _, 

BioSalado.  ^  soMo. 


THn¥  (rt'ut),  a  dlaturbance  of  the  pab- 
**"•  Ik  peace,  attended  with  circum- 
itancea  of  tumult  and  commotion,  as 
where  an  aiaembly  destroya,  or  in  an» 
manner  damages,  leizea,  or  invades  pri- 
vate or  public  property,  or  does  any  in- 
Jury  whatever  by  actual  or  thrMtened 
violence  to  the  persona  of  individuals. 
By  the  common  law  a  riot  is  an  unlaw- 
ful assembly  of  three  or  more  persons 
which  has  actually  begun  to  execute  the 
common  purpose  for  which  it  assembled 
by  a  breach  of  the  peace,  and  to  the 
terror  of  the  public.  A  lawful  assembly 
may  become  a  riot  if  the  persons  assem- 
bled form  and  proceed  to  execute  an  un- 
lawful purpose  to  the  terror  of  the  peo- 
ple, although  they  had  not  that  purpose 
when  they  assembled.  The  riot  acts  of 
EIngland  are  not  in  force  in  the  United 
States,  but  it  is  conceived  that  by  the 
common  law  the  authorities  have  power 
to  suppress  riotous  as«emblies  and  pun- 
ish those  participating  in  them. 

EioTiodoro,  Soteti^EfiS^ 

Eiver  after  a  tortuous  course  of  oyer  900 
miles.  It  was  explored  by  Theodora 
Roosevelt  (q.  v.)  in  1914.  Also  called 
The  River  of  Douht.  ,  .     ,  ,       ^. 

Bio  Tinto  Mines,  ^i^^'^^iST'^SS 

southwest  of  Spain,  province  of  Huelva. 

Eiparian  Eights,  see  «»„««. 

VinUir    (rip'li),   Gboboe,   editor,    was 
'"l'**'y    born  at  Greenfield,  Massachu- 
setts, 1802;  died  July  4.  1880.    He  was 
educated  at  Harvard  College  and  Cam- 
bridge Divinity  School,  became  a  Unitar- 
ian minister  in  Boston,  lived  some  years 
in  Europe,  and  wan  one  of  the  founders  of 
the   Tnneoendental   magazine,   the  Dial 
(on  which  he  had  Emerson  and  Margaret 
Fuller  as  coadjutors),  and  the  originator 
and   conductor   of    the   communistic   ex- 
periment  at    Brook    Farm.     He   became 
literary  editor  of  the  New  York  Triune 
in  1849.  and  was  joint  editor  with  C.  A. 
Dana  of  the  Amertcan  Cyclopadia  (1868- 
63,  16  vols.:  also  of  the  second  edition). 
11.1  nnn    (rip'un),  a  cathedral  city,  for- 
'**«"'*'   merly  a  parliamentary  borough 
of  England,  county  of  York  (West  Rid- 
ing), on  the  Ure,  22  milea  v.  v.  w.  of 
York.    It    has   a    spacious    marketplace 
and  an  elegant  town-bali.    The  cathedral 
dates  from  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth 
century,   and   is   partly   Early   Bngliah, 
IMirtly    decorated    in    architecture,    with 
two  towara,  each  110  fort  high.    It  was 


recently  thoroughly  restored,  and  ia  «m 
of  the  finest  churches  in  England.  The 
other  buildings  inr  tde  a  free  grammar- 
school  (founded  Queen  Marv),  an 
infirmary,  and  a  achanics'  institution. 
Pop.  (1911)  821S.  .  ^ 
HiTinstA  (rt-pfla'tO),  a  seaport  to  the 
JUpOSlO  ^,t*^  Sicily,  prov.  Catania, 
with  a  trade  to  wtoe,  oil,  etc.    Pop.  7!B8. 


lipplc-marks,  2:,kri|ft  VtR 

beach  of  a  sea,   lake,   or   river  by  the 
ripplea   or  wavelets.    Such   marks   have 
often  been  preserved  when  the  sand  has 
hardened    into    rock,    and    are    held    by 
geologists  as  indications  that  deposition 
of  the  beds   to   which   they    occur  took 
place  on  the  seashore  or  at  a  depth  not 
greater  than  60  feet.     We  have  also  wind 
rippie-marks    and    current    ripple-marks, 
and  it  requires  much   discrimination   to 
determtoe  the  producing  cause. 
Pialiia     (rish'es),  certain  sages  of  th« 
AOBJiXB    ^indu  mytholonr,  sprung  fr<»B 
the   mtod   of    Brahma.     Seven    of    them 
are    enumerated.    The    term    afterward 
came  to  be  applied  to  all  personages  dis- 
tinguished for  piety  and  wisdom. 
HiaanlA    (ris^ol),  to  cookery,  an  entr6e 
AlSSOie   consisting    of    meat    or    fish 
mixed    with    bread-crumbs    and    yolk   of 
eggs,  ail  wrapped  in  a  fine  paste,  so  aa 
to  resemble  a  sausage,  and  fried. 
IliafAri    (res-td're),   Adblaidb.   an 
JUSTOn  l^gx^j^  actress,  bom  to  1882. 
At  a  very  early  age  she  played  in  comedy, 
but    afterwards    appeared    in    tragedy. 
She  married  the  Marquis  C!apranica  del 
Grillo  in  1847,  and  afterwards  played  in 
all  the  chief  European  capitals.     She  took 
her  farewell  of  the  Engllah  stage  in  Man- 
chester. November  8,  1873.    Am<»g  her 
chief  characters  were  Hedea,  FrsnoeMa 
da     JBtmtni,     Marie     Anioinettfj     Mani 
Stuart,    and    Lady   Macbeth.    She   diea 
October  9,  1906. 

B.iteliie  <  rich'i) ,  AmrA  Coba.  Mowatt. 
MavvuAv  actor  and  author,  bom  of 
American  parenta  at  Bordeaux,  France, 
in  1819;  died  in  1870.  She  became  a 
favorite  actresa  on  the  American  stage, 
and  wrote  Pelof/o,  a  poem;  Fa»Mon,  a 
comedy,  and  Armand,  a  drama. 
PifAraAllA  (  re-tor-nel'lO ;  Italian), 
iUtOmeUO  jj^  ^^^gj^  ^  ^^ort  repeti- 
tion as  of  the  concluding  phrases  of  an 
air;  or  a  passage  which  is  played  while 
the  principal  voice  pauses;  or  it  often 
signifies  the  introduction  to  an  air  or  any 
musical  piece.  Ritomeili  are  also  Italian 
popular  songs  la  stanzas  of  thr«  ilow 
each.  The  meter  and  numlier  of  the 
syllablea  are  not  subject  to  rule.  The 
first  Una,  however,  is  gwerally  the  short* 
est 


r-iai  -TEiRfe-rit^--;-. 


BitMlhl 


Bitnaliim 


r 


JUnOJU  J  <3,nn»n  eliMsical  Khotar, 
bom  in  1806.  After  attending  the  gym- 
naiinm*  at  Erfurt  and  Wittenberg  he 
went  to  Leioiig  and  Halle,  where  be  de- 
voted hlmtMf  to  claaaical  atudiei.  In 
1882  be  was  appointed  extraordinary  pro- 
feanr  at  Halle  University.  He  ■ubee- 
qaently  held  profenorabips  at  Breslan 
and  Bonn,  and  in  1866  accepted  a  call 
to  Leipzig  Univereity,  where  he  remained 
onti'  hia  death  in  1876.  Hia  chief  work 
ia  a  critical  edition  of  Plautu$'  Comediet 
(1848-54).  Hia  other  works  include  Pa- 
rerga  Plautina  and  Terentiana,  and 
Priwa  LatinitatU  Monumenta  Epigraph' 
too.  He  also  contributed  largely  to  philo- 
logical journals.  He  died  Not.  9,  1876. 
nitann  (rit'sun),  Joseph,  an  English 
MAMvu  iJtefgpy  anrtiquhrian,  born  in 
1762:  died  in  1303.  He  became  a  con- 
veyancer in  Ti(»don  and  deputy  high 
bailifC  to  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and 
<;di^ed  many  old  and  rare  books.  He  was 
Qo;ed  for  his  industry  and  integrity,  but 
was  a  quarrelsome  critic.  His  chief  works 
are :  A  Select  Collection  of  English  Songa 
(1783),  Ancient  Songa  from  the  Time 
of  King  Henry  II  to  the  Revolution 
(1790),  a  Collection  of  Scottish  Songt 
(1794),  Robin  Bood  Poeme  (1795). 
Andeni  Bnglieh  Metrical  Romance* 
(1802),  etc  ^      _ 

KittikTilinnM  (rit'en-hous),  DAVioy 
JUUennOUSe  ^Jgtronomer,  born  at 
Gtermaatown,  Pennsylvania,  April  8, 
1732;  died  in  June,  1796.  He  learned 
the  art  of  dockmaking,  and  worked  at 
it  while  engaged  in  astronomical  study. 
He  sutMsequently  engaged  in  making 
matheuiatical  instruments,  constructed  an 
orrery,  and  otwerved  the  transit  of 
Venus  in  1769.  He  was  elected  treasurer 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1777,  and  in  1792 
became  the  first  director  of  the  mint; 
was  also  employed  in  determining  the 
iMundaries  of  the  State.  He  became 
president  of  the  Philosophical  Society  in 
1791  and  a  fellow  of  the  Roval  Society 
of  London  in  1795.  He  published  many 
scientific  papers  in  the  Tramactiona  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society. 
^iftAT  (rifir),  Heissich,  a  German 
'■"**'^  philosopher,  born  in  1791. 
studied  theology  and  philosophy  at 
Halle.  Qdttingen,  and  BerKn  from  1811 
to  1816.  In  1824  he  became  an  extraor- 
dinary professor  of  philosophy  in  Berlin, 
accepted  an  ordinary  professorship  at 
Kiel  In  1838,  and  snbs<?quently  occupied 
the  chair  of  philosophy  at  GSttingen 
University  from  1837  till  his  death  in 
1809.  Bitter's  chief  work  ia  a  general 
Hiatory  of  Philoaophy.  He  also  pub- 
iidMd  a  System  of  Logic  and  Uetapkyt- 


iea;  a  CyOopodia  of  tk*  PhUoaopkteal 
Bcteneea;  a  popular  Treatiaa  p»  im- 
mortality, and  other  works. 

Bitter,  £,1?-,  *  .^srsuTTrss 

He  studied  at  Halle,  became  a  private 
tutor  in  1798,  and  in  1819  aaccecded 
Schloaser  as  professor  of  history  at  the 
Frankfort  Gymnasium.  He  then  pub- 
lished an  Introduction  to  the  Hiatory 
of  European  Nationa  before  Herodotua, 
1820;  and  in  the  same  year  Iwcame  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  geography  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  His  great  work  is  Die 
Erdkunde  im  Verht  Itniaae  eur  Hatur  und 
Geachichte  dea  Menschen  ('  Geography  hi 
its  Relations  to  Nature  and  History'), 
the  first  two  volumes  of  which  appeared 
in  1817-18,  but  it  ultimately  comprised 
upwards  of  twenty  volumes.  He  wrote 
several  other  geographical  works,  and 
contributed  extensively  to  the  joumala  ot 
the  Berlin  Geofcraphical  Society. 
Vifnal  (rit'O-al),  the  series  of  rites 
JUIUU  Q,  ceremonies  established  in 
connection  with  any  religion ;  or  the  tiook 
in  which  religious  services  are  prescribed 
and  detailed.  See  Liturgy. 
Pifnaliam  (rit'a-al-izm),  a  strict  ad- 
AltuauBlu  jjerence  to  rites  and  cere- 
monies in  public  worship.  The  term  is 
more  espeoialiy  applied  to  a  tendency  re- 
cently manifested  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, resulting  tn  a  series  of  changes 
introduced  by  variciis  clergymen  of  the 
High  Church  party  into  the  services  of 
the  church.  These  changes  may  be  de- 
scribed externally  as  generally  in  the 
direction  of  a  more  ornate  worship,  and 
as  to  their  spirit  or  animating  principle, 
as  the  infusion  into  outward  forms  of  a 
larger  measure  of  the  symbolic  element. 
They  are  defended  on  the  grounds  of  law, 
ancient  custom,  inherent  propriety,  and 
divine  sanction  or  authority.  The  Ritu- 
alists hold,  with  most  others,  that  all 
authoritative  aud  obligatory  regulation 
upon  ritual  is  not  laid  down  in  the  New 
Testament,  but  they,  or  many  of  them, 
maintain  that  a  knowledge  of  what  is 
obligatory  in  ritual  is  derived  from 
apostolical  tradition,  going  back  to  apos- 
tolical times.  They  argue  that  the  de- 
sign of  the  institution  of  Christianity 
was  not  to  abrogate  the  external  cere- 
moniala  by  which  the  patriarchal  and 
Mosaic  dispensations  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  distinguished;  but  to  replace 
them  by  a  higher  ceremonial,  and  they 
explain  the  comparative  simplicity  of 
primitive  worship  by  the  secrecy  and 
restraint  to  which  the  early  churdi  waa 
subjected.  The  points  of  ritual  about 
whkh  there  has  been  the  nwMt  violent 


Uvt-de-Gler        ^ 

contention  are  those  which  involw  «»• 
idoratioD   of  Christ  a»  P**""**  «»  ,^ 
altar  under  the  forma  of  bread  and  wine. 
Other  polntB  are:  the  e««t'«'^„PjS"^ 
of  the  priest  at  consecration;  lights  on 
the  holy  table;  the  ase  of  various  vMt- 
ments:  the  use  of  incense;  mixing  water 
with  wine  for  communion;  'a""°f,bf'o™ 
communion     from     previous     midnight; 
regular    confession    to    a    ?"«*•    .""^ 
absolution  and  penance;  etc.    The  1^1 
position  of  the  Ritualists  is  that  the  firat 
fiook  of  Common  Prayer,  issu^  in  the 
Mcond  year  of  Edward  VI    (1549,  with 
alterations    made    in    1552,    IflOi,    and 
1662),  is  still  the  guide  of  the  church 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  ritual,  the 
present  Prayer-book   not  being   in  itself 
complete,    but    referring    to    this    firet 
Prayer-book      in     its     opening     rubric. 
Various  judgments   have   been  given   in 
ecclesiastical     courts     against     extrenae 
RituaUsts,    and    some   of   their   proceed- 
ings    have     been     pronounced     illegal. 
Rftualistic  practices  have  been  generally 
condemned   ny  the  bishops,  and  an  act 
of  parliament  giving  them  power  to  re- 
strain innovations  of  this  kind  came  into 
force  or  July   1,   1875.    The  ritualistic 
movement    in    the    Church    of    Engtand 
arose  out  of  the  high  church  movement 
inaugurated    by    the    Tractarians.     See 

Xtirrm  i1«.ai»r     (rCv-dfr-shya),  or  sim- 

juve-ae-wicr  ^jy  Riyj^  a  town  of 

Prance,  department  of  the  Loire.  SK>  mlJhBS 
E.  B.  E.  of  Montbrison,  on  the  Gier.  The 
coal-field  which  surrounds  the  town  is 
the  most  valuable  in  France.  There  are 
glassworks,  spinning  and  other  mills, 
foundries,  machine  and  iron  works,  etc. 
Pop.  (1906)  16,338. 

■n  j^»_A'»a'k  a  name  given  to  a  genoa 
BlVer-Crab,  »,  ^rabS  (Tkelphuta), 
inhabiting  fresh  water,  and  having  the 
carapace  quadrilateral  and  the  antenn* 
very  short.  One  species  (T.  inretsa) 
inhabits  muddy  lakes  and  slow  rivers  In 
the  south  of  Europe.  

EiverofDonbt.     seo  b«,  wodoro. 


JUver-uog,     gUyfo^  to  the  capybara. 
•Bj— A.  VtA-pa*      a  name  sometimes  given 
AlVer-nOTSe,    ^  ^,  hippopotamus. 

Hi  vera  (ri***")  »«>*»>««»»  jn  ^^^ 
AlvcrB  tnj|c0  among  the  natural  fea- 
tures of  the  globe,  and  are  intimataly 
connected  with  the  history  and  condi- 
tion of  mankind.  They  have  always 
formed  important  highways  of  cmBmuni- 
catimi,  and  the  great  dtlsf  built  upon 
their  baaks  have  coastitnted  in  all  agce 
the  aeats  id  empire.  Every  cltcttB^aace 
craccmlBf  rivers  is  tlierefoze  of  iaqtor- 


taace,  as  their  source,  leugtli  of  ^aan^ 
outlet,  rapidity  of   .'urrent,  d«p^  and 
consequent     capaoUity     of     navlfawn. 
The  source  of  a  river  la  either  a  spring 
or  springs,  or  a  lake,  or  the  river  takes 
its  origin  from  the  melt^  of  the  snow 
and  ice  on  mountains.    The  terminatioB 
of  a  river  is  usnaUy  In  the  sm,  a  take, 
or  another  river,  or  it  may  loae  itoelf 
in    the    sand.    All    the    streams    which 
ultimately  gather  into  one  river  form  a 
river  $yaiem,   and  the   region    which   to 
drained  by  such  a  system  of  streams  is 
called   a  river  baain.    River  basins  are 
usually   separated    from   each   other   by 
more  or  less  elevated  ground,  and  the  Una 
of   greatest   elevation    between    thm    to 
called  a  «a*er«*ed.    In  speaking  of  the 
right  and  left  bank  of  a  river  we  are 
always  supposed  to  have  the  position  ol 
a  person  looking  ta  the  direction  towartt 
its  mouth.    The  volume  of  water  which 
rivers  contain  varies  with  many  cpnol- 
tions,  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the 
sources  by  which  they  are  fed  »nd  the 
amount    of     rainfall     throughout     their 
course.    The   periodical    melting   of    the 
snows   adds  greatly,   in   some  cases,   to 
the  volume  of   rivers  which  have  tneir 
origin  In  mountain   regions;    the  «iny 
season  in  tropical  regions  has  a  similar 
effect  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Nile),  oft«i 
causing   extensive   inundations.    In   arid 
countries  the  so-called   rivers  are  oftoi 
mere  surface  torrents,  dependent  on  tna 
rabis,  and  exhibiting  merely  the  dry  be^ 
of   watercourses   during    the   seastm   of 
drought.    The  •creeks'  of  Australta  and 
the  '^wadies'  ot  the  Arabian  Desert  are 
of  this  character.    The  average  fall  of 
a  river's  bed  to  indicated  by  the  dlftercnea 
between  the  altitude  of  its  source  and 
its  outlet  cmnpared  with  its  length  of 
channel.    The  fall  of  many  great  rivers 
is   much   less  than  might  be  suppoaed. 
The  A  lason  has  a  fall  of  only  12  in«es 
in  the  iaat  700  miles  of  its  course.    The 
Volga,   which   rises   at  an   elevation   of 
633  feet  above  the  Caspian  Sea,  has  an 
average  inclinaticm  of  less  than  4  inches 
to  the  mile  throughout  its  course  of  more 
than     2000    miles.    The    Aberdeenshire 
river  Dee,  which  rfaws  at  a  helaht   or 
4060  feet,  has  a  course  of  only  8T  miles 
to   its   outlet,   showing   an   average   de- 
clivity of  46  feet  per  mile.    Manr  rivers 
carry  down  immoise  quantities  of  M^tlw 
matter,     whidi    accurautates    at    nmr 
mouths,  forming  what  to  called  a  MU 
(which  see).    Among   the  great  .rivers 
of    the    worid    are    the    MusiBsippi -— 
MiaMsri  (4800  miles)   and  the  Aduukhi 
(8000   lailaB),   in   America  ;_the   Taiuh 
tse-Kiaag,  tiw  Amoor,  the  Yenisei,  tte 
ladna,  and  Qwfaa  in  Aaia,  all  over  1600 


XiYtnido 


Blnto 


milM  in  Icofth;  the  Ck>ngo  (8000  mllw), 
the  Nicer  (2000  milea),  and  the  Nile 
(4200  miles),  in  Africa;  and  the  Dan- 
ube (1670  miles),  Volga  (2200  milea), 
and  Rhine  (800  miles),  in  Europe. 

By  English  and  other  law  navigable 
rivers  are  held  to  be  the  property  of 
the  state  (so  far  as  navigation  extends) ; 
nmi-navigable  rivers  belong  to  the  pro- 

Srietors    through    whose    grounds,  they 
ow.    The   state   has    thus   control   and 
Jurisdiction   of   the   shores   of   navigable 
streams,    while   in    the   case   of    a   non- 
navigable     stream     the     proprietors     of 
estates  on  opposite  banks  of  it  are  sup- 
poMed  to  own  the  ground  over  which  it 
flows   respectively    to   the  center  of   its 
bed,  and  may  fish  it  accordingly.    They 
do  not  own  the  water,  the  property  in 
which  is  shared  by  the  owners  above  and 
below.    A    particular    proprietor    cannot 
dam  up  or  divert  the  water,  or  alter  the 
banks  so  as  to  injure  the  property  of  his 
neighbor.     Strict    laws    for    the    preven- 
tion   of    pollution    of    rivers    have    been 
enacted   by   the   Legislatures  of   the  dif- 
ferent States  of  the  American  Union,  and 
in  various  European  countries,  this  more 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  towns  and 
cities,    where    the    local    authorities    are 
charged  with  their  enforcement. 
V^vAiwi^A      a    c>ty>    county    seat    of 
Siyemae,  Riverside    Co.,    California, 
66  miles  east  of  Los  Angeles.    It  has  ex- 
tensive fruit  interests,  being,  the  center  of 
a  vast  orange-growing  section.     Lemons, 
apricots,  peaches  and  alfalfa  also  are  pro- 
duced;   and    there    are    manufactures   of 
eament.  building  supplies,  machinery,  etc. 
Pop.  18,000. 

aiver  Terraces,   gj™-,  ^vaiX; 

through  which  a  river  flows,  formed  by 
the  action  of  the  water  when  the  river 
bed  had  a  higher  elevation  at  some  re- 
mote period. 

Hiv^r-tortois^  ^  "^"^^  °'  '^  family 
JUYCr-loniOlse,     ^^  tortoises  that  are 

aquatic  in  their  habits,  coming  to  shore 
only  to  deposit  their  eggs.  They  are 
exclusively  carnivorous,  subsisting  on 
fishes,  reptiles,  birds,  etc.  The  edges  of 
the  mandible  are  so  sharp  and  firm  that 
they  can  easily  snap  off  a  man's  finger. 
Well-known  species  are  the  soft-shelled 
turtle  (Trionya  ieroa)  and  the  large  and 
fierce  snapping  turtle  (CAelydra  aerpen- 
tintk)  6t  America.  (See  Snapping-tur- 
Ut.)  They  inhabit  almost  every  river 
and  lake  in  the  warmer  regiona  in  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds,  and  are  particu- 
larly plentiful  in  the  Ganges,  where  they 
prty  on  human  bodies. 
Itlvet  (riv'et),  a  short  metallic  pin 
'*'*''     OT  bolt  paaaing  tbioagh  a  hole 


and  keeping  two  piece*  of  metal  to- 
gether; especially,  a  short  bolt  or  pin 
of  wrought  iron,  copper,  or  of  any  other 
malleable  material,  formed  with  a  head 
and  inserted  into  a  hole  at  the  junction 
of  two  pieces  of  metal,  the  point  after 
insertion  being  hammered  broad  so  as  to 
keep  the  pieces  closely  bound  together. 
Rivets  are  especially  employed  in  making 
boilers,  tanks,  iron  bridges,  steel  build- 
ings, etc.  They  are  closed  up  br  ham- 
mering when  they  are  in  a  heated  statfc 
the  hammering  being  either  done  by  liand 
or  by  machinery. 

Piiri»i«  (riv-i-a'ra),  the  name  given 
JUYiera  ^^  ^  portion  of  the  coast  of 
North  Italy,  on  each  side  of  the  town  of 
Genoa.  It  extends  to  Spexsia  on  the 
east  and  Nice  on  the  west,  and  is  much 
resorted  to  by  invalids. 
Piviffr*  (ri-vSr'),  Bbitoit,  subject  and 
juvicrc  animal  painter,  was  bom  at 
London  in  1840.  He  studied  art  under 
his  father,  a  drawing-master  at  Chelten- 
ham and  Oxford,  and  is  an  Oxford 
graduate.  Amcmg  his  chief  pictures, 
many  of  which  have  been  engraved,  are: 
Strayed  from  the  Flock.  The  Lott 
Sheep,  Legend  of  St.  Patridt,  An  Aim* 
iou*  Moment,  Circe,  Giante  at  Play. 
Ac*mon,  Vm  Victit,  Rizpah,  A  Fool  and 
Hit  FoUy,  etc. 

"■.ivnli  (r6'v6-l«),  a  town  of  N.  Italy, 
***""  beautifully  situated  on  tha  last 
alopea  of  the  Alps,  in  the  province  and 
8  miles  west  of  Turfai.  The  environs 
are  studded  with  villas  belonging  to  the 
inhabitanta  of  Tnrin,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  magnificent  planted 
avenue.      Pop.  7260. 

'R.ivoH-VeroiiPse  •(  ver-«-n8's8),  a 
juvou- Veronese  ^N„age   of    North 

Italy  14  miles  northwest  of  Yeroiuu  be- 
tween Lake  Qarda  and  the  right  bank 
of  the  Adige,  whete  Napoleon  defeated 
Alvinciy  on  January  14,  1797. 
HW  T)n1lAr  the  English  way  of 
AIX  JiOUar,    writing    the    names    of 

dif(er«Qt  silver  coins  used  in  various 
European  states,  as  the  riaadaler  of  Den- 
mark =63  cents;  the  Swedish  riktdaler=: 
27  cents. 

Vimin  (rifse-«),  David,  a  native  of 
*'**'""  Turin,  who  came  to  Scotland 
in  1664  in  the  train  of  the  ambassador 
from  Savoy,  and  soon  became  so  great 
a  favorite  with  the  queen  that  he  waa 
appointed  her  secretaiy  for  foreUp  lan- 
guages. (See  Marv  Stuart.)  The  dis- 
tinction with  which  be  waa  treated  by 
his  nUatrees  soon  excited  the  envy  of  the 
ncrfries  and  the  jealousy  of  Damley.  A 
eonapiracy,  with  the  king  at  its  head, 
was  formed  for  his  daatructi<m,  and  be- 
fore be  bad  ajiqred  tW9  j9U»  of  coorl 


IkTor  th«  Lord  BnthTMi  and  otbm  of 
klf  partjr  wtn  Introduced  by  Dnnuojr 
into  the  queen's  apartment,  where  tbejr 
killed  the  olidect  of  their  revenge,  March 

"On   (rO),  the  name  given  a  new  artificial 
*»'  language,    firet    propoeed    in    190«K 
This  rejects  all  root  worda  and  ia  baited 
■olely   on    tiie    letters   of   the   alphabet, 
making   them   abw>lately    phonetic.     No 
accents   or  diacritical   marks   are   used. 
Thus  initial  '  A '  denotes  a  pronoun,    ab 
indicating  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person, 
•aba*    this   pronoun   in    the  nominative 
case.     So,  •  E '  denotes  verb,  and  is  sim- 
ilarly varied  by  added  letters  for  the  va- 
ried   grammatical    or    other    reguisiteH. 
This  is  claimed  to  be  the  scientific  man- 
ner of  word  building.  *•,     v     . 
•o^»^^%    (rOch;    Leuciacui    ruUlua),    a 
*»'®*®'*    species  of  fresh-water  fish  of 
the  carp  family    (Cyprinidjp),  found  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.     Their  average 
lengUi  is  about  9  or  10  inches.    They  are 
of  a   grayish-green   color,    the   abdomen 
being   sUvery   white    and    the    fins   red. 
Tfaeaverage  weight  of  the  roach  is  under 
1  lb.,  and  though  a  'avorite  with  anglers, 
it  is  not  much  esteemed  for  the  table. 
Allied  fishes  receive  the  same  name  in 

4S»Sr*('W)7    «n    artificial   avenue    of 
J*Oaa    travel  formed  through  a  country 
for  the  accommodation  of  travelers  and 
the    carriage   of    commodities.      Though 
the   Romans   set   an   example    a*  .wfo- 
buUders,  some  of  their  pubUc  Wghwwra 
being  y4t  serviceable,  the  roads  throM^ 
out  most  of  Europe  were  in  a  wretched 
condition   till   towards    the   end   of   the 
eighteenth  century.     France  was  in  ad- 
vance of  other  countries  in  roadmaking. 
in  England  and  the  United  Stotes  a  &■ 
ddSTlmprovement  of  the  hlAways  did 
not  begin  untU  the  nineteenth  century. 
Th9  first  important  point  to  be  consid- 
ered in  roadmaking  is  the  route  to  be 
foUowed.  a  matter  in  which  natural  ob- 
rtiuctiwis  and  inequalities  of  level  have 
to   be   taken   into   account,   bejddes   the 
question  of  directness  of  route,  the  derta- 
tions  advisable  in  order  *<>  accommodate 
certain   centers    of   population,    the   ex- 
pense of  upkeep,  etc.     Naturd  c*«trnc- 
tiras    are    overcome     by    spectel    con- 
trivances, such  as  bridges,  embankments, 
tunnels,  etc.     When  dlvemtlea  of  level 
are    necessary,    road-engineers    fix    the 
degree  of  indhaation  at  the  lowest  pos- 
rifte  point    Telford  estimated  the  maxi- 
mum inclination  of  a  road  to  be  1  in 
24,  but  except  in  extreme  cmm  it  Is 
^naidered  bettar  that  it  ahoald  not  ex- 


ittnd,  haa  been  eatimated  at  1  la  4^ 
The  width  of  the  road  is  also  a  ^mt  to- 
Dortant  consideration  aa  bearing  botk  M 
the   oriidnal    coat   and   on    the   perma- 
nent  maintenance.    A  proDerly-wmatract- 
ed  road,  besides  a  foundation,  consUtaM 
two  layers,  an  upwr  and  under.     AMw 
a  good  foundation  is  obtoined  the  laying 
of  a  base,  the  best  material  being  con- 
crete of  gravel  and  lime,  gives  durabiUty 
to  the  road.     Upon  thU  base  the  actual 
roadway  Is  laid  with  a  slight  incltoation 
from  the  centt-r  to  the  sides  for  the  pur- 
pose of  drainage.     Before   the  time  of 
McAdam  it  was  customary  to  use  brok« 
ston**  of  differont  siam  to  form  the  road- 
way, the  consequence  being  that  in  course 
of  time  the  smaller  stones  "ank.  maktiw 
the  road  rough  and  dangerous.    McAdiun 
early    in    the    nineteenth    centunr     is*ie 
MpAdam)    introduced    the    principle    <rf 
using  stones  of  uniform  sise  from  top 
to  bottom.     (See  also  Povement.)     l*e 
ceneral  superintendence  of  roadways  is 
usually  exercised  by  the  gpvemmMt  of  a 
country,  but  it  entrusts  the  e««cation  of 
its  enactments  to  local  authorities   Hifn- 
ways  are  public  roads  which  every  citisen 
has  a  right  to  use.    They  are  con«itituted 
by    prescription,    by    act   of   Iwrtslature, 
by    dedication    to    the    public    use. 


What  is  known  as  the  rule  of  the  road  is 
that  in  passing  other  horsemen  or  car- 
riages, when  gSng  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, the  rider  or  driver  in  America  mwt 
pass  on  the  right;  if  going  in  the  ntB* 
direction,  he  passes  to  the  left :  In  Jtot- 
land  he  always     isses  on  the  left  of  we 
other.    The  deveiopment  of  roads  ia  BWW 
attracting  much  attention  in  the  United 
States,   the  national  and   state  gover»« 
meats  Uking  part  in  finandnc-nn  exteil* 
sive  system  of  well-built  roads,  the  eoi* 
of  those  being  estimated  in  1916  to  havtf 
readied  |2W),000,000.     The  gemsral  gov- 
ernment has  long  taken  part  In  tills  woj* 
and  now  proposes  to  add  largely  to  ita 
activity  in  this  direction.    Of  audi  gov- 
ernment roads  the  most  notable  was  tliat 
begun  in  1806,  its  first  section  runntog 
from  Cumberland,  Md.,  to  Wheeling,  Va. 
It  was  continued  until  it  finally  waa  oar^ 
ried  to  tile  MisslBslppi  by  aid  of  state 
funds,  it  constituting  a  broad  and  solid 
road  much  used  in  the  westward  flow 
of  population.    For  other  projects  In  tttt 
direction,  under  national  and  state  enter* 
prise,   see  Dimie  Hiphway   and,  I<m»«oIi» 

ment  appropriated  $86,000^000  tor  road 
improvemant,  $10,000  of  ms  bdng  «« 
roada  in  Naticmal  Parks  ud  Forest*, 
tibs  tmalnder  to  be  oa^  dtwli*  <*•  «"»- 

a  firs- year*  In  aid  of  state  road  bolld- 
«Mll  state  aided  by  the  gOTemmsBt 


H^nf 


lotetn 


baiat  naidNd  to  •pprtHpriat*  aa  •qnal 
mm  from  its  own  fundi. 

tte  kft  bank  of  th»  Loin,  whidb  Is 
hwa  navlcibla,  40  miles  n.  w.  of  Lyons. 
It  is  an  important  railway  osnter,  and 
manvfactana  woolen,  linen  and  cotton 
foods.  Po^  (1011)  atUiST. 
'Bim«aV«  (r6-an-«k^a  citar  of  VIp- 
AOanOKe  ginia,  formerly  of  Roanoke 
Co.,  now  independent,  is  rituated  on  the 
Boanoke  Rirer,  66  miles  w.  by  s.  of 
Lynchborg.  It  is  in  a  stockraisinf. 
tobacco-growing  and  mining  region  aiM 
has  a  large  tnde.  A  Tillage  of  a  few 
hundred  people  in  1880,  it  had  in  1010  a 
population  of  84,874.  It  has  ext«wiTe 
machinery,  iron  and  steel,  locomotiTe  and 
car  works,  tobacco  and  canning  factories^ 
etc.  It  has  many  mineral  springs  in  its 
vicinity,  and  is  a  health  resort  sith  a 
lam  aanitaritun.  The  Virginia  College 
ia  located  here. 

'"OwtotiAlrA  (ro-an-Ok').  a  river.  United 
JManOKe  States,  in  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina.  It  flows  chiefly  south- 
east,  and  after  a  course  of  about  280 
miles  tells  into  Albemarle  Sound.  It  is 
tidal  for  75  miles  and  is  navigable  for 
doable  that  distance  for  small  vessels. 
SiMu4lur  (''^''iac)*  in  horses,  is  a  dis- 
•"'''"■  ■  "•  ease  of  the  nerves  and 
mnsdes  of  the  larynx  which  causes  an 
obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air,  giving 
rise,  H^en  the  horse  is  briskly  exemsed, 
to  tfie  peculiar  sound  from  which  the 
disease  derives  its  name. 
ll/lftafiTify  (r&sfing),  the  cooking  of 
•'"**""*  meat  by  the  direct  action 
ct  fire — ^that  is,  by  dry  heat,  either  be- 
fore the  fire  or  in  an  oven,  ^toasting 
before  an  open  fire  is  considered  prefer- 
able to  roaating  in  an  oven  (whidi  is 
analogous  to  baking),  on  account  of  tiie 
free  ventilation  to  which  it  exposes  the 
neat  during  tho  process.  The  appa- 
ratus in  most  kitchens  for  open  roasting 
are  a  fire,  a  pit,  a  contrivance  for  turn- 
ing the  meat  to  present  all  sides  of  it 
alternately  to  the  fire,  a  screen  to 
econ<Hnise  the  heat,  and  a  saucepan  to 
catdi  the  dripping.  The  fire  must  be 
kept  evMi  and  bright  throughout  Dur^ 
ing  the  process  of  roasting  the  meat 
should  be  basted  with  the  dripping  to 
keep  it  soft  and  allow  the  heat  to  pene- 
trate. The  desirability  of  roasting  as 
OMupared  with  boiling  is  that  it  reoains 
the  saline  incredients  of  the  meat.  The 
tima  allowea  for  roasting  is  roui^Uy 
Mtimatad  at  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to 
1  lb.  of  meat  Xjot^er  time  is  required 
kk  winter  than  in  summer,  and  for  new 
am  flU  kOlcd  meat. 


othar  man's  goods  or  money  from  his 
ptrsoB,  pnaanet,  m  satate  oy  violanea 
or  putting  him  In  fear.  Viol«aict  w  in- 
timidation is  the  criterion  which  dis- 
tincalsbes  robbery  from  other  larcenies ; 
and  it  is  snlBciait  that  so  much  fores  or 
threatening,  by  word  or  gesture,  is  ued 
as  might  create  an  appreiiensi<m  of 
danger,  so  aa  to  lead  a  man  to  part  with 
bis  property  against  bis  will.  Highway 
robbery,  or  the  forcible  taking  of  prop- 
erty from  travelers,  in  many  countries  is 
a  capital  offense,  and  in  all  dviltaed 
countries  is  severely  punished. 

Eobbia,  kouU.    '^'    ^  ^""^ 

HitliArf  (rob'^rt),  Duke  of  Normandy, 
■""'"*"'  surname-  the  Devil,  was  the 
younger  son  of  Duke  Richard  II  by  his 
marriage  with  Judith,  a  daughter  of 
Count  Godfrey  of  Brittany.  In  1027  he 
succeeded  his  elder  brother,  Richard  III. 
whom  he  is  charged  with  having  poisoned. 
The  first  years  of  his  government  were 
employed  in  bringing  his  rebellious  vas- 
sals into  subjection,  and  he  then  restored 
Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders  to  his  states, 
assisted  Henry  I,  king  of  France,  against 
his  mother  Constantia,  and  humbled 
Count  Otho  of  Champagne.  In  1084  hia 
fleet  waa  wrecked  off  Jersey  while  on 
ite  way  to  England  to  support  his 
nephews  Alfred  and  Edward  against 
Canute,  who  had  excluded  them  from 
the  succession  to  the  English  throne. 
Hereupon  he  concluded  a  truce  with 
Canute,  bv  which  the  two  princes  were 
promised  half  of  England.  In  1033  he 
set  out  to  visit  the  holy  places,  and 
subsequently  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem  on  foot  While  returning  he 
died  suddenly  at  Nicsa  in  Asia  Minor 
(1085),  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
poisoned  by  his  servanta  His  heroic 
deeds  and  penance  have  given  rise  to 
numerous  stories.  William  the  Con- 
queror was  his  son. 

Bobert  I.   ^^  *"•*•»  «»*«^- 

Bobert  n,  5'°«  <»'  ScoUand,  was 
Awvw^Av    .a^f  ij,^   gjjjj   ^f   Marjory, 

daughter  of  Robert  Bruce,  and  of  Wal- 
ter, steward  of  Scotland,  and  was  thus 
the  first  of  the  Stewart  or  Stwirt  kings. 
He  was  bom  in  1316,  and  was  recognised 
by  parliament  in  1318  as  heir  to  the 
crown.  On  the  death  of  David  II  ha 
was  crowned  at  Scone,  March  26,  1371. 
He  had  long  acted  aa  regent,  and  had 
done  good  service  in  the  iSnglish  wars. 
An  act  of  parliament  in  1876  settled  the 
crown  on  his  sons  by  his  first  wife  Elisa* 
bath  Mure  of  Bowallaa,  theoi^  Ukgitl- 


BdbMrtm         

■att  by  MclMiutkKl  law.  His  rtln 
^^comMnSvcly  a  ptaeef  ol  ooc,  om  of 
ff  <S?^wntr&liH^battle  •£  Otter- 

born.  H«  died  In  1890.  „  ,,  .  .^ 
Tl«li««4-  TTT  King  <rf  Scotland,  dd- 
BODeit  llXy  ^t  Vm  of  the  pteeed- 
inc.  waa  bom  In  1840^  and  wa»  oiir 

SSly  called  John,  >»»t,c»»»?aBj»»»^?fj?! 
Ml  lita  coronation,  in  189a  Baviac 
been  lamed  by  accident,  he  wa.  unable 
to  enfage  In  mlliury  pa»?lt%*°?  ^J 
trnated  the  management  of  affairs  ai- 
^t  entirely  to  Sis  brother,  whom  he 
created  Duke  of  Albany.  In  13^ 
ASany  waa  compelled  to  reeign  hl«  of- 
&M  by  a  party  who  wiehed  to  confer  it 

Botheeay.  War  waa  wmewed  with  Eng- 
tand,  knd  the  battle  of  Homiidon  Hlfl, 
September  1*.  J«2.^rerolted  in  a  dijK 
Mtroos  defeat  of  the  Scott.  In  tbie  y«wr 
the  Duke  of  Botheeay  died  ta  Ff  Ikland 

CaeUe.  where  he  had  P^S^JSi^'^f^hL 
and  it  waa  cmnmonly  beliered  that  he 
was  Starved  to  death  at  the  instigation 
*f  Albany.  Dread  of  Albany,  who  liad 
recovered  the  regency,  Induced  the  king 
to  send  his  second  son,  James,  to  France 
to   1406;   but  the  vessel   which  carried 


BobtrtMft 


B^al  Academy  viewp  al 
I  of   Bone 


bcnehea  of  bto  ait  be 
«|  drawing  and-'- 

MUted  at  the  Us»~ -. 

the  cathedrala  of  ^o«^  «k5dSi 
Bis  works  toclode.F<eftirssytf,B*el«»w 

•nd  iSc««r»««a*^ 

Koberti, 


Sm  was'  captured  by  the  English,  and 
H«iry  IV  long  detained  him_a8  a  pris; 


tmer.    Soon  after  this  event  Bobert  died 

EoSrt  of  Glouoeiter,  ^t^ffi 

supposed  to  have  been  a  monk  in  the 
abbey  of  Gloucester  during  the  reim  of 
Edwird  I,  but  of  bis  private  histow 
nothing  is  known.  His  flM«or»  of 
England,  in  verse,  extends  from  the 
Mrlod  of  the  fabulous  Brutus  to  aboirt 
A4).  1300,  and  ita  language  la  the  transl- 
tim  stage  of  English  pre;!ons  to  Chaucjar. 
Ito  chief  value  is  as  one  of  the  monu- 
mmtM  of  the  English  of  this  period. 

BODertS,  ^Canadian  author,  bom  at 
Douglas,  New  Brunswick,  to  I860. .  He 
^professor  of  Uterartre  at  King's 
cSle^,  Nova  Scotia,  1885-87,  and  of 
i^7mW  1887-96;  assocUte  editor jrf 
The  lUuttrated  American,  New  Yortt, 
1896.  His  poems  Onan,  In  p*ven 
T«r«,  etc.,  bSht  him  the  title  of  '  The 
Longfellow  of  CJanada.'  He  has  also 
written  works  of  history,  novels,  eta,  sad 
has  been  especiaUy  happy  to  dealing  wiA 
stories  of  sbimal  life.  Among  the  lattar 
ate  r»e  Heart  of  tKa  AncUmtWood.  TM 
Kindred  of  the  WM,  JETtialW'*  ef  <»• 
SUeneet,  etfc  ^^  . 

Koberts,  S£S^rinS;^S! 

1884.    He  waa  appieirtlMd  to  a  Imqs^ 
patotar,  bvt,  w$tk  ft  tlfw  t*  «l»  W«h» 


was  bom  at  OawBpM«»  I^ 
dia.  in  1832.    He  entered  Om  wnv.  wm 
b&me  Vututenant  in  tha  Bennl  Ar^ 
Sw  to  1861;  a^captato  to  «»>    ^a 
S&ed  the  Victoria  Croaa  in^^J"^ 
mutiny,  and  was  niade  bwet^wjer.    He 
took  part  to  the  Abyidnian  ounpwg. 
SitJS;  served  to  the  laiahjd  mj^ 
S^ ;  commanded  a  oolunm  to  the  A^aa 
War  of  1878,  and  «tt«ly  d^tsd^ub 
Khan.    As  a  reward  for  these  servl^  be 
waa    created    a    baronf«    and    iMti^ 
S?  command  of  the  Indian  •»>;.  1^ 
He   waa   afterwards   ^f^^^^jfj^ 
of  the  Irish  forces,  and  to  1W0,W "» 
^iSed  to  a  Uke  I^ition  of  «»  B^iJ 
forces  In  the  Boer  War.    He  returaedta 
1901.  waf>  made  an  earl  and  suoosaoea 

the  British  srmles.  He  ««d  Nowaber 
14. 1914,  whUe  on  a  tour  of  inspeeOoa  of 
the  British  army  to  France.  

SODertS,  ^  merchant,  bora  In  Potfc 

mouth,  N.  H.,  in  1796;  «i«5  i?  l*^^ 
was  t^e  first  American  dlpl<«natiat  to 

nlvf^  Eixu  HBirar,  an  AbimeImjb 
»0DCrt8,  f^^  bora  1^  tJtlca,  N^.. 
to  1827.  He  waa  editor  and  part-prwl- 
•Sor  of  the  Utica  lIorntogHemld.  1861- 
ST  «rv^  to  Con«eas  1V1--T6.  vnm  a»- 
Sstant-treasurer  of  the  UnltedState* 
S»-03.  and  treasurer,  1»»7-19«;  war 
i^S&te  to  the  B^juhM^  National 
Oonventlona  of  1804  and  1868. 


«Alt«<pf«  OvLAVf  MiLO,  an  American 
BODenS,  j^rigt  jnd  politician,  born  in 
Laarens  Dlst,  S.  C.  In  1816:  died  la 
iMfLHe  wss  orerident  of  the  conven- 
Srwhlch  ;;Stad*^a»  out  of  the  Un^on 
to  1861 ;  served  to  tt»  Confederate  army . 
^T^adMted  ta  the  U.  S.^S«ate  in  1866. 
Mfc  not  permitt«l  to  take  Ms  5«»t^wa» 
fer  a  number  of  years  Chief  J^^^ 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Texas,  and  gyr- 
eraor.  MT^Sb  :  and  for  toi  yeawwaea- 
mil  iaw^itM  University  ciTm. 

BobertMm  ^^^^\  ^SS^ 

Piaadiar.  was  bc«iJnlLoB^Ml^ 

cShwsnhsni. 

asd  haM 


Ltaat 


atOxIwd. 

Ohrist  Ohni^ 


lotetwA 


Bottfpimt 


dMint  with  lacrMwiw  teBt  •■  a  prMclMr 
till  6to  dMth  In  18{^  His  vl«ws  oa  tht 
8«blNitb,  th*  atOMtntnt.  taptlnn.  ami  la- 
•pintton  wtre  ■iMllcd  at  unortbodoz, 
and  ha  waa  accuMd  of  praaching  dcnoe- 
racy  and  lodalbin.  ^       .  ^        , 

aobertwn,  JSS^'wt.'SS'it'i?: 

trdean  In  1810:  died  lo  186U.  lie  waa 
educated  at  the  achool  of  Udny.  at  Aber- 
deen Grammar  School,  and  MarjechBl 
Collcte.  Aberdeen.  In  1836  he  publiahed 
a  homoroua  Ouide  to  Deetide,  under  the 
paeudonym  of  John  Brown.  After  eerr- 
ing  ai  editor  of  several  Scottish  news- 
papeta  he  became  curator  of  the  histori- 
cal department  of  the  Register  House. 
The  University  of  Edinburgh  conferred 
on  him  the  dMree  of  LL.D.  in  1804. 
HIa  worka  Inclnde  the  Book  of  Bo»r 
Acoori,  an  archcological  and  historical 
galde  to  Aberdeen  (ll09).  UUtorte$  and 
Antiquitkt  of  the  Countiea  of  Aberdeen 
mnd     Banff     (1843-62).     Intentont     of 

?meen  Mary't  Jeweh  and  Fnrnitura 
1803),  and  Concilia  ScoUm  (180U). 
VAYwn^anii  Thomas  WnxiAX.  an 
AODCriBOn,  English  dramatist,  born 
in  1820:  died  in  1871.  Hia  parents  be- 
ing actors,  he  early  went  on  the  stage, 
but  was  never  a  succen.  In  1858  ne 
settled  in  London,  where  for  several 
yeara  he  struggled  on  with  light  litera- 
ture. In  1804  he  had  considerable  suc- 
ceos  with  Davtd  Qarrick,  a  play  pro- 
duced by-  Sothem:  but  his  fame  rests 
on  a  series  of  plays  produced  at  the 
Prince  of  Wales*  Theater  (1800-70). 
inclining  Our*,  Caite,  Play,  School,  and 
M.  P.  Though  sueered  at  on  their  pro- 
duction by  certain  critics,  and  nick- 
named '  cup-and-saucer  dramas,'  they  de- 
servedly secured  a  permanent  place  on  the 
stage.  His  principal  Dramatic  Worka 
(2  vols.)  were  published  in  1880  by  his 
son. 

nAlMrfann  WiixiAic,  a  celebrated 
AODCnaoU)  Scottish  historian,  was 
bom  at  Borthwiclc,  in  East  Lothian, 
where  his  father  was  minister,  Sept.  10, 
1721.  After  the  completion  of  his  course 
in  the  theological  class  of  Edinburgh, 
Robertson  obtained  a  license  to  preach  in 
1741,  and  in  1743  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  Giadsmuir,  in  East  Lothian. 
He  aoon  obtained  an  ascendency  in  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land by  his  eloquence  and  great  talents 
for  public  business,  which,  exerted  In 
favor  of  Conservative  principles,  gave 
him  for  a  long  time  the  lead  in  the  eccles- 
iastical politics  of  Scotland.  His  J!f(«- 
tory  of  Scotland  During  the  Reigna  of 
OnMii  Mary  and  King  Jamea  VI  ap- 
itU9i  in  1758  (two  toIs.  4to).    Tbia 


wort  tod  to  th«  autbov'a  apDolntoMat  ■■ 
diaplaln  of  Stlrlhu  Caatle  In  17S0,  mm 
of  tba  kiagVi  cba^atna  In  1761,  and  »rin> 
elpal  of  tba  Unrvarslty  of  Edlnboign  In 
list.  Two  y  ara  after  ba  waa  aado 
historlograpber-rqyal  of  Scotland.  HIa 
Htatory  of  the  Reign  of  Ohmrlet^  V  ap- 

rred  in  1706,  hU  BiaUtrp  of  Amerif 
1777.  and  In  1701  An  MUtarUmt  DU- 
qmiaition  Concerning  the  Knowledge  whiek 
the  Ancienta  had  of  India,  Aa  an  hIa- 
tortan  ha  ia  admired  for  aktlfal  and 
Inuinoua  arrangement,  dlstinctnasa  of 
narrative,  and  highly  gnphkal  deacrlp- 
tlon.  His  style  la  pnra.  dlgnlflad,  and 
perapicuous.  He  died  In  Jane,  1796. 
TTnliMTiiiirrA  ( rob-ea-pl-lr) ,  VmAft- 
JMOespierre  ^„  jfAxmiUKf  Jo- 
seph Ibidobb,  was  bom  at  Arras  In 
1758,  and  waa  the  aon  of  an  advocate. 
He  waa  educated  at  the  (XtUege  of  Loula- 
le-Grand  at  Paris.  He  afterwarda  ptme- 
ticed  as  an  advocate  at  Arras,  and  held 
for  a  short  period  the  position  of  Judge 
in  the  bishop's  diocese.  In  1780  ha  waa 
elected  deputy  to  the  SUtea-generaU  and 
was  a  seaious  supporter  of  democratic 
measures.    At   this    time   he   bacana   a 


Mszlailien  Robespierre. 

prominent  member  of  the  Jacobins  and 
other  revolutionary  clubs.  In  March, 
1701,  he  was  appointed  public  accuser  to 
the  New  Courts  of  Jndicatnre.  He  re- 
mained in  the  background  during  the 
September  massacrea  of  1792,  which  he 
assisted  in  planning,  leaving  the  work 
with  Marat  and  Danton.  In  the  same 
month  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  and  In  the  proeeedinga 
against  Louis  XVI  dlatingnhdicd  Umscif 
by  tba  rrlentleaa  rancor  with  whi^  iM 


snsi.-?.t''^?^KL^ 


irith  CwnllU  DwmoullM.  on  April  6th. 
RahMDitrrt'a  pow«r  now  ••«B«g  ,»«»  "? 
Smtet»l7  MtiblMMd.  and  tbt  Rtign  of 
n?«£^  WM  at  Its  height.    On  June  8, 
TtoT  hi^M  JmMent  of  tho  Contention. 
£S  t%  ^T«tlon  4ecrt0  the  extatenco 
Sf  tho  Supreme  Being :  and  on  the  wme 
Sy  he  celebrtted  the  Fentt  of  the  8u- 
Sine  aTtoT^In  the  menntlme  •  p«rty 
Kthe  cSrentlon  wa.  formed  .f«^it 
Boheepierre.    and^on   July   27   he   wm 
•bmIt  eccueed  of  deepotfem.    A  decrc* 
JTImet  wiTetnled  a««ln.t  him.  and  he 
SJ  A^wn  into  the  Luxembourg  prieon. 
Sir  wae  releaewl  b/  hi.  keeper  on  the 
night  of  the  tame  day,  *n<\.«"»''»5*«l,i? 
the  Hall  of  Commune,  where  hie  rop- 
SortenT  were  collected. ,  On  the  foUowlng 
Say  Barrw  was  i^t  with  an  ■rmed  force 
to  efecf  hla  arrett.    Rob«P»«"«  •, .fcl  ?S 
en  teaerted  him,  and  he  waa  guillotined 
m  July  27,   ITM.   together  with   eome 
twenty-three  of  hie  aupporterj.    The  ten^ 
ency  with  modem  wrltera  la  to  modify 
the  character  for  Infamy  which  at  one 
time  obtained  regarding  feobeepierre. 
«I^i.i_ri«*'ln>.  a  name  given  to  atr* 
Kobin    Sf  blidC  more  wclally  to 
the  robin  redbreaet  of  Europe  (iiee  Red- 
SiJl)   and  to  an  American  apedea  of 
btackbSrd    (MeHllo  migntorin),  aa  «too 
tothe  bluebird  of  America.    See  Bhu- 

EoWn  Goodf cUow.  ^  ^*^ 

EobillHood.    see  Hoo*.  BoM... 


9rsr^T^fi?^i^ 


Bobinia.    see  LoowWra* 

v^vima  (rob'faia),  Bkcjamw,  m-th 
SobiBS  ^clan  and  artilleiW,  ./i 
bom  at  Bath.  England,  In  1707.    He  wi 


tho- 


ham  at  Bat&.  isngiana,  m  jivi.  »»«  "—• 
Srif^u<*ted.  and  attained  an  extraordl- 
SarTtaowh^ge  of  mathematics  a  aub- 
Set  which  he  taught  In  London.  He 
Stoo  mSeexperiments  on  projectilea.  and 

hto  cwS  ^k.  the  ,if««  i;^„^«l7^  ^^:^\W^^B^'T^«^ 
Ounnerv,    appwtred    in    17*2.    In    ™  AOOOeiia. 

he  became  wsln^f-'^-^Ma*^  *m.SSJ 
India   Company,   and   for**5S8i  "xff^ 


riaa  to  a  worn  w  gnm*  ▼••■^  «••■■•-■ 
mti  AmMs  P^trw  (IMl).    Ho  dH*  W 

SSwMon,  sn^S^'SirfTt 

Bury  St.  Bdmnnde  in  1776;  died  inVm. 
He  atudtad  law  >n  ,!*«»*'»•  ,!?^«£!!fS? 

JWS  fianS^fiSSa  5ith°^ 
Schiller,  and  moot  of  the  Gkrsan  aea  of 
Ste«  i^the,  time.  Bo  waa  inttoatag 
acooalnted   with   almoat  erery  ■»•»•« 

Sflnence  In  hi.  «»«v  "^^iSj"*^ 
friend    of    Wowtoworth,   Colerid«,    Md 

others  of  note,  and  >»«JL£f*^:Mk2Z«  il^ 
1809,  la  a  perfect  mine  to  atnd«ta  M 
literary  and  •jrfal  hiatory.     ,  .     ^ 

Bobimon  Crusoe,  ^^^"SStS; 

by  the  well-known  Defoe  and  pobllahed 
In  1719.    SeeD«/oe.  .orf-rt 

Bob  Boy  {,f  Sis?*  V>i^ 

Highland  freebooter.  fc>™  •^"l.^SS' 
wboae  true  name  waa  R<*«'*  *;*«?Wf; 
but  who  aMumed  bis  n»ot>»«r  •'•■"» 
name,  Campbell,  on  account  of  the  oo^ 
iawrr  of  the  clan  MaMregor  by  tho 
S^t?b  Strllament  In  16a.  He  beoamo 
a  partisan  of.tbe  PreJ^nder  In  thojr^ 
hellion  of  1716.  The  E^ko  of  Monttoa. 
aelaed  hla  eatate,  whteh  caoaed  Mm  to 
engage  In  a  brlgandWi  war  of  wtoah 
fwinany  year..  He  .beenmo  widow 
Slebrate/ foj  hi.  «?»•«**  *?^  JS^ 
hero  of  one  of  the  mort  popalax  of  SeotTk 
novela.    Be  died  In  1743.  ^  .  _. 

^  a  fabuloua  bird  of  inmeaio  tSm 
*w>  and  strength,  whkh  to  ■"!• 
timied  hi  tho  AiwMoa  HigkU  MutfrUjm- 
flMMt*.  A  belief  In  It  waa  tprwd  Ib^ 
rope  during  the  middle  agea,  haTing  bom 
brought  from  tho  Baat  probably  as  a  co«- 
sequence  of  tho  Cruaades.  .  , , ,  ^  ^ 

PikAATnlmlii    (rok'am-bOl;    An<«fl» 

elea  of  wiion,  bavin*  bulbs  reaembllng 
^  of  the  garlic.  It  to  cultivated  for 
the  »me  purpowa,  and  to  conwderea  aa 
having  a  more  delicate  flavor. 


where  ho  aiea  oi  lever.m  •»••"-.   "~j" 
bdteved  to  have  had  a  ahare  in  the  prep- 
SSSn  of  the  narrattve  of  Anyou'a  Toif- 
7S^Bo«n4  <»«  W«rM  (174M4). 
VAVinaAvi    ( rob'in-Bon),    Bny 
AOOmSOn  ^BlbUcal  acholar), 

. ...      a.u.*kl.._*«M        rtniifia#4imil 


ABO 

was 


bwn    at    SonthUigton,    CamaeHcut,    te 
17WL    After  serving  aa.  a  prpfeaoor  of 
Bbtoal  UtoratoM  at  AnkffU,  ba  pado  a 
84— U-6 


Bocbambean   i^Si^hJi^^ 

DB  ViKcnB,  Couira  di,  M«r^jl  *v 
France,  bora  In  1726,  entered  tb*  French 
irmyln  1742,  dtetlngntohed  himself  in 
theBevea  Xears'  war,  and  »£^?»  8*"^ 
SarSoia  1761.  In  1780-82  ho  com- 
manded tho  French  forceo  omt  to  aid  go 
malted  Btlttah  colontototo  AnwrigjHo 
beeaaa  favHBOC  of  Artds  aad  Pkaidy 


Boohtiter 


tbriam  9t  Tnrrur  Im  urrowjjr 


^ tk« 

WOT. 

„  •  muBldpkl  WW 

'pftrllUMnUry     boroncb     of 

Ib  LaoouUr*,  10  bUm  i«.  h.  & 

afllaaehwter.    Bodidal*  is  •  pUct  of 
eouiatnbl*   antiquity,    and    wh    Mrlj 

Mttd  lor  its  wool«i  "«»«»'*«t»^,,7*4S 
itvo  rwMiMd  a  chief  ■Upl«  tiU  tiM 
prtMBt  dsjr.  Cotton  is  •zteniiTely  msnn- 
hctarsd.  and  thers  are  also  foundriss, 
■aeUat-shops,  etc.,  while  in  the  neigh- 
hwhood  ars  qoarriec  of  freeetone  and  ex- 
teaaiTa  eoUierics.  The  town  is  trrefularly 
built,  and  baa  many  narrow  etrects,  but 
of  Mta  yeara  lias  been  much  Improred. 
The  pariah  chureh  (St.  Chad),  of  the 
twelftt  century,  situated  on  an  eminence, 
is  approached  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
town  by  a  flight  of  122  stepa.  The  town- 
hall  is  a  fine  modem  building,  and  were 
ia  a  handsome  free  library.  Kocbdale  is 
the  canter  of  the  coAperatlTe  movement, 
whttA  originated  there  in  1844.  Bt 
meana  of  canala  it  has  a  water  communi- 
cation  with  aU  the  industrial  centera  of 
the    north    of    Bngland.    Pop.     (1911) 

KiSefort  iS5i{S'.*'St^,f5S5: 

fled  seaport  and  naval  arsenal  of  France, 
in  tha  department  of  Charente-Inf^rleure, 
on  the  rifbt  bt  'i;  of  the  Charente.  about 
9  miles  abore  ita  mouth,  20  milea  south 
of  La  Roehelle.  It  stands  mostly  on  a 
low  swampy  flat,  ia  regnUrly  built,  and 
is  surrounded  by  ramparta.  In  the  mili- 
tary port  the  largest  vessels  float  at  all 
timea.  Attadied  to  it  are  shipyards, 
worinhopH.  and  storehouses  of  various 
Uada.  A  large  naval  hospital  is  outside 
the  town.  There  is  a  good  trade  in  col- 
onial produce,  wine,  brandy,  etc.  Pop. 
(1911)  85.419. 
liAAliiifortCrosh-fOr),    Hkhbi     (Vic- 

BocBxrocT-LvgAT),  a  French  Journalist, 
dramatiat,  and  politician,  bom  at  Pans 
In  1890.  Here  be  at  first  studied  medi- 
cine, but  on  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1861,  he  obtained  a  post  in  the  prefecture. 
In  18B0  he  wrote  for  the  Okwivari,  and 
1m  became  one  of  the  principal  writers 
on  tte  Fiffiuro.  Having  been  dismissed 
from  the  latter  poet  by  order  of  the  minis- 
try, he  founded  a  weekly  paper  called 
£•  Lantome  In  1868,  in  which  he  vlgor- 
ondy  attaAed  the  onperor  and  the  minis- 
try. It  was  adsed  early  in  ita  career  by 
the  police,  and  Bocfaefort  was  fined  and 
iapnaoned.  In  18flB  he  was  returned  to 
tbf  IsfUUttvf  Hffevbl^  b7  tlw  fim  «r- 


KwdisMncnt  of  l^urls.  .He  then  rtnrtob 
a  new  paper,  the  itarseWajes, .and^for  lU 
attacka  on  the  imperial  .family,  he  waa 
aeateneed  to  sis  months'  impriscoBeat 
In  January.  ISTft  Afur  Sedan  he  be- 
came  a  member  of  the  goveriiment  of 
Nattonal  I>efenae.  He  fled  froai  Parla 
In  May,  1871,  when  he  foresaw  the  rad 
of  the  Commune,  of  which  he  had  heea  a 
vigorous  supporter,  but  was  arrested  by 
the  Versailles  government  and  sentenwl 
to  transporUtlon  to  New  Caledonia.  He 
eacaped  in  1874,  and  after  the  general 
amnesty  of  1S80  returned  to  Paris  (July 
12),  where  he  founded  his  new  Journal, 
the  Intrantifwnt.  He  was  returned  aa 
deputy  by  tne  department  of  the  neine, 
but  resigned  his  seat  in  February,  1886. 
He  published  The  Aiveniurt*  of  Mv 
Lift  (1806).  ^ 

Boohefonoanld,  S^i.'^'&'^LS 

Aooke/o«oa«M. 


Eoohejaquelein,  f!rS'oZiii>e&. 
BocheUe  i-*'^")^  kt:^^  fe; 

capiUl  of  the  department  of  CTharente- 
Inl«rieure,  on  the  Atlantic.  95  miles  north 
by  west  of  Bordeaux.  The  chief  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  town-hall,  ex- 
change, courts  of  JusUce,  hospital,  ar- 
senal, and  a  public  library.  The  harbor 
is  easily  accessible  and  commodious.  The 
roadstead  is  protected  by  the  islands  of 
R4  and  OldCron.  I4i  Roehelle  has  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  wines,  brandies,  and  co- 
lonial produce.  In  the  religious  wars  it 
was  long  a  ProtesUnt  stronghold.  It 
stood  an  eight  months'  siege  in  1672.  but 
in  1628  was  forced  to  surrender  to  luch- 
elieu  after  a  three  montha'  siege.  Pop. 
(1911)  36.871.  ,  _ 

BooheUe  Salts,  ^  ^"f  £fK: 

tassium.  crystallizing  in  large  rhombic 
prisms.  It  has  a  mild,  hardly  saline 
taste,  and  acts  as  a  laxative. 

Koches-moutonnies    i^V),  T£ 

name  given  to  the  rounded  and  smoothed 
humps  of  rock  occurring  fn  the  beds  of 
ancient  glaciers,  firom  their  fancied  re- 
semblance to  the  backs  of  sheep  (mou- 
tonn^,  sheep-like).  They  have  received 
their  form  and  smoothness  from  the  action 
of  ice. 

1»AAliABt«r  (rocfa'es-tnr),  a  dty,  par* 
*w»lWWr  \ian»imtary  borough,  and 
river-port  in  England,  in  the  county  of 
Kent,  29  miles  southeast  of  Londm,  on 
the  Medway,  adjoining  Chatham.  It  con- 
sists  of  Bochester  proper,  <»  the  right 
bank  of  the  river,  and  of  Btrood,  apd^psrt 
of  Frtodri^  parish  ««  ^  l«tt  buk, 


C    tStm,  and  of  '^  ,^^'^  ^^^J^ji 

mo  btfort  tht  Romjn  P«tiM;  Jrtijf 
wM  fMwdtd  by  tbt  Bason  Ung  of  Kwt. 

rtbniU  In  «••  beflonlni  of  tb«  twtlfth 
century  and  renovated  In  JH27-84.  ine 
BMsrt  s  .are  keep  of  the  c""  ••  bn»t  » 
JhT        ,  nwhe  Conqueror,  at  111  remnUw. 

y,  .I'l-.u  uh.T  ••"'  oil 

K   i»   i»    >   r.i-i.   upvH' 


.^■i. 


Itcvn"> 


fit- 


•f  tflnBMwta,  eooB' 

vf  Olmated  Co..  on 

B.  of  Red  Wlnf . 

ur»l  region,  and 

^bopa,  etc.    Pop. 

of  Strafford   CJo., 
lamnahlre,  10  milea 


t  NV.  1  IX  vir.  It.  haa  larae  Induatrlee 
-u'rt  'Jifu:  *t;)iei!t!,  bliaketa,  aboea,  bricU, 

elv.  '»'  '"*^  '  .,<ty.  county  aeat  of 
E0C^f«tei,  .,i„;Vj;'  county.  New 
York  •  .th  BKi"  of  the  GmeaMmwt. 
7  mU.«  ..jo.e  .u  ».atr*nce  into  Lake  On- 
tario. The  port  of  Rdebeater  ia  called 
Charlotte.     The  Erie  Canal,  aoon  to  be 

dnct  originally  buUt  in  1^     "L  tul 
Souaand-ton  Urge  canal  will  ««>»«>* 
river  aouth   of   the  center  of   the  city. 
EaidnrtSroughGeneaeByaUevPark    The 
town  waa  first  aetUed  in  1812  and  baa 
Wn  the  home  of  Frederick  A.  »ouf»aa 
Uegro  leader)    and  Suaan  B.  Anthony, 
it  ifSn^dited 'with  the  •«»•»  "i*"  ^JJ; 
The    inatitutiona   include    St    Bernaraa 
Seminarf  (Roman  CathoUc),  Rocbeater 
SlS^Sal  Seminary  (Baptla  >.  Unive'- 
aityoTRodieater,  Mechanica'  jnatitute. 
Wwtern   New  York   Inetitute  for  De-f 
MutSrStata   Hoapital   for  the   Iniane. 
ThafalS  of  the   river  -ithwi   tlie  city 
limits  compriabig  three  di     ^;^}^\^J^\ 
of  m  feet,  iayelop  abo      «pjO0O  hone- 
power  electrical  energy.     The  dty  baa 
immenm  nuracriea  and  manufactwM  of 
bSotTVnd   aboea,   clothing,   photographic 
material,   aupplie-   and  «"•"*'  ®P^' 
and  adentific  meaaurlng  inatrumenta,  etc, 
SSd  U  Slled  '  'nu.  City  of  Varied  Indna- 
triea.'     It  la  notea  for  the  arcbitectuwl 
beauty  and  landaeape   gardening  of  Ita 
faetories,  and  f«r  its  fine  lake  <»ont  •»* 
^k  ayrtem.    The  firat  booaa  waa  buUt 
ITlSW.    Pop.  240,000, 


Plttabafth.    It  haa  aatural  fM  ttd  aU 

JUMneiwrt  ,  ^m,  and  pfotiiata 
BOblanan  ♦  the  court  .of.  Owirlea  II, 
wStban  ...  Osfordahira  la  IMT  or  leM. 
Sd  rtucated  at  Wadha-  CoU^j., J« 
rocceeded  to  the  »ltl?««»d  •«•»«»»  "B: 

He  aerved  In  the  «?^J«»*»L^-?'S 
wkh,  and  diatlngulabad  klnaelf  at  Oa 
attack  on  Bergen.  On  bla  "Jnnito  lijr 
land  he  became  the  paraonal  fmod  tM 
favorite  of  the  king.  HIa  jy^Jj""- 
gave  way.  under  bla  hablta  •«  *"»»«[ 
Bcaa  and  uebaucbery,  and  be  died  In  MHIfc 
Hla  poetical  worka  cooalat  ■teioat  wboUy 
of  aatlrea,  loveHwnga,  -"d  drinktor 
aonga,  many  of  them  being  rnoa  of  wit 
and  fancy,  while  many  of  tbem  are  dar* 
Ingly  Immoral.  —  >    •  . 

Eoche-iur-Yon  l^^r'^Vit 

town  of  France,  capital  •«  **»  da^  of 
Vendue,  on  the  rlv.  Yoo.  *»  »"  ■•.gi 
Nnntea.  It  wna  r  ;e  tl»  «»I^^<»' g? 
department  by  .Napoleon  I,  ta  "g^,  batat 
tli<>n  a  mere  vIllRge.  Pop.  lO,^";^  ^_ 
i>,....i.a4>  (roch'et),  a  lawn  or  iaea  gaf 
A<X}'Let  ^^^  Mmewbat  Ilka  tha  anr. 
pllce  in  ahapo,  but  with  cloae-flttlM 
aleevea,  worn  by  blahopa  and  other  high 
ecclealaatlcal  dlgnltarlea.  nw-- 

Boohette    i^'iVi5**^J!i» 

ttte,  a  French  archMloglat,  bom  In  ITBO, 
for  a  number  of  y«*"  batpar  ol  madato 
and  antlqultlea  at  the  Royal  Lltearr,aiaa 
irofeaaoVin  arelgNilonrat  tha  Collljada 
France:  from  1838  aecretary  of  the  AeM- 
S5^  Fin*  Arte.  He  died  at  Pariato 
ISM.    Hla  principal  worka  ara:  Uift^ 

Orvcvaee     (*  yoto.,    181o)»  .'••"'•■••"I" 

teuton  Aneintnirt  aw«  t™"^**^ 
\Sto  Engllah  by  H.  M.  Waatfopp,  and 
publlabed  In  1864. 

VaaV  in  gaology,  la  a  tern  applied  to 
'^OOK,  „  ■  c«^,ierable  aggregation  of 
mineral  matter,  whether  bard  and  "ja^ 
alve.  Ilka  granite,  marble,  etc  or  frtaM 
Sd  uncoSlldated,  Uke  clay,  aand,  a«i 
gravd.  In  popular  language,  bowrrwr.  it 
1^  confined  to  any  larae  maaa  of  a»on» 
natter,  aa  4iatliwuUied  from  aril,  arad* 

VjukV-jMkil  a  name  in  Aatwrica  t» 
Soek-eOO,    J,^  ^^^^  ot  the  gaaof 


b^nk  of  tha  OlSr»  taOM  ■.  w.  at  «w»"«w^'»*^ 


2fr-a 


Booktfeller 


BodkEiU 


BoekefeUer  iSKS£Sf'^'c55.K 

born  at  Richford,  New  York,  July  8, 
1880.  A  poor  boy,  he  became  a  clerk  >n 
a  small  oil-refinery  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  at 
the  ace  of  19,  showed  freat  baaineas 
ability,  and  soon  after  became  partner  in 
a  firm  (innged  in  the  oil  business.  His 
business  developed  and  enlarged  with 
great  rapidity,  and  in  1870  was  con- 
solidated with  others  as  the  Standard 
Oil  Company.  In  18%  the  Standard  Oil 
Trust,  controlling  the  vast  petroleum 
trade  of  the  United  States,  was  organ- 
ised, he  being  ita  leading  spirit.  Its 
methods  were  subsequently  reprobated 
and  suits  against  it  were  brought  in  the 
United  States  courta.  but  it  acquired  vast 
wealth,  and  Rockefeller,  as  its  head, 
finally  retired  from  business  with  a  for- 
tune estimated  at  many  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions. Since  his  retirement  he  has  given 
great  sums  from  his  enormous  income  for 
educational  and  other  purposes,  including 
a  total  of  f43,000,000  to  the  General 
Education  Board,  over  $30,000,000  to  the 
University  of  Chicago,  and  large  amounts 
to  various  institutions,  including  Har- 
vard University,  Vasaar  Collese.  the  In- 
stitute for  Medical  Rpfieawh,  New  York, 
•se.  A  great  gift  of  |100,000.000.  offered 
to  be  used  towards  the  extirpation  of 
poverty,  was  chartered  as  the  Rockefeller 
Foundation  in  1013. 

VaaVa^  (Bratiica  erUca),  a  cructrer- 
*''*'*'*  ous  plant  of  the  cabbage 
genus  growing  wild  in  many  parts  of 
Europe.  It  has  a  strong,  disagreeable 
odor,  an  acrid  and  pungent  taste,  but 
is  much  esteemed  by  some,  and  especially 
by  the  Italians,  who  use  it  in  their  salads. 
Ita  medicinal  properties  are  antiscorbutic 
and  stimulant.  The  stem  is  about  li 
foot  high,  rough,  with  soft  hairs,  and 
bearing  long  pinnated  leaves;  the  flowers 
are  whitish  or  pale  yellow,  with  violet 
veins.  The  term  rocket  is  also  applied  to 
tht  different  b;>ecies  of  Hetptrit  —  crucif- 
erous planta  with  purple  flowers,  often 
cultivated  for  ornament  in  gardens. 
Vy\Alr*t  a  projectile  consisting  of  an 
AOGKOl,  j^Q  cyltoder  filled  with  an 
inflammable  composition,  the  reaction  of 
tha  gases  produced  by  the  combustion  of 
which,  pressing  on  the  head  of  the  rocket, 
Bsrvs  to  propel  it  through  the  air.  Rock- 
eta  were  first  used  in  eastern  countries. 
Sir  W.  Congreve  first  made  them  of  iron, 
and  introduced  them  into  the  British  serv- 
ice under  the  name  of  Congreve  rockets, 
^ey  were  kept  point  first  by  the  use  of 
a  stick,  which  acted  on  the  principle  of 
an  arrow's  feathers.  But  the  rocket  now 
oaad  in  the  Britiah  service  has  no  stkk, 
b^lf  iK^t  point  fi»t  by  rapid  rotatlis. 


Boekst. 


imparted  to  it  by  means  of  three  curved 
shields  fixed  on  the  base  so  as  to  be  on 
the  same  side  of  each  vent.  (See  the  ac- 
companying figure.)  Rocketa  may  be 
discharged  from  tubes  or  troughs,  or 
even  laid  on  tiie  ground.  In  war  rocketa 
are  chiefiy  used  for 
incendiary  purposes, 
for  moral  effect  — 
especially  frighten> 
ing  horses,  and  for 
various  irregular  op< 
erations.  8%gnal  and 
*ky  rockets  are 
small  rockets  formed  of  pasteboard 
cylinders,  filled  with  combustible  ma- 
terials, which,  when  the  rocket  has  at< 
tained  its  greatest  height  and  bursts, 
cast  a  brilliant  light  which  may  be  seeu 
at  a  great  distance.  For  another  va- 
riety of  rockets  see  Ufe-rockeU. 
Pnn1r.fi  all  or  Black  Gobt  (GoMm 
J&OCK-nsn,    „^g^)     a    European    flsL 

belonging  to  the  family  of  the  gobies. 
This  fish  is  found  on  rocky  coasta  chiefiy 
and  inhabits  the  deeper  rock-pools  left 
after  the  receding  tide.  The  body  is  gen- 
erally covered  by  an  abundant  mucous  se- 
cretion, beneath  which  the  small  scales 
covering  the  body  are  almost  concealed. 
Some  of  the  wrasses  are  also  occasion- 
ally known  by  (he  name  of  '  rock-fishes,' 
aa  are  also  American  fishes  of  the  goius 
Bcorpwna.  See  also  B(U$, 
Pnnlrfnril   (rok'ford),   a   lAtf   of  llli- 

bago  Co,,  finely  situated  on  the  Rock 
River,  87  miles  w.  N.  w.  of  Chicago.  It 
has  abundant  water-power,  and  numer- 
ous industries,  including  large  hosierv 
works,  many  furniture  factories,  agri- 
cultural implement  factories,  wagon  and 
carriage  works.  It  is  the  seat  of  Rock- 
ford  College  for  Women.    Top.  524241. 

Eockhampton  <^??T'cTnVr?! 

Queensland,  on  the  Fiuroy  River,  85 
miles  from  its  mouth,  connected  with 
North  Rockhampton  by  a  handsome 
bridge.  The  streets  are  wide,  lined  with 
trees,  and  ornamented  with  numerous 
handsome  buildings.  Among  the  latter 
are  several  churches,  town-hall,  court 
buildings,  government  offices,  grammar- 
school,  hospital,  asylum,  public  library, 
and  museum.  Port  Alma,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Fitzroy,  is  a  fine  natural  harbor, 
where  ocean-going  steamers  can  load  or 
discharge  their  cargoes,  but  vessels  of 
1500  tons  come  up  to  Rockhampton. 
Rich  gold-fields  are  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
15,461. 

Ttetrtk  TTill  »  city  of  Tork  Co.,  South 
JMOKUm,  Carolina,  the  seat  of 
Winthrop  College,  a  State  nonaal  and 


Boeklim 


Soeky  Xmrntdiii 


Industrial  coUege  for  "«"»«•    Uj**^ 
ton  indiwtriM  and  carriage  worlu.    Fw- 

BOOKJim,  Sliurtrwa.  iwm  at  Phi  a- 
delphia  in  1814,  and  «*«>•«>  .^IX'^ 

"aijaS"  fllit^£Sftan?'§2;.«S*ry'", 
Iron^aK^diSSSr  o£  tbe  Bur«.n  rf 
American  RepubUca  in  loO^'onK  .^ 
Stotet  minister  to  P*"*  .^1®<5'  •J^J 

B^king-stones,  r.lfe'\S^rol 

utone  poised  so  nicely  upon  the  PO»nV«f  * 
rcwk  that  a  moderate  force  applied  to 
them  causes  them  to  rock  or  oscillate. 

immense  mass,  with  a  slightly  rounded 
base  resting  upon  a  flat  surface  of  rock 
Wwrso  tlat  a  single  person  can  move 
OT  wk  it  Some  rocklng-stones  are  evi- 
dlnS  ar  IBciai,  having  bad  a  mass  of 
?ick  cut  away  round  the  center  point  of 
their  bases:  others  are  due  to  natural 
cauMsr8«:h  as  decomposition,  the  action 

of  wind  and  water,  etc. 
m  "•""_,*     n  city  of  Illinois,  on 
Bock  Island,    ^^e  Mississippi  River, 
at  the  foot  o£  the  Upper  Rapids,  deriving 
?t«  namrfrom  an  island  in  the  river,  on 
whi?h™here  is  now  an  extensive  govern- 
ment arsenal.    On  the  Illinois  channel  of 
?he  ri?^?«  an  extensive  dam  which  sup- 
plfes  ?^wer  to  the  arsenal  and  to  the  city 
manufactories,    which    are    varied    and 
numerous.    The  city  is  a  great  center  of 
railway  and  river  traffic,  and  is  connect^ 
with  feock  Island  and  with  pavenp*'^ 
on  the  opposite  sic^e  of  the  river,  by  a 
railway  and  general  traffic  bridge.    Pop. 

v'^l<>«;i     (rok'land),   a  seaport  of 
SoOklana     y^lne,    capital    of   Knox 
Ca    on  the  southwest  side  of  Penobscot 
bS'v     It  has  extensive  lime-kilns,  large 
granite  Quarries,  ship-yards,  and  manu- 
factures  of    iron    and    brass    goods,    ax 
bandies,  stone-cutting  tools,  etc.     It  has 
^nmb^t   connection   with    Boston   and 
other  ports  on  the  coast-    Pop.  ol74. 
T>XnVlDTi<1    a  village  of  Plymouth  Co., 
AOOKiana,  Massachusetts,     10     miles 
B.B.K.     of     Boston.     It  ^has    extensive 
manufactures  of  boots,  shoes  and  tocB. 

SjLffi!:-  (Osno.  ot  Mot elUjmU 
AOOKlinS  oflris),   a   fish  included   in 

«      • 11-.        ^^A      b««  Awn      •  f  SA     Aa     thd 


is^mV  «i{<maii  •  pigeon  that  bnlM* 
BOCk-pigMn,  it.'^t  in  bollowa  or 
cNTicea  of  rocka  and  cliffs,  «ap«:iaUy  th« 

«^«i.  VJwAw     a  riTtr  of  the  Unltao 

Book  Kiver,  %^^^^  ^uch  riaea  in 

Wisconsin,  60  mile.  w«t  of  I*ke  MlcM- 


gan,  and  falls  into  the  MlaalaalppI  2  milja 
Glow  Rock  Wand  City.  L«Dgth,  MO 
miles,  about  225  of  wWch  hav«  been 
ascended  by  amall  steamboats. 

Book-rose.  8e.oi.is.. 

-RnnV-uilt  native  chloride  of  wKUnm, 
it00K-SaiT>,    ti^t  |g^  common  salt,  to 

the  solid  form.  In  masses  or  beds.    Be. 

»Mk.«orpioii  <,^",r.  °4^sr'S 

■corpion  found  in  Africa,  averaging  about 
nS  in  length.  The  b  t.  o!  thi.  anl- 
mal,  although  not  absolutely  fatal,  I.  yet 
considered  to  be  dangerous.       «  ^  _  _  _ ., 

Book-snake,  ^pX^   i^-i'i^'*^f' 

a  non-voiomous  African  snake,  attatofaig 


the  cod  family,  and  known  also  as  the 
three-bearded  rockllng,  from  tb.  ban?  <« 
its  snout:  two  other  roecies  ate  the  four- 
beaided  and  fiv»4MardM. 


miles  E.  of  Hartford.  It  has  abundant 
water  power  and  manufactures  of  silk  ano 
woolen  goods,  envelopes,  etc.    Pop  ^vu. 

BockyMonnt,   •ombT^aJd  ^ 

counties,  North  Carolina,  *1  »{'«*'•- ^ 
Goldsboro.  Its  Industrie,  ndude  fer- 
tilbters,   machinery,   yams,   lumber,   etc 

ISi^konntains,  SitTliT^ 

the  whole  of  the  extensive  »3*ttm  of  moon- 
tains  which  covera  a  great  Rortlwi  of  tb. 
western  half  of  North  America,  but  mora 
properly  applied  to  the  eastern  border  tf 
this    mounuln    region,    commencing    to 
nIw  Mexico  to  about  M-  80'  w.  lat,  and 
extending  throughout  the  continent  to  the 
Polar  Sea:  terminating  west  of  the  Mae- 
kensle  River,  In  lat.  ^»  v.  Ion.  135*  ^ 
The    Rocky    Mountains    In    the    United 
States    are   divided    toto    two   part*   to 
Southern  Wyomlna  by  a  tract  of  elevawd 
plateaus.    T?he  cWef  groups  of  the  south- 
ern half  are  the  Front  or  Colorado  Range, 
which  In  Wyoming  has  a  mean  elevation 
of  9000  f«st  (at  Evans'  Paw,  where  it 
is  crossed  by  the  Union  Pacific  Bailwaj, 
8268  feet).    In  Colorado  it  tocreaawito 
a  mean  height  of  13.000  feet,  itahWbjrt 
points  being  Gray's  Peak   (1*3*1  f «»  ; 
Long's  Peak    (14,271   feet),  and  Pikes 
P^      (1*,14T     feet).     "Th.  „Sawatcb 
Range,  iouth  of  the  Arlwnm  RlTer^baa 
Itabuheat    peak    to    Mount    Harvaw 
(14,ff«  f.rt)rwlth  P«a«  *t  •»  ^^ 


Bo^  tpriBgi 


Bodentiia 


tkm  of  from  HMO  to  18,000  feet    Th* 
•PMta'  of  CoiM«do  •!•  WA  momitato 
TftUtyt  knows  m  North,  Middle,  South, 
aadSaa  Late  porks,  with  on  elermtion  of 
from  WOO  to  10,006  ftet,  rairoonded  by 
imuw  8000  to  4000  feet  higher.    The 
WMt  border  of  the  Ban  Luis  Park   ia 
toimed  by  the  San  Juan  Ranee  with  at 
IcMt  a  doaen  peaka  orcr  14,000  feet,  and 
botween   one    and    two    hundred    above 
18,000  feet    On   the  northeaatem   aide 
thispark  ia  bounded  by  the  Sangre  de 
Crtito  Bange,  in  which  is  Blanca  Peak 
(14.464  feet).    The  Uintah  Range,  di- 
rectly west  of  North  Park,  has  »▼««' 
points  above  13,000  feet;  and  the  Wah- 
aatch  Range,  which  forms  the  western 
limit   of   the   southern   division   of   the 
Rocky  Mountains,  rises  to  a  ^height  of 
12,000  feet  just  east  of  Salt  Lake  City. 
The    northern    division    of    tbe    Rocky 
Mountains,   with   tbe   exception   of    the 
Wind  River  Range  and  the  Yellowstone 
region  (sue  Yellotettone) ,  is  lower  and  has 
leaa  impressive  scenery  than  the  southern. 
In  Idaho  and  Mcmtana  the  groups  are 
more   irrntular  in  outline   tlian   in   the 
south,  and  tbe  division  into  ranges  more 
QDcertain.    Of    these    the    Bitter    Root 
Mountains  in  part  of  their  course  form 
tbe  divide  between  tbe  Missouri  and  the 
Columbia.    There  two  ranges  reach  alti- 
tndea  of  upwards  of  9000  feet,  and  are 
eioaaed  by  a  number  of  passes  at  eleva- 
tiona  of  from  5500  to  6600  feet.    The 
Northern  Pacific  Railway  crosses  at  Mul- 
lan's  Pass  (5548  feet)  through  a  tunnel 
8860  feet  loi».    The  Craay  Mountains, 
north  of  the  x  ellowst(»ie,  mch  a  lieight 
of  11,000  feet;  other  groups  are  the  Big 
Horn  Mountains   and   the   Black   Hills, 
whose   highest  point   is   Mount   Harvey 
(9700    feet).    In    Canada    the    highest 
known  peaks  are  Mount  Brown  (10,000 
feet)   and  Mount  Hooker  (ISfiSO  feet), 
lying  about  68*  ir.  lat. ;  the  general  alti- 
tude of  thia  part  of  the  range  varying 
frtmi  10.000  to  14,000  feet    The  pass 
leading  between  Mount  Brown  and  Mount 
Hodier,   called   the   Athabasca   Portage, 
baa  a  height  of  7300  feet    Tbe  Rocky 
Mountains   contain   some   of   the    finest 
■cMiery  in  the  world,  and  are  specially 
rUh  in  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  cop' 
Mr,  etc.,  which  are  worked  eztmsively. 
The  Alwf"  Mountains  have  the  highest 
T>eaks  on  the  oontinent    Mt  McKfnley, 
20,464  feet;  St  Ellas,  18.016  feet,  etc. 
Book  Springi,    %J^^^^    sweet- 

ing.  on  Bitter  Creek,  268  miles  w.  of 
Laramie.  There  are  extensive  deposits 
«tf  lignite  coal  in  its  vicinity.  Pop.  6778. 
^^jnetmn  (r0-k6'k&).  a  debased  variety 
***""^^  tf   tba   Louis  •  Quatorae   style 


of  omaaunt  proceeding  from  it  tbrott|di 
tbe  degeneracy  of  tbe  Louia^niflne.  It 
is  geaeratly  a  meaningless  assemblage  of 
scroite  and  crimped   conventional   abeU- 


Boeoeo  Omsmeat. 

work,  wrought  into  all  sorts  of  Irr^ol" 
SEd  indescribable  forms,  without  indlvid- 
nal.^^y  and  without  expression. 
Bo  con.    Same  as  Annatto  (which  see). 

Dywtrni  or  Rocbot  (rok-rw*),a  small 
*"*'*"*>  fortified  town  of  France,  dep. 
Ardennes,  near  the  Belgian  frontier,  cele- 
brated for  the  victory  gained  (1643)  by 
the  Duke  d'Enghien  (afterwards  tbe 
great  Cond£)  over  the  Spaniards.  Pop. 
2000. 

TirkA  n  measure  of  length  equal  to  I614 
*"*'>  feet  (See  Pole^  A  square  rod 
ia  tbe  usual  measure  of  brick-work,  and 
ia  equal  to  272%  square  feet 
P/ul^ntiA  (  r6-den'8hi-a  ).  or  Ro- 
AOaeniia  ^biits.  an  order  of  mam- 
malia, comprising  the  gnawing  animals, 
such  aa  rats,  mice,  squirrels,  rabbits,  etc. 
They  are  distinguished  by  tbe  following 
characteristics:  the  teeth  are  limited 
to  molars  and  incisors,  canines  being  en- 
tirely absent;  the  molars  have  tubercu- 
lated  or  flattish  crowns,  and  are  espe- 
cially adapted  for  the  attrition  of  food; 


Bodeatia. 

A.  SknU  of  s  Rodnit  (OyiMmm).    B.  Molar 

teeth,  upper  jsw  of  Beaver  iOmttor  fkw). 

the  incisors  are  long,  and  spring  from  per- 
manent pulps,  thus  being  continually  re- 
Eroduced  and  shoved  outwards  from  their 
asea.  In  the  typical  spoclsa  tbe  outer 
faces  of  the  incisors  are  covered  with 
hard   eoaraei,   bat   not   tjbt  issi^   ^e% 


Sodexiok 


Eodolpk  n 


ifeaM  the  Utter  are  erft  and  wewf  ajw 
fMter  than^the  "t'^or  wi*^.  ft" 
fccmioK  a  aharp  edce  on  the  teetJi.  TM 
Tmu  ai«  lenerally  four  or  five  in  num- 
ber, and  are  provided  with  elawa.  The 
teteatine  ia  lone,  and  the  cncam  fmn- 
SlTSSe-  The  brain  ia  almoat  deatltnte 
of  convolntlonfc  The  eyea  are  placed 
SteSlT.  The  rodentia.are  dirided  tato 
two  main 


He  did  not  marry  till  he  waa  TT,  Ui  bfi^ 
beinc  Boae  Beorre,  Ua  old  '2«P«g««4 
Bod«  for  many  of  Ma  irorka.  Be  atea 
SS^Snber  W 1917.  Jg|*2?«tar  ^o 
crown  of  Ua  career,  the  Frendk  A^* 
to  which  he  waa  to  have 
fdlowins  week. 


sss^^Kf^AoSr*"-^'^'^ 


,w«  m-u.  divisiona  or  aoborden,  Tia.  «« 
oUcUentata,  repreaented  by  mice,  ratt, 
■qoirrela,  marmoU.  l»MkTe™i.  P?«?,P'?*5 
etc.,  harin*  the  inciaors  atrictl/  limited 
tTtwo  In  iach  jaw:  and  I>i.plfc.d«m«oto 
or  Lagomorph9j  comprehending  harea  and 
rabbita,  diatinfuished  by  four  inciaora  in 
the  upper  jaw  and  two  in  the  lower. 
vlil^«;itL.  (rod'*r-ik),  laat  of  the 
BodenOK     Vufioth   Unga   of   Spain, 

dSpiiTi?n  Jf^lS'^^Mjnl^O  he  waa 
elected  to  the  throne.  Shortiy  after  hla 
reign  began,  a  conapiracy  wm  formed 
againat  him  by  the  aona  of  Witiaa  and 
othen.  Bodericlt  met  them  at  Xerxea  de 
U  Frontera,  where  ^hla  army  waa  com- 
pletely defeated  with  heayy  losa,  and  he 
waa  Idlled  in  the  battle.  Hia  fate  ia  the 
theme  of  several  old  Spaniah  romancea, 
and  of  poema  by  Scott  aad  Sonthey. 

>*M~®*»  of  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Aveyron,  on  a  height  above 
the  Aveyron,  85  milea  nortWt  of 
MontpcUier.  It  has  steep  M70W  streelj 
and  mean  bouses,  mostly  of  .'▼ood:  a 
rathedral,  with  a  lofty  and  ringuUrif- 
constructed  tower,  episcopal  P«l*ce»,B»2- 
HcUbriry,town-hoase8.etc.  Pop.  "A»*. 
"O^AiiK  (rO-dfcn'),  AwHTBTi,  Freiwai 
*®*"^  sculptor,  painter  and  etcher, 
bom  in  Parii  in  18«.     Bv  hia  intena. 

realism  and  by  hia  H5P!!fTi"u.°..w^ 
ods  he  may  be  considered  the  leader  of 
t£e  modem  school  of  sculpture.  He  re- 
volted against  the  stereotyped  kind  of 
sculpture  which  he  insisted  was  '  too  far 
removed  from  the  actualities  of  lite. 
Against  thia  he  opposed  a  brilliant  im- 
pressionistic realism  that  arrested  the  at- 
t^tion  of  the  world.  One  of  his  moat 
noted  creationa,  full  of  esthetic  b<«uty 
and  with  a  strong  appeal  to  the  iinagina- 
tion,  waa  La  Pcnaeur,  a  aomber  bronae, 
seated  brooding  on  the  steps  of  the  Pan- 
theon. Dovra  to  the  day  of  his  death  he 
waa  the  object  of  bitter  attacks  by  critio, 
who  charged  him  with  vulgarity.  Hia 
■culpturea  indude  Babsae,  Victor  Hugo. 
The  Kit;  The  Age  of  Brau,  The  Hand 
of  Qui,  etc.  Rodin  had  other  qoalitiea 
fceddea  that  of  the  artist.  His  waa  a  de- 
mJhtful  persmiality:  he  waa  a,  ehanning 
t&Ut  tta  ftiand  of  youA  and  piofNSi. 


w  wu  M^'u.iey,  ■  BfitiA  ■•• 

val  heroT  bom  in"l718  »tWaltoii-wwir 
Thames.  He  became  a  Ueotenant  in  tfta 
navy  in  1738,  and  in  17«  w«t  to  New- 
foundland  as  governor.  In  17W»  »•  "J"^ 
barded  Havre  de  Grlee  in  face  of  tM 
French  fleet.  In  17TO  ho  w*^^S?'t!ISi2 
to  the  chief  command  on  the  Wgrt  indw 
aution,  and  in  January,  IWO,  ««- 
pletely  defeated  a  Spaniah  llert  midte 
Lugara  oft  Cape  St.  Vincent.  He  s^led 
for  Se  West  Indies  aaain  in  11«L.  and  on 
April  12,  1782,  obtained  a  dedalTe  ^ 
tory  over  the  French  fleet  uMWffig 
Qraaae.  A  barony  and  a  p<aaion  <rf  £2000 
were  bestowed  opon  him  tor  Ua  aarfkw 
Rodney  diedjiay  ?!• , J™*"  »™„,^    am 

Germany,  founder  of  the  impettal  hoM* 
of  Auatria,  was  bom  in  1218,  btfng  tne 


eldest  son  of  Albert  IV.  count  of^p^ 
burg  and  Undgrave  of  Alsace.    On  the 
death  of  his  father  he  aucceeded  to  t«M- 
toriea  of  a  very  moderate  extent,  mil«» 
in  the  apirit  of  the  timea,  he  MO^t  to 
aagment    by    miUtary    enterpriaeik     U 
1273  he  waa  elected  emperor,  and  waa 
crowned   at   Aix-la-Chapelle.    In   eooaa- 
ouence  of  Ottocar,  king  of  Bobeatfa,  ra- 
fuaing  to  do  homage,  war  enaned,  aM 
Ottocar   waa   defeated   and  .dain.    The 
emperor  then  employed  himaelf  to  f**^ 
peace  and  order  to  Germaay,  and  pw 
down  the  private  fortresaes.  ^.After  ter- 
inc  laid  a  permanent  foundation  for^M 
M^rity  of  Ua  family  he  died  in  1201. 
Wvbg  Austria  and  other  poneaaionato 
hia   son   Albert,   who   waa   also   elected 
emperor.     (See  After*  7).    Few  princea 
have  aurpaaaed  him  in  energy  of  charac- 
ter and  &  civil  and  ndUtary  talwttu 

Bodoiph  njo'jsSfin^lK 

imilian  II,  waa  bora  at  Vienna  in  1W2. 
He  waa  elected  emperor  in  157(L  having 
already  been  crowned  king  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia.  He  waa  a  weak  ruler,  nei^ 
lected  State  afaira,  and,  betog  a  ti^ 
Bmnan  Catholic,  adopted  aevwe  meaa^ 
againat  hia  Pioteatant  at^iecto.  War 
With  the  Turka  broke  ont,  "?  <|*«»nS»* 
everywhere  prevailed.  In  leOThte  brother 
MatUaa  waa  elected  king  of  HunntT, 

21  ^*Si^**S'4ASIla~£Kto  u! 
eeot  wt  cwwii  01  awaaua  aiw»  v*  ■« 


EodMto 


Xognr  S 


I 


brother.  He  dkd  in  1612,  and  wm  sac- 
ceeded  by  MatblM.  ^  _ 

TtnAftmtM  (rO-4o»'t6),  •  town  of  Tur- 
noaono  ^„  i^  Europe,  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  with  Kane 
handtome  streets,  large  carantnseries,  and 
public  baths.  The  environs  are  covered 
with  vineyards,  producing  an  excellent 
wine.  Pop.  about  86,000. 
IttJltntmmat  (rO-drft'gei),  an  island  in 
*0<lngUeZ    ^^    loSigo'  ocean,    S44 

miles  east  of  Mauritius,  of  which  British 
colony  it  is  a  dependency ;  area  about  100 
square  miles.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
but  there  are  frequent  hurricanes.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile.  Exports  include 
maiae,  beans,  cattle,  fish,  poultry,  and 
fruit  Rodriguei  was  annexed  in  1810. 
Pop.   (1907)  4^31. 

11**  (tO),  Edwabd  Paxbon,  novelist, 
'■'*'•  was  bom  at  New  Windsor,  New 
Yorlt,  March  7,  1838;  died  July  19,  1888. 
He  was  educated  for  the  miuistry  and 
became  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  was 
a  nurseryman  and  fruit  grower  1874-84. 
Among  his  works  are  Barrier$  Burned 
Atoay,  Opening  of  a  Vheatnut  Burr,  Na- 
ture's Serial  Story,  Succett  with  Small 
Pruita,  etc. 

Aoebline  ('6b'»o«>.  John  Auoub- 
jMicuuu|(  TUB.  enghieer,  was  bom  at 
Mdihausen,  Prassia,  in  1806,  and  in  1831 
came  to  the  United  States  and  settled  in 
Pittsburgh.  He  became  distinguished  as  a 
constructor  of  suspension  bridges,  his 
first  great  work  being  a  railroad  sus- 
pension bridge  across  the  Niagara  River, 
completed  in  1865.  His  greatest  work 
was  the  famous  suspension  bridge  across 
the  Bast  River,  connecting  New  York 
md  Brooklyn.  He  died  July  22,  1869, 
while  this  bridge  was  in  p^ogre^i8,  its 
ciompletion  being  left  to  his  son,  VVash- 
iuKton  Augustus  Roebling,  bom  at  Sax- 
ouDurg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1837.  The  lat- 
ter served  as  an  engineer  officer  during 
the  Givi!  war,  attaining  the  rank  of 
•olonel  of  volunteers.  He  completed  the 
Kast  River  bridRc  in  1883,  and  after- 
wards became  Nuperintendent  of  a  large 
*«ire  factory  at  Trenton.  Died  in  1917. 
ftn*1i-nAlr  Rob-deer  (xo'buk;  Capre- 
OOCUUCA.,     gi^g  capraa),  a  European 

leer  of  small  size,  the  adult  measuring 
about  2  feet  at  the  shoulders.  The  horns 
or  antlers  are  small,  and  provided  with 
three  short  branches  only.  The  general 
body-color  is  brown,  whitish  beneath. 
These  animals  inhabit  mountainous  and 
wooded  districts.  When  irritated  ar 
alarmed  they  may  prove  very  dangerous 
adversaries,  and  are  able  to  inflict  severe 
wonn^  with  their  antlers. 
'Bft«)tTi#»'t'  JoHK  Arthub,  an  But* 
AOeOUCS,    UjIj    politician,    was 


bom 


at  Madras  in  1802;  died  in  1879.  Ha 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1832,  and  became 
a  queen's  counsel  in  184S.  in  the  re- 
formed pariiamait  of  1832  be  was  re- 
turned for  Bath  as  an  advanced  liberaL 
He  lost  hhi  seat  in  1837,  rMained  it  in 
1841,  only  to  lose  it  again  in  1847.  Shef- 
field returned  him  in  1849,  and  he  rep- 
resented that  city  for  twenty  years.  He 
defended  the  Crimean  war,  and  it  was 
by  his  motion  to  appoint  a  committee  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  army  be- 
fore Sebastopol  that  the  Aberdeen  mhiis- 
tnr  was  overthrown.  His  denunciation 
of  trades-unions  lost  him  his  seat  in  18U8, 
but  he  regained  it  in  1874.  He  gave  his 
support  to  the  Eastern  policy  of  Lord 
Beaconsfieid. 

Eocntgcn  Bays,  J^-«>^^«^K.'"  S. 

gen.  See  Rontgen  and  X  Rayt. 
PnATrninnil  (rdr'mond),  a  town  of 
JlOermona  ^olUnd,  piov.  Limbnrg, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Roer  and  Maas, 
28  miles  north  by  east  of  Maestricbt.  It 
is  well  built,  has  a  large  and  beautiful 
parish  church;  an  old  abbey  church,  the 
Munsterkerk,  built  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, etc.  Pop.  12,348. 
P/Mia1H1<1*  (reu'skil-de),  a  seaport 
JI4>eSKUae  ^^  Denmark,  in  the  Island 
of  Zealand,  18  miles  west  of  Copenhagen, 
formerly  among  the  most  important  towns 
of  Denmark.  It  contains  a  beautiful 
cathedral,  built  in  1047.  Pop.  8368. 
II^MttfniKk  (  rO'stun ),  a  variety  of 
aavswnix    ^^^^^    composed    of    small 

rounded  particles  like  fish  roe. 

Eogation  Days  i„^-^»*'r^„if^ 

the  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday 
before  Holy  Thursday  or  Ascension  Day, 
so-called  from  the  supplications  or  lita- 
nies which  are  appointed  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  be  sung  or  recited  in 
public  procession  by  the  clergy  and  peo- 
ple. In  England,  after  the  Reformation, 
this  practice  was  discontinued,  but  it  sur- 
vives in  the  custom  (olmerved  in  some 
places)  of  perambulating  the  parish 
boundaries.  ^  ^,  ., 

Hi\sr*v  T  (roj'er).  Count  of  Sicily. 
***'o***  *  one  of  the  numerous  sons  of 
Tancred  de  Hauteville,  a  Norman  baron 
in  France,  was  bora  about  1031.  He 
joined  his  brother  Robert  Ouiscard  in 
Apulia  in  1057,  and  assisted  him  to  found 
the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  He 
captured  Messina  in  1001,  Palermo  was 
reduced  in  1072,  and  Agrigentum  in  1087, 
the  conquest  of  the  island  ocing  thus  com- 
pleted. Uiion  the  death  of  Robert  in 
1086  Southem  Italy  as  well  as  Sicily 
came  into  Roger's  hands.  He  died  in 
llOl. 


,-  TT  King  of  Sicily,  Mconi  •«» 
_  '*  ••-»'»  o£  the  above,  »t  hto  f»> 
ther's  death  wm  only  five  yeuw  o£  age. 
When  he  came  o£  age  Roier  ezeeated  bta 
task  of  goTemlng  Sicily  with  great  abUlty 
and  courage,  and  hU  away  waa  gwd'M'ly 
extended  over  a  great  part  of  B.  "aly. 
By  the  antipope  Anacletua  m  1180  he 
wM  honored  with  the  title  of  Ung.  In 
■pite  <rf  repeated  revolta  of  the  barons, 
and  althongh  the  Qerman  emperor  ix>- 
thair  and  the  Greek  emperor  Bmmanael 
were  leagued  against  him,  and  Innocent 
II  excommunicated  him,  he  defended  blm- 
Bclf  with  success  and  defeated  the  pope  s 
forces  at  Galluzzo,  taking  Innocent  pris- 
oner. Peace  was  made,  the  pope  annulled 
all  excommunication  against  Roger,  and 
recognized  his  title  of  king.  Roger  after- 
wards fought  with  success  against  the 
Greeks.  He  died  in  1164,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  son  and  a  grandson. 

Boger  of  Hovcdcn  <«>i  *'  Z  %: 

lish  chronicler  of  the  twelfth  century.  He 
was  a  clerk  and  a  member  of  the  royal 
liousebold  of  Henry  II,  and  seems  to  have 
been  well  versed  in  law. 


D«ea   well   TciDTO  »•»  ••»".  --i» 

Eogcr  of  Wendover,    |°  ^  ffl% 

chronicler,  of  whom  little  is  known,  ex- 
cept that  he  was  a  monk  of  St.  AlDans, 
afterwards  prior  of  Belvoir,  and  died  at 
St  Alban'a  Abbey,  May  6,  1237.  He 
was  the  writer  of  the  work  entitled  Floret 
UMoriarum  ('Flowers  of  Histories  ). 
Pittrara  (roj'ferz),  Faibman,  engineer, 
■»*'B«"  ^ri  at  thltadelphia  in  18SS; 
died  Aug.  23,  1900.  He  was  lecturer 
on  mecLanics  at  the  Franklin  Institute 

*    ■  "       [ineer- 
,  ivania 

Aou«j-,v.    .*■<>    "-"   -' —    -iriginal 

members   of    the    National    Academy   of 
Sciences.    In  addition  to  scientific  works, 
he  published  a  useful  Manual  of  Coaching. 
Pjuvwihi      Henbt   H.,   capitalist,   bom 
*»*'©^*">    at  Fairhaven,  Massachusetts, 
Jan.  29,  1840;  died  May  19,  1909.    He 
began  his  business  career  by  selling  news- 
lapers;    then    took    a    position    in    his 
father's  grocery  store  at  three  dollars  a 
week.    On  the  discovery  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania oil  wells  he  sought  that  locality, 
made  himself  familiar  with  the  business, 
entered  the  oil  establishment  of  Charles 
Pratt,  of  Brooklyn,  and  when  the  Stand- 
ard Oil  Company  was   formed,  he  and 
Mr.  Pratt  became  trustees  of  this  jtreat 
organisation.     In  1890  he  was  president 
of  the  company,  and  long  continued  the 
greatest  force  in  its  management,  being 
a  man  of  remarkable  financial  and  busi- 
ness capacity.    He  was  connected  with 
Qtb^r   business    concerns,   and   acquired 


I 


Xogm 

before  hia  death  an  estate  worth  con-    * 
aiderably  over  $100000,000. 

*08«*»»  omist,  bom  at  West  Meon, 
England,  in  1823 ;  died  in  1890.  He  was 
gnduated  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  1885^^.  He 
waa  in  Parliament  1880-90,  Hta  most 
important  work  is  his  8-volume  aiatoni 
of  Aarieultun  and  Price*  in  England 
(18W-03).  ,  ^  ^  a 

Pnfy«ra     JOHW,  sculptor,  bom  at  8a- 
HOgerS)    igm^  Massachusetts,  Oct  30. 
1829;   died  July  27,   1904.    He  studied 
art  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  won  fame  by 
a  large  number  of  small  genre  groups, 
homely,  unconventional,  but  entirely  true 
to  nature.    Among  the  best  known  are 
The  Checker  Player;  The  Chnrity  Pa- 
tient,   The   Toton   Pump,    The    Country 
Pott  Office,  and  various  similar  subjects. 
His  larger  works  include  an  eouestrian 
statute  of  General  Reynolds,  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  a  statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 
VAowra      Rasdolph,  sculptor,  bom  at 
AO^TB,    Waterloo,  New  York,  in 
1826;  died  in  1802.     He  made  Rome  his 
chief  place  of  residence  after  1856.    His 
most    important    works    are  ,tho   bronw 
doors  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  with 
scenes  from  the  life  of  Columbus  in  re- 
lief, a  statue  of  Lincoln,  in  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia,  and  monuments  and 
statues  in  other  cities.        „     „  .         ^ 
Untr^ra     Samuel,    an    English    poet, 
AUlfCiTB)    t^pn    at    Stoke  -  Newhigton, 
London,  July  30.  1763;  died  December 
18, 1855.    His  father  waa  a  leading  mem- 
ber of  a  Dissenting  congregation,  and  a 
banker  by  profession.    After  completing 
his  attendance  at  school,  young  Rogers 
entered  the  banking  establishment  as  a 
clerk,    but    his    favorite    pursuita    were 
poetry  and  literature.    His  first  appear- 
ance before  the  public  was  in  1786,  when 
he  gave  to  the  world  his  Ode  to  Supertti- 
tion,  and  other  Poemt.    The  Pleaturet  of 
Memory,  with  which  his  name  is  princi- 
pally  identified,   appeared   in    1792,   and 
An  Epittle  to  a  Friend  (1798).^  In  1812 
he  published  The   Voyage  of  Columbut, 
a  fragment;  in  1814,  Jacqueline,  a  tale; 
in  1819,  Human  Life;  and  in  1822,  Iteay, 
a  descriptive  poem  in  blank  verse.    He 
was,  until  within  a  few  years  of  his  death, 
a  man  of  extremely  active  liabits,  and  his 
lienevolence  was  exerted  to  a  large  extent 
on  behalf  of  suffering  or  friendless  talent. 
He    formed    a    remarkable   collection   of 
works  of  art.  etc.,  and  issued  sumptuous 
editions  of  his  own  works,  with  wgrav- 
higs  on  steel   from  drawings  by  Turner 
and   Stothard.    A   volume  of   his  TaUe 
Talk  was  publtshad  ))y  his  friend  Aiexau- 
der  Dfce  (Lmidon,  1$K(), 


Xoffgvreld  XoimtaiBi 


Bolud  a«  k  nftUin 


Boggereld  Moimtaiiii  <Sf »•(,•; 

rug*  in  tte  ■wrtl»w«rt«ni  dlTWoB  fl« 

33?  Colony,  "««»»y '{x^iJ"  ^ 
•n  •v«ra«  neight  of  BOOO  lett. 

Vam*  (rOf),  In  taw.  *  *««7"*.v^' 
SOglie  ^iiSfcind.  P««on.  of  thto 
clwraeter  w«»,  by  the  anclimt  tawt  <rf 

barins  the  e«f  bored  with  «  hot  iron. 
The  term  rogue*  •nd  vagcbond$  ie  given 
to  varion.  dSnlte  claewe  of  Pfwo™.  •"* 
M  fortone-telJere,  perwns  co'»«5«n«  alms 
under  falae  preteneee,  persona  deserting 
"heir  families  and  leayfag  them  charg^ 
able  to  the  parish,  persona  wandering 
about  as  vagrants  without  visible  meami 
of  subsistence,  persons  found  on  any  prenn 
laes  for  an  unlawful  purpose,  and  other 

improper  idlers.  tv™^^  »«    . 

V Allan  (rMn)t_H«iiHi,  DUKB  W,  a 
*®nan  i«ren3i  Protestant  leader,  born 
in  1679.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he  Joined 
the  court  of  Henry  IV,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  1610  became  chief 
of  the  Husuenots.  After  the  fa"  of 
Rochelle  (1028),  and  the  peace  of  16^, 
Rohan  withdrew  from  Prance,  and  in 
exile  wrote  his  M^mmnu  •*rle»Cho»n 
Adwnuet  en  France  Demti*  la  Mart  de 
U^  IV  (Paris,  1^).  He  con*- 
manded  the  Venetian  troops  against  Aus- 
tria until  the  peace  of  Cherasco  in  1681. 
In  1638  he  joined  the  Protestant  army  on 
the  Rhine,  and  died  of  wounds  receiv^ 
at  the  battle  of  Rheinfelden  on  April  13, 
1639.  He  was  the  author  ot  M^otret 
•arte  Onerre  de  la  Valteline  (1638),  Lee 
TntMtidee  Prince*  (1649),  and  D<eooi.r» 

iS;''li,^k.NA  EDOUABD,^PgINC. 

AOnan,pK,  Cardlnal-bishop  of  Stras- 
burg,  was  bom  in  1734  at  Paris.  In 
1772  he  went  as  amlMuwador  to  the  court 
of  Vienna.  He  derives  his  notoriety, 
however,  chiefly  from  the  affair  of  the 
SSklace:  (See'  La  Motte.)  He  was 
then  grand  almoner  of  France,  and  be- 
ing thrown  into  the  Bastille,  continued  in 
orison  more  than  a  year,  when  he  was  ac- 
ouitted  and  released  by  the  parliament  of 
Parte,  August,  1786.  He  died  m  Ger- 
many in  1803.  ^  __ 

Tl<«^i11rVioTi«1  (r6-hil-kund'),  or  Ro- 
AOniiKJiana  ^hilcund,  a  division  of 
Britteh  India,  N.  W.  Province:  area, 
1V/..-V/  square  miles;  pop.  5,4 « 9,688.  ine 
surface  IS  a  plain,  with  a  gradual  slope 
south,  in  which  direction  its  pnncipal 
streams,  Ramganga,  Deoha,  and  others, 
flow  to  the  GTanges.  It  takes  its  name 
from  the  Rohillas.  an  Afghan  tribe,  who 
gained  possession  of  it  early  in  tha 
&hteesth  eeatary.  It  5s  sehdsvi&d  into 
tSe  districts  Bijnur,  Muradabad,  BuoaoDt 


BanOL  Taral,  and  ShahJahanDwr.  It  !»• 
doM  tha  natiT*  prineipattty  ol  Baapnr. 

XUOdU  ;  oalabnted  African  travdar. 
bom  in  1881  at  Vegetack,  Oensany.  He 
studied    medicine,    and    in    ISdo-w)    be 


studied    medicine,    ana    in    *«»«»-»«    »« 
served  with  the  French  n  Algtera  as  sur- 
ce<m  in  the  foreign  legion.    In  UOQ  he 
Raveled  through  Morocco  dwsaed  as  a 
Mussulman,    and    explored    the    Tafiiet 
Oasis  in  1862.    In  1868,^  and  again  in 
1868,  he  traveled  in  North  Africa,  mak- 
hig  hte  way  on  the  latter  occasion  from 
Tripoli  to  Lake  Tchad,  Bomu,  etc,  and 
finally  to  Lagos  on  the  west  coast.    He 
joined  the  Engltoh  Ab^nlan  expedition 
in  1867.    In  1868  he  traveled  in  Cyre- 
naica,  and  in  1873-74  he  conducted  an 
expedition   through   the   Libyan   Desert. 
He   traveled   across    North   Amenca   in 
1875-76,  and  in  1878  he  undertook  a  new 
journey  to  Africa,  and  penetrated  to  the 
Kufra  Oasis.     In  1880  he  visited  Abys- 
sinia.   He  was  appointed  German  gen- 
eral-consul   at    Zansibar    in    1»4,    and 
returned     to     Germany     in     18Si.    His 
woAs  include  Journey  Through  Morpmo 
(1860),    Lond    and    People    of    Afrtca 


?1870)  Acroa.  Africa  (1874-75),  Jour- 
MV  from  TripoU  to  the  Kufra  Oatu 
(1881).  My  Miaeion  to  Abgeetntn 
!l^),  etc.     He  died  in  1896. 

Eojestvcnsky,    vj^.r'peTivitS: 

Bom  1849.     Entered  Russian  navy  and 
distinguished    himself    in    Russo-Turkisb 
war  in  1877.    Commanded  the  Ruwian 
fleet  in  the  battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan 
in  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  which  was 
defeated  by  the  Japanese  fleet  under  Vice- 
admiral   Togo,   May   27   and   28,   1904. 
Later  he  was  tried  by  court-martial  for 
cowardice  in  surrendering  hte  ve«el,  but 
acQuitted.     Died  January  14,  1906. 
■DAlftTiil     (rO'land).    or    <JM.Airpo,    a 
AOiana    ^lebratcd    hero    of    the    ro- 
mances of  chivalry,  and  one  of  the  pala- 
dins   of    Charlemagne,    of    whom    he    is 
represented    as   the    nephew.    His   char- 
acter te  that  of  a   brave,  unsuspicious, 
and  loyal  warrior,  but  somewhat  simple 
in     his    disposition.     According    to    the 
Bona  of  Roland,  an  old  French  epic,  be 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  RoncesvaUw 
after    a    desperate    struggle    with    the 
Saracens,     who    had     attacked     Oiarip- 
magne's       rear-guard.  ^1  he       ce*^**** 
romantic    epics    of     Boterdo     (Orlando 
Innamoraio)      and      Ariosto     S^"^ 
Furioeo)   relate  to  Bolaad  and  hte  €x- 

luJunddeUPlati^re   /^JftJ! 

ygr^,  JliAK  Maxh.  a  French  author  and 
•Utoaman^   bom  in   1794^    FrevlMi  19 


Solft 


1«BIA&  AZ«idlltlllf 


i^  iJ  wM  racal  ed  to  th«  mlntatry.  skate  popularity.        _,.^_    .  vw^^h 

?S';ri2?edl«nd  w2  ««ut!Jd  Nov.  8.   the  »^ted  meUl  to  p«-ed  brtwem  tjem, 

^     M*""*""  •""  """*"•  :Si*'?be'^'r.tWn,Vt?'SJel'X 

S*y^     W^AH    JAMM    Shakespear-  S«  tSd  other  impurities  after  which 
^"*>   eai^Bditor.  waTborn  at  New-   the  maw  of  metal  >  cut  into  "uitablo 

•n'llA_J     (rl>'liil.'),Hol"Il'(15«-    >I  Eolll,    rfS?B„Bi. 


lieu    !»"»    jcTc.-.    — — 
guaceB.     Ho  WM  a  knwr  of  peMe  i^ 

when  the  wM  bw^B^t  ta  1914  tewwte  5T* (KJ-mAn'yt),  formerly  the 

!•  detagf  d<»>,M#««  j  A*«»  «•  ^  Jl«lB|pa  northeastern  portion  of  the 
lia').  •!*»  book.  wteA  to^d  tfce  iM»-  ^^  gttite*  ^bracing  the  provincee 
tW  spirit,  y^«^,^^^  by>i***:  rfl^rraim  Mto,  Ravenna,  and  ForlL 
IMT  ateiireH.  and  he  Irft  France  to  r««*»  «  rerrafm,  ^rr*^"  /Modern). 

Nakal  pri»e  for  literature.     Be  wr.»te  a  , ^i  •«■..«■■«      the    style 

Story  of  Eur«f««  opera  aad  hfegrai>hie.  SomUl  AlCfclteCWie,    J,"  buildfn* 

,««,iy  ofj^^aijdjB^.  i^^f.a^  ^fri"iSSitdy"r£s-it'ir5- 

Bopape    as    a    toi^bp    ^^^'    :riSr  i-^  .— .  the  uuilujwi  "^  *•  Tuscan 

^•iSSJfeSrX  !KL2ftlSi  STof^i^  ^S^roXent  moldtaws. 
a'.belghtaMd  ^^LSTiTii^  S^    55^y    deeSrated.    In    Ros«i 
n»  wii«  M  ■■■^  "■  Scblterturt  tha  ftsat  feature  is  the  •«- 


BoBaa  OafhoUo  Ohnrck 


BloymtBt  of  tbt  arch  u  wtit  m  tbt 
BUI,  wWh  Greek  architectur*  employ* 
tiM  llntd  oolj.  It  produced  nirloua 
constmctknit,  aoknowa  to  Grew  art, 
roch  as  amphitheatera,  cireaaea,  aqua- 
ducta.  bridges,  hatha,  triamphal  archea, 
etc.  It  has  thiis  been  of  vaatt/  greater 
practical  utility  than  the  Greek,  and  la 
bold  and  imposing  in  appearance.  The 
column  as  a  aupport.  being  no  longer 
nclttsively  a  necessity,  waa  often  of  a 

Eurely  decorative  character,  and  was 
irgefy  used  in  front  of  closed  walls,  in 
domes  above  circular  interiors,  and  in 
the  construction  of  cylindrical  and  groined 
vaulting  over  <Along  spaces.  The  area 
was  freely  used  internally  as  well  as  ex- 
temally,  and  became  an  imporUnt  decora* 
tive   feature   of    interiors.    The   Roman 


Bomftn  Ofttliolio  dmrdh,^^ 

Oiristlana  wbkh  ailiinwIadiM  tlM 
Btohop  of  Boom  as  Itt^vWaa  k«id. 
The  fonndatkn  ol  Oa  ChiAsllMa  Obwrcb 
at  Rome  la  uncertain,  but  St.  Pnai  did 
not  visit  Rmn*  until  aftw  h*  had  writ- 
ten hia  Eftt^  to  tk*  Roma**.  The 
claim  to  sapi«macy  on  the  pai't  of  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  la  based  <m  the  belief 
that   our    Lord    conferred    on    Peter   a 

Srimacy  of  jurisdictimi ;  that  that  apoatle 
xed  hla  we  at  Rmne;  and  that  the 
bishops  of  Rome,  in  unbroken 'succes- 
si<m  from  Feter,  have  succeeded  to  his 
prerontive  of  supremacy.  The  distinc- 
tive character  of  the  Church  la  the  su- 
premacy of  the  papacy.  Ita  doctrineii 
are  to  b«  found  m  the  Apoatlea'  creed, 


Boman  Arckitecture.—  Great  Hall  in  the  Bathe  of  OsrseelU, 


temples,  as  a  rule,  from  the  similarity 
of  the  theogony  to  that  of  the  Greeks, 
were  disposed  after  the  Greek  form,  but 
a  purely  Roman  type  is  seen  in  the  cir- 
cumr  temples  such  as  the  Pantheon  at 
Rome,  the  temple  of  the  Sibyl  et  Tivoli, 
the  temple  of  Vesta  at  Rome,  etc.  This 
81  vie  of  architecture  was  introduced  by 
the  Romans  into  all  their  colonies  and 
provinces  —  vast  existing  remains  evi- 
dencing the  solid  character  of  the  build- 
ings. It  reached  its  highest  stage  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Augustus  (b.c.  27), 
and  after  the  translation  of  the  seat  of 
empire  to  Bysantlum  it  degenerated  and 
ultimately  gave  place  to  a  debased  style. 

Eoman  Candle,  iJ^^^SlJTt^ 

whicb    dis''har?r<*«   in    rapid   succession    a 
aeries  c^  colored  stars  or  liatls. 


the  Nicene  creed,  the  Athanasiwi,  and 
that  of  Pius  IV.  The  latter  added  the 
articles  on  transubstantiation,  invocation 
of  saints,  and  others  which  chi^y  dis- 
tinguish the  Roman  from  other  Christian 
communities.  The  docmas  of  the  Im- 
maculate conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  papal  infallibility  are  recent  addi- 
tions. Roman  Catholics  believe  that  the 
mass  is  the  mystical  aacrifice  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Chriat,  that  the  body  and 
blood  are  really  present  in  the  eucharist, 
and  that  under  either  kind  Christ  is  re- 
ceived whole  ar.d  entire.  Tb«y  also  be- 
lieve in  purgatory,  that  the  Vfrgm  Mary 
and  the  saints  are  to  bo  honored  and  in- 
voked, and  that  honor  and  v*n«atiOB  are 
to  be  given  to  their  images.  Bev  n  mc- 
rampnts  are  reeoitni»;"d-  via.:  Baptism 
contirmation,  the  faoiy  aij-jharist,  yettMUvt^ 


BOIBIAM 


■,-->.—    w-i-  oidwi.  aod  m»trl-  Strert    probably    nu»    from    liondoo    to 

■W^*  »«  .i[r#i^hi^  dMWB  botwMO  to  DevwMbirt  to  Uocoto.  Th«  lokoifM 
S!rt  *2l  Striae  Sid  wSt  d^  S2  W»>  riS  from  Idinf  bam,  nyir  Bory  Bt 
ftl'  "  nL*tS^;  u  wh2t  wu  Uaidit  by  BamuiMta,  to  Clrenceator  and  OloocMtcr. 
IS^.^ta^dlKlS?•  dtodSto?  dlf-  TbTEmine  Street  ran  throoah  tlia  ¥m- 
9^  *^  ui^AiST hvWwunclb.  Und  from  London  to  yncoln.  Betldai 
£rtb.'™i^.mS«f''o!  SalhnS  tft  tbS^  four  t««t  lto«.  which  wm  lojii 
ljLi2StJEl«ril   •acramtnta,   and   tba  of  great  Importance  for  traflic,  tbert  wara 

3^?r!S«?o«B«M»wr«»l«  order.  •J«„JfS„j'j^""|;„!5^  JS  h.S  ta 

LKsr-  &r°',j.°is..?«r3  «?2i,r£.,.'.'Sd--^8 

Church  to  til.  ™llwrfMrJj.to,  70  ta  tomjd  «^,;S;"g  g'^,.,.  ..d  wjr. 
niimh«,  who  ar«  th.  MTlMW  ol  the  .OT    hunT  ta  orevMit   tb.   incorslon.  o(   th.    , 

f    »ii?lJSr!rthe    BoiSi    CMhollo  o^;  Super,;  WM  o/.  ^,,,™.  „.^ 

of  memoera  oi  «•"«  i  T  «♦  o^minn.  ml.i.«...x«A  (ro-mans  ).  a  nctltioua  nar- 
Churt*  has  beSSn^'°'i^„.  i?  G^'t  *011iance  Auive  In  proM  or  Terw. 
000,  about  6.600.000  b^«  „^"„ber  Sf  the  Intereat  of  which  tSrna  upon  Incl- 
BriUin  and  ,Jrel»n<Vi„  TIntted  States  is  dents  either  marvelous  or  uncommon. 
^"•?«^ftS?  ^n  LnSda  the  mem-  The  name  is  derived  from  the  claaa  of 
over  16.000.000.  In  C*"*^",. "  c^rch  languajes  to  which  such  narraUvwi  to 
^"k  *'  o*^««°  B«  iSS  suJh  arti-  moSenf  times  were  first  widely  known 
number  2,000,000.  Bee  aiso  »""*■'"  -„j  circulated:  these  were  the  French, 
de.  '^,0»thoUc  En^nc^pal^^   Conc^-   f^Vr^d  W-rcalled  the  Romasg. 

tion     (/«»»«<»'•*•> •J"/*''*SS«te12!  i^nffaaoM    (w^h  see).     (For  the  <t»- 

Orders  {BeUgiou$),  Pope;  Popol  Btatee,  fj^gj^^'^^^'^^omonce  and  «ot»I  ace 

ftainta.  etc  Hurfc-onlonsd  hr-  the    artlcla   Novel.)     The   earlier   medi- 

Eoman  Cement,  S/^?,TJ'*^S.  «val  romances  of  W«te™  Europe  wer. 

which  hardemi  very  qSickly  and  Is  very  "jet^lf^^  ^^  epki^  1hiS2d ^bj 

Eoman  Law.    "**  *'**'"  *"""•  necting    passages    composed    by    the    re- 

_,  Tii .4-n.A     See  Rome.         citers.    Hence    originated    a    series    of 

Roman  Literature.    "^  ^^  epics    grouped    around    some    renowned 

l»>^-.  V«T»«*o1«     See  Arithmetio.   hero,  and  lormlng  a  cycle  of  ron>a»w«- 
AOman  immeraiS.    "  The  romances  of  French   origin    (c*an- 

V<v«.o«  1»Aa(I«  certain  ancient  roads  f<«w,^«  »<**«), /or™  * '*'*^  ""'^  l?***w 
Soman  SOaOS,  i^  Britain  which  the  ing  body  of  "terature.  Some  of  them 
RnmsBa  left  behind  them.  They  were  roach  a  greater  length  than  20,000  Hues. 
SffiSlj  raised  above  the  surface  of  These  romances  were  «ung  by  wandering 
?£i  ^fibbo^  Smd  and  ran  in  a  minstrels  (io»Vl«a«)  to  the  sound  of  a 
L&lght  Itoe  from  -tation  to  station,  kind  of  Tiolin  (weBe).  Many  of  the 
SSfour  imat  Roman  roads  were  Wat-  reciters  wrote  their  own  chtuatmu, 
iK  StrS^  the  Fossway,  IckalaW  while  othai.  t»<~«bt  copies  from  the 
Smet,^S^    Bmto«     Su*«.    WaStoi  origiaal    ea^esers.    The    chanwne    i» 


jgrnaiw 


AxehttMlire 


Mf$9  •!•  fivMad  Into  tbice  erdn  —  that 

ftef  Artliar  and  hit  kB^t*:  ^  ^ 
Suaetl.  *••«»•  wi*  Troy.  Almmdtr 

MBtory   gTlmtlng  of   tht  *«*•  of 

IfW  wTVcrobrM,  dating  from  tht  be- 
tUDlM  of  tb«  thirteenth  century, 
beleaa  to  the  aame  cycle.  Other  chan- 
■MM  worthy  of  mention  are:  Ogier  le 
Dtm9k,  writtoi  about  the  beginpiiut  of 
the  thirteenth  century;  Benaui  ie  Mon- 
tanteii,  compoeed  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury: B»<m  4e  Bordeoiur  (twelfth  c«i- 
tury);  Be«v««  i^U»tutonne»  (thirteenth 
century,  the  Britieh  BevU  of  Ummfton). 
The  nmancee  of  the  ArthnrJan  cycle  owe 
their  origin  to  the  laye  of  the  Welsh 
barda,  inppoeed  to  be  aa  old  aa  the  uxtb 
and  aaventh  centuries,  but  they  are 
directly  based  on  the  Lo«f»  Hu<ori|  of 
OeofFrey  of  Monmouth,  which  was  ▼ersifled 
In  French  by  Wace  (1156-W  and  *m- 
plified  and  translated  into  English  by 
Uiyamon  about  12M.    One  of  the  moat 

Srolific  of  Arthurian  poeto  Is  Chr«len 
e  Troyea  (bom  about  1140).  Hia 
po«n  hCChevtMer  on  X<lfo»  Is  the  7uw{t» 
and  Q*w»in  in  Ritson\  English  Met- 
rical Romances.  Another  poem  belomg' 
ing  to  this  cycle  is  the  Jforto  tArthw 
(fourteenth  century).  The  Arthurian 
romance  spread  from  France  to  Prpyence, 
Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Netherlands,  ami 
was  again  transplanted  into  Bncland. 
The  moat  Important  romance  of  the 
classical  cycle  is  Le  Aomana  d*  AUModre, 
writtoi  by  Lambert  11  Tors  and  Aliz- 
ander  de  Bemay  in  the  twelfth  century; 
it  contains  upwards  of  20,000  twelve- 
syllable  llnea.  This  chanson  first 
brought  the  Alexandrine  line  into  Togue 
and  gave  it  its  name.  The  English 
Kmg  AXitwnder,  in  80S4  eight-syllable 
llnea,  dates  from  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  chief  poem  of  the  Trojan  aection  is 
the  Trote  of  Benoist  de  St  More,  an 
Anglo-Norman  poet  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. This  chronicle  consists  of  up- 
wards of  30,000  octosyllabics,  and  was 
translated  into  Dutch  and  German  verse 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  Founded 
upon  it  was  the  Latin  Htatorta  Tnjana 
of  Onido  de  Colonna,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  most  European  languages. 
It  was  tamed  into  English  and  Scotch 
verse  no  fewer  than  four  times.  The 
most  celeteated  of  these  \m  Lydgate'a 
Troyo-Bolee  (1414-»)).  Besides  the  ro- 
mances dealing  with  the  sabjwts  men* 
tiWT#|  we  find  lUtto  a  cSms  in  which 
ffnkrfia  of 


cq^lofis  of  Teutonic  heroes  are  celebrated, 


aa  tte  Aaflo-tuoa  or  Auilo-Duili* 
BtomUf,  the  M  GonuB  yftaftwifsiiWoi 
tbe  lonaBce  of  HmmMi  tAa  Dmm,  ate. 
Tha  poetical  roaanea  mm  aapenaaad  by 
tbe  proae  nNaaoca,  tht  tnaaformtion 
<rf  metrical  Into  proae  roBwaeaa  being 
partly  due  to  tbe  iaTcntton  of  tha  art 
of  printing,  by  whkh  the  adraataga  of 
meter  for  pnrpoaea  of  recital  waa  raser- 
seded.  Tbe  prose  narratlTaa.  Ilka  those 
in  verae,  celebrated  Arthur.  ChwloMgne, 
Amadia  da  Gaol,  and  otW  haioaa  of 
chlvabry.  Tha  word  is  oaed  fai  modem 
times  to  signify  storiea  of  adventure. 

Somanoe  La]ig!ifti«>>  ^SSS^^f 

Southern  Europe  which  owe  tneir  origin 
to  the  language  of  Rome  — the  Latin  — 
and  to  the  spread  of  Roman  dominion 
and  civilisation.    They  include  the  Ital- 
ian, French,  Provencal,  Spanish,  Portu- 
Keee,  Roumanian,  and  Romansch.    Their 
sis  was  not,  however,  the  classic  Latin 
of   literature,   but   the   popular   Ronup 
language  —  the   Limfua   Kom*n»  rmttica 
spoken  by  the  Roman  soldiers,  colonistx, 
and  others,  and  variously  modified  by  un- 
educated speakera  of  the  different  peo- 
ples among  whom  it  became  the  general 
means  of  communication.    In  all  of  thes«> 
tongues  Latin  is  the  chief  ingredient,  and 
a  knowledge  of  Latin  helpa  very  greatly 
in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  them. 
UnmAUM  (rO-man'ea),  Qwoaam  3<mv, 
AOmaneS  iioiogi,t,  bom  at  Kingaton, 
Canada,  in  1848;  died  in  1894.    He  was 
educated   at   Cambridge   University,   bo- 
came  Fullerian  profeaaor  in  tha  Royal 
Institution,  London,  and  in  1890  removed 
to  Oxford,  where  he  founded  a  Romanes 
lectureship.     In  scientific  views  he  was 
an     advanced     Darwinian,     giving     his 
ideas    on    this    subject    in    D^rioin    and 
After  Danrtn.    He   also   wrote   Mmtal 
Evolution,  AhmimI  InteUigence,^  etc 

Bomanesque    AroMteoture 

(  P6  -  man  -  esk' ) ,  a  general  ai^  mther 
vague  term  applied  to  the  atyles  of 
architecture  which  prevailed  in  West- 
em  Europe  from  the  fifth  to  the 
twelfth  century.  The  Romanesque  may 
be  aeparated  into  two  divisions:  (a) 
the  debased  Roman,  in  use  from  t^e 
fifth  to  the  eighth  century:  and  (b) 
the  later  Romanesque  of  the  eighth  to  the 
twelfth  century,  which  comprises  the 
Lombard,  Rhenish  or  Qerman  and  Nor- 
man styles.  The  former  is  character- 
ised by  a  pretty  close  imitation  of  the 
featurea  of  Roman,  with  chances  in  the 
mode  of  their  application  and  diatribu- 
tion;  the  latter,  while  based  <m  Roman 
form,  is  Gothic  In  spirit,  has  a  pre- 
dominance of  Tertieal  llnea,  and  Intro- 


Bwnmrtiif  Irehittetut 


.    fMtarw  aad 
To  tiM  (onMT 


Ktij  BodiOM  ethm.    To  t>«  (onMr 
It  «pwi«l>7  cbarchM  of  tbt  bMiUM 

ftSr,    M    slM   •    Boinbcr   o(   drnilar 
ehaiiM  »nd  many  of  tbm  JmlldiBS* 

«m  of  •wWttctore.  (8«o  Biwo««<»«.) 
t  MmkiRolar  »nA  ki  awd  thronchont 
the  cntin  period,  and  th«  mneral  «x- 
DNMlon  of  tb«  baildiofs  la  rathtr  Mvera. 
It  aMnimM  different  pbaaea  In  different 
countriee.     In   Bomaneaqae   charchea   of 


alaple  deeoratioB ;  the  capitala  of  eoMac 
forai,  aooMtlnea  plain,  at  otban  tn^ 
ricbed  wltb  tariona  omaBenta  pecnllat 
to  tba  Btyle.  Extanally,  roofs  of  nod* 
erata  pitch,  towen  ■qoare  or  oetacraal. 
low  or  of  moderata  elevation,  and  with 
terminationa  of  pyramidal  character: 
window*  round-headed  and  without  mui> 
lions:  doorways  moderately  receesed  and 
hifbly  decorated  with  the  cable,  cherron, 
and  other  distinctive  ornaments;  ar> 
cades  much  employed  for  decoration,  fre< 
quently  by  a  continuous  series  round  the 


bd  View  Mtd  PUii  of  RomsBcsquc  Oh«r«k  of  LMoh  (Bhmlth  Pruuls). 


die  ninth  and  the  eleventh  century  the 
prevalltait  features  are:  that  in  plan 
the  upper  limb  of  the  cross  is  short 
and  terminated  bv  a  semicircle  or  semi- 
octagonal  apse;  the  transepts  frequently 
diort  and  often  rounded  externally;  the 
walls  very  thick,  without  buttresses  or 


BoBuuieMtBe  OnuuBent. 

with  buttresses  havtaw  very  sllgbt  pro- 
Jection;  the  pillars  thick,  sometimes 
simply  eylindrieal  or  doatared  in  terg* 
a.<id  attiMr  plain  w  wtta  but 


upper  part  of  the  apse  and  round  the 
upper  parts  of  transepts  also,  when 
the  transepts  are  rounded  externally. 
The  principal  front  is  frequently  flat 
and  (lecorated  with  arcades  in  succes- 
sive rows  from  the  apex  of  the  roof  till 
just  above  the  portals,  producing  a  rich 
effect,  as  at  Pisa  Cathedral.  See  Losi- 
hard  Arckiiectun  and  Norman  Archi- 
teeture,  and  the  general  article  Archttec- 

■DAmaTiA  (r«-mI'nC),  Giuuo.  See 
JlOmanO    ^j^j^^  Romano. 

llnTnana  (ro-mlp),  a  town  of  8.  E. 
JfcOinaim  fiance,  dep.  DrOme.  10  miles 
northeast  of  Valence,  picturesquely  situ- 
ated on  the  lB»re.  It  has  walls  flanked 
with  towers,  an  interesting  church,  and 
manufactures  of  cottons,  etc.    Fop  lor 


MKROCOPT  MSOtUTWN  TBT  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


■u 


US 


IVUu 


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■  12 


2^ 
2.2 

2.0 


1.8 


^    /APPLIED  IN/HGE    li 


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165 J  East  Main  Strxt 

Rochester,  Nsw  York        U609      USA 

(716)   482  -  0300  -  Phorw 

(716)  2U  -  5989  -  Fa» 


Bomant  ^.^ mjm 

«         rra'maM).  Bpistlb  to  thb,  rei|n«  being  as  'oUowt:  RomttlwuTOa- 

Soman.  {ffSS'fJ.S.V"*'?.*  dl."a«.aT  «SSS'l"i.^- 

tlus,  642-618;  L.  Tarquinlos  Priicu^ 
618^78;  Servius  TalU«».  Wft-CM ;  and 
Tarquinius  SuperbM,  634-609.  The  laat 
three  were  of  Etnwcan  origin,  pointing 
to  a   temporary  supremacy  at  lean  oi 

Etruri^  over  Rome.  •  

From    the   commencemoit   0S-»pmMi 
history  the  people  are  found  divided  Into 
two  classeB,  the  patr»cton«  or  ariatocracy 
(a  liind  of  oligarchy),  and  the  plemans 
or  common  people,  besides  a  clMS  cailea 
clienti,  immediate  dependents  of  the  m- 
tricians.    All  political  power  was  in  the 
hands    of    the    patricians.    All    matters 
of    importance   had    to   be   laid   before 
them  in  their  comitia  curiata  or  assem' 
bly,    in    which   they   voted   by   divisions 
calied     curia.     (See     Comitia.)     From 
and  by  them  also  were  elected  the  mem- 
bers  of    the   senate   or   council   of   the 
elders,  as  it  may  be  called,  which  advised 
the  liing.    By  reforms  instituted  by  Ser- 
vius Tullius  the  way  was  at  least  pre- 
pared for  altering  this  state  of  affairs. 
He  introduced  a  division  of  all  the  peo- 
ple,   according   to   their   property,    into 
five  cUuaes,  and  these  again  into  cen- 
turies.    With  the  first  or  highest  clasa 
was  sometimes   recltoned   a  body  called 
eaittfea  or  horsemen,  but  these  were  some- 
times regarded  as  above  all  the  classes. 
The  lowest  section  of  the  people,  calleti 
proletorii,  were  sometimes  reckoned  as  t 
sixth   class,   and   sometimes   as   formini 
part  of  the  fifth.    Thus  originated  a  new 
assembly,  the  comitia  eentunata,  yralct 
included  plebeians  as  well  as  patricians 
though  the  latter  had  the  great  preponder 
ance.    The  plebeians  got  also  an  as^m 
bly   of   their  own   with   certain   limitej 
powers,    the    comitia    tributa,    in   whicl 
they  met  by  local  divisions  called  tri^ 
The  last  of  the  kings,  Tarqutaius  Su 
perbus,  by  his  tyrannical  government  ex 
cited  the  hatred  of  all  classes,  and  thi 
was  raised  to  the  highest  pitch  by  an  ac 
of  violence  perpetrated  by  his  ypunges 
son  Sextus.     (See  Lucrrtio.)     The  pec 
pie  then  rose  In  rebellion,  and  abollshe 
forever  the  kingly  government  (609  B.  o. ) 
■  Upon   the   expulsion   of   the   kings   th 
royal  power  was  intrusted  to  one  ma 
who  held  it  for  a  year,  and  was  »lle 
dictator.    Afterwards  two  yearly  pfficen 
called  at  first  prator$,  afterwards  cof 
suU,  wielded  the  hishest  executive  pow« 
in  the  state  both  in  civil  and  mllitai 
ftfTfiirs 

Almost  all  political  power  still  n 
mained  with  the  patricians,  however,  an 
for  more  than  MO  years  the  intenial  M 
tory  of  Rome  is  mainly  c(Hnpoaed  of  tl 


doctrinal  point  of  view,  ^e  most  im 
portant  composition  of  St.  Paul.  »»  "«» 
forth  that  the  gospel  doctrine  of  justi- 
fication by  faith  is  a  power  unto  salva- 
tion to  nil  men,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles. 
The  writer  then  deplores  the  rejection  of 
the  Jews,  and  in  the  practical  part 
admonishes  the  Romans  to  exercise  the 
various  gifts  bestowed  upon  each  in  a 
spirit  of  love  and  humility ;  he  especially 
urges  the  strong  to  bear  with  the  weak, 
and  concludes  with  various  salutations 
and  directions.  In  modern  times  doubts 
have  been  thrown  upon  the  authenticity 
of  the  concluding  portion  of  this  epistle, 
some  critics  regarding  the  whole  of 
chapter  xvi,  as  spurious.  .^     ^  „ 

vlVnanoAlt    (r5-mansh'),  RUMONSOH, 
AOmanSCa   l^^f  the  Romance  fam- 
ily   of    languages,    spoken    in    parts    of 
Switzerland    (Orisons),   the   Tyrol,    etc. 
In  some  parts  it  is  known  as  the  Ladtn, 
that  is  Latin,  which  forms  the  basis  of 
it     The  literature  is  mainly  religious. 
P^mnntic    (i«-man'tik) ,  a  term  used 
iiOIuantIC    jQ  literature  as  contradis- 
tiiKuished    to    antique   or    claaaic.    The 
name  romantic  scAool  was  assumed  about 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
by  a  number  of  young  poets  and  critics 
in     Germany,     the     Schlegels,     Novalis. 
Tieck.  etc..   whose  efforts  were  directed 
to  the  overthrow  of  the  artificial  rhetoric 
and     unimaginative     pedantry     of     tne 
French  school  of  iwetry.    The  name  is 
also    given    to    a    similar    school    which 
arose    in    France    between    twenty    and 
thirty    years    later,    and    which    «jad    a 
long   struggle    for    supremacy    with    the 
older  cIoMto  school.     Victor  Hugo,  La- 
martine,  etc.,  were  the  leaders. 
■P/iwi*    (rem;  Latin,  Roma),  the  most 
AOuic    famous  nation  of  ancient  times, 
originally    comprising    little    more    thui 
the    city    of    Rome    (see    next    article), 
later  an  empire  embracing  a  great  part 
of  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  Western 
Asia.    The  origin  of  Rome  is  generally 
asslsned  to  the  year  753  B.C.,  at  which 
time  a  band  of  Latins,  one  of  the  peoples 
of  Central  Italy,  founded  a  small  town 
on   the   left   bank   of   the   Tiber,   about 
16   milei   from   the  sea,   the  population 
being    subsequently    augmented    by    tne 
addition  of  Sabines  and  Etruscans.    The 
welf't    of    tradition    places    it    beyond 
doubt  that  In  the  earilest  period  the  gov- 
ernment of  Rome  was  an  elective  mon- 
aicby,  the  king  beiug  chosen  by  an  as- 
sembly of  fKi«re»   (fathers)   or  heads  of 
familfea  who  formed  the  senate.    Accord- 
ing to  tradition  these  kings  were  seven 
in  number,  their  names  and  tradition-" 


Borne 


Borne 


endcaron  of  the  plebeians  to  pUce  them-  the   fifth   Centura   B.C.,   after   exteodim| 
MlTcs  on  a  political  equality  with  the  her  territory  to  the  "outh,  Borne  turned 
patricians.    li    494    B.O.    the    plebeians  her  arms  againstEtroria  In  the  north, 
succeeded  in  securing  a  measure  of  J«»-   For  ten  years   (405-896)   the  important 
tice.    Two    magistrates    called    tribune$  city  of   Veil  is  said   to  have  been   he- 
were  chosen  from  the  ranks  of  the  pie-   sieged,   till   in   the   latter   year   it   was 
beians.    Their   persons   were   inviolable;   taken  by  Camillus,  and  the  capture  of 
and   they   had    the    right   of   protecting   this  city^  was  followed  by  the  submission 
every  plebeian  against  injustice  on  the  of  all  the  other  towns  in  the  south  of 
part  of  an  official.    Later  they  were  ad-   Etruria.     But  just  at  this  point  Rome 
mltted  to  the  senate,  where  they  had  the   was  thrown  back  again  by  a  total  defeat 
right  of  vetoing  resolutions  and  prevent-   and  rout  on  the  banks  of  the  Aina,  a 
ing    them    from    becoming    law.    Their   small  stream  about  11  mi'ee  w.  of  Home, 
number  was  afterwards  increased  to  five,   and  the  capture  and  desifuction  of  ttoe 
and  finally  to  ten.    The  tribunes,  through  city  by  the  Gauls  in  390  B.C.    After  the 
ignorance  of  the  laws,  which  were  kept   Gauls  retired  with  their  booty  the  city 
secret    by    the    patricians,    were    often   was  hastily  reconstructed,  but  the  destl- 
thwarted  in  their  endeavors  to  aid  the   tution  and  suCTering  of  the  people  ren- 
piebeians.    The  plebs  demanded  the  pub-  dered    domestic    tranquillity    impoMible. 
fication  of  the  laws,  and  at  last  the  sen-  After  a  struggle,  however,  the  Licinian 
ate  yielded.     It  was  agreed  that  in  place    laws  were  adopted  in  367,  the  pleiMians 
of  the  regular  magistrates  ten  men  (de-   being  now  admitted   to   the  coMutohip, 
cemviri)   should  be  nominated,  with  un-   and  a  fairer  distribution  of  public  lands 
limited  power  to  govern  the  state  and   bemg  brought  about, 
prepare  a  code  of  written  laws.    These       During  the  period  343-264  Rome  was 
menentered  on  office  in  451  B.C.,  and  in   enp;aged    in    many    important    wars,    the 
the  first  year  of  office  they  had  compiled   chief  of  which  were   the   four   Samnlte 
ten  tables  of  laws,  and  to  these  in  the    wars,  the  great  Latin  war,  the  war  with 
second  year  they  added  other  two  tables,    the  Greek  cities  of  Southern  Italy,  and 
making    up    the    famous    Lawa    of    the  the  war  with  Pyrrhua,tlie  invader  of  Italy 
Twelve   Tablet.    But    when    the   second   from  Greece.    The  chief  events  of  this 
year    had   elapsed,    and    the    object    for   protracted  struggle   were  _  the   defeat   of 
which  they  had  been  appointed  was  ac-   the  Romans  by  the  Samnites  under  Pon- 
complished,    they    refused    to    lay    down    tins  at  theXJaudine  Forks,  and  the  pass- 
their  office,  and  were  only  forced  to  do    mg  of  the  Romans  under  the  yoke  bxwc- 
BO   by   an    insurrection.    The   immediate   knowledgment  of  their  suWugation  ^1 
occasion  of  this  rising  was,  according  to   b.c.)  ;  the  defeat  of  the  Samnites,  Um- 
the  well-known  story  made   popular  by   bnans,   Etruscans,  and   Gauls  at  S«ttU- 
Macaulay  in  his  lay  of  Virginia,  an  act   num  (296  B.o.) ;  and  the  final  defeat  oC 
of  infamy  attempted  by  one  of  the  ten.    Pyrrhus  at  Beneventum   (275  B.O.).     In 
(See  Appiu$  Claudiut.)     After  the  over-    272  B.O.  the  city  and  fortress  of  Tarm- 
throw  of  the  decemvirate  two  chief  magis-    turn  surrendered  to  the  Romans,,  andthe 
trates    were    reappointed,    but    the    title    defeat  of  the  Sallentini  in  Calabria  (266) 
was  now  changed  from  prsetora  to  consuU   made  the  Romans  masters  of  all  Italy 
(449  B,c.).    In  444  another  change  was   south  of  the  Rubicon  and  Macra. 
made  by  the  appointment  of  military  trib-   ,  Rome,  having  had   leisure  to  conquer 
unes  with  consular  power    (from  three   Italy,  now  felt  at  lii)erty  to  intend  for 
to  six  or  even  eight  in  number),  who   the  possession  of  Sicily,  at  this  time  al- 
might  take  the  place  of  the  consuls.    To  most  entirely  under  the  dominion  of  the 
this  office  both  classes  of  the  community   great  maritime  power  of  Garthat^.    An 
were  eligible,   although   it   was  not   till   opportunity    for   interfering    in    Sicilian 
400  B.C.   that   a  plebeian   was  actually    affaira  was  easily  found,  and  in  264  B-a 
elected.    In  443  B.C.  a  new  patrician  of-   the  First  Punic  or  Carthaginian  war  be- 
fice.  that  of  cen«or,  was  created.     (See  gan.    It    lasted   for   more    than    twmty 
Ceruor.)     No    plebeian    was    censor    till   years,    caused    the    loss    of    three    targe 
851  B.O.  *«ets  to  the  Romans,  and  the  defeat  of 

Durhog  this  period  of  internal  conflict  a  Roman  army  under  Regulus  in  Africa ; 
Rome  was  engaged  in  defensive  wars,  but  in  241  a  great  victory  over  the  Car- 
chiefly  with  the  ^uians  and  Voiscisjas,  thaginian  fleet  caused  the  latter  power 
who  lived  close  by.  With  these  wara  are  to  sue  for  peace.  This  was  finally  con- 
connected  the  legends  and  traditions  of  eluded  on  the  conditions  that  Carthage 
Coriolaaus,  the  extermination  of  the  should  give  up  Sicily,  and  imy  a  great 
Fabti,  and  the  saying  of  the  Boman  army  sum  as  a  war  hidemnity.  The  largtr 
by  Ciincinnatas.     (See  CortotoMM,  FatH.   western  part  of  Sicily  became  the  fint 


and  CitwItmatM,) 
8B— U— 5 


Toward  the  end  of  Rtmun    provinoe;    the    smaller    eastera 


BomA 


AomA 


part  continued  under  the  ■upremacy  of 
the  Greek  city  Syracuse,  which  waa  al- 
lied to  Rome.  The  sway  of  Rome  waa 
alao  extended  over  all  the  ialanda  which 
Qirtliace  had  posseeaed  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. About  the  aame  time  the  Ro- 
mana  wreated  the  island  of  Corcyra 
(Corfu)  and  some  coast  towns  from 
the  piratical  lUyrians.  From  226  to 
2^  B.O.  they  were  engaged  in  a  more 
difficult  war  with  the  Gculs  inhabiting 
the  Po  basin ;  but  the  Romans  were  again 
successful,  and  the  Gallic  territory  was 
reduced  to  a  Roman  province  under  the 
name  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  (Gaul  on  this 
side  the  Alps). 

Meanwhile  the  Carthaginians  had  been 
making  considerable  conquests  in  Spain, 
which  awakened  the  alarm  and  envy  of 
the  Romans,  and  induced  them  to  enter 
into  a  defensive  alliance  with  the  Greek 
colony  of  Saguntum,  near  the  east  coast 
of  tliat  country.  In  221  b.0.  Hannibal, 
the  sou  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  who  bad 
bravely  and  skilfully  maintained  the 
Carthaginian  arms  in  Sicily,  and  had  af- 
terwards founded  and  in  great  part  eatab- 
liahed  a  Carthaginian  empire  in  Spain, 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian forces.  The  taking  of  Saguntum, 
a  city  allied  to  Rome,  occasioned  the  sec- 
ond Punic  war,  during  which  Hannibal 
traversed  Gaul,  crossed  the  Alps,  and 
invaded  Italy.  The  war  conthaued  in 
Italy  for  fifteen  years  (21&-204  BX.)  ; 
and  was  carried  on  with  consummate  gen- 
eralship on  the  part  of  Hannibal,  who  in- 
flicted on  the  Romans  one  of  the  most 
disastrous  defeats  they  ever  sustained,  at 
Canns,  in  21U  b.c.  This  great  man  was 
ill  supported  by  his  country,  and  the 
war  terminated  in  favor  of  the  Romans 
through  the  dufeat  of  Hannibal  by  P. 
Cornelius  Scipio  at  Zama  in  Africa  in  202 
B.C.  (See  UttHnibal.)  One  of  the  re- 
sults was  that  the  power  of  Carthage 
waa  broken  and  Spain  practically  be- 
came a  Roman  possession.  Upper  Italy 
was  also  again  subjugated,  and  Transpa- 
dane  Gaul  acquired.  A  third  Punic  war 
broke  out  on  slight  pretext  in  149  B.C., 
and  ended  in  146  in  the  capture  of  Car- 
thage by  Scipio  (the  younger)  after  a 
severe  struggle,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Carthajginiui  territory  into  the  province 
of  Africa. 

Philip  y  of  Macedonia  had  favored 
Hannibal,  and  thus  gave  Rome  a  pretext 
to  mix  in  Grecian  afifairs.  The  result 
waa  that  Macedonia  was  made  a  Roman 
province  (148  B.C.),  while  in  the  same 
year  that  Carthage  fell  Corinth  was 
sacked,  and  soon  after  Greece  was  or- 
nniacd  into  the  province  of  Achaia.  (See 
Or$$o$.)     Fraviouaiy      Antiocbua      the 


Great  of  Syria  had  been  defeated  by  tha 
Romana  (190  B.a)  and  part  of  Asia 
Minor  brought  into  vassalage  to  Rome. 
In  the  east  Rome  intrigued  where  she 
could,  and  fought  when  she  was  com- 
pelled, and  by  disorganising  states  made 
them  first  her  dependencies  and  then  her 
provinces.  In  130  B.O.  she  received  by 
bequest  the  dominions  of  Attalua  III  of 
Pergamus  (Mysia,  Lydia,  Caria,  and 
Phrygia),  which  was  formed  into  the 
province  of  Asia. 

By  this  time  strife  between  different 
classes  within  Rome  again  began  to 
be  biiier,  but  it  was  now  not  between 
patricians  and  plebeians,  but  between 
rich  and  poor.  The  conquests  which 
had  been  made,  and  the  lucrative  posts 
which  were -now  to  l>e  had,  ;.a  well  as 
the  wide  field  generally  available  for 
money-making,  had  produced  a  wealthy 
privileged  class  partly  consisting  of  patri- 
cians, partly  of  plebeians,  without  benefit- 
ing the  other  classes  of  the  citixens.  The 
agrarian  laws  which  formerly  protected 
the    people    were   generally    unobserved, 

?:reat  landed  estates  were  accumulated  in 
ew  hands,  and  che  cultivation  oi!  the  land 
by  swarms  of  slaves  left  war  the  only 
occupation  of  the  citizens.  Thus  vast 
numbers  of  the  middle  class  of  citixens 
were  reduced  to  absolute  want,  and 
driven  from  their  homes.  To  remedy 
this  the  two  Gracchi,  Tiberius  and  Cains, 
successively  proposed  measures  for  the 
better  distribution  of  the  land,  and  in 
general  for  the  relief  of  the  destitute 
classes.  They  thus  incurred  the  violent 
hatred  of  the  nobles  or  men  of  position, 
and  both  of  them  lost  their  lives  in  the 
party  struggles  that  ensued  (in  133  and 
121  B.C.  respectively). 

Previously  to  this  the  Romans  had 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Greek  colony 
of  Massilia  (Marseilles),  and  in  aid  of 
their  allies  they  were  twice  called  in  to 
quell  the  neighboring  Gallic  tribes  (first 
in  154  B.C.,  and  next  in  125  B.O.).  On 
the  second  occasion,  after  putting  down 
the  Gauls  (125-123)  they  kept  possession 
of  the  conquered  country,  and  made  this 
part  of  Gaul  a  Roman  province  (Prov- 
incia  Gallia  —  Provence).  Tlie  next  war 
was  in  Africa,  with  Jugurtha,  who  had 
usurped  the  throne  of  Numidia,  and 
against  whom  the  assistance  of  Rome 
had  been  asked.  It  was  brought  to  an 
end  by  Caius  Marius,  who  had  risot  from 
an  obscure  rank  to  the  consulship  (104 
B.C.).  Marius  also  repelled  invaaions  of 
the  province  of  Gaul  by  the  Clmbri  ao^ 
Teutonea  in  102-101  b.c.  A  serious  war, 
almost  of  the  nature  of  a  civil  wan  fol- 
lowed with  the  Roman  allies  in  Italy, 
who  rose  in  90  b.o.  to  demand  tba  rifBt 


Sono 


Borne 


SJo„B  cItU  war,  .  ""««■• '"?"J'„'i|  J,i|,rf  i'm'ember  of  tbe  ari.tir.tlc  pat^l. 
partj  of  Mario,  (tb.  pMP le)  anj  tUt  of  I{«'«^  °"°~J  ??,„„.  ^.j  .^.d  tnat 

ssj;.r'.Sffio.-:ir3S  «  ^.j  js  G;£-pii:?^?s».« 

same  command,  and  th'*"|'Li,°^!J'  a,,iio  koocrtance    in    the    history    immediately 

his  behalf  the  P0P"»ace  deprived  Sulla  »^P^«a°^«   '^^i^  Juliu.  CiM*r,  •  in«n 

of  the  chief   command   and  gave   it   to  ■^°*lf"^°tLt.r'  family  who  had  attadied 

MarluB.    Thereupon.    Sullamarched   on  "f^'^ff*^/"^'^  ^o/ratic  party  and  had 

Rome  with  his  lejiona,  f<>j:«f  Jf*""" J®  biSme  very  popular,  joineTPompey  and 

See  to  Africa.  a°3  then  proceeded  to  the  ^^«/jn'^ga?  jg  called  the  ftrat  trhm- 

Mithridatic  war.  In  his  absence  Marius  ^i""""  ^  nractlcally  the  three  took  tke 
returned,  wreaked  a  Woody  vengeance  on  j^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^ 

the  partisana  of  his  "^"'it^^hP  seventh  Cnd"  On  the  part  of  Ckbmt,  who  waa 
being  appointed  consul  for  «e.  J«^«.X  now  elected  consul,  this  was  the  first  atep 
time  (86  B.C.).  Three  years,  later  Sulla  now  eiewo  con  u  -  j  ^  j  ^^^  ^^^ 
^^ 'back  from  Asia,  having  brought  °  »  «Sf'th^'^J^;„"b,i"  and  his  own  ele; 
the  Mithridatic  war  to  •  "|'«"*^'J  Nation  to  the  ^ition  of  soverdgn  •« 
conclusion,  and  no™'  feU  ^mself  at  li^  [«^";^  j^e.  After  the  death  of  Crassus 
erty  to  take  his  r»ve"ge  o"  t^e  Martan   ^n^'^^g  ^  ^  struggle  for  supreme 

party  for  the  atrocities  ««  ^^ich  it  had  ^f-°{^^^^     Ciesaf    and     Pompey. 

Ke/guilty  nj'^k^ltTfSfl  meLsur^  ^r  had  gained  great  glory  by  the  con- 
absence:  and  he  twk  it  m  full  measu^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  Pomw's  i«- 

Four  thousand  of  hl".oPPO°«°\" 'iiS^jiv-  stiaation  was  called  on  to  resign  Us  00»- 
to  De  massacred  In  the  circus  in  one  *iy.   "g^J^^d  disband  his  army.TUpgttda 

Md  then  got  rid  of  all  the  <:^^^^^  heentered  Italy,  Pompey  fled  I«|0*jce. 
the  democratic  P*"/ , "»?.  Pirr  fX,  «  and  the  short  civil  war  of  4»-48  B-O. 
He  was  now  aP|>?  n*^  x^^'^JSid  aJ  suS  Hi  the  g^t  little  of  Pharsalla  to  tha 
unlimited  term  (81  B;^- ';  »°«.  "«S  "^"er  year,  decided  the  strunle  to 
passed  a  series  of  measures  tbe  gWHsrai  ^^'L.-'Uvor.  Pompey'a  army  was  ut- 
Shiect  of  which  was  to  restore  to  tBec^^^  Slw  routed? he  hiiSSlf  was'compelled 
sHtution  its  former  afJ"!***:"*'?  if„  °",  to  flee  and  having  gone  to  Egypt  was 
garchical  character.  In  the  beginning  of  J9  °*%u»der^  In  I  short  tlie  Csesar 
?9  B.C.  Sulla  retired  Into  private  life,  and  «*",  "^^g^J^"  the  remains  of  the  Pom- 
he  died  to  the  year  following.  Silnm^?ty  and  ^amrVirtually  king  to 
The  man  who  noj,  «""*  "?  pI'Zm  Some  though  he  did  not  assume  the  title. 
nenUy  before  the  P»l>"c  eye  .J'"  Po"P«J:  c^*  waa  Mwisinated  by  republicans  to 
one  of  Sulla's  generals.  His  ^nt  im-  "sT^^^rtJ^^  ^ain  result  of  the  con- 
portant  achievement  wn  the  »ubjugation  44  aa.  »»<»»£«  ""^^  £^%,as  that  the 
of  the  remnant  of  the  democrats  or  "Z^*^' ,^  to  Rome  had  again  to  be 
S^»i!S?  P?i*£nIlfr7S^72*Ba)      OnW^   SStes?^^  Se    Competitors    this    time 

^ss*7oWVSf'^of'?l*^i*  :i^t2^':^^Tc^^'\^i^'''^j^ 
^^rc^^^^'^i^}^B  &i^55Vt'^n^rfoSj;^g 

i^fe^ssan^^^ 

Ji^^    MtthHib^    Una    rtf    P<mtus,  Ler    •  J.  who  was  a  weakling,  *'▼>«?.  gj 
"^^hn^llSltiiSS!  Ai^S^ri  eniirelietween  them,  the  former  taUi* 


BonM 


i 


Ronie  and  the  West  and  the  latter  the 
Eaet.  In  ten  yean,  in  consequence  of 
Antony's  obeeaeion  hj  Cleopatra  of 
Egypt,  war  broke  out  between  the  two. 
and  in  the  naval  battle  of  Actium  (81 
B.O.)  Antony  was  defeated,  and  the  whole 
Roman  world  lay  at  the  feet  of  the  con- 
queror, Egypt  being  also  now  incorpora- 
ted. Not  long  after  this  Octavian  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Augustus,  the  name 
by  which  he  is  known  in  history  as  the 
first  of  the  Roman  emperors. 

In  his  administration  of  the  empire 
Augustus  acted  with  great  Judgment, 
ostensibly   adhering   to   most  of   the   re- 

gublican  forms  of  government,  though 
e  contrived  in  course  of  time  to  obtain 
for  himself  all  the  ofiBces  of  highest  au- 
thority. The  reign  of  Augustus  is  chiefly 
remarkable  as  the  golden  age  of  Roman 
literature,  but  it  was  a  reign  also  of  con- 

?iue8t  and  territorial  acquisition.  Be- 
ore  the  annexation  of  Egypt  Pannonia 
had  been  added  to  the  Roman  dominions 
(35  B.O.),  and  by  the  subsec[uent  concjuest 
of  Moesia,  Noricum,  Rhsetia,  and  Vinde- 
licia,  the  Roman  frontier  was  extended 
to  the  Danube  along  its  whole  course. 
Oaul  and  Spain  also  were  now  finally  and 
completely  subdued.  The  empire  of 
Augustus  thus  stretched  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  Rhine 
and  the  Danube  to  the  deserts  of  Africa. 
This  emperor  died  in  14  a.d.  His  reign 
is  above  all  memorable  for  the  birth  of 
Christ  in  &c.  4. 

Augustus  was  followed  by  a  series  of 
emperors  forming,  when  he  and  Julius 
Cc3ar  are  included,  the  sovereigns  linown 
as  the  Twelve  Ctesara.  The  names  of  his 
successors  and  the  dates  of  their  deaths 
are:  Tiberius,  37  a.d. ;  Caligula,  41; 
Claudius,  64;  Nero,  68;  Oalba,  09;  Otho, 
68;  Vitellius,  C9;  Vespasian,  79;  Titus, 
81;  and  Domitian,  96.  Most  of  these 
were  sensual  and  bloodthirsty  tyrants, 
Vespasian  and  his  son  Titus  being  the 
chief  exceptions.  Vespasian's  reign  was 
noted  for  the  taking  and  destruction  of 
Jerusalem;  that  of  Titus  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Hercu- 
laneum  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  (a.d. 
79).  After  Titus  his  tyrannical  brother 
Domitian  reigned  till  his  death  by  assassi- 
nation in  A.D.  9G,  when  an  aged  senator, 
Nerva,  was  proclaimed  as  his  successor. 

Nerva's  reign  was  short  (96-98)  but 
beneficent,  and  he  was  followed  by  four 
emperors,  Trajan,  Hadrian,  Antoninus 
Pius  and  Marcus  AureliuH,  wuo  together 
raianed  for  more  than  eighty  years,  and 
under  whom  the  countries  making  up  the 
Bmnmn  Empire  enjoyed  in  common  more 
t*od  gownment,  peace,  and  prosperity 
tbam  «T«r  before  or  after.    Trajan  (9&- 


117)  was  a  warlike  prince,  and  added 
several  provinces  to  the  Roman  Empire. 
Hadrian  (117-138),  the  adopted  son  of 
Trajan,  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the 
internal  affairs  of  his  empire.  It  was  in 
his  reign  that  the  southern  Roman  wall, 
or  rampart  between  the  Tyne  and  the 
Solway  Firth,  was  erected.  Antoninus 
Pius  ri38-161)  was  likewise  the  adopted 
son  of  his  predecessor.  In  his  reign  the 
northern  wall  in  Britain,  between  the 
Forth  and  Clyde,  was  constructed.  The 
next  emperor,  Marcus  Aurelius  ( 161-180) , 
was  both  the  s«n-in-law  and  the  adopted 
son  of  Antoninus  Pius.  He  combined  the 
qualities  of  a  philosopher  with  those  of 
an  able  and  energetic  ruler. 

Commodus  (18Q-192),  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Aurelius,  inherited  none  of  his 
father's  good  qualities,  and  his  reign, 
from  which  Gibbon  dates  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  presents  a  complete 
contrast  to  those  of  the  five  preceding 
emperors.  During  his  reign  an  era  of 
military  despotism  ensued.  The  prsto- 
rian  guard  (the  imperial  body-jsuard)  be- 
came virtually  the  real  sovereigns,  while 
the  armies  of  the  provinces  declared  for 
their  favorite  officers,  and  the  throne  be- 
came the  stake  of  battle.  In  the  long 
list  of  emperors  who  succeeded  may  be 
noted  Septimius  Severus,  who  reigned 
from  193  to  211,  during  which  time  he 
restored  the  empire  to  its  former  prestige. 
H^  reconquered  Mesopotamia  from  the 
Parthians,  but  in  Britain  he  confined  the 
Roman  province  to  the  limit  of  Hadrian's 
Wal<,  which  he  restored.  He  died  at 
York.  Alexander  Severus,  who  reigned 
from  222  till  235,  was  also  an  able  ruler, 
and  was  the  first  emperor  who  openly 
extended  his  protection  to  the  Christians. 
His  death  was  followed  by  a  period  of 
the  greatest  confusion,  in  which  numer- 
ous emperors,  sometimes  elected  by  the 
senate,  sometimes  by  the  soldiers,  fol- 
lowed one  another  at  short  intervals,  or 
claimed  the  empire  simultaneously.  This 
period  is  known  as  the  era  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  Meanwhile  the  empire  was 
ravaged  on  the  east  by  the  Persians,  while 
the  German  tribes  and  confederations 
(Goths,  Franks,  Alemanni)  invaded  it 
on  the  north.  The  empire  was  ^gin 
consolidated  under  Aurelian  (270-2<5), 
who  subdued  all  the  other  claimants  to 
the  imperial  dignity,  and  put  an  end  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Palmyra,  which  was  gov- 
erned by  the  heroic  Zenobia. 

The  reign  of  Diocletian  (284-3(»)  is 
remarkable  as  affording  the  first  example 
of  that  division  of  the  empire  which  ulti- 
mately led  to  the  formation  of  the  empire 
of  the  West  and  the  empire  of  the  East 
Finding   the  number   of   tha   barbariap 


SonM 


BomA 


TloUton  of  the  Roman  trootitr  too  giwt 
for  him  he  adopted  aa  Joint-emperer 
Maximian;  and  in  388  each  of  theae  air 
sociated  with  himself  another,  to  whom 
the  titie  of  CwMir  waa  allowed.  Dio- 
cletian toolc  Oaierius,  and  Mazimtan  hii 
Mn-in-law,  Constantiua  Chlorua.  Theae 
four  now  divided  the  empire  between 
tliem.  Diocletian  asiiamed  the  aovem- 
ment  of  the  East  with  Thrace,  aUottinc 
to  Galei-iuH  the  iilyrian  provinces ;  Maxi- 
mian aHsumed  Italy,  Africa,  and  the  isl- 
ands of  the  Mediterranean ;  and  left  to 
Constant  ius  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britaii^ 
This  arrangement  temporarily  worked 
well,  but  in  323  Constontine,  the  son  of 
Conatantius,  waa  left  sole  master  of  the 
empire.  .   .  , 

Ever  since  the  time  of  Augustus  and 
Tiberius,  Christianity  had  been  spread- 
ing in  the  Roman  Empire,  notwithstand- 
ing terrible  persecutions.  The  number  of 
churches  ana  congregations  had  increased 
in  every  city;  the  old  mythologic  religion 
had  lost  ita  strength,  very  few  believing 
in  it:  as  a  result  Constantine  deemed  it 
fczpedient  to  make  the  Christian  faith  the 
religion  of  the  empire.  He  also  removed 
the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to 
Byzantium,  which  waa  given  the  name 
of  Constantinople  (330),  and  completely 
reorganized  the  imperial  administration. 
Constantine  died  in  337.  The  empire 
was  left  among  his  three  sons,  of  whom 
Constantius  became  sole  ruler  in  dod. 

The  next  emperor,  Julian  the  Apostate, 
sought  to  restore  the  old  religion,  but  in 
vain.    He  was  an  able  ruler,  but  fell  to 
battle  against  the  Persians  in  363.    He 
was   succeeded   by   Jovian,  who   reigned 
less  than  one  year;  and  after  his  death 
(364)    the    empire    was    agam    divided, 
Valena   (364^ «8)   obtaining  the  _«istem 
portion,  and  Valentinmn   (304r-3»5)    the 
western.    From  this  division,  which  took 
place  to  364,  the  final  separation  of  the 
eastern    and    western    empires    is    often 
dated.    In  the  reigns  of  Valens  and  Val- 
entinian  great  hordes  of  Huns  streamed 
into  Europe  from  the  steppes  of  Central 
Asia.    After  subduing  the  Eastern  Gotha 
(Ostrogoths)   they  attacked  those  of  the 
west   (Visigoths)  ;  but  these,  since  they 
had  already  been  converted  to  Christian- 
ity, were  allowed  by  Valens  to  cross  from 
the  left  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
and    aettle    in    Moesia.     In    their    new 
homea  they  found  themselves  exposed  to 
the  oppression  and  rapacity  of  the  Ro- 
man governors,  and  when  they  could  no 
longer  brook  such  treatment  they  rose  in 
rebeliicm,    and    defeated    Valena    in    th« 
sangotoary  battle  of  Adrianopla,  in  the 
flight  from  which  the  emperor  lost  hia 
life   (378).    Hia  son  Qratianua  created 


toe  heathen  Thaodoaiua  co- regent,  and  to- 
treated  him  with  the  administration  of 
tha  Eaat.  Theodoaiaa  baoame  a  Chria- 
tian,  fought  auccaaafuliy  againat  tha 
Weatern  CTotha,  bat  waa  obliged  to  accept 
them  as  aliiea  in  their  abodea  in  Muraia 
and  Thrace.  In  394  the  whole  empire 
was  reunited  for  the  laat  time  under 
Theodoeius.  After  hia  death  (395)  the 
empire  was  divided  between  his  two 
sons,  Honoriua  and  Arcadius,  and  the 
eastern  and  western  sections  iiecame 
permanent  divisions  of  the  empire,  the 
fatter  being  now  under  Honoriua.  For 
the  further  history  of  the  Empire  of  the 
East,  see  Byzantine  Empire. 

In  402  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigotha 
who   were  settled  on  the  south  of   the 
Danube,  was  incited  to  invade  Italy,  but 
he  waa  soon  forced  to  withdraw  on  ac- 
count of  the  lossea  he  suffered  in  battle 
(403).     Scarcely  had   these  enemies  re- 
treated when  great  hosta  of  heathen  Teu- 
tonic tribea.  Vandals,  Burgnndians,  Suevi, 
and  others,  made  an  irruption  into  Italy 
on  the  north:  but  these  also  were  ovei^ 
come   by   Stilirbo.   the  guardian   of   the 
youthful  emperor  Honoriua,  in  the  battle 
of  Fesuls  (or  Florence),  and  compelled 
to    withdraw    (406).     The    Burgundiana 
now  settled  in  part  of  Gaul,  while  the 
Vandala  and  Suevi  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
into  Spain.     In  408  Alaric  marched  into 
Italy,  advanced   to  the  walls,  of  Rome, 
and   ultimately   took   the  city   b/  atorm 
(410).     Shortly   after   Alaric  died,   and 
hi'!    brother-in-law   Athaulf    (Adolphua) 
concluded  a  treaty  with   Honoring  and 
retired   into   Qaul,   where   the   Visigotha 
founded  in  the  aouthwest  a  kingdom  that 
extended  originally  from  the  Garonne  to 
the  Ebro   (412).    About  this  time  also 
the  Romans  practically  aurrendered  Brit- 
ain, by  withdrawtog  their  forcea  from  it 
aud  thus  leaving  it  a  prey  to  Teutonic 
and  Scandinavian  sea-rovera.    In  429  the 
Vandala  wrested  the  provtoce  of  Africa 
from  the  empire  and  aet  up  a  Vandalic 
kingdom  in  its  place.     In  452  the  Huna 
left  their  settlements   in   immense  num- 
bers under  their  king  Attila,  destroyed 
Aquileia,  took  Milan,  Pavia,  Verona,  and 
Padua  by  atorm,  laid  waste  the  fruitful 
valley  of  the  Po,  and  were  already  ad- 
vancing   on    Rome    when    the    Roman 
bishop,  Leo  I,  succeeded  in  indluo?ag_th«n 
to   conclude   a   peace   with   Valentmian, 
and  withdraw.    Soon  after  their  leader 
Attila  died    (453),   and   after   that   the 
Huns  were  no  longer  formidable.    Two 
years  after  tha  death  of  Attila,  Eadosia, 
the  widow  of  Valenttoian,  the  snccesaor 
of   Honoriua.   tovited    the   assistance   of 
tha  Vandala  from  Africa,  who  under  their 
leader    Qanaexk    proceeded     to    Roma, 


■m 


wUek  tht/  took  and  •ftorwardi  plon- 
dond  tor  foartMB  days,  ■howiof  ap  littla 
ttcard  to  tlM  werka  of  art  it  contained  aa 
to  fira  to  th«  word  vandatlun  the  aanae 
it  Stm  azpraaata  (466).  ^Thay  then  re- 
tamed  to  Africa  with  their  booty  and 
prlaonera.  After  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Vandala,  Aritua,  a  Gaul,  wai  installed 
emparor.  Under  him  the  Suevian  Bici- 
ner,  tha  commander  of  the  foreign  mer- 
cenarlca  at  Rome,  attained  such  in- 
flnenca  aa  to  be  able  to  set  np  ud  aepoae 
emperora  at  bis  pleasure.  The  iai^  of 
tha  so-called  Roman  emperors  was  Rom- 
ulna  Aofustulus  (475-476  a-d.).  His 
election  nad  been  secured  through  the 
aid  of  the  Qerman  troops  in  the  pay  of 
Rome,  and  these  demanded  as  a  reward 
a  third  part  of  the  soil  of  luly.  When 
this  demand  was  refused,  Odoacer,  one  of 
tha  boldest  of  their  leaders,  deposed  Rom- 
ulus, to  whom  he  allowed  a  residence 
in  Lower  Italy  with  a  pension,  and  as- 
somed  to  himself  the  title  of  King  of 
Itoly,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  Western 
Roman  Empire,  A  J).  470.     (See  ItalV-) 

Language. —  The  language  of  the  Ro- 
mana  was  the  Latin,  a  language  origi- 
nally spoken  in  the  plain  lying  south  of 
the  Tiber.    Like  the  other  ancient  Ital- 
ian dialecta  (Oscan,  Umbrian,  etc.)  it  is 
a  branch  of  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family  of  languages,  and  is  more  cioaeiy 
allied  to  .the  Greek  than  to  any  other 
member  of  the  family.    At  first  spoken 
In  only  a  small  part  of  Italy,  it  spread 
with  the  spread  of  Roman  power,  till  at 
the  advent  of  Christ  it  was  used  through- 
out the  whole  empire.    The  Latin   lan- 
guage is  one  of  the  highly-inflected  lan- 
guages, in  this  resembling  Greek  or  San- 
skrit; but  as  compared  with  the  former 
it  is  a  far  inferior  vehicle  of  expression, 
being  less  flexible,  less  adapted  for  form- 
ing compound  words,  and  altogether  less 
artistic  in  character.     The  earliest  stage 
of   Latin  is   known  almost  wholly   from 
inscriptions.     During    the    period    of    its 
literary  development  many  changes  took 
place  in  the  vocabulary,  inflection,  word 
formation    and    syntax.     In    particular, 
considerable  additions  to  the  vocabulary 
were  made  from  the  Greek.     At  the  same 
time   the   language  gaiued   in   refinement 
and  regularity,  while  it  preserved  all  its 
peculiar   force   and   majesty.    The  most 
perfect  stage  of  Latin  is  that  represented 
by   Cicero,    Horace,    and    Virgil    in    the 
first  century  B.C. :  and  the  classical  period 
of  the  Latin  language  ends  in  the  sec- 
ond  century   a.d.    The   deeline  may   be 
■aid  to  date  from  the  time  of  Hadrian 
(117-138).    In    the    third    century    the 
deterioration  of  the  language  proceeded 
at  •  yery  raoid  rate,     in  the  fourth  and 


fifth  oMitoriMi  tha  pepolyr  ameh,  ao 
lonfar  iMtrainad  by  tha  lafawM  •!  a 
more  cnltlTatad  lanfaaM,  bagui  to  tt- 
pertence  that  seriM  M  tnaamutattoM 
and  cbangaa  which  formad  tkt  traaution 
to  the  Romance  laaruagaa.  Latin,  how- 
ever, still  remained,  through  tba  intaenca 
of  the  church  and  the  law,  the  literary 
language  till  far  on  in  the  middle  ana: 
but  it  was  a  Latin  largely  intermlzad 
with  Celtic,  Teutonic,  and  other  elements, 
and  is  now  uaually  called  Lata  or  Low 
Latin.  The  study  of  Latin  ia  of  great 
asaiatance  in  acquiring  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  EngUsh,  aa  a  graat  part  af 
the  English  vocabulary  ia  of  Latui  onflB, 
being  either  taken  from  tha  Franca  or 
from  classical  Latin  directly. 

Literature. —  The    histo-7    of    Roman 
literature   naturally    dividaa    itaelf    Into 
three  periods  of  Growth,  Prime,  and  De- 
cline.   The    first    period    extends    from 
about   250   B.c.    to   about   80   B.O.    The 
second  period  ranges  from  80  a.o.  to  the 
death  of  Augustus   in   14  A.D.,  and  in- 
cludea  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman 
literature  usually  atudied  in  schools  and 
colleges.    The  period  of  decline  then  fol- 
lowed.   Poetry  in   this  language,   aa  In 
all    others,    preceded    prose.    The   oldest 
forms  of  Latin  poetry  were  the  Feeoen- 
nine  vertee,  which  were  poema  of  a  Joc- 
ular and  satirical  nature  sung  at  mar- 
riages and  country  festivals;  satires  or 
improvised  dialogues  of  miscellaneous  con- 
tents and  various  form :  and  the  AteUanif, 
fahulw,  a  species  of  grotesque  comedy  sup- 
posed  to    resemble   the   modem    Punchi- 
nello.   The  first  known  writer  was  Liv- 
ius  Andronicus,  a  Greek  freedman  taken 
prisoner   at    Tarentum    (272    B.O.)    and 
afterwards  emancipated,  who  about  240 
B.O.  exhibited  at  Rome  a  drama  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek,  and  subsequently 
brought  out  a  translation  of  the  Odyuey. 
He  was  followed  by  Naevius,  who  wrote 
an  historical  poem  on  the  first  Punic  war, 
besides  dramas ;  by  the  two  tragic  writers 
Pacuvius  and  Accius  or  Attius;  rnd  bv 
Ennius,  author  of  eighteen  boolcs  of  metri- 
cal  annals   of   Rome   and   of   numerous 
tragedies,   and   regarded  by  the  Romann 
themselves    as    the    founder    of    Roman 
poetry.    Mere  fragments  of   these  ewly 
works  alone  remain.     The  fou'  ler  of  Ro- 
man comedy  was  Plautus  (264  184  B.O.), 
who  was  surpassed   for  force  of  comic 
humor  by  none  of  hia  successors.     Next 
followed    Cscilius;     and    then    Terence 
(195-159  B.C.),  a  successful  imitator  and 
often  mere  translator  of  tha  Graak  drama- 
tist Menander  and  others,  ana,  alttiougb 
an  African  by  birth,  remarkable  tx  the 
punty    and    excellence    of    his    Latlmty. 
These  three  comic  writers  took  the  New 


Some 


ComadT   of  the  Oreelw  ■■  thelt  model 
lOamMii*  tMiata) ;  and  wo  itiil  potacM 
TiSSSor  Sf  pl«y  W  Ptautu.  Md  Ter- 
oico.    On  the  other  band.  Afraniua,  with 
A  few  others,  Introduced  Roman  mannen 
upon      the     etaae      {Comadia     *ogata) 
LSdllna  (148-136  b.c.  )  was  he  orlgfnator 
of  the  Roman  poetical  satire,  the  only 
kind  of  literary  composition  among  tlie 
Romans    which    was    of    native    origin. 
Lucretius  (b.c.  0^-58  ,  *  J^'itfJ  «"»  »' 
strength  and  or.^inality,  has  left  us  a 
philosophical   poem    Inculcatmg   *»»•,  "K 
tem  of  Epicurus,  In  six  books,  «ntitRd 
D«    Rerum     Natura.    Catullus     (94-M 
B.C.)    was  distinguished  in  lyric  poetry, 
in  elegy,  and  in  epigrams.    With  the  aae 
of  Augustus   a  new   spirit  appeared  in 
Roman  literature.    The  first  of  the  Au- 
gnirtan  poets  is  Virgil   (b.c.  70-19),  the 
greatest  of  the  epic  poets  of  Rome,  author 
of    eclogues     or     pastoral    poems;     tbe 
Georffioa,  a  didactic  poem  on  agriculture, 
the  most  finished  of  bis  works ;  besidM 
the  famous  epic  poem  entitled  the  /EnttO, 
Contemporary    with    him     was    Horace 
(B.C.   66-8),   the   favorite   of   the   lyric 
muse,  and  also  eminent  in  satire.    In  tbe 
Augustan   age    Propertius   and    Tibullus 
are   the   principal   elegiac   poets.    Alonj 
with   these   flourished  Ovid    (B.c.  43-18 
A.D.),  a  prolific  and  sometimes  exquisite, 
but  too  often  slovenly  poet.    During J.^ 
age  of  Augustus  the  writing  of  tragedies 
appears  to  have  been  a  fashionable  amuse- 
ment, but. the  Romana  attained  no  emi- 
nence In  this  branch. 

After  the  death  of  Augustus  the  de 
psrtment  of  poetry  in  which  greatest  ex- 
cellence was  reached  was  satire,  and  tne 
most  distinguished  satirists  were  fersius, 
and  after  him  Juvenal  (flourished  about 
100  A.D.),  both  of  whom  expressed,  with 
unrestrained  aeverlty.  their  Indignation  at 
the   corruption   of    the   age.     In    Lucan 
(A.D.  38-«X),  who  wrote  the  Phanalta, 
a  hiatorical  epic  on  the  civil  war  between 
Cesar  and  Fompey;  and  Statius  (flour- 
ished about  86  A.D.) ,  who  wrote  the  The- 
haid,   we   find   a   poetic   coldness   which 
vainly  endeavors  to  kindle  itself  by  the 
fire    of    rhetoric     In    the    epigrams    of 
Martial    (about  43-104  a.d.)    the  whole 
social  life  of  the  times  is  mirrored  with 
attractive    clearness.    Valerius     Flaccns 
(about  70-80  a.d.),   who  described   the 
Argonautlc  expedition  In  verse,  endMV- 
ored  to  shine  by  his  learning  rather  than 
by  his  originality  and  freshness  of  color- 
ing.    Bilina  Itolicus   (26-100  A.D.),  who 
selected  the  seccmd  Punic  war  as  the  sub- 
ject of  a  heroic  poem,  is  mCTely  a  histo- 
rian employing  verse  instead  of  prose. 
To  this  age  belong  the  toi  tragedies  un- 
dor  the  nam*  of  u  Ann»tui  Seneca,  the 


Boom 

rhetorician.    Here  also  we  may  nwatko 
the  Sttwricon  of  Petwmius,  a  cont«»p»- 
rary  of  Nero;  for  although  this  work,  « 
kind  of  comic  romance  in  whieb  the  •«- 
thor  depicts  with  wit  and  vivacity  the 
corruption  and  bad  taste  of  the  age,  » 
written    mainly    in    prose,    it    is    inter- 
spersed with  numerous  pieces  of  poetry, 
and  cannot   b*  classed   with  any  other 
prose  work  belonging  to  Roman  litera- 
ture.   After  a  long  period  of  Poetkj  llf«- 
lessness  Claudian  (flourished  about  400) 
wrote  poems  in?(pired  with  no  little  of  the 
spirit  and  grace  of  the  earlier  literature. 
In   the   Roman   prose   literaturt,   elo- 
quence,  history,    philosophy,    and   Juris- 
prudence are  the  principal  departmjoto. 
Prose  composition  really  began  with  Cat© 
the  Censor   (234  B.a),  whose  work  «i 
agriculture.  De  Re  RuatUsa,  is  still  ex- 
tant.   Among    the    great    Roman    Pfoae 
writers  the  first  place  belongs  to  Cicero 
(106-43    B.C.),    whose    orations,    philo- 
sophical and  other  treatises,  letters,  etc.. 
are    very    numerous.      Varros    Annmn- 
ties:  Ca»ar'8   Commeii*ori««;  the  Uwe 
of     lUuatriouM     Generalt,    of    Comellns 
Nepos,    probably    an    abridgment    of    a 
larger  work;  and  the  works  of  Sallust, 
are  among  the  more  important  historical 
productions  down  to  the  Augustan  period. 
Livy    the    historian    (b.c.    69-11    AJ).), 
author  of  a  voluminous  Hietorv  of  Rome, 
Is  by  far  the  chief  representative  of  An- 
gustan  prose.    Under  Tiberius  we  taivo 
the  Inferior  historian  Velleius  Pateicolo^ 
the    anecdotlst    Valerius    Maxhnus,    and 
Cornelius  Celsus,  who  has  left  a  ▼alua- 
ble  treatise  on  medicine.    The  most  Im- 
portant figure  of  the  period  of  Nero  WM 
Seneca  the  philosopher,  put  to  death  by 
that  tyrant  In  ®  A.O.    His  chief  worits 
are  twelve  boohs  of  phUo«)phical     dU- 
logues,'  two  books  on  clemency  addressed 
to  Nero,  seven  on  investigatl<ms  of  na- 
ture, and  twenty-two  books  of  moral  let- 
ters.   QuintuB  Curtius  compiled  a  history 
of  Aleminder  ike  Great,  and  a  contwa- 
porary  writer.  Columella  (about  60  A.D.), 
a   treatise   on  agVlculture.    The  leading 
prose   writers  of   the   next   period  ^w«e 
Pliny  the  elder,  whose  liatwel  HuUtry 
is  still  extant    (23-79  A.D.),  a  lengthy 
history  and  minor  treatises  being  lost; 
Qulntlllan  (86-118  A.D.),  who  wrote  the 
iMtitute*  of  Oratory  J  and  Sextus  Jnlins 
Frontinus,  who  has  left  us  tr«tises  on 
aqueducts  and  on  military  dw^s.    In 
the  reigns  of  Nerva,  Trajan,  ud  Hadrian 
we  have  two  great  prose  writera --- Cor; 
netius  Tacitus  (about  54-119  A.D.),  aad 
Pliny  the  younger  781-115  aj».).    The 
former  produced  a  Dimlotue  on  Orator$. 
a   life  of  his  father-in-law  AgricoUi.  a 
work  on  Qermany,  and  two  works  om 


Borne 

Bomaa  hliton  — the  BUIoHm  and  th* 
liMi«l«.  Tht  Utttr,  glTloff  tlM  bittonr  of 
the  period  betwoen  tht  dMth  of  Augnttas 
and  tb«  death  of  Nero,  \»  ont  of  tbo 
ireateot  workt  of  the  kind  In  any  litera- 
ture, bat  unfortanatcljr  only  a  part  of  It 
la  in  existence.  Pliny  the  younger  haa 
'eft  ten  books  of  Epittht,  and  a  panegy- 
ric  in  honor  of  Trajan.  C.  Suetonius, 
secretary  to  Trajan,  has  left  lires  of  the 
twelve  CKsars;  Cornelius  Fonto,  the 
tutor  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  collection  of 
letters,  discovered  only  early  in  the  nine* 
teenth  century;  onu  with  the  Attio 
Nigkti  of  Aulus  Oellius  (second  century) 
—  a  literary,  grammatical,  and  antiqua- 
rian miscellany  —  the  classic  Roman 
prose  writers  come  to  a  close. 

Religioft  of  Ancient  Rome. —  The  an- 
cient religion  of  the  Romans  was  quite 
distinct  from  that  of  Greece.  Though 
Qreek  and  Etruscan  elements  were  early 
imported  into  it,  it  was,  in  fact,  a  com- 
mon inheritance  of  the  Italians.  To- 
wards the  end  of  the  republic  the  theology 
of  Greece  was  imported  into  the  litera- 
ture, and  to  some  extent  into  the  state 
religion.  Later  on  all  forms  were  toler- 
ated. The  Roman  religion  was  a  poly- 
theism less  numerical  in  deities  and  with 
lr>8  of  the  hitman  element  In  them  than 
titat  o!  Greece.  The  chief  deities  were 
Jupiter,  the  father  of  gods  and  men;  hL< 
wife  Juno,  the  goddess  of  maternity; 
Minerva,  the  goddess  of  intellect;  Man 
and  Bellona,  god  and  goddess  of  war; 
Vesta,  the  patron  of  the  state,  the  god- 
dess of  the  national  hearth  where  the 
jacred  fire  was  kept  burning;  Satnmus 
and  Ceres,  the  god  and  goddess  of  uricul- 
ture ;  Ops,  the  goddess  of  the  harvnt  and 
of  wealth;  Hercules,  god  of  gain,  who 
also  presided  over  contracts;  Mercury, 
the  god  of  traffic;  and  Neptunns,  god  of 
the  sea.  Venus  was  originally  a  goddess 
of  agriculture,  but  was  early  identified 
with  the  Greek  goddess  of  love.  Aphro- 
dite. There  were  also  a  host  of  lesser 
deities  presiding  over  private  and  public 
affairs;  domestic  gods,  the  Lares  and 
Penates,  etc.  The  worship  consisted  of 
ceremonies,  offerings,  prayers,  sacrifices, 
games,  etc,  to  secure  the  favor,  avert 
the  anger,  or  ascertain  the  intentions  of 
the  gods.  In  private  life  the  ceremonies 
were  performed  in  the  family ;  in  matters 
concerning  the  whole  community,  by  the 
stata  The  highest  religious  power  in 
the  state  was  the  College  of  Pontifieet, 
which  had  control  of  the  calendar,  and 
decided  upon  the  action  made  necessary 
by  the  auguries.  The  chief  of  this  ia- 
stitntion  was  the  pontifem  mactin«M. 
^6  memlwrs.  of  the  College  of  Augvr$ 
cpoaalted  the  will  of  the  gods  as  remled 


Borne 

In  ooMOi.  Tba  CeReM  of  FetMet  eon- 
dnetad  tiwtiai,  acted  as  heralds,  and 
ftBtrally  aapennttnded  tba  ralatl<ma  be- 
Iwacn  Bona  and  other  countries.  Tba 
oimdating  prlsots  included  tba  Flamlnes, 
who  presided  in  the  various  temples;  the 
Salil,  or  dancing  priesta  of  Man;  the 
Vestal  Virgins,  who  had  charge  of  the 
sacred  ilre  of  Vesta ;  the  Luperci,  sacred 
to  Pan,  the  god  of  the  country:  the 
Fratres  Arvales,  who  bad  cbaiye  of 
boundariea,  the  division  of  lands,  etc.  In 
addition  to  their  other  duties  the  priests 
bad  charge  of  conducting  tba  various 
public  games,  etc. 

Bome.  *''"  capital  of  the  Roman  King- 
'  dom,  republic,  and  empire,  and 
recently  of  Italy,  and  long  the  religious 
center  of  western  Christendom,  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  and  interesting  cities  of 
the  world.  It  stands  on  t>oth  sides  of  the 
Tiber,  about  15  miles  from  the  sea,  the 
river  here  having  a  general  direction 
from  north  to  south,  but  making  two 
nearly  equal  bends,  the  upper  of  which 
incloses  a  large  alluvial  flat,  little  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  stream,  and  weli 
known  by  the  ancient  name  of  Campus 
Martina.  A  large  part  of  the  modem 
city  stands  on  this  flat,  but  the  ancient 
city  lay  mostly  to  the  east  and  south- 
east of  this,  occupying  a  series  of  emi- 
nences of  small  elevation  known  as  the 
seven  hilhi  of  Rome  (the  Capitoline, 
the  Palatine,  the  Aventine,  the  Quirinal, 
the  Viminal,  the  E^uiline,  and  the  Celian 
hills),  while  a  small  portion  stood  on 
the  other  side  of  the  river,  embracing 
an  eighth  hill  (Janiculum).  The  city 
is  tolerably  healthy  during  most  of  the 
year,  but  in  late  summer  and  early  au- 
tumn malaria  prevails  to  some  extent. 
It  has  been  greatly  improved  in  cleanli- 
ness and  bealthfulness  since  it  became  the 
capital  of  modern  Italy. 

Ancient  Rome.  Topography,  etc. — 
The  streets  of  ancient  Rome  were  crooked 
and  narrow,  the  city  having  been  rebuilt, 
after  its  destruction  by  the  Gauls  in  890 
B.O.,  with  great  haste  and  without  regard 
to  regularity.  The  dwelling-houses  wera 
often  verj  high,  those  of  the  poorar 
classes  being  in  flats,  as  in  modem  con- 
tinental towns.  It  was  greatly  improved 
by  Augustus,  who  extended  the  limits  of 
the  city  and  emtieliished  it  with  works 
of  splendor.  The  Campus  Martins  dur- 
ing nis  reign  was  gradually  covered  with 
public  buildings,  temples,  porticos,  the- 
ate««,  etc.  The  general  ciiaracter  of 
the  city,  howevar,  remained  much  the 
same  till  after  the  fire  that  took  place  in 
Nero's  reign,  when  the  new  streets  war* 
mad*  lK>th  wide  and-  straight.  In  the 
reign  of  Aagastus  the  population  la  bf 


Bom6 


Komt 


litvfld  to  hire  amounttd  to  aboat  1,800.- 
000,  tad  in  that  of  Trajan  waa  not  far 
short  of  2,000.000.    Rome  ia  said  to  hays 
baan  aurroundcd  by  walls  at  tbrca  dlSer- 
mt     tlmao.    The    flrat    of    thesa    was 
ascribed  to  Romulus,  and  tneloaed  only 
tha  original  city  on  tba  Palatine.  ,Tha 
second  wall,  attributed  to  Berriua  Talliua, 
was  7  miles  in  circuit,  and  embraced  all 
the  hills  that  gave  to  Rome  the  name  of 
the  City  of  Seven  Hills.    The  third  wall 
is    known    as    that    of    Aurellan,    be- 
cause it  was  begun  and  in  great  port 
finished  by  the  emperor  of  that  name. 
It  ia  mostly  the  same  with  the  wall  that 
still  bounds  the  city  on  the  left  or  eaat 
bank  of  the  Tiber;  but  on  the  right  or 
west   bank,    the   wall   of   Aurellan   em- 
braced only  the  summit  of  the  Janiculum 
and  a  district  between  it  and  the  river, 
whereaa  the  more  modem  wall  on  that 
side  (that  of  Urban  VIII),  embracea  also 
the  Vatican  Hill.    The  wall  of  Aurellan 
waa  about   11   miles   in  length,  that  of 
modem  Rome  is  14  miles.    Ancient  Rome 
had  eight  or  nine  bridges  across  the  Tiber, 
of  which  several  still  stand.    The  open 
spaces  in  ancient  Rome,  of  which  there 
were  a  great  number,  were  distinguished 
into   oampt,    areas   covered    with   grass; 
/oro,    which   were   paved;    and    area,   a, 
term   applied   to   open   spaces   generally, 
and  hence  to  all  those  which  were  neither 
campi  nor  fcro,  such  as  the  squorea  In 
front   of   palaces   aud    temples.    Of   the 
oampi    the    most    celebrated     was     the 
Campus  Martlus,  already  mentioned,  and 
after  it  the  Campui   Esquilinus,  on  the 
east  of  the  city.    Among   the  roro  the 
Foram  Romanum,  w'lich  lay  northwest 
and   southeast,    betwfion    the    Capltoline 
and  Palatine  Hills;  i.>Dd  the  Forum  of 
Trajan,     between     the     Capitoline    and 

?uirinal,  are  the  most  worthy  of  mention, 
he  first  was  the  most  famous  and  the 
second  the  most  splendid  of  them  all. 
The  great  central  street  of  the  city  was 
the  Via  Sacra  (Sacred  Way),  which 
began  in  the  space  between  the  Esquiline 
and  Celian  hills,  proceeded  thence  first 
southwest,  then  west,  then  northwest, 
skirting  the  northeast  slope  of  the  Pala- 
tine, and  passing  along  the  north  side  of 
the  Forum,  and  terminated  at  the  base 
.f  the  Capitoline.  The  two  principal 
roads  leading  out  of  Rome  were  the  Via 
Flaminia  (Flaminian  Way)  or  great 
north  road,  and  the  Via  Appia  (Appian 

■  Way)  or  great  south  road 

\  Ancient  BuiUinfft.— Aaclmt  Rome 
was  adorned  with  a  vast  nuipbar  of 
splendid  baildinfa,  including  temples, 
palaces,  pnblic  balls,  theaters,  amphi- 
theaten,  hatha,  portlcoa,  monuments. 
•tCn  of  many  of  which  we  can  now  fimn 


only  a  very  impwrfsct  IdeiL  Tb«  cM««t 
and  moat  sacred  tanpla  was  that  of  Japl- 
ter  Oapltollons,  on  tba  CapitolfaM  Hni. 
Tha  Pantheon,  a  templa  of  ▼ariona  foda 
(now  church  ol  S.  Maria  Rotooda) ,  ia  atlll 
in  excellent  praaanration.  It  ia  a  graat 
circular  building  with  a  dmso-nof  of 
stone  140  feet  wide  and  14}  feet  bliA,  a 
marvel  of  construction,  being  2  feat 
widor  than  tha  great  dome  of  Bt  Patera. 
Thi  interior  ia  lighted  by  a  aingla  aper- 
ture in  the  center  of  the  dome.  (8m 
Pantheon.)  Other  templea  wara  tha 
Temple  of  Apollo,  which  Augaatua  bnllt 
of  white  marble,  on  the  Palatina,  con- 
taining a  splendid  library,  which  served 
as  a  plaee  of  resort  to  the  pcets:  tha 
Temple  of  Minerva,  which  Pompey  built 
in  the  Campua  Martina,  and  whidi  Au- 
gustus covered  with  bronse:  the  Tonple 
of    Peace,    once    the    richest    and   noat 


beautiful  temple  in  Rome  built  by  Vef 
p&sian,    in    the    Via    Sacra,    which   «»- 
tained    the   treasures   of    the   temple   of 
Jerusalem,  a  splendid  library,  and  other 
curiosities,   but   was   burned   under   the 
reign  of  Commodus;  the  temple  of  the 
Sun,  which  Aurelian  erected  to  the  eaat 
of    the    Quirinal;    and    the    magnificent 
temple  of  Venus,  which  Cesar  caused  to 
be  built  to  her  as  the  origin  of  his  fam- 
ily.   The    principal    palace    of    ancimt 
Rome    was    the    Palatiunt,    or    imperial 
palace,  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  a  private 
dwelling-house  enlarged   and  ad(q>ted  tm 
the     imperial     residence     by     Augutna. 
Succeeding  emperors  extended  and  beau- 
tified it.    Nero  built  an  immense  palace 
which  was  burned  in  the  great  fire.    He 
began  to  replace  it  by  another  of  almilar 
extent,  which  waa  not  completed  till  the 
reign  of  Domitian.    Among  the  theatera, 
those  of  Pompey,  Cornelius  Balbus,  and 
Marcellus  were  the  most  celebrated.  That 
of  Pompey,  in  the  Campus  Martina,  waa 
capable  of  containtag  40.000  persons.  Of 
the  Theater  of  Marcellus.  completed  B.C. 
13  a  portion  still   remains.     The  moat 
magnificent    of    the    amphitheaters    waa 
that  of  Titus,   completed   AJ>.   80,  now 
known   as   the   Coliseum   or   Colossenm 
(which    see).    Although    only    one-third 
of    the   gigantic    stnicture   remains,   the 
ruins  are  still  stupendous.     The  princi- 
pal of  the  circuses  was  the  Circue  lfa#i- 
mua,   betweoi    the   Palatine  and   Avan- 
tine,   which   waa  capable   of  containing 
260,000   spectators.    With   slight  excep- 
tion its  walls  have  entirely  dliiappearMl. 
but  its  form  ia  atill  diatinctly  traceable. 
(See   Circne.)    The   portlcoa   or   colon- 
nadea,  which  were  pnblic  placea  u"«d  for 
recreation  or  for  the  tranaaction  of  btw- 
neaa,  were  numerous  in  the  ancient  city, 
aa  were  atoo  the  baalUcaa  or  public  haw 


I 


{9m  JmWm.)    AaMf  then  ,Bwy  U 
aetod  tk«  ■nlwMdnMilira  Jalla, 
by  OiMr  ■ 


. tad  cMi^«t«d  by  A*- 

gvitM;  tad  tbt  BmIUcs  Porcto.  wblcb 
WM  bollt  by  Cato  Um  etuor.  Im  pub- 
Iks  batba  or  tktrnm  is  Bon*  wtrt  abo 
vary  aamtroiu.  Th«  ianrnt  wtf*  IM 
Tbwwi  oi  Titos,  pan  «f  tb«  rabttrue- 
tart  ot  wbkrb  nay  atill  ba  aaaa  on  tbt 
■aqaiUaa  Hill :  tha  Tbama  of  Oaracalla. 
•TW  tefftr,  MteaalTt  rtaialaa  o(  wblcb 
•tin  tsiat  la  tha  aoatbciat  of  tht  dty; 
aad  tba  Tbcraui  of  OioeUtlaa,  tho  lar- 
faat  aad  noat  awcalflccat  of  all.  jwrt  of 
wbkb  ia  coarartad  lato  a  eburcb.  Of 
tba  triumpbal  arcbca  tba  moat  ealabratad 
an  tboaa  of  TItua  (a.d.  81),  SaTtrua 
Uj>.  MS),  aad  Coostaatiaa  (▲.o.  811), 
all  ia  or  aaar  tba  Forum  and  all  wall* 
praawrad  atructnraa;  tbat  of  Druaua  (a. 
a  8),  ia  tba  Applaa  Way,  mucb  muti* 
latad:  tbat  of  Qallienua  lx.v.  262)  on 
tba  Baouilina  Hill,  in  a  degraded  atyla 
•f  aiebltecture.  Among  tbe  columna  tba 
■aat  beautiful  waa  Tndan'a  Pillar  in  tbe 
Forum  of  Trajan,  117  feet  in  beigbt,  atlll 
ataadinr  Tba  baa-reliefa  with  whicb  it 
la  anridiad,  axtanding  in  spiral  fashion 
from  baaa  to  anmmit,  represent  the  ex- 
ploits of  Trajaa,  and  contain  about  2B00 
balf  and  wbola  auman  figures.  A  flight 
of  ati.ira  witbia  tbe  pillar  leada  to  the 
top.  Tbe  moat  celebrated  of  the  ancient 
aawera  ia  the  Cto4«a  ifsaima,  aacribed 
to  Tarquiniua  Priacus,  a  most  substan- 
tial structure,  the  outlet  of  which  is 
still  to  be  seen.  The  Roman  aqueducts 
wart  formed  by  erecting  one  or  aeverai 
rcwa  of  archea  auperimpoaed  on  each 
other  aeroaa  a  ▼aller.  and  making  the 
atmcture  aupport  a  waterway  or  canal, 
and  by  piercing  through  hUla  which  in- 
termpteo  the  watercourae.  Some  of 
them  broucht  water  from  a  distance  of 
upwards  of  00  miles.  Among  others,  tbe 
Aoffna  jPooIa,  the  Aci>«a  IZra/'ana.  and 
tba  A«ff«a  ifarsjo,  stiL  remain,  and  con- 
tribute to  the  aupply  of  the  city,  and 
alao  its  numerous  important  ornamental 
fenntaiaa.  Among  tbe  magnificent  sepul- 
ebral  monuments,  tbe  chief  were  the 
aaansoleum  of  Augustus  in  the  Campus 
Uartlua;  and  that  of  Hadrian,  on  the 
waat  bank  of  '.be  Tiber,  now  tbe  fortress 
of  mo^m  Home,  and  known  as  the 
Oaatia  of  St  Angelo.  The  city  waa  also 
rich  in  aplendid  private  buildings,  and 
in  tbe  treaaurea  of  art,  with  which  not 
imly  the  poblic  places  and  streets,  but 
likawiae  tne  reaidencea  and  gardena  of 
tba  principal  citixens,  were  ornamented, 
.a^  of  which  comparatively  few  veatigea 
hart  anrvived  the  ravages  of  time  Tbe 
eataoombs  of  Rome  are  subterraaeai. 
calVMries    which    were    used    aa    burial- 


plaeaa  aad  maatlag-placea,  eblafly  by  tba 
aarly  Cbrlatlaaa,  aai  which  axtaad  aadar 
tba  city  itaalf  aa  wall  aa  tba  aalf  kboriae 
cauatry.  Tba  chM  art  tba  cattcaiba  of 
Okilataa;  of  Itliatastotaa  «■  tba  Via 
^ia;  of  St.  Pilaeilla,  8  aiilaa  bayoad 
tbt  PorU  Balora:  of  St  Agaaaa.  out- 
aide  tba  Porto  Pla;  9I  »t  Babattlaaek 
btnaatb  tbt  cbnreb  of  that  aaats  ate. 
(See  CafaooMka.) 

Moitm  Jtoma,  Oaneral  Ffimrm. —  It 
waa  not  till  tbe  aaventeeath  century  that 
tba  modem  city  waa  attended  to  ita 
preaent  limita  on  the  right  bank  by  a 
wall  built  under  the  poutifleataa  of 
Urtan  VIII  (1628-44)  and  Inaocaat  X 
(,1044-00),  and  inclosing  both  tba 
Jaaiculum  and  tba  Vaticaa  billa.  Tba 
boundary  wall  on  tbe  left  or  eaat  bank 
of  tbe  river  followa  tba  same  Una  aa  tbat 
traced  by  Aurelian  in  the  third  century, 
and  must  in  numy  parts  ba  identical  with 
the  original  structure.  Tbe  walls  on 
both  baaka  are  built  of  brick,  with  oc< 
caaional  portiona  of  atone  won,  and  on 
the  outaide  are  about  68  faat  high.  Tba 
jneater  part  datea  from  A.D.  271  to  276w 
The  city  ia  entered  by  twelve  cataa  (aavt 
oral  of  thoae  of  earlier  data  Miag  now 
walled  up)  and  aeverai  railway  aocaaaea. 
Sinop  Rome  became  the  capital  of  united 
Italy  great  changee  have  taken  place  in 
the  appearance  of  tbe  city,  many  miles 
of  new  atreets  being  built,  and  muel' 
done  in  the  way  of  paving,  drainage,  and 
other  improvementa.  It  baa  thua  loat 
much  of  Ita  ancient  picturesque  appaa^ 
ance,  and  ia  rapidly  acquiring  tbe  look 
of  a  great  modem  city,  with  wide, 
straight  streets  of  uniform-looking  tene- 
ments  liaving  little  distinctive  cbaractei^ 
It  is  still,  nowever,  replete  witb  ever- 
varying  and  pleasing  prospects.  Tbe  ex- 
tensive exca vatic  la  recently  carried  out 
have  laid  at  last  completely  bare  the 
remaina  of  many  of  the  grandeat  monu- 
ments of  ancient  Rome,  notably  tbe 
whole  of  Forum  Romanum  and  tba  Via 
Sacra,  tlie  remaina  of  the  Tonplaa  of 
Saturn  and  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  tbe 
Templea  of  Veapaaian,  of  Antoninua 
and  Fauatina,  the  Temple  of  Veata,  etc. 
A  great  number  of  villas  and  palacea  and 
countleaa  worka  of  art  have  been  brought 
to  liftbt  The  villa-gardena,  which  have 
been  for  agea  a  distinctive  feature  of 
Rome,  are  rapidly  diaappearing,  and  are 
being  covered  witb  tenement  bouaea,  and 
new  suburbs  are  springing  up  on  every 
aide.  There  are  seven  Bridgea  aeroaa  the 
Tiber  within  the  city.  Several  of  tbeae 
have  been  erected  aince  tba  occupation 
of  Roma  by  the  Italian  govtmmtat  and 
othera  are  in  eonatruetioa.  A  vast 
scbesM  af  rivar  taihaakaiaat  baa  baea 


^rM.mft  to  jm«t  ^^ ^^I^^H^ 


ffrt■  of  tk«  dty  (roa  bdng 
femar  tlmM.  .  .. 

prlDcliMl  rtrfeto  ■od  tqiMrtt  ol  nodcra 
Bon*  an  tht  PI«k*  M   Popolo,  Im- 
mtdUttly  withiD   tli«  Porto,  d«l  Popoto 
OB  tlM  north  aidt  of  tht  city  n«»r  th« 
TIbar,  with  a  floa  ^Egyptian  obellak  In 
ita  canter,  and  two  handaoma  cburcbn  in 
front,  atondinf  ao  far  apart  from  each 
otbtr  and  from  tha  adjoining  buildinga 
M  to  laaTt  room  for  tha  dl»arf*nc«  af 
thiaa    principal    atreata.     tha     Via    d 
Rlpatto,    tha^rao    ud    tha    Via    del 
BabulBO.    Tha   Corao,   recently   widened 
and  extended,  atretchca  for  npwarda  of  a 
Bile  In  a  direct  line  to  Ite  termination 
at  tha  Piaaaa  dl  Venesia,  not  far  from 
tha  Oapitol.  and  la  the  «"«•»•*"•*•», 
the  dtr.    The  appearance  of  the  Capitol 
hS!^  taM^  entlra^  altered  to  wnnlt  the 
oraction  of  a  monument  to  Victor  Km- 
mannel.    Tha  VU  del  Babttlno  proceeda 
flrat  directly  to  the  Piaawi  di  Bpagna, 
the^  to  tfie  Qulrlnal,  and  by  a  tunnel 
opana  out  on  the  Bequiline.     It  containa 
a    lane    number    of    handaome    ediflcea. 
The  whole  of  the  city  to  the  eaat  of  thia 
atreet.   and  In   tha  triangular  apace  in- 
"X^  between  It  and  the  Corw.  la  well 
aired  and  healthy,  and  ^fef'^^ed  •■  t^ 
ariatocratic    quarter.    The     Ghetto,     or 
Jewa'    quarter,    which    occupied   aeveral 
mMn  itreeu  parallel   to  the  river  and 
connected  by  narrow  lanea,  waa  beared 
i^y  St  thi  municipal  i?>Pr>'«»«»**j5 
1^    The  city    la   aupplled   with  .good 
JSiV  ?5rtlJ "  y    the    abojre-mentloned 
aanadncth  which,  conatructed  under  tha 
«5SueatdlfficultlW  ftva-and-twanty   cen- 
t^«  ago,  atill  aerre   the  puipoae  for 
wmS  they  were  built,  and  renato  monu- 
mSS   of   OTglneering    akill.    Tbe^chlef 
SSapacea  bSiidea  tfe  Piaaaa  del  Popolo 
STtSTpiaaaa  S.  PIctro,  with  Ita  ax- 
teMlvV  colonnade;   the   Piaaaa   NaTona. 
adorned   with   two   churchea   and    thraj 
fountoina,   one    at   each    extremity   ana 
the  Slxrf  in  the  center:  the  Piaaaa  dJ 
gpagna.  adorned  by  a  monnioantol  pillar 

Plana  Goloima.  in  tha  center  of  ,  tha 
dtTTwith  eSmam  of  Maicoa  AonUoa: 
B«ar  it.  hk  ^  Fiaza  di  Monte  Citorfa. 
bi  tha^adooa  CMmbar  of  Dtpnttoa. 
Larger  qiaoaa  for  amtUMBaBt  or  axeieuia 
hsTO  bamformedto  only  a  f»w  apote. 
Ona  of  tha  toaot.ia^thrPtoc«-^  •»  'b 
•f  futew,'  ovaflooUiig  tka 


lo,   aad  ooaunaadlnf  a  too  **J5. 
!t  b  a  taaUuMMa  drive  towaria  avaptatt 


uHrt'i 


•ad  praaaate  a  gay  and  aataatad  •»• 
pMiaoMT  At  a1£ort  dlatoaoa  eutalii 
iha  walte  OB  the  north  of  the  dw  to 
tha  Villa  Borgbaaa.  '«™J5«  •,,*3^: 
phwtad  and  richly-dacpratad  park  of  • 
SilSa  In  dreolt.  whkh.  tho«|h  private 
property,  forma  tha  true  public  park  af 
Rome,  and  la  the  favorite  reaort  of  aU 
clawed  Varloua  localltiea  Inland  mm 
Rome  that  were  malariona  kava  bai« 
rendered  baalthy  by  planting  aocalyptoa 

"c*an>»««,  •♦••-Tha jnoat  raijjfrtaWa 
of  theaa  to,  of  couiaa.  the  «tlMdraloC  Bt 
Peter,  the  torgeat  and  meat  tojpaotof  to 
ba  found  anywhere,  for  *•»•  W»to»?  "* 
deacrlption  of  which  aee  '•*ff«,Jf*>; 
Another   remarkabte  church   to  uat  M 

Ban  Giovanni  in  Lato«*««>i,«"-*» '*'!uV 
apoi  near  the  eouth  wall  of  tha  dty. 
It  waa  built  by  Conatentlne  the  Great, 
daatroyed  by  an  earthqua-e  in  Bigi  »• 

^tel  (»M:*">;J''rtn'X**'5.S 

atored  and  d  corated  by  Giotto.    Anin 
bunied  in  18«0.  It  waa  rebuilt  by  ^Un 
IV  and  Gregory  XI,  and  h"  "«'«12»* 
varloua   alteratlona   and   addltlona   trom 
1480  till  the  preaent  facade  waa  aracteo 
in    1734.    A   modem   extenaion   haa  In- 
volved the  deatructlon  of  the  ancient  apaa. 
From  the  central  balcony  the  pope  pro- 
nouncea    hto    benediction    on    Aaconqoa 
Day;  and  the  church  U  the  acana  of  Oo 
cowdla    which    bear    Ite    nam*    Tha 
realdenca    of    the    popea    adjotaad    ftto 
church  until  the  migration  to  AvVMii , 
It   to   now   occupied   by   tha   Oraconui 
Muaeum  of  tha  Lateran.    Santa  Mam 
Magglora,  which  ranka  third  aadMOg  tha 
SaaSTwaa  founded  by  Popa  Ub*^^ 
(862-8(96),    but    has    ataica^  had    toMaj 
alteratlona  and  additiona,  tha  mora  not- 
ahto  being  thoae  of  the  «ftaanUi  aBdri^ 
teenth   centuriea.    Ite    Interior,    adonM 
with   tblrty-aix,   Ionic   P«tora   of    whito 
marble  aupporting  the  nave,  and  enrtched 
with  moaaica,  to  w«     P'*«'V1*>  •^iS! 
of  tha  toeat  of  ite  ctoaa.  ^BMta  Oroca 
in  Geroaalemme.  the  fourth  «'  tJll  % 
man  baailicaa,  takea  ite  name  from  ite 
anppoaad  poaaaadon  of  a  portion  of  the 
trie  aSa,  widiquantity  of  earth  whlA 
waa  broodit  from  Jwuaalem.and  mlxaa 
^h  iSXndatlon.    Other  churg-wa 
tboaa  of  San  Clemente.  on  the  "j^Wa, 
a  very  andent  church,  aaid  *«  bava  bMB 
foonM  on  the  hoaae  of  <3«B«it,  Bt 
ftSI^T  fellow-laborer,    by    Oonateattie. 
and  coataiaiiig  a  number  of  tot««"V"f 
f^c^  by  Haaacda    "  ««?^g^'J 
lower  ai^  an  nraar  diorAaid  ftoj  •■ 
aidimologleal  pobt  of  ^tow  to  omm 
^^^^^^^^IStuS^t  In  Roma.    II  ««* 


Aooie 


Borne 


on  tb«  Cono,  the  principal  church  of  the 
Joraits,  with  a  facade  and  cupola  by 
OUcomo  della  Porta  (1677),  and  an  in- 
terior  enriched  with  the  rarest  marbles 
and  seTeral  fine  paintings,  decorated  in 
tlie  most  gorgeous  style,  and  containing 
the  monument  of  Cardinal  Bellannine; 
8ta.  Maria-degli-Angeli,  originally  a  part 
of  Diocletian's  Baths,  converted  into  a 
church  by  Michael  Angelo,  one  of  the 
most  imposing  which  Rome  possesses, 
and  containing  an  altar-piece  by  Ma- 
siano,  a  fine  fresco  by  Domenichino,  and 
the  tomb  of  Salvator  Rosa;  Sta.  Maria 
in  Ara  Coeli,  on  the  Capitoline,  a  very 
ancient  church  approached  by  a  very 
long  flight  of  stafrs,  remarkable  for  its 
architecture  and  for  containing  the  figure 
of  the  infant  Christ  called  the  aantiaaime 
bambino  (see  Bambino)  ;  Sta.  Maria  in 
Cosmedin,  at  the  northern  hase  of  the 
Aventine,  remarlcable  for  its  fine  Alex- 
andrine pavement  and  its  lofty  and  beau- 
tiful campanile  of  the  eighth  century; 
Sta.  Maria  sopra'  Minerva,  so  culled 
from  occupying  the  site  of  a  temple  of 
that  goddess,  begun  in  1285  and  restored 
1818-65,  remarkable  as  the  only  Gothic 
church  in  Rome;  bta.  Maria  in  Dominica 
or  della  Navicella,  on  the  Celian,  Is  re- 
muricable  for  eighteen  fine  columns  of 
granite  and  two  of  porphyry,  and  the 
frieze  of  the  nave  painted  in  camaieu  by 
Oiulio  Romano  and  Perino  del  Vaga. 
Among  other  notable  churches  are  Sta. 
Maria  della  Pace,  celebrated  for  its 
paintings,  particularly  the  four  Sibyls, 
cooridered  among  the  most  perfect  works 
of  Raphael;  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  in- 
teresting from  the  number  of  its  fine 
sculptures  and  paintings  (Jonah  by 
Raimael,  ceiling  frescoes  hy  finturicchio, 
and  mosaics  from  Raphael's  cartoons  by 
Aloisio  della  Pace)  ;  Sta.  Maria  in 
Trastevere,  a  very  ancient  church,  first 
mentioned  in  449,  re-erected  by  Innocent 
III  in  1140,  and  recently  restored;  San 
Paolo  fuori  le  Mura,  erected  to  mark 
the  place  of  St  Paul's  martyrdom, 
founded  in  388,  and  restored  and  em- 
bellished by  many  of  the  popes,  burned 
in    1823,   and   since   rebuilt    with   much 

3l>lendor.  It  is  of  great  size,  and  has 
ouble  aisles  and  transepts  borne  by 
columns  of  granite.  Above  the  columns 
of  the  nave,  aisles,  and  transepts  there  is 
a  continuous  frieze  enriched  by  circular 
pictures  in  mosaic,  being  portraits  of  tbfa 
popes  from  St.  Peter  onwards,  each  6 
feet  In  diameter.  Between  the  windows 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  nave  are  large 
aadem  pictures  representing  scenes 
fram  the  life  of  St  Paul. 

Palaoe$,    PJofMre-floilenM,     etc. —  The 
Vatiean,  adjajajng  St  Peter's,  comprises 


the  old  and  new  palaces  of  the  popes 
(the  latter  now  the  ordinary  papal  resi- 
dence), the  Sistine  chapel,  the  Loggia 
and  Stanze,  containing  some  of  the  most 
important  works  of  Raphael,  the  picture- 
gallery,  the  museums  (Pio-Clementino, 
Chiaramonti,  Etruscan  and  Egyptian), 
and  the  library  (220,000  vols,  and  over 
25.000  MSS.).  (See  Vatioan.)  The 
palace  on  the  Quirinal  was  formerly  a 
favorite  summer  residence  of  the  popes, 
but  is  now  occupied  by  the  King  of 
Italy.  (See  gutrinal.)  The  Palazzo 
della  Caiicelleria  is  the  only  palace  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  still  occupied 
by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The 
building  was  designed  by  Bramante,  and 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  Rome.  A  series 
of  palaces  crowns  the  summit  of  the 
Capitol,  and  surrounds  the  Piazza  del 
Campidoglio.  It  is  approached  from  the 
northwest  by  a  flight  of  steps,  at  t^  a 
foot  of  which  two  Egyptian  lions,  and 
at  the  summit  two  colossal  statues  of 
Castor  and  Pollux  standing  beside  their 
horses,  are  conspicuous.  In  the  center 
of  the  piazza  is  a  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (161-181). 
On  the  southeast  side  of  the  piazza  is 
the  Senatorial  Palace,  in  which  the 
senate  holds  its  meetings.  The  build- 
ing also  contains  the  oflSces  of  the  munic- 
ipal administration  and  an  observatory. 
Its  farade  was  constructed  by  Giacomo 
della  Porta,  under  the  direction,  it  is 
said,  of  Michael  Angelo.  On  the  south- 
west side  of  the  piazza  is  the  palace  of 
the  Conservatori,  containing  a  collection 
of  antique  sculpture,  including  objects 
of  art  discovered  during  the  recent  ex- 
cavations and  a  gallery  of  pictures.  Op- 
posite is  the  museum  of  the  Capitol,  with 
interesting  objects  of  ancient  sculpture 
and  a  picture-gallerr.  Among  private 
palaces  may  be  noted  the  Palazzo  Bar- 
berinij  on  the  Quirinal,  with  a  collection 
of  paintings.  The  library  attached  to  ife 
has  numerous  valuable  MSSm  with  some 
other  literary  curiosities.  The  Palazzo 
Borghese,  begun  in  1690,  has  a  fine  court 
surrounded  by  lofty  arcades,  but  is: 
chiefly  celebrated  for  its  picture-gallery,, 
containing  the  Aldobrandi  Marriage  and 
some  other  works  of  great  renown.  The 
Palazzo  Colonna  has  a  picture-gallery 
and  a  beautiful  garden  containing  several 
remains  of  antiquity.  The  Palano  Co»- 
sini  has  a  picture-gallery  and  garden, 
and  a  collection  of  MSS.,  and  printed 
books  of  great  value.  The  Palaizo  Far- 
nese,  one  of  the  finest  in  Rome,  was  Iwiilfe 
under  the  direction  of  Aatonio  da  San- 
gallo,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Giacomo  dellav 
Porta  in  succession.  The  celebrated  an- 
tiquities it  once  contained  (Farwpe  Bu)k, 


Eome 


HcrculM,  Flora,  etc.),  «•  now  In  tiie 
MoMum  of  NaplMk  The  Palano  Ro«pif- 
llosl,  trected  in  1603,  conuliu  •ome 
valuablt  art  treaaum;  among  otnen,  <hi 
the  ceiling  of  a  casino  in  the  garden  ia 
the  celebrated  fresco  of  Aurora  by  Guido. 
Villa  Ludovial,  situated  in  the  north  of 
the  city,  the  ancient  gardens  of  Sallust, 
contains  a  valuable  collection  of  ancient 
sculptures.  Villa  Farneslna,  on  the  right 
bank,  contains  Raphael's  charming  crea- 
tions illustrative  of  the  myth  of  Cupid 

and  Pysche.  ^.     ...        *.. 

Educational  Inatttuttont,  ChartUe$,  etc. 
—  Among    educational    institutions    the 
6rst  place  is  claimed  by  the  university, 
founded   in   1303.    The  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  university  was  the  time  of 
heo  X  (1613-22),  under  whom  the  build- 
ing still  occupied  by  it  was  begun.    At- 
tached to  the  university  are  an  anatom- 
ical and  a  chemical  theater,  and  cabineU 
of  physics,  mineralogy,  and  zoology,  aa 
also  botanic  gardens  and  an  astronomical 
observatory.    The  university  is  attended 
by    about    1000   students.    The   CoUegio 
Romano,  formerly  a  Jesuit  college,  now 
contains  the  Archseological  Museum  and 
the   recently   established   library,   Bib  lo- 
teca       Vittorio       Emanuele  —  consisting 
mostly  of  the  old  library  of  the  Jesuits, 
augmented  by  the  libraries  of  supprewed 
moMster^   (about  500,000  vols.^    The 
Collegio    de    Propaganda    Fide    ha»    *c- 
auired  great  celebrity  as   the  establwh- 
ment  where  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
are    trained.     (See    Fropaganda.)     The 
Accademia  di  San  Luca,.for  the  promo- 
tion   of   the   fine    arts,    is   composed   of 
painters,    sculptors,   and   architects,    and 
was  founded  in  1595,  and  reorgan-zed  in 
1874.    Connected  with  it  are  a  picture- 
callery    and    schools    of    the    fine    arts. 
Other  associations  and  institutions  con- 
nected with  art,  science,  or  learning  are 
numerous;  one  of  them,  the  Accademia 
S?  Lincei,  founded  in   1603  by  Ga  ileo 
vind   his  contemporaries,   is   the   earliMt 
Ht-ientific   society   of    Italy.    Besides   t,he 
Vatican  and  Vittorio  Emanuele  libraries 
mentioned     above,     the     chief    are     the 
Biblioteca    Casanatense,    200,000    vos., 
the    Biblioteca   Angelica,    150,000    vota., 
the   Biblioteca    Barbenni,    100,000    vols, 
and  over  10.000  MSS.,  etc.     For  elemen- 
tary education  much  has  been  done  smce 
the  papal  rule  came  to  an  end.    Hospi- 
tals and  other  charitable  foundations  are 
numerous.    The  principal  hospital,  called 
Spirito  Santo,  a  richly-endowed  institu- 
tion situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,    combines    a    foundling    hospital 
(with  accommodation  for  3000),  a  lunatic 
asylum    (accommodation    for   oOp),    an 
croinary   iaflrauity    (accommodation  for 


BomA 

1000),  and  a  refuge  for  girls  .and  ag«d 
and  infirm  persons.  The  chief  tbMten 
are  the  Teatio  Apollo,  Teatro  AigtDtlM, 
Taatro  Valle,  the  Capranica,  Hetastaaio, 
Rossini,  Costanai,  etc. 

Trade  and  Manvfacturt*.—Th«  •«- 
temal  trade  Is  unimportant,  and  to  «*• 
ried  on  chiefly  by  rail,  the  Tiber  being 
navigated  only  by  small  ,«»'*•., There 
are   railway    lines   connecting   with   the 

feneral  system  of  Italy;  and  steamera 
rom  Clvlta  Vecchia  to  Naples.  Leg- 
horn, and  Genoa.  A  ship  camil  is  pro- 
jected to  connect  the  city  with  the  s«i, 
and  extensive  embankment  works  are  in 
progress  i--  prevent  Inundation  by  the 
Tiber.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
woolen  and  silk  goods,  artificial  flowers, 
earthenware.  Jewelry,  musical  strings, 
mosaics,  and  objects  of  art  The  trade 
is  chiefly  in  these  articles,  and  in  olive- 
oil,  pictures,  and  antiqultiea. 

Hxttory. —  The     ancient     history      of 
Rome  has  already  been  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding   article.    From    the    dowinfall    of 
the  empire  its  history  is  mamly  Identified 
with  that  of  the  papacy.     (See  Poptt, 
Papal    States,     Italy.)     An     Important 
event  in  Its  history  was  Its  capture  and 
Back  by  the  troops  of  the  Constable  of 
Bourbon   In    lo2f.     In    1798   Rome   was 
occupied  by  the  French,  who  stripped  the 
palaces,  chunbes,  and  convents  of  many 
works  of  art  and  objects  of  value.    Pope 
Pius  VI  was  taken  prisoner  to  France, 
where  he  aoon   afterwards  died,  and   a 
Roman   republic  was   set  up.     In   lo4o 
Pope  Pius  IX  was  drivoi   from  Rome, 
and    another    Roman    republic    formed 
under  Mazslnl  and  Garibaldi.    A  French 
army  was  sent  to  the  pope's  assistance, 
and  after  a  determined  resistance  Rome 
was   captured   by   the   French   in   July, 
1840.    and    the   pope    returned    and    re- 
sumed  his   power  under  the   protection 
of  French  bayonete  (April,  18&).  ^e 
rule  of  the  pope  continued  till  Oct.  lo/"- 
when  Rome  was  occupied  by  the  Italian 
troops   on   the  downfall   of   the   French 
empire,  and  In  June,  1871,  the  'Eternal 
City '  became  the  capital  of  united  Italy. 
The  king  took  up  his  residence  in   the 
Quirinal;  and  to  accommodate  the  legis- 
lature  and    various    public   departments 
numerous  conventual  establishments  were 
expropriated.    The     population     of     the 
city   has   of   late   vastly    increased.     In 
1870  it  was  226.022:  in  1911.  542,m. 
"DAmA   a    city,    county    seat   of    JJloya 
JLOme,  Q^^  (Siorgia,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Oostanaula,  Etowah  and  Coosa  nvers, 
72  miles  N.  of  Atlanta.     It  is  a  large 
cotton-shipping  center  and  has  Irwi  tona- 
driea.  brl<*  yards,  cotton  and  oil  mlB* 
etc.    Pop.  iSfiOO. 


Borne 


Xomvlni 


Hftnifk  •  city  and  om  of  th«  coonty 
AOme,  ,e,t,'of  Oneida  Co.,  Naw  York, 
on  the  Mohawk  River  and  the  Erie  Canal, 
15  mllea  K.  w.  of  Utiea.  It  haa  large  and 
varied  indaatries,  indttdini  manufactures 
of  maddnery,  iron,  and  buildera*  wood- 
work, copper  and  copper  producta,  metal- 
lic hada,  etc.  It  ia  the  aeat  of  several 
state  and  other  institutions.  Pop. 
23,000. 

Hikmfnrd  (rom'fard),  an  ancient 
AOmiOm  i„krt-town  in  Bssez.  Eng- 
land, is  situated  on  the  Bom,  about  12 
mUes  >.  N.  E.  of  London.  It  is  celebrated 
for  Its  ale,  and  is  surrounded  by  market- 
nrdens.    Pop.   (1911)   16,972. 

Momxiiy  gQ  English  lawyer,  bom  in 
1767;  died  in  1818.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1783,  and  gradually  rose  to 
be  leader  in  the  Court  of  Chancery. 
In  1806  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of 
Durham,  and  next  year  be  became 
solicitor-general  under  Fox  and  Orenville, 
though    he    had    not    previously    sat    in 

erliament  At  the  same  time  he  was 
ighted.  When  his  partv  went  out  of 
oflce  he  remained  in  parliament,  where 
he  became  diatioguisbed  by  bis  talent  in 
debate,  and  particularlv  by  the  eloauence 
with  which  he  urged  the  amelioration  of 
tha  cmel  and  barbarous  penal  code 
which  then  prevailed.  His  efforts, 
though  not  attended  with  great  success 
during  his  life,  certainly  hastened  the 
Jnat  and  necessary  reforms  which  subse- 
quently were  effected,  and  entitle  him  to 
the  name  of  a  great  and  merciful  re- 
former. Sir  Samuel  Bomilly  was  at  the 
height  of  popularity  and  reputation, 
when,  in  •  fit  of  temporary  insanity, 
caused  by  grief  at  his  wife's  death,  he 
committed  suicide  in  November,  1818. 

Eommany.  see  o»p.fe#. 

lamriA-ir  (rom'ni),  Geobob,  an  Eng- 
.KOnmey  j-^,,  pointer,  bom  near  Itel- 
ton,  in  Lancashire,  in  1784;  died  at 
Kmdal  in  1802.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
carpenter,  and  at  first  worked  at  his 
father'a  trade,  but  he  afterwards  was 
apprenticed  to  an  itinerant  artist  ramed 
Steele,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-three 
began  the  career  of  a  painter.  After  a 
certain  amount  of  local  success  he  went 
to  LondMi  in  1762,  and  next  year  won 
«  prise  offered  by  the  Society  of  Art 
for  ft  historical  composition.  He  steadily 
roaa  in  popularity,  and  was  finally  recoil 
nlied  as  inferior  only  to  Reynolds  and 
OaiariMrough  aa  a  portrait-painter;  some 
critics  even  placed  him  higher  than  either. 
Many  distinguished  Englishmen  and 
■any  ladies  of  rank  sat  to  him  for  their 
po/tcaits;  but  perhaps  the  most  baaati- 


tal  of  his  aitters  was  Emma  Hart,  after* 
wards  Lady  Hamilton,  whom  ha  de- 
(Acted  in  very  numeroua  characters. 
He  did  not  neglect  historical  or  im- 
aginative compositions,  and  he  contrib- 
uted aeveral  picturea  to  Boydell'a  fa- 
mous Shakespera  gallery,  founded  in 
1786.  Bomney  displaya  a  want  of  care- 
fulneaa,  and  defective  knowledge  of  anat- 
omy in  hia  historical  oompoaitions ;  but 
he  atonea  for  these  faulta  by  fine  color, 
a  subtle  sense  of  beauty,  and  by  hia 
originality.  Fine  examplea  of  hia  work 
command  high  pricea. 
'B^mii^'v  ^*w,  a  email  bat  ancient 
AOnmey)    ^^^  ^,  Enaland  In  Kent, 

one  of  the  Cinque  Porta,  formerly  on  tha 

coast,    but   now    some   distance   inland. 

Pop.  1833. 

llnTnnrfl.Titin    (ro-mo-riv-tao),    a 
JUimoranim    ^^^^  q,  Trance,  in  the 

department  of  Loir-et-Cher,  28  miles  s.  B. 
of  Blois,  has  manufacturea  of  woolen 
goods  and  parchment  Pop.  6886. 
1l/kTns*w  (rom'si),  a  municipal  bop> 
AOmsey  ^^^^^^  ^f  England,  Hampshire, 
on  the  Test  or  Anton,  8  miles  N.  w.  of 
Southampton,  with  a  fine  old  Norman 
church.    Pop.  4671. 

P/rni-nlnB  (  rom'a-lna),  the  mvthical 
JIOIIIIUIU  founder  and  first  king  of 
Bome.  The  legend  tells  us  that  his 
mother  was  the  Vestal  virgin,  Svlvia  or 
Ilia,  a  daughter  of  Numitor,  king  of 
Alba.  By  the  god  Mara  ahe  became  the 
mother  of  the  twina  Romulua  and  Bemus, 
who  were  ordered  by  Amulius,  the 
usurping  brother  of  Numitor,  to  be 
thrown  into  the  Anio.  The  basket  con- 
taining the  two  boys  waa  stranded  be- 
neath a  fig-tree  at  the  foot  of  the  Pala- 
tine Hill,  and  they  were  aockled  by  a 
she-wolf  and  fed  by  a  woodpecker,  nntil 
they  were  accidoitally  found  by  Fanstu- 
lus,  tha  king's  herdsman,  who  took 
them  home  and  educated  them.  When 
they  had  grown  up  they  organised  a 
band  of  enterprising  comrades,  by  whoM 
help  they  deposed  Amulius  and  reinstated 
Numitor  on  his  throne.  They  next  re- 
solved to  found  a  city,  but  as  they  dis- 
agreed aa  to  the  best  site  for  it,  they 
resolved  to  consult  the  omens.  The  de- 
cision was  In  favor  of  Romulus,  who 
immediately  began  to  raise  the  walls. 
This  is  said  to  have  happened  in  the 
year  758  (according  to  others  762  or 
761)  B.a  Bemus,  who  resented  his  de- 
feat, leaped  over  the  rude  rampart  ia 
scorn,  whereupon  Bomulua  alew  him. 
Romulus  soon  attracted  a  considerable 
number  of  men  to  his  new  city  by  mak- 
ing it  a  place  of  refnce  for  every  out- 
law or  broken  man.  ont  women  were 
atill  wanting.    Ha,  therefore,  invited  the 


Bomuliu  AngTutulns 


loot 


tebloM  with  their  wivM  and  ^nfbton 
to  a  rriifioua  fwUvai,  and  in  the  mldrt 
if  the  fUivitiet  he  and  hla  follower, 
raddsnly  attaclnd  the  anarmed  guents, 
Sdoarried  off  the  women  to  the  new 
city.  Thia  led  U-  a  war.  which  was. 
however,  ended  at  the  entreaties  of  the 
Sabine  wives,  and  the  two  sUtos  coa- 
lesced. Romulus  is  said  Anally  to  have 
miracalously  disappeared  in  a  thunder- 
stone    (B.O.  710).  ti,.i..f«# 

Bom'ttlns  Augrus'tnlus,  «»«?r"o! 

man  emperors  of  tiie  W«t  See  Bjme. 
ItAnalVlaliAV  (  ron'ald-shft  ) ,  WOBTH 
aoimiainay  ^^^  south,  respectively 
the  most  northerly  and  the  most  south- 
CTly  of  the  Orkne:  I»»"ds.  They  have 
smaU  popnUtions,  engaged  chiefly  in  tne 
cod  and  herring  fishery.  _.,.  ^»  _ 
EonoesvaUcs    ^TleylTstUS'Na' 

s'^rt^'s^^  t^r,?ro?  crnfiainr. 

imy  w  J  defeated  by  the  Q^'cmM  or 
Basques  in  778,  the  paladin  Roland 
being  killed.  Tradition  and  romance 
erroneously   ascribe    the   victory   to   tne 

T{«J[^io.linTie  (ron-ch«;y6'nl).  a 
AOnClgUOILe    ^^^n  itallan  town  m 

the  province   of   Rome,  35   miles   N.W. 

from    the    capital;    contains    «    Ro™*? 

triumphal  arch  and  a  nimcd  castle.    Pop. 

2^^«  (rftn'da),  a  town  of  Southern 
AOnoa  ^pain,  ii  Malaga  province,  40 
miles  west  of  Malaga,  romantically  situ- 
ated on  a  sort  of  rocky  promonto^  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  /^^  G?»f»''J2: 
which  flows  through  the  'Tajo/  a  deep 
^asm  Separating  the  old  Moori'sh  town, 
with  its  narrow  tortuous  lanes  and 
Moorish  towers,  from  *»»«."<«*!? 
floarter.  Over  this  ravine  there  are 
an  old  and  a  modem  bridge,  the  lat- 
ter about  600  feet  above  ,  the  water 
^nda  is  famous  Jo' Jts  bull-fighti,  for 
which  it  has  one  of  the  largest  bull-rings 
in  Spain.  It  has  manufactures  of  steel 
waresT  cloth,  etc..  and  is  celebrated  for 
its  fruits.    Pop.  20,90b; 

Eondeletia  ir^^^Hfilh^^^^- 

Slir;^"iSS  Kbi*  ^V  ii 

chiefly  in  tropical  America  and  the  Wert 
Indies.  A  kind  of  fever  bark  «•  obtained 
at  Sierra  Leone  from  BonMetia  f«M- 
hiaa.  A  perfume  sold  aa  rondeletia  takes 
its  name  from  this  plantj  bat  is  not  prt- 
pared  from  any  part  of  It 

of  airteen  lum,  nraallf  oetm^lla- 


bic  written  tbrooshout  on  two  rhyiMi 
luul  arranged  in  three  nn*)"^  "^S?^ 
while  the  two  or  three  first  wofda  Mj 
repeated  as  a  refrain  after  the  eighth  aad 
thirteenth  lines.    The  term  is  •!«) /J: 
plied  to  a  musical  composition,  vocal  ot 
instrumental,     tvmt^lj     coaslrtlng     flf 
three  strains,  the  flirt  of  »«»*«»»  «1<»"™ 
the  original  key,  while  each  of  ths  ot^» 
Is  so  constructed  hi  point  of  modulation 
as  to  reconduct  the  ear  in  an  Msy  and 
natural  manner  to  the  first  rtrain. 
■DXnn*     (r*n'ne).   chief   town   of   Uje 
*01ine    f>7;|,h  Ysland  of  Bomholnvls 
a  seaport  with  several  ship-buildtag  yitf^ 
a  merauBtile  fleet  and  considerable  trade. 
Pop.  9292.  .       ,     u       \     -   ..,-- 

Bonnebnig  iT^^.K' SSI 

some  manufactures.  .  POR,  oio*' 

Boniard  JSSS'JievSS^i«>i* 

died  in  158B.    At  the  age  of  twelve  he 

became  page  to  tiie  Doc*'§;^v'S 
in    1537^  he   accompanied   Jamas   V   M 
Scotland   and   hi»    "«>.«'    Madeleln,   of 
France,  back  to  their  kingdom.    He  atop 
sSit  eix  months  at  the  English  cogt 
and  after  bis  return  to  France  in  15« 
was  employed  in  a  diplomatic  capacity 
in    Germany.    Piedmont,    Flanders    ai^ 
Scotland.    He   was   ^mpelW,   howev«^ 
by  deafness  to  abandon  the  diploMttc 
cireer;  and  he  devoted  himself  to  litt»- 
ary  rtudies,  and  became  the  chief  o«  tt« 
band  of  seven  poets  afterwards  taown 
as   the  «Pi«iade.'    Ronsard's  popularity 
and  proiperity  during  his  life  were  wy 
nWt.    Hmry  II,  Francis  II.  and  Charles 
IX  esteemed  him,  and  the  lart  bMtowad 
several  abbacies  and  priories  on  the  poet. 
His  writings,  consisting  of  sonnets,  odes, 
hymns,   eclogues,   elegies,  "tires   and   a 
fragment  of  an  epic  poem,  Lo  FrmetMt, 
were  read  with  enthusiastic  admiratKm. 
Ronsard  combhies  magnificent  language 
and  imagery  with  a  delicate  sense  of  har- 
mony. 


VXn4-a>A«  (wunfgen).  WiuxiM  Kow- 
AOntgen  ^  physicist,  bom  at  Len- 
nep,  PmasU.  in  1845.  He  studied  at 
Zttrich,  where  he  took  his  doctor  s  dH«e 
in  1860,  and  was  professor  of  phwics  at 
Strasburg,  Oiessen,  and  after  IMO  at 
WOrsbo?.  In  18^  h^  became  widdy 
known  by  his  simal  di«50«7.  •'  V" 
BOntgen  rays,  or  X-^ys  I™»^  ■^)- 

SdntfMi  Xayi.   see  i-«.r.. 

*•<*•  Imurtb  part  of  aj  aci%  •J*^.  to 
40  ■4«i«  palM  or  pndbm,  or  to  131f 
sqoaia  jntt' 


Bood 


Book 


i 


IKiiwI  u>  old  English  name  for  a  croM,  torm  and  mode  of  conatroetion,  aa  abed, 
'"^'^'^  eapecially  applied  to  a  Urge  curb,  hip,  gable,  paTiUoo,  ogee  and  flat 
emdflx  or  image  of  Christ  on  the  cross,  roofs.    The  span  of  a  roof  fa  the  width 


placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  chancel  in  between   the  supports:   the   ri»e  is   the 

height  in  the  center  above  the  level  of 
the  supports:  the  pitch  is  the  slope  or 
angle  at  which  it  is  inclined.  In  carpen- 
try roof  signifies  the  timber  framework 
by  which  the  roofing  materials  of  the 
building  are  supported.    This  ccusista  in 


Curt  Roof. 


M-Boof. 


King -poit  Roof. 
A,  King-pott.  B,  Tie-beam. 

O  O,  Strut!  or  braces,     d  d,  Purlin*. 
B  K,  Backs  or  principal  r  r,  Common  rsftors. 

rafters.  a,  Bidge-plece. 

ao,  Wall-plates. 


BoodserMn.  Msdelaine.  Troyes. 

the  old  churcber  generally  resting  on  the 
rood-beam  or  rood-screen,  often  in  a  nar- 
row gallery  called  the  rood-loft. 
It-nnf  (r8f),  the  cover  of  any  building. 
■""""^  irrespective  of  the  materials  of 
which  it  is  composed.  Roofs  are  dis- 
tinguished, Ist,  by  the  materials  of  which 


Shed  Roof.      Oabls  Roof. 

■IpRMf.     CoBloslRoof.     OgMROOf. 

they  are  mainly  formed,  as  stone,  wood, 
^gte,  tile,  thutch,  iron,  etc. ;  2d,  by  their 


Qneen-post  Roof. 
A  A,  Queen-posts.  b,  Tie-beam, 

o  c,  Struts  or  braces,     d  d,  Purlins. 
X,  Straining-beam.         F  r,  Common  rsfttrs. 
oa,  Wall-plates.  H,  Ridge-piees. 

general  of  the  principal  rafters,  the  pur- 
lins and  the  common  rafters.  The  prin- 
cipal rafters,  or  principals,  are  aet  across 
the  building  at  about  10  or  12  feet  apart : 
the  purlins  lie  horizontally  upon  these, 
and  sustain  the  common  rafters,  which 
carry  the  covering  of  the  roof.  Some- 
times, when  the  width  of  the  building  is 
not  great,  common  rafters  are  used  alone 
to  support  the  roof. 

IIaaIt  (ruk),  a  bird  of  the  crow  family 
■»'"*''^  (Corvui  frugaegut),  differing 
from  the  crow  in  not  feeding  upon  car- 
rion, but  on  insects  and  grain.  It  is  also 
specially  distinguished  by  its  grnarious 
habits,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  base  of 
the  bill  is  naked,  as  well  as  the  forehead 
and  upper  part  of  the  throat.  In  Brit- 
ain and  Central  Europe  the  rook  is  a 
permanent  resident ;  but  in  tha  north  and 
sooth  it  is  migratory  in  b«hit. 


Books 


Sooke 


(riik),  Bm  Gkoboi,  an  I^- 
lish  admiral,  was  bom  near 
Oanterbary  in  1050;  died  1709.  He  en- 
tered the  navy  at  an  early  wte  and  row 
to  be  vice-admiral  in  1892.  For  Uji  gal- 
lantry in  a  night  attack  upon  the  French 
fleet  off  CapeLa  Hogue  he  was  km«hted 
in  1682.  His  further  eervicea  include  the 
c(»nmand  of  the  expedition  against  GadiiB 
in  1702,  the  destruction  of  the  French  wid 
Spanisl!  fleets  in  Vigo  Bay  (1702).  and  a 
■hare  in  the  capture  of  Gibraltar  in  July, 
1704.  In  the  Mowing  August  he  fought 
«  French  fleet  of  much  superior  force, 
under  the  Comte  de  Toulouse,  off  Malaga. 
The  result  was  undecisive,  and  this  fact 
was  used  against  Rooke  by  his  pohtocal 
opponents.  Sir  George  quitted  the  service 
in^isgust  in  1706.  He  seired  in  several 
narliaments  as  member  for  Fortsmoutn. 

Boosevelt  J^tn'tV-SU' ?rSfdr '5 

the  United    States,   was   born   in   New 
York  City  of  a  prominent  family  of  Dutcb 
d^nt^  bctobe?  27,  1858 ;  died  January 
8,  1919,  at  Oyster  Bay,  Ne^,Jo*-fl^! 
mduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1880 ; 
Ingaged  for  a  time  in  legal  study,  and  ^a« 
a  Republican  member  of  the  New  York 
LegisUture  1882-84.  winning  distinction 
Sa  leader  in  reform.     He  sulwequently 
spent  some  time  in  scouting  and  hunting 
Ifte  In  te  West,  wns  candidate  for  mayor 
S  New  York  in  1886,  and  was  an  active 
SembTr  of  the  United  States  Civil  Service 
Commission  1889-95.     He  was  appointed 
piSS^t  of  the  New  York  Police  Board 
in  1896  and  in  this  duty  showed  an  energy 
in  enforcing  the  laws  tha*  8«^«  °™  ,2 
national  reputation.    In  1887  he  was  ap- 
pointed Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
adding  to  his  reputation  by  his  foresight 
in  priparing  the  navy  for  the  threatened 
war  with  Spain.    On  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  he  at  once  rcsiRned,  recruited  a  regi- 
ment (the  First  Volunteer  Cavalry),  pop- 
ularly known. as  the  'Rough  Ridera,   and 
showed  marked  daring  and  skiU  in  leading 
them  in  the  brief  campaim  in  Cuba.    Re- 
turning as  the  popular  hero  of  the  war, 
he  was  nominated  and  elected  Governor  of 
New  York  in  1898.  and  filled  this  office 
with  an  energetic  spirit  of  jeform  that 
greatly  enhanced  his  reputation.    Among 
Us  notable  acts  as  governor  were  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  state  canal  systein  with 
regard  to  which  there  had  been  much  talk 
of  fraud  during  the  previous  administra- 
tion, the  checking  of  predatory  corpora- 
tions through  taxation  of  franchisea  and 
the  extension  of  the  civil  service  system 
to  include  many  state  offices  previously 
under  political  control.    He  desired  a  sec- 
mid  term  aa  aQvemor  in  order  to  complete 
tit  Htwam  laanforated,  bat  in  the  Be- 


Booiovelt 

pubUean  National  Convention  of  WOO  he 
received  the  nomination  for  Vice-Pre«id«t 
of  the  United  Stotea,  and  was  elected. 


with  Preaident  McKinley.  «^ir.« 

The  assw-ination  of  Prerid<»t  "£—5' 
ley  on  Sept.  14,  1901,  «i«ed  Vice-Prgl- 
dent  Roosevelt  to  the  presidency.     BUii 
animated  and  picturesque  career,  ai^  the 
position  of  an  earnest  and  energetic  re- 
Simer  which  he  had  filled,  had  made  him 
a  popular  favorite,  and  much  interest  was 
fett  as  to  how  he  would  act  in  this  ele- 
vated   position.      His    unshakable   stand 
agoinst  the  lUegal  acts  of  the  great  cor- 
porations, the  purchase  and  active  devel- 
opment of  the  Panama  canal,  the  rinrtng 
tone  of  reform  In  his  messages  to  Ura- 
gress.  and  his  open  defiance  of  poUOcai 
domination.  addeS  greatiy  to  "•  atanding 
In  public  esteem,   and  in  1804  he  was 
nominated  for  President  and  dected  bv 
much  the  highest  popular  majority  whk* 
any  President  ever  received.    I>u"|[*  "« 
four  years'  term  he  succeeded  in  having  a 
number  of  biUs  passed  which  gave  the 
government  a  considerable  degr«»  ol  con- 
trol  over   the  corporations   and  carrtea 
through  successfully  various  measures  oi 
reform.    The  semlforelgn  requirements  of 
the  Panama  canal  and  the  government  oi 
the  Philippine  Islands  were  managed  with 
ability  ana  success,  and  such  intemationw 
ouestions  as  the  Venezuela  dispute  and 
the  calling  of  a  second  Hague  conteijmce 
added  to  his  prestige  In  Europe.     TMa 
was  redoubled  by  his  useful  aervlM  in 
bringing  about  a  treaty  of  pcaoB  betwewi 
Russia  and  Japan,  and  at  the  cloae^  ma 
term  on  March  4,  1909,  Preddent  Rooee- 
vdt  was  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  forcible  among  the  rulers  of  tha 
world.    His  several  movements  in  ttie  in- 
terest of  peace  were  acknowledged  by  tiie 
award  to  Mm  in  1906  of  the  $40,000  Nobd 
Peace  prize.     With  this  he  endowed  a 
Foundation  for  the  Promotion  of  Indus- 
Declining  a  ppcond  nomination  for  the 
presidency,  he  set  out  at  the  end  of  bis 
term  on  a  hunting  excursion  to  eaf      •> 
Africa.      He    had    previously    show 
marked  love  for  hunting  and  other 
door  pursuits,  and  his  year's  hunting  aJ- 
ventures  In  Africa  were  notably  successful 
and  supplied  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
with  a  fairly  complete  collection  of  the 
wild  game  of  that  continent.    Mrs.  Roose- 
velt joined  him  at  Khartoum  and  there 
began  a  sort  of  triumphal  journey  tiirougn 
the  capitals  of  Europe  unequaled  aince 
Grant's.    He  was  greeted  everywhere  «■ 
the  representative  American  and  reemvea 
by  the  rulers  of  the  varioua  countries  with 
royal  honors.    He  made  a  number  of  and 
delivered  notuVle  Jeptnre?  at  the  Sorbonne, 


BooffVilly 


Bull,  and  at  Beriia.  Oxford  and  Oliii»- 
tiaaia  UiiiTeniti«ri3l  d  wMeh  caaUnni 
dtgnm  nmm  him.  During  Us  i^7  in 
mdasd  tM  death  of  Kinf  Edward  VII 
ooeorred  and  Mr.  BooMTvtt  was  ap- 
pdnted  the  qtedal  amhaHador  of  the 
United  States  at  the  foneraL    On  Jane 

a,  mo,  he  landed  at  New  York  to  re- 
TO  the  greateet  welcome  ever  aoeorded 
aat   American   dtiaen    retoming   to   Ua 
BatiTe  land.    Among  the  many  thoounda 
who  marched  in  the  great  parade  ot  we^ 
eome  was  his  old  regiment,  the  ,Bottgh 
Biders.    Ihuiog  his  absence  a  split  had 
oeeunt*'  in  the  Republican  party  ooea- 
sicned  by  the  Ballinger-Pinchot  contro- 
veisy  and  resulting  in  a  division  of  the 
party  into  Conservatives,  supporting  Taft, 
and  Progressives,  opposing  him.     Bou 
parties  tded  to  securelloosevelt's  support 
as  the  recMniaed  leader  of  the  Republican 
party.    Aftw  an  unsuccessful  effort  to 
carry  New  YoA  for  the  RepuWicami.  ho 
withdrew  for  a  time  from  public  acting, 
devotiiui  himsdf  to  editorial  work  on  the 
Outhok.    His  support  of  Pinchot  (Taft 
supporting  Ballinger)   led  to  a  gradual 
widening  of  the  split  in  the  par^.    In 
1910  he  made  a  tour  in  whum  he  ex- 
pounded the  theory  of  the  New  NatiMial- 
LoD,  a  prognua  of  reform,  and  In  1912  he 
a^ed   to   the   program   in   his   famous 
Charter  of  Democracy  speech  before  the 
Ohio     Constitutional     Convention.      In 
1912  he  emerged  as  Republican  candidate 
for  president.    He  vigorously  draaounced 
the  methods  of  the  Repubhcon  National 
Omvention,  from  which  his  supporters 
withdrew   and   organised   a   Pr(«renive 
par^,  nominating  him  as  its  candidate. 
Whm    making    a    round    of    camp 
speeches  he  was  shot  by  a  lunatic  at . 
waukee  <m  October  liTand  narrowly 
caped  a  fatal  wound.    He  was  defrated  in 
the  November  election,  receivii.g  S8  dw- 
toral  and  44^8,564  popular  voteu.     He 
subsequently  made  a  journey  of  explora- 
tion in  South  America,  where  he  made  a 
number  of  af!'lrcsses  before  universities 
and  learned  societies,  and  explored  the 
River  of  Doubt  [which  was  later  named 
the  Rio  Tfodoro  (q.  v.)  in  his  honor],  Ae 
discovery  of  which  he  announced  on  his 
letum  to  New  York  in  1914.     He  was 
nominated  by  the  Progressive  Party  for 
preddent  In  1916,  but  declined  the  nomi- 
natiira  and     ipported  the  Republican  can- 
didate.   Ta  ing  up  editorial  work  again 
he  became  an  extensive  contributor  to 
magaiineB  and  newspapers.     From  om 
ooftraak  oC  dm  Worid  war  (see  European 
Wm-y   he  was  an  ardent  champion  of 
prmMrednass  and  of  the  cause 


BooemK 


strragly  orgsd  tfa*  dsdantikm  of  war^ 


fl(  Iks  UUss  against  tite  Central  Powsrs, 
aMaftn  ti^  gbiklBS  of  the  LuHtoitin 


the  IMtsd  States  agaiwt  Qermaay.  ,_ 
the  sntry  of  the  United  States  >to  the 
World  war.  Colonel  Roosmrdt  qflusd  ta 
raise  and  lead  to  France  •.oonpUta^ 
sion.  Denied  this  opportnni^,  ho  devoted 
his  great  powers  to  tne  arounng  of  AmM^ 
ican  patriotism,  the  sale  of  liberty  Bonds 
and  to  counteracting  the  spread  of  Q«e- 
man  propaganda  in  the  United  States. 
Of  his  four  sons,  Lieutenant-Cobnel  Th«> 
odore,  Jr.,  Captain  Archibald,  and  Lisa- 
tenant  Quentin  won  commissions  in  the 
United  States  Army  and  Oaptdn  Kermit 
in  the  British  Army^  Th«  death  of  Qaenc 
tin,  who  was  killed  in  an  misl  tet^ 
over  the  Oerman  lines,  July  17,  191e>t 
threw  a  shadow  over  the  last  months  of 
Colonel  Roosevelt's  life  and  various  ill- 
nesses led  to  his  removal  on  several  occa.- 
sions  to  the  Roosevelt  Hospital.  He  re- 
turned home  on  Christmas  Day,  1918, 
from  the  last  of  these,  and  on  January  6, 
1919,  the  great  American  passed  away. 
Almost  as  one  man  the  nation  stood 
united  In  a  sense  of  deep  rMret  and  per* 
sonal  bereavement.  A  period  of  mourning 
was  ordered  by  Prerident  Wilson  for  the 
Army  and  Navy  and  government  depart- 
ments. The  funeral  rites  were  very  sim- 
Sle  and  the  body  was  laid  to  rest  in  the 
ttle  cemetery  at  Oyster  Bay,  Long 
Island,  near  his  home. 

Aside  from  bis  offidal  life,  Roosevdf s 
career  of  great  activity  along  diversified 
lines  cannot  be  overlooked.  As  a  devotee 
of  outdoor  sports,  hunter,  explorer,  and 
wood  chopper,  as  typifying  the  strennous 
life,  the  wielder  of  the  big  stick,  advocate 
of  simplified  spelling,  opponent  of  race 
suidde  and  enemy  of  nature  fakirs,  as 
coiner  of  phrases  and  forceful  expresdons, 
he  impressed  Ids  perscmality  to  an  ex- 
traordinary degree  on  the  American  peo- 
ple. His  literary  output  was  of  a  high 
order  and  included  not  only  scholarly 
historical  works,  but  entertainingly  writ- 
ten accounta  of  his  hunting  and  explorug 
trips,  essays,  political  works,  etc.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  notable  state 
papers,  some  of  which  wiu  live  among  the 
greatest  in  American  archives.  As  a 
speaker,  his  style  was  forceful,  fluent  and 
convincing,  am  an  executive  he  was  re- 
sourcefnlln  devising  and  bold  in  attempt 
ing  needed  reforms  for  which  others  by 
straggled  In  vain  and  tirdess  in  pursuit 
of  Us  object  He  was  honored  with  de- 
grees from  nearly  every  Important  Ameri- 
can univerdty  and  many  foreign  <»•■• 
He  was  a  monber  of  i3i»  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arte  and  Lettws,  icnd  in  1912  was 
deeted  prerident  of  the  Ameifeaa  Hia- 
torieal  AwodatloB.  .  „  .  ^ 

Among    Boosevdtfa    pabUiAM 


Booimlt 


•m:  HIttory  0/  ihey^val  War  of  m» 

•€»t-.       "'ting  Trip$  of  a  Br-' 

of  TKovuu  Hart 


Hinting  Trip$  of  a  «o«o*mo» 
IAf«  of  ThomoM  Hari  Benton 
Ltfe  of  Oonvtrneur  Morru 
Rakch  tiff  and  H-nfliw  Troi 
,  Hittory  of  New  York  iiSOO); 
Tue  w'Udemeu  Hunter  (1893):  Tkp 
wLJaa^the  We$t  (1389-96) :  Amen- 
2rSwS'(18OT);  TheBouakRi^' 
n8a9)  •  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell  (!?(»)  ; 
¥Srbirmw>^   Life    (19O0) ;     African 

Afrioan    Addrta»e$    (1910);     2fte    Acw 

(1912)  :  Oonaervation  of  Womanhood 
^Ckildkood  am)  ;  IIi»*orV<if  If^ter- 
it„re,and  Other  E»sav»  (1»13)  L^^^T 
dore  kootevelt.  An  Autohtoaraphy  (1913)  , 
Tf^^theBraMianWilderneu  (1914)  5 

riS14>  :  America  and  the^  World  war 
(1916)  Fear  God  and  Take  Your  Own 
j»irt  U916)  ;   Foet  of  Our  Own  Houae- 

Tl^iiwlt  •  ^^"^h  ^  Middlesex 
SOOSeVeiT,  county,  New  Jersey,  6 
miles  8.  of  EliMbeth.  It  was  founded  in 
?9M  whenthe  districts  of  Carteret, 
C^me  and  Bast  Rahway  were  consoU- 

kelt^  in  Ae  mountains,  76  mUes  north- 
5St  of  Ptonix.  Arizona,  in  a  narrow 
SS.  of  the  Salt  Wjer.  ^hedamfa  buUt 
6n  a  curve  upstream,  is  f%.i^„^^ 
^m  foundation  to  parapet,  235  long  at 
the  base  and  1080  feet  longon  top. 

It  contains  about  340,(»0  cubic  yards 
of  masonry,  and  is  constructed  of  broken 
SiS?CT<topeii  rubble  thoroughly  bonded 
tSSthenCreservoir  outlet  is  throi«h 
a  tunnel  about  600  feet  long,  in  which  ^x 
gatw  are  placed,  which  are  used  for  almc- 
SJ  Md  for  regulating  the  flow  from  the 
rServoir.      With    the    reservoir   f«U    *« 
caoMity.  these  gates  can  discharge  about 
wW  cuMc  f^t  of  water  per  second. 
Two  spillways,  each  about  WO  fe^t  long, 
carry  the  flood  waters  around  the  dam. 
The  dam  backs  up  the  waters  •  f  Salt 
SrV^d  Tonto/reek  *<>' »  ^^ig^^^n^S 
about  16  nules,  forming  a  lake  46  mUM 
long  and  from  one  to  twoimlM  wide,  con- 
SK  about  4W.(K)0.000.0W  wMons  ^ 
water,  sufficient  to  irrigate  240^Mre8 
of  land.    The  cost  of  the  dam  wm  f6,WKJ.- 
Wa     It  was  «»nipleted  on  February  6. 
1911   and  opened  on  March  ,18,,  iwii-i  oy 
P^dmt  SSoSre  Boowvdt,  tor  whom 
the  dam  wai  named. 

as-a 


BopM 

*00»»    bom    at    Bheffleld,    MaaMCba- 
setts,  in  1820;  died  In  1896.    H.  ww^ 
numerous  popular  ■ongt,,|K)me  01  WWOB 
^nte   Hazel  Dell:   Rotalie,   the  Prakio 
Flower;  Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp,  ttc. 
D^^f      EuHU.  sUtesman,  bom  at  CTIn- 
*M>Ot,     ton^  i/ew  York,  Feb.  16,  1846. 
He  graduated  in  law  at  the  New  York 
uSive"ity  Law  School  in  1867,  became 
eminent   as  a   lawyer,   and  .''"United 
States  district  attorney  for  the  •ouUiern 
district  of  New  York  1883-86.    He  «- 
tered    President    McKinlCT's    cabinet   as 
Secretary  of  War  i^  189&,  resigning  ta 
January,  1904.     In  July,  1006,  he  tue^ 
ceeded  Sohn  Hay  as  Secretary  of  State, 
and   in  1909  was  elected  United  BUtaa 
senator  from  New  York.  .„«n«4 

!><«.««      (r6p),  a  general  name  appUM 
R0P«     to  wrfage  over  1  inch  in  cir- 
cumference.    Ropes  are  usually  made  of 
hemp,  flax,  cotton,  coir,  or  other  ▼«««»• 
ble  fiber,  or  of  iron,  steel,  or  other  met^- 
lic  wire.    A  hempen  rope  is  <»™P«»*.9i 
a  certain  number  of  yams   07   threads 
whioh    are    first    spun    or   twisted    inte 
gtrandf,  and  the  finished  rope  go«» ,;'°«! 
special   names  according  to  the  number 
and  arrangement  of  the  strands  of  whicli 
it    is   compostd.     A   haic8er4a*d   rope   Is 
composed   of   three  strands   twisted    left- 
hand,  the  yam  being  laid  up  right-hand. 
A  cable-laid  rope  consists  of  three  strands 
of  hawser-laid  rope  twisted  right-hand, 
it    is    called    also    water-latd,    or   lynt- 
hand  rope.    A  throud-laid  rope  consists 
of  a  central  strand  slightly  twisted,  and 
three  strands  twisted  around  it,  and  is 
thus    called    also    four-ttrand    row.    A 

Sat  rope  usually  consists  of  a  series  ol 
awser-laid  ropes  placed  side  by  side  and 
fastened  together  by  sewing  in  a  sigzaf 
direction.    Wire  ropes  are  made  of  a  cer- 
tain  number  of  wires  twisted  into  the  req- 
uisite number  of  strands,  and  are  now 
extensively  used  in  the  ngging  of  ships 
as  well  as  for  cables.    For  greater  flexi- 
bility hempen  cores  are  used  ;,thus  for  in- 
stance we  may  have  a  rope  of  six  strands 
around  a  hempen  core,  each  strand  con- 
sisting  of   six   wires   around   a   smaller 
hempen  core.    Steel  wire  makes  a  consid- 
erably   stronger    rope    tbau    iron    wire. 
Coir  ropes  are  m»ch  used  on  board  ships, 
as.  though  not  so  strong  as  hemp,  t»ey 
are  not  injured  by  the  salt  water. 
v^n^a    (rops),   John   CJodicak,   lilsts- 
*0PC8  ^j^,  born  of  Ameriajn  parents 
at  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  AprH  ^1»0| 
He  studied  "^^  Harvard  T^w  School  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1861.     H* 
TiianLed  the  MiUtary  Historical  Society 
of  Massachusetts,  and  was  active  in  ta- 
dwSfSe  Unitrt  States  govemment  to 


Bonima 


coUact  and  pNMrre  iafomuition  about 
the  Civil  war.  He  wrott  Th0  Army 
undmr  Pope,  The  Firtt  Nupolmn,  The 
Campaign  of  Waterloo,  Atlae  of  Watw- 
loo,  and  Btory  of  the  Civtl  War.  He 
died  Oct.  28,  1809.  ,  ^    ,. 

HivraimtL  (ro-rA-«'mli),  a  celebrated 
J&Oruma  mountain  in  South  Amer- 
ica, where  the  boundaries  of  British 
Quiana,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil  meet, 
8740  feet  high,  flat-topped,  with  steep 
roclcT  sidea,  lendering  the  summit  almoBt 
inaccessible.  Sir  E.  Im  Thurn  and  Mr. 
Perltins  were  the  first  to  reach  its  top 
in  1884.  It  is  a  part  of  the  Pacaraima 
range. 

Eoric  Figures  (^:^}i  ^^l^S^^. 

rious  appearances  seen  on  polished  solid 
surfaces  after  breathing  on  them ;  also  to 
a  class  of  related  phenomena  produced 
under  very  various  conditions,  but  agree- 
ing in  being  considered  na  an  effect  of 
either  light,  heat,  or  electricity. 
PAmnal  (ror'kwal),  the  name  given 
JfcOrquai  ^^  ^  g^^^^^^  <,£  shales,  closely 

allied  to  the  common  or  wlialebone 
whales,  but  disthiguished  by  having  a 
dorsal  fin,  with  the  throat  and  under 
parts  wrinkled  with  deep  longitudinal 
folds,  which  are  supposed  to  be  suscepti- 
ble of  great  dilatation,  but  the  use  of 
which  is  as  yet  unknown.  Two  or  three 
fpacies  are  known,  but  they  are  rather 


Rorqual  IBalcenopOrmMps) 
avoided  on  account  of  their  ferocity,  the 
shortness  and  coarseness  of  their  baleen 
or  whalel>one,  and  the  small  quantity  of 
oil  they  produce.  The  northern  rorqual 
{Balanoptera  boopt)  attains  a  great 
sise.  being  found  from  80  to  over  100  feet 
in  length,  and  is  thus  the  largest  living 
animal  known.  The  rorqual  feeds  on 
cod,  herring,  pilchards  ana  other  fish,  in 
pursuing  which  it  is  not  seldom  stranded 
on  the  shore. 

Tinaa  MoWTB  (mon'ta  rO'si),  a  moun- 
*»'"»"'>  tain  or  group  of  the  Pennine 
Alps,  lies  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Valais  and  Piedmont,  and 
forms  part  of  the  watershed  between  the 
Rhone  and  the  Po.  Next  to  Mont  Blanc 
It  is  the  highest  mountain  in  the  Alps, 
bot  •■  a  group  it  is  much  mote  oiasstve 


thaa    tb»   Moot   Blanc    iranp.    It   tas 
eight    anmalta    above    14,000   foot,    tbo 
higbeat  being  Dnfoarapitio  (164217),  af 
ctnded  for  the  first  time  in  ISBB.    Of 
the  huge  glacien  that  occupy  the  slopes 
of  this  mountain  the  chief  are  the  QOrner 
Glacier  on  the  west,  the  Schwarsberg  and 
B'indelen  Glaciers  on  the  north,  the  nesla 
and  Macngnaga  Glaciers  on  the  east,  and 
the  Lys  Glacier  on  the  south. 
Jii\aa     Salvatob  (saI'vA-tor  rO'sA),  an 
**^'**»    Italian  painter,  etcher  and  poet, 
born  near  Naples  In  1015;  died  in  1673. 
He  received  instruction  in  art  from  his 
brother-in-law,   Francesco  Fracansaro,  a 
pupil  of  Ribera,  but  his  taste  and  skill 
were  more  influenced  by  his  studies  of 
nature  on  the  Neapolitan  coast.     Rosa's 
father,  dying  in  1(32,  left  his  family  in 
difficulties,  and   Salvator   was  compelled 
to   sell   his   landscapes   for   small   sums. 
One  of  his  pictures  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  painter  Lanfranco,  who  at  once  recog- 
nized the  genius  of  the  youth,  and  ei^ 
couraged  him  to  go  to  Rome.     In  1638 
Rosa  settled  in  Rome,  where  he  soon  es- 
tablished his  reputation  and  rose  to  fame 
and  wealth.    The  bitterness  of  his  satire, 
expressed  both  in  his  satirical  poems  and 
in  an  allegorical  painting  of  the  W*e«l 
of  Fortune,  rendered  his  stay  in  Rome 
inadvisable.    He    therefore    accepted    an 
invitation  to  Florence  (1042),  where  he 
remained  nearly   nine   years,   under   the 
protection  of  the  Medici.     He 
fioidly  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he    died.      Salvator    Rosa    de- 
lighted  in   romantic  landscape. 
His  poems  were  all  satires,  vig- 
orous    enough     and     pungent; 
among  them  are  BdhyUm  (t.  e.. 
War,  and  Envy.     Rosa  etched 
Rome),  Music:  Poetry,  Painting, 
with  great  skill. 

Tt^sfl  npfl.  (  >^  '  2&'b«  -  6  )  •  Acne  Rosa- 
AUBHl/Cn,  j,^^   j,p  GuTTA   RosEA,   an 

affection  which  appears  on  the  face,  ee^ 
pecially  the  nose,  forehead,  cheeks  and 
skin,  characterized  by  an  intense  red- 
dening of  the  skin  without  swelling.  Per- 
sons who  indulge  in  alcohol  to  excess  are 
liable  to  it.  Regular  habits,  and  plain 
and  temperate  living,  both  prev«at  and 
cure. 

1lAaa'n*»  a  large  and  important  or- 
*"■*  "'*»  der  of  plants,  of  which  the 
roae  is  the  type,  distinguished  by  having 
several  petals,  distinct,  perlgynous,  sepa- 
rate carpels,  numerous  stamens,  alter- 
nate leaves,  and  an  exogenous  mode  of 
growth.  The  species,  including  herbs, 
shrnbs  and  trees,  are  for  the  most  part 
inhabitants  of  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
world.    Scarcely  any  are  annuals.    Tbt 


loMsumd 


•pdIc  P«»».  Piva,  cherry,  peach,  atanond, 

and  aimilar  frolte,  are  produced  by  •?«»«• 
of  thia  order.  Some  of  the  epeclea  are 
alio  imporunt  aa  B»«*Wnal  plaiito.  The 
Moera  it  thl.  order  are  dlylded  hy  Vtai' 
bto  Blx  tribea,  via.,  BoeMe,  Spiweee, 
Amygdales,  Sanguleorbe*.  Dryadew  and 

VAaamAHfl  (rfle'a-mond),  commonly 
AOSamona  ^„^  p^i,  ftowmond,  the 

mlatKW  of  Henry  M  of  B°f  >"*•  J»»" 
the  daughter  of  Walter  de  LHfford,  a 
knight  of  property  in  varioua  ahirea. 
She  died  in  1176  or  1177,  Boon  after  her 
connection  with  the  king  wa«  openly 
avowed,  and  wts  buried  in  the  churdi  of 
Godatow  Nunnery,  whence,  howerer,  Hu«B 
of  Lincoln  caused  her  body  to  De  re- 
moved in  1191.  Almait  everything  else 
related  of  Rosamond  i»  >e«endory.  The 
fable  of  the  dagger  and  poison  »»»  wWch 
the  jealous  Queen  Eleanor  U  Mid  to  have 
sought  out  her  rival  has  not  been  traced 
higher  than  a  ballad  of  1611.     ^  „  ^. 

losaniUne  L'^-oTan'^^blse?*? sf^vl 

Btlve  of  aniline,  crystallising  in  white 
needles,  capable  of  uniting  with  acids  to 
form  salts;  which  salts  lorm  the  well- 
Icnown  roeaniline  coloring  matter  of  com- 


makea  ap  tha  faU  roaary.  A  dosology  ia 
said  after  every  tenth  Ave.  The  use  of 
roaariea  was  probably  introduced  by  tha 
Crusaders  from  the  East,  for  both  Mo- 
hammedans and  Buddhists  make  uae  of 
strings  of  beads  while  repeating  their 
prayers;  but  St  Dominic  is  uaually  re 
garded  as  the  inaUtutor  in  the  Roman 

«<^»11i'Tiii«  or  RoBCEUN  (roa-lan), 
AOSCeill  nil8)  joAKKSS,  a  heretical 
theologian  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  a 
native  of  Northern  France.  A  nominal- 
ist in  philosophy,  he  was  a  *''*]»•'■*  ™ 
theology,  but  was  forcedto  recant  by  the 
syiwd^f  Soissons  in  1092,  while  AMelm 
refuted  him  in  his  De  Fide  TnmtaiU. 
After  an  attempt  to  make  capital  out  ot 
Anwlm's  quarrel  with  Wiliram  Rufua. 
Roscelin  settled  at  Tours,  where  he  wa- 
tered into  a  violent  theological  wntro- 
veray  with  Abelard,  who^  had_been  hto 
('l 


merce.  rrO-sa're-a),   a   town   of   the 

EOSanO    i'^entine^^  Republic,    in    the 
province  of  Santa  F«,  on  the  nght  hmk 
SftS  Parana,  170  miles  nor^weat  of 
Buenoe  Ayres.    Founded  in.l726. •"  J^ 
Indian  settlement,  it  was  still  a  humble 
vilhige  in  1864  when  it  was  made  a  port 
of  entry,  but  since  then  its  progresa  baa 
SeTmrvelous.  and  it  is  now  the  eec- 
Md  city  in   the  republic.    It   has  com- 
muniSSon  by  rail  and  river  with  Buenos 
Ayrea.  and  also  by  railway  with  the  in- 
terim provinces.    The  town   is  laid  out 
on  the  rectangular  plan,  andjs  providrf 
with  gas,  tramways,  etc.    It  contains  lOTm- 
Sm,   brick-works,   jam   'a«^ori«^  J*"?^; 
^e<  tanneries,  soap  works,  timber  and 
flour  mills,  etc.,  but  its  commerce  is  of 
greater  importance  than  its  jnanufachireB. 
SnTe  quantities  of  wool.  hid«i.  «md  Krain 
being  exported.     Pop.,  (1914)   224^. 
•o^^^-mJTi  r  6'z  a  -  r  I  ) .   among    Roman 
Bosary  Catholics     th4     recitation    of 
the  Ave  Maria  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  a 
«;tain  number  of  times.  ^The  name  is 
also   commonly    given    to   the   string   oi 
beads  by  means  of  which  the  prayers  are 
counted.    The    wmplete    otDmabaUM^ 
rosary  consists  of  WQ  small  beads  for  tte 
Avea,  divided  into  groupa  of  10  by  15 
Urn  b«idB  for  the   Patemoaters.    The 
t^&m  roaary^haa  only  60  aa»aU  beada 
and  6  urge  beada;  bat  if  repeated  thrice 


pup'l.    His   subsequent    history    i«   not 

VAr^iiia  (r6'she-us).  QlJIKTUB,  Um 
A08C1T18  ^ogt  celebrated  comic  cctor 
at  Rome,  born  a  slave  about  134  B.C. 
He  realized  an  enormous  fortune  by  hia 
acting,  and  was  raised  to  the  equestriwi 
rank  by  Sulla.  He  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship of  Cicero,  who  in  his  eariy  yea".5»- 
ceived  instruction  from  the  great  actor. 
Roscius  died  about  62  B.C. 


ttOSClUB  uieu  auyuk  u*  ».~.  _ 

*■<«.«  AA  (rosTifi),  Sib  Hiwbt  BK- 
HOSCOC  ^^^  'a*  distinguished  chem- 
ist, bom  in  London.  Jwiuary  7,  1888,  a 
grandson  of  William  Rpscoe.  ,  Bdu<»ted 
It  Liverpool  High  Sch«)l.  Univerri^r 
College,  London  and  Heidelberg,  Roacoe 
on  his  return  to  England  devoted  himaalf 
to  science,  especially  chemistry,  in  wM^ 
he  did  useful  and  brilliant  work.  From 
1868  till  1886  he  waa  profesnor  of  chem- 
istry at  Owena  College,  Manchester  and 
from    1885    to    1896    represented   South 

Manchester  in  P»r»*Fent,^.^*»^."^™ 
interest.  Honors  of  all  khada  have 
flowed  in  upon  him  from  the  m?"«r«ti«J 
and  learned  societiee,  and  in  Nov.,  18t», 
he  was  knighted.  His  works  include 
Inveatigatione  on  the  Chemusol  Action 
of  Liaht;  Lestont  in  FlevMntary  €hem- 
ittry:  Lecturer  on  Spectrum  J«a{y<M; 
and.  with  Professor  Schoriemmer,  a 
Treattae  «po»  Ckemtttry  (3  vols.,  18T7- 

lalUnam  Thomas,  fifth  son  of  WiDiam 
■'*'"■*'*'*»  Roacoe.  bom  near  Liverpool 
in  1791;  died  at  London  in  ISH;  author, 
tranahitor.  and  editor.  In  ^^_^.f^ 
lished  translations  of  Sismondi  a  Li*erik 
titre  of  Bouthem  Europe,  a^  Uemoirt 
ofBeilvenuto  CelMni;  in  1828  a  tronsla- 
tion  af  Lanai'a  Hutttru  of  Patntmg  Ut 
Italp;  in  1830,  Life  and  Wrtttng$  of  Cer- 


*«»■<'<'•»  etltaneou  writer,  wm  bom 
te  N«w  UvetpooU  M«icli  8,  1788 ;  «•* 
Job*.  1881.  After  a  i»t  Twy  «J«PT* 
•doMtion  Iw  WM.  In  1780,  WPrtntkti  to 
•a  attoriMjr  to  Liwrpool;  ««}»»  Ip*  J" 
Mtered  tato  partnership  with  Mr  Ai- 
ptokU.  H«  felt  ttrongly  on  the  qoefWon 
of  the  aboUtloa  of  elatery  and  publtahed 
r  pM»  (Tk0  Wnng*  of  aMoo)  and 
MTeral  controrwylal  pampblete  on  the 
•abject  In  1798  his  great  work,  Ufe 
itloriiuo  40  MedM,  wm  puWlahed,  and 
at  once  gatoed  him  a  high  wPutaUon, 
whkh  WM  perfaapa  neither  leawned  nor 
enhanced  br  hla  Mfe  and  Pontificate j»l 


tiM  miM  of  two  oaMlM  and  w  Jjktar. 
and  a  wdl-pre»trT«d  round  towtr  W  tmi 
hSL  Pop.  about  2800...  .  m  ^^  ^ 
S^  rlSi),  the  beantifnl.aad  fiagnat 
***■•  Sower  whfch  bM  glfwi  namo  te 
the  large  natural  order  fumcm,  aeeiM 
to  be  conlined  to  the  cooler  parte,  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  The  woeka  ate 
numeroue,  and  are  extremely  dlflteplt  te 
dietlngulA.  They  are  .  prickly  ahrubj, 
with  pinnate  leavee,  ororlded  with  itlDOlM 
at  their  baM :  the  flowen  are  very  lane 
and  showy :  the  calyx  contracts  towards 
the  top,  where  It  divides  Into  fire  lanceo- 
late segmente;  the  corolla  hH  five  petau, 
and  the  stamens  are  numerous;  the  seeds 
are  numerous,  covered  with  a  sort  of 
down,  and  are  attached  to  the  interior  of 
the  tube  of  the  calyx,  which,  after  flow- 


lSTz  (IMS).  In  1796  Boscoe  retired 
from  the  business  of  an  attorney,  and 
he  erentually  ^became  a  partner  in  a 
Uverpool  banking  house  in  1800.  For 
aboutV year,  inl806-«7,  he  represented 
Uverpool,  his  native  town.  In  I«rli«»ne°t. 
In  1&6  the  bank  fell  into  dlfflcultitoi, 
which  resulted^  in  bankruptcy  to  IKW. 
Boacoe  spent  his  last  years  to  literary 
and  scientific  pursuits.       ,      v     .„    ,_ 

Bowommon  iLX JoTn?;  ii  l"lant 

ts^^i^nsu^^nri'^^ii^Tr^S: 

face  is  undulattog  or  flat,  except  to  the 
north.  The  Shannon  bounds  most  ol  tne 
county  on  the  east  and  the  Suck  on  the 
northwest  The  chief  of  the  numerous 
lakes  is  Lough  Eee,  an  expansion  of  the 
Shannon.  Roscommon  contains  iron  ana 
coal,  but  limestone  is  the  only  mineral 
slow  worked.  Many  districte  are  highly 
fertile,  and  the  pastures  are  among  the 
bSt  ii  Ireland.  %e  chief  crops  are  oats 
and  potatoes.  The  chief  towns  are  Bos- 
commm,  Boyle,  and  CJMtlerea.  Pop- lOJ;: 
040.— The  county-town,  Roscommow,  80 
miles  from  Dublin,  contains  the  rutas  of 
S  abbey  founded  to  1257,  and  of  a  fine 
CMtle  of  about  the  same  date.  It  gives 
tho  title  of  earl  to  the  Dillon  family. 

SOSCOmmOn)  i<oubth  Eau.  or,  an 
ini.yiuh  mtoor  poet  was  bom  In  1638; 
^Si  in  168B.  He  wm  a  favorite  at  the 
SISt  of  Carles  II.  His  chief  poems 
ara  Buow  on  Ttwulated  Verte,  a  tran^ 
latiim  of  Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,  and 
■ome  saiaQer  piecss.  He  has  been  called 
Um  only  moral  wtiter  of  the  reign  of 

^SULtL  (roatot).  a  mariwt  town  of 
JsOMrCa  ireian*  to  the  county  of  Tip- 
pvazy,  96  mitoi  a.ir.  of  Dublin,  ccjataina 


•rtogr takes  the  f oirmrtt  a  fleshy,  alobular 
ot  ovoid  berry.    The  rose  is  easily  culti 


vated,  and  Its  varieties  are  almost  end- 
less. In  the  natural  state  the  flowers  are 
single,  but  double  varieties,  such  M  the 
damask  rose  (R.  dama«c«no),  Provence 
rose  (B.  oen«/oI<a),  "dmusk-rogo  («. 
mo«cA4«a)  were  totroduced  tato  Britain 
800  years  ago.  Upwards  of  1000  named 
varieties  of  rose  are  now  recorded.  The 
North  American  species  of  roses,  and  eo- 
peclaUy  those  of  the  United  Stotefc  are 
few,  thoae  grown  to  our  gardens  being 
mostly  of  forolgn  origin. 
I^Qg^    a  disease.    See  Eryeipa—. 

B4>8e' Acacia  i^J^^tJSSLyVl 

highly  ornamental  flowering  shrub  In- 
habiting the  southern  parte  of  the  Alle- 
ghenyMountolns.  and  now  frequently 
seen  in  gardens  in  Kurope.  It  Is  a  species 
of  locust;  the  flowers  are  large^  rose- 
colored,  and  toodorous;  the  pods  are 
glandular-hlspld.    See  Loonet. 

JlOae-appie,  ^^^  ^f  the  genus  Enge- 
nia,  the  E.  Jamboe,  belongtog  to  the  nat 
order  Myrtaceaj.  It  Is  a  b«nebtog 
tree,  a  native  of  the  Bast  Indies.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  slse  of  a  hen's  en,  is 
roee-Bcented  and   has  the  flavor   of  an 

^naLhA^v  *>»•  name  of  several  pbwts: 
•©■•"Day,  „  /,)  the  Verinm  (Nasii- 
der.  Bee  Oleander,  (b)  Thedw«^rw»- 
60*.  a  irfant  of  the  genus  JWododondroii, 
having  handsome  flowera.  (c)  EoOo- 
bimm  •nmutifolinm,  or  Frwcb  wlDow. 
Bet  EpOobintn.       ,^        ,.      ..,.„«.,„ 

Eoscbery  ^^^'^''^S^J^'lSSi 

of,  bom  in  London,  ^Mw. 7.  iSdT,  wm 
edoeatod  at  Bttm  and  OxfMdL  and  suc- 
ceeded bis  nandfather  to  iM.  He  be- 
came an  advanced  Liberal  to  politics, 


BOMttMtOM 


^M  of  Ab«rd««»   Uplverrity,   and   to 

k«lMcuiM  a  member  of  the  London 
C«uB^<^uncll.  and  waa  •PJ»»nt«»,j5**S 
iSSr  of  that  body.  The  Unlverelty  of 
Oambridfe  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
iTbim  In  188a  He  advocated  the  re- 
form of  the  House  of^Lorda,  and  became 
miSi  totereated  in  the  queationa  of  Im- 
MrUl  tederaUon  and  the  eocUl  condition 

•Ira  Mcreury.  and.  when  Qiadatone  re- 
SSd^m  putlic  ifteto  18M,  -"cceedej 
hST  aa  Premier.  HU  term  of  office 
Sided  in  1896,  and  be  realgned  the  Uberal 
UjjMtorahip  In  1896.  wnxiAic  8.. 

ton,  Ohio,  in  Sept.,  iSip,  •nd,""/™^?; 

Ated  from  Weat  Point  in  184?.    He  waa 

!mnloTed  aa  OTgineer  until  1854,  when  he 

SffiEd  from  Se  army,  but  in  the  eum- 

SfSrSf  18M  waa  commiKiioned  brigadier- 

■•' reusing   aecond    to    McClcllan    in 

thSTSiipaiSf;  and  in  July  won  the  bat- 

iSrofRFch^MounUin.  W.  Va..  and  woa 

made     i^r-general..    Next      year      he 

Sjnll   iUeciaive    Tictory    at    Corinth, 

l&tJdppl,  aid  In  1803' the  battle  o 

8tS«r«iTer,  but  waa  defea^  "L^'^m 

rdTcomL^niroY VJ^i  d£ 

I^Surr  1886-98,  dying  March  11^1898. 

BOietWe  ^otte  Co.,  Kan»a»,  on  the 
Kanaaa  River,  4  mileg  8.  w.  of  KanaM 
Otj^    It  baa  iron  and  wire  works,  etc. 

K?L^*  (r6a'ma-ri;  BomoHnije 
S(MWmai7  If/ictnim,  a  shrubby  aro- 
matic ulant  (nat  order  Labiate) ,  a  na- 
?We1f^Khem  Europe.^  It  ha.  but  two 
^«m;  the  leaves  dark  green,  with  a 
Vwte^nder  surface;  the  flowe"  "«  P?j! 

bl»^  At  one  time  of  cow^^e^H*  .I^now 
for  medicinal  purposes,  rosema^  is  now 

■tnick  by  Edward  IV,  in  1465,  and  bo 
SSSj  tS  distinguish  it  fronithe  old 
S5wS.  (worth  6#.  64.),  *»*.  »>*»'Sr " 
iSms  stamped  on  one  side  with  the  flgnre 

aC  ft  — 


EoMofjfriohoifj:sg:r.t!a 

tM7^n\ad  ripe  lu  leftvaa  drop  wd 


Bom  of  Jorieho  UiuuUOUa  M«n*kmnHiM). 

1.  Tht  pUnt.    7.  The  P'*"*  »"  » J^,'^*!!.  •* 

Tho  MBit  plant  oxpsndod  after  belag  P«t 

in  water. 

it  becomes  rolled  up  like  a  ball  to  tijj 
dry  season,  but  opens  its  branch^  ana 
■eed-vesseis  when  it  comfr'  in  contact  wiw 
moisture.    The   generi  J»e   naa    oeen 

"ppllTto  it  from  thb  nmatance,  and 
in  Greek  aignifies  resnr.  tlon. 
V/^.lAla  (r^««'u-la),  in  medtdne,  a 
BOSeola  iS^  of  riah  or  lOM^loNd 
efflorescence,  mostly  aymptooiftttC^iiBd 
occurring  in  .connection  wltti  «■««• 
febrile  complatota.  Called  alao  r9M-rMh 
and  eoarlel  roe*.      ^^  _^   ..^^ 

i»«^.a  AWAB  or  Otto  osr.  Baa  4»»w 
■'**'■*■>   qfRo$«$.  ^    ^        ___ 

'*'0Se8)    g]^  (0,  the  crown  of  England 

between  the  }ff^^ti?^\^^}A  ?^^- 
red  rose  as  their  euablem)  and  the  Yo* 
ists  (who  chose  the  white) ;  It  iMtad 
with  short  intervale  of  .P«*c«. 'o'  ™1»'> 
yi^rs  (1456-86).  be«^nin}  with  the  bat- 
tie  of  St.  Albana  and  ending  with  Bos- 
worth  Field.    See  England,  section  Bm- 

p!i!LttA  (rO-«efta:  Egyptian,  J^- 
•*»'™'****  iu,  the  ancient  Bolhiiint), 
*.  citT  of  EiTPt.  near  the  mouth  of  the 
|<SeVbS%f  the  Nile  M  mU-  w 
of  Alexandria.  RoMtU  at  one  *«»««: 
joyed  a  larfw>  transit  trade,  whidi,  how- 
iver,  haa  now  been  «»"?«»*  e°!j'^JS, 
vertid  to  Alexandria.  The  town  ia  WJU 
built  and  attractive  in  appearance,  rop. 
about  16,000.  -    ,^^^ 

inacription  In  three  versiona  (Msroj 
glyphlc,  enchorial,  and  G«»k)  |°  ^P?*'  2. 
PtEr    Epiptuu>es    and    belonging    ta 


BoMtto-wood 


.bout  196  M.    It  I.  •«  tmt  imp«rt««  EOiicniCillU   JSi^ii^l  "iJlSJt 
fMB  tha  fact  that  it  faratolMd  tM  M       .  .      .^.  «_^  ....w^.*  m»  vkluk  wu 

!?!.J?Ti  °-  "rpil  «An..  dlKOTvrad  by  «ht 


for  tbt  dicipDownf  oi  w  "•"{•^rn;. 

SiMtta^wood,  ?„^»-^r  o{"7i" 

o«nfe-r«!  color  with  «r»  dork  *«1««' ™: 
§S«ble  lS?tu"  but  the  colon  becomt 
^ih  by  .Kpooar*^  cinctured     with 

dUtillation.  Tho  JS»t»'«';L°«  °'if2?S;;'?rS 
for  thta  porpoM  to  quite  an  Induairy  m 

S*  '^"'^^fe  a  circular  window. 
ROie-WinaOW,  divided  into  com- 
nartmenta  by  mulUouB  and  tracery  radla- 

of    the    thirteenth   and   fourteenth   cen- 


BoM-window,  St.  David' •. 


turlM,  and  la  moBtly  employed  to  Ao 
trUngnlar  apaces  of  gables.  In  .*^rance 
It  tomuch  uieU.  and.  notwithstanding  dlf- 

BOSeWOOa,  ^^  oalhergia  ntgra  aM 
other  treea  belonging  to  the  nat  orter 
T^BKuminoate.  ao  named  becauae  bob«« 
ktada  of  it  when  freshly  cut  have  a  faint 
SnSi  of  roees.  Most  rosewood  cornea 
^m  Brazil  but  it  is  also  found  in  Hon- 
^San^  Jamaica.  The  name  Is  some- 
?i^  given  to  timber  from  other  wurcea; 
Ko*  the  French  Boia  de  Rote  (the  Qer- 
Stn^oJSToL-)  is  called  tulip-wood  in 
EngUah.  ^^^  ^   ^U  of 

BOSeWOOd,   ftodlum.    Se«    Bko4i»m. 


aoclety,  tha  fliat  Mcooat  ef  wWrt  WM 
tury  In  two  hooka  now  generally  aacrlbod 

S  5.  V.  Andrei^  f .«'«*»«'•  V^SSBJ 
of  Wttrttembarg.,  Many  rtfard  Ai*a»  • 
writlnia  aa  merely  a  vellaa  aatlra  <m  bm 

own  tSa?«n3  «»"yj'»**«r*>«',*'^J|??*S 
exiatence  of  any  aoch  ■«»•»£..  «»  ^'J?-" 
the  fact  that  alnce  hla  day  foMfVtjmB 
la  a     Caclioatro)   have  profeaaed  to  bo- 
loM  to  it    ThV  aim  of  tlie  HoalcrudaM, 
iTfjJotbera  of  the  Roay  Cr«»,  wa.  aSa 
to  be  the  Imp-vrement  of  honanijyfc"', 
the  diacovew   of  tha  *  \™«  P"l«'5''t 
and  they  claimed  a  <»WP.  •'"o*>^i»ii\«! 
myaterlM  of  nature,  auch  aa  th«  P«"»«»»' 
don  of  meUto,  the  prolongation  of  llfa, 
Ihe  exiatence  of  aplrlta,  etc.  ^According 
to  Andre*  the  aocletjr  waa  founded  in  th« 
fourteenth  century  by  •  9!r?"JSJ?) 
named    Roaenkreua    (i.€.,  ,. W   WSl,; 
who  waa  deeply  veraed  '«  ^•J'J?,*^'??; 

?dlf'UVteT.t^*'  iU  fStjS 
and  obj«:trtaa  1^  to  It.  being  connoted 
In    pufillc    opinion    with   the   Oatalrta. 
Iliumlnatl,    etc.    Some    regard    R«»j«a- 
cEm  u  the  origin  of  Freemaaonry. 
S^i"     (roa'ln),  the  name  given  to  the 
&fi/0.n    ^in    oi    coniteroua    treea    em- 
Dloyed  In  a  solid  atate  for  ordinary  puj" 
Josef    It  to  obtained  from  turpentine  by 
Sfatinatlon.     In  the  proceaa  the  oil  of  the 
turpentine  comea  over  and  the  roam  re- 
mafca  behind.    There  are  several  vnrle- 
uS  Sf  roam,  varying  to  color  from  the 
paleat  amber  to  nearly  black,  and  from 
translucent  to  opaque.    It  dlffera  aome- 
fJhat  Srding   to   the  tun)entine  from 
whfch  U  is  derived.  ^  this  being  obtaln^l 
from  numerous  species  of  P'ne  »nd  flr. 
Itoain  Is  a  brittle  solid,  .a»"0"t  *f^<*?rf: 
and  having  a  characteristic  o<io'.- .",;• 
Ssed  In  the  manufacture  of  ■ealmg-wax, 

■d<^.1{t.  (roa'lln),  or  RoastTif,  a  tmajl 
Bosun  ;i„„e  in  the  county  of  Mid- 
lothian. abJut  f  mil-  -outh  of  ftdjiburgh. 
interesting  chiefly  for  Ita  rulnea  <aww 
SThapel.  Roalin  Caatle  »  of  uncer- 
tain orijin,  but  it  waa  tha  ancl*"*, "^g 
of  the  St.  Claira  or  Sinclalra.  wbo  lived 
here  in  great  splendor  ^  t^e  Jjft««nth 
Mtitnrv  The  nreaent  bullciinia  were 
SW'erS  a^nce  tha  burning  of  th. 


^^u  iw  th»  liari  of  Iltrtford  In  IBM. 
t£^  built    Th.  InttvXot  b  ricbly 

founder  of  modern  IdeaTiMn  In  itny- 
The  chief  polnU  of  hie  •y«t«™  ""nw-  i 
twSted  In  V  2Ve»  Eitay  on  the  Or^ 
«//5«««  traoelated  Into  EnflUh,  1883. 
lie  WM  a  mJS?  Volumlnou.  writer  on^ 
SSouTand  mlecelUneou.  eubject.  «>  well 
a.  on  pbllowphy.     .^^^.^^.    O-H-O,), 

BoioUo  Acid  iffcld  prei:^  W 

XS^fV<Jra«-entur^%f4 
Sb"lc  ?cld     It  U  uBed  in  v     .arlng  a 

•  '  ^'\  town  near  the  Wye,  In  Here- 
Rom,  ?oSrh"re.  England,  il  niilen  s.E. 

»  lV*M  in  tb'e^°<l--  parUh 

S!!'-'"'*-  A^r^^NDM  tscotlW.  pool, 
EOM,  ^'fn"n»;>adlnl7^.  He 
was  echoolmaeter  at  Lochlee  >n  If  ortar 
!u|L  and  author  of  Helenore,  the  Fortu- 

ig  the  north^f  8cotl«d^  ^  Nalmablre. 
Bom,  iJ^tUnWn  1783;  d'ed  at  B^ 


Son  and  Cromarty 


He  went  to  Canada  in  low.  •'"avx-  -;,j 
te^•  Spedltlon  to  Oregon  In  1810.  and 
•••  ■ft^nrds  a  fur-trader  in  the  Hud- 
S?.  BirSefvlce.     He  is  the  author  of 

Oreaon,  Fur  Uuntera  of  the  Far   wen, 
ind  tbi  Red  River  Settlement. 
w     1    AijauNDEB   Milton,   naturalist, 
Bom,  iJfbom  at   Belleville,  Ontario, 
m  1832rdied  m  1897.    He  served  in    he 

»?^11?  "neVr"otl  S'woM 
Senatuml  history  of  Canada  «tc^.  and 
made   large  collections   of   animals    and 

ttf«  Sm  Jamib  Clamc,  Arctic  ana 
*0M,  Antarctic  •Wl«"r-,  ^■f-52"  x^ 
T^ndtm  in  1800;  died  In  1862.  fa* 
«SJS  th.  British^  navy  at  the  age  of 
twdve;  accompanied  his  uncle.  SJf  Jj*? 
9«M  (aee  followin<p  article),  on  hta  two 


Toyagea  In  searcb  of  a  northwaat  ^ 
aS  TTthe  Inurral  betwean  Uwm, 
SSw  Captln  William  Parr,  ta-jj 
ttre«  Arctic  voyages.  »•  *",K?^ 
to  the  rank  of  ^po-tjcaptaln  In  W  PJJ 
tlcolarly  for  the  dtacover*  of  tba  ne«« 
magnetfc  pole  In  1881.  he  eomnwnjjj 
the  espedltimi  ^'^  ^^'f^fJSLI.'^ 
to  the  Antarctic  0««°  »»  **K;Jfi;.  iS 
on  his  return  pub  ished  a  nnrrjtlTe  m 
t£it  voyage,  which  bad  contributed  largely 

o  gwgrirphl.al  and  •^'^t'^c  ''"'XtSd 
genJrnriy.    Captain    Roi«    wa*    k^Jt«J 
for  his  services,  and   received  ■'»"w»»^ 
Lthcr  honors.     In  1W8  he  mada  a  voyag 
In    the    Kntcrpri»e    to    Bafflna    Bay    ™ 
•earch  of  Bir  John  Frunklln. 
««..    8i»  John.  Arctic  navigator,  boni 
*0"f  In      W!gtonshlre,^^|cotland,     lo 
1777;  died  In  ftBO.    In  1786  be  entered 
the  navy,  and  be  saw  abundant  atrrlc; 
befo"the>eace  of  181B,  wblcb  found 
Um   with   ttTrank   of  co»«»°^"l  Jf. 
1817  be  accepted  the  command  of  an  afl 
mlralty  eipelitlou  to  :^'?»' '<»/a»  "3i 
west  passage,  and  In  April,  1818,  art  ajui 
in  thVTrobelte,  accompanied  by  Ltaut. 
Parry  In  the  Alegander.    After  pasatog 
through  Davis*  Straits  and  BafBna  Bay 
hrvMwls  entered  Laoc"'"  g?:'?,!'  5tf 
proceeded   up„  It  Tor  a   ~"W«"^>« -J* 
tance.  when  Ross  conceived  the  erroneous 
d?a  th^t  the  sound  was  here  brougbt  to 
a  termination  by  a  chain  of  mountataj 
and    accordingly    "turned    to    EniJnJ 
Shortly  after  landing  he  was  advancaa 
to  the  rank  of  poat-captaln,  and  the  fol- 
owlng  year  published  an  account  of  bla 
voyagl     His    next    expedition,    in     the 

strainer  Victory,  was  e?a«PJtf.J"iffiy 
Felix  Booth,  and  set  out  in  May,  IKW- 
Row  entered  Prince  Regent'a  Inlet,  and 

King  Willian's  Land.  In  1^  be  wa* 
^rdd  to  abandon  bis  "WP^SSl^^f?* 
his  crew  suffered  great  bardaWpe  Wore 
?hey  were  Packed  up  In  Angust,^.  by 
his  old  sh  p  the  I$aheUa.  In  1834  l^ap* 
tain  Ross  was  knighted,  and  n  the  fo^^ 
lowin,  year  published  a  narrative  of  h  j 
eecona  voyage.  From  1839  Ull  l^B  »« 
John    Ross    was    consul    at    Stockholm. 

\^  '^Fdirt  \  'vl  n^Sd'ea^oTfo 
ateSlln'tt' faJe  o?  Sir  JftSr'"" 
He  became  a  rear-admual  i°  l»^^-,them 

EoM  and  Cromarty,  '^^J^'fi 

S-un^S\«f-^«v^?S47^^»^^ 
and  include  the  toland  of  Lewis  and  other 


BoMtno 


Bonini 


I 


idands.  Ana  of  tba  whole  8876  wiawre 
miles.  The  west  coaat  i«  bold  and 
nisxed.  and  deeply  indented  with  bayi 
Md  Inleta.  A  great  portion  of  Uon  and 
Cromarty  consTsta  of  irregular  mauM 
of  lofty  nigged  mounUins,  eome  of  whicn 
are  from  8600  to  4000  feet  in  height. 
Sheep  farming  and  grazing  are  exten- 
alvely  carried  on.  There  are  wveral 
fine  lakea,  the  principal  of  which  is  Loch 
Maree,  about  12  milee  long  by  2  milea 
broad.     Pop.  76,400.  ,    *  ,  „„ 

V  AMD  tin  (ro8-«a'n6),  an  ancient  town 
ifcOBBauo  oj  Southern  Italy,  province 
of  CoMnsa,  3  mUea  eouth  of  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto.  In  the  neighborhood  are  quar- 
ries of  alabaster  and  marble.  Pop.  13,- 
364 

1lniuihp.ch     (ros'bifc),  a  village  in  the 
AOBBOauu    f»ru8sian  province  of  Sax- 
ony, between  Naumburg  and  Mert'/ourg, 
famous   for   the   decisive    victory    which 
Frederick  the  Great  obtained  there,  dur- 
ing the  Seven  years'  war,  over  the  im- 
perial   and    French    troops    under   Mar- 
shal Soubise,  November  5,  1757. 
Vnaa  rVinrnli      Flobence     Mahktat, 
A08S-t*nUrcn,    novelist,  was  bom  at 
Brighton,    England,    July    9,    1837,    the 
daughter    of    Capt    Frederick    Marryat 
(which    see).     She    became    editor     of 
LMdon    Society    in    1872.    Among    her 
many  novels  are:     Too  Qood  for  Htm, 
Her    Lord    and    Matter,    How    Like    a 
Woman,   The  Hamp$tead   Mystery,   etc. 
Also,  There  it  No  Death  and  other  works 
deoling  with  spiritualism.     She  died  Oct. 
27    1899 

H^aM  i«»).  WiLUAH  Paesons,  thibd 
**"■**  Eabl  of,  was  born  at  York  m 
1800;  died  in  1867.    His  chief  attention 
was  devoted   to   the   study   of  practical 
astronomy,  and  in  1827  he  constructed  a 
reflecting    telescope,     the    speculum     of 
which  had  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  and 
the  success  and  scientific  value  of  this  in- 
strument induced  him  to  attempt  to  cast 
a  speculum  twice  as  large.    After  many 
difficulties,  he  succeeded,  in  1845,  in  per- 
fecting machinery  which  turned  out  the 
huge  speculum,    weighing   3   tons,   with- 
out warp  or  flaw.    It  was  then  mounted 
in  his  park  at  Parsonstown,  on  a  tele- 
scope 64  feet  in  length  with  a  tube  7 
feet  in  diameter.    The  sijhere  of  observa- 
tion   was    immensely    widened    by    V®rd 
Rosse's    instrume-'t.    which    was    chiefly 
used  in  observations  of  nebuls. 
■DftacAl-H  (ro8-et't5),  Gabbiex  Chabixb 
AUBBCbbx  f)j^ijxE,    better    known    as 
DaXTB  Gabbiet,  painter  and  poet,  wm 
bom  in  London   about   1828;   and  died 
in    April,    1882.     His    father,    Gabriels 
RoMStti   (1783-1854),  a  native  of  Italy 
Rpd  AO  Italian  poet  of  considerable  dis- 


tinction, was  a  political  rtfngee  in  Lcm- 
don.  where  he  became  professor  of  Italian 
in  King's  College,  and  was  known  as  an 
able  tboqgh  eccentric  commentator  upon 
Dante.    Dante   Gabriel  earlT   showed  a 
predilectioD  for  art,  studied  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  then  became  a  pupil  of  Ford 
Madox  Brown;  and  in  1848  joined  Hol- 
man  Hunt,  Thomas  Woohier,  Millais,  and 
others    in    founding    the    so-called    Pre- 
Raphaelite  Brotherhood,  to  whose  organ, 
the  Oerm,  he  contributed  several  poems. 
In  1849  he  exhibited  his  painting  of  the 
Girlhood  of  Mary   Virgin;  but  his  later 
works,  numerous  as  they  were,  were  rarely 
seen  by  the  public  until  the  posthumous 
exhibition  of  a  collection  of  his  paintinn 
in    1883,    at   the    Royal   Academy.     His 
principal  pahitings  are:  Dant«^t  Dream, 
the    Salutation   of   Beatrice,   the   Dv*y 
Beatrice,    La    Pia,    Proterpme,    SibyOa 
Palmifera,    Monna    Vanna,    and    Venut 
Verticordia.    His  reputation  as  a  painter 
was  surpassed  by  his  fame  as  a  poet,  and 
his  poems  are  characterized  by  the  same 
vivid    imagination,    mystic    beauty    and 
sensuous  coloring  as  his  paintings.    In 
both   arts   he   appears   as   a   devotee   of 
mediffivalism.     His   chief   poems   are   the 
Houte  of  Life,  a  poem  in  101  sonnets; 
the   Kiny't   Tragedy   and   other   BalUtdt, 
Dante  at  Verona,  Bletacd  Damozel,  etc. 
In    1861    he    published    the   Eariy    Ital- 
ian    Poets,     a     series     of     translations 
in    the    original    meters,    afterwards    re- 
issued under  the  title  of  Dante  and  *m 
Circle.     His  wife  died  in  1862,  two,  years 
after  marriage,  and   from  this  gnef  he 
never     entirely     recovered. —  His    sister, 
Chbistina  Geobsina  (born  1830),  was 
a  poet  of  high  merit.    Her  chief  works 
are:    Qohlin    Market    and    other   Poemt 
(1802),  The  Prince' t  Progrett  and  other 
Pocmt    (1866),    The  Pageant  and  other 
Poems     (1881),     besides    prose     stories, 
books  for  children,  and  several  devotional 
works.     She  died  in  1894.— His  brother, 
WitLiAM  Michael  (born  1829),  an  as- 
sistant-secretary  in    the   Inland   Revenue 
Ofllce,    distinguished    himself    as  an    art 
critic  and  literary  editsr. 
UneoiTii     (ro8-s6'n6),    QiOACHiNO    Ak- 
AOSSUU    TONIO,     an     Italian     operatic 
composer,  was  born  at  Pesaro,  Feb.  29, 
1792 ;  died  Nov.   13,  186a    The  son  of 
a  musician  in  humble  life,  he  began  ts 
learn  music  very  early,  and  by  the  kind- 
ness of  a  patron  became  a  pupil  in  the 
Lyceum  at  Bologna.     He  wrote  a  great 
number  of  both  comic  and  serious  operas, 
the   first   successful    one   of   which    waa 
Taneredi    (1813).    and    etrjoyed    a    high 


degree  of  reputation  and  wealth.  In 
ISA  he  visited  London,  and  from  1824 
till  1836,  he  resided  »t  Paris,  where  be 


Aoi 


to  Parit,  where  he  died,  "ta  txw  w» 
Mxioved  to  Florence  in  1887.  «?■"*}" 
^M^^  \n   Italy    the   improvementi    in 

SSiS,  A  '»■"•' >fj.''s,s«;s'"i 
^•^r.y  Iff!*  arjj.'st^"' 

rK  "&!'  ^S:  ■ --■- 

EOSter    i'f^ing  a  l«t  or  register,  show- 

in,  or  fixing  the  rotation  in  which  in-  ^OStra. 

S^iduals,  companies,  regiments,  etc.,  are 

liable  to  serve. 

lis  f2i  miles  E.  N.E.  of  LUbeck.    ,A.  f^^   ...  ...""i "  Tj«„^n   Pmvm.  SDrinK 

Sthl  university  (founded  Ul»)  . 
nvStopk  with  the  fore-port  of  Warne- 
Stod^^c^rrie.  on  a  /airly  "X'th^Eng 
defining,  export  trade  (chiefly  with  BiUg 

the  squares.    Pop.  (1910)  66877. 


Eoitof .  ^•^  "**•*"*• 
Eo-topohm  iSS£^,^'o^l 

botu  In  1765,  of  an  ancient  Bo"{*n  «»«; 
lly,  was  lovemor  of  Mo«»w  at  th«  time 
nlthft  k^rench  invasion  of  1812.  Na- 
SoleSi  accu^  Wm  in  his  de««tch«  rf 
ttg  d^Stely  set  fire  to  Mj«cow. 
but    he    himself    decidedly    denied    tWs 

SirgS  in  his  m^.^'^p^t^J^t 

c%i;r  thW'RoSi«n^did\S?  i^ 
Ae  catastrophe  he  fuTly  expec^  i^  wh«. 
he  evacuated  the  city.  In  1^14  ne  in» 
nKMPni!  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  U9 
Sh^  at  Moscow  in  1826.  leaving  beh  ad 
him  a  number  of  historical  memoir^ 
^m«i5pfl   etc     in  Russian  and  French.— 

in  Russian  Uterature  as  a  poete«i  ana 

wIfi+L  or  R08T0»  (r«8-t6f').  a  town 
BOltOY,  ^  g;Ssia,  in  the  government 

of  Jaroslav.  and  36  ni»e»  »•■•!'•  "K^^^ 
town  of  Jaroslav,  on  Lal^«  Nero.  It  Is 
nn«  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Kussia,  oe- 
?M  mention^  in  the  ninth  century,  has 
k  ^aSal  and  a  very  important  annual 

S«.JJ'  ir  rSstof.  a  town  of  South- 
EostoV,  ^Jn  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Ekaterinoslav.  on  ««"«"; 
about  20  miles  above  its  mouth  to  t^ 
Sea  of  Azof.  Its  importance  is  due  to 
the  agricultural  development  of  8.  K«- 
sia  which  has  raised  it  in  about  a  cen- 
?Lr'ylrom  a  mere  village  to  a  large  town 
with  important  fairs,  and  extensive 
__  Ji  -trJLir.^    influatrv.    and    trade    in 


grafn-Bhippina    industry,  .and    trade-in 
.    .1,    ..^Yi, 


grain-shippina  inausiry,  uuu  "-«"„"• 
wool,  oil,  tollow,  ores,  pitch,  etc  Pop. 
(1910)  m.2^.^^^^    ^    p,^,,,,„    ,, 

Btage     In     the     forum     in 
_    s-   =if.T;t«i    on   the  navigable  adorned. 


Mexico,  on  Ae  Rio  Hondo,  Pewj.  Bpring 
and  Berrendo  Rivers.  It  is  tne  leaoina 
?Sn  inX  greiuagricultural  region  of 

S:,r*a  diSSeWdent  to  fheep  («.m^ 
*0t»  ttmes  to  other  animals),  and 
caused  by  the  presence  in  the  gall-bladder 
Sd  biliJrJ  ducts  of  the  common  U^ 

fluke  (DUtdma  1^eP,^**''»J^l'  thTshwD 
from  the  germs  swallowed  by  »«,»•$? 
Sth  their  food.  The  averare  lengt^ 
S  the  mature  fluke  is  about  1  inch- 
WitWn  Se  liver  of  a  single  At^PJ^' 
era!  doieM  of  these  parasites  may  tome- 


Bot 


Botherham 


timei  be  found.  The  disease  is  pro- 
moted by  a  humid  state  of  atmosphere, 
■oil,  or  berbace.  It  has  different 
detreea  of  rapidity,  but  is  almost  in- 
variably fatal. 
J^<^    UBT.    See  Dry-rot. 

Siltft  (^'t<^)>  t^  seaport  in  Spain,  In 
******  Andalusia,  opposite  and  7  miles 
from  Cadiz.  It  has  trade  in  fruit  and 
vegetables,  and  manufactures  'tent' 
wine.     Pop.  7471. 

Bota  Boma'na,  the  highest  ecclesi- 
Mivva  MivAuo.  uo.)  astical  court  of  ap- 
I>eal  for  all  Christendom  during  the 
supremacy  of  the  popes.  With  the 
dwindling  temporal  power  of  the  popes 
it  gradually  lost  all  authority  in  foreign 
countries. 

Pytfafinn  (  rO-t.Vshun  ),  in  physics, 
notation  ^^  the  motioi  of  a  body 
about  an  axis,  so  that  every  point  in 
the  body  describes  a  circular  orbit,  the 
center  of  which  lies  in  the  axis.  It  is 
thus  distinguished  from  revolution,  or 
the  progressive  motion  of  a  body  revolv- 
ing round  another  body  or  external  point. 
If  a  point,  which  is  not  the  center  of 
gravity,  be  taken  in  a  solid  body,  all 
the  axes  which  pass  through  that  point 
will  have  different  moments  of  inertia, 
and  there  must  exist  one  in  which  the 
moment  is  a  maximum,  and  another  in 
which  it  is  a  minimum.  Those  are 
called  the  principal  awes  of  rotation. 
When  a  sond  body  revolves  round  an 
axis  its  different  particles  move  with  a 
velocity  proportional  to  their  respective 
distances  from  the  axis,  and  the  velocity 
of  the  particle  whose  distance  from  the 
axis  is  unity  is  the  angular  velocity  of 
rotation. 

Eotation  of  Crops,  i'^.a^'horticui! 

ture,  is  the  system  or  practice  of  grow- 
ing a  recurring  series  of  different  annual 
crops  upon  the  same  piece  of  land.  The 
system  Is  based  on  the  fact  that  different 
crops  absorb  different  quantities  of  the 
various  inorganic  constituents  of  the 
soil,  thus  impoverishing  it  for  crops  of 
the  same  kind,  but  leaving  it  unimpaired, 
or  even  improved,  for  crops  feeding  upon 
other  constituents.  Different  soils  and 
climates  require  different  schemes  of 
rotation,  but  it  is  a  tolerably  universal 
rule  that  culmiferous  or  seed  crops 
should  alternate  with  pulse,  roots,  herb- 
age, or  fallow.  Where  land  is  to  be 
subjected  to  a  crop  of  the  same  plants 
for  a  number  of  years,  as  in  permanent 
pasture,  the  plants  composing  the  crop 
should  b«  of  several  different  kinds,  seek- 
ing a  dififevent   kind  of  aliment;   hence 


the  propriety  of  sowing  clover  or  rib- 
wort  among  paature^rasses. 
Eotatoria.    S«eJ?oM/ero. 

Botohe  Sea-dovx,  or  LiTTix  Auk 
'  (MergHlua  me{anoIeHct(«),an 
aquatic  bird  belonging  to  the  family  of 
auks  or  Alcids,  about  the  size  of  a  large 
pigeon,  it  frequents  the  Arctic  seas, 
and  comes  to  land  only  during  the  breed- 
ing season.  Its  plumage  is  black  on  the 
back  and  wings,  white  on  the  breast. 
PitfTi  (rot),  Rudolf  von,  a  German 
•■**'''"  Sanskritist,  bom  in  1821;  from 
1856  professor  of  oriental  languages  at 
Stuttgart,  as  well  as  university  librarian. 
His  chief  work  is  a  great  Sanskrit  dic- 
tionary in  collaboration  with  Bdbtlingk 
(which  see).  He  died  in  1895. 
Pnfhfk  (ro'ti),  RiCHABO,  a  Qerman 
Xf^nnc  i^rotestant  theologian,  born  in 
1799.  From  1823  till  1828  he  was 
chaplain  to  the  Prussian  embassy  at 
Rome.  He  afterwards  held  various 
professorial  posts  at  Wittenberg  (1828- 
37),  Heidelberg  (1837-49),  and  Bonn 
(1849-54),  and  finally  returned  to 
Heidelberg,  where  he  died  in  1807.  The 
work  upon  which  his  fame  principally 
rests  is  bis  Theologiache  Ethtk,  a  com- 
plete system  of  speculative  theology, 
published  in  1845-48,  occupying  a  mid- 
dle position  between  the  rationalistic  and 
orthodox  schools  of  theology.  According 
to  Rothe  the  rational  man  is  developed 
by  the  processes  of  animal  evolution, 
but  spirit  is  a  superphysical  develop- 
ment. 

Kothenbnrg  -  ob  -  der  •  Tanber 

•(ro'ten-burA;  'above  the  Taulwr'),  a 
town  of  Bavaria,  in  Middle  Franconia, 
on  a  height  above  the  Tauber,  29  miles 
s.  s.  E.  of  WUrzburg.  Its  position  is 
naturally  strong,  being  on  a  promontory, 
and  having  a  deep  valley  on  two  of  its 
sides.  The  walls,  towers  of  defense,  and 
gateways  are  still  complete  as  in  the 
days  of  bows  and  arrows.  The  maaa  of 
the  town  may  be  said  to  date  from  1560, 
but  two  churches  and  some  private 
dwellings  are  of  much  earlier  date. 
Altogether  it  is  one  of  the  moet  per- 
fectly preserved  examples  of  a  small 
meditcval  town.  Pop.  (1906)  8430. 
'B.otb^rbfl.m  (roth'/r-am),  a  borough 
AOlUeruam  ^^  Eni.land.  in  the  West 
Biding  of  Yorkshire,  5  miles  northeast 
of  Sheffield,  on  the  Don  at  its  junction 
with  the  Bother.  The  fine  Perpendicular 
church  dates  from  the  time  of  Edward 
IV;  the  grammar  school  from  1483. 
Rotherham  has  an  Independent  college, 
and  extensive  iron-works  and  manufa> 


Bothermel 


Botifera 


ti»«s  of  soap,  starch,  glaw  and  ropes. 
Pop.  (1911)  62,607.  T»,,,» 

v!:il.\k«mll     (roth'er-mel) ,      Pbtib 
AOvnennei    j-bedebiok,  painter,  was 

bom  in  Luzerne  Co._.  P^g^y^^^^^.^" 
1«17'  died  AuKUSt  lo.  loOo.  Ue  maae 
JbltV  for  studfto  Europe,  but  rested 
chiefly  in  Philadelphia.  His  subjects 
were  largely  from  events  in  American 
hStory,  and  he  won  much  distinction  as 
a  historical  painter.  Among  his  promi- 
nent Sings  are  De  Soto  Diicoverxng 
m  i/ii$i$$ippi,  Patrick  Henry  before  the 
Virmnta  House  of  Burgesses,  Battle  oj 
aW^^rg,   etc.     Many   of   his   pictures 

iKtWvTroth'sa),  a  royal,  borough, 
AOtHetay  s'eaport,  and  favorite  water- 
ing-place of  Scotland,  chief  town  of  the 
coSnty  of  Bute,  is  beautifully  situated 
at  the  1  id  of  a  fine  bay  on  the  north- 
Sst  of  Lhe  island  of  Bute.  .  Bothesay 
has  little  trade,  though  .nominally  the 
renter  of  a  fishing  d  strict.  Its  pros- 
SJ  S  Jreat  mlasure  depends  upon 
^s  Spularfty  as  a  health  resort,  and  on 
the  many  visitors  it  receives  during 
summer.  Its  climate  is  very  m»ld  in 
winter,  and  it  is  on  that  account  often 
Kted  as  a  residence  by  pulmonary 
Sff^rl?s.  Nearly  in  the  center  of  the 
town  stands  the  ruined  Foyalcastle,  sup- 
nosed    to    have   been    originally    built   m 

?8I?  b?  Ma«.us  B^««<>«tXs?;'^vls 
It  was  burned  in  1685.  Kothesay  given 
the  title  of  duke  to  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

BothSChild  generally  pronounced 
roths'cMld  or  ros'chlld),  the  name  of  a 
Smfly  of  Jewish  bankers,  distinguished 
for  their  wealth  and  influence.  The 
ounder  of  the  original  bank^-house 
was  Mayer  Anselm  Bauer  (n^-lSi-i). 
a  noor  orphan,  born  in  Frankfort-am- 
Ma^n?  ThSugh  educated  as  a  teacher, 
Bauer  enier^  a  bank  in  Hanover,  and 
finally  saved  sufficient  capital  to  found 
a  business  of  his  own  in  the  famous 
TiiSasTO  of  Frankfort,  at  the  sign  of 
?he  Bid  Scufcheon  (Roth  Schild,whgh 

afterwards  gave  name  to  the  family,  tie 
Mined  the  friendship  of  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse,  who  appointed  him  his  agent, 
and  in  18(»  he  undertook  h  s  first  gov- 
ernment loan,  raising  ten  m»V«n  whalers 
for  Denmark.  At  his  d^th  m  1812  he 
left  five  sons  the  eldest  «« Jijhom^nselm 
Mayer  von  Rothschild  (11'3-1»»5),  ne- 
Sime  head  of  the  firm  m  Frankfort, 
while  the  others  eBtabhsbed  branches  at 
various  foreign  capita  s:  Solomon 
Mayer  (1774-1885)  at  Vienna,  Nathan 
Mm«  (17n-1836)  in  London,  Karl 
llgS    \lT^1856)     at    Naples,     and 


Jacob     (1792-1868)     at     Pari*    Thwe 
branches^  though  in  a  measure  sjeparate 
fimsfrtiU  conduct  their  o«!ration«   to 
Common:  and  no  operation  of  ma»dtade 
is  undertaken  by  any  without  a  «««»«*> 
deliberation    of    all    at    Ffankfort    The 
Naples  branch  was  discontinuwi  in  1»80. 
the    two   sons   of    Karl    Mayer    (M»y« 
KMl,  1820-86,  and  Wilhelm  Karl)   suc- 
ceeding their  childless  uncle  Anselm  at 
Frinkfort.    The.  bold     yet    *«;«».  "J 
cautious,   operations  of  .the  Kojjfjyg 
during  the  troubled  political  yean  aftM 
1813  confirmed  the  fortunes  of  the  fim. 
Nathan  Mayer  in  particular  distinpiished 
himself  by  his  energy  and  r««>n^c«-     "* 
means  of  special  couriers,  carrier-pigeoM, 
swift    sailing-boats,    etc.,    he    was    fre- 
quently  in  possession  of  ja'nf '*,|?*<'!i 
mation  ie.g.,  the  result  of  the  battle  ot 
Waterloo)    even  before  .the  govemm  nt. 
and   skilfully    turned    his    a/vantage   to 
account.     The    Rothschilds    do   not    con- 
demn wmparatively  small  operations:  but 
they   are   chiefly    famous    for   the   enor- 
mous loans  which^they  raise  and  m-^ 


mous  loans  wnicu  lucj  »o.=-  _««„^«fi 
age  for  different  European  KoveriimM^to. 
iS  1822  the  five  b-'-ers  ^re  made 
barons  by  Austria:  «aa  in  18^  B^n 
Nathaniel  von  Rotlv  '-id  Jbom  l^J 
was  raised  to  tht  Knglish  peerage. 
Lionel  Nathan  (1805^19)'  ^^  l»!^"^ 
the  last-named,  was  the  first  Jew  who 
sat  in  parliament  (1858)  ;  and  varloua 
other  members  of  the  family  have  riwn 
to  positions  of  honor  and  dignity  botH  in 
Britain  and  other  countries. 
DA^if^ra    (ro-tif'er-a).  R<»AT«WA,  or 

Kroup  of  microscopic  organisms,  inhabit- 
ing   both    salt    and    fresh    water,    dia- 
tinguished  by  the  possession  of  an  Interior 
disk-like    structure  . (<rocfco»    <»««).    "J^ 
nished   with  vibratile  ciUa  or  filam^to 
and  capable  of  being  everted  and  in^rtirf 
at  will.    The  popular  '^'une  of  '  Wheel 
Animalcules '    fs    derived    f'onj,,  *°  .  "JT 
parent  rotatory  motion  in  the  cilia  which 
fringe     the     front     disk.    Rotifeia     are 
found  both  in  a  free  swimming  and  a 
temporarily     or     Permanent^     attached 
state;  some  are  parasitic.    The  body  w 
usually  elongated  and  generally  covered 
with  a  chitinous  skin.     The  head  region 
is     well     marked.    A     highly-specmhaed 
digestive  system  is  usually  developed,  at 
lefst  in  the  females.     The  nervous  ws- 
i^  is  represented  by  a  single  gangli^te 
mass,  on  which  pigment  spots,  roppoped 
to   be  eyes,   are .  generally   visible.    The 
sexes  are  found  in  different  Individuals, 
but  the  males  are  smaller,  and  in  devejop- 
ment  entirely  subsidiary  to  the  females. 
Locomotion   is  can-ied  on  by  "eu  as  of 
the  cilia  of  the  trochal  disk,  which  als» 


Botrou 


Botterdam 


Mr?«  to  uwm  partidM  of  food  towards  commerce  is  derived,  aa  that  of  Albany, 

the  month.    The   firat  rotifer  waa  dia-  New   York,   from   the   decompoaition   of 

cohered  in   1702  by  Leeawenhoek;   bat  aillceous  lime  atones,  the  lime  betng  de- 

—  -  ■  -    .    ^.-  composed,  nnd  the  silex  remaining  aa  a 


Ehrenberg  and  later  obaerrers  firat  dif 

ferentiated    them    from    infusoria    and  light  earthy  mass 

other  minute  forma  of  life.    Some  au-  PYttterdam  (""'-of™) 

thoritiea    clua    them    aa    an    aberrant  *^  «"'»**«««-"  .^-^-^   -^^   » 


the    chief 
port   and   siecond  city   in 


aubdlTiaion    of    the    acolecidn    or    tape-  Holland,  is  situated  on  the  Nieuwe  Maas 
othera  aa  a   aobdivision   of   the  or  Meuse,  at  its  junction  with  the  Rotte, 


worms, 


anneli^a,  and  othera  connect  them  with  about  14  miles  from  the  North  Sea,  with 
the  moUuscB,  or  arthropoda.  .  which  it  is  also  dinictly  connected  by  a 
Va^vah  (io-tr6),  Jean  db,  a  French  ship  canal  (Nieuwe  Waterweg)  admit- 
AOtrou  dramatist,  born  in  1609;  died  ting  the  largest  ve»;sels  and  not  inter- 
in  1660.  He  waa  Uie  author  of  thirty-  rupted  by  a  single  lock.  The  town  is 
llTe  plays  all  deaervedly  popular,  the  intersected  by  numerous  canals  which  per- 
beat  of   which  are  Saint    Genest,    Yen-  mit  large  vessels  to  moor  alongside  the 


cmUu,   Don  Bertrand   de   Lahrire,   An 
iUione,   Hercule   Mourant,   and   Cotroet. 


warehouses  in  the  very  center  of  the  city. 
These  canals,  which  are  crossed  by  in- 


He  w'aa  patronized  by  Richelieu  and  a  numerable  drawbridges  and  swingbridges. 


are  in  many  cases  lined  with  rcwa  of 

Wehces-  trees;   and   the  handsome  quay   on   the 

river  front,  1%  miles  long,  is  known  as 

the   Boompjes    ('little  trees ')t   from   a 


friend  of  Cornell.e.  ^ 
PitttMlc  (rot'tek),  Kabl 
jMIVbCU&  j^^^jg  RoDECKEB  VOW,  a  Ger- 
man historian  and  politician,  was  bom 
at  Freiburg  in 
Baden  in  1775. 
From  17d8  till 
1818  he  was 
professor  of 
history,  and 
from  1818  till 
1882  ot  law  in 
the  university 
of  his  native 
tawn.  In  1819 
Im  was  chosen 
to  represent  the 
university  in 
the  upper  house 
of  legislature, 
and  in  1831  be 
entered  the 
lower  chamber 
aa  a  popular  rep- 
resentative. His 

bold  and  uncom-  ,  ,    ,  ,     , 

promising  advocacy  of  liberal  reform  and  and  modem  paintings,  and  the  govern- 
poUtical  freedom  drew  on  him  the  resent-  ment  dockyards  and  arsenal,  besides  the 
ment  of  government  and  he  lost  his  pro-  numerous  churches,  of  which  the  most 
fessorship,  but  maintained  his  seat  in  the  conspicuous  is  the  Groote  Kert,  or 
legislature  until  his  death  in  1840.  His  church  of  St.  Lawrence  (fifteenth  cen- 
best-known  work  is  his  Allffemeine  Welt-  tury).  The  Groote  Markt  has  a  sUtue 
getdtiokt*  ('General  History  U  the  of  Erasmus,  a  native  of  the  town;  and 
World').  there  are   fine  parks  and   a  large  aoo- 

1lAtf*iilMir<r  (rot'en-bCrg),  a  town  of  logical  garden.  Rotterdam  contains  ship- 
AOnenoar^  tvurttembe'g,  on  the  building  yards,  sugar-refineries,  distiller- 
Neckar,  about  6  miles  s.w.  of  Tttbingen,  ies,  tobacco  factories  and  large  machine 
haa  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and  an  works ;  but  its  mainstay  is  commeice.  It 
old  castle  (1216)  of  the  counts  of  Hohen-  not  only  carries  on  a  very  extwislTa  Md 
barg,  now  a  prison.    Pop.  7654.  acUve    trade    with    Great    Britato,    tta 

TtMHmm.utMYt^  a  soft  stone  or  mineral,  Dutch  East  and  West  Indies  and  other 
AOnem-lbOUe,  ^jjg^  ^jg^,  Tripoli^  transoceanic  countries,  but,  as  the  aatpcal 
from  the  eoontry  from  which  it  waa  outlet  for  the  entire  basin  of  the  Bbine 
fwaarly  broaght.  It  is  much  used  for  and  Meuse,  it  has  developed  an  iaper- 
pollsUng  Bonaehold  articles  of  brass  or  tant  commerc*  with  OermanT,  BwitMf* 
other  BietaL    Moat  oi  the  ratten-irtoiie  <rf  land  and  Oantral  Europe.    The  Maas  is 


row  of  elms 
planted  in  1016 
and  now  of 
great  aize. 
Many  of  the 
houses  are 
quaint  edifices, 
having  their 
gables  to  the 
street,  with 
overhanging 
upper  stories. 
The  principal 
buildings  are 
the  town-hall, 
court  -  houses, 
exchange.  old 
East  Inula 
House,  Boy- 
mans'  Museum, 
con  t  aining 
chiefly      Dutch 


Botti 


Bouen 


^ToamtA  by  a  £re»t  railway-bridge  and  an- 
oSTfoV  Saffie.  and  £oot-pa^»«SS- 
Ratteidam  received  town  ri«>»tf, j°.  ^^• 
fnS  In  1678  It  obtained  a  vote  in  the 
^?.tM  of  the  NetherlandB;  but  ite  mod- 
?n  J  writ?  ba.  been  chiefly  developed 
Jtoce    itoS.     Population,    including    tb^ 
£?mer  ,t^  of  Delf»haven.  ^tj  «»»»<=»» 
it  was  incorporated  i^  1S86.  40A481. 
v^«4-:     or  KOTTEB  (rot'tS),  one  oi  ine 
Bottl,  ^'ut^h  Sunda  Islands.  Beparated 
from  the  fl.w.  end  of  Timor  by  the  RoUi 
Strait.  6  miles  wide ;  area,  385  sq.  mnw , 
M^aW  70,000,  ruled  by  native  chiefs 
under  the  Dutch  resident. 
Tb"1Vi«-o     (rot'le-ra),  a  genus  of  trop- 
AOttiera    j\.jji    bushes     or    moderate- 
aie*d    trees,    nat.    order    Euphortiacwe. 
ttinS^  affords  a  dye.    See Jomala. 
n.  »»»vwf         /rot'vll),  a  town  of  Wurt- 
EottWCll    temb^rg.  on  the  Neckar,  49 
m{|p«    a  B  w.    from    Stuttgart.,  U    has 

™n«.  w  w   w   of  Fiji,  4  to  5  miles  wide 
1OT9   aSd  is  governed  by  a. commissioner 

?L  Su  raiSdVtiwtb,  ino.t  ol  it  being  Mt 

Jni^s*    Also   beet-sugar,    machmery,   exc. 
lS(8b4  U  had  8700''!nfiabitant.;  fn  1911 

i22.'23.  (r5.bi-y&k>,  Jjoma  Fban- 

EonblllaC  AS„,r  French  sculptor, 
was  bom  at  Lyons  in  IfS  and  «!ttleu 
ir  England  in  the  reign  of  George  I.  in 
the  dfarth  of  native  talent  which  pre- 
liiled  at  that  period,  he  lo°f /^^^  "^^''l 
head  of  his  profession.  .He  t^«^"  ^d  a 
nnmb«r  of  monuments  m  "\\  estminsier 
^bSev  the  most  remarkable  being  that  of 
Un      moMigale.    He     also     produced 

Netoton,  George  II,  and  a  large  numner 
of  portmit  busts.  He  haa  much  skill  in 
^mStut*.  but  h5»  fi8ur«  are  oj^n 
marred  by  striving  after  dramatic  effect. 
He  died  In  Londcm  in  1762. 
vl^vi.  (rO'bl),  a  silver  coin,  the 
WtMt  iZiA  of  money  in  R«Mia. 
with  a  legai  w«M*t  (slnca  Jan.  1.  1^6) 


of  19.99  grammes,  equal  to  about  80  cents 
of  iSneriJan  money.  ^  rouble  ia  alvWed 
into  100  copecks.  Half  and  quarter 
rouble,  and  sSaller  silver  coins  a«.lw 
iMiied-  but  in  actual  circulation  there  Is 
litt"fbut  paper  money,  current  at  about 
Wner  cent;  below  its  nominal  value. 
The^gold  imperial  is  worth  10  roubles,  the 
hnlf-imperial  5  roubles. 


hnlf-imperial  o  rouuiea.  ^ 

T»l»«^ir  (ro-tto),  the  old  capital  of  Nor- 
EOUen  i,nndy.  now  chief  town  of  de- 
partment Seine-Inf«rieure,  in  France-  *■ 
Situated  on  the  Seine,  80  miles  from  ibe 
sea  and  87  miles  N.  N.  w.  of  Pans.  U 
fs  the  seat  of  an  archbtahop,  and  tl» 


Ohnreh  of  St.  Oasn,  Bonen. 


-ourth  port  in  France.  In.its  older  partt 
L  streets  are  narrow,  f ctu-f?"*  of 
ill-built,  but  interesting  to  the  lover  of 
Ltedia-v^l  architecture.  The  cathednO. 
erected  in  the  thirteenth-fifteenth  cen- 
?urie?is  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  monu- 
ments  in  Normandy,  though.  It  is  sur- 
passed in  beauty  by  the  e^guisite  church 
of  g..  Ouen,  begun  in  1318  and  finiahe^ 
at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centui^r.  St. 
Maclou  (fifteenth  century)  is  «  fiu*«f- 
ample  of  florf^  Gothic.  Among  the^u- 
lar  buildings  are  the  Palais  de  Juauce 
(late  fifteSth  century).  «fuberapt  ? 
adoration;  the  Hotel  de  ViUe.  formerly 


Bong^ 

a  part  of  th«  monaitery  of  St.  Ouen ;  th* 
Hotel  dt  Boar|th<roulde  (fiftetnth  cen- 
tury), with  fine  reliefs;  the  archbiahop't 
paiace;  and  the  distinctive  Tour  de  la 
Grosae-Horloge  (1389).  The  new  Mus«e, 
built  in  1888,  contains  a  large  collection 
of  paintings,  chiefly  of  the  French  school. 
The  municipal  library  has  140,000  toI- 
ames  and  2500  MSS.  Rouen  is  a  busy 
trading  place,  and  has  important  manu- 
factures of  rouenneriea  (a  kind  of  coarse 
striped  or  checked  fabric)  and  other  cot- 
tcu  goods.  It  has  also  manufactures  of 
chemicals,  beetroot-sugar,  earthenware, 
confectionery,  etc.;  and  bleach-fields, 
dye-works,  foundries,  etc.  The  channel 
of  the  Seine  has  been  deepened  and  reg- 
ulated, so  that  vessels  of  21  feet  draught 
can  ascend  to  the  extensive  harbor  and 
docks.  Rouen  is  the  Rotomagua  of  Ro- 
man times.  In  the  ninth  century  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Northmen  or 
Normans;  and  after  the  Norman  Con- 
quest it  remained  in  the  possession  of 
England  till  1204.  The  English  retook 
it  in  1418,  but  finally  lost  it  in  1449.  In 
1431  it  was  the  scene  of  the  trial  and  exe- 
cution of  Joan  of  Arc.  Corneille,  Fon- 
tenelle,  Gtfricault,  and  other  famous  men 
were  natives  of  Rouen.  Pop.  105,043; 
or  including  the  faubourgs,  124,987. 
Va|i|m  (riizh),  a  very  tine  !K:arlet 
***"H»^  powder,  used  by  jewelers  for 
polishing  purposes,  and  prepared  from 
crystals  of^  sulphate  of  iron  exposed  to  a 
high  temperature.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  a  cosmetic  prepared  from  safflower 
(which  see). 

It^nfVA  rirAiv  (rSzh  krwii).  Rouge 
JtOnge  UrOIX  i^g^QON,  pursuivants 
of  the  English  Herald's  College,  the  first 
so-called  from  the  red  cross  of  St.  George ; 
the  second  from  the  red  dragon,  the  sup- 
posed ensign  of  Cadwaladyr,  the  last 
king  of  the  Britons.     See  Pur$uivant, 

Eonge-ct-Noir  .<S'tnrWk^[; 

I'bsnte-Un  (trApt-u?;  '  thirty -one'), 
or  Tbente  et  Quarante  (triijt-e-kft- 
rAvt;    'thirty    and    forty'),    a    modem 

game  of  chance  played  with  the  cards 
elonging  to  six  complete  packs.  The 
punten  or  players  stake  upon  any  of 
the  four  chances:  rouge,  noir,  couleur, 
and  inverse.  The  banker  then  deals  a 
row  of  carda  for  noir,  until  the  exposed 
pips  number  between  30  and  40  (court- 
cards  count  10,  aces  1),  and  a  similar 
row  for  rogue.  That  row  wins  which 
most  nearly  approaches  the  number  31, 
and  players  staking  on  the  winning  color 
receive  their  stake  doubled.  Couleur 
wina  if  the  first  card  turned  up  in  the 
deal  ia  of  the  winning  color;  in  the  con- 
tXKTj  case  tttver«e  wins.    When  the  num- 


coined  by 
F.  Cody 
bis  'Wild 
men    who 


Botunania 


b«r  of  pips  in  both  rows  are  equal  it  is  a 
rtfttit.  and  a  fresh  deal  ia  made;  but  if 
both  happen  to  count  exactly  81  it  ia  a 
refait  de  trente-et-un,  and  the  iMuiker 
claims  one-half  of  all  stakes.  This  last 
condition  places  the  banker  at  an  advan- 
tage calculated  to  be  equal  to  about  Ik 
per  cent,  on  ail  sums  staked. 

Eouget  de  Lisle.  I^^^""**""*" 
Eongh  Eiders,  *,jK 

(•Buffalo  Bill'),  for  use  in 
West'  show,  indicating  the 
carried  messages  over  the  West  in  early 
frontier  times.  The  name  was  given  to 
the  cowboy  regiment  oraanized  by  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  for  the  Spanish-American 
war;  also  to  the  2d  United  States  vol- 
unteer cavalry.  These  were  made  up 
largely  of  western  ranchmen. 
UnnlAra  (rii-l&r;  Flemish,  RouBte- 
AUUici^  laere),  town  of  Belgium,  in' 
West  Flanders,  on  the  Mandel,  17  miles 
south  of  Bruges.  The  chief  industrial 
establishments  are  cotton  and  woolen  fac- 
tories; and  it  has  an  important  lineb 
market.    Pop.  (1904)  24,548. 

a  game  of  chance,  in  which 
a  small  ivory  ball  is  thrown  of  by  a  re- 
volving disk  into  one  of  37  or  38  com- 
partments surrounding  it,  and  numbered 
from  1  to  36,  with  one  or  two  zeros. 
Players  who  have  staked  upon  the  num- 
ber of  the  compartment  into  which  the 
ball  falls  receive  thirty-six  times  their 
stake ;  less  if  they  have  staked  upon  more 
than  one  number.  There  are  also  other 
chances  on  which  stakes  may  be  placed. 

Eonmania  («-8-mft'ni-a).  5  European 
^^^^  kingdom,  bounded  by  Aus- 

tria-Hungary, Servia,  Bulgaria,  the 
Black  Sea  and  Russia ;  area,  52,760  sq. 
miles.  'It  includes  the  former  Danubian 
principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia 
and  the  province  of  the  Dobrudsha  on 
the  Black  Sea.  Pop.  estimated  7,400,000. 
The  capital  is  Bukharest;  other  chief 
towns  are  Jassy,  Galatx,  BraTlia,  and 
Giurgevo.  The  surface  is  mainly  occu- 
pied by  undulating  and  well-watered 
plains  of  great  fertility,  gradually  slop- 
ing upwards  to  the  Carpathians  on  the 
N.  and  w.  iMrders,  where  the  summits 
range  from  2650  to  8800  feet  a1>ove  sea- 
level.  The  entire  kingdom  is  in  tie  basin 
of  the  Danube,  which  has  a  course  of  605 
miles  in  Roumania,  forming  the  boundary 
with  Bulgaria  nearly  the  whole  distance. 
Its  chief  Roumanian  tributaries  are  the 
Olta  or  Ahita,  ^rdjis,  Jalomitza.  Sereth, 
and  Pnith  (on  N.  w.  border).  The  Dan- 
ube forms  a  number  of  marshy  lake*'  as  it 
approaches    the   alluvial    regiop    of   too 


Boumuiia 


HouiiiiiU 


Dobradtln.  ttannuh  which  «*  «>licb»r|« 
iStil  tot?  th«  Black  ,8««  by  the  Bt. 
Sw,  BuUn*  and  KlUa  c>»anntta.    Tha 

clSuKe  it  much  more  •xt""*  t^^Fa 
the  aame  tatltude  in  other  oarta  of  Eu- 
tooe:  the  aummer  is  hot  and  rainlea^  the 
wStw  audd«i  and  very  intense;  there 
U  almost  no  aprlng,  but  the  autumn  U 
Umm  and  oleasant.  Roumanla  U  an  ea- 
ISStla"/ agricultural  and  pMtoral  state. 
??.ll»  70  ner  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  be- 
iWiSct'T/eng.ied  In  busbandry  The 
chief  cereal  crops  are  maize,  wheat,  bar- 


chiel  cereal  crops  »«  iu«ii«v,  . . 

ley?  rye  and  oats,  enormous  crops  of 
wSiat  and  maize  being  produced;  to- 
tarn),  hemp,  and  flax  are  a  «o  grown; 
and  wine  is  produced  on  the  bils  at  the 
foot  of  the  Carpathians.    Cattle,  sheep, 

and  horses  are  reared  in  larKt^rrS: 
Excellent  timber  abounds  on  the  Carpa- 
»hinM  R«ars.  wolves,  wild  boars,  large 
ind  inaU  g"ie  and  Bsh  are  plentiful. 
The  country  Is  rich  In  minerals  of  nearly 
eyery  description,  but  salt,  petroleum, 
..d  Unite  are  the  on  y  minerals  worked. 
MaaKreJ;  are  still  in  a  rudimentary 

'*r^  B««tco«»,  etc.— Trade  is  fairly 
acti^'ut  is  sJmoi^t  entirely  in  the  hands 
Sf  fo^lgaers ;  the  Internal  trade  Is  chiefly 
?arri^  on  hy  Jews,  whose  numbers  and 
orwVrlty  are  constant  sources  of  anxiety 
toXumanlan  statesmen,  and  who  are 
In  consequence  subject  to  certain  disablli- 
t leT  The  chief  exports  are  grain  (espe- 
Sy  maize),  cattle,  timber,  and  fnnt; 
Ae   chief    imports    «>a°"f«tured  goods. 

coal.  etc.     Germany.  Gf*?*  .^^'W"  X 
Austria-Hungary  appronriata  by  far  the 
greatest  share  of  the  foreign  trad^  tne 
gulk  of  which  pas««  though  the  BUck 
Seaports.    Railways,  begun  in  lWW,aave 
a  r  >n  length  of  about  2300  miles,  nearly 
all  in  the  hands  of  government.  wMch 
a  BO  monopolizes  salt  and  tobacco.    The 
French  d^mal  coinage  has  been  intro- 
duced, the  franc  being  called  leu  (pi.  let), 
'bedtime  htnu    The  metric  "yatem  of 
weights  and  measures  has  also  been  of- 
fickSy  reS>gnlzed.  but  a  bew  denng  di- 
versity ofl^l  standards  Is  still  common. 
Pe<il«.— The    Roumanians,    who    call 
themselves  Romoni.  claim  to  be  descend- 
ants of  Roman  colonists  introduced  by 
Tndan:  but  the  traces  of  Latin  descent 
anTln  great  part  due  to  a  later  immigra- 
doo.  a^ut  the  twelfth  century,  from  the 
Alpine    districts.    Their    language    and 
history   both    Indicate   that   they    are  a 
mixed     race     with     many     constituents. 
Their  lasgnage.  however,  must  be  classed 
M  one  of  the  Romance  tonsuea;,  though 
•t  eoataina  a  Urge  admixture  of  wreisn 
•laaeBtn.    The    population    'ncluof^  J? 
•iMtton  la  tha  ttofamaniau,  larga  waar 


bm  of  J«wa  and  •n»ri«^  «o*  K??Jg 

&:  2-\-iSS'iaii'^h'^3 

|{*^S?"ll:J??n%'?rtC«dJLV^ 
hoSia  Sfnoblea.  In  that  year  upwards 
S^OOO  peasant  families  were  made 
j'roJffeSS  5f  "mall  holding,  averaging 

?hVrt;'in'  SlSn^^r^^'i^A  H 
SillloS  rf  Ihe  JJople  bllong  to  ^he  Oreek 

SWi  rSra«t4^'^Sm  ftVprS^? 
iSw  level.  Ronmanla  has  two  universl- 
i?M  Vat  Bukareat  and  J  assy),  several 
y^niSla.  and'a  system  of  fre.  prtaarv 
Schools,  it  which  attendance  is  compul- 

"^G'ovemment, etc.-Roumania  ia  a  hered- 
itary   constitutional    monarchy,    w"°    » 
b^ameral    legislature.    The    "•^nate    con- 
Blsts  of  various  dignitaries   a°d  offl^»»i" 
and   110  elected  members;   the  chamlver 
Sf  deputies  has  183  members,  elect^  by 
a  1  citizens  paying  taxes  or  lP<>«««»ed  of 
a    certain    standard    of  ,^<="S;,/^ 
constitution,  revised  in  18»»j,.«joseiy  re- 
sembles  that   of   Belgium.     The   king   is 
"asSsS  by  a  »'ni5tr|  of  eight  mem^ 
The    army   Is   modeled   on    the   wer™"" 
svstem,    «rvice    being   compu^fo^y  J"^?? 
the  ««  of  21  to  46,  the  war  strength  be- 
lSg?ompuTed    at    320.000.    The    peace 
strength  ia  about  70.000. 

flatory.— The  country  that  la  bow 
Rouman^  waa  •««^ie°tly  part  of  DacUu 
which  waa  conquered  by  TriJan  and 
made  a  Roman  province  in  Iw  A.©.,  a 
great  many  Eloman  colonists  belnf  then 
SetUed  in  it.  In  the  third  century  U 
S?1verrun  by   the^Gotha.  and  -ub*- 


fluently   by   Huns,   Bulgara.   Avara  and 
Slave,  all  of  whom  have  left  more  M 
less  distinct  traces  pn  the  land  "d  peo- 
ple.   At  the  beglnnmg  of  the  ninth  c«- 
tury  Roumanla  formed  part  of  the  graai 
Bulgarian    kingdom,    after    the  fall    of 
whi?h.  in  1019,  it  nom^ally  belonaed  to 
the    Eastern    Roman    Empire,   although 
soon    taken    possessioa    of    by    Turktob 
tribea.    Wallachla    and    Moldavia    were 
long  divided.    About  1241  Radu  Negra. 
'duke*    of    Fogeras,    is    said    to    hava 
founded    a     voivodeship     in    Wallachla, 
which    finally    fell    under    Turkish    au- 
premacy  after,  the  battle  of  Mohaca  to 
i52tt.    The  boiars  ret.  .ned   the  nominal 
right  of  electing  the  voivodes  untU  1726 
but  thenceforward  the  sultan  openly  toIu 
the  office  to  the  highest  bidders,  who,  with- 
out security  of  tenure,  merclleaaly  pluiDt 
dered  the  unfortunate  province j«o  !on» 

M  their  power  lasted.  In  Jf^i^^*  "'jB  - 
gosh  or  Bondan  BlK)ut  1K4  fow»d^  « 
kingdom,  much  as  Radu  had  done  in  Wat 


SoumIm 


Bound  Towtrt 


ladda.  and  it  too  feU  onder  tho  anf- 
iMdriSb  of  tho  Porto  aftor  tbo  death  (^ 
tho  vofvodo  flt^han  tbo  Qnat  in  IWM. 
Tho  Twks  mibMQuoiitly  introdnead  the 
MUM  emtom  ci  adliiig  tbo  honmdanhip 
or  voiTodaddp.     In  Eoth  provineea  the 
gommnflnt    was    moat    fnqaently    pnr- 
chttMd  Inr  Phanariotea.  Onak  infaaUtanta 
of  th«  Fhanar  diatrict  of  (Tonatantinopla. 
The  anoeeaaiva  wata  between  Ruaaia  and 
Tuiliey  were  <m  the  whole  bentfdal  to 
Boomania.   for   the   Roaaiana   gradually 
eatabUabed  a  kind  of  protectorate  over 
their  fellow-Cliriatiana   on   the   Danube. 
The  Treaty  of  Paria  in  1856.  after  the 
Crimean  War,  confirmed  the  auzerointy  of 
the  Porte,  but  preaerved  the  rishta  and 
priTilec ea  of  the  Danubian  prindpoutiea, 
and  added  to  them  part  of  Beaaarabia. 
In  1868  the  two  provineea,  each  electing 
Prince    Couaa    aa    ita    hoapodar,    were 
united   hj  a  peraonal   union,   which  in 
1861  waa  formally  converted  into  a  real 
and  national  union.    Couaa,  who  aaanmed 
the  title  of  Prince  Alexander  John  I  in 
1800,  waa  forced  by  a  revolution  to  abdi- 
cate   in    1866.    and    Prince    Charles    of 
Hohenaollem-Sigmaringen  waa  elected  in 
hia  place.    In  the  Ruaao-Turidah  War  of 
1877^  Roomania   aided   with    Ruaaia. 
and  proclaimed  ita  independence  of  Tur- 
key.   Thia  daim  waa  recncniaed  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berttn  in  1878.  bnt  Roumania 
waa  cmnpdled  to  retrocede  to  Russia  the 
part  <rf  Beaaarabia  which  it  acquired  at 
the  doaa  of  the  Crimean  War,  and  to  re- 
ceive the  Dobrodaha  in   exchange.     In 
1881  the  prindpality  declared   itself  a 
kingdom.     Roumania  Joined  in  the  Bal- 
kan   war  la  1918  ^g.  v.).    King  Chwrlea 
died  October  10,  1914.  hia  nephew,  Fei^ 
dinand.  aucceeding.    Roumania  remained 
nentral    in    the    European    war    until 
Aognat  28, 1916,  when  it  Joined  the  cause 
ol  the  Entente  Allies.     It  made  a  brief 
gnoeeaaful  forward  movement,  but  a  com- 
plete repulse  followed,  the  whole  country 
bdbig  overrun.    With  Russia,  Roumania 
waa  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  of  pence 
in  Ifarch,  1918,  with  Germany  and  her 
alliea.     With  tiie  collapse  of  the  central 


powera  in  November,  1918,  Roumania  re- 
entered the  war  and  was  represented  in 
the  peace  conference  in  Paris.  By  the 
peace  of  1019  ker  territory  was  neariy 
doubled,  at  the  expense  of  Hungary  and 
Ruaaia.  (Sea  map  of  Balkan  Sta^ea.) 
Bonmclia.      SeeRumelia. 

fltm-nii  in  music,  a  short  composition 
AOUUU)    j„  ^ijgj,  thi^  „  more  voicea 

ttart*"g  at  the  beginning  of  stated  suc- 
ceapive  phrases  sing  the  same  music  in 
u^om  or  octave  (uua  differing  fnun  the 
canon). 


<K>poaing  taama  on  a  piaca  <rf  noond 
mailed  off  into  a  diammd.  Nine^playm 
each  aide.  It  ia  vary  aimilar  to  baaeball, 
which  auperaeded  it  in  America,  though 
the  game  in  ita  original  form  of  roondeta 
ia  8^  popalmt  in  Emgbnd. 

AOUna-OUl,    Hto<«rdH«)  oftheaalmon 

fandly,  found  in  many  of  the  lakea  and 

rivera  of  the  Northern  United  Statea  and 

Canada.     When  in  good  condition  it  ia 

very  fat  and  of  exqolalte  flavor,  weighing 

about  2  Iba. 

'Rntinilli^ftilg  ■  °<"i>«  formerly  given 
JMUnaneaOB,    ^y    ^^^^    CavaUera    or 

adherenta  of  Charlea  I,  during  the  English 
dvil  war,  to  members  of  the  Puritan  or 
parliamentary  party,  who  distinguished 
themsdvea  by  having  their  hair  doady 
cut  while  the  Cavaliers  wore  thdrs  in  long 
ringlets. 

PAimri  P/tliin  &  written  protest  or 
iiOUna  iiODin,     remonstrance,aigned 

in  a  circular  form  by  several  persons,  so 
that  no  name  shall  be  obliged  to  head  the 
liat.  Thia  method  of  bringing  grievances 
to  the  notice  of  superiors  waa  first  used 
by  French  ofBcers,  whence  ita  derivation 
from  rond  ruhan,  '  round  ribbon.' 
'Rntinil  TslMp  '^^'  famoua  in  the 
AOHna  laoie,  Arthurian  legends,  a 
taUe  for  the  accommodation  of  a  adect 
fraternity  of  knights,  said  to  have  been 
establiahed  by  Uther  Pendragon,  father 
of  King  Arthur,  and  when  it  waa  com- 
plete to  have  had  160  knighta  of  approved 
valor  and  virtue.  King  Leodegraunce. 
who  received  it  from  Uther  Pendragon, 
waa  father  of  Guinevere,  and  assigned  it 
aa  part  of  her  dowry  when  she  wedded 
Arthur.  The  fellowship  of  the  Round 
Table  met  for  the  last  time  just  before 
setting  out  on  the  quest  for  the  holy 
graiL  There  are  other  accounts  of  the 
founding  of  the  table,  one  of  which  as- 
cribes it  to  Arthur  himself,  who  admitted 
oidy  12  knights  to  it.  All.  however,  unite 
in  describing  it  as  the  center  of  a  fellpw- 
ship  of  valiant,  pious,  and  noble  knights. 
First  mention  of  it  is  made  in  the  Brut 
of  Wace.  ,  .     „ 

AOUna  lowers,  ^^  drcular  edi- 
fices, tapering  somewhat  from  the  base 
upwards,  and  generally  with  a  conical 
top,  from  60  to  130  feet  in  height,  and 
from  20  to  30  in  diameter.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  three  in  Scotland,  they  are 
peculiar  to  Ireland.  The  doors  are  from 
6  to  20  feet  from  the  ground,  the  win- 
dowa  amall.  The  interior  contained  no 
ataira,  but  the  aucceadve  atoriea  .were 
raadied,  like  the  doors,  by  meana  of  lad- 


Bottnd  Tofwert 


BooMMii 


dem.  Aothoritle.  .re  now  P"",  wg  TBm  ^wMl  f^^^JS^  2?  ^&SS; 
Wreed  thJit  tb«KJ  tower,  were  the  worta  o«  W^f"^^*  umj  noma  CSrtkoUc  to- 
;fT9hrl.tiimi.ed  raw  "«tej  o  pUw-  :3f„^^t  T^,&  wlSSTkTjWoijd  Pw^ 
•  refuge  and  as  watch-towers.  Aoey  "JJJJJJr"  "*  \ft«y  Mveral  ftta  «rf  ecoaa- 
oate  f^  the  ei«»»t»i  o'  «  ShjSS  ?ffi^erinT&  w«t  to  Uv.  with  Itoe. 
thirteenth  century.  In  the  * "■»  »«»'2  S«  WareM  at  Lee  Oharmettea,  a  eoantry- 
Ster  960  A.  D.  they  are  in»«ri«"j.^?l  fcZ'JSJ  SiamMry.  where  they  appear 
heU-towera  becauae  «ften  .'n«°^?°trmJSr  toTave  UTedhappl^  for  neariy  ,Aree 
Ejects  of  attack  by  the  Northmen.  *®,°»'«™?^S^  a  aK  abaence  at  Mont- 
A^?118  of  theae  tower.  atilexu.t^  year-.  J™"  .".'RTaaSS^^med  to 
Ireland,  twenty  of  t>»m  being  In  a  goga  ^»^^  "^       ^'^e.  Charmettea  oecapled 

The  round  tower  has  been  reprw^ncedm  *"*  *'^"'gj^  c^nection  with  TMrfce 
the  monument  to  O  Oomjell  |n.«\»»"*2i°   f„  VwSeur    with  whom,  fivc-and-twjnty 
?*"''T;^ft.J?u"rliSJrwifto^thI  yea«Tter'  Kwent  thiourt  .^e  torn. 
KaSUS^"Se"  n  We^t^oT^any    a-  It  marriage  ceremony^  In  frSO  hi.  e««y. 
SSfcftnce  the  Cathedral  at  Worms..    Con- 
•.^t    Dr     Georee    Petrie's    Ecclesia»ttcal 
TLuJ^'iuTJf  Ireland  A«J«Jor  «o   «k« 
Analo-N^'-man  Invasion  JDnVlin,  llHo;, 
and  Daniel  Wilson's  Prehistoric  AnnaU. 

JiOIUay   brkney     Islands,     BU    milM 
longty  4,,  miles  broad    and  10  miles  W. 
nfKtrkwall.    Pop.  about  800._ 
of  l^»«waii.    '^^  5)    jBAN  BAPnsTK.  a 

EOUSSCaU     ^^"ch  poet,  bom  in  Pari. 

In  1670.    His  quarrelsome  disposition  and 

torn  for  ill-natured  satire  involved  Mm 

In  almost  instant  *[«""«: /"A ''l.X 

S?rrin^rer.siSV"ap^a?  '^ioTZ.  Jean  J«au«  Rc~u 

law  courts.  He  spent  the  «"»'«'«'.  "J  .„  ^hich  he  adopted  the  negative  ride  of 
his  Ufe  chiefly  in  A^enna  «nf  t^e  fet^^  Jhe  quMtiSn  whether  civUiMtion  baa  con- 
lands,  and  died  at  Brussels  in  1741.  tiis  J^";  **  ,  ^  nurify  manners,  won  a  priw 
works  cSSsist  of  sacred  and  secular  odes.  t|*«5^|J»  ?he  icademy  of  DUon.*^and 
Cantatas,  epigrams,  operas,  comedies.  ^^^^^^  ^  for  the  first  time  into  general 
eoistles,  etc.  ,  -^v-  nntiM      In  1752  he  brought  out  a  auc- 

«J!«aoi»«ti  Jean  Jacques,  one  of  the  nonce.  ^  tly'/thg  music  by  himsdf). 
EonSSCaU,  ^^^  celebrated  and  mo^t  ^"JL^^^  a  celebrated  Lc«cr  an 
influential  writers  of  the  eighteenth  cen-  f^^^^^]  \^  1754  he  revlrited 
tury.  was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker  at  Fr^  m  ^^  ^^  readmitted  a  free 
Geneva,  where  he  was  bom  jn  171^^.    *  or  "^    -  ^e  embracing  ProtM- 

the  first  thirty-five  years  o£J»»8  J,Y«X  tSln  Having  retumed  to  Paris,  he 
chief    authority    is    his    own    painfuUy  taanra.     Jaa^ng  i^w 

frank,  but  pe^aps  not  abeohrtely^  a^  ^.S*  ff«2ue,    which    i^T  published    in 

rn^d%fiE?.^^ms7o5ss«';^^^  ^^'^^!i,^^zf^\^s::^TU't 

«'^*».S'*"'5*"tw«2   anfec^    to  ffli-JaCK  mother  story,  in  1762.    The 


IBoUlMtIi 


SowiBit 


tBthor.  Tht  etrnfcMlMi  et  ftUtk  «f  Ow 
%TO]rurd  vlnr  in  Jhnil*  wu  dteterid  • 
4a>aeioai  attack  ap<m  rtUftoo,  and  tba 
booa  wat  buraad  both  ia  Paris  and 
Oraera.  Paneeution,  ancivntad  hj  bla 
own  morbid  •eoaibllity.  fomd  Uouweao 
to  Am  to  NeofcbAtel.  then  to  the  lia  Bt 
Plert*  in  the  Lali«  of  Bienne,  and  finally 
to  Snfland,  where  he  waa  wekmaed  bj 
Home,  Boiwell,  and  others  in  nw.  A 
nalkioos  letter  by  Horace  Walpole  nn« 
Inckll/  rouwd  hla  itupiciona  of  his  Ent- 
Ush  friends,  and  In  May.  1767,  he  re- 
tomed  to  France,  where  his  presence  waa 
sow  tolerated.  He  lived  in  great  poverty, 
sapportinff  himself  by  copying  mosic  and 
pablisbinc  ocrasional  works.  In  May, 
1778,  he  retirt-d  to  ErmenonTlUe  near 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  the  following 
Jnly,  not  without  suspicion  of  suicide. 
His  celebrated  Confeuiona  appeared  at 
Geneva  in  1782.  Rousseau  united  an 
Mithusiastic  passion  for  love  and  free- 
jdom  with  an  inflexible  obstinacy  and  a 
strange  spirit  of  paradox.  His  life  was 
clouded  by  a  gloomy  bypoc'.ondria,  often 
developing  into  suspicion  of  his  truest 
[friends,  and  embittered  by  an  unreason- 
wle  sensitiveness,  which  some  have  de- 
'aeribed  as  almost  actual  insanltv.  'i'he 
[diief  importance  of  his  works  lies  rer^ 
.hapa  in  the  fact  that  they  contain  the 
'germ  of  the  doctrines  which  were  car- 
!ned  out  with  such  ruthless  consistency 
'in  the  French  revoluti<m.  Roucaeaa 
was  also  a  musical  author  and  critic  of 
aome  importance. 
UnnM^ffn    (r5-sef),    a   name    some* 

'givwous  bats  generally. 

Bonsullon  (r3-^?<*J>. » '<»™«  v*ot- 

MTviifraMiiTTu,  jj,j,g  g£  France,  now  oc- 
cupied by  the  department  of  the  Pyrfo^es 
Onentales.  It  gave  name  to  a  family  of 
counts.  • 

Bove-l)eetles,  "T  cocktaos,  the  pop- 

AMTvv  uMM^A^iOf  yjjjy  jj^jjjg   ^jj   certain 

beetlSB.    The    common     species     is     the 

Ocypwt    olent,    the    black    cocktail,    or 

*  devil's  coach-horse.'    These  beetles  axe 

carrion-feeders. 

!BLoimredo   ( rs-va-ra'do),  a  town  of 

north  of  Verona,  on  the  Leno.  near  its 
Action  with  the  Adige.    It  is  an  im- 
portant cmter  of  the  Austrian  silk  mano- 
facture  and  silk  trade.    Pop.  10,180. 
Ttoiricmn    (rC-ven'yd),  a  seaport  of 

ef  Istria,  40  miles  south  of  Trieste;  haa 
twa  harbors,  and  a  considerable  staippiag 
trade.  The  cathedral  dates  from  the 
alsTSBth  century.  Pop.  10,205. 
IBavufo  ilO-vS'80)i  a  town  in  Italy, 
mmmwM^v  ^  j^^  a  w.  of  Padna,  c«^ 


tel.of  •  vnfiatM  et  Its  naoM,  «i  the 
▲difsttak  an  mtm  of  tht  Adiia.  The 
towa-hooss  eontalos  a  pletara-QUafy  and 
a  library  of  80,000  ▼sinmea.  Than  is  a 
handsome  conrt-hooaa  and  two  laaniaff 
towers  belooffinf  to  a  castle  erected  in 
the  tenth  century.  Pop.  11474d — Tha 
pnrrlnoa  haa  an  area  of  68S  sq.  mllss; 
pop.  221,901 

fiSvnma  ia2?-:i'i<!L  fe  "Sa^x: 

B.  of  Lain  Nyassa.  and  flows  nearly  dne 
■t  with  a  course  of  about  000  miles,  to 
the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Rovnma  is  not 
well  adapted  for  navigation.  It  marks 
the  boundary  between  the  territory  of 
Ocarmany  and  Portugal. 

Mwnnu  Mi>«    ^,j  MOUKTAIN-ASH   (P^ 

ru$  Anoupttria),  nat  order  Rosacea^ 
is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Siberia,  com* 
mon  in  Britain,  particularly  in  the  High- 
lands. Its  leaves  are  pinaate,  leaflets 
uniform,  serrated,  glabrous.  It  haa 
numerous  white  flowers  in  corymbs.  The 
fruit  consists  of  clusters  of  small  red  ber- 
ries, bitter  to  the  taste.  The  tree  attains 
a  height  of  from  20  to  40  feet,  and  af- 
fords timber  much  used  by  toolmakers 
and  others.  The  bark  is  used  by  tanners 
and  the  berries  yield  a  dye.  The  rowan- 
tree  was  formerly  regarded  as  an  ob- 
ject of  peculiar  veneration,  and  a  twig 
of  it  was  supposed  to  be  eflScacious  in 
warding  oft  evil  spirits.    It  is  also  called 

£icfceii-<re0  and  quick-beam. 
owe  C*^)'  Nicholas,  an  Eulish 
""^  dramatic  poet,  bom  in  1678  at 
Little  Barford,  Qedfonbhire,  was  a  king's 
scholar  at  Westminster  under  Dr.  Busby, 
studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple,  but  on 
hla  father'a  death  devoted  himself  to 
literature.  He  filled  several  lucrative 
posts,  and  in  171S  he  was  made  poet- 
laureate  in  succession  to  Nahom  Tate. 
He  died  in  1718,  and  waa  buried  in  the 
Poets'  C!omer  in  Westminster.  Rowe'a 
tragedies  are  passionate  and  forcible  in 
language,  and  his  plots  well  conceived. 
His  minor  pieces  are  imimportant,  but 
his  translatioD  of  Lucan'a  Phanalia  haa 
been  deservedly  praiaed.  Bis  best  plays 
are  the  Fuir  Penitmt  and  Jan«  Bkon; 
others  are  the  Ambitiout  Stepmother, 
Tamerlane,  Ulyteee,  The  Royal  Convert, 
and  Lady  Jane  Oref/,  EUs  comedy  of  tha 
BUer  waa  a  failure. 

Aowinff  ^  *^^  *rt  o'  propelUng  a 
■^^^^^  boat  by  means  of  oars,  which 
act  as  levers  of  the  second  order,  the 
work  being  done  between  the  power  (iA» 
the  rower)  and  the  falcrum  ({.a.,  tlw 
water,  of  which  the  cctaal  disdacement 
ia  very  slight),  nat  vart  of  the  op- 
eratioa  dnraif  wWck  tha  pewer  is  ae^ 


fowliBd 


Boyal  EovselioUl 


Sttok?;  white  f««tberliii  is  tht  tct  ol 
toralDC  th*  btedt  of  the  oar  M  at  to  ba 
MMlui  to  tha  rorfaca  of  tha  water,  and 
S:?"&?t  thua  through  the  air  Into  PO- 
Stton  tS  repeat  tha  atroke.    Much  akill  to 
KQuirad  to  perform  theaa  operatlona  aat- 
tafaftorlly;  and  In  fact  rowing  can  ba 
Kmrf  inly  from  obaarvatlon  and  prac- 
UceT   Technically  tha  word  '«>wlng'  to 
uMd  by  boating-men  only  wh«°  •«<=^  «!« 
San  has  but  a  -ingle  oar;  when  he  haa 
one  In  each  hand  Tie    •■*»«»  to  ' ""It 
and    the   oara    are   called    •  acuUa.     Al- 
though rowing   la  certainly   one  of   the 
mo«t  ancient  m-thoda  of  P'opelUng  vea- 
5-la.  It  ha.  only, comparatively  recently 
coma    Into    prominence    "    '..'""S-tM 

Analo-Saxon    racea.    The    Thamca    haa 
always  been  the  leading  resort  of  ama- 
?i!r?^'oa?SSknship.    which    had    atta^ 
•nmA   little   vlaor   before   the   first   Doai 
?S?e*bitw«n"(fxford  and  C^bridge  un^- 
yeralties  took  place^in   1829.    The  m^ 
ond  took  place'^in  1830;  and  »incc  1«^ 
the  contest  has  been  annual,  the  courBe 
r since  1864)  be  ng  from  Putney  to  Mort- 
lake?  aS  4J  miles.    Of  the  very  nu- 
merous amateSr  regattas  which  are  held 
all  over  Great  Britain,  the  chief  is  that 
at     Henley-on-Thames,    .held     annually 
*     Since   1830.     In   the   United    States   the 
Sm  amateur  rowing  club  was  founded 
In    1834,   but   the  sport  did  not  make 
Such  progress  until  the  «n^^*"'""jpf 
Yale  (in  1843)   and  Harvard  (In  1844) 
took  It  up,  followed  by  other  aniveralties. 
Yal*    and    Harvard    have   competed    an- 
nuilly  since  1878  and  most  of  the  other 
univeraltiea     have     rowing     clubs.    Ihe 
chief  retttta  Is  held  on  different  courses 
to  different  years  by^the  National  Asso- 
r^atlon  of  Amateur  Oarsmen,  founded  in 
1873.    Holland,     Germany,     and     other 
countries   have   rowing  clubs  of   Impor- 
tance.   Racing    boats    are    called    eight- 
M?^  of  •  eights,'  'fours,'   'pairs.'  etc., 
according    to    the    number    of    rowers. 
•  Sixes  ^and  •  double-scullers 'are    more 
common  In  America  than  In  Great  Brit- 
ain.   The  use  of  outriggers  was   Intro- 
duced about  1844,  that  of  sliding-seats,  an 
American  Invention,  about  1871. 
p^^irLj     (r6'land).   Hesbt  AuQUS- 
AOWiana    :^^^^     physicist,     bom     at 
Honesdale,  Pennsylvania,   in   1845;   died 
June  16,  1901.    He  became  professor  of 
Tihyslcs  at  Johns  Hopkins  IJnIverslty  In 
1876  an-'   was  made  a  membor  of  the 
NatloK    Academy  of  Bcioicea  in  188L 


Ba  BSda  important  dtocover  aa  in  mar 
'natlo  actiyitlaa  and  Invanted  a  prof^ 
tor  roilng  diffraction  graUnga  wWcli  to 
of  much  Talua  in  •P«<^'y"  •»fi?^»^, 
Tii^-,l.«  VMFia  (ron'li  r6'ito),»town 
BOWley  Aegll  it  gtaffordablra,  Bnr 

land,  partly  within  the ,  I*'""»*lt*S 
borongrof  Dudley  and  s^Uar  to  it  in 
Ita  toduatrlea.    Pop.  87,0(». 

pin,  ate.  „      .,        j^ 

Boxa'na.  b**'*^***'*^ 


■D«ip1»iih»1i    (rokaTjurg),      RoxBtn»H- 
AOXbnrgn  ^mge,  or  TKVic«DAtE,  an 
inland    border    county    of    Scotland,    is 
funded   by   Dunfries.   Cumbertond   and 
Northumberland,      Berwick,     MWlothian 
and  Selkirk.    Area,  065  ■Q-  »»«;.  Tha 
Chaylot  Hills  stretch  along  the  aouth  bor- 
der, where  the  loftiest  summit  to  Auchope- 
caira  (2382  feet).    The  chief  river  la  the 
Teviot,  a  tributary  of  the  Tweed,  wWcb 
also  traverses  part  of  the  county.    Thff 
minerals  are   unimportant,  though  lime- 
atone     and     sandstone     are     abundant. 
Roxburghshire    is    chiefljr    occupied    b> 
valuable  sheep  walks,  but  its  arable  farms 
are   also   among    the    best    in    ScotlanO. 
The    important    woolen    manufacture    » 
confined  to  the  towns,  of  which  the  (Al^ 
are    Hawick     (county    town) ,    Jadborg 
and  Melrose.   ,Pop.  48^04. 
PAYlinrv     (roks'b^r-l),  a  former  dty 
ilOXDTlry    ^j  Suffolk  Co.,   Maaaachu- 
setta,  8  miles  ?w-  of  Boston.     U  waa 
Incorporated   with    Boaton    lu    18OT.    It 
has  many  handsome  residences  and  gar- 
dens and  numerous  manufactures. 
i>«««    (rol).  WnxiAM,  antiquarian  and 
*0y    ilSdUlst,  was  bl.m  In  1720,  n^r 
Lanark  in  Scotland;  died  in  1700.    Ha 
entered  the  army  and  attained  the  rank 
of  major-general.     In  1746  he  made  the 
survey  of  Scotland  afterwards  known  rr 
the  *  Uuke  of  Cumberland's  Map. 

Boyal  Academy.     Seo  AcoJcmy. 
Eoyal  Arcanum,  tJX^^r^^'^ 

Boston,  Mass.,  In  1877.  The  m^ibersMp 
of  the  order  in  1915  was  250,000.  «««- 
inm  of  the  Supreme  CouncU  are  hald  In 
SSt^n,  but  wme  2000  •ubordinate  coon- 
dte  ar^  in  operation  throughout  the  vari- 
ous StatM.  thoae  persons 

Eoyal  Housenold,  ^"o  hoia  ikhju 

In  connection  with  the  household  oi  Jbo 

British  sovereign,  i^f  "'»f„«  i^ltcrotaw! 
of  the  priyy-purse  and  P^^a*"  "f^rfSfuL 
tord     stn^flid,     treasurer,     comptro'l-.. 


Boytl  Zaitifitiom 


Itytr^ooUard 


\\ 


■Mtw  of  tht  kawtkold.  lord.ckuiterliiiii, 
fkfchMBbtrikta.   mwttr   nt  th*  bort^ 

CUpUlM    of    thO    gWtltlBMI'Ot^inM    ud 

nomw  of  th*  foard.  nMttr  of  the  boek- 
h<mBdL  Mrl-BMntal,  gruul  falcontr,  lord 
hifh  aimoiMr,  btrtditary  «r»nd  almontr, 
bGanm  of  tko  robco,  maldi  of  booor. 
lordo-lB-waitiiig,  matter  of  ceivnoatM, 
phjrtkiana  in  oidinary,  pott-laaftatt,  ttc. 

Royal   Inititiition   of   Great 

1lii4t*<ii  founded  in  1790,  incorpp- 
amrnXUf   ^^^    |,y    if^ygi    cliarter    in 

1800,  for  dlSuiinf  linowlcdge  and  facili- 
tating tbo  gontral  introduction  of  me- 
chanical inrtntiona,  and  for  teaching  the 
•pplieatlaQ  of  science  to  the  common 
punxiaeo  of  life.  The  members  are 
elected  by  ballot,  and  pay  an  admleelon 
fee  and  annual  ■obscription.  The  build- 
ings at  Albemarle  St..  Piccadilly,  Lon- 
don, contain  a  lal>orstory,  library,  and 
mmenm,  and  among  the  lecturers  occur 
the  names  of  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  Sir 
Humphry  DsTy,  Faraday,  Tyndall,  Hux- 
ley. Carpenter,  Lord  Rayleigh  and  other 

oat  of  Italy,  was  founded  for  the  stud^ 
•ad  promotion  of  natural  science.  It 
owes  its  origin  to  a  club  of  learned  men 
who  wero  in  the  habit  of  holding  weekly 
moetings  in  London  as  early  as  1645, 
but  the  year  1600  is  generally  given  as 
the  year  of  ito  foundation.  Charles  II 
took  much  interest  in  the  proceedings  of 
the  society,  and  in  1682  granted  a  charter 
to  the  •  Pmident,  Council,  and  Fellows 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for 
Improrlng  Natural  Knowledge.'  Lord 
Bnrancker  was  first  president  of  this  in- 
corporated Royal  Society.  Meetings  are 
held  weekly  from  November  to  June  for 
the  purpose  of  reading  and  discussing 
scientific  papers;  and  the  more  impor- 
tant of  these  are  published  in  the  annual 
Pktto$opkioal  Tnntactiom,  first  issued 
in  1606,  and  now  forming  a  most  valuable 
seriM.  Accounts  of  the  ordinary  meet- 
ings, with  abstracts  of  papers,  etc..  ap- 
pear also  In  the  periodical  Proceeding; 
begun  In  1800.  Scientific  research  has 
at  all  times  been  both  initiated  and  en- 
couraged by  the  Royal  Society,  and  many 
of  the  most  important  scientific  acbieve- 
ments  and  discoveries  have  been  due  to 
its  enlightened  methods.  It  deservedly 
enjoys    an    influential    and    nemiofBcial 

Swlnon  as  the  scientific  adviser  of  the 
ritirii  government,  and  not  only  ad- 
ministers the  £4000  annually  voted  by 
Krliament  for  scientific  purposes,  but 
s  given  lunotions  and  advice  which 
have  boriM  TUoablo  f mit,  from  the  voy- 


ai*  rf  Capt  Cook  In  tte  Jliidwisor  la 
1768  down  to  tht  CMaMf«r_Mpadlti«a, 
mors  than  a  esatvrr  tatar.    The  sodoty 
has  an  indtpandent  umoom  froa  pivptrty 
of  less  than  £8000.  bssldsa  tht  aaaoal 
sahscrirtions   of    £4   from   sack    follow. 
It  awanto  the  Cooky,  Davy  and   two 
royal  medals  annnally,  and  tht  Romfoid 
medal     blenniallT,     for     distinetioii     ia 
science;  the  first  being  tht  bint  riband 
of  scientific  achltvtment,   and  bsstowsd 
both    on    foreign    and    British    Mvants. 
The  Royal  Society  met  in  OrcshaK  Col- 
lege until   1710,   with  tht  eicept'       of 
eight  years  after  the  great  firs  o.     .lOn- 
don,  in  1666,  when  they  found  a  welcome 
in  Arundel  Houat  from  Henry  Howard, 
who  presented  his  learned  guests  with  the 
librory    purchased    by    his    grandfather, 
Earl  of  Arundel,  thus  forming  tht  nucleus 
of  the  present  valuable   library  of  tht 
Royal    Society,    which    contaim    about 
{iO,000    7olumes.     From    1710    till    1780 
the  meetings  of  the  society  wtrt  held  in 
Crane    Court,    thereafter    in    Somerset 
House,    and    finally    since    18S7    in    its 
present   quartein    at    Burlington   He  ise. 
The  roll  of  the  Royal  Society  contains 
practically  all  the  great  scientific  names 
of    its    countr?    since    its    foundation. 
Among   its   prehidents  have  been   Lord- 
chancellor    Somers,    Samuel    Pepys,    Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  Sir  J.  Banks,  Sir  Hans 
Sloans  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy. 

Eoyal  Society    K^^SJa  "n^ 

chartered  in  1783  for  tho  promotion  of 
all  branches  of  physical  and  literary  re- 
search. Among  its  presidents  have  been 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  Sir  David  Brewster, 
the  Duke  of  ArgyU,  and  Sir  William 
Thomson.  .    ^ ». ».     » 

Royat-lei-Baini  5,7p*;Tt-J*-telln; 

place  of  Central  France,  dep.  Puy-de- 
D5me,  charmingly  situated  a  short  dis- 
tance from  Clermont,  1380  feet  above  the 
sea,  with  warm  springs,  rich  in  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  and  commcm  salt.  Pop. 
(1906)  1451.  .      V    T^      -* 

PnwA  (rwa'y),  a  town  In  the  Depart- 
*»^3^  ment  of  the  Somme,  France,  on 
the  Avre  River,  26  miles  s. «.  of  Amieiw. 
It  was  almost  obliterated  during  the 
great  war  which  broke  out  in  1914.  Cap- 
tured first  by  the  Germans,  it  wail  re- 
taken by  the  French,  and  fell  again  into 
German  hands  in  the  great  drive  of 
Mareh,  1918.  In  1918  Roye  had  a  popu- 
lation of  4000.  The  industries  were  cop- 
per. Jewelry,  sugar,  oil  and  com. 

Eoyer-collard    J.rA7|-pA^*i 

French  philosopher,  bom  in  1763.  He 
btcamt    an    advocate,   was   drawn   into 


Copyright  by  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

A  RUBBER  TREE  OP  TSimDAD 

Showing  the  "herring-bone"  system  of  extracting  the  milky  juice  or  latex  of  the  rubber.  A  series  of  oblique 
cuts  are  made,  running  into  a  vertical  channel  at  whose  base  is  a  cup  into  which  the  juice  empties 


Boyiton-orow 


Bnbens 


the  political  Tortcx  of  tlie  period,  and 
after  playing  the  part  of  a  moderate 
liberal,  withdrew  into  private  We.  In 
1810  he  became  profeaaor  of  philosophy 
in  the  Univeraity  of  Prance.  At  the 
reatoratioB  of  1814  h^  resinied  hie  chair, 
but  received  various  appoin'T.  »  s  rrom 
Louis  XVIII,  for  whose  rturu  a?  bad 
schemed  as  early  as  1796.  fc  rom  1815  nil 
1842  he  was  a  member  of  M  .'baaiber  of 
deputies,  of  which  he  wis  i  residj^nt  i^ 
1^&  He  died  to  1845.  .^oytr-Coliartl 
introduced  the  philosophy  ot  tue  o..tt*:i8i 
or  *  common-sense '  school  to  France,  and 
became  the  recognised  head  of  the  doc- 
trinaire '  school  of  which  Jouffroy  and  to 
a  certain  extent  Cousin  were  afterwards 
the  chief  representatives. 

Eoyston-crow,  ^^  raSHor'^th^ 

hooded  crow,  Corvut  corni».    See  Crow. 

Eshev.  ^**  ****** 

PnalinTi    (ru-a-bon'),    a    town    of    N. 
HUaDOn  ^ales,  in  Denbighshire,  with 
extensive  collieries  and  iron-works.    Pop. 
(parish),  23,929. 
Enad.    see  4rodu«. 

Pnafan  or  Roatan  (rt-a-taiO,  an 
AUabitu,  island  in  the  Bay  of  Hondu- 
ras, chief  of  the  Bay  Islands  (which 
see),  is  about  30  miles  long  and  10  miles 
broad.  Pop.  2000-4000.  The  chief  har- 
bor is  Port  Royal.  ,  u  _,  . 
PnliflSftP  (ru-bas'),  a  lapidaries' 
AUOaVBC  j,g„jg  £op  a  beautiful  variety 
of  rock  crystal,  speckled  in  the  interior 
with  minute  spangles  of  specular  iron, 
reflecting  a  color  like  that  of  the  ruby. 
There  is  also  a  kind  of  artificial  rubasse. 
Eubber.    ^**  Indla^ubber. 

VnhM*  WftllR  a™  wal'8  constroct- 
UnODie  W»llB,  gjj  jjj  irregular  un- 
hewn stones,  either  with  or  without 
mortar.  In  'coursed  rubble-work '  the 
stones  are  roughly  dressed  and  laid  in 
horizontal  courses;  in  uncoursed  rubble 
the  stones  are  built  up  together,  large 
nnd  small,  being  fitted  to  each  others 
forms  with  more  or  less  exactness. 


AUDCUB    jj,j„j  eminent  painter  of  the 
Flemish   school,    was   bom   in  ^1677   at 
Siegen  in  Westphalia,  though  his  child- 
hood   was    spent    chiefly    at    Colcwne. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1687, 
Rubens'    mother   returned    with  him    to 
Antwerp,    where    he   received    a    liberal 
ducation,  laying  the  foundation  for  his 
ater    reputation    as    one    of    the    most 
learned    and    accomplished    men    of    his 
time.    His  bent  towards  painting  early 
revealed  itself,  and  under  his  first  mas- 
ters,   Verhaegt,   Adam    Van    Noort    and 
Otto  Van  Veen,  he  made  rapid  progress, 
and  in  1598  was  admitted  as  a  master 
of  the  guild  of  paintera  in  Antwerp.     In 
1600  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  remained 
till  1608,  chiefly  at  the  court  of  the  Duke 
of  Mantua.    On  his  return  to  the  Nether- 
lands his  reputation  was  already  great, 
and  the  Archduke  Albert  attached  him 
to  his  court,  with  ft  salary  of  500  livres. 
Rubens  marriod  his  first  wife,   Isabella 
Brant,  in  1609,  and  settled  down  in  Ant- 
werp to  a  successful  and  brilliant  career, 
his  studio  crowded  with  pupils,  to  whose 
assistance,  indeed,  his  detractors  attrib- 
uted the  surprising  number  of  pictures 
he    turned    out.     In    1621    he    was    em- 
ployed by  Marie  de'  Medici  to  design  for 
the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg  the  well- 
known   series   of  magnificent   allMorical 
pictures    illustrating    the    life    of    that 

?rincess.  After  the  death  of  his  wife,  in 
626,  he  was  employed  by  the  Archduchess 
Isabelhi  in  endeavoring  to  arrange  a 
truce  between  Spain  and  the  Nether- 
lands; in  1628  he  was  engaged  in  the 
important  private  uMotiations  of  a  peace 
between  Spain  and  England,  in  the  course 
of  which  he  visited  Madrid  and  Eng- 
land (in  1629).  He  was  knighted  by 
Charles  I,  and  his  brash,  never  idle  either 
in  Madrid  or  London,  decorated  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  banquet  ing-house  at  Whitehall. 
In  1630  he  married  Helena  Fourment, 
who  appears  in  many  of  his  later  works, 
and  settled  once  more  in  Antwerp,  where 
he  continued  to  produce  numerous  pic- 
tures until  his  death  in  May,  1640.     Ru 


bens  was  indisputably  the  most  rapid  of 

P«"wQ»ir«r  rre-b^-fa's'hT-ant),     in    the  great  masters,  and  was  remarkable 

AUDeiaCienT  ,^edicine.    agents   for  his  fondness  for  large  canvases.     His 

..--     grcut  characteristics  are  freedom,  anima- 


which,  when  applied  externally  as  stimu- 
lants to  the  skiu,  occasion  also  a  redness. 
The  most  commonly  used  rubefacients 
are  ammonia,  mustard,  Cayenne  pepper, 
oil  of  turpentine,  powdered  ginger,  etc. 

PiiliAl1ifi»  (r»'bel-It),  or  red  touima- 
il,UDeui1.C    j'j^g    „gp4  g,  ^  gem-stone; 

a  siliceous  mineral  of  a  red  color  of.  var^ 
ious  shades,  sometimes  called  siberite.  It 
acquires  opposite  electricities  by  heat. 
Its  crysuls  occur  in  coarse  granite  rocks. 


tion,  and  a  striking  brilliancy  and  dis- 
po8iti<m  of  color;  while  some  critics  re- 
proach him  with  an  unchaatened  ex- 
uberance of  form,  and  an  almost  total 
absence  of  sublime  and  poetical  concep- 
tion of  character.  His  works  are  in  all 
branches  of  his  art  —  history,  landscape, 
portraiture  and  genre  —  and  are  met 
with  all  over  Eotope.  The  Defoen*  from 
the  Orou  in  Aatwvrp  CuthednU  is  f«y 


quo 


Bnbeola 


Buby 


erally   considered   his   master-piece.     Hii 
pictures    number    upwards   of    2000,    ez- 
clusire  of  about  500  drawings,  a  few  ttch- 
ings,  etc. 
Bube'ola.    ^^®  MeaiU,. 

Pnho7a'h1  (rU'be-tsai),  Number  Nip, 
Auuc/iuux  j^g  famous  mountain-spirit 
of  the  Riesengebirge,  in  Germany,  wlio 
is  sometimes  friendly  and  sometimes 
mischievous.  He  is  the  hero  of  number- 
less poems  and  legends. 
Pnliia  (ro'bi-a),  a  genus  of  plants, 
AUUXlt   ^ypg    gf    j^g    ojjgr    Rubiacere, 

inhabiting  Europe  and  Asia.  Several 
species  are  employed  in  medicine  and  the 
arts.  K.  tinctorum  is  the  madder  plant, 
R.  cordifolia  is  munjeet. 
fln'hiapffak  ( ri)  -  hi  -  ft'she-e) ,  a  large 
Auuini/co;    ^^^     ^^^g^    ^^    exogenous 

plants,  under  which  many  botanists  in- 
clude the  orders  Cinchonaceae  and  Gali- 
acea\  It  thus  includes  all  monopetnloua 
plants  with  opposite  leaves,  interpetiolar 
stipules,  stamens  inserted  in  the  tube  of 
the  corolla  and  alternating  with  its  lobes, 
and  an  inferior  compound  ovary.  The 
typical  genus  is  Rubia  (which  see). 
PnTiinnn  (ro'bi-kun),  a  river  in  N. 
AUUil/Ull    Jjgjy    (no^    tjjg   Fiumicino, 

a  tributary  of  the  Adriatic),  famous  in 
Roman  history,  Ctesar  having  by  crossing 
this  stream    (49  B.C.),  at  that  time   re- 

farded  as  the  northern  boundary  of 
taly,  finally  committed  himself  to  the 
civil  war.  Hence  the  phrase  *  to  cross 
the  Rubicon '  is  to  take  the  decisive  step 
by  which  one  commits  one's  self  to  a 
hazardous  enterprise. 
Tliihirlilini  (ro-bid'i-nm),  a  rare  metal 
AUDIUIUJU  tjigcovered  by  Bunsen  and 
Kirchhoff  in  18(i0,  by  aid  of  si)ectrHm 
analysis;  symbol  Rb,  atomic  weight 
85.4.  It  is  a  white,  shining  metal,  and 
at  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  soft  as  wax. 
It  is  usually  found  in  connection  with 
cteaium,  and  belongs  to  the  group  of  the 
alkali  metals.  See  C<e»iutn. 
'PiiTiinafAiTi  (ru'bin-stin),  A  IT  TO  IT 
AUUillBtciu  Gbioortivitch,  a  Rus- 
sian composer  and  pianist,  born  in  1829. 
In  1839  he  made  an  extensive  European 
tour,  playing  on  the  piano  to  enthusiastic 
audiences;  and  in  1842  he  visited  Eng- 
land. He  then  stuilied  for  eighteen 
months  in  Paris f  studied  and  taught  at 
Berlin  and  Vienna;  and  returned  to  Rus- 
sia in  1848,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
farther  stud^  and  to  composing  until 
1856.  On  his  reappearance  in  the  con- 
cert-room his  fame  was  at  once  assured 
by  his  phenomenal  skill  on  the  pianoforte, 
and  hi*  numeroua  tours  formed  a  seriw 
of     unbroktn     auocesses.     In     1868     h« 


Petersburg,  and  aaaisted  largvly  in  the 
foundation  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Con- 
servatoire in  1862,  of  which  be  was  prin- 
cipal until  1867.  In  1869  he  was  en- 
nobled by  the  czar.  As  a  composer 
Rubinstein  was  exceedingly  prolific,  be- 
ing especially  successful  in  his  pianoforte 
pieces.  Perhaps  his  best  known  work  is 
the  Ocean  Sympkonj/.  He  died  suddenly 
on  Nov.  20,  1894. 

Buble.  »«»  ^''«"^- 

BnbTic  (rS'brik),  in  the  canon  law, 
**  signifies  a   title  or  article   in 

certain  ancient  law  books,  thus  called 
because  written  in  red  letters  (L.  ruber, 
red).  In  modern  use  rubrics  denote  the 
rules  and  directions  given  at  the  begin- 
ning and  in  the  course  of  the  liturgy 
for  the  order  and  manner  in  which  the 
several  parts  of  the  office  are  to  be  per- 
formed. Where  red  ink  is  not  employed 
now  the  rubrics  are  printed  in  italics, 
or  in  some  other  distinctive  character. 
Unhnintlis  (ro'bm-kwis),  a  distin- 
XI.UUruC[lUS  guighed    traveler    of    the 

middle  ages,  otherwise  Willem  van  Ru- 
BRVK,  after  a  town  in  Flanders  where 
he  was  born  about  1215.  He  became  a 
Franciscan  missionary  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  in  1253  was  despatched  by  Louis 
IX  of  j'rance  on  a  semipolitical,  semi- 
pro.selytizing  mission  which  took  him  into 
the  heart  ot  Asia,  to  the  Great  Khan  of 
Tartary,  then  residing  in  the  Gobi  Desert. 
He  brought  back  a  mass  of  details  as  to 
the  geography,  ethnography,  languages, 
manners,  and  religions  of  the  countries 
he  visited,  that  are  now  of  the  greatest 
interest  and  value.  Rubruquis  died 
some  time  after  1293. 
B,nbllS  (I'u'bus),  a  genus  of  plants, 
MIU.UU.O   ujjj  ojjigj.  Rosacere.    There  are 

about  a  hun.lred  species,  among  which 
are  the  R.  Idwus,  or  raspberry-plant; 
R.  fruticdsua,  or  common  bramble;  and 
R.  ChamcemSrus,  mountain-bramble  or 
cloudberry. 

Bnbv  (>^'bi)>  a  precious  stone  of  a 
Akuujr  deep-red  color,  of  which  there 
are  two  varieties  —  the  oriental  and  the 
spinel.  The  oriental  ruby  or  true  ruby 
is  a  corundum  formed  nearly  exclusively 
of  alumina,  of  great  hardness,  and  the 
most  valuable  of  all  precious  stones.  A 
ruby  of  five  carats,  if  perfect  in  color, 
is  said  \o  be  worth  ten  times  as  much  as 
a  diamond  of  the  same  weight.  Oriental 
rubies  are  found  chiefly  in  Burmah  and 
Siam ;  inferior  specimens  have  also  oc- 
curred in  North  America  and  Australia. 
Spipol  rubies  consist  of  an  aluminate  of 
magnesium,  and  are  much  inferior  to  the 
true  rubies  in  hardness  and  value.  Tb«y 
ai«  fottod  in  Bormab,  Oyloa  and  Aw 


BnVy-tail 


tralia.    A  Hehter-colored  variety;.  f*«c«J: 
end  in  Badabhan,  is  Itnown  as  the  balas 

V«^«r  4-oil  (chry$i$  ignita),  a  bril- 
HTlDy-taU  j\aQt,»  colored  small  in- 
Boct,  called  also  golden-wasp,  belonging 
to  the  suborder  Ilymeiioptera.  ^An^y  a^« 
sometimes  called  '  cuckoo-flies,  from  their 
parasitic  habit  of  depositmg  their  eggs 
lu   the   nests  of   bees  and  other  hymen- 

tT-V^  4.X,-mt*t%*    (Trochilus      colubris), 
RUDy-tnrOaX    ^  species  of  humming- 
bird, so  named  from  the  brllliaut  ruby- 
red    color    of    its    chin    and    throat.     In 
summer  it  is  found  in  all  parts  of  North 
America,   up   to  57°    N.   jat.,   b<;«ng   thus 
remarkable  for  its  extensive  distribution. 
Diinlrprf    (riik'trt),  FRiEURicn,  a  Oer- 
JWlCKen.   jjjgQ    po^jt^    distinguished    es- 
necially   for   his   translations  of   oriental 
poetry,  and  his  original  poems  composed 
in  the  same  spirit,  was  born  at  Schwein- 
furt    in    Bavaria    in    1788.     After    some 
years  spent   in   teaching  he  became  one 
of    the    editors    of    the    MorgenUatt    in 
Stuttgart   in    1816-17.     In    1826   he   be- 
came professor  of  oriental   languages  at 
Erlangen,   and   in    1841    removeu   in   the 
same  capacity   to  Berlin      After  his   re- 
tirement in  1849  he  »iv«i  on  hi?  estate 
near  Coburg  till  his  death  in  18G6.     His 
poems  are  very  numerous  and  he  claims 
a  nlace  among  the  best  lyrists  of  Ger- 
many    D^Vewfcett  de»  brahmanen   (0 
vols    1836-39)   is  among  his  most  imppr- 
lant    Eas^m'  works ;    the    Gefcarm.cfce 
ionnetten  among  the  best  known  of  his 
Ivrical  poems. 

■BA;ia»T      FABID-KDDIN   MAHOMMED  AB- 

*uaagl,    DAIXAH,  the  first  great  liter- 
ary genius  of  modern  Persia,  died  in  1)54. 
He  was  invited  to  the  court  of  bamamd 
l«Jasr  II  bin  Ahmad,  ruler  of  Khorasan 
and  Transoxiana,  where  he  lived  for  many 
years,  enjoying  the  highest  honors.     His 
didactic  odes  and  epigrams  express  a  sort 
of  Epicurean   philosophy,  and   his  lyrics 
in   praise  of  love  and   wine  are  nca  in 
beauty.    He  survived  his  royal  friend  and 
died  poor  and  forgotten. 
\t-nAA   (rud)  ;  Leucwcaa  erythrophthal- 
Jtliaa  ^^^g)^  a  fish  of  the  carp  family, 
kaTing  the  back  of  an  olive  color;   the 
aide*  and  nelly  yellow,  marked  with  red; 
the  Tentral  and  anal  fins  and  tail  of  a 
deep-red   color.     It    is   common   through- 
out Europe.     Its  average  length  is  from 
9  to  15  inches.    Called  also  Red-eye. 
•OnAAmr    (rnd'4r)j  that  part  of  ahelm 
JLUaaer    ^^    steering   appliance   which 
aetB  directly  oa  the  water.    See  Steering. 

ladder-flik  J2*7wed  tolK*nMick* 

•r^  very  cansMn  in  both  the  Atlantic 


kue 


and  Pacific  Oceans,  so  named  from  its 
habit  of  swimming  around  the  stems  ol 
ships,  attracted,  doubtless,  by  the  ifjuw 
thrown  overboard.  The  flesh  is  said  tv 
be  coarse  in  flavor, 

Euddiman  aKeTkcoS'tcU 

ar,  was  bom  in  1674  in  Boyndie  parish, 
Banffshire,     where     his     father     was     a 
fanner.     He  was  graduated  at  Aberdeen 
University  in   1684,  and  became  school- 
master at  Laurencekirk.     After  engaging 
in   various   duties,    from    17<}0    till    no^ 
he  was  keeper  of  the  Advocates'  Library. 
He    had    previously    won    recognition    p3 
one  of  the   leading  scholars  of  his  day. 
His  best-known  work  is  his  famous  nuai- 
mcnta  of   the   Latin   Tongue    (1714),   a 
book    which    immediately    superseded    all 
previous  treati.  js  of  a  similar  kind,  and 
long  remained   in  use  in   the  schools  ot 
Scotland.     In    1715    he    edited    the    first 
collected    edition    of   George    Buchanans 
works,  with  severe  strictures  dictated  by 
his  own  Jacobite  leanings.    He  died  in 
1758 

Eudesheimer.  ^  ^*^'»"*  ^*''"- 


Eudolph.    ^^  Roioiph. 

Eudolstadt  i?;2?nf  cVpi^Tthe 
Thuringian  principality  Schwaraburg- 
Kudolstadt,  on  the  SaaK  -"0  miles  s.  of 
Weimar.  It  mauufactu'es  cloth,  porce- 
lain, and  chemicals.  The  prince  resides 
in  the  Heidecksburg,  on  an  eminence 
overlooking  the  town.  Pop.  12,40*. 
Vtia  (r5),  a  strong-scented  herbaceous 
**'^^  plant  of  th,  genus  Buta,  nat. 
order  Rutacec,  a  native  of  S.  Europe, 


It«e  (Xuta  fTwuXltn*). 


bat   »IM   cultiT»t«d   In   gardens   In   the 
Unitwl   States.    Th«   root   la   perennial. 


i 


Euff 

woody;  the  stem*  about  2  'e«t  l»'li*»5.1|J« 
leavM  alternate,  petiolate  and  divided; 
and  the  flowera  yellow.  The  odor  of  roe 
is  Btronf  and  penetrating,  and  tlie  taste 
acrid  and  bitter.  It  mm  useful  medi- 
cinal properties.  This  plant  is  an  an- 
cient emblem  of  remembrance  from  its 
evergreen  quality.  The  old  names  herb- 
grace  '  or  ^  herb  of  grace  refers  to  this 
fact,  or  perhaps  to  its  common  use  in 
sprinkling  the  people  with  holy  water, 
and  as  a  charm  against  witchcraft. 
About  20  species  of  roe  are  known. — 
Oil  of  rue  is  obtained  by  distilling  garden 
rue  {Ruta  aravedlent)  with  water;  has 
a  strong,  disagreeable  odor  and  slightly 
bitter  taste ;  and  is  used  as  an  ingredient 
In  aromatic  vinegar. 

'Rnff  (ruf;  Machetet  pugna»),  a  bird 
"'*''"'  belonging  to  the  grallatores  or 
waders,  length,  lOi  to  12i  _  inches; 
plumage,  which  varies  greatly  in  color, 
generally  variegated  brown  on  back  and 
wings,  -white  on  belly.  In  the  breeding 
season  the  male  has  its  neck  surrounded 
by  long  plumes,  which  when  raised  form 


Raff  {MaehiU*  pugnax). 


a  kind  of  tippet  or  ruff,  whence  its 
name.  The  sdentiflc  name  ('  pugnacious 
fighter')  is  derived  from  its  pugnacious 
habits  at  the  same  season.  The  females 
are  called  reevet.  These  birds  nest  in 
swamps;  the  eggs,  three  or  four  in  num- 
ber, are  pale  green  blotched  with  brown. 
The  ruffs  are  birds  of  passage,  and  are 
often  killed  on  Long  Island. 
ItrtWrn  (ruf;  Acerina  vulgirta  or  oer- 
AUUC  nua),  a  European  fresh-water 
fish  of  the  perch  family.  Though  rarely 
more  than  6  or  7  inches  in  length  it  ia 
much  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  pope,  though  the  origin 
of  this  name  ia  unknown. 

Euifed  Grouse  ^^'  «Si.).^^ 

North  American  roeciea  of  groose  of  the 
sama  family  as  tot  hasel-gronse  of  Ka- 
rope  aod  the  pinnated-grouse  or  pralrie- 
chJbdtea  of  the  Weatem  prairie*.    It  ia 


Buhnken 

named  from  the  tufts  of  feathers  o- 
sides  of  its  neck,  and   frequentt   f<       is 
and  thickets  in  the  Eastern  and  Ceuiral 
United  States. 

Pnfiii     (rO-f6'J>),   or   LtiFUi,    a    river 
liUnjl    ^i  Eastern   Africa  which  rises 
to  the  northeast   of  Lake   Nyassa,  and 
enters  the  Indian  Ocean  opposite  the  is- 
land of  Mafia.  . 
Pncrhv    (ruK'bO,  a  town  m  Warwick- 
JfcU^Dy    gjjjpe^   England,   on   the   Avon, 
15  miles  n.e.  of  Warwick,  is  an  impor- 
tant railway  junction  and  the  seat  of  a 
famous    boys'    school,    one    of    the    great 
'public    schools,'    founded    in    1567,    of 
which  Dr.  Arnold  became  head-master  in 
1728,  and  had  as  successors  Tait,  after- 
wards   archbishop    of    Canterjury,    and 
Temple,  bishop  of  London.     The  number 
of   pupils   is  about   400.     The  town   has 
some  handsome  churches,  a  town-hall,  and 
a    number    of    charities.     Pop.     (l»ll) 
o\  7(j2 

T»na>Alatr  (roj'li),  a  town  in  Stafford- 
ttUgeiey  ^^iiK,  England,  on  the  Trent, 
7  miles  northwest  of  Lichfield,  has  iron- 
foundries  and  extensive  collieries.  Fop. 
4504 

PiivATi     (rtt'gen),  an  island  in  the  Bal- 
AUgen  ^]^  belonging  to   Prussia,  near 
the  coast  of  Pomerania ;  area,  377  souare 
miles;    exceedingly    irregular    in    sbaw. 
The  surface  is  fertile,  undulating,  and  in 
many  places  covered  with  beautiful  baech 
forests.     Wheat  and  rape-seed  are  grown, 
large  numbers  of  cattle  and  horres  are 
raised,   and    the   fisheries   are   of    impor- 
tauce.    The     Stubbenkammer,     a     sheer 
chalk  cliff  (400  feet  high)  at  the  north- 
east    extremity,     is     frequently     visited. 
The   capital    is    Bergen.     Many    of    the 
coast    villages    are    Popa'ar    sea-bathing 
resorts.     From  1648  till  1815  ROgen  be- 
longed to  Sweden.     Pop.  46,270. 
VnoATnloa     (  r5'gen  -  dAs  ) ,     G  E o  E 0 
SngenaaS    ^muPP,  a  German  battle- 
painter,  was  bom  at  Augsburg  in  1686. 
He  often  exposed  himself  to  great  danger 
studving  his  subjects  on  the  fisld.     His 
paintings  and   engravings   are   very   nu- 
merous; among  the  latter  are  six  repre- 
senting the  siege  of  Augsburg,  at  which 
he   was   present.     His   compositions   are 
spirited  and  unstrained ;  he  also  executed 
engravings    in    meaaotint    and    etchings, 
nldied  at  Augsburg  in  1742.     His  three 
sons  are  also  known  as  engravers ;  and 

K;SS,«'c.u.  «;j.— 

172i;  died  1798.    The  wn  of  rich  par^ 


E-.hr 


enu,  he  was  able  to  devote  hl«.  life  to 
the  study  of  the  classicB.  cBpeciaily  of 
the  Greek  authors,  spending  mo»t  OV"" 
time  after  1743  at  Leyden.  In  1757  he 
became  assistant  professor  of  Oreek,  ana 
^BlTOl  professor  of  history  and  rhetoric 
at  Leyden  University.  Ruhnken  pub- 
lished valuable  and  erudite  editions  of 
TinuBUS*  Letticon  Vocum  J^H-nf"  „^ 
(1754),  VeUeiuM  Paterculua  (l<i9),  and 
other  learned  works,  . 

TJiil.f  (r»r),  a  river  of  Prussia,  joins 
Jlnnr  ^^^^  Rhine  at  Ruhrort,  about  19 
miles  north  of  DUsseldorf.  It  rises  m 
Westphalia,  and  has  a  tortuous  course 
if Tbout  260  miles,  the  lower  part  being 
through   the  busy  a»*  frosperous  Ruhr 

SiKirt    (rar'ort),  a  town  of  Prus- 
AtUirOIX    ^j^^    jn    the    govemmeiU    of 
DUsseldorf,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ruhr 
with  the  Rhine,  has  a  large  harbor,  and 
is  one  of  the  chief  centers  for  the  coal 
Lnd  other  trade  of  the  important  indus- 
trial district  of  Westphalia.     Pop.  12,407. 
S«li  W«i     Lnl'si),  or  Rule  to  Show 
SUle  JllSl    ^AUSE,     in    English    and 
American  law,  an  order  granted  by  the 
court    on    an    interlocutory    app  icat  on 
Tfomerly    always    ea,    parte),    directing 
the  party  opposed  to  the  applicant  to  do 
or  abltain  from  some  act,  unless   (nt«) 
he  cajishow  cause  why  the  order  should 
not   be  obeyed.     If  cause   is   shown   the 
order  is  '  discharged,'  otherwise  it  «  made 
'absolute,'  and  the  party  ruled  must  obey 
on  pain  of  attachment  for  contempt. 

ETde  of  the  Boad.    l^£'t^e  tf 

S;  W  TfieT  Ti^'^^arapplication 
Jlnle  01  inree,    ^^   t^e   doctrine  of 
proportion    to   arithmetical    purposes    by 
Sffi  we  are  enabled   to   find  a   fourth 
proportion  to  three  given  numbers,  that 
Is. Tnumber  to  which  the  third  bears  the 
game  ratio  as  the  first  does  to  the  second. 
The    rule    is    divided    into    two    cases, 
Simple    and    compound;   now    frequ"?*^ 
termed  simple  and  compound  Proportion. 
Simple  proportion  is  the  equality  of  tfte 
ratio  of  two  ijuantities  to  that  of  two 
other    quantities.     Compound    proportion 
is  the  equality  of  the  ratio  of  two  qimn- 
tities  to  another  ratio,  the  antecedent  and 
consequent  of  which  are  respectively  the 
products  of   the  antecedents  and  conse- 
quents of  two  or  more  ratios. 

Enling  Machine,  ?„,iS?^JiS  fiSS 

accurately-spaced  lines.  It  operates  by 
the  movement  of  a  carnage  driven  by 
■n  accurately  adjusted  screw.  If  the 
Krews  have^lOO  Ar«ds  to  the  Inch 
aad  the  carriMte  be  stopped  in  A  Une 


Aumford 

ruled  every  10th  of  a  turn  of  the  screw, 
low  lines  will  be  ruled  within  the  inch. 

This  number  i««y^  b*  Jt«!">? J»<=!?"!f? 
and  it  is  claimed  that  20,000  Ifhes  to  the 
inch  have  been  ruled  for  diffractioB 
^ratings.  To  rule  graduations  and  cir- 
cles and  arcs  a  large,  •Ipwly-movtag 
horizontal  wheel  is  used,  a  diamond  trac- 
ing point  being  arranged  to  descend  at 
reguhir  intervals  and  make  a  acratcli 
or  graduation.  Still  finer  nihngs  can 
be  made  by  a  second  rotation,  in  which 
the    lines    come    midway    between    tnose 

T^lr'^'^the  liquor  obtained  by  distilU- 
ILum,  tjjjQ  jjom  the  skimmings  and 
the  molasses  formed  in  the  .manufacture 
of  cane  sugar.  The  pure  distilled  spirit 
is  colorless,  and  receives  its  brown  tint 
from  the  addition  of  caramel.  Ram  rt 
obtained  chiefly  from  the  West  Indies 
and  British  Guiana;  the  best  "ort  to 
named  Jamaica  rum,  no  matter  where 
manufactured.  Pine-apple  rum  is  ordi- 
nary rum  flavored  with  sliced  plne- 
aS^es;     tafia    is    an     inferior    French 

ifi'^i^  1  ^ky  and  hilly  island  of  the 
■"-•""j  Inner  Hebrides  in  Argyleshire, 
Scotland,  south  of  Skye,  greatest  eleva- 
tion  2553  feet,  is  about  20  miles  in  cir- 
cumference. Only  about  one-twentieth 
of  the  surface  is  under  cultivation;  tb* 
rest  is  surrendered  to  sheep  and  deer. 
Enmania.     see  IJoumonia, 


Piim*1io  (r».m6'li-a),  or  Ru'MlU 
JiUmeiia  Vi^n^  <,£  the  Romana),  a 
former  political .  division  ««  Turkey  to 
Europe,  comprising  ancient  Tn^ce,?"? 
part  of  Macedonia,  and  incjndinf  Con- 
stantinople and   Salonica.    See  Eatterm 

TL^m^   (rS'men),  the  upper  or  firrt 
AHmen   Stomach  of  ruminanU  (whfch 

^m*v  (rO'meks),  a  genus  of  plants 
AHmeX  ^longing  to  the  nat.  order 
Polygonace«e,  occuiring  chiefly  in  the 
temperate  sones  of  both  hemispheres,  the 
species  of  which  are  known  by  the  name 
of  iooka  and  «orrcJ«.  Many  are  tronble- 
Bome  weeds.  Some  have  been  used  aa  a 
substitute  for  rhubarb-root,  and  ©there 
are   cnlUvated   for   their   plej'wnt   acid 

21!f«>Ai.#l  (rum'ford),SiBB»JAJ«N 
RnmiOrtt  Thomson,  Couht,  natural 
philowqpher  and  philanthropist,  was  bOTn 
In  W<*um.  Massachusetts,  March  ».. 
1753.  He  was  aPPwHced  for  a  time 
in  a  store  at  Salem,  then  studiedniedl. 
dne,  and  finally  became  aschool  teacher 
until  Ua  marriage  to  .1772  w»th  a  ri^ 
widow  laid  the  foundation  of  hU  fwtaa*. 


Bumford 


H«  espoused  the  British  side  in  the 
▲merican  war,  and  became  a  major;  and 
on  going  to  England  In  1776  received  a 

Kvemment     post.     In     1784     he     was 
lighted  and  received  permission  to  enter 
the  service  of  the   Elector  of   Bavaria. 
As   a   minister   of   war  and  afterwards 
of  police,   he  reorganized  the   Bavarian 
ariny,  suppressed  mendicity,  and  carried 
through  other  important  social  reforms. 
He  was  made  count  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  in  1791,  and  took  his  title  from 
Rumford  (now  Concord)  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, his  wife's   home.     From   1<  97   till 
1804  he  lived  chiefly  in  England ;  but  he 
afterwards  settled   in  France,  where  he 
married    the    widow    of    Lavoisier,    the 
chemist,   from  whom  he  soon  separate . 
He  died  at  Auteui'.   in   1814.     Rumford 
was  interested  in  science  from  an  early 
period,  and  was  the  first  to  demonstrate 
the  fact  that  heat  is  a  mode  ot  motion. 
PnTnfnril     a  town  (township)   in  Ox- 
AUmiOra,    ^^j.^   q^^^   Maine,   contain- 
ing the     iliage  of  Rumford  Falls.     This 
has  large  water  power  and  varied  manu- 
factures.   Pop.  of  town  6777. 
'Ua.m3     Jauu^-uddin,  the  greatest  sune 
iilUni,    pj^t  of  Persia,  born  in  1207; 
died  in  1273.    At  Iconium  he  devoted  him- 
■elf  to  the  study  of  myetio  philosophy, 
founding  the  order  of  Maulaivi  dervishes. 
His  works  include  many  matchless  odes 
and  an  immense  collection  of  moral  pre- 
cepts in  The  Spiritual  Mathnawt. 

anmiTiATitfl    (rO'mi-nantz),     or  Ru- 
uHunauiB    jujiantia,    a    group    of 
herbivorous   mammals,   belonging  to   the 
great     order     of     hoofed     or     ungulate 
mammals,    included    in    the    Artiodactyle 
or  '  even-toed '  section  of  these,  and  com- 
prising the  five  families  Camelidae  (camel 
and    llama),     Tragulidse      (clievrotain), 
Cervida    (true    deer),    Camelopardalid® 
(giraffe),  and  Bovid»  or  Cavicornia  (ox, 
sheep,   goat,   antelope).    The  faculty  of 
rummation,  though  it  gives  name  to  this 
order,  is  not  quite  peculiar  to  it.     (See 
Rumtnation.)     Ruminants      are      distin- 
guished   from    other    orders    by    certain 
peculiarities     of     dentition.    The     most 
typical  of  the  group,  the  ox,  sheep,  ante- 
lope, eta,  have  no  incisor  or  canine  teeth 
in   the   upper  jaw,   but   have  instead  a 
hardened  or  callous  pad   against  which 
the  six  lower  incisors  bite.     In  the  lower 
jaw  are  two  canines  quite  similar  to  the 
incisors,    and    the    Camelidse    and    Tra- 
gulidai   possess    also   upr<"r   cnpine»._    In 
both  jaws  are  six  grinding  teeth  on  either 
side,  separated  by  an  interval  from  the 
front  teeth.    The  feet  of  ruminants  are 
cloven.     Horns,   developed   in   pairs,   are 
present  in  the  majority  of  the  species; 
either  solid,  as  in  the  antlers  of  the  true 


Bunoiinaik 

deer,  or  hollow,  as  in  the  horns  of  the 
ox.  etc.    The  alimenury  canal   is  very 
long.    The  stomach  is  divided  into  four 
compartments,    frequently    »poken    of   as 
four    stomachs.    The    first    and    largest 
(rumen   or    paunch)    receives    the    food 
roughly  bruised  by  the  first  mastication 
and  transmits  it  to  the  second  (reUculum 
or  honeycomb),  whence  it  is  sent  back 
in  pellets  to  the  mouth  to  be  rechewed. 
This  second  mastication  is  called    chew- 
ing the  cud.'    The  food  is  then  reswal- 
lowed  into  the  third  stomach  {paaltcrtum. 
omaaum,    or   monyplica),   and    passes   fi- 
nally    into     the     true     digestive    cavity 
(abomaaum).    Fluids  may  pass  directly 
into  any  part  of  fh*  stomach.    In  young 
ruminants,    which    feed    upon    milk,    the 
first   three   'stomachs'    remain   undevel- 
oped   until    the    animal    begins    to    take 
vegetable   food.     Most   of   the   rnminants 
are  suitable  for  human  food.     They  are 
generally  gregarious,  and  are  represented 
by  indigenous  species  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  except  Australia. 

Eumination  LSy'"V~e/bJ 

some  mammals,  notably  ruminants 
(which  see),  of  'chewing  the  cud  — 
that  is,  of  returning  the  fo<"l  to  the 
mouth  from  the  stomach  for  remastica- 
tion  prior  to  final  digestion.  Some 
marsupials  and  certain  other  mammals 
probably  share  this  faculty  with  the 
ruminants.  .     _^  . 

Bump  ParUament,  -,g«  --f^.^l 

end  or  remainder  of  the  Long  Parliament 
(1040-60)  was  known  after  the  expul- 
sion of  the  majority  of  its  members  on 
Dec.  6,  1648,  by  aomwell's  soldiers, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Pride.  Only 
sixty  memi)ers,  all  extreme  Independents, 
were  admitted  after  this  Pride's  Purge, 
as  it  was  called;  and  they,  with  the 
army,  brought  about  the  condemnation 
of  Charles  I.  The  Rump  was  forcibly 
dissolved  by  Cromwell  in  1653,  for  op- 
posing the  demands  of  the  army.  Twice 
after  this  it  was  reinstated,  but  both 
times  only  for  a  brief  period,  and  finally, 
on  March  16,  1660,  it  decreed  its  own 
dissolution.  .  ,      .^u 

Bum  Shrub,  ^^ran^geTn^d^le^on 
juice  and  sugar. 


v««M;«.A'n  (run si-man),  AuacAN- 
BunCiman  ^^.^  historicki  painter, 
was  bom  at  Edinburgh  in  1736.  Ho 
studied  in  Glasgow,  and  in  1766  weni  to 
Rome,  where  he  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Fuseli.  Hitherto  he  had  devote* 
hinself  »•  landscape  without  much  suc- 
cess; Iwk  abemt  this  time  he  turned  hit 
itimi  t*  historical  paintinf,  in  which 


Bunioinattt 


Bnnjeet  Singh 


he    enjoyed    some    reputation    at    Edin- 
burgh,  where   he  settled   in    1772.     His 
chief  work  was  a  series  of  frescoes  from 
Ossian's     poems,     executed     for    Sir    J. 
Clerk,  of  Penicuik.     He  died  in  1786.— 
His  brother  John  (1744-06)  was  also  a 
painter  of  considerable  promise. 
ID  «■»<.;«.  a  4- A    (run'sl-nfit),    in    botany, 
EunCinate    ^[nnatifid,  with  the  lobes 
convex  before  and  straight  behind,  point- 
ing backwards,  like  the  teeth  of  a  double 
saw,  as  in  the  dandelion,         ™  „  „ , ,  „  v 
'D««AAVM    (runitom),  an  English 
BunCOm  Ji^er-port,    in    Cheshire,    on 
the   Mersey,    12   miles   above   Liverpool, 
has  ship-building  yards  and  various  fac- 
tories.    It  lies  near  the  terminus  of  the 
Bridgewater  Canal,  from  the  completion 
of  which,  in  1773,  the  prosperitv  of  the 
town  may  be  dated.     Pop.  }^<^- 
PnTiPhprC    (rO'ne-burg),     J  oh  AN 
iLUneDerg   Ludwio,   a    Swedish  poet, 
born    at    Jakobstad.    Finland,    in_„1804; 
died    at    BorgS,    Finland,    in    IStt.     In 
1837   he   became   professor   of   Liatin    ai 
BorgS.    College,    where    the    rest    of    his 
life  was  bpent.    His  works,  which  hold  a 
high  rank  in  the  literature  of  Sweden,  in- 
clude the  Grave  in  Ferrho,  a  poetic  ro- 
mance; the  Elk  Hunters,  an  epic ;  if ontio, 
an   idyllic   poem;    Kadeahda,    a   Russian 
romance;    Kung  Fjalar,   a   series  of  ro- 
mances;   £n«./n   8tir$   Stone.;  several 
volumes    of    lyrics,    comedies    and    prose 

S^J^^'lo  (ri5nz),  the  letters  of  the 
Xiunes  alphabets  peculiar  to  the  an- 
cient Teutonic  peoples  of  Northwestern 
Europe,  found  inscribed  on  monuments, 
tomb-stones,  clog-calendars,  bracteates. 
rings,  weapons,  etc.,  and  only  rarely  and 
at  a  late  period  in  MSS.  They  .are 
formed  almost  invariably  of  straight 
lines,  either  single  or  in  combination. 
Three    runic    alphabets     (or    •  futhorks, 

k    r    »    K 


f 
t 

I 

t 


ti    ►    ^ 

Q      tb      e       r      k       B       n 

A     Vi      t      t      l"     f      *^ 
«       ■        t       b        I       m      y 

Norse  Bunic  Alphabet. 


as  they  are  sometimes  called  from  the 
first  six  letters)  have  hitherto  been 
usually  recognized;  the  Norse,  with  six- 
teen characters,  the  Anglo-Saxon,  with 
forty,  and  the  German;  but  modem  re- 
searches have  traced  the  common  origin 
of  these  in  an  older  primary  Germanic 
or  Teutonic  futhork  with  twenty-four 
characters.  The  name  is  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  the  same  as  A.  Saxon  r«n, 
ft  mystary,  implying  a  magical  or  beixo- 
2-9 


elyphic  character,   which  doubtless  runic 
wrftings  acquired  when,  the  lapse  of  iime 
had  rendered  them  unintelligible  to  the 
common    people;    and    runic    wanda    or 
staves    were    smooth    willow-wands    in- 
scribed with  runic  characters,  and  use* 
in    incantations.    The    period    of    origin 
and  the  source  of  runes  are  not  known. 
Scandinavian  and  Anglo-Saxon  traditioa 
ascribes     their     invention     to     J  ©dm. 
Some    have    believed    tha;    the    Scandi- 
navians learned  the  art  of  writing  from 
Phcnician     merchants     trading     to     ine 
Baltic;   Dr.   Isaac  Taylor   recognixM  in 
the  Greek  alphabet  the  prototype  of  the 
futhorks;    while    others    find    it    in    the 
Littin.     Runic     inscriptions     abound     in 
Scandinavia,  Denmark,   Iceland,  and  the 
parts  of  England  once  known  as  North- 
umbria,    Mercia    and    East    Anglia,    but 
thev  are  also  found  beyond  these  "mits. 
Weapons  and  instruments,  inscribed  wttn 
runes,  and  dating  from  300-400  a.d.,  have 
been   dug   up    in    Norway.    The   use  of 
runes   gradually    disappeared    inder   the 
influence  of  the  early  Christian  mission- 
aries, who  proscribed  them  on  account  ot 
their  magical  reputation ;  but  in  England 
some    Christian    inscriptions    have    been 
found  in  the  runic  characters.    The  latest 
runic  inscriptions  in  Sweden  date  about 
1450 

Runjeet  Singh  /S°fi'f1hf^i'S! 

jab'  and  founder  of  the  Sikh  kingdom, 
was  born  in  1780 ;  and  died  in  1839.     Hte 
father,   a   Sikh   chieftain,  ^  died   in    17i«, 
and  the  government  fell  into  the  hands 
of  his  mother.     At  the  age  of  seventeaj, 
however,    Runjeet    rebelled    against    pia 
mother's    authority,    assumed    the    reina 
himself,  and  began  a  career  of  ambition. 
J.'  e   Shah   of   Afghanistan   granted    him 
possession    of    Lahore,    which    had    been 
taken  from  the  Sikhs,  and  Runjeet  soon 
subdued    the    small    Sikh    states    to    the 
north  of  the  Sutlej.    The  chiefs  to  the 
south  of  that  river  invoked  the  protection 
of   the   British,    who    made   an   arrange- 
ment with  Runjeet  in  1809.  both  accept- 
ing the  Sutlej  as  the  south  boundary  of 
his     dominions.     The     ambitious     prince 
now  organized  his  army  after  the  l-urcH 
nean  model  with  the  help  of  French  and 
English    officers,    and    steadily    extended 
his  power,  assuming  the  title  of  rajah  in 
1812.    In  1813  he  took  Attock.  and  m 
the  same  year  assisted  Shah  Shuja,  then 
a  refugee  from  Afghanistan,  m  return  for 
the  famous  Koh-i-noor  diamond.     In  l»i» 
he  captured  MOltan;  in  1819  he  annexed 
Cashmere,    and    in    1823    the    Pf^h.rBrur 
Valley.     He  was  now  ruler  of  the  entire 
Punjab,  and  in  1819  had  already  assumed 
tbiTHtle  of  Malxarajah,  or  king  of  Wnifc 


ItOBlliBltdt 

8»  ASlii-.  but  h«  r.ul»«d  bit  powtr 
Srtllhfad«»th.    ^  See  PunH^-  .. 

whSt.  iSm  John  met  tbe  barons  who 

JuSriB,  1215.  The  actM*/  "'K"!"'  /? 
i3S  to  hive  taken  place  on  Magna  Charta 
Island  opposite  Runnlmede.  ,  .  ._j 

!»««.«  (r5-uttr'),  a  manufacturing  and 
AVg9I  t^;2dlng  town  o£  Hindustan,  in 
Umballa  district.  Punjab.  U  situated  on 
the  Sutlej,  43  miles  K.  of  Umballa.    Pop. 

B^*  (ra-p6').  the  standard  silver 
B-npce  ^in^/ 'British  India,  the  ster- 
ling  value  of  ^bich,  nominally  2*.,  hasu 
owing  to  the  depreciation  of  "»»«•,  «' 
late  years  varied  between  about  1..  11*. 
ud  1«.  M.  A  rupee  equals  16  annas  .Ji 
S^a«»d  I  rupee  are  a  so  coined  in  «  ^er. 
100.000  rupe«.  are  called  a  lac;  100  lacs, 

Eupert  of  Bavaria  ^SX'i\^ 

tinguished  as  a  caval^  leader  »n  the  Eng- 
lish civil  war,  the  third  wn  of  Fredr- 
ick V.  elector  palatine  and  king  of  Bo- 
hTmia    by  Eliwibeth.  daughter  of  James 
I     of    England,    was    born    in   161»   at 
Prague    After  some  military  experience  on 
The  Continent  he  went  to  England  to  as- 
sist his  uncle.  Charles  I,  and  in  1642  was 
made  general  of  the  horse.     He  distin- 
pilsheT  himself   at    EdgehiU   »nd   Cbal- 
Irove,  captured  Birmingham  and  Lichfield 
fT  16^  and  Bristol  In  1643,  and  dis- 
nlavedhis  courage  at  Marston  Moor  and 
?Ja2eby    n  1845.  though  his  impetuosity 
STimprodence 'contributed  to  tlie  disas- 
trous rSiuUs  of  these  engagements     His 
feeble  defense  of  Bristol  against  Fairfax 
involved  him  in  temporary  disgrr-e  with 
Charles;  but  in  16&  he  was  made  ad- 
miral of  the  English  royalist  fleet.     He 
carried  on  a  predatory  naval  war  against 
tbe  Pariiament  in  European  waters,  ma- 
til   Blake   forced   him   to   escape   to   the 
Waat  Indies,  where  he  preyed  upon  Eng- 
lish and  Spanish  merchantmen  ooniewhat 
after  the  manner  of  a  buccaneer.    In  1W» 
^iSed  Charles  II  at  Versailles     After 
the  Restoration  he  was  appointed  lord- 
high-admiral,    and    served    with    Monk 
SStSTthe  butch.     He  became  foveraor 
ol  Windsor  Castle,  and  died  in  London 
to  1682.     Many  of  his  latter  years  were 
devoted   to   scientific   study,   and   he   is 
credited  with  the  invention  of  ^e«otint 


But 

Bay  Company.    8«  BuptrttUnd. 
viJ^alaVt^    (r5'p*rta-land),  an  ex- 
BupertUaiUi   ^{7^  but   indetermi- 
nate region  in  the  interior  of  Canada 

SSed^n  honor  of  P'in« , «"?«' V!t» 
?Smsferred  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, of  which  that  pr  nee  was  one  of 
fhe^'founders,    by    Charles    II    in    |6J0- 
Tills  region  is  now  included  in  Manitoba 
and  the  region  surrounding,  but  its  name 
ttill    gives    the    title    to    the    Bishop    ol 
Rupertsland,  who  resides  at  W>n^i>«^ 
■D^ja    (r»'Dl-a),  a  skin  disease,  eon^ 
Eupia   ;Kg  of  •»  eruption  of  small 
flattened  and  distinct  ftulto  surrounded  by 
inflamed    areola;,    oontolning    a    serous, 
oumlent,  sanious.  or  dark  bloody  fluid. 
SSd  followed  by  thick,  dark-colored  scabs 
over  unhealthy  ulcers.     It  is  a  chronic 
diMase:   and   though   not  dangerous,   is 
SfteS^errobstinate  and  tedious.     It  is 
not  contagiou^         ^ 

'I'^'facttring    town    In    Prusria. 


aufc  will. 

ATippi—,  lactunng    mwu    »•»    -.•r-'--s 
province  of  JBrandenbu^,^  a  lake  of 


encraving.  which  at  least  he  Introduced 
fnto  BSund.  (See  also  Prince  Kajj^r^ 
Dfflfw.)     He  was  one  of  the  foundtra 


the  same  name.    Pc^.  ic. 
Euptwe.    Bee  Hernia. 

Eural  Credit  Banks,  tya^tm  e»tab'- 

Ushed  in  1©16  closely  following  the  linM 
35^fir  the  Federal  B«f  rye  Banks. 
TiSey   however,  do  not  conduct  a  bank- 
^  wstem.    but    confine    themselves    to 
SLing  ftSld.  on  farm   property   under 
.n1tflh{(>     restrictona       Borrowers     give 
m  "r?gage8.Tut  S  run  for  40  years  «id 
SiSi  K  piiid  in  small  instalmenta.     See 
H'ederoJ  iarm  Loan  Act. 
l>-nm\r  (  rO'rik),    the   founder   ot   tue 
AUHK  Jiussian    monarchy,    who   flour- 
ished in  the  ninth  century,  is  generally 
considered  to  have  been  a  Varangian  or 
Scandinavian,  snd  to  have  led  a  success- 
ful invasion  against  the  Slavs  of  Nov 
Rorcd   about    862.     He   was    assisted    by 
^«  brothers,  who  conquered  territories  to 
which  he  afterwards  succeeded,    "e  ^e« 
in  879.  and  his  family  reigned  in  Ruwi* 
t?^l  th4  death  in  1598  of  Teodor,  son  of 
Ivin  the  Terrible,  when  it  was  succe^ed 

by  the  house  of  Romanoff.  Many  Rus- 
sian families  still  claim  a  direct  descent 

S^V!^"(r*ur^8).  or  Rooekee.  a  manu- 
EurKl  facturing  town  in  Sahiranpur 
district.  Northwest  Provinces.  HindustaD^ 
on  the  Soiam.  is  the  seat  of  the  ranges 
f^nal  workshops  and  iron-foundry,  and 
fhe  Th^mason  tivil  Engineering  College. 

Pop.  about  20.000.  __ij_  „-«. 

'S.n.a  (rd'sa),  a  genus  of  Cervidy,  con- 
»TMa  tVuiing  several  specie  of  deer. 
Batives  o«  tbe  foresU  of  India  and  the 


BwonB' 


Buikin 


BMtera  Archipeltfo.  They  n»«y  b«  dj- 
■cribod  as  Urge  '*afi  with  round  «»"«"t 
£?£«  M  a"terlor  batal  «»I.  •»**?,! 
top  forked,  but  the  antler,  not  other- 
wL  branched.  The  great  ru«i  ( «•  *V- 
JlfipU.)  I.  a  native  of  Java.  8«»^^ 

rtcTlt  ha«  brown,  '<>««*»  »»»'{.  ^^JiSe 
li  the  male  being  covered  with  «  «■": 

The    «mbur    (B.    ^"*  <".*'")  j^^w  iSd 

SJ  =ra°n^tviTrn  M 
vi.^na    (rus'kus),   a  small   genus  ol 
SUSCnS    ^jantg,    nat.    order    Lillacese. 

Sflfi^     the  common  term  for  some  of 
AUIII,    ^i,e  different  species  of  Juncua, 
m.    Mnus    of    plants,    nat    order    Junca- 
ce«     The    rushes    have    a    glumaceoua 
S'anth  of  six  sepals,  «Jabro«s  filament., 
Ihree  stigmas  and  a   three-celled  many- 
^'cSult-    The    leaves    are    rig^d. 
mostly  roundish,  and  smooth,     """^es  are 
found  chiefly   in  moist  boggy  sjtuations 
in  the  colder  climates.     Juncus  f/f«»««  « 
very  common  in  the  United  States.    The 
leaves  are  often  employed  to  form  mat- 
t!nr  and  the  bottoms  of  chairs,  and  the 
^\tl  for  the  wicks  of  candles.     The  name 
F«  also  given  to  plants  of  various  other 
Lenera  bisides  Juncu,,  and  by  no  means 
S  ":;j^T.«aii*'ra'f-ous  American 
AUSn)  nhysician.  was  born  near  Phila- 
delphia  ffi  24,  1745     In  lSJi%7^* 
to  Edinburgh,  and  took  his  degree  or  aa. 
D    there  i?  1768.    He  began  to  practice 
?t  Philadelphia  in  1769,  becoming  at    he 
same  time  lecturer  .  /hraaistry  at  the 
mMlicl  school   of   that  city.     He  aiier 
wMd.  fill^  the  chair  of  the  theory  and 
JSbt'ce  of  physic  in  the  Un  verslty  of 
S-ennsylvania.    He  early  identified  him- 
self with  the  patriotic  party,  was  one  of 
the  simers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
nendence    and  in   1787   was   a   member 
From  Pennsylvania  of  the  convention  for 
the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution. 
In  im  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  first  antislavery  society  in  America. 
nl  £ed  in  1813.    Dr.  Rush  was  a  volu- 
StaJis  and  versatile  writer     HjscWef 
riedical  works  are  his  Medtcal  Inqvmet 
a^Obi7n,ation,,  Di»e-e»  of  the  Mind, 
and  U«dir&l  Tracta.  . 

4  °  t  RioHABD,  statesman,  son  of  the 
AWiR,  preceding,  was  bom  at  Phila- 
delphia, Aug.  20, 1780..  He  was  ««duated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1^.  «^,^^^t? 
the  legal  profession,  and  was  attOTney- 
jSeSfof  the  United  States  ««««  P"J; 
dent  Madison  1814-17.  ^  In  1817  hevro. 

JemponTiT  Secretary  of  Sta**  ȣǥ', ^"S; 
4ent  Monroe,  wh»  appelated  hhi»  «ln«ster 


i^f'ifi^i««t8&"««sjH^^^ 

Sni&t.'^fr^Si  pl^llSfonVtlcjH 
^President    Adam..    He    wa.    ap- 
Mlnted  to  obUln  the   8mlth»nlan  1^^ 
S2y     in    1837  .and    succewled    ^    ob- 
Uinlnz  the  entire  amount    In  1847  he 
wa.  apiwlnted  minister  to  France.     He 
retlredTt  the  close  of  Pr«»de»t  P«*» 
term,  and  died  July  80,  1889. 
Pnalrifi    (rus'kin).    John,    art    critic 
UniKlIi  ^qJ    political    economist,    and 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  English  pKwe 
writers  of  the  last  century,  was  horn  at 
L^nd^   to    Feb.   1819.     He   studied   «t 
Christ  Church,  6xford:  «ai«>^  .*^«  ^ew- 
digate  priae  for  his  poem  on  SaUettejf^ 
Etephanta  in  1839,  and  was  ««idu»t«^^J" 
IsS.     His  .ubwquent  life  wa.  the  very 
buS  but  uneventful  life  of  a  writer  anj 
tSicher.    In    1867    he    was    appotated 
Rede  lecturer  at  Cambridge,  and  In  1870- 
"jT  1876-78,  1883-85  he  was  Slade  pr»- 
fMBor  of  fine  art  at  Oxford,  where  In 
ISn  he  gave  £5000  for  the  endovnnent 


JohaBoakla. 


of  a  university  teacher  of  drawtof. 
TTom  1886  Mr.  Wkln  lived  in  seclurioa 
.t  his  reridence  of  Brantwood,  on  (gnto- 
ton  Lake.  He  was  an  LLD.  of  Ca^ 
bridje  (1867),  and  a  D.CJ^  of  Oxford 
(1871).     In    1843    appeared    the    flrj> 

volume  of  Modern  i*o"»<f».  *»  «  ^t^fttl 
ate  of  Omford,  to  which  Euskin  mato- 
titnS  thfSeriority,  of  modem  ton^ 
tSape  patoters.  especially  Turner  to  the 
older  master.,  and  at  th*  Mme  time  ad- 
vocated a  complete  w^olution  in  the  r^ 
eeived  conventions  of  art  and  art  crm- 
clsm.  The  subsequent  volumes,  ofwhi^ 
the  fifth  and  last  appeared  in  l»w,  « 
vtnSa  the  .ubject  into  a  most  compw- 
B^ri^  tteatise  on  the  principles  wgA 
mSnOt,  ttr  AonM  underlie    art,  wMii 


BUMll 


■imilar  critlctem  ,w»i  exUnded  to  w»oth«r 
domain  of  art  in  Wa  Seven  iMmpt  of 
liX«#c«"r«   (1861),  and  h\»  Stone*  of 

V^Stei  (l»l-*»).    In  i»J,RS*?hI2' 
Mar^  M  a  defender  of  pre-Raphaelltiimi, 
Srhlch  had  found  Inspiration  In  his  words. 
Aa  a  political  economist  and  «>cja«  »" 
former^e  was  an  outspoken,  ancompro- 
mlslng   foe  of   what   he   considered   the 
selfis?  and  deadeninj   doctnnes   of   the 
ao^Ued    Manchester    school,    his    chief 
^s   In   this   sphere   being    Vnto   thu 
Ltt$t    (1862),  Munera   Pulveru    (1872), 
iuA  Firrci^viffera  (1871-84),  ^V'^J;^ 
^1  series  of  letters  to  the  workingmen 
and    taborera    o£    0«at    Britain.     The 
Guild  of  St  George,  a  kind  of  cultured 
nclallstic    society,    founded    by    him    In 
1871.  with  its  headquarters  at  Sheffield, 
may  also  be  taken  to  represent  his  views. 
His   other   works    were    very    numerous 
and  varied  In  subjects,  among  the  more 
Important    of    them    being    8e»ame    and 
Wiel  The  Ethics  of  the  Oust,  The  Crown 
of  WM  Olive,  The  Queen  of  the  Atr,  etc. 


ikme  time' ^^srmeated  with  loftv  entbu 
siasm  for  truth  and  beauty,  and  -with  a 
generous  sympathy  for  the  poor  and  the 
weak.     Sometimes,    however,    he    is    be- 
trayed Into  exaggeration,  and  not Jinlre- 
quently    his   propositions   are    needles-jy 
Violent  and  paradoxical,  occasionally  even 
contradictory.     Met   at  .the  outset   with 
keen  and  even  bitter  criticism,  he  never- 
theless gave  the  impulse  to  a  not  unim- 
Dortant     renaissance     in     Britisn     ari, 
fbough  the  new  birth,  is  in  many  rewts, 
very  different  from  the  uleal  he  held  up. 
Scarcely  less  may  be  said  of  his  work  in 
pSitical  economy.     He  siient. large  sums 
SiBtituting   a   kind   of   primitn-e  agricul- 
tural community  for  the  purpose  of  car- 
rvina  out  his  views  of  social  and  indus- 
trial reform.     It  did  not  prove  a  success. 
He  died  Jan.  19.  1900. 
PnaoAll    (rus'el).   House  OF,   an   an- 
AUSSeU   ^jgnt  English  family,  the  head 
of  which  is  the  Duke. of  Bedford,  has 
lone  been  conspicuous  m  English  politi- 
oThUtory  for  its  devotion  to  liberal  or 
whig  principles.    It  claims  descent  from 
Turstain,  one  of  the  Norse  invaders  of 
Normandy,  who  took  possession  of  Ro«el 
Castle,     near     Caen.    His     descendants, 
Hugh  de  Kozel  and  his  brother,  accom- 
pi^ed   William  the  Conqueror   to   Eng- 
land, where  their  name  assumed  its  pres- 
ent form  about  1200.— John  Rus^ 
was  constable  of  Corfe  Castle  in  liffll. 

Sib    John     Bussbix    was     speaker 

of     the     House     of     Commons     under 
Bwif     VI,     and     hia    grandwo     wm 


'  '       ^   BuimU 

created    Earl    of    Bedford    In    18W/-- 
WuxiAK    Ru8««ix,    the   8th    earl    ra« 
father  of  Lord  WUlUm  Russell  (a^b^ 
low),  was  created  Maraula  of  Tavistock 
Mid  Duke  of  B»Mord\n  lim.—  3oui(, 
4th  duke    (1710-71).  held  office  in  the 
Newcastle  and  GrenvlUe  ministries,  and 
was  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  ^n  17^ 
02.— FBAMas,    Bth    duke    (1766-1802), 
was  distinguished  fo.  his  services  to  agri- 
culture.—Fiuncis,     7th     duke     (1<88- 
1861),  eldest  brother  of  John,  Larl  Rus- 
sell  (see  below),  was  summoned  to  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1832  before  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1839,  but  held  no  office.— 
Admiral    Edward   Russell,    who   defeated 
the  French  at  the  battle  of  La  Hogue  in 
1602.  was  also  a  scion  of  this  house. 
PumaII      Johi»'    Eahl    RUS8ELL,    an 
JtuSSeU,    English    Liberal    statesman, 
was  the  third  son  of  the  sixth  duke  of 
Bedford,   was  born  in  London   in  1  iV« . 
and    died    at   Richmond   in   May,    1878. 
Educated  at  a  private  school  and  at  l!-dln- 
burgh   University,  he  entered  parliament 
in    1813    before    attaining    his    majority. 
In  1819  he  made  his  first  motion  in  favor 
of  parliamentary  reform,  the  great  ques- 
tion  of   which   through   life  he   was  the 
champion.     His  Influence  in  the  Libera) 


John,  Earl  BasseU. 

oarty  steadily  increased,  and  though 
temporarily  unseated  in  1826,  owing  to 
his  advocacy  of  Catholic  Emancipation, 
he  (arried  a  motion  in  1828  against  the 
Teat  Acts  and  thus  led  to  their  repeal. 
In  1831  he  was  paymaster-general  in 
Lord  Grey's  administration,  and  though 
not  in  the  cabinet  introduced  the  first  Re- 
form Bill  to  the  House  of  Commons.  In 
the  exciting  itrugfle  that  followed  Lor^ 
John  BmwU  wm  popwhiny  accepted  aa 


BniMll 


EumU 


to 
m, 
he 
il. 
in 

gl» 
te- 
In 


th«  tmt  champion  of  '^'"""•..teB^ 
RuMell  wM  home  McreUry.  and  In  1W» 

h«  became  colonial  "^""fy-.^.^^^^JuS 
ffil  lis  he  led  the  oppoaltlon  agalntt 
l>J«l  with  whom,  howerer,  he  waa  in 
Sympathy  on  the  Corn  L«w 'g"»*°S '  "u 

hS^gl  with  a  mall  "dnncertajS' ma- 
jority, until  February,  1S«.  "^  jo^n 
tered  office  in  December,  1852.  at  foreign 

^^•iSl^re'^^/oio^lS  ^^™^i.^y%n« 
ESlfK-VillTnaZ^^r, 

S;U';ee^LU%n^Ru^f?*an1 
Palmer-Sr^w  ensued,  which,  however, 
fnded  "n  1869.  when  the  Jomer  became 

foreign  secretary  "°^«  J'\»u°'"L"i„M  in 
whom  he  wa."  raised  to  the  peer»ie  lu 
TmT  In  1805  Earl  Rusgell  succeeded 
}Sd-  Palme?iron  in  ^he  leader.hlp  o^ 
the  Liberal  party,  but  ^^^en  lus  newje- 
form  bill  was  rejected  In  ISWJtne  w»- 
IroU  rPHiened.  Thenceforward  Karl  uus- 
n    h!?ri    no    further    office,    though    he 

BUSSeU,    naval    architect,    was    born 

.r/  In  1832-33  temporarily  filled  tne 
"air  Sf  JSu^^a  Phllowphy  at  Edinburgh 
University.    Next  ye."  h«  ^«*°  tn"    rf 

III  Taid  on  the  Clyde  for  aeveraf  years, 
and  Si  1844  established  a  yard  of  his 
Swn  6n  thVThames.  He  was  one  of  ^he 
^.ii^f  flHvocates  of  iron-clad  men-oi- 
w«i^nd  waTjolnt-designer  of  the  War- 

^'r;  the  fl"t  ailsh  «»S|«/™rSJ 
frigite;  but  the  most  important  ▼eaaelhe 
dpsimed  and  constructed  was  the  Onat 
rc^ltcm  Ow  of  his  chief  mgineerlng 
SSrlrwas^Jhe  viut  dome  °f  the  Vi^^a 

lSL.«o5  IKri^^ttr^niSSS 

88— u-e 


l884-«:  8  Toh.  folio),  «Bd  othor  writ- 
jS***     11     tiOaD  WuxuM,  an  BofUsH 


gr.jrM  th.  tUrijjon  of  &%»jrl 


nu.Mll   ^d  WM  bo«  ta  iS©:. H.  ff. 
S?Sr  w?Sament   ln-m«IUtely^  after   tha 
SSonUlXand  In  IMO  g«rri«d  Rachel. 
5Smd  daughter  of  the  Eari  of  South- 
amoton   and   widow   af   Lord  .Vaugnan. 
He  now  began  to  take  a  ?"«»»««*  P«J 
in  polltlca  as  a  l«»der  of  tlia  Whits,  ani 
maud  by  a  bitter  distrust  of  th*3,?fKS 
CathSllM  and  a  strong  love  of  BglUlcal 
liberty.    For  a  brief  period  m  loTO^fii 
waa  a  member  of  the  new  prilf«o«n^' 
roTOtated  by  Charles  II  to  infratlata  blm- 
ieT  wlVh    the    Whlgfc^  »Rea&nlng,  how- 
Jrer,  In  1080.  he  rendered  W»««'  «J": 
Slcious   m   the^  efforts   to   exclude   the 
king'"  brother,  the  RomanCathollc  DuM 
of    York,    from    the    succession    to    the 
?hrone.  but  retired  from  P»b»c J««  when 
tSrEicluslon  Bill  was  jei^ft^;, ^^tJ 
the    Ryehouse    Plot    was    discovered    m 

1683  Russell  was  5'*«»t<^.  «°  f , jj'i*! 
of  high  treason,  and  though  nothing  was 
proved  against  him  the  law  was  shame- 
K  strltched  to  secure  his  conviction, 
lie  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  no  ef- 
forts of  his  friends  availed  to  save  him. 
RSweU   met  his   fate  with   dignity   and 
flrSs.     He  was  beheaded  In  Wncolna 
Inn  Fields,  London,  to  J«>yj_l?®-    M 
act  was  passed  In  1689  (1  William  and 
Marv)  reversing  his  attainder. 
^!.I-.T1     WiLUAM     CtABK,    novelist, 
KTlSSeil,    j^m  of  English  parents  at 
New    York    In    1844,    his    father    belna 
Henry  Ruesel'.  the  popular  -iW'  •»» 
Smposer.    He  went  to  sea  *t  an  earjr 
age,^t  abiindoned  his  nj^tlcal  areer 
In  1866  and  took  to  Uteratore.    Ha  waa 

connected  with  the  «wspaP*t  P"-;*^ 
sArnMi  fame  as  the  writer  oi  sea  stories, 
whfch  a^^wri'tten  with  aplrit  and  oti^ 

nallty.  Of  these  The  ''[^^^fj^  gfT 
cenor  is  considered  the  best.  Died  in  1911. 
i>«..a11  Sib  WnxiAM  Howabd,  war 
illlSSeU,  correspondent,  was  bom  near 
Dublin  in  1821;  educated  at  Trlnltv  Col- 
teJe"D«*lin:  ailed  to  the  EngliA  bar 
lnn850.    HI.  connection  with  th«  Loaj 

don  Time$  began  in  J848:.*^?.J'!?-7S 
correspondent  during  the  Danish  war  oi 
im  Vut  it  fa.  hlsletteiti  written  ftwi 
the  Crimea  in  185*^  that  flrrt  vM* 
him  famoufc  He  waa  P/«5fnt  •*  ^^ 
Balaclava,  Inkerman.  and  the  "«o»t. jm 
ReUstopol  and  his  letter,  were  the  chief 
m.^.rtt  making  public  the  condUlonof 
the  army.  He  wa.  .Imilarly  engagea 
dSiiJ^  Indian  Mutiny,  the  Amwlon 
Ci^wmr.  tka  Prowo-Aurtriaa  war  awl 


*k.  Wmm»MtUi»rn^it  WAV  Ha  AoeoB*  tht  MMtM,  Nortktn  DwIm  and  Oncgft 
(Srlr  H?  S2f^ltht2d  In  18».  Hta  •!•  whkli  Mnd  tWr  w«tm  to  Iht  Arctic 
yoMicfttMy  ■g"yv*L-^  nim^tm  India    VtlikiTa.  Don*.  Niwntn  aad  VistoU  b«- 

-i^  I.  »Jti7ri<m  It  h«ta«  ■aroBwed  only  Obi.  YeniM .  and  Lena  in  BIlMria,  and 

V^cL^Uhi^J^wiw*<S^^id^t%-  th.  Amur  toward,  the  Chlnm  frontltr. 

tLrS^iiSuadBMemplrer  which  Thli  MteijOlT*  rlrer  f nttm  la  of  to^l- 

to^%  rSSm  wlth^colonlw)'.    Uu.-  culabit  Talue  to  R««d*-  "^JLi"  "^3? 

»  ■»yi^/ ».»*"* t.  ..     --.-ter  oart  of  internal  communication  la  laraciy  auMO. 

bLSS^'b^  a5d*Vf  ^oriherTA-la:  Canal,  connect  th*  "^«C*W;/w  •»  « 

rS  i.iw>nnd2rit   b»  th«  Arctic  Ocean ;  to  form  contlnuou.  water-way^  the  nearly 

S^h?  st^en   t^'eOulf  of  Bothnia  and  level  mirface  rendering  them  ea.y  of  con- 

l^Siaf  Ire  in  Sro^".  "hT  remainder   llmJi     In  Aaia  there  I.  the  Bea  of  Aral. 

for  1»08,  i.  a.  loiiow. .  g^  ^^^  ^^  j^^^,  ^1^^,^  ^  ru,. 

RnMia  in  Barone   ( Including  "Ian  Uke.    Prom  the  eitent  of  the  pWn. 

pSnd^  .'^.    °.T^126,201,900  and  .tapper  tha  .wamp.,  moor.,  deaert 

■HbuSS^      . .     2  868  two  wa.tea  and  forerta  of  Buaaia,  the  actnery 

S^ian  'Proving      10,908,400  a.  a  whole  ia  very  monotonona,  lU  monn- 

Gaooutan    rroxince.    ...  7 o49,200  Uinoua  alerationa  occupying  a  compara- 

SSSTl    Arii" 9,306,200  tlvely  email  portion  of  it.  wirface. 

Central   A.la    — ^^^ CJtmate  aarf  «otf.— A.  might  be  ex- 

155.433,300  pected  from  ita  yaatnea  thi.  empire  of- 
fer. Mil.  and  climatea  of  almoat  every 
European  BuMla  con.i.U almoet  wholly   variety.    There    is   a   P«>^   *.<^'\.* 
•f  i^Vnaa  nh^a.  the  Valdai  Hllle  be-   temperate  and   a  warn   region :   in   the 
JiaS^^Sn^urTand  Moicow,  aver-   firat  rewUtion  1.  all  but  eiUnct.  in  the 
IT^  MM  tort  "nd  never  exceedini  1200   latter  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  even  the 
Srt^aKvo^-level.    forming   th?  only  .uaa«ane  grow  to  perfection.    Extrme 
elJrated  regioTof  thi  interior  and  an  Im-  coFd  in  winter  and  "t"™*^*"  ,■",■?: 
!u!vteBt  \rat«shed.    The    mounUina    of   mer  are,  however,  general  charactertatic 
Iffi^  toSrJS  Muthem  .hore.  of  the  of  the  feuaaian  cilmate.    In  the  coW,  r^ 
rv^Tluvea  heliht  of  about  4000  feet;   gion  the  thermometer  varle.  from  80    in 
SJ^IiSi^L,  SnJ  from  the  Black  "ummer  to  30«  below  wro  in  winter    The 
SI  to  ^Owpian,  reach  the  height  of  temperate  aone,  altuatod  bet»«»,^- ^J 
iBium  «Mt     the  Urala    atretchlng  from  and  60"  K^  haa  a  mean  annual  tempera- 
SfSajS'to  the  ASic'cKn  «dV  ture  of  from  40;  to  60'.  and  incWs 
SSt  Suropean  from  Aaiatic  BumU.  within  it  by  far  the  finert  ;>art  of  Bu«ia. 
SSlhelr^Mteat   height   below   7000  The  warm  region  from  60' eouthwar^  is 
Sfc    Beyoodth.  Ural,  are  the  va.t  81-  expoaed  to  a  aummer  heat  «£*"  «<»^»^ 
bSriiuipil?..5htl  "inclining  to  the  N.   100».    A.  '^a'd.  wj^  law  i^tiwia  cj 
^be<»mins  mountainou.  In  wmepart.  Ru«ria  are  auidy,  barren  waatea  and  va«t 
Sw«rdf  5.  B  Md  «r  Part  of  the  T^ian-  morawefc    The  mo.t_  productive  portion 
^2^onntain"»nd  ofthe  Altai  MoS-   l»  that  between  the  Baltic  Sea  and  Gulf 
SS.  onTh?  bJuSJrrb^tw^n  the  Bu^  of  FinUnd,  f^J^J^^^^^J':  lH 

daa  and  Chlneae  Empire.,  belong  to  Si-  ».:  P™»Xi''!£^-^'  ThU  hS-'aen- 
uZ!^m  /tUm  A«&ariA.\  Ruuia  i.  watered  the  Black  Bea  on  tna  ■•  xnu  naa,  gen 
Sf^lSSl  WtoUS  riveiTiSS;  erelly  apaakin,,  a  -oft  "jck  »u>W  of  jreat 
7  mS  inagattuda  and  running  a  count  dtptL  moatly  on  a  ■•nS,i»",2Sl'  ®^*^ 
S^SuSii  ^milea.    The  Pttehtra,  wrought    and    vary    tortile.    The    more^ 


MttMlj  pwtto*  Of  Wbtrta,  M  tor  jiMt 

$Hth«tiAdliif  tht  ••'•'trity  of  th«  cUaaU. 

y«Mf«M«  i»ro*w«t,  ^r**",      iTT  ♦»!- 

iertkcni    Bnroptan    pw>S\nc^    "^  .J?? 

H  bs  ii  '.-rs^o^WnrV'^ 

5?.  of  wo<A  Tb.  r«kle-  cuttln.  down 
«(  tMM  has  In  many  parta  rendered  wood 
SLiSTMoeciaUl  in  tISt  Tlclnity  of  great 
5?teS!'  wKrt  of  tSi  forest  land  U  now 
madw  fownment  control,  and  waste  Is 
S2r.iit?d  Airriculturs  has  long  been  the 
?hW  pSinlt  S7ht  bulk  of  the  pop«^ 
tlM  For  Boms  years  It  has,  bowew,  re- 
SSiod  sutlonary,  while  t^°f"*"T^5 

E«SLi°v'el?Sftiii"r  "«J?g 
?f  th?  land  of  Ru«ia  proper  are Ji'ld  by 

KSrS-S  uSa  SSfie^Si.''a'nra5?rt 

'"lSSf-'^oi*%ild  animals  may  be 
mSlo%  tht'h22f.  the  wolf,  wild  W 
elk  and  rarious  animals  which  are  hontM 
f?r  t"eir  furs.  WUd  fowl  abound,  partic- 
nlariT  near  tho  mouths  of  rivers.  Both 
Sb  the  coasts  and  in  the  rWers  a  great 
SnmKr^pw^ctlve  fisheries  are  car- 
ried oil  In  tha  Arctic  Oc«in  great  num- 
h^  n(  ae^  are  Uken.  The  rivers  of 
Sr<wSf  Srticularly  the  Ural  and 
Volirind  the  Sea  of  Asoff.  "f  ceU^ 
bMt>d  for  their  sturgeon.    1°  *»»•  "JX 

SMmrs  are  also  }'nPO'StSj.^*?„ 'tii 
•riea.     In  the  regions  bordering  on  tM 

kenf  and  In  the  south,  among  tbe  lar 
;S  'of  the  Crimea  and  the  inhabitanU  of 
the  Caucasus,  the  camel  if  o'|"  "Jf^-  ,. 
Jf»»eroU.— Russia  is  rich  in  minerals. 
OoKpStinum.  sUver.  copper,  irra.  lead, 
Sii^  manganese,  coal.  »»»  «°2  "!*P*j!! 
all  «lst  In  abundance,  and  there  are  co^ 
pious  petroleum  aprings  in  the  Caspian 
Swrtet  The  orecious  metals  are  chiefly 
l*ft&ed  to  t^e  Ural  and  Altd jegionft 


STvet.ToSi  \?i"r."hrD«iC"2ii 

Im   rich   and   numerous,   axoaedinf   all 


otheit  In  pw    -tt^SS*-    Coppw  Ismj* 

abondant  la   >.m  gwrarnment  of  ««"i 

taSln    the   Urarand   some  V^JQ  .^ 

p^ :  saltpeter  In  Astrakhan.    Of  tha 

^STliea  SoU  of  the  !>«  ^«»  "! 

the  prirc  pal  at  present,  thosa  of  Klaloa 

ranking  sScond;  the  mines  around  Mas- 

Sw  ^me  next.    The  J™^"  «•*»"»  »! 

over  20.000.000  tons.    About  eO.O«  tons 

of  manfanese  ore  are  annually  •»*ra«ted 

to  the  XJral  and  the  OtmfMM.    Th*^ 

roleum  wells  of  Baku  Oft  »»>•  O^Im  bow 

M,nd  their  product,  all  over  J^^^^V',^ 

output  being  second  to  that  of  tha  Unita* 

Jfsna/acfaw.— Prior  to  the  acceeakw 
of  Peter  the  Great,  Itussia  had  no  rnanu- 
flctoriea;  he  started  them,  and  undaaj^ 

ceasors  they  have  steadily  frown.  ■»#■ 
daUy  since  1806  a  ^^oihnof  ^vottMMh^- 
dustries  have  developed,  thl.  bebf  mainly 
due  to  Bu«ila's  protective  doIIct.  Tha 
latest  statistics  gfve  o^jr  imoOOjgj; 
ions  as  being  employed  itt_"»«-JS™% 
manufacturing  Industries.  Two-fifths  of 
Thf>  entire  production  come  from  *•«•»• 
•mmcnt.  of  St.  Petersburj  "f  .Mo««w. 
Next  In  Importance  as  Industrial  centers 

rank  Vladimir,  Ki««. /•"»;  "l«»  !'  gl 
thonia,  Kharkoft  and  Kherson  in  the 
order  Indicated.  The  various  manuteo- 
tures  Include  the  'o»owlng :  sjdriU,  8U«r. 
cottons  and  yarna.  flour,  tobacco,  tound^ 
products,  flax,  yam  and  i"»en,  laatw, 
woolen  cloth  and  yam.  Iron,  machlntj. 
beer,  soap,  timber,  paper,  clU  giwia, 
chemicals,  agricultural  Implemwits. 

a^ode.— The  bulk  of  Russia's  external 
trade  la  carried  on  through  the  KuropaM 
frontier,  and  th«  Baltic  and  Black  Bg 
ports.    The    cUef^  exports    are:    gjaa 
(about  one-half  of  entire  exporta).  ««. 
Unseed  and  other  oleaginous  seeds,  tt^ 
ber,  hemp,  wool,  butter  and  eggRjwlrits, 
brisUes  and  furs,  in  the  order  indfcatad. 
The  chief  Imports  a.  j  cotton,  wool,  tea, 
machinery,  coal  aaa  coke,  cotton  yam, 
metal  goods,  wln-j,  oUve-oU,  raw  allk.  hw- 
rings,  textile  goods,  fruit,  coffee,  tobaccfc 
The  import  trade  Is  heaviest  with  G«- 
many.   ^Sreat    Britain.    Chtojj..  Y±S 
StatM.  in  order  named.    In  the  exigrt 
t«de  Great  Britain  takes  the  lead,  G«- 
iimy.  the  Netherlands,  France,  Anstria, 
Huwy  following.    Ti,e  vahwof  the  a*- 
nual  commerce  Is  about  fli800jOOU.uwi. 
The  development  of  the  '"t,n»J"^S 
aouieea  and  trade  of  Russia  is  Pre»«™ 
to    transport    dlflkultles.    The    magnif- 
Sent  rlv«  and  canal  system  Is  not  ava  1- 
abla  for  a  good  part  of  the  y«r.  "JlSiJ 
waya  are  comparatively  Umlted.    I"  .^Ji? 
there  were  about  60,000  =>»>••  «'JS"''£ 
In  operation  in  the  Russian  Bmpiw.  In- 


Bnnia 


eluding  Europe,  Blb«ri»  and  Joj*«tM». 
Chlel  among  the  recent  ondertakten  in 
tbe  ireSsiberlan  rtllway,  from  TbiMk 
to   f  eUdiToetok,   with  branchee  to  im- 
portant c«tenL    Another  imporUnt  Asi- 
itic   line  ie  the   Tranecaepian   railway, 
irom  MlchaUovek,  on  the  eouthem  shore 
of  the  Caspian,  to  Samarcand  via  Bok- 
hara.   The  latter,  while  intend^  aa  a 
military  line,  ha«  largely  stimulated  trade 
ta  the  heart  of  Asia.    There  are  over  120,- 
000  miles  of  telegraph,  nearly  aU  owned 
bTthe  eUte.    Trade  is  further  a«l»t^ 
hy  immense  fairs,  which  are  much  fre- 
aaented  by  European  and  ^Af'^V*'  ™^V 
chants.    The  principal  ia  that  of  Nijni; 
Novgorod,   with    an   annual   product   ol 
$150,000,000.     Russia     in     Europe    has 
more  than  a  doien  cities  with  a  popula- 
tion exceedfaig  100,000,  the  largest  being 
St.  Petersburg.  Moscow,  W»"*w,  Odessa, 
Riga,  KharkofE,  Kieff  and  Loda.    St.  Pe- 
tetaburg  and  Moscow  are  the  two  capitals 
of   the   empire.    The   leading   ports   are 
Archangel  and  Onega  on  the  White  Sea ; 
A^  Helslngfors  and  Viborg  in  Finland; 
Cronstedt,  St.  Petersburg  and^Reyahon 


ttwOuWof  Finfand;  Riga  on  the  Gulf  of 
Riga;  Libau  on  the  Baltic; 


Hica:  xjioau  «u  IU.J  *~.">..  Odessa  and 
NlSlaiiff^n  the  Black  Sea;  Kertch  m 
the  Crimea;  Taganrog  on  the  Sea  ot 
Aioff;  and  Astrakhan,  Baku,  and  K«- 
liar  on  the  Caspian.  Other  porta  are  be- 
inc  fostered  by  government  m  the  sontn. 
T^e  silver  rouble,  containing  t78  grains 
of  fine  silver,  is  the  money  ">»«.  ^a/ue 
about  68  cents.  It  is  divided  into  100 
kopecks.  In  actual  circulation  there  is 
little  else  than  paper  money. 

Qovommmt.  etc.— Russia  has  long 
been  an  absolute  monarchy,  the  emperor 
(caar  or  tsar)  being  the  supreme  ruler 
and  legislator,  and  the  final  tribunal  to 
all  matters  political  or  ecclesiastical.  Hie 
title  Is  Emperor  and  Autocrat  of  all  the 
Russlas.  Cz&T  of  Poland  and  Qrand- 
nrince  of  Finland.  In  August.  1906.  as 
a  result  of  the  revolutionary  spirit  oI 
the  people,  an  eiective  legislature  was 
cranted,  knovm  as  the  Duma  and  con- 
sisttog  of  members  elected  for  five  years. 


whose  members  are  elected,  half  nomi 
nated  by  the  emperor.  These  two  bodies 
have  equal  legislative  powers.  Laws 
passed  by  them  must  receive  the  sanction 
of  the  emperor,  but  no  law  can  come  Into 
effect  without  the  approval  of  the  Duma. 
In  its  operation,  however,  the  Duma  has 
been  made  aubservient  to  the  autocracy. 
Th«  administration  of  the  empire  is  en- 
tniatad  to  great  boards  or  councils,  in- 
cluding the  Committee  of  Ministers,  the 


Anssia 

Council  of  Ministers,  the  Senate  — a  Su- 
perior Court  of  Appeal  — and  the  Holy 
Bypod,  a  body  of  high-church  dignitaries. 
The  president  of  the  committee  and  th* 
Council  of  Mtolsters  rank  with  the  pre- 
miers of  other  countries.    Ftoland's  na- 
tional parliament,  formerly  consisting  or 
four  esUtes,  now  conslsU  of  one  elective 
Chamber,  every  Finnish  cltlaen  (man  or 
woman)    possessing   the  suffrage.     Some 
of  the  Baltic  provinces  also  possessed  cer- 
tain privileges,  but  these  are  being  gradu- 
ally curtailed.     Each  government  of  the 
empire  is  under  a  governor  and  vice-gov- 
ernor; there  are  also  a  few  general-gov- 
ernors, who  have  more  than  one  govern- 
ment under   them.    The  communes   into 
which    the    provinces    and    districts    are 
divided  possess  a  certain  amount  of  local 
government,    and    elect   their   own    local 
dignitaries,  but  these  are  again  subject  to 
an  all-powerful  police.     Russia  is  heavily 
in  debt,  chiefly  abroad,  Germany  in  par- 
ticular  holding    large   amounts   of   Rus- 
sian stocks,   its   total  debt  being   about 
$4,600,000,000.    The  revenue  amounts  to 
ibout  $1,^),000,000.     The  bulk  of  the 
revenue  Is  obtained  by  indirect  taxation, 
spirits    formerly    furnishing    about    one- 
third  of  It.    It  is  now  supplied  by  taxes, 
licenses,  custom  duties,  etc. 

Army  and  Navy.—  Russia  .  possesses 
one  of  the  most  powerful  armies  m  the 
world.  On  a  peace  footing  it  ja^  1.200.- 
000  men.  the  war  strength  4,600,000. 
Besides  these  it  is  calculated  that  In  an 
emergency  the  territorial  reserve  could 
supply  2,000.000  more  men,  the  national 
militia  1,200.000,  making  a  total  force 
of  over  7,500,000  men.  Liability  to  mili- 
tary service  is  universal  from  the  age 
of  20  to  that  of  43;  and  five  years  must 
be  passed  to  active  service.  The  naval 
strength  was  greatly  reduced  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  war  with  Japan,  but  is  being 
rapidly  re-developed. 

Religion   and   £d«co«on.— The  estab- 
lished religion  of  Russia  is  the  Eastern 
or  Greek  Church,  and  one  of  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  state  is  that  the  em- 
peror must  belong  to  that  church,  and 
none  of  the  imperial  family  may  marry 
a  wife  belonging  to  another  religion  with- 
out the  express  sanction  of  the  emperor. 
Most  religions  are  tolerated,  but  Roman 
Catholics,  and  especially  Jews,  are  fre- 
quently subject  to  interference  and  even 
persecution.     Education  in  spite  of  many 
obstacles     is     progressing,     but     Russia 
(Finland    excepted,    which    has    all    out 
universal  education)  is  still  nearly  a  cen- 
tury behind  other  European  nations,  per- 
haps Spato  and  Portugal  excepted.    Only 
8.8  per  cent  of  the  aggregate  population 
receive  education  to  schools.    A  law  was 


Euida 


Bntiia 


MBsed  In  1888  to  spread  technical  edu- 
^tim.  Tor  the  higher  education  Ruttia 
possenes  nine  univereities. 

People.— Ab  regards  language  (and  »o 
far  also  race)  the  peoples  of  Russia  are 
comSsed  under  the  two  Jjreat  l.v^ions 
ol  Aryans  and  MoMolians ;   the  former 

include  Slavonians,  .Gc'™"'"  ""^,f^!!Sl: 
the  latter  the  B^nnish  and  Tartar  racetu 
The  Slavonians  form  about  75  millions 
of   the   population,   including   5i   million 
Poles     ¥here  are  in  addition  large  num- 
bers  of  Finns,  Lithuanians,  Jews,  ijrer- 
ma"s    Roumanians,  Servians.  Geoi«iar^ 
Armenians,     etc     The     Turco  -  Tartara 
TOunt  about  10  million^    A  gradual  ab- 
wrption  by  the  Slayon  c  races  is  going 
•n.     The  political  divisions  of  the  Rus- 
sian oeoole  comprise  numerous  grades  oi 
nobilfty^'^v.hich  Sre  Partly  hereditary  and 
n-rtlv    acauired    by    military    and  .civil 
£b"  k'e,  %Tdally  .\he    former  ^"""ify 
ranlt  being  most  highly  prized  m  Ru8«a. 
The    clerly,    both    regular    and    secular, 
form   a  separate  privileged  order.    Pre- 
~Sus  to  the  year  1861  the  mass  «f  the 
neoDle    were    serfs   subject    to    the   pro- 
Srietors  of  the  soil.     The  emperors  Alex- 
ander  I   and   Nicholas  took  some  initial 
S  towards   the   emancipat  on   of   this 
c3-   but  a  bold  and  complete  scheme 
Sf^iancipation  was.  begmi  and  carried 

""*AuJr-  A    numbe\%    languages 
-ndTcoXderable  variety  of  dialects  are 
Sa?u?any  Bpolcen   in   a  country   compris- 
Lg  s^ch  a  heterogeneous  P0P»'f  »«°',^b"J 
the  Russian  is  the  vernacular  of  at  least 
four-fifths  of   the   inhabitonts,   the  hter- 
ir?  and   official   language  .being  «Pf>fir 
Rllv    the   'Great   Russian,'   or   that   be- 
longing  to   Central    Russia   surrounding 
fflow.    It    is    one    of    the    Slavonic 
fl^irof  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European 
lanKuaKes.    and    as   such    is   a   »«ter    oi 
Greek   LatinTSansltrit,  German,  English, 
ete      me  Philology.)     Modem  .Russian 
has  be^  much  mddified  by  the  introduc- 
UonT  Greek.    Tartar    and    Monfoha" 
tprms.    It    has    an    alphabet   of    tnirty 
S^^lettersVa  written  and  printed  char- 
MtCT  of  a  peculiar  form   (see  Cynlhan 
Liters),  and   a  prornnciation  which  it 
Uhart  y  poKible  for  any  but  natives  to 
Sasterl?s  flexions  are  both  numerous 
and  irregular;  but  it  is  "oft,  sonorous, 
remarkable  for  its  copiousneM,  and  al- 
fords  unbounded  facility  jor  rhyme. 

Wterofure.— The  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity in  088  first  created  *„  taste  for 
letters  among  the  ancient  SUvomans, 
but  the  chief  remain,  of  that  early  Utera- 
fure  are  some  fragment,  of  traditi«iary 
tales  in  rhythmic  TerM,  wh»ch  !»»▼«  re- 
wntly  excited  much  •ttmtlon  on  account 


of  their  similarity  to  ^J^l^^t^l 

the  earliest  works  r«luced  to  writing  rt 
a  bMk  of  the  Gospels  datln«  from  1066 
Sr  1057.  The  Tartar  InTasjon  arrested 
?he  progress  of  literature,  and  Russia  Jll 
back  into  barbarism,  whence  she  only 
emerged  again  after  the  »ec(wrion  «f  the 

housi  of  Romanoff  (s«>,»^l?,^>:„fi^5d 
revival  of  literature  was  at  first  conflnea 

number  of  works  both  in  prose  and  jerw^ 
and  by  his  precepts  and  example  did 
much  to  originate  a  national  literature, 
and  to  fix  the  grammar  of  the  langnage: 
His   contemporary,   f"m»"koff.    ourie* 

Sfrz'hri'n  ***  (VS^ar  ii??2s2s^ 

WmlSlf  highlySn  lyrical  and  other  ]^t«; 
and  since  then  many  writeni  have  d» 
tinguishcd  themselves  .in  all  departmwta 
It  is,  however,  principally  to  Karamsin 
(1725-1826)   that  Russia  owes  the  more 
general    spread    of    literary    tast^    The 
foundation  of  the  Russian  Academy  in 
1783,  and  the  issue  of  its  great  diction- 
ary; also  contributed  largely  towards  it 
The    same    perfection    which    Karamsin 
gave  to  prose.  Dimitrieff  gave  to  poetra. 
Of  the  more  modern  authors  P"**?S|." 
mention    is   due   to   Alexander   Puriikm, 
Russia's  greatest  poet,  and  .Michael  ^ 
montoff,     not     far     his     inferior.    Th« 
most    eminent    novelists     are     Nicholas 
Gogol,  Ivan  Turgenieff,  Feodor  Michallo* 
v^t?h     Dostoieffsky,    Alexander    Her«en 
Ind  Count  Leo  Tolstoi,  the  last  the  great- 
est   of    the    fiction    writers    of    Ro""- 
Russia  possesses  a  number  of  ▼alnawc 
libraries.    The   first   Ru«jan  pre«  wai 
set  up  at  Moscow  in  .IS&t  „„„,.„ 

H<«tor*.— -The  origin  of  the  Russian 
empire   is   involved    in    much   obscurity, 
but  it  is  usually  regarded  as  having  been 
founded     by     Rurik,_a     Scandinayian 
(Varangian),  about  826,^  his  dominions 
And    those   of   his   immediate   successors 
^tprisS  NoTSorod.  Kieff.  and  the  .«. 
rounding   country.    Vadimir    the    Great 
(980-l(fl5),  the  Charlemagne  of  R«»«a, 
introduced     Christianity,     and     fonnded 
several    cities    and    Mhools.    But    from 
this  period  down  to  1287.  when  the  wun- 
try  was  overrun  by   the  Tartars,  Rufr 
sia  was  almost  constantly  the  -cene  rf 
civil  war.    For  more  than  two  centuries 
Russia  continued  subject  to  the  Tartars, 
while  on  its  opposite  fr«ti«f  '* 'I?"  «i 
ppswl  to  the  attacks  •'the  Poles  and 
teutonic  knightfc    Ib  1321  the  seat  of 


m^ 


bS  J  dStoffi'maSSd  the  niece  rf  JtSK    A   portion    of   Perriw    territenr 

!k.   w   R«untkte   emocror.   and   eTer  liad  alreedy  been  acqaired ;  and  b  1801 

!r^  *iL  ^^^  «?  RnSdT  have  looked  the  formal   annexation  of  Geonia  waa 

aince  tbe.nilePB  of  »««?•  .have  ipo»ea  ^gJ^'^T^j^^  p^^  ^f  FredericSahaven, 

1809,  robbed  Sweden  of  the  whole  of  Fin- 
land, which  now  paaaed  to  Rneata;  the 
Se"nd"^d'ViS^lJdi:?rth'e'  Riisiii  tei>   Peace  of  Bukareat.  1812,  took  BejaarabU 
Si!!2,   ^S  iWlMrdenlar  beaan  the  con-   from   the  Turka;    that   of  Tlflia,    1818, 
I^T'ftfSihMla^teh  w«rwmpleted  in  deprive*   the  Peraiana  of  parts  of  the 
1SS     In  SS^ff  how  of  ffoauinot   Cancaana;    and   then   the  Vienna   Con- 
LiS^  thi  Meimt   aSr   S  dS^detf,   gnn   of   1815   gave   the   remainder   of 
rlf 2la2Vth?ttirSf  and  fi^  thii  Poland  to  Ruaaia.    After  freah  ware  the 
IriflTSSremoiw  iSMTgwater  etienath    Peraiana   loat    the   PWj2°**'j*l  ^'t° 
^At^im^Fr     fnder  Alexia  Mikhailo-   and  Nakhichevan  in  1828:  and  the  Turka 
SSh^eSS^T^)  mitrRuwuTand  Utile   loat  Anapa.  Poti,  Akhalaik^tc,  by  the 
aSL^  wS  Mn^ueiSl  f  ronT  the  Polea,   Peace  of  Adrianople  in  lfe9.    The  de- 
22th^  oSSLdto  of  th? Ukraine  acknowl-   aire  to  poeaeaa  further  dominiona  of  the 
Sldrtie^miacVof  thecaar;  varioua   Sultan  led  to  a  war  against  Turkey  in 
fflSiif  imJ?S^"m2t^  were^ffe^ted.  and    1863.    in    Y"**    En^and,    Fni^    and 
^^wer  of  Russia  began  to  be  felt  and   Sardinia   also   took  part   *?!»*•. 5™ 
^r£S  hv  il  hM  neShbors.    But  Rus-   which  ended  in  the  Peace  of  Paria,  1866. 
rf?'-  ^lif  «^ta«  may  bTsaid  to  date    (See     Crimean     War.)     The     R««»ians 
ftSm  ft?  aS^  in  few  of  Peter  the   were  compelled   to  restore   to  Moldavia 
oS2twho^t2«ured  the  country  the  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube  in  Bessa- 
22!,Vl«n   ««  the^recivili^   nationa   rabia.    This  district,  however,  was  again 
SI^Sd^    Hte   fin"  militaw  achieve-   restored  to  Ruwia  by  the  Congwas  of 
£»? iHS^ialwiquSt  of  Aao#  from, the   Berlin     in     1878,    which    followed    the 
owv-  Jn  IRMwhich.  however,  he  lost   Russo-Turkish    war    of  ^isp-JS.  .  (See 
Sto  ta  im:    He  alJ5  wmpieted  the   Ottoman  Smpire.)     In  1»8  Ruwia  ac- 
■■■"^  A  ativ.^.  .nH    whst  was  of   ouired    by    agreement    with    China    the 
2S2?  tei.2.rt2^^i;taiS2d  from  Sw2d«   warsely  populated  but  widely  extended 
S'?h.^2S^f^wtSt  in  im  Livonia,   district  oHhe  Amur:  the  subjection  of 
a*hnnU    lS.?U  OT  nart  of  KarelU,  thS   Caucasia  was  accomplished  in  1858  and 
Srt?«,^  o?*V?bo«    ^1   and   aU   the    1864.   and    considered   inquests    were 
territory   of    viDorg,   ^i   anu   «  ^  ^  Turkestan  and 

f***!'**  v^hSri^  rithSrine  I  ^dow  (rf    rte  rest  of  Central  Asia.    A  uka«  of 
tetr  I    aSded  en  the  death  of  the    1868  annihilated  the  last  remains  of  the 

H¥nSTT»'^^^^^^^^^  ?i^?£efeted^SSS  it»^?.  Xf 

S^B4S^i4yr5j&K    SWe^^SlTuou'i  ISS^ 
nTona  o^  the  ablest  of  its  rilera,  1762-   territory:  — 

^  %£r,  lS"^v^'^l^^  •   %>^"  hv         Th*  «t.nt  of  Eut.l.n  territory  unj.r- 
I,   1801-426;  by   Nicholas,   1825-66 ;   by  i^„  t^.  Great, ..  1402,  sbont  88a,7i«  iq.  m. 
Alexander    II.    1865-81;    by    Alexander   vTmUI  Irsnoriteh,  1505     ;*      6io.28« 
mTlWl-O*;  by  Nicholas  II,  since  1804.   It»b  th.  Terrible,.  1884     "    1,580.864 
Da^  aU  these  reigns   the  growth  of  Al«i.     Miehselo-  ..  ^     .. 

the  empire  was  continuous.    The  Kirghia      rUth^   .••••••  •  i«w     . .  |;S||^,?|^     •  • 

Cossacks    were    subdued    in    1731,    t>>«  XJ^f  \' . ; ;         ! !  1?80     "  •«,888.888     ;; 
Oaeetea  in  1742;  the  Fmnish  province  of  |^Suri„  h,   ...1776     "    7.122.770 
Kymenegard  waa  gained  by  the  Treaty   JfeMnder  ll    ...I888     ;;   2.8«M40 
•f  Abo  In  1748.    The  three  partitions  rf  »?•.   ^       -"SI     /.  ^•'^ilSo     •• 

£*^42.*'lW.'^nd"^'fA'iS^  •••««     " 

SSShf^trT^Byte  plai^of  Ku?-    In  the  latter  part  of  the  nine^^th  -- 
SSubdMS  In  17k  the  Turka  gave   tury  a  great  distuiWng  etomeat  to  the 


BnHda 


;^lB«3e  to  murder  tht  ■jw**'^  a! 
oeror.  Within  the  preeent  omtnrr  Oe 
JSSSty  of  the  Nitilirt.  b*.  .Sated. 
aSce  the  advent  of  the  twentiett  wn- 

SSr  •▼•at»  of  great  i»Port»«»^^1^5 
^rf.'     _!-..  t_  n.ia><a      Amonc  tboee  ol 


tury  evenui  oi  grwu.  *»'*~»*""r?^~'} 
Uton  pUce  in  Ruwia.  Among  thoee  of 
Stomal    moment    maT__be_^nained^^the 


iatemal  moment  may  r.4."7rr  t.w« 
oppteeaive  me«roree  afainat  the  Jewe. 
J^Saqd  alK)  aoffered  from  opprtmi^* 
^^^  a^med  agalnet  the  partial  tode- 
pendence   in    goTernment  ^^i*  X^e 

eSieTRi-irLd  JW-  f i'^'^Xr 
penlBted  in  occapying  Manchum  after 
Se  Boxer  outbreak  (eee  ^"l  -nw"^  ** 'j 
despite  treaty  obligation,  with  China  and 

S  SSSS- mi^'e^nt.^SS'^^Hs 


timi.  uid  whiHi  Oi.  WM  not  Jkma.  de> 
dSwd  war  i.r«»r«H»aa»  ^^  j, 
mSS,  m7.  tt  idmort  bloodies  n^J^ 

SonTbeglBnin*  In  P« W** ,*»i ■PIJS*' 
£g  ImmedUtely  to  other  large  dtt«^ 
^uMd  the  oTerthrow  of  the  roUng 
dj^  the  Ctor  .Mi«ti«gJ«.b;^ 


nasty,  tne  c»ar  aniuouHc  "-.rT^Tj" 
of  UmMlf  and  the  heir  apparent  at  mW- 
nlcht  of  March  16.  A  provisioMl  Vi^'K 
^t  wM«t«bUri»ed.  with  Prince  ^o« 

United  States,  Great  Bl^tjin  wd  Fr^ 
and  Italy  hastened  to  '«»ei^  ""A  had 
iSvemm^t.  But  a  dwirc  Tor  fi«w^»| 
Irown  in  the  countnr.  and  the  *W2J  JJ 
the  Workmen's  and  Soldier.  i^^tS 
mit  in  defiance  of  the  8oye"m«ot  anSd^ 
manded  that  an  international  pea^  ^ 
^ranM  hs  held.  Thl.  council  wa.  per- 
K*^''i«>4'"Sir;«'W;^''p^SSc-it^  -^^^d'to  meddlej^th  the  ndUtj^ 

MiSster.  Fc  a  time  the  Woitanms 
Council  worked  hnrmonioualywittiKj^ 
rOTMkv  but  his  declaration  of  a  promisea 
S7of  '  bloSd  and  iron.:  proclaimed  rt 

Mo 


in  Man<3iuria.  xneir  ^^^SM^PrZAAmi 
hooeles.  when,  in  June,  190p.  "*?'*'5?* 
^•^It  offered  the  services  of  the 
gSt'S^  8tat«  infringing  »bout  a  peace 
between  the  combatants.    This  offer  was 


noUcy  of/n'«»Jf'V..TrJrt2toirgen- 
MoHcow  August  26.  was  greeted  iW  a  1^ 
eral  strike.  Meantime  too  «trenie  wmg 
of  the  Socialist  P*rty.  ^own  asi^eMwJ^ 

two  powers  was  -«  »- oV"^^-"iined  ^^n^«^^^Wof^^ 

Ma^uria  was  rwtored  to  9"#°!iiSr^ 
fStTMng  left  the  simple  rif^tS' '"^St' 
TrZfl^  across  its  northern  action,  me 
SSt  T^Sis  war  led  to  momenj^s 
pvmt.  in  European  Busria,  a  greai 
«^utio'Sary  outSieak  t^tog  pl*oe;^« 
people  were  temporarily  J«cifled  ^  »• 
Siting  of  a  wpw^otattre  pa^am«t, 
i^arown.  however.  faUed  to  kMP  «« 
S5i  Witt  them,  gradually  restricting  ft* 

»[!niteeaMd  to  be  reprewntative  of  the 
SSSe^SMlriJ.     While  the  fovenunent 

^^^^^^% 

^^t3,^r^^iZ^w,  AnmttU.  and  Servia,  in 


fW?  asMnt.     Wiai  'Ae  bgcto^  «< 

1814  Rusrda  announced  that  it  woow  »w 
Sm'it  AS^Mungary  to  «akej«  « 
gn.  without /oodrnwn  g*^?^ 


Rossian  revoiuopnisi  ^"y? , '•*."°  rTfa 
was  Vladimir  Ulianolt^and  hi.  aeem^  a 

SSmimd,  TrotAy.  oth«"^J?"*av2! 
SSSr  Bronstein^or  Bwunrtato^jag 
demanded  recognition  to  the  eorfltkm  ea*- 
Stt«t.  but  Kerensky  ignored  tlMOi.  __^.^, 
"%»"  miUtary  "Ituatfoii  wm  ggjtag 
wone  all  the  time ;  on  Julj  24  tihe  KtfWJj 
the  AurtriMi  emperor  and  VIM  HanAal 

SS  Awwt  S  the  Gemui.  a^J^J^SS 
wita.  and  section.  <rf  the  Busrtjui  ai^ 

mtKMM  port 


Rnwift 


Bnnift 


Tl0ir«d  bit  Tictorioiu  troopa,  eoncntuUt- 
ias  thim  on  a  wiccew  that  bu  Men 
boufht  fcom  traitpn.         ^       ^  , 

TUm  dlaaiter  dl4  not  waken  tha  rsma* 
tioniati  from  their  draams.  On  Saptamber 
7  Oaneral  Korniloff  propoaed  to  hava  him- 
■df  appointed  dictator,  with  Keranaky'a 
approval.    Kereniky  promptly  denounced 
I&milofl  and  ordered  hia  arreet    Oeneru 
BLaledines,  hetman  of  the  Coasacka,  had 
intended  to  join  General  Korniloff  in  a 
march  on  Petrograd,  but  the  march  col- 
Upeed  without  bloodshed.    On  September 
14  Busida  was  proclaimed  a  republic  by 
the  proTiaional  government,  Kerensky  be- 
ing premier  of  a  cabinet  of  five  members. 
The  Soviet  had  proclaimed  the  right  of  aU 
nationalitiea  to  govern  thenuelves,   and 
the  break  np  of  Great  Russia  promptly 
began.    The  great  province  of  Finland  de- 
clared its  independence,  as  did  the  Ukraine. 
Lithuania   aa^tated   for  self-govemmoit. 
Bsthonia,  Livonia  and  White  Russia  fol- 
lowed smt.  Bessarabia,  in  the  southwest, 
set  up  a  parliament  of  ;ts  own.   The  Tar- 
tars in  the  Crimea  convened  a  Tartar 
Congress.  The  Cossacks  formed  a  loose  f ed- 
eranon.    The  Mohammedan  tribes  of  the 
Northern  Caucasus  and  Transcaucasia; 
the    peoplea    of    Siberia   on   the   Amur 
River  J  on  the  Transeaspian  territories 
and  ^where,  aet  np  forms  of  independ- 
ent government.    Disorder  was  perpetual ; 
landowners  were  dispossessed :  machinery 
was  wrecked.    Bariy  in  October  the  Ger- 
man Baltic  fleet  captured  Oesel  Island 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga ;  one  or 
two  Russian  ships  were  sent  to  the  bot- 
tom in  Moon  Sound  and  Dago  and  other 
islands  were  taken,  with  IS.WO  prisoners. 
Kerensky  petulantty  asked,  *  Where  is  the 
British  Navy?'    Disturbances  broke  out 
afresh  in  Petrograd.     Lenine  instraeted 
the  troops  to  disregard  all  orders  except 
those  given  through  the  Soviet  committee 
which  he  controlled.    The  only  force  that 
could  be  trusted  to  protect  the  Winter 
Palace,  where  Kerensky  lived,  was  a  de- 
tachment of  the  Battalion  of  Death,  some 
200  women  from  the  woman's  battalion. 
KarenAy  appealed  for  support,  but  he 
saw  the  end  nad  come,  and  on  November  7 
ha  disappeared  in  disguise  to  Bykoft  on 
3s  railway   to   Kiev.     He  mana«[ed,to 
saake  his  escape  from  Russia,  and  visiting 
London  and  other  places  he  eadeavoied 
to  secure  help  in  arresting  the  progress  of 
Bolshevino.  ,  ^    j 

His  rapporten  attempted  a  stand 
•gainst  Laoine,  who  had  now  taken  the 
irfns  of  government  but  the  counter; 
rdtelUon  was.  speedfly  vanauished,  and 
lienine  and  his  Bolshevik  followers  were 
•npreme  in  Petwwrad  and  Moacow. 
VNtiky,  ^  new  foraUn  Miaiater.  is- 


sued a  note,  which  was  virtually  an  ulti- 
matum, on  Novonber  20,  calling  on  the 
AUiea  to  make  peace,  wit^  the  thrMt  that 
if  they  had  not  dona  so  by  November  23, 
Roaaia  would  hold  herself  free  to  act 
alone.    The  AlUea  protests^  but  Russia 
had  reaidved  upon  peace,  and  Lenine  was 
determined  to  obtain  it  at  any  price.    On 
December  1  a  cessation  of  bosdlities  was 
arranged  on  the  northern  aad  GaUidan 
fronts,  and  the  preliminary  peace  parley 
bi«an  in  Brest-Utovsk  on  December  6,  in 
the  presence  of  German,  Austrian,  Turk- 
ish and  Bulgarian  representatives.     An 
armistice  was  agreed  upon,  and  negotia- 
tions were  continued.    Trotsky  protested 
against  the  severity  of  the  German  peace 
terms,  and  while  the  delegates  debated, 
the  armistice  was  extended  till  February 
18,    1918.     Meantime,    on   February   9, 
peace  was  signed  between  Germany  and 
the  newly  declared  republic  of  Ukraine, 
a  state  of  between  200,000  and  900,000 
square  miles,  with  apopulation  of  thirty 
or  forty  millions.    The  Ukrainian  peace 
was  foUowed  by  a  cryptic  message  from 
the  Russian  Bolshevikl,  dated  February 
10,  stating  that  they  'refused  to  sign  a 
peace  which  would  bring  with  it  sadness, 
oppression  and  Buffering  to  millions  of 
workmen  and  peasanta    ....    but  we 
also  cannot  and  must  not  continue  a  war 
which  was  begun  by  caars  and  capitalists. 
....    Russia  declares  the  war  with 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Turkev  and 
Bulgaria  at  an  end.     Simaltaneously  the 
Russian  troops  have  received  the  order 
for  demobilizadon  on  all  fronts.' 

This  did  not  satisfy  the  Germans,  who 
failed  to  understand  how  there  could  be 
neither  peaca  nor  war.    If  the  Russians 
wanted  peace  they  must  sign  the  treaty : 
if  not,  war  would  be  resumed.     Acting 
upon  this  dedaration  German  troops  ad- 
vanced on  February  18  along  the  whole 
northern    Russian    front,    crossing    the 
Dwina  and  taking  Dvinsk.  while  disor- 
ganized forces  fled  before  them,  abandon- 
ing guns  by  the  thousand,  rolling  stock, 
thousands  of  motor  cars,  rubber  and  cop- 
per which  the  Allies  had  placed  in  Rus- 
sian hands.    On  February  24  Lenine  de- 
clared in  the  Soviet,  '  Their  knees  are  on 
our  chest ;  our  position  is  hopeless.    This 
peace  must  be  accepted.'    While  action  of 
the   government   was    still   delayed,    the 
Germans  continued  their  resistless  march. 
The/  were  in  Reval,  the  great  Baltic  base 
of  tne  Russian  navy ;  they  were  in  the  im- 
portant railway  junction  of  Pskolf,  only 
eight  hours  frwu  Petrograd.    They  were 
in  Finland.     The  Aland  Islands  in  the 
Baltic  had  been  seised.     Simultaneously 
the  Turks  were  prtsasing  on  in  Ameoia. 
TreUiond  was  reoccnpied,  Enerum,  Kars 


Bmiia 


Bntabagm 


and  the  whde  OaocoiMi  coMt  w«*  «« 

with  tS«  Gwrnan  war  hwd^  "»*  * JW 

1M8,  and  ratified  by  a  vote  of  fU^J^ 
by  tiie  An.Bni.i*n^Ooii«reM  of  8«Het^ 
meettng  at  lIo«»w  March  14.  ,  ...^ 
The>««  dauw  of  the  treaty  d^dawj 
the  iUte  of  war  between  tihe  CJentr^ 
^wen  and  Ru«ia  ^i^-^^^**^. 
deals  with  the  civil  iwpuUtiona  in  occu- 
Died  regions.  The  third  agrees  to  a  new 
?iSnti«rUne  to  be  setUed  by  a  comids- 
don.  In  the  /ci»r«»,  Russia  nndertakes 
^"^vacuation  if  the  AaatoUan  P«>;lo«» 
and  their  return  to  TuAey.  Th«  W** 
provides  for  the  dmobili«ti«n  of  the 
Russian  army.  The  sixtli,  seventh,  eightn 
and  ninth  dauses  are  as  follows: 

8imth.  Russia  andt5«f  ^es  to^S  p£ 
to  condude  peace,  with  the  Ukraine  Peo- 
ple's Republic  and  to  «»o«»>J»«  *^?,P21« 
treaty  between  this  state  and  the  Powers 
oTOe  Quadruple  Alliance.  Ukrainian 
territory  will  be  immediately  ^acuated 
by  the  Russian  troops  and  the  Botahevik 
giaid.    Rusda  wiU  cease  all  agitation  or 

Ka«anda  against  thSu^^TfKSS?-^  pS^ 
pabUc  institutions  of  the  Ukrainian  Feo- 

**^BLt^Sii?"aid  Livonia  wiU  likewise  be 
eviSatX^thout  delay  by  the  Rusdan 
troops  and  the  BoUhevik  guard. 

T6e  eastern  frontier  of  Esthonia  fol- 
lows  in  general  the  line  of  the  Narovn 
RWer  The  eastern  frontier  of  Livonia 
mns  in  general  through  Pdpus  Lake  and 
S*ov  like  to  the  •oSthwwterly  wrner 
of  the  latter,  then  over  Lnbahner  (Lubau, 
Lake  in  the  direction  of  Lievenhof,  on  the 

^thonia  and  Livonia  will  be  occupied 
by  a  German  police  force  until  security  is 
rawanteed  by  thdr  own  national  institu- 
^M  border  in  the  state  is  restored. 
Ruda  will  forthwith  rdease  all  arrested 
or  deported  inhabitants  of  Bsthoma  and 
Livonia  and  guarantee  the  safe  return  of 
deported  Esthonians  and  Livonians. 

Iffiid  and  the  Aland  Idands  w^n  also 
fo^wiSi  be  evacuated  by  the  Rusgan 
teSopTand  the  Bolshevik  guard  and  Fin- 
Ssh  ports  by  the  Russian  fleet  and  Rus- 
dan  naval  forces.  .   .  _i 

So  long  as  the  ice  excludes  the  bringing 
of  Rtudan  warships  to  Rusdan  ports 
iily  smaU  deUchments  will  "mainj*; 
iSd  on  the  warships.  Ruwia  is  to  cease 
all  agitation  or  propaganda  gainst  tne 
TOvemmSt  or  the  pubUc  institutions  in 

The  tortificattons  erected  ^  the  fland 
Idands  are  to  be  removed  with  aU  pos- 
dUe  dispatch.  A  roedal  agreement  is  to 
bemade  between  Germany,  RossU,  Fin- 


land and  Sweden  regarding  the  P'^anj^t 
non-fortifieatlon  of  theseUands,  as  weU 
as  recudins  thdr  treatirent  in  miUtanr, 
■hip^  and  technical  trnptetM.  It  to 
Zinadttat  at  Germany's  dedra  the  other 
itSSw  Iwidering  on  the  Baltic  are  also  to 
be  givm  a  voice  in  the  matter. 

JSiw»<».  Starting  from  the  fact  that 
Perda  and  Afghanistan  •«  *»•  *°^J2: 
dependent  states,  the  contracting  partijj 
uJSertake  to  resnect  thdr  PO^^tical  and 
economic  independence  and  territorial  in- 


^^th.    Prisoners  of  war  of  both  ddes 
will  M  sent  home.  _^ 

Ninth.  The  contracting  parties  mu- 
tually renounce  indemnification  of  tftwr 
WM  coste;  that  is  to  say,  state  expen^- 
ture  for  carrying  on  the  war^as  »«"  «■ 
Indemnification  for  war  d«n*gea;  ^t  to 
to  say,  those  damages  fbichluive  arisen 
for  thm  and  thdr  subjects  in  the  yar 
^ons  through.  miUtary  mf»f«««'><g: 
dve  of  aU  requisitions  undertaken  In  the 

*°ThJ  ISSii'^use  pn,vide.  for  resump- 
tion of  diplomatic  relations.  The  con- 
cluding five  clauses  refer  to  econonde  af- 
fairs, restorarton  of  pubhc  and  pn^»te  "l 
lations,  questions  of  amnraty,  "J'rebMt 
ships  in  enemy  hands,  provision  for  ran- 

fication  of  treaty,  etc.  , 

^««+     the  red^sh-brown  or  orange-col- 
AOSli)    Q^^  substance  which. forms  on 
iron  or  sted  exposed  to  a  moist  atmos- 
phere, a  hydrated  ferric  oxide.    It  is  ap- 
barently  the  result  of  the  combined  action 
Sfcarbbn  dioxide,  moisture  and  oxygen, 
Sid  it  is  posdWe  that  hydrogen  peroxMe 
Says  a  part  in  ite  formation.    The  pre- 
?entk,n  of  rust  to  eff^ted  by  galvantoing 
the  iron,  that  is,  coating  it  with  rinc. 
T»«»+     a  dtoMwe  which  attacks  cereals 
AJlSlf    gnti  many  pasture  grasses.     It 
to  most  common  on  the  leaves,  on  whicn 
it  is  virible  in  the  form  of  orange-colored 
mealy  spots,  but  to  by  no  means  confined 
to  them:    Rust  may  be  prevented  or  the 
loss  grenUy  reduced  by  thorough  and  re- 
peated spraying  with  fungidde. 
TB-r-*«l.«i.    irBs'chSk),  a  town  of  Bul- 
BUStCnUK    ^"Jlri^tuated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  where  that  river  is 
joined  by  the  Lom.    ^SP- ^^-    ,.„   „» 
l>«.4-  mi4-*      one  of  certain  mites  ot 
BUSt-mite,     ^j,,  f„niiy  Phytopiia,or 

gaU-mite^  which  do  not  P'odaw'JfJr; 
DroDerlyspeaking,  but  live  in  a  rust-like 
^Ence^K^they  pn>d«*  «P«?,*^! 

B&baga  iE'l-i-ai'tSr^irs- 

Tftmip. 


Butacese 


J&mtaOeB    ^lypetalout  ezocena.   Tba 

are  thruta  or  »">". /""ely -JJ^'If' J,K 
■imple  or  compound  leave*  dotted  wun 
clande,  often  having  a  Btrong  heavy  MWlL 
About  700  epeciee  are  known,  occ«fring 
moat  abundantly  in  Australia  and  South 
Africa.  A  South  American  apeciee  aro- 
ducea  the  Angoetura-bark.  The  ^tf.J^ 
a  BrasllUn  Bpeclea,  the  Ttcoria  febnf^ga, 
is  a  powerful  medicine  in  internjlttent 
fevera.  The  epeciea  known  as  dittany 
abounda  in  volatile  oil  and  diffuaea  a 
powerful  fragrance.  It  e^cj**!"'  'o  much 
oil  in  dry.  hot  weather  that  a  elight  flaeh 
takca  piace   when   a  candle   ia   brougnt 

Vntli  Book  of,  a  canonical  book  of 
KMUt  the  Old  Testament  It  is  a  kind 
of  app«idix  to  the  Book  of  Judges,  and 
an  introduction  to  those  «'  Samuel,  and 
is  therefore  properly  placed  between  them. 
The  story  of  Ruth  records  in,"mple  ian- 

Suage  the  ancient  rights  of  kindred,  re- 
emption,  and  other  interestjng  customs 
of  Hebrew  tntiquity.  The  date  of  the 
history  and  v'ae  name  of  its  writer  are 
uaknown,  but  is  probably  of  a  date  subee- 
oaent  to  the  captivity.  r,  ^^ 

mTVliikTiiana     (rd-th«'ni-anz),    RU8- 

AUtnenians  ^ih'ianb,   russniaks, 

Red  or  Little  Russians,  numerous 
Slavonic  tribes  inhabiting  Eastern  Ga- 
Ucia.  Bukowina  and  Northeastern  tlun- 
Mrv  closely  allied  to  the  inhabitants 
5f  l»'odoUa  and .  Volhynia.  The  number 
of  Ruthenians  in  the  Austrian  Js^mpire 
Amounts  to  3.000,p00,  of  whom  about 
500.000  are  settled  in  Hungary.  They 
live^most  exclusively  by  agriculture, 
and  their  sUte  of  civilization  is  still  very 
low.  They  belong  for  the  most  part  to 
the  United  Greek  Church,  and  m  politics 
often  prove  troublesome  to  the  Austro- 
Hnngarian  Empire  on  account  of  their 
Russian  proclivities.  ^  ^  , 

-RnfltMiiiTn  (r6-th«'ni-um),  a  metal 
KUtnenium  burring  in  platinum 
ore.  Symbol  Ru ;  atomic  weight,  104 ; 
specific  gravity,  11  to  11.4;  color,  whit- 
iah^y.  It  is  very  infusible,  and  forms 
a  series  of  salts  which  are  analogous  t« 
those  of  platinum.  „.,.„„ 

Emtkerford  ^^X^'lr^^y,  i^^ 

8  n  K.  of  Paterson.  It  is  r.  place  of 
residence  for  New  York  mwrhants,  and 
has  some  manufactures.  Pop.  8000. 
Xt-n^^tmr^ivrA  (ruth'«r-ford),  or  RUTH- 
AUtAenora,  esfubd,  Samuel,  a  Scot- 
tish divine,  was  bom  about  the  y«r  1600 
ia  RoxbtKibaUre;  died  at  St.  Andrrini 
is  1081.  Ha  atudiad  at  Bdinburgh  Uni- 
vanity,  and  in  IflBT  was  appointed  mm- 
-'^%;£  iiwath  in  Kirkcudbright    Oa 


Eutland 

accomie  of  Us  stttnc  Pwpbytarian  viewa 
hewM  dwrirad  of  lOs  living  in  1^  and 
imprisoned  fo-  two  years,  when  »>•  «• 
reatored.  H*  took  a  prominent  part  in 
Se  drawing  up  of  the  National  Covenant. 
In  1639  he  became  professor  of  divinity, 
and  in  1649  principal  of  the  new  college. 
St.  Andrews.  He  published  numeroiw 
politico-theological  treatises.  The  most 
famous  of  these  is  Lem  Rem,  which  on  the 
Restoration  was  publicly  burned,  and  he 
himself  charged  with  high  treason. 
Death  prevented  him  from  answering  the 
charge  before  parliament.  His  FamaUr 
Lettert,  published  after  his  death,  have 
been  frequently  reprinted. 

Bntherglcn  £™!jT«5!^>fe„Vi«; 

a  burgh  of  Scotland,  county  of  If  b*'*; 
2  miles  southeast  of  Glasgow,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Clyde.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  one  wide  street,  en  which  "tands  a 
fine  baronial  structure,  the  municipal 
buildings  and  town-hall.  There  are 
chemical  works  and  dye-works,  a  paper- 
mill,  a  pottery,  a  building-yard  for  small 
BteamerST  and  in  the  vanity  «*»-»«»••: 
Rutherglen  was  erected  into  a  royal 
burgh  by  David  I  about  1126.  Pop. 
18  280. 

Kntllill  Rhuthtit,  a  borough  in 
North  Wales,  on  the  Clwyd,  in  the  county 
of  Denbigh.  Near  it  are  the  remains  «* 
a  magnificent  old  castle  ojlled  Rhyddin, 
or  Red  Fortress.    Pop.  2824. 


PtiSiirAii   I'utb'ven),     Raid    or,    fa 
UniAYen   Scottish  history,  an  actof 
treachery  by  which  the  Earl  of  Gowrie 
and   his  party,   on   the  22d  of   August. 
1582,  secured  themselves  for  tea  months 
the  control  over  the  person  and  power  of 
James  VI.    The  king,  then  only  sixteen 
years  of  age,  was  surrounded  at  Ruthven 
Castle,  the  seat  of  the  Eari  of  Gowrie, 
where  he  had  gone  on  a  huntmg  expedi- 
tion.   He  waa  set  free  by  the  opposmon 
party  at  St  Andrews   ( June  29,  1M8) . 
and  the  Earl  of  Gowrie  was  beheaded. 
-RntiU  (rO'tll),  red  oxide  of  titanium, 
JillXUe  ^  brown,  red,  yellow,  and  some- 
times   nearly     velvet-black    ore.     It     is 
found  in  many   European  countnM,   in 
North  America,   and   the   Urals,   chiefly 
in   the  veins  of  primitive  rocks,     it   is 
infusible    before    the    blow-pipe   without 
a  flux.    Potters  have  used  the  meUl  to 
give  a  yellow  color  to  porcelain. 
v«4-1»«J    (mfland),     or     Rutland- 
Butlana   ^^J^t^   smallest  of  the 
English    counties,     surrounded    by     the 
cowries  of  Lincoln.  I^i^ester,  and  North- 
ampton ;  area.  IK^sq.  mil«.    The  surface 
is     beautifully     diversified     by     geiit^- 
risinf  hilla.    The  soU   ia  almost  every 


Bntluid 


Bye 


wbn*  loamy  and  ridu  The  west  part 
of  the  county  is  under  grau,  and  the 
Mit  chiefly  in  tiUage.  It  is  famoua  for 
iti  dieep,  wheat,  and  cheeee,  much  of  the 
latter  bSag  eold  in  Stilton.  Pop.  (1911) 
90(M7. 

V«41««iil  a  city,  county  eeat  of  Rut- 
AUUaUOy  j^n^  County,  Vermont,  on 
Otter  Creek,  67  milee  a.  by  i.  of  Burling- 
ton. There  are  fine  quarries  of  marble  in 
the  Ticinity,  the  trade  including  about 
three-fourths  '»f  the  marble  mined  in  the 
United  States.  There  are  manufactures 
of  scales,  stone-worklna  machinery,  mar- 
ble monuments,  buildinf  marble,  etc. 
Pop.  13,546.  ,     .,  ,,       , 

Euvc  di  PugUa  nHy,   '"^  "' 


Bari,    with    a 


, ,    province 

handsome    cathedral    and 


manufactures  of  pottery.  Pop.  23,776. 
-RnvailA&l  (rois'dil).  or  IIuysdaei^ 
AUyMUllU  j^coB  yj^jf,  one  ot  the  most 
distinguished  Dutch  landBcape-palnters, 
bom  at  Haarlem  probablj  about  1«2»; 
died  in  the  poorhouse  of  his  native  place 
IG82.  His  paintings,  but  little  appreci- 
ated during  his  lifetime,  now  bring  great 
prices.  Fine  examples  of  his  works  art 
lo  b*  seen  in  the  National  Qalleiy  at 
London,  and  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 
Landscapes  with  daric  clouds  hanginc 
over  them,  lakes  and  rivulets  surrounded 
by  overhanging  trees,  etc.,  are  his  sub- 
jects, and  are  represented  with  true 
poetic  feeling  and  admirable  technique. 
The  subjects  of  c*  -in  of  hia  mountain 
jictuna  seem  to  be  taken  from_  Norway. 
It  is  said  that  the  figures  in  nls  pa  nt- 
ings  were  executed  by  A.  van  de  Velde, 
Philip  and  Pieter  Wouwerman,  C.  Berg- 
hem  and  others. 

"W-n-m^mf    (loi'ter),     MiOHIBL     AoaiA- 
Aujvcr    ^jjszoow     DI,     a     celebrated 
Dutch  admiral,  bom  at  Flushing  In  1607 : 
died   in    1676   in   the  port  of   Syracuse 
from  a  wound  received  in  an  engagement 
with  the  French.     He  rose  to  his  rank 
frem  the  situation  of  cabin-lioy,  and  dis- 
tiaguisbed    himself   for   remarkable   sea- 
maaship  and  bravery  in  many  naval  bot- 
tlea,  but  more  especially  in  1663,  in  lOdu 
and  iB  1672,  against  the  British  fleet 
Y— ..    (rran),  Patbiok  John,  Roman 
*/**  Catholic   archbishop,    was    bom 
aaar  Thurles,  Ireland,  in  1831.    He  was 
sidained  deacon  in  1853,  completing  his 
itndies  in  St  Louis,  Missouri,  and  raised 
to  the  priesthood  in  18B4.     In  1872  he 
was  elected  coadjutor  archbishop  of  St 
Louis.     His  administration  was  energetic 
and  successful.     He  was  nominated  arch- 
bishop of  Philadelphia  in   1884,  a  post 
which  he  filled  with  much  ability.    He 
diad  ia  1911. 


D.wMtiaV  (rl-btaA'),  or  Bumrnc,  a 
AjmnMK  ^^  In  llussU,  government 
of  the  Ryhinska.  It  ia  a  busy  place  in 
the  open  season.  Pop.  254»0,  increased 
to  100,000  during  the  shipping  montiba. 
nwAAnt  (ri-k»f),  Sn  Paul,  an  Bng- 
AycaUl  ^j,h  'Writer  and  diplomat,  bom 
about  1630;  died  in  1700.  From  1661- 
00  he  acted  aa  secretary  of  legation  at 
Constantinople,  and  sut>s«iuently  for 
eleven  years  as  consul  at  Smyrna.  In 
these  diplomatic  offices  he  aennired  eon- 
siderable  knowlodge  of  the  East  which 
he  embodied  in  BPveral  historical  works, 
as  The  Pretent  State  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  The  Pretent  State  of  the  Greek 
and  Armenian  Churchea,  etc. 
PvilYiArir  (rid'bflr-y'),  Abbaham  Vik- 
A>jruuci|$  TOB,  a  Swedish  poet,  nov- 
elist and  archseologist.   bhm   at   Jonkop- 


ing,  in  1828;  died  at  Stockholm  in  1895. 
His  skill  as  a  master  of  Swedish  prose  is 
well  shown  in  his  novels,  and  his  poetry 
ranks  hi^h.  Most  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English. 
PwiIa  (rid),  a  municipal  borough  ano 
■"■J**^  waterinjf-place  of  England,  on 
the  northeast  side  of  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
It  consists  of  several  regular  and  well- 
built  streets,  and  numerous  detached 
villas  surrounded  by  gardens,  rising  in 
terraces  from  the  sea,  and  presenting  a 
very  pleasing  appearance.  A  park  oo  a 
rising  ground  to  the  east  of  the  town, 
and  the  pier,  form  delightful  promenades. 
Pop.  (1911)  10,608. 

S.v»  (ri;  Secitte  cereHle,  nat  order 
•^J^  Graminese),  a  species  of  grain  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties.  It  is 
an  esculent  grain  bearing  naked  seeds 
on  a  flat  ear.  fur- 
nished with  awns  like 
barley.  It  ia  a  na- 
tive of  the  Levant, 
but  has  been  ealti- 
vated  in  Eurojpe  from 
time  immemoriaL  It 
thrives  in  climates 
and  in  soils  which  for- 
bid wheat ;  requires 
less  manure,  and  ri- 
pens faster.  It  is  ex- 
tensively grown  in 
Northern  Europe,  and 
rye  bread  forms  the 
chief  subsistence  of 
the  laboring  classes 
of  many  parts  of 
Russia.  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, Denmark,  Hoi- 
land  and  Prussia. 
Unmaited      rye -meal  , 

mixed   with  barley  malt  and   fermented 
fonna  the  waab  wbenca  ia  distille'l  tx 


Bye  (SteVe 
etrOlt). 


Eye 


■plrit  kwnm  M  Holland  gin.  Tb«"*"iS 
!i  loU7«««»Wt,  do«  not  rot  •M«y,  Md 
ta  wed  by  brlck-inakert  and  tbatchont. 
also  for  stuffing  horao-coUara,  mattrMoea, 
*t?,  and  (or  making  baskets  itraw  hata 
ud  bonneta.  Rye  ia  aubjtct  to  a  diaeaae 
^Sed  e^ot,  which  rendera  It  dangerous 
(or  food.  See  Ergot. 
w-,«  a  municipal  borough  and  aeaport 
*y'>  of  England,  In  Sussex,  one  of  the 
Cinque  PorU.  It  is  situated  64  miles 
■.B/t.  from  London  on  an  eminence  at 
the   mouth   of   the   river   Bother.    Pop. 

4229.  ,   . 

i>«.  <MM«aa  the  common  name  oi  a 
ifcyC-Kra»B>  number  of  grasses  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Lolium,  which  presents 
the  botanical  anomaly ^of  associating  the 
most  important  herbage  and  forage 
grasses  with  the  most  pernicious  weeds  ol 
agriculture.  These  grasses  are  readily 
^own  by  the  many-aowered  sessile  spike- 
lets,  arranged  edgewise  and  alternately 
upon  a  Blg2ag  rachis,  and  supported  by 
a  single  herbaceous  glume,  arising  from 
the  base,  and  pressing  against  the  outer 
edge.  The  useful  species  are  the  L.o(t«m 
p^enne  and  the  Lolium  Italtcum  or 
Italian  rye-grass.  The  latter  is  the  most 
valuable.  The  pernicious  varieties  of 
rye-grass  are  the  L.  temulentum,  or  com- 
mon darnel  and  Its  allies.  .  ,.»^„ 
tt-wrm  Yiausp  Plot  »°  English  history, 
Aye-nOuSe  riOl,  ^     conspiracy. 

planned  in  1C83,  the  immediate  object  of 
which  was  to  assassinate  Charles  II  and 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York  (after- 
wards  James  II),  as  they  returned  from 
the  Newmarket  races.  This  plan  was  to 
have  been  executed  on  the  road  to  lion- 
don,  near  a  farm  called  Rye-house,  be- 
lonaing  to  one  of  the  conspirators  named 
Bumbold:  but  it  was  frustrated  by  the 
king  and  his  brother  happening  to  return 
tnm  Newmarket  earlier  than  was  ex- 
pected. The  detection  of  the  plot  led  to 
^  arrest  on  a  charge  of  hiih  treason 
of  Lords  William  Russell,  Essex  and 
Algernon  Sidney,  who  were  m  no  way 
connected  with  it.    Essex  put  an  end  to 


hia  own  Ufa  Id  a*  Tower,  white  BmmII 
and  Sidney  ware  bahaaded,  aa  also  Llaa- 
tenant-colonal  Wakot,  one  of  the  real 
contrivera  of  the  plot 
•B— n«t.  (n'm»r),  TBOxaa,  a  critte 
Symer  ^^  antlauary,  bom  in  1641; 
died  in  1718.  He  atudled  at  CambrMit 
and  at  Oray'a  Inn,  «»4  was  called  to  tfct 
bar  in  1673.  Succeeding  Shadwell,  in 
1092,  as  historiographer  ">yal,  he  waa  »- 
trusted  by  the  government  with  the  tatt 
of  making  a  collection  of  public  treatlea 
from  the  year  1101,  which  he  began  to 
publUh    In    1704,    under    the    title    of 


pUblUn     in      HW»,      uuuer      —  .  ^^ 

OenerU  Acta  P»Wm,  *»«*:.  *J5f2 
Anglia  et  alio$  PrindpM.  Of  thia  work 
he  completed  fifteen  volumee,  and  Bra 
more  were  afterwarda  added  by  Boom 
Sanderson.  This  work  Is  a  taluabto 
source  of  history  for  the  period  «  corera. 

Bymer    t^®***^"  ^"-  ®**  Rhymer. 

P^irntwor  (rt-ot-war*).  in  India,  and 
UyOTWaX  Specially  in  the  Mfadraa 
Presidency,  the  system  of  land  tenure  by 
which  the  ryots  or  cultivators  of  the  sou 
are  directly  under  government,  paying  so 
much  annually  according  to  assessment. 
1l.vBhrfLrli  (rle'brak),  John  Michaix, 
AySDracU  ^  sculptor,  born  at  Ant- 
werp In  1693  or  1694;  died  In  1770.  He 
came  to  England  early  In  life,  and  de- 
rived considerable  reputation  and  profit 
from  the  exercise  of  his  art,  of  which 
Westminster  Abbey  and  other  cathedral 
churches  contain  specimens.  , 

Hvanrinlr  (rls'wlk;  properly  At/«trv» 
iiySWlCK  _rt8'wlk),  a  village  and 
castle  situated  in  South  Holland,  not  far 
from  The  Hague,  where  the  Peace  of 
Ryswick,  which  terminated  the  war 
waged  against  Louis  XIV  by  a  league 
consisting  of  Holland,  the  German  Em- 
pire, Britain,  and  Spain,  w»»  "JjF" 
YSpntember  20  and  October  30,  1607)., 
-D-liev  (nhef),  a  town  of  Russia,  fa 
AZiicv  government  of  Tver,  on  the 
Volga.  It  has  hemp-spinning  industriea 
and  a  large  river  trade.    Pop.  22,000. 


2A— 0 


s 


StlM  nineteenth  letter  of  the  Bnrileh  goarloUlf  ^'^Jf^I  *Z?^tli.%M 
»  Stohiibet;  wpreeentlnf  the  hi-in*  «'~"**'^  )©«<•),  ntemn^ In _the  B««i 
•onnd  produced  by^  emitting  the  bwath 
between  the  roof  of  the  month  and  the 
tip  of  the  t<m|!ie  placed  luat  ahove  the 
oKwr  teeth.  Prom  thia  drcnmatance  it 
baa  aometimea  been  r«*oned  anKms  the 
Hasoala  (aa  the  tonipie  ia  eaaential  in  ita 
nronondation).  aomedmai  Amonf  -th* 
aentala  (aa  the  teeth  cpttperato  inpfo- 
^dns  the  hlaalnf  ^aound).  More  d-jcrip^ 
tively  It  ia  daaaed  m  a  tibUnnt.  It  haa 
a  tirafold  pronnndation— aharp  or  hard 
aa  in  «ae»,  #*»,  «W#,  tkut:  and  aoft  or 
■onant  (wluni  it  ia  equiTalent  to  a),  aa 
In  aMue,  wiw.    _   .. 

a«a1*  (ail*),  the  name  of  aeveral 
■•»*®  German  rlvera.  the  moet  impor- 
tant of  which  is  that  wh  ch  riaea  on  the 
north  aide  of  the  Pl^htelgeblrge.  in  the 
Sor^eaat  of  BarariajWd  irfn.  the 
after  a  courae  of  above  200  mil».  It 
oiunea  the  towna  Hof,  Jena,  Natimbury, 
llerMbiirg,  Halle,  etc.,  and  ia  of  great 
eommerdal  importance.  _^ 

orri#Al4  (aai'feltj,  a  town  of.Qf 
8aa"W«  ^^'ny,  dtichy  of  Saxt^Mdn- 
ingen.  on  the  leftWk  »«  »»»•  Jaale.  It 
Saaeveral  conaideraMe  indoatrlea.    Pop. 

}£12'  (air;  French,  Smrrehf.  riwof 
**'  Siaie^Lorraine  and  Rhine  Prov- 
ince, about  180  roilea  long,  from  Voagee 
^omitnlna  to  Moadle  river  near  Trevai. 
ThewU  flelda  in  Ita  baain  were  ceded  to 

SSShSS^ViSSSk'te:  French 
BaarDrUOKen  garrehruek).  a  town 
irf  the  EMne  Province  on  the  Saar,  ccdf^ 
with  adjoining  territory  in  the  Saar  Barin 
to  France  by  Germany  in  1919  aa  com- 
penaation  for  the  deatrnotion  of  the  cMi 
^MMin  the  north  of  France  during  the 
BuTC^n  war  (q.  v.).  It  ia  the  center 
rf  kriSi  ooal-mlniM  region.  ACToaa  tiw 
^tnt.  connected  with  SaaAriicken  by 
STtriSS^  ia  the  old  town  of  St  Wtan^ 
The    firat    awagoneiit    la    ^^  J[J^^ 

Angnat  2.  IgTO.,  Pog^  lOB-WT. 
gaaidUIU       *^  Bommmmm. 


baain,  ceded  to  France  In  1919.  It  wnaUi 
French  handa  from  160T  to  1815.  tiin 
ceded  to  Proaaia.  There  are  inm,  lead 
and  coal  mlnea  in  the  vidnity.  Anmig 
tlie  manufaeturea  are  trinketa  and  Mather 
gooda.    Pop.  8813.  .  ^ 

CUft.  (aita),  or  Saatz.  a  town  of  Bo> 
*»•"  hernia,  on  the  right  bank  of  die 
Eger,  whidi  la  eroaaed  here  by  a  didn- 
brl^  It  la  In  a  fertile  diatriet  and  haa 
an  Important  trade  In  hope.  It  la  an^ 
town  and  haa  a  church  dating  from  uu& 
Pop.  10,168. 

'***'*     ialand.bdonging  to  Holland.  aaS 

governed  aa  a  dependency  of  Curacao.    It 

conaiata  of  a  aingie  vdcano  cone,  furrowed 

by  deep,  wooded  and  fertile  valleya,  pro- 

dudnc  sugar,  cotton  and  Indigo.    Area,  a 

aq.  muee ;  pop.  2254. 

fUhftilAll  (8l-hA-deV).  •  manufartnr- 
SaoaaeU     W  town  in  Spain,  provtoea 

of  Baiedona.    Wool  and  cotttm  apiiu^ 

and  weaving  are  chiefly  carried  on.    F«9. 

23,294. 

BaDadllia  |,J*cinrAnnxA.  the  bmm 
given  in  commerce  to  the  pahreriaed  aoeoi 
of  two  idanta.  the  Aja^roM  ofMrnitUei 
Lindley.  and  the  Veratnm  Bahama, 
both  belonging  to  the  nat.  order  lldan- 
thacesi.  Ifexieo  now  aup^ea  the  bulk 
of  the  sabadllla  aeeda  onpioyed  in  phar- 
macy. The  aeeda  of  both  plants  arelmg. 
triangular,  bladdah-brown  outaide,  white 
inside,  of  an  Mrid  and  burning  tai^,  but 
without  amelL  Sabadilla  powder  la  need 
aa  a  vermifuge.  The  alkaloid  ntraeted 
from  the  aeeA,  and  known  as  veraMne, 
ia  apidied  externally  in  eaaea  of  neuralgia, 
rheumatiam,  gout,  dropsy  and  abo  aa  an 
inaecddde.  L««e  dosea  uf  verathu)  aet 
aa  a  mort  irritant  and  oiergede  p«m, 
whUa  amall  doaea  prove  a  rn^d  eatfaartfe 
and  diaradfO. 
flaliaaftHM    (it-M'ani),    tU    ndeot 

the  Boiani  Tenwo.  in  fkmtbweatwn  Arar 
bin.  DMir  cHiUd  waa  Sate. 
8alMBtl%.  ^^^^"^    aaaBaUamM, 


'"r-f*uf»s* 


UM 


BftUat 


•aWI    (M'btl).  tht  gtoM  to  wM*  ti« 
■••»■*   ptlmttto  btlonn. 

MtDtmlM   ^t    ColonbU,    Mrring    m 
tbt  port  of  BarmiMiuHl*.    B«t  Barran- 

&bbfttoriani  Jrm^'';™.Wpu.S 

to  tkt  Mct  of  BfpUata  bow  caU««l  Bcventb- 
day  Baptists. 


al  tko  Bakbath.  In  888  tlw  0*«^jj 
Mtoaa  r«»oTsd  all  •<y«P»«  ••  j?^ 
a£S^  Christians  to  ksep  tho  Jawisi 

SSbatli.    gaoAaii^ir. 


BabeUiui  ttS^.-rWc^ W 

K^SfS^'tiJ^ouliS!  oft'laJfwirli 

BtbMtlL  Jignif-ing  mt).  ths  day  ap-  ^•^^  ^*SSnt^S»mnB.  Ha  UaAt 
■ointtd  by  the  Moaalc  Jaw  for  a  to  al  *«*»•*  ^-r^^thoatlT compoaad  of^bodr 
pwiu»«u  u^ i.u—   .-4  fn*  *h>  mmrviem  tut  ••  niaBt  *"""*•"  _~rr^!l_  rind  thaacH 

Diooyalua  «'»«*«»°^*'^as  a  a^  ^ 

BftDUOUl  \,mne  improperly  •»▼•»  .  °J 
«4teM  of  the  middle  aaes  to  heathen 
wntara  or   tne  ui>«         y„  *iven  to  a 

2^^°hich1"se  -bout  830.  ?nd  wh«|. 
SSb^f.  are  also  calW  ^f  ^^TSa^tiS 
or  Byrian-Sabians,  from  «>•  "fiJffil  "^f 
■ect  oriainated  among  the  »yjJ~ShS 
SuLiTOtamia.  Their  religion  ^  ^J^ff'J* 
S*5rHhenUm  of,  the  "dent^jr^ 
nodified  by  Hellenic  'nouenesa.  ^^ 
Set  flourisljed  .for  about  ^'^J J*"*"**** 
Bti  »f^  <;*H«*i«w  of  8t.  John. 


Msaatlon  from  labor,  and  for  the  aarvlca 
af  Qod,  in  memory  of  the  circomstanca 
that  Ood,  having  created  the  ▼<>'»_» 
aix   daya,    rested   on   the  aeventh.    Bab- 
hath  ia  not  strictly  synonymous  with  Bun- 
day.    Sunday  is  the  mere  name  of  the 
day;  Babbath  Is  the  name  of  the  Institu- 
tion!   Sunday  is  the  Sabbath  of  Chris- 
tiana:  Saturday  ia  the  Sabbath  of  the 
Jewa   and   aome  minor   Christian    sects. 
The   first    notice    In    the   Old    Testamont 
Dointinx  to  the  Snbbath  occure  In  <f.«»- 
n;  2.  3;  but  the  first  formal  institution 
of  the  day  ns  a  holy  day  and  »  day  of 
rest  is  recorded  in  Exod.  xvl,  22-M,  on 
the   occasion   of   the   children   of   Israel 
gathering  manna  in  the  wilderness.    Boon 
Sftar  the  observance  of  the  day  was  re- 
enacted  still  more  expressly  and  emphat- 
ically in  the  tables  of  the  law.    PHo'  |o 
the  taptlvlty  the  Jews  kept  the  Sabbath 
▼ary  indifferently,  but  after  their  return 
from  Egypt  Nehemiah  exerted  himself  to 
aecure    the    true    observance.    Gradually 
the  original  law  became  encumbered  with  a 
lona  list  of  petty  pharisaical  and  rabbinual 
muUtlons.    The  Sabbath  began  at  sun- 


g^n  Friday  and  ended  at  sunset  on  Sat 

orday.    On  the  Snbbath  the  Jews  were 

not  allowed  to  go  out  of  the  city  further 

than  2000  dibits,  that  is,  abo"t  \™Vf' 

and  this  distance  was  called  a  Baltbath- 

dau'a  iourney.    And  as  every  seventh  day 

was  a  day  of  rest  to  the  people,  so  was 

every  seventh  year  to  the  land.     It  was 

unlawful   in   this  year  to  plow  or  sow. 

or  prune  vines;  and  if  the  earth  brought 

forth  anything  of  its  own  accord,  these 

spontaneous  fruits  did  not  belong  to  the 

maater  of  the  ground,  but  were  common 

to  alL    This  year  was  called  the  Soooot- 

ieal  year,  and  was  also  to  be  a  year  of 

release  for  Jewish  debtors.     In  the  Gos- 

pela  the   references  to  the  Sabbath  are 

Somerooa,  and  they  show  ua  that  Chriat 

•Iwsva  paid   respect  to  the   institution, 

altboogh  he  did  not  regard  the  lumuta 

prohibltlMia  that  had  been  aMed  to  the 

orisiaal  law.    The  desire  of  diatinguidt- 

inc  the  Chriatlan  from  the  Jewish  obaerr- 

■aee  early  gave  riae  to  the  celebration  of 

iudiiy,  Uie  fliat  day  •t  the  weak,  iartaad 


Ha  Won     (sa-bi-ka'),     or     Saviou',     a 
SaolCtt    leguminous  tree.  Lysiiomo  So- 
bicK,   native  of  Cuba.     It   fumishss   an 
exceedingly  heavy  and  bard  wood,  with 
a  texture  aa  amooth.  doae  ana  nnn  as 
ivory  almost,  and  of  a  rich,  warm,  red 
color.    It    is   much    employed    far   ship- 
buildii'K  and  cabinet-making. 
O.Mn*    (sa-b«n'),  a  river  which  rise; 
DaDine   ^    the    northeastern    part    <w 
Texas,  and  after  a  course  of  •<>»•«» 
miles    flows    into    the    Gulf    of    Mwdco 
trough  Sabine  Bay.     It  ia  too  ahaUow 
to  be  of  mu(!h  use  for  navigation. 
OaViiiA    (sab'in).  Sib  Bdwabb,  a  Mt- 
SaDlue    tgj,  astronomer  and  phyatelat, 
born  at  Du'ilin  in  1788;  died  at  Baat 
Sh™n   (Surrey)   in  ISffl.    He  waa  edu- 
cated for  the  krmy  at  Woolwich,  and  ob- 
tained a  lieutenant's  commiaaiwi  in  the 
Royal  Artillery.    Although  he  gaji^  the 
rank  of  major-general  in  1869,  it  ia  not 
to  hia  military  achlevemenU  that  ha  ow«i 
celebrity,   but   to  bU  «««»eat  and  lonr 
continued   reaearchea   to   -twnomy /"^ 


continnea  researvue*  •»•  •-»•■>'— »-^_ 
i^i^l  geography.^  Aa  "tro")?"".^ 
Sciompanfed  Vr  J^  ««".  ,•»?  •^„!S*2 
Sir  S.  Parry,  in  aearch  of  the  Wortnwaaj 
PaaaairSda  valuable  obaerratlaM.  and 


flftolmt 


Milfctcd  Bumtroua  data  rcgardiof  '^ 
IcDfth  of  tht  pendulum  and  tb«  variatioaa 
o(  tht  mafovtic  needle,  lie  made  other 
vojragaa  to  tropical  and  Arctic  regtoiw  to 
invaaticate  thtwe  and  allied  ■ubjecta,  and 
publiabed  bia  rescarche*  in  the  Pkihtoph' 
uml  Tnntactiotu,  and  tbo  Trannctiont 
of  the  Britiab  Aeaoclutlon  and  tbe  Royal 
Society.  From  18U1-71  he  prealded  over 
fie  itoyal  Society,  and  in  18UU  be  was 
created  a  K.C.B. 

S&billM  (Mb'ina:  Bahtni),  an  an- 
www«u«»  ^,|p^(  people  widely  epread  In 
Middle  Italy,  allied  to  tbe  LatiiiM,  and 
already  an  important  nation  prior  to  tbe 
foundation  of  Rome.  Origmally  they 
were  conHned  to  tbe  mountain  districtii  to 
tbe  N.  B.  of  Rome,  and  their  ancient  cap- 
ital waa  Amitemum,  near  tbe  modern 
Aqaila.  Aa  an  independent  nation  they 
c«Mad  to  exiat  in  290  b.c.,  when  they 
ware  Incorporated  with  the  Roman  ^tate. 
Bee  Rome  {Ui$torp). 
SftbinM     ^^^^  <"  '"'^     ^^  Romulut. 

SaUa  (*&'bl)>  a  digitigrade  camiTorous 
''**'*^  mammal,  nearly  allied  to  the 
common  marten  and  pine  marten,  the 
Muttela  tibelltna,  found  chiefly  in  Sibpria 
and  Kamchatka,  and  hunted  for  ita  fur. 
Ita  length,  exclunive  of  the  tail,  is  about 
18  incbea.  Ita  fur,  which  la  extremely 
luatroua,  and  hence  of  tbe  very  highest 
value,  is  h»nerally  brown,  grayish-yellow 
on  tbe  throat,  and  with  small  gravish- 
yellow  spats  scattered  on  tbe  aidea  of  tbe 
neck.  It  is  denaaat  during  winter,  and 
swing  to  the  mode  of  attachment  of  the 


E 

fc' ■<>■;'■■>  ?••  ^■'•' •'•*  '.3i 

a 

1^ " 

s 

B 

I 

BoasUui  aabla.  Sabl*  hair  ta  alao  oaad 
la  tha  mauufacturt  of  artlata'  paaelis. 
Sable  fur  baa  been  of  great  valua  troB 
very  earlv  tlmea. 

Aatil*    'D   herab  ick.   one  o(   tht 

0HU1C,  nocture*  -        m  blazonry.     la 
engraving  it  is  expressed  by  perpendicu- 
lar crossed  by  horiiontal  linea.     See  Her- 
aldry. 
fUhlA  Taland      *  ^°^  treeleaa  sandy 

Atlantic,  off  the  east  coast  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia, SKi  milee  long  and  1  to  5  broad. 
SaMm  i*^'^')'  ^'  Sables  D'ULoifivi, 
»«wAo»  ^  seaport  In  France,  depart- 
ment  of  Vendte,  on  the  Atlantic.  It  fai 
built  partly  on  an  eminence  in  the  form 
of  an  amphitheati-r,  and  partly  on  a  flat, 
and  has  a  good  harbor,  valuable  flaheriee 
of  oysters  and  sardinea,  and  a  conaidar- 
able  trade.  It  ia  much  reaorted  to  for 
aea-batbing.     Pop.  12,244. 

Sabotage  <g^«^<iP-^,,^'  "5 

machinery  or  materiala  by  workmen 
through  apparently  accidental  meana. 
Tbe  word  tabotage  ia  of  French  origia, 
and  tradition  has  it  that  a  workman  la  a 
rage  one  day  threw  bia  wooden  aboe 
(aabot)  into  some  machinery.  Otbera, 
aeeing  tbe  result,  adopted  almllar  meana. 
Sabots  ("A-b&),  wooden  aboea  made 
each  of  one  piece  hollowed  out 
by  boring-tools  and  scrapers.  Thejr  are 
largely  worn  by  tbe  peasantry  of  aeveral 
European  countriea.  In  France  their  man* 
nfacture  forma  an  important  iodnatrjr. 
8a.h«r   (aA'b^r),    a    broad    and    heavy 

aomewbat  curved  at  tbe  point  It  ia  the 
chief  weapon  of  cavalnr  reidmenta. 

S»ber-tache  l:i*±k.?  l^J^R  2? 

or  pocket  worn  by  caT* 
airy  offlcera  at  tbe  left  aide,  anapeaded 
from  their  aword-belt. 
Sarhnt  (aak'but),  or  Sackbttt,  a 
D»CDU1«  niusical  instrument  of  the 
trumpet  kind  with  a  slide;  in  fact  an  old 


labia  (iftMtUa  tihtUna). 

hairs  to  the  akin  it  may  be  pressed  or 
smoothed  in  any  direction.  Two  other 
apeciea  of  sable  are  enumerated,  the 
Japanese  sable  (M.  meUtnoput)  and  a 
North  American  apeciea  (if.  Ie%c6pui). 
Tha  Tarur  aable  (M.  atbertcs)  ia  tbe 
name  given  to  a  species  of  tbe  weasel 
genus  found  in  Northern  Buaaia  and 
Siberia,  and  the  pekan  (M.  ctnmitntU) 
ef  North  America  is  sometimes  known  as 
the  Hndaon  Bay  aable.  The  akiaa  of 
all  these  varietlea  are  freqaently  dyed  and 
otherwise  ifjpalated  ta  iailtate  the  tne 


Asayxl^  Saebat,  from  bas-reliefc 


Saooatoo 

Ttriety  of  trombwie  (whidi  jee).  The 
iiutrament  called  nbheka  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  has  been  erroneooaly  rendered 
aa  aacbut  by  the  translators.  The  exact 
form  of  the  sabbeka  has  been  much  dis- 
puted, but  that  It  was  a  striased  instru- 
ment is  certain,  for  the  name  passed  over 
into  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  forms  tarn- 
huke,  tamhuca,  a  harp-like  instrument  of 
four  or  more  strings.  The  instrument 
shown  hi  the  accompanying  illustration  is 
believed  to  represent  a  form  of  the  sacbut 
of  Scripture. 

Saccatoo.   ^Boioto. 


i  I 


fioAnliarifl^fi  (sak'ar-lds),  a  name 
OaCCnanaeS  g'ometimes  applied  to  a 
group  of  carbon  compounds  formed  from 
sugars  by  the  action  of  various  organic 

SoppVian'Ti  (sak'ar-in),   an    artificial 
oii(«uiia.xiii  gugaf  prepared  from  coal- 
tar,  first  introduced  to  commerce  in  1887 
by  its  discoverer,  Dr.  Constantin  Fahl- 
berg,  of  Salbke   (Germany).    Its  sweet- 
ening properties  are  enormous ;  one  gram 
of  saccharin  is  said  to  sweeten  distinctly 
70,000  grains   of  distilled   water.     It   is 
not  a  fermentable  sugar,  and  is  already  in 
common  use  in  the  treatment  of  disease, 
aa  diabetes,  for  instance;  and  in  many 
cases    in    which    the    palate   craves    for 
sweets,  but  in  which  ordinary  sugar  is 
apt  to  cause  trouble.    The  French  Con- 
seil  d'Hygiftne  et  de  Salubrit*  appointed 
a  commwsion  to  inquire  into  the  proper- 
ties of  saccharin,  and  their  report,  issued 
in  1888,  states  that  its  use  in  food  would 
seriously    affect    the    digestive    functions 
and  recommends  the  government  to  pro- 
hibit its  employment  in  alimentary  sub- 
stances.   The  discoverer  and  many  emi- 
nent  chemists,   Continental   and   British, 
deny  that  saccharin   is   injurious  to  the 
human   system,   and   it    is   also  asserted 
that  the  hostility  to  the  new  sweetening 
substance  emanates  from  those  interested 
in    the    French    sugar    industry.     It    is 
largely  in  use  in  Germany  in  the  manu- 
facture  of    confectionery,    brewing,    etc., 
and  is  used  by  many  for  sweetening  bev- 
erages,   as    tea    and    coffee.     It    has    re- 
cently been    strongly   condemned   m   the 
United  States  as  a  dangerous  substance, 
though  the  indication  is  that  it  is  not 
very  actively  injurious. 

Saccharomcter  J~|-/cc^S.^i 

an  instrument  for  determining  the  quan- 
titv  of  saccharine  matter  in  any  solution. 
One  form  is  simply  a  hydrometer  for  tak- 
ing the  specific  gravity  of  the  solution; 
another  is  a  Wnd  of  polariscone,  so  a^ 
ranged  that  the  solution  may  be  interposed 
between  the  polariser  and  analyser,  and 


Saolii 

by  observing  the  angle  through  which  th« 
plane  of  polarisation  ia  turned  in  passing 
through  the  solution  the  datum  is  given 
for  the  calculation  of  the  strength.  (See 
Polarixation.)  Several  saccharometers 
acting  on  this  principle,  but  varying 
somewhat  in  construction,  are  now  in  use. 

Saccharum  ^"^"li;  L^lSi^J! 
Saccopharynx  ^^^^l^^'l^i^i'^J 

genus  of  eels,  family  Munenids.  Tba 
best-known  species  (.8.  pelecanoidea  or 
Eurypharynm  pelecanoide$)  was  discov- 
ered m  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century. 
It  inhabits  the  depths  of  the  Atlantic,  is 


Saeeopharynx  p«l0ean<MM. 


of  a  perfectly  black  color,  is  sometimes  9 
feet  in  length,  and  but  seluom  met  with. 
It  owes  its  name  to  its  pouch-like  phar- 
ynx, which  enables  it  to  swallow  other 
fish  of  large  dimensions.  It  is  also  known 
as  pelican  fish.  The  muscular  system  is 
but  little  developed,  and  the  liones  are 
thin  and  soft.  ,      ^ 

fiapliAVPrMI    (fla-Bhev'6r-el),     Henbt, 
OaCUevereU  ^^  English  divine,  bom 
in  1674;  died  in  1724.     While  preacher  at 
St.  Saviour's,  Southwark,  he  in  1709  de- 
livered two  bitter  sermons  against  dissent, 
and  accused  the  existing  Whig  ministry 
of  jeopardizing  the  safety  of  the  church, 
lie  was  impeached  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, tried   in   the  spring  of   1710,  and 
suspended  for  three  years.     This  persecu- 
tion secured  him  at  once  the  character  of 
a   martyr,  and  helped  to  stimulate  the 
alreadv  fierce  passions  which  then  divided 
the  Whig  and  Tory  parties.    Sacheverell 
became  the  popular  hero  of  the  hour ; 
while    the    Qodolphin    (Whig)    ministry 
was     overthrown.     Parliament     thanked 
him  for  his  defense  of  the  churcli,  and 
as  BO<Mi  as  his  suspension  expired  Queen 
Anne  presented  him  with  the  rich  living 
of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn.    Sacheverell, 
having  no  merit  to  keep  him  permanently 
before  the  public,  now  fell  back  into  ob- 

Aanlia   (»*k").  Haws,  the  most  distin- 
oaOJIS  ^igjied    meistersinger    of    Qw 


Saolisen 


Saononeiito 


maay  in  the  ■iztcenth  century,  bom  at 
Nnjpembeif  in  1494:  died  in  the  •ame 
city  in  1576.  He  learned  the  trade  of 
a  rijoemaker,  and  after  the  usual  icaiMier- 
fO*re,  or  period  of  traveling  from  place 
to  place,  commenced  business  in  his  native 
eity,  married  (1619),  and  prospered.  An 
enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  Mmnesingera, 
he  took  lessons  under  one  of  the  chief 
meistersingers  of  Nuremberg,  and  to  while 
away  the  tedium  of  the  cobbler  s  art  made 
verses  himself.  In  this  he  soon  surpassed 
all  his  contemporaries.  Thousands  of 
verses  flowed  from  his  fertile  brain,  crude, 
but  full  of  imagery  and  humor.  As  a 
staunch  follower  of  Luther,  and  an  ardent 
advocate  of  his  teachings,  Sachs  succeeded 
in  imparting  to  his  hymns  a  fervor  which 
considerably  aided  the  spread  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. A  bronze  statue  to  his  mem- 
ory was  erected  in  1874  at  Nuremberg, 
where  his  house  may  still  be  seen. 
RanTiiukTl  (ssAk'sen).  the  German  form 
BacnseiL    ^^  Saxony   (which  see). 

Saolisen-Altenbiirg,  Sadisen- 
Coburg-Gotha    f^^^r^J^^^'' 

fio/tV-  (Spanish,  ceo;  French,  aeo, 
™'*'*'  'dnr'n  formerly  a  general  name 
for  the  different  sorts  of  dry  wine,  more 
especially  the  Spanish,  which  were  first 
extensively  used  in  England  in  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Sackatoo.  »^^'>^'>*''- 

Sackbnt.     see  Sacbu*. 

fioAlnrillA    (sak'vil),    Thomas,    Lord 
DaCKYlue    Buckhurst     and     Earl     of 
Dorset,  an  English  statesman  and  poet, 
son  of  Sir  Richard   Sackville  of  Buck- 
hurst. born  in  1536:  died  in  1608.     At 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  Latin  and  English  poetrv, 
and  as  a  student  of  the  Inner  Temple 
he   wrote,   in  conjunction   with  Thomas 
Norton,  the  tragedy  of  Oorboduc,  or  Fer- 
ret and  Porrem  (published  in  1561),  re- 
markable as  the  first  example  in  English 
of  regular  tragedy  in  blank  verse.    ITie 
Mirror  of  Magiatratea,  and  the  Complain* 
of  Henry,  Duke  of  Buckingham,  the  in- 
troduction to  an  intended  series  of  poems 
on  the  trai^c  lives  of  famous  men,  make 
one  regret  that  he  was  induced  to  aban- 
don  literature   for  politics.     He  took   a 
prominent  and  creditable  part  in  some  of 
the  chief  events  of  Elisabeth's  reign.    He 
was  a  member  of  the  court  which  tried 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots;  he  succeeded  Lord 
Burleigh  as  lord-high-treasurer;  and  pre- 
sided at  the  trial  of  the  Earl  of  Essex. 
From  1B87-88  he  suffered  imprisonment 
at  the  instigatioii  of  the  qaeen^i  faTorite, 


Leicester.  In  1566  he  had  succeeded  to 
his  father's  ample  estate;  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Buckhurst  shortly 
afterwards;  and  James  I  created  him 
Earl  of  Dorset  in  1604.  He  was  baried 
at  Westminster  Abbey.  ,      *u- 

0«AA  (salcO),  a  river  rising  in  the 
O*®"  White  Mountains  in  New  Hamp- 
shire and  running  southeast  into  the  At- 
lantic below  Saco,  Maine.  It  is  160  miles 
long,  and  has  falls  of  72  feet  at  Hirtm, 
of  ^  feet  at  Saco,  and  numerous  minor 
ones.  -_  , 

QoAA  a  city  of  York  countv,  Maine, 
saco,  14  m^igg  g.^,  of  Portland,  and 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  which 
supplies  water-power  to  large  cotton  fac- 
tories, cotton  machinery  works,  and  other 
manufactures.  It  is  connected  by  bridge 
with  Biddeford,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river.    Pop.  6583.  ,     , 

GaA'Mi'mAii4-   (sak'ra-ment;  Latin,  a90- 
Sacrament  ^^ntum),  a  pledge,  an 
oath,  in  particular  the  military  oath  of 
allegiance.    This  word  received  a  religlops 
sense,  in  the  Christian  Church,  from  its 
having  been  used  in  the  Vulgate  to  trans- 
late   the    Greek    myaterion,    a    mystery. 
Among    the    early    Latin    ecclesiastical 
writers  aacramentum,  therefore,  signifies 
a   mystery,   a  symbolical  religious  cer^ 
mony,  and  was  most  frequently  applied 
by  them  to  the  rite  of  baptism.     In  mod- 
em Christian  theology  sacrament  is  de- 
fined as  an  outward  and  visible  sign  of 
an  inward  and  spiritual  grace,  a  solemn 
religions  ceremony  enjoined  by  Christ  to 
be    observed    by   his    followers,    and    by 
which  their  special  relation  to  him  is  cr^ 
ated,  or  their  obligations  to  him  renewed 
and  ratified.    In  early  times  the  church 
had  also  sacramentals,  as  many  as  thirty 
being  enumerated  in  the  first  half  of  the 
twelfth   century.    The    Roman    Catholic 
and  Greek  churches  recognize  sevoi  ncni* 
ments:   Baptism,  Confirmation,  the  Eu- 
charist, Penance,  Extreme  Unction,  Or- 
ders and  Marriage.    Protestants  in  gen- 
eral hold  Baptism  and  the  Eucharist  to 
be  the  only  sacraments.    The  Socinians 
regard  the  sacraments  merely  as  solemn 
rites,  havhig  no  divine  efficacy,  and  not 
necessarily  binding  on  Christians.     rUe 
Quakers   consider   them  as   acts   of   the 
mind  only,  and  have  no  outward  cere- 
monies connected  with  them. 
fla/trftniATitA    (sak-ra-men'tj),   the 
BaorameniO    fargest    river    of    Cali- 
fornia.   It   rises    in    Lassen   Co.,    flows 
west,  then  south  and  drains  the  central 
valley  of  California  from  thenorth.     Its 
course  is  about  500  miles.  320  of  which 
are  navigaUe  for  small  vessels.     It  di»- 
charfeeTts  waters  into  Suisun  Bay,  oB 
tbe  mie  between  Contra  Costa  and  SolaiM^ 


'« 


BaacuMnto 


eoa.  Tl»  only  large  town  on  it  ii  Sacra- 
mento. It  is  navigable  to  this  town,  and 
for  imall  venels  to  Bed  Bluff,  about  300 

Cu!^m««i4-A     the  capital  of  CaUfor- 
BaOramentO,    ^i^  ^nd  county  seat  of 
Sacramento  CJounty ;  located  at  the  junc- 
tion   of    the    Sacramento    and    Amenwn 
rivera:    natural    distributing    center    for 
central    and    northern    California ;    with 
three  trana-continental  lines  of  railroad 
and  a  large  number  of  interurban  lines. 
It  is  the  trade  center  of  an  agricultural 
ODpire — the  Sacramento  Valley— of  about 
12,000,000  acres  of  fertile  land.     In  the 
pa^t  /ew  years  fully  $2UO,000,000  have 
been  invested  in   irrigation,   reclamation 
and  power  development  projects  in   the 
territory  tributary  to  Sacramento.    It  is 
rapidly  becominir  a  manufacturing  center. 
Both  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  West- 
em    Padfic    maintain    their   mam    shops 
here.     The  Capital  Park,  of  thirty-four 
acres,    in    which    stands    the   $4,  <  00,000 
capitol  building,  is  to  be  enlarged  by  two 
additional  blocks  presented  by  the  city, 
upon  which  additional  buildings  will  be 
erected.    Pop.  75,000. 
aii#ivA<1  ITifAa      The,    of   India    have 
oagrea  xiircB,    teen  in  continuous  ex- 
istence for  more  than  twelve  centuries. 
They  were  consecrated  by  the  Parsees  on 
their  emigration  from  Persia.     The  flame 
is   fed   five   times  each   two  hours   with 
sandal-wood    and    other    fragrant    com- 
bustibles.    The  priests  in  attendance  are 
descendanta  of  the  Zoroasters  of  ancient 
Babylon.     See  Zorotutera. 
RanrifinA    (sak'ra-fls),    a   gift    offered 
oat/ixiiuc    ^.jjjj  gQmg  symbolic  intent  to 

the  Deity,  generally  an  immolated  victim 
or  an  offering  of  any  other  kind  laid  on 
an   altar  or   otherwise   presented   in   the 
way  of  religious  thanksgiving,  atonement, 
or  conciliation.     The  origin  of  sacrifice  is 
a  point  much  disputed;  the  two  opposed 
views  being  that  of  a  primeval  appoint- 
ment by  the  Deity,  and  that  of  a  spon- 
taneous origination  in  the  instinctive  de- 
sire of  man  to  draw  near  to  God.    The 
symbolic   character   of   sacrifice    may   be 
represented  under  three  heads:  (1)   Pro- 
pitiatory, or  designed  to  conciliate  gener- 
ally the  favor  of  the  Deity;   (2>    Eucha- 
ristic,  or  symbolical  of  gratitude  for  favors 
received;    (3)    Expiatory,    or  offered   in 
atonement  for  particular  offenses.     To  a 
different  class  may  be  assigned  depreca- 
tory sacrifices  designed  to  avert  the  wrath 
or  appsase  the  wicked  disposition  of  dei- 
ties.   The  customs  of  the  Jsws  regarding 
sacrifice   are  noteworthy   on  aesenat  sf 
their  very  express  and  explicit  dsims  to 
a  fUTim  origin,  and  because  of  neir  con- 
oaetion  with  the  Christian  religion     De- 


Saorui 


tails  are  amply  civan  la  the  Book  of 
Lsviticus.  Few  raTiglons,  whether  ancient 
or  modern,  have  omitted  sacrifices  from 
among  their  rites.  The  anceston  of  all 
the  existing  races  in  Europe  practiced 
human  sacrifices,  and  similar  usages 
widely  prevailed  throughout  the  world. 
Among  Christians  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  Greek  churches  regard  the  mass  as  a 
mysterious  sacrifice ;  but  with  Protestants 
It  is  not  generally  so  regarded. 
SlamHIpve  (sak'ri-lej),  In, a  general 
OKOriiCi^c  gengc^  the  violation  or  pro- 
faning of  sacred  things ;  more  strictly  the 
alienating  to  laymen,  or  common  pur- 
poses, what  was  given  to  religious  per- 
sons and  pious  uses.  Church  robbery,  or 
the  taking  things  out  of  a  holy  place,  Ip 
sacrilege,  and  by  the  common  law  was 
formerly  punished  with  more  seventy 
than  other  thefts,  but  it  is  now  put  by 
statute  on  the  same  footing  with  burglary 
or  house-breaking. 

<Sa/«inafaTi  (sak'ris-tan),  the  same  as 
OacnstHU  ,e««o»,  which  is  corrupted 
from  it,  an  officer  in  a  church  whose  duty 
it  is  to  take  care  of  the  church,  the  sacred 
vestments,  utensils,  etc. 
Sflnristv  (""k'ris-ti),  the  apartment 
9acriS1.y  j^  ^^  connected  with  a 
church  intended  for  the  keeping  of  the 
sacred  vestments  and  utensils  while  not 
in  use,  and  in  which  also  the  clergy  and 
others  who  take  part  in  religious  cere- 
monies array  themselves  for  so  doing. 
Sa  rrnhosco  ( sa-krO-bos'kO ) ,  or  John 
SacrODOSCO  Jiolywood,  a  matheuia- 
tician  and  astronomer  of  the  thirteenth  or 
fourteenth  century.  He  was  a  native  of 
Britain,  but  lived  chiefly  in  France,  and 
died  at  Paris  as  professor  of  mathematics 
at  the  university. 

Sftpmni  (sa'krum),  in  anatomy,  the 
oni/xuiu  jjQjjy  structure  which  forms 
the  basis  or  inferior  extremity  of  the  ver- 
tebral column.  The  human  sacrum  forms 
the  back  part  of  the  pelvis,  is  roughly 
triangular  in 
shape,  consists 
of  five  united 
vertebra?,  and 
from  its  solid- 
ity it  is  well 
adapted  to 
serve  as  the 
keystone  of  the 
pelvic  arch,  be- 
ing wedged  in 
between       and 

articulating  ^        „ 

with  the  haunch-bones.  In  most  mam- 
mals the  number  of  vertebra  forming 
the  sacrum  is  smaller  than  in  maa 
In  birds  the  lowest  number  is  about 
ten.    Fishes   possess   no   sacnun   at   all. 


Pelvic  Bones.     *.  Sacnun 


Saey 


Sadowa 


Tb«  Musram  in  man  ia  fully  ouified 
and  completad  in  development  from  tlia 
twenty-fifth  to  the  thirtieth  year  of  life, 
bat  the  component  parts  can  generally  be 
perceiTcd  even  in  the  moat  aged  indi- 
vidaala.  _ 

^AV    l>''^*"')t  Airrouni  Isaac,  Babor 
'***'/    SiLVBSTiiB  DB,  a  French  philolo- 
giat,  born  in  ParU  in  1758 ;  died  in  1838. 
After  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  he  studied 
Hebrew,     Syriac,     Chaldee,     Samaritan, 
Arabic  and  Ethiopic;  mastered  the  prin- 
cipal European  languages,  including  Turk- 
ish, and  later  on  also  Persian;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Arabic  in  the  School 
of  Oriental   Languages   in   1795,  and   in 
1806  professor  of  I'ersian  at  the  College 
of  France.     In  1808  he  was  elected  to  the 
Corps  L^islatif.     He  was  one  of  the  most 
active  members  of  the  Asiatic  Society  and 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  a  pro- 
lific contributor  to  the  learned  Transac- 
iiona    of    the    period.     Napoleon    created 
him  a  baron  in  1813,  and  under  Louis 
Philippe    he    became    a    member    of    the 
chamber  of  peers  in  1832.     His  teaching 
gave  a  powerful  impetus  to  the  study  of 
Oriental  languages  in  ICurope. 
Cloi1<11*     (sad"),  a  kind  of  seat  for  a 
onuuxc    jjQpg    J  back>  contrived  for  the 
safety  and  corn.'   rt  of  the  rider.     In  early 
ages  the  rider     at  on  the  bare  back  of 
his  horse,  but  ii   course  of  time  some  kind 
of  covering  wai    placed  over  the  back  of 
the  animal.     Sucn  coverings  became  after- 
wards more  costly,  and   were  sometimea 
richly  decorated.     The  modern  riding  sad- 
dle consists  of  the  tree,  generally  of  beech, 
the   seat,    the   skirts   and    the    flaps,   of 
tanned    pigskin,    and    the    construction 
and  weight  vary  according  to  the  purpoeea 
for  wkich  it  is  to  be  used.    Among  the 
varieties  are  racing  saddles,  military  sad- 
dles, honthng  laddles  and  side-saddles  for 
ladies.    The  name  saddle  is  also  given  to 
a  part  of  the  hameas  of  an  animal  yoked 
to  a  Tshicla,   being  generally   a   padded 
stmctnra  by  meana  of  which  the  shafts 
are  directly  or  indirectly  supported. 
Sft^^lAWOrtll  (■adTwurth),  a  town 
paaaxewOZTA  ^,  Yorkshire,  England, 

in  the  valley  of  the  Tame.  11  miles  a.  w. 

of  HaddersBeld.    Has  cotton  and  woolen 

manufacturea.    Pop.  (1911)  12,605. 

lA<ldTiaeM  (Md'AHrta),  one  of  the 
■KaaUQCCS    ^^^  pjjj,j  ^^^^  ^^  parties 

existing  among  the  Jews  in  the  time  of 
Christ.  Various  accounts  are  given  of 
their  origin.  Some  critics  recognize  in 
the  SaddiK-ecs  the  descendants  and  ad- 
herents of  the  Zadok  mentioned  in  1  Kiugs 
i,  89.  for  the  knowledge  we  .possess 
about  thea  we  are  indebted  to  the  New 
VaHament  «■<  to  Joaephus,  a  Pharisee, 


bat  comparatively  little  at  their  Mtnri 
position  is  certainly  known.  Tbey  were 
a  less  numerous,  but  more  aristocratic 
party  than  the  Pharisees;  they  posseaaed 
the  largest  ahare  of  wealtli,  and.  in  eoa- 
■eqnence,  generally  held  the  higheat  dif- 
nitiea.  A  constant  feud  existed  between 
the  two  sects.  The  Saddaceea  were  dia- 
tinguished  for  three  special  beliefs  or 
doctrines:  they  repudiated  the  oral  law, 
they  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
and  disbelieved  in  the  existence  of  angela 
and  spirits  (or  at  bast  did  not  hold  the 
cuiTent  views  regarding  these).  The  Sad- 
ducees  rapidly  disappeared  after  the  Brat 
century  of  the  Christian  era. 
Qarii  (s&'de),  or  Saadi,  the  most  cele- 
"**"■  brated  didactic  poet  of  Persia, 
bom  at  Shiraz  about  the  end  of  the 
twelfth;  died  about  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  In  his  youth  he  visited 
Hindustan,  Syria,  Palestine  and  Abys- 
sinia, and  made  several  pilgrimages  to 
Mecca  and  Medina.  While  in  Syria  he  was 
taken  by  the  Crusaders,  and  actually  com- 
pelled to  labor  as  a  slave  at  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Tripoli.  After  about  fifty  years 
of  wandering  he  returned  to  his  native 
city,  delighting  everybody  with  his  poems 
and  sage  precepts.  The  best  of  his  works 
are:  Quhatan  ('Garden  of  Roses'),  a 
moral  work,  comprising  stories,  anecdotes, 
and  observations  and  reflections,  in  prose 
and  verse;  and  BoitUn  ('the  Orchard')* 
a  collection  of  hislories,  fables  and  moral 
instructions  in  verse. 

Iftii1#r  (aad'ler),  or  Saouob.  Bm 
■MUAci  ftj^uH,  an  English  aUtesman, 
bom  in  1507;  died  in  1587.  Thomaa 
Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  in  whoae  family 
he  had  been  employed  for  some  time, 
brought  him  under  the  notice  of  Henry 
VIIL  and  the  king  charged  him  with  aav- 
eral  important  miaaiona  to  Scotland,  aai 
created  him  a  knight  in  1548.  Aa  » 
ataanch  Proteatant  he  relinqnlshed  poblic 
life  daring  the  reign  of  Manr,  bat  on  tke 
acceeaion  of  Elisabeth  in  1568  he  entered 
Parliament,  became  a  privy-eonncilor,  and 
the  «aeen  employed  him  again  in  Se*t- 
land.  During  Qneeo  Mary'a  Impriaon- 
ment  at  TatbnfT,  Sadler  waa  for  a  time 
her  keeper,  ana  after  her  execution  in 
1587,  and  Jnat  about  a  month  before  hia 
own  death,  he  had  to  perform  the  duty 
of  carrying  Kliaabeth's  letter  of  eond<»- 
lence  and  apology  to  Jamea  YI  of  Scot- 
land. 

SadfiWA  i«»'dO-vl),  a  rUUge  on  tibe 
iwMuwm*  ftijtrita,  in  Bohemia,  not  far 
from  Knniggrltz.  It  is  celebrated  as  tke 
acene  of  the  preliminary  engagcmfot,  en 
July  3d,  ISdO,  between  the  Anatriana 
under  Benedak  and  the  Pmaaiana  wnder 
Prince  Frederick  (Tharlea,  wkieli  snlMt- 


8ftf0 


\: 


Safety-ltmp 

MHW  trareliag  In  an  ancmy's  »'  ^  *  '^ 
eign  eoontrjr  to  Mean  them  «f*^wt  molM- 
totion.  Thaw  tpedal  iafeKJondiicti  h*T* 
in  modern  timM  been  moetly  rapetMded 
by  the  pawport  eyetem.  .  „  ,  _^ 
oL#«il  leared),  a  town  of  Paleatlne, 
B^ed  ^  moat  elevated  place  in  Gali- 
lee. lylQS  2700  feet  above  the  aea.  Here 
are  tte  ruina  of  a  caatle  built  by  the  Cru- 
saders. It  lies  6  milea  N.  W.  of  the  Sea 
of  'Jalilee,  and  is  one  of  the  four  holy 
cities  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine;  a  fewisb 
colony  has  been  settled  here  ajnce  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  of  its  25,000  In- 

^-iifilSikii.  1.   mainly   a  Tec^^;oi   S^jj^flVn^^U'^ed"  kST"' ('White 
rtruftles  between  the  »"'«  f «°"if' "."  Safcd  Koh  ii^untains').  a  mounUln 
^^.""^^"^^^i^'^^^^^K^^   «n«  in  Afghanistan.    The  westerly  por- 
impregnable.    The    safe   consists    of    an 
outer  and  an  inner  wall,  the  space  be- 
tween  being    filled   with   some   fireproof 
material  such  as  asbestos,  silicate  cotton, 
typsum,  etc.    The  outside  casing,  which 
mus  be  single  or  compound,  naturally  re 
ceives  the  greatest  attention,  and  various 
are  the  devices  of  manufacturers  to  render 
it  sufficiently  hard  and  solid  to  resist  the 
fine'""empe?ed  drills  of  the  burghir.    To 
prevent  wrenching,  the  door  is  secured  by 


Mted  In  the  i»^J*^^  *»1.ISS'2?S 
•nie  whole  conflict  is  abo  Imown  aa  tM 

battle  of  Sadowa.  ,    ^         ,    . . 

a.#A  (•«)#  *  receptJtcle  for  ▼aluabtoi, 
»«•  dfiron  or  steel,  or  both  combined. 
A  safe  to  answer  aU  requiremenUi  ehwld 
&  tol  SxSoaive,  add.  drill  and  wedge- 
SrooL    A  fire-proof  •»«•  ne«l«»^\^.K 

SSStrocted  that,  ■»th«'«Jl.**rt.  hiSS 
intense  heat  of  a  conflagration,  its  inner 
^<^  remain  at  a  sufficiently  low  tem- 
perature to  prevent  combustion  of^e 
SSS?«ts.  A>rglai^proof  safe  nee^ 
many  other  safeguards,  and  the  nw^o'? 


range  in  Afghanistan.  The  westerly  por- 
tion of  the  chain  separates  the  Herat  river 
valley  from  the  Murghab,  while  the  east- 
erly Safed  Koh  forms  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  C-bul  basin.  These  mountains 
are  quite  alpine  In  their  character,  and 
>jme  of  the  peaks  exceed  15,000  feet  In 
neight.  Among  the  spurs  of  the  eastern 
section  are  the  passes  leading  from  Cabul 
to  Jalalabad,  and  from  Jalalabad  to 
Peshawur,  famous  in  the  annals  of  Brit- 
ish military  expeditions  Into  Afghanistan. 


&  .-event  wrencnioB,  lue  uwj  •- ■'^.";*'-j_":'    «-*-.♦«.  iViV"    an  ink  for  use  on  checks 
Bits  moving  straight  or  dlawnady  into  Safety-ink, 
slots  on  one  or  on  all  slde^    ThaK  boUs 

are  moved  by  the  door  handle,  and  tne 


or  other   important 


are  movea  oy  luc  «""■•   ••»—-•-.  — '.t,." 
lock-key   fixes    them    in    their   positions. 
With  the  modem  safe  of  the  best  Kina, 
the  lock  may  be  said  to  be  the  only  vul- 
nerable point,  hence  much  care  and  in- 
genuity    have     been     expended    on     its 
mechanism.    The  first  great  Improvements 
m  locks,  as  applied  to  sates,  are  due  to 
Chubb   of   London,   a  name  ^Mch   stiU 
stands  in   the   front  ranks   of  •afe-Iock 
makers ;  but  numerous  patents,  mostly  oi 
American  origin,  have  in  recent  years  been 
introduced.    Of  these  the  keyless  permu- 
tation locks  deserve  particular  mention, 
as  they  obviate  the  danger  which  arises 
from    lost    or    false    keys.    Such    lock 
allow  of  opening  only  after  an  Indicator 
luia   been   moved   in   accordance  with   a 
certain  combination  of  numbers  arranged 
before  closing  the  safe.     Some  safe-locks 
are  so  constructed  that  to  be  freed  they 
require  different  keys  on  different  days, 
some  can  only  be  opened  at  a  certain 
hour,  this  being  fixed  on  before  the  door 
is  closed;  while  others  again  require  two 
or  more  keys  In  charge  of  different  •"ar- 
sons ;  In  fact,  the  arrangements  contrived 
to  render  the  plundering  of  safes  next  to 
impossible  are  too  numerous  even  to  men- 
tion.   The  connection  of  safes  with  elec- 
tric alarms  in  a  variety  of  waya  forms 
another  safeguard. 


..  — ^ pa- 
pers, which  if  tampered  with  will  dis- 
close the  fact  in  some  way,  as  by  change 

of  color.  .        „  . ., 

for    lighting. 


Safety-lamp,  TOai-TiSes'withoSt  ex" 

posing  the  miners  to  explosions  of  fijfe- 
damp.    The    first    safety-lamp    was    in- 
vented by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1816, 
and  until  a  quite  recent  period  hia  sys- 
tem, with  some  slight  modifications,  was 
in  general  use.     It  consists  principally  of 
a  cistern  to  hold  the  oil.  In  the  top  of 
which  the  wick  Is  placed.    Over  the  cis- 
tern a  cylinder  of  wlre-gauae  is  fixed  so 
as   to   envelop   the   flame.     The   lamp   Is 
closed   by  a   bolt   passing  through  both 
parts,  and  to  prevent  the  miner  from  ex- 
posing the  flame  a  locking  arrangement 
exists.    The  diameter  of  tne  gause  wire 
is  from  ^  to  ^    of  an  inch,   and   the 
apertures   do  not   exceed   the  if  of   an 
inch  square.    The  Stephenson  lamp,  bet- 
ter    known     among     miners     as     tne 
•Geordie,*  has  a  glass  chimney  as, well 
as  the  wlre-gause.  r  nd  tne  air  to  fwsd  the 
flame  enters   through  a  perforated   rina 
just  below  the  wick.    This  lamp,  thon^ 
safer  than  the  Davy,  If  used  with  care, 
becomes  a  source  of  danger  If  the  per- 
forated  ring  is  allowed  to   get  clogged 
and   the    glass   chimney^  overheated.    A 
series  of  trials  with  safety-lampa,  made 


£'fZL«ZJt    a   Protection   granted   i^  Britaln^5-V%;mml^f  tglildland 
Baxe-OOnaUCt,    by**  authority  to  per-  Institute,  lad  to  the  condwnnatioD  of  th« 


Itfety-matoh 


SdtnoL 


MdlnarT  Davy  and  StepheMOii  lamP%»f * 
tothe  fetrodurtion  of  the  Mueseler,  Ma^ 
«"  »nd  aeveral  other  »»?»I».,^''^^,„^ 
bMD  wed  with  sattef action   in  Belgian 
Sd  French  minea.    They  are.  however 
"l  modifications  of  the  Pri«»9P>e  J^'l'^.^ 
QiiderlieB   the   original   invention  of   Sir 
^mphry  Davy.    A  aafety-lamp  recently 
bronaht  before  the  public  ia  the  Thorne- 
Kf  whkh  ta  «iid  to^be  8el^««X± 
fag  in  an  explosive  mixture  f'  fife-damp 
and  air,  to  give  a  strong   light,   to   be 
^ple  'in    ctrnstruction,    and    absolutely 
safe.    There    are    also    "evejal    electric 
mtaer's  lamps  in  the  market.    In  addi- 
tiop   to  safety-tamps  manv  other  safety 
appliances  are  in  use  m  mines  and  Amer- 
i^n  taventors  have  produced  various  use- 
ful  devices.  .      ^  ^^^ 

Safcty-matcn,  |  substance  that  will 
iniite  only  by  friction  with  a  specially 
Sr^  sur&ce.  Matches  of  this  kmd 
.*!  nnw  Iftrselv  in  use,  as  being  free  from 
tte  dingS  of  theTaer  style  of  friction 

S^*i*t  tiin  a  pin  for  fastening  cloth- 
Baiety-pin,  i^^^  the  point  of  which 
Is  covered  with  a  sort  of  sheath  to  pre- 
vent its  pricking   or   scratching,   and   is 

held  in  place  by  a  spring. .        i„„-_* 

a^«.iK—  M,.Ai.       a  shaving  implement 

Safety-razor,    j^  ^i,ich  the  wade 

rests  in  a  frame  so  formed  as  to  preTf]?* 

^  cutting  edge  from  abrading  or  cutting 

.  Se  akin.    It  is  of  common  use  for  home 

o^il+t  trolvp  a  contrivance  for  re- 
Saiety-VaiVe,  Hevlng  the  pressure  of 
steam  before  it  becomes  too  great  for  the 


calculated  atrength  of  the  ««tainiBg jjjk 
seL    The  commonest  form  of  aafety-Talvt 
in  ateam-boilers  is  a  lid  (vaht),  pMiiJ«rf 
against  a  hole  (-eat)  by  either  a  spring 
ofa  weight:  the  spring  or  weight  i»t 
exerting  a  greater  force  than  can  be  over- 
come by  the  pressure  of  the  "team  inside, 
part  of  which  then  wcapea  and  obviates 
any  danger.    The  valve  is  round,  ia  bevi 
el^   round   the   edge,  and  to  ia"»>f*~ 
with  a  spindle  which  moves  loosely  in  » 
guide  attached  to  the  seat ;  the  "eat  to 
Beveled  to  fit  the  edge  of  the  ^aWe.    On. 
locomotive  and  on  ships'  boilers  the  valve 
is  pressed  against  the  sent  by  a  aprinj 
arrangement :  but  on  stationary  boilen|  a 
weight  should  always  be  employed.     Fig. 
1  shows  a  safety-valve,  m  which  a  welgnt 
is  employed.    Here  a  to  the  valve,  ft  ft 
the  bbiler,   o  o  the   valve-seat,   a»«ally, 
like  the  valve  itself,  made  of  gun-metal, 
d  the  lever  tumfag  upon  a  fixed  center 
at  e,  and  pressing  upon  the  valve  ny  a 


Lever  Sefety-VBlre. 


Spring  Safety-valve. 


rteeT  point,'/  a  guide  for  the  »ever,  a  a 
weight  which  may  be  shifteo  backwarda 
and  forwards  according  to  the  pr«w«" 
desired.  Fig.  2  shows  a  form  of  spring 
safety-valve,  in  which  a  series  of  bent 
springs  h  h  h  nn  placed  alternately  fa 
opposite  directions,  their  extremities  slid- 
ing jpon  the  rods  i  *,  and  the  springs 
being  kept  down  !  7  the  cross-bar  k;  « 
being  the  valve,  c  the  valve-seat,  and  b  ft 
part  of  the  boiler.  ^^ 

gafi  (sa'fe),  Sabib,  or  AzFi,  an  anchnt 
"*"  seaport  in  Morocco,  on  the  wait 
coast,  at  one  time  an  emporium  ot  the 
European  trade  with  Morocco.  The  Pot- 
tuguere   held   it   from    150&-1641.    Pop. 

«offlA™"i»afnon-*r),    or    Ba«a«, 
SamOWer    ^^rnov  (Cartkdmu$  t<»o- 
toriua),  a   large   thtetle-llke  plant  wtth 
orange-colored  flowers,  nat.  order  Can- 
posit®.     It  is  cultivated  in  China,  Indto, 
fegypt  and  in  the  south  of  Europe.    An 
oil  Is  expressed  from  the  ««l8,  which  to 
ased  as   a  lamp-oil.    The  dried   flowere 
afford  two  coloring  matters  (also  called 
safilower),  a  yellow  and  a  red,  the  latter 
(carthamine)  being  that  for  which  they 
are  most  valued.    Thev  are  chiefly  used 
for  dyeing  silk,  affording  various  shades 
of  pfak,  rose,  crimson  and  scarlet.     Mlxeo 
with  finely-powdered  talc,  safflower  forms 
a   common   variety   of   rouge.    In   awne 
places   it  to   used   in   lieu   of  the  more 
expensive   saffron,   and   for   adulterating 
the  latter.    The  oil,  to  large  do8«,  acta 
as  a  purgative.  ..  . 

ea4r«An  (saf'run;  Cfoc«»  tattw,  nat. 
sanron  ^^^^  irldacejB),  a  low  oraa- 
mental  plant  with  graw-like  leaves  wad 
Urge  crocus-Uke  purple  flowers.  cuUlvatoi 
fa  the  Bast  and  In  Boathem  vivaov  wt 


Saffzon-Wtlden 


g|lg)|ftH«qi 


i 


dried  form  th«  Miffron  o£  th«  ihoiw.  which  bw  »'  .JliJri«.al  and  htotorlcia  t«l««. 


dried  form  th«  wnltton  o£  th«  •hopft  jMCh  »««»  «j  t^rieill  and  Ulatorlcia  ttiOii*. 
ba>  a  detw)rMf«  color,  a  *•"»  bltteriah  ^^''^ »  (.JSu'UJ ,  P*ax«>m  Ma- 
Uute,  and*  •weetlth^  penttrating  odor.  Bftgaita  ^^^  SpajiiA  •Ut«u«, 
U8  or«nf«-r«i  extract  U  u»ed  by  paintara  "  Torwdlla.  in  IffiTT  Ha  b«*me 
«d  d^  and  Uie  aaBron  it«W  a  w  in  J^'?„*ir«ffiit  and  tVlca  had  to  iaa  to 
MokeiT  and  confectionery  aa  a  coloring  l,Vnce  In  1868  he  became  a  membar  of 
ISd  fliTorlng  aubatance.  Bwtani  saffron  fi^^^'eabbierwpporSd  Amadaua  Iwf 
]»  aafflower;  meadow  aaffron  Colcktcum,  {^""ili,  b!rief  rilgiT  baW  <>»«  "S<^f 
imtumn*l«.  /«,«im.„^     .   mu-  Serrano,  and  became  leader  of  the  Ub- 

Saffron-Walden  ^i^Sanirou'gh^Sf  ^^,^;^^^l^*^*\^tnr^.'  S^- 

England,  county  of  E..ex,&  mile.  K.N.K.  i'SS*<in  Swi  He  died  Janu^lJ. 
of  London.     It  ia  a  place  of  great  an-  ^™| 

Uquity,   and    carries   on   a   considerable  ,^^      ^^      common    name     of 

trade  In  malt,  grain,  cattle,  etc.    Pop.  Sage    ^^^^   <,£   the    genua   Bml9f,   a 

€811.  .   n       >      verv    larae    genus    of    monopetalona   as- 

Oaa^n    (att'Bto),   a   town   of   Prusaiaj  ^"J„ug  "'ants.  nnt.  ord^r  LmUmtm,  eon- 

Sagaa  province  of  Silesia,  government  o*?^^"""  d    450    species,    widely    dl^ 

Liegnita.  on  the  Bobe;.     It  was  formerly     ^^^^  through  the  temperate  and  warmer 

the  capital  of  the  principality  of  Sagan,  j:^  j^ns  of  the  globe.     They  are  herbs  or 

and   has  still   a   ducal  castle   with   fine    ,*ub8  of  widely  varying  habit,  usually 

garden  and  park.     Various  man"f»<;t"I^'  with   entire   or   cut   leaves   and   various 

are  carried  on,  especially  that  of  linen.  ^.^10^^^     (rarely    yellow)    flowers.      The 

Pop.   (1905)    14,208.  i,est  known  is  the  8.  offlctnaUa,  or  garden 

RAiTflTiennm    (aag-a-ijSnum),  a  letm  rpj,jg  pj^nt  is  much  used  in  cook- 

Oagapcauui   gum-resin   brought   from  ^j.*  ^^^  jg  supposed  to  assist  the  atomach 

Persia  and  Alexandria,  generally  believed  j^  digesting  fat  and  luscious  foodfc    Sage- 

to  be  furnished  by  some  species  of  tue  ^^^  fg  commended  as   a  atomadiic  and 

genus  Ferula.    It  occurs  either  in  tears  ^^^  atimulant 

or  irregular  masses  of  a  dirty  brownish  ,  A.,t^^ui»  rM^ovMaM) 

U^^  ,£uu^.«  »,r„w;  ^  li  S.'^s.~l»r^.-^  u^ol™ 

"•*■•    i«m«ll"i>  to  •  clM  ol  trow  lo  other  Amtrloo  WM«  of  •*■*"?"*_ 

jffiSj'oi-.-SSM  s»'.oT,thS:  K?^'»««f'£5f^^; 

th«  lives  of  kinis  and  other  eminent  in-  tions  in  the  United  »tatee.      *™P<»?^ 
S^dualL    The   sams   have   been   much  researches  have  been  made  ^  ^*  ^, 

twMnthe  twelfth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  Gulf  of  larta^,  oOToaue  «e^ 
Mmbers  of  these  detached  tal«  were  col-  ««  the^oor .  ar«^  24j6W  aquar 

SiS'   \T%Xa^'  iSrt^se^iV^oi  lorl  ^llJl.^^fS.tnV^^    The 

£^&it«Lt?7=t'£e|f  g  ife»  -A«  1-r.i 

nortant  sagas  are:  the  Saga  of  Gisli,  the  later  to  J»P":°-    -*"  the  Rusao-Japaaeae 
SSrU^:  that  of  the  hero  and  poet  E«ll:  oJtoined^tj^'but^after^Ru.gj'J^^ 
tke  lyrbyggia  Saga,  a  saga  of  very  mixed  ^'  «  was  amaea  •«> 
owtwts;  U>«  lAXikrit  Saga,  the  story  JapM. 


Saginaw 


Sagimtiuii 


a«^.<.«.  (iacl-na).  a  city  of  Mich-  a  light,  whol«KMii«,  nutritioui  food,  sad 
BftginaW  SS5.  «Snty  >eit  of  Saginaw  may  be  ua«i  to  »dTaDta.a  «»  *»  c^ 
County,  and  an  important  raUway  center,  where  a  farlnaceooa  diet  ia  "«o>w«v  « 
96  mltM  If.  w.  of  Detroit,  on  the  Baginaw  ia  alao  largely  naed  in  the  manufactnw 
River,  which  ia  here  naTigable  for  the 
largest  lake  craft  Saginaw  ia  the  center 
of  the  large  beet  aufar  industry  of  the 
state  and  is  extensively  interested  in  coal, 
lumber  and  salt  production.  There  are 
numerous  industrial  establishments,  In- 
cluding large  glass  works,  railroad  and 
machine  shops,  boiler  works  and  many 
other  industries.  Pop.  67,496.  Bast 
Saginaw  is  consolidated  with  it 
SfloittA  (sa-jit'a),  a  genua  of  anne- 
DaglbbK  jijg^  forming  the  order  Ch«- 
tognatba.  This  animal  is  a  transparent 
marine  form,  straight  and  slender,  attain- 
ing the  length  of  about  an  inch.  The 
head  carries  a  series  of  setie  or  bristles 
surrounding  the  mouth,  and  the  hinder 
margin  of  the  body  is  fringed  with  a  sort 
of  fin.  The  species  are  found  living  in 
the  open  sea  all  over  the  world. 
Sagitta'ria.     See  ^rro«-*e«d. 

Ra<rittii.ri-ns    (saj-i-tar'i-ua;  the  Ar^- 
BagmanUS    ^^j^    j^    astronomy,   the 

ninth  sign  of  the  sodiac,  into  which  the 
Bun    enters   November  2».    The  constel- 
lation consists  of  eight  visibls  sUrs.     It 
ia    represented    on    celestial    globes    and 
charts  by  the  figure  of  a  centaur  in  the 
act  of  shooting  an  arrow  from  his  bow. 
fiocriffftffk    (saj'i-t»t),    ia    botany,    a 
oaglXtaie   ^^  applied  to  the  form 
of  leaf  shaped  like  the  head  of  an  arrow ; 
triangular,    bollowed   at   the   base,   with 
angles  at  the  hinder  part. 
finirn    (»4'k«)i  »  "tarchy  product  ob- 
on^u   tained  from  the  trunk  of  several 
species    of    a    fenus    of    palms    named 
Sagut,  and  chiefly  by  8.  RumpMi  and  £r. 
Ugvi$.    The  latter,  from  which  the  fineet 
sago  is  prepared,  forma  immcnae  foresta 
on  nearly  all  the  Moluccas,  each  stem 
yielding  from  100  to  800  lbs.  of  sago. 
The  tree  is  about  30  feet  high,  and  from 
18  to  22  inches  in  diameter.     It  ia  cut 
down    at  maturity,   the  medullary   part 
extracted  and  reduced  to  powder  like  saw- 
dust.   The  filaments  are  next  separated 
by  waahing,  and  the  meal  laid  to  drv. 
For  exportation  the  finest  sago  meal  ia 
mixed  with  water,  and  then  rubbed  into 
small   grains   of   the   sise   and   form   of 
coriander    seeds.    The    Malays    have    a 
process  for  refining  sago,  and  giving  it  a 
fine  pearly  luster,  the  method  of  which 
is  not  known  to  Europeans;  but  there 
are  atrong  reasons  to  believe  that  heat 
is  employed,  because  the  starch  ia  par- 
tially transformed  into  gum.    The-aago 
ao  cured  hi  hi  the  highest  eaHmattyi  la 
aU  tha  WmtvmM  laadnta.    Baft  f  anna 


Ssgo  Palm  (fh0tu  UmiU). 


of  soluble  cocoas,  and  for  adalterating 
the  eoounon  sorts  of  arrawroot  For 
Portland-sago  see  Amm.  ^ 
fiftirnfm  (•a'gWn),  or  Sawuik,  the 
B*H»v^*  native  Sooth  AiMricaa  name 
of  a  genaa  (CalUlltrim)  of  Braailiui 
monkeys  of  small  sise,  aad  remarkably 
light  active  and  graoetol  in  their  aeve- 
mcnts. 


Sagor. 


ftai»ii*wAw  (aag'e-at),  a  livar  of  Caa- 
BagHeBay  ;[S*  pwriaca  of  Oaebee, 
formed  by  two  ontleU  of  Lake  St  John, 
which  unite  aboat  9  milea  below  the 
lake,  from  which  point  the  river  flowa 
•.B.,  and  falla  lata  the  St  Lawreaea  at 
Tadoosac  Harbor;  leagth  about  100 
milea.  For  many  miles  of  the  latter  part 
of  ito  course  the  baaka  are  very  lofty, 
and  in  some  iNuts  there  are  predpioas 
more  than  1000  feet  high.  Shipa  aaor 
at  rings  fixed  into  smae  of  the  preeif  itoua 
walhi  of  rock,  the  water  beiag  ao  deep 
aa  to  be  nnsoitable  for  anchorage.  The 
Saguenay  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  aay 
sise  to  Ha  Ha  Bay,  a  disUnce  of  i^t 
60  milea  to  00  milea  from  the  St  Law- 
rence, and  at  high-water  for  vessels  pfi 
large  dimensions  from  16  miles  to  18^ 
miba  farther.  It  ia  viaited  by  muy 
tooriata  on  aceoaat  «f  ito  rsaaafkahle 
scenery. 

Sagontnm  <SS^„^^i/*^' <5 

the  Bbro,  aboat  8  mUea  from  the  cMst. 
It  la  fasMMM  in  Homan  history  Mts  stegy 
^  Ht— '*^'  ki  219-318  »JOt  bavlBf  fivefc 


Soluura 


i 


riM  to  tb«  Moood  Ptmle  war.  Tb« 
■it«  !■  occupied  bj  tho  modara  town  ol 
Manricdro, 


Sail 

Sahara  la  tba  dri«d-np  bad  of  a  tenon 
inland  tn,  and  that  It  «>«»"  ^a  raatowd 
to  its  toracr  condition  bjr  a^tttns  tha 
watera  of  tha  ocaan.    Ilia  dUnTlal  aaa 


8.k«.iT"&.  '^r^*sS  ite.'^sr%WLvS%'a 


mainly  desert  tract  of  Northern  Africa 
lying  north  and  aouth  of  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,   between   the  Atlantic   and   tbe 
Nile.    In   the  north   It  exten^   to   and 
forma  part  of  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tuni., 
Tripoli  and  Egypt;   hi  the  aouth  it  is 
chiefly  bounded  by  the  Soudan.    This  im- 
mense area,  the  greateat  length  of  whlcH 
ia  over  3000  milea  and  ita  area  probably 
not  leaa  than  2,000,000  aquare  milea,  la 
not,  aa  popularly  supposed,  a  great  level 
deaert ;  ton  the  cwtrary,  It  offera  con- 
aiderable    variety    of    configuration    and 
vegetation.    The  aurface  ranges  from  be- 
low   sea-level    to    8000    feet    above    It. 
There    are    the    extensive    and    elevated 
plateaus  of  Tasili,  Tibesti,  etc.,  about  the 
center  of  the  Sahara,  runnmg  from  the 
north  in  a  aoutheasterly  direction,   and 
preaentlng  aome  high  mountain  masses. 
BetweenTibesti  and  the  Niger  we  have 
the  elevated  region  of  Air,  and  towards 
tha  Atlantic  Adrar.    These  pateaua  are 
interaeeted  by  many  fertile  valleya  fit  for 
agriculture  and  paature.    Other  P««"t8  of 
the  deaert  are  broken  by  large  oaaea  with 
a   moat    hixuriant    vegetation,    such   aa 
Twat,  Wargla  and  Feaaan.    On  the  bor- 
den  of  Algeria  oaaea  have  been  created 
artificially  by  means  of  artesian  wells. 
A  vast  tract  of  true  desert.  El  Djuf,  lies 
in  the  west-central  r^lon,  and  unltea  all 
the    worst    charactera    of    the    desert  — 
want  of  water,  intense  heat  and  moving 
aanda.    In  the  desert  proper  there  is  lit- 
tle of  animal  or  of  vegetable  life.    A  few 
apeciea  of  antelopes,   the  wild   ass,  the 
mountain  aheep,  the  hyena,  the  baboon, 
the    tortoise   and    the    ostrich,    are    met 
with  in  favored  spots.    Lizards,  jerboas 
and  serpents  of  many  kinds  retain  un- 
disturbed possession  of  the  burning  sands. 
Where  herbage  exists  it  is  mainly  com- 
poaed  of  auch  plants  as  require  but  little 
moiature.    The  vegetable  wealth   of  the 
deaert-dweller  lies  m  the  date-palm.    The 
population,  estimated  at  about  2%  mil- 
Uona,  conalsta  of  various  tribes  of  Araba, 
Berben  and  negroes.    The  Be     ars  are 
almoat  confined  to  the  west-central,  and 
ihe    negroes    to    the    east-central    parts, 
while  the  Arabs  predominate  in  the  other 
regions.    Camel  breeding,  alave  and  salt 
dMling,  caravan  conducting  and  brigaQa- 
age  form  the  chief  occupations  of  a  large 
aection.  •  A    number    of    caravan    routea 
through  the   Sahara  connect  Tlmbuctoo 
and  tne  Soudan  with  tbe  maritime  conn- 
triaa  in  the  north.    Rece°t  explorationa 
bava  fiatUy  diapoaad  of  tha  idea  that  tha 


diatricta.  El  Djuf  and  Knfra,  whi(„ 
abound  in  rock-salt  depoaita.  Spain  an- 
nexed in  1887  the  coaat  between  Morocco 
and  Senegal,  and  by  treaty  secnred  con- 
siderable territory  inland.  Franca  con- 
trols a  large  section  of  it. 


SaifcrmTpUr  iwn'Vn^^HFn^^tan'; 
capital  of  the  diatrict  of  the  aame  name, 
in  the  Northweat  Provincea.  It  haa 
many  handsome  residences  in  the  Euro- 
pean style,  a  government  aiud,  a  boUnic 
garden,  and  a  large  augar  and  grain 
trade.    Pop.  06.254. 

Sail  ill     (Ml'lb),  the  uaual  term  of  ad- 
SaniD    ^r^  'j^y  natlvea  of   India  to- 
wards a  European  gentleman.    ,    ^      ^. 
Soi    (8l'J)'    t*>«    name    applied    to    the 
^*"   weeper-monkey  of  BraziL    Bee  oa- 

SuJiJl    (si'ga:  AntiMpe  Baiga),  a  sne- 
****©*   cies  of   antelope   found   on  tha 
ateppea  of  Russia  and   on   the  Russian 
borers  of  Asia.     It  forma   one  of  the 
two  European  apeciea  of  antelopea ;  the 
other    apeciea   being    the    chamois.    The 
aaiga  ia  about  2%  feet  in  height,  with 
spiral  horna,  tawny  colored  In  anmmer, 
light  gray  fai  winter.         .    .      ,    ™_    v 
a«{<»A«    (sl-gon'),    capital    of    French 
Saigon    ^'ti.Ein.6l,ina,   of  which   it   Is 
the  chief  trading  emporium,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  of  the  aame  name,  35 
miles  from  its  mouth  hi  the  China  8^, 
one  of  the  finest  dtlea  in  the  East.    The 
bulk  of  the  bualneaa  ia  carried  on  in  the 
suburb  of  Cholon.     Saigoa  is  connected 
by  canal  with  the  Me-kong,  and  by  rail 
with  Mytho,  situated  on  one  of  the  arma 
of  that  river.    The  Saigon  River  ia  nav- 
igable, even  at  ebb-tides,  by  the  lai»eat 
vessels   up   tc    the   town,   and   an   active 
trade  with  China,  Slam,  Singapore,  Java, 
etc.,  is  carried  on,  rice  being  the  staple 
artke    of    export      The    population    ia 
estimated  at  72,000,  (1813). 

Saikio.   s*"^  "  **«*«• 

»*"  of  aome  kind  spread  to  the  wind 
to  impel  or  aasist  In  Impelling  a  veawl 
through  the  water.  Sails  are  usual^ 
made  of  aeveral  breadtha  of  canvaa,  aewed 
together  with  a  double  seam  at  the  bor- 
ders, and  edged  all  round  with  a  cord  or 
cords  called  the  fto»«-rop«^  or  holt-ro^. 
A  sail  extended  by  a  yard  hung  by  tha 
middle  ia  called  a  $quare  latl;  a  aail  set 
upon  a  gaff,  boom,  or  atay,  «» .aaalwaya 
iohanf  mora  or  1«mi  in  tha  dirwstioa  of 


8dl 


8idnt  AlbMU 


•ft  Mil.  The  upper  part  of  every  wil 
U  the  head,  the  Tower  Mrt  the  /ool,  the 
,Mgf  In  general  are  called  (eeo*e«.  The 
lower  two  comen  of  a  square  sail  are 
in  general  called  duet,  and  are  kept  ex- 
tended by  ropee  called  $keet$.  SaiU  gen- 
erally take  their  name*,  partly  at  Iwiit, 
from  the  mart,  yard,  or  etay  upon  which 
they  are  etretched;  thus,  the  main- 
course,  main-top  sail,  main-topgallant  sau, 
are  respectively  the  sails  on  the  main- 
mast, main-topmast  and  main-topgallant 
mast.    The  names  of  the  ■«•'■  "noj^°,'° 


a  strong  Unsn,  eettast  M 

'    hempen  elotk  used  In  nuui- 

Inc  sails.    The  best  is  made,  of  fias.  and 

Mmbines   flezibiUty   with   Ugbtnass  and 

strength.         _      ^       ^^  . 

Sail-fish.   8W  flii>of*/to». 


the  alwve  cut  are:  1,  flying  jib;  2.  jib, 
8,  fore-topmast  staysail:  4,  fore-course 
(or  fore-sail);   6,  fore-topeail ;   6,   fore- 


Sailors*  Snusr  Harbor,  R,*?J5S 

and  infirm  seamen,  on  the  nortt  •ho"*' 
Staten  Island,  in  the  city  of  New  Yort. 
It  has  accommodations  for  about  lOW 
inmates,  with  beautiful  buildings  and 
grounds.  Property  in  the  ne»rt  ol  tnt 
city,  bequeathed  to  it  by  Captain  Bicjuu« 
Randall,  has  increased  in  value  from 
140,000  to  about  |20,000.000. 


Bails  of  »  fall-rigced  ship. 


topgallant  sail;  7,  fore-royal ;  8,  ffre-sky- 
sail :     9,     fore-royal     studding-aail ;     10, 
fore-topgallant    studding-sail;    11,    fore- 
topmast    studding-sail ;    12,    main-course 
(main-sail)  ;  13,  main-top  sai  ;  14.  mam- 
topgallant  sail;  15,  main-royal;  16,  mam- 
sky-sail ;  17,  main-roval  studding-sail ;  18, 
main-topgallant  studding-sail;   19,  main- 
topmast  studding-sail:  20,  miraen-courM 
(cross-jack):     21,    mizzen-top-sail ;     22, 
mizzen-topgallant  sail;  23,  mlzaen-rOTal; 
24,  mlMen-sky-sail ;  25,  spanker  or  driver. 
The   vessel   represented   might,   however, 
carry  additional  sails  to  those  shown,  m 
the  shape  of  stay-sails,  etc. ;  and  in  mod- 
em   ships  the  top  sails  and   topgallant 
sails  are  often  divided   into  lower  and 
upper.    Sails  are  manipulated  by  ropes 
called  the  numiaff  rigfiag.    Bfls  B**p. 


a.;»«Ain  (sto'foin),  a  plant,  Ono- 
SamfOin  irfcMt  m«*»<i>  nat.  order 
LeguminoBB,  a  native  of  Centtal  and 
Southern  Europe  and  part  of  Asia.  It 
has  been  in  cultivation  for  centuries  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  'odder  for  cat- 
tle either  In  the  green  state  or  converted 
into  hay.  It  is  a  prettty  J>laot  with 
narrow  pinnate  leaves  and  long  ■?««» 
of  bright  pink  flowers;  stem   11-2  feet 

^hit  Albans  [^,f:^ii  frSX: 

lin  Co.,  Vermont.  3  miles  ».  of  Lafcs 
Champlaln,  and  about  iK>  milee  K.  by  &. 
of  Buriinfton.  It  has  extensiye  railr^d 
shops,  r^ing  mills,  a  large  ovwaU  fac- 
tory and  other  industries,  •»«  *•  t^ 
center  of  a  rldi  farming  country,  and  tt 


Idiit  AlteBi 


8dAt  Okit 


•hijM  large  amatitlM  ci  milk,  coad«BMd 
muk,  ttc.    Pop. 


fciit  Aibuu.  •^-ssisi.'srft  ^  „  ,,  __--,.—.-, 

Htrtfoiddilrt,  Bnglud,  24  mil«t  north-  Cwnwall,  with  a  lam  tradt  Inpotteri 
WMt  of  London.    It  standi  close  to  the  claf.  known  a_i  kaolin,    i^ot^iam.^^^ 


Is   largljr   faicreaaed   by  yialton  in   the 
winter  season. 

8>iiit  Aiutdi  4-S,K3,"«i.ri 


slM  of  the  andent  Vemlam^iMii,  and 
«wee  its  name  to  Bt  Albans,  the  proto- 
■Mrtyr  of  BriUin.  St  Albans  figures 
promlnsBtly  In  English  history,  and  two 
battles  were  fooght  here  (14B6  and  1461) 
between  the  rlral  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster.  The  cathedral  Is  a  large  and 
beantifnl  structure  recently  restored,  and 
St  Michael's  contains  the  remains  of 
and  a  monument  to  Lord  Bacon.  Straw- 
plaiting  and  silk-throwing  are  the  chief 
mdustnes.  By  a  readjustment  of  the 
dkwessa  of  Rochester  and  Winchester,  the 
see  of  St  Albans  was  created  in  1877. 
Pop.  (1011)  18,182. 

Saint-Amand-les-Eaiiz  i^l^l 

sO),  a  town  in  France,  department  of 
NoM,  on  the  Scarpe,  7  miles  northwest 
of  Valoiciennes.  It  Is  famous  for  its 
hot  sulphurous  springs,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  fine  cotton  yams,  etc.  eap. 
1049S.  >^liere  is  another  Saint- Amand  — 
St.  A.-MoiiT-BoifD,  in  dep.  Cher;  pop. 

Saint  Andrews,  flf,  ^•"••*« 
Saint  Anthony's  Fire,  f^j^^ 
Saint-Amaud  i?C"SJ?/f^iS 

marshal,  bom  in  1801 ;  died  in  1866.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1831,  distinguished 
himself  In  Algiers  by  leading  a  successful 
expedition  against  the  Kabyles  in  1861, 
and  was  made  general  of  divialon.  Re- 
called to  Paris  the  same  year  he  was 
created  mmister  of  war  by  Louis  Napo- 
leon, and  was  the  chief  tool  in  the  coup 
tHm  of  December  2,  receiving  as  re- 
ward the  iMtcni  of  a  marshal.  In  1854 
he  was  commander  of  the  French  forces 
is  the  Crimea,  but  died  from  cholera  a 
few  daja  after  the  battle  of  Alma. 

Sunt  Anrnstime  i»;«-i«^^r? 

of  riorida,  the  seat  ef  St.  John's 
connty,  on  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
a  faahi^able  health  resort  during  winter. 
It  Is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United 
States,  harint  been  founded  by  the 
Bnuiardl  abmt  1666.  A  few  specimens 
ecSnasIA  architecture  remain,  includ- 
iM  tia  city  fate,  the  fort  of  San  Marco, 
(saw  Fart  Markm),  and  a  Hnjuenot 
hMSe,  the  aMost  boilding  in  the  United 
Stales.  ISkeet  are  a  number  of  large 
hatels  and  several  fine 
pop.    5494.    Tkia 


Sidnt  Bartholomew.  JSl J*^** 
Saint  Bernard  <55i».S''-Sl^'  ^ 

the  Alps,  between  Piedmont  and  the 
canton  of  Valais,  Switserland.  lu 
fame  is  due  to  its  hotpice,  said  to  have 
been  founded  as  a  monastery  in  9G2, 
by  Bernard  de  Menthon,  for  the  succor 
>f  ■  —      - 


of  travelers.  The  famous  breed  of  St. 
Bernard  dogs,  used  by  the  monks  for 
the  rescue  of  travelers  across  the  lev 
paaa,  have  been  replaced  by  a  Newfound- 
land stock.  This  pass  was  traversed  by 
armies  In  Roman  and  inedisval  timex, 
but  la  chiefly  notable  for  the  passage 
of  Napoleon'a  army  in  May,  1800. 

Saint  Boniface,r„rV"  Mini's 

Canada.     Pop.  (1911)  7488.  ,  _ 

Saint  Catharine's,  Ja^ru'-ivS" 

Ontario,  12  miles  northwest  of  Niagara 
Falls,  and  near  Lake  Ontario  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  sprmgs  (arte- 
sian), is  the  center  of  a  large  and  in- 
creasing trade,  and  contains  flour  and 
saw  mills,  foundries,  etc.     Pop.  12,48|4. 

Saint  Chamond.  s«e  c;/.amo«d.  st 
Saint  Charles,   ^L^'^^f^fi. 

sourl.  Is  on  the  N.  bauk  of  the  Mi^<- 
sonri  River,  22  miles  m.  w.  of  St.  Louis. 
It  has  extensive  car  works,  a  large  shoe 
factory,  brick  and  tile  works.    Pop.  9437. 

Saint  Christopher's.  ^,^J!:t. 
Saint  Clair  i-iSa/SSafed^^^S 

tween  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie,  and 
connected  with  the  former  by  St  Clair 
River,  with  the  Utter  by  Detroit  River. 
It  is  30  miles  long,  greatest  breadth 
24  miles,  area  360  square  miles.  It  con- 
tains several  fine  Islands.  The  river 
Saint  Clair,  which  separates  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  is  about  40  milei 
long,  1  mile  wide,  and  navigable. 
Claiitf  nail*  Abthub,  an  American 
Saini  V>iair,  g(,idi,r,  bom  at  Thurso, 
Scotland,  in  1734.  He  was  engaged  in 
the  sieges  of  Louisburg,  lioS,  and 
Quebec,  1759;  settled  in  Pennsylvania, 
Joined  the  revolutionary  army  and 
served  as  brigadier-general  In  the  bat- 
tles of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  He 
waa  made  a  major-general  in  1777,  was 
in    command    at    Ticoadwofa    in    that 


Sftint  Cloud 

TtM,  Mid  WM  In  Waiblnitoli'ii  •rmy  •! 
tbe  aleiB  and  tturieiider  uf  Sorktowu.  H* 
WM  tlwBttd  to  OoofrMi  'n  17»6,  WMJ 
pr*aident  of  Coagnm  in  1787,  and  WM 
mnor  o£  the  Northwtat  Territory 
1789-1802.  In  an  expedition  against  the 
Miami  Indiana  in  1701.  liia  army  was 
delMtad  with  heavy  loaa.  He  resigned  bia 
command  in  tbe  army  in  consequence,  and 
died  near  Greenaburg,  Pa.,  Aug.  31,  1818. 
fhtinf  rSlnnd  C*^>>t  Idoud),  a  city  of 
Bainil/lOUa  J^innesota,  capital  of 
Steams  county,  on  the  W.  bank  <if  the 
Missiaaippi  rirer,  75  miles  ii.  w.  of  St. 
I'aul.  It  is  the  seat  cf  a  State  normal 
■chool  and  a  SUte  reformatory  institu- 
tion. Water-power  is  here  abundant  and 
there  are  railroad  shops  and  manufactures 
of  flour,  lumber,  wagons,  sleds,  etc.  The 
chief  iDdustry  is  the  worlting  of  granite. 
Pop.  10.800. 

Saint  Cloud  ^„^»Ji'  '  ""^  "* 


E'rance,  on  the  Seine,  in 

the  western  outskirts  of  Paris.    Here  waa 

formerly  the  fine  chftteau  of  St.  Cloud, 

belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  a 

favorite    residence    of    royalty.      It    was 

burned  during  the  siege  of  Paris  In  1870. 

The  extensive  park  in  which  it  stood  is  a 

splendid  example  of  the  work  of  Le  Nfttre. 

Pop.  731G. 

Saint  firftiT    is^^*'  ^°^^>  ■  "^^^^  °' 
Staini  \jT01X.    \yiBconBin,     rises     near 

the  W.  end  of  1/ake  Superior,  flows  b.  W. 
and  then  8.,  becoming  the  boundary  line 
b<»tween  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  and 
falls  into  the  Mississippi  20  miles  8.  B.  of 
St.  PAul.  Its  whole  length  is  200  miles; 
an  expansion  of  it  near  Stillwater,  Wis- 
forming  St.  Croix  Lake,  28  mUes  long  and 
2  miles  wide.  There  are  several  falls  w 
its  course,  and  St  Croix  Falls,  66  milc4 
from  the  Mississippi,  interrupts  naviga- 
tion.— A  river  of  the  same  name,  75  milea 
long,  rises  in  Orand  Lake,  on  the  lx>rder 
between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick, 
and  after  a  \trj  winding  &our8«>  falls 
into  Pu-sMamu'iuoduy  Bay.  It  is  navigaue 
MS  far  as  Calais. 
Saint  Croix.      see  Saime  Croiw. 

Sainte-Benve  (■apt-beur),  CnARi^Es 

0iuill>e  .DtSUVC  j^xjsxJSTiN,  a  French 
writer,  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  modem 
critics,  born  at  Boulogne,  Dec.  23,  1804; 
died  at  Paris,  October,  1889.  He  studied 
m«H]icine  at  Paris,  but  abandoned  that 
science  in  favor  of  literature,  his  first 
work  of  importance  being  on  the  French 
literature  of  the  siTteentn  ceBtury.  His 
contributions  to  the  Revue  dee  Deum 
Moniee  on  Frenoli  authors  and  literatnra 
formed  for  a  considerable  jperiod  the  chief 
•ttnctiM  of  Oat  periodoal,     la  1887 


he  delivered  some  Isctofw  la  tha^lefcwl 
of  Port  Royal  at  Lausauw,  and  tMM 
laid  the  foandatlon  of  bla  •>«bM*M  w«i^ 
BMoire  *u  Port  Ro^l  (l»*O-«0).  to 
1840  bs  waa  appointed  coHsmtw  U 
tht  Masartn  Ubrary,  and  la  1845  •«• 
nitted  a  member  of  the  Frmeh  AaOmuf. 
After  1848  be  cootribatsd  •  Bombtf  of 
critiques  to  the  Monday  nambtn  of  »• 
ConetiiMtionnel  and  then  of  tha  Jf«ml#«r 
ICaueeriee  dm  Lundi,  »  joto. :  Vomvmum 
lumdie.  13  vola.).  In  1888  »•»"■£ 
pointed  professor  of  Latin  iwetry  In  tM 
College  de  France,  ,bttt  hia  "««  to 
favor  of  Napoleon  III  and  Imporlallia 
rendered  him  unacceptabw  to  a  largo  ooe- 
tion  of  tlie  students,  and  Im  raaiciMd;  M 
also  lectured  for  mom  years  on  Fron^ 
literature  at  the  Bcolo  Notmalo  Bop*; 
rieure.  The  crosa  of  tho  I^^  «< 
Honor  waa  bestowed  johlm  In  18ML  u»d 
the  senatorahip  In  1885.  Moot  of  «a 
critical  writings  havs  bean  ropabli^ 
in  various  editioiia.    Ho  atao  wrotf  tbroo 


volumes  of  pootrv  (18»-«7).  uadtr  tta 
nom  ;e  plume  'J?^*»,.P^™«,  5  but 
these  do  not  rank  high,  although  bla  idoal 
of  poetry  waa  of  the  very  hlgbeat. 

Sainte-Claire-Deville,  ft"  »?i\: 

bora  in  Saint  Tbomaa,  W«st  Indlao,  la 
1818.  Ho  studied  in  France;  bocano 
professor  of  chemistry  In  tbe  nonaal 
school,  and  won  diatlnction  by  tho  to- 
vention  of  a  method  for  producinf  tto 
metal  aluminum  in  considerable  raara* 
ties,  and  for  his  demonstration  M  no 
dissociation  of  chemical  componnMi^ 
high  temperatureo.  He  died  to  1881. 
IIm  brother  Cbablbs  (1814-1CT6)  waa 
a  geologist  and  published  a  tf«olo«MOl 
Vopage  to  the  Antittee  and  the  lOtmd  of 
Teneriie,  and  otbsr  worka. 

Sainte  Croix   ^CSWn^'iX^ 

bought  from  Denmark  by  the  'dted 
States  in  1917.  It  Ih  the  largest  of  tho 
Virgin  group,  84  square  miles.  The  west- 
ern portion  is  hilly,  but  the  soil  almost 
throughout  thf  islnn«1  is  pnMliictive.  It 
discovered  by  Cohim'tim  in  1498. 
ianstcHl.  Amo 


was 


i.000.    Capital,  Chri 
IIA  Cbcz.      . 

Saint  Ellas  <-*"  •^">' 


MotTXT,  a 
monntam  situated  on 
the  boundary  between  British  North 
America  and  Alaska,  about  26  roilw  fMi 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  rises  in  500  fsot 
above  the  ocoan,  and  being  compMtdy 
isolated  serves  a»  a  very  importairtjaw; 
made.  It  was  first  ascended  m  1897.  by 
the  Dnko  of  tho  AbrufiL  ,,     ,  ,^    ^. 

Sainte  Marie.   ^  yoeeirivruhtm. 


IdBto-lbriA-Avz-MiM 


lidat  Jola 


Sdnto-lUria-Aiiz-lEiAei  <££: 

fl«{iitM    (mvO.  •  town  la  W.  Fruc*. 

ton,  OB  tkt  CbarMiM.  It  baa  an  old 
cathadral  and  Intcrwtlnf  Roman  remalna. 
TIm  nanufactarfa  art  iMnbaalna.  eartli- 
•BWMt,  ttc,  and  tbo  trad*  ia  in  brandy, 
wool  and  «om.    Pep.  1»,T74. 

laint-l^eime.  »- *«'«•»•  («•)• 
Saint  Euitatiiii.  •^  smrt^tuu. 
fteint-Syremond  iJrr.XS'Ki: 

smRB.  M  BAmr-DBKia.  Bkioneub  i», 
•  rr«Bch  writor,  bom  in  1618:  died  in 
1T08.  At  aizteen  be  entered  the  army. 
took  part  in  many  of  the  campainM  of 
the  period,  and  roee  to  the  rank  of  field- 
marabai,  bat  gained  bia  chief  laurel*  in 
tba  aalon  of  Ninon  de  rEncloe  aR  a 
brilliant  oonTtraationaUat  and  a  grace- 
ful wit  He  waa  a  lUuncb  royalUt 
bat,  compromlaed  by  the  diagrace  of 
Fooguet,  and  afraid  of  Maaarin,  be  fled 
to  Kng'w"d  in  1061,  and  waa  welcomed 
and  penaionad  by  Cbarlea  11.^  He  waa 
barl#«  at  Weatminater  Abbey.  Hia 
aatiiieal  writinga  and  hia  lettera  are  of 
Boat  intereat.  One  of  the  former  ia  bia 
U  ComSdi*  dot  AoMWM^tee.  .  ,  ^ 
flaini  ITrftnmB  (■'^Qt  fran'aia),  a 
Minx  jrranClB  ^^„  forming  part  of 

the  boundary  between  Arkaneaa  and  Mla- 
aouii,  and  entering  the  Minisalppi  about 
9  mile*  above  Helena.  At  hlgb-wate-  it 
ia  navigable  for  about  150  mUea;  totaC 
length  ftO  mile*. 

Saint  Gall,  ^ee  go«  (at.). 
Saint  Gaudeni,  f^^Z^\,'^^ 


variooa  bmaehan  of  ■uunafaetui*,  BMtre 
•apadally  that  tt  glaaB.  That*  an  alap 
iBportast  oomw,  ii«b,  lead  aad  ^^ 
car  work*,  aid  pottorlaa.    Pop.    M,B68. 

Saint  HeUer.  ^  «•«-'• 

St.  Henii  a^'Sii^^ffi'^iiirS: 

i*  8  mile*  from  Montreal  and  a  aubnrb 
of  that  city.    Pop.  21,192.       ^_     ^  ^^ 

Saint  Hyaointhe  i%S'c!S?dl; 

province  of  Quebec,  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  and  the  Tamaaka  and 
Black  river*,  86  mile*  ■.  H.  ■.  of  llontroaL 
It  ia  a  thriving  place,  and  containa  a 
Roman  Catholic  collage  and  aeminary, 
bi*hop'*_palace,  etc.  Pop.  9797. 
Saint  J«a.n  ■  town  in  the  province 
Oainiiiean,  of  Quebec,  Canada.  Pop. 

(1011)  6003. 

Saint  John.     ^  Bolingbroke. 

Saint  John,  l^'^'^i^T^i  S^ 

Brunawick,  capiul  of  Bt  John  County, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  aame 
name,  which  here  entera  the  Bay  ot 
Fun^.  It  ia  Doilt  on  rocky  and  itttga- 
lar  ground,  and  ha*  a  famoua  reveraiM* 
fall*.  It  waa  neariv  deatroyed  byflrein 
1877,  the  loaa  being  eatimated  at  |aO,000,- 
000.  The  harbor  ia  commodioua,  apaooua, 
never  freezea  and  ia  well  protactad  by 
batterie*.  Ha^-bor  improvementa  at  Coor- 
tenay  Bay  w.  e  under  conatruction  ia 
1013  at  a  coat  of  $10,000,000.  Bt.  John 
ia  conuticted  with  oarleton,  on  the  oppo- 
■ite  side  of  the  river,  by  a  aoapenaioB 
bridge  and  a  cantilever  railway  bridge. 
Portland,  formerl*  a  aeparate  dty,  to 
now  incorporated  with  Bt.  John.  Bt. 
John  is  the  great  commercial  emporium 
of  New  Brunawick,  and  ha*  in  particular 
a  great  trade  in  lumber.  The  fiaherec 
are  very  imporUnt,  and  ttere  <«»,  * 
variety  of  other  induetrie*.    Pop.  42fill. 


lin,  Ireland,  in  1848;  wa*  brought  in 
Infancy  to  New  York,  studied  art  there 
and    at    Pari*    and     Rome,     opened    a 

*tudio  in  New  York  in  1872.  and  pro-  u.i«„rf-, 

duced    Hiawatha,   The   Pmton,    statue*  g^int  John,    ?„'*IS  ^"^ff J^aSSJa 
of    Farrafut    and    Lincoln,    and    other  "»*"•  •'!*'"».  to.  the   United   »tate^ 
worlca.    He  deeigned  the  medal  cf  award 
of  the  Columbian  Exposition  and  other 
medal*.    He  died  Auguat  3,  1907. 

Saint  Germain.  seeGemam(flf«.). 


Saint  Helena.   ^  ^*'*^  ^®*'^- 

ftainf  ITAlfkTia  (hereni),  a  munici- 
BainX   neienS    p^i  and  pssrllamentary 

borougli  in  England,  in  Lancashire,  10 
mile*  B.ir.E.  of  Liverpool.  Until  a  com- 
paratively recent  period  an  unimportant 
TiUage,  it  ia  now  a  prosperoo*  town.  It 
•waa  ita  riae  to  the  extenaive  coal-bed* 
ia  tka  Tidnlty,  and  the  introductioii  of 


partly  to  Canada,  the  laat  280  miles  of 
its  course  being  in  New^  Brunswick; 
total  length  660  mile*.  It  form*  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Maine  and  tbe 
Canadian  provincea  of  Quebec  and  New 
Brunswick.  It  is  navigable  for  large 
steamers  to  Fredericton,  a  diatance  of 
80  milea.  About  226  mile*  up  a«  the 
Grand  Fall*.  75  feet  high.  The  city  of 
Bt.  John  ia  at  ita  mouth. 

Saint  JOnn,  Q,g^^  nataraliat  and 
sportnnan.  bom  in  1800;  died  in  1886. 
About  1884  he  aettled  down  to  hia  favorj 
fte  ponuit*  is  the  north  of  Bcotlaad.  and 


IdBt  JOA 


IdAiJiit 


BUnV  JOnily    Bagiish  wriur,  ben  in 
1801:  dM  III  18TB.    In  1880  bt  V± 

mm^m;  and  •  Journtjr  to  Eopt  pradnc^ 


•^  'Bis^.ffUiS!!!" 


,  and  iJii,  tui  Eawtian  F^mv*. 

B*  WM  U»  aathor  of  « 


nkM«lUneoas 
Boreto. —  Hia 


...».  —  _  nambtf  of  ataet 

worki,    Inclndinx    Mvcnil 

BATUt    St.    Johh 


loreto.— UM    Km.     nAxui     di.    -"»" 
(1822-60).  r«iidi>d  for  Mveral  jw»  ip 
tb«  Bait,  and  publiab«d  books  on  Egrpt, 
Turkey,  etc.,  and  a  biography  of  Mon- 
taime.    Of  two  other  wma,  Hobacb  Roj- 
COB  8t.  John  11882-88),  wrote  worto 
Ml  India,  and  Pbkt  BouwoBaoM  »} 
JoBir  (1821-80),  traveled  extenilvely  n 
America,  contributed  Action,  notobly   'n 
dian  talea.  to  variona  periodieala,  and  v  ti« 
the  aathor  of  over  thirty  novela. 
a.j«4  TaVm     John   PiEBcnt,   lo.  i"' 
saint  iODJlt    ,nd  publicist,  was  bura 
at    Brookville,    Indiana,    in    1883.    Hi- 
surved  In  the  Civil  war  as  c*Pt*in  and 
lientenaot-coionel.    Settled     in     Kansas, 
was  sute  senator  1873-74,  and  governor 
of  Kansas   1879-83.     He  wa"   TimST 
hibttion  candidate  for  Pmiident  in  188*, 
obtaining  a  vote  of  151.809. 
a«{«i^   TaIih      Kkioutb  or.   See  John 

Saint  jonn,  ^^i,,)^  KnigM$  of.    ^ 

tUirt*  TaIiti**  capiul  of  Newfound- 
saint  JOnni,  1,^^^  OB  Avalon  Pe- 
ninsula in  tho  southeast.  It  is  attrac- 
tivali  situated  at  the  Inner  end  of  an 
•zceUent  and  capacious  harbor,  and  is 
protected  by  several  strong  batteries  and 
forts.  Great  part  of  it  consirts  of 
wooden  bouses.  Cod  and  seal  oils  are 
produced  and  exported  on  a  large  scale. 
July  8,  1802,  a  terrible  conflagration  de- 
stroyed nearly  two-thirds  of  the  town; 
loss  about  twenty  millions  of  dollars. 
Pop.  20,804.  ,^  ,    ,  _  . 

Saint  Johnsbnry,  SSSlST'col^vJ?: 

mont,  84  miles  w.B.  of  Montpelier,  has 
the  large  plant  of  the  Fairbanks  weigh- 
ing scales,  and  manufactures  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  engi^  and  eleO' 
trical  machines.    Pop.  '8098. 

St.  John's  CoUcgc,  ^r.^"f^ 

ed  in  Its  present  form  by  Margaret, 
eonnteaa  of  Blcbmond  and  Deibv,  mother 
of  King  Henry  VII,  la  1511.  The  chapel 
(1860)  is  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and  is  a 
fins  medmoi  of  the  early  decorated 
Myla.  Ascham,  Ben  J<»son,  Bmtiey, 
BMck,  Prior,  Rowland  Hill,   ^fHlber- 


8t  Jolui»i  CoUateTgy^Wi^ 

.,  1005  by  Sir  TboBM  ^t*.  Knli  , 
CI  r  alderman  of  London.  It  owes  ■  cb 
Oi  Its  splendor  to,sabfsqn«nt  beiwfae. 
tlons.  Archbishop  Uud  buUt  Um  Iumt 
quadrangih,  after  a  dedn  by  Inlm 
Jones,  and  furnished  the  library,  on*  of 
the  best  In  the  university,  with  sons  at 
the  most  valuable  books  and  all  its  man- 
uscripts.  His  remains  are  buried  wlthbi 
the  college,  ,-     _i       \ 

St. T/sv, Wort  <arSr,Lt: 

ora.-       'J.,periacMB.    Numerous     spedes 

•  ■(«)'  :^  ro  'j  f.i,  nd  In  various  parts 
.>  the  •  mp'T.  -^  .'. -i  mostly  as  small 
.•  w-  Bhru  )»  T,  ui  is  tha  predomt- 
I  til."  c<  or  <-i  tUt-  were,  which  are 
y\vf!\,u*t  t  Tit  >«a  I  and  blossoms, 
m  lulihr,'  .<;iire'»r  '^  fingers,  enrit  a 
a.  ft  •J-'  itsiiu.jf-a'on',  'i  odor  and  bava 
a  Y  <U'.-  [-yLe,  •]  i'  to  a  volatile  oil,  poa- 
*«  n<  r  trin^i  iif  a'd  tonic  properties, 
.no  wlu  ':  I'M  a  .prominent  place  in 
th-  Hi  V  arf' .opT\«s.  H,  perforMum, 
fo  vuioU  IjT'-.'.v  the  name  of  St. 
Jchn'i  -lit  s  1  mited,  has  its  leayes 
mil"'  \*  'h  p  Hii'ld  dots,  giving  them 
a  pe;  •■1  nt.i;>.^i-ance.    H.  colyrliHHN, 

popularly  called  Aaron's-beard,  is  a 
shrubby  plant  with  handsome  flowen, 
often  planted  in  shrubberies,  etc. 

St.  Joseph,  Sgfli^  ?'S'i2& 

Mlcblgan,  at  the  mo«K^h  of  St  Josenli 
River.    It  is  in  the  center  of  the  Michi- 


gan fruit  belt  and  fruit  is  shipped  In 
large  quantities.  It  has  various  manufac* 
tures    and    is   a   summer    resort.    Pop. 

flftint  loMnh  *  <^^'  county  seat  cC 
Bami^OSepu,     Buchanan  count V. 

Missouri,  is  on  the  Missouri  River  60 
mUes  N.if.w.  of  Kansas  City;  an  im- 
portant raUroad  and  distributing  crater 
at  the  junctioB  of  the  four  sUtes  of  Mi^ 
souri,  Iowa,  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  mth 
large  Jobbinig  and  wholesa  houses.  !%• 
■tock  yards  are  of  great  r  '  nt,  and  have 
a  capacity  of  17,000  catu.  20.000  h(«N 
and  16,000  sheep.  The  total  output  of 
packing-house  products  amounts  to  «6B,- 
000.000  annuafiy.  Other  important  ar- 
ticles of  manufacture  are  boots  ud  slwea, 
overalls  and  worii  garments,  furnituN 
and  fixtures,  candy  "Uid  confecttonew, 
creamenr  products,  flour  and  miU  proo- 
acts.  millinery,  grocers'  sondriw,  harness 
and  saddlery.    Pop.  8.3,074.  .,^,„ 

SaintJnst    fiSi?^'N  ^SSS 

OB,  one  of  the  moat  prominent  men  l| 


Sftint  Kitt*i 


fkdnt  Lonii 


v\ 


«ul;.^^lH^nir of  K  niMt  enenctic  aod  fares  of  the  city,   the  more   imijortant 

tete     membS™     of     ir^unuta  are  Waahln^on  .Tenue.  devoted  ;.r«ly 

SSrty     He  WM  w  effective  .peaker,  but  to  wholesale  trade,  and  Broadway  (Fifth) 

oSSiiP^ourViid  OMompromSinj.    The  and    Olive    streets,    on    which    are    the 

SSmntfii.  w»a  hk  Mneral  answer  to  all  more    attractive    retail    stores.    Among 

SiSSStsMdactfons   which    did    not  the  notable  buildings  are  the  new  city 

SS^Se"  ZfS.  SSTwV  He^fell  with  hall,    in,  Washini^on    Park     the    cour^ 


EobTSU    tbroSShX  event,   of     K   houV  chamber  o'f  commerce,  the  Four 
^^lLV^idr?Lf  <_  1794;    nee   Court,   (an  immense  structure^ 


9th 


Svinoe— flStorv),  and  perished  on  the  after  the  Louvre  of  Paris),  the  fine  art. 
S2r«*ffSd  ;^i'him  cTthe  following  »--  -d^^*  S?%"o^'ce?ts!"?oi'v2^! 
fikdnt  Kitt'S.  See  C*r«.iop*.r'.  «onjJ.Vhe'  '^X'h'^^^^^^^^^ 
0.;.4-  T.<»r».«A«  See  Lawrence  is  an  important  educational  institution, 
Saint  IjawrenCe.  ",st\  others  being  the  St.  Louis  University, 
«.  *  r.a.«.  imVin-  nr  alVin-ler).  (Roman  Catholic),  the  St  Louis  Medi- 
St.  leger  BS^^iST'ltagUsh^K  ca;  College,  the  Forest  Park  University 
t  k  li—  vT^iXn^t  nnHpr  Aher-  (for  women).  Christian  Brothers  Col- 
in   America.      He    foiwht    under    AM^  iror             ^                    ^^^  Mercantile 

^^^Li^'^a\^nnd^M^th%o\{l  ibriry.     There    are   a 'large    number   of 

^?  l^  2  dSib^     He  attmS^  to  par-  beautiful  churches  and  hundreds  of  mag- 

^%n;iLlnthe^nvt^onTkmeric&hy  niUcent  residences,  this  city  being  noted 

S*^£ILl.i    r„    v\    hnt  WM  dSeated  at  as   a   city   of   homes.    There    are   more 

oSTiSi   /cS^i  'AaS-tlTnVMdliSa  than    271^    acres    of    public    parks    auu 

OriOUMr  («.  V.J  AogoK,  xf  I  i.  «!•«  ii~  j^i^gf^g^  ground.,  the  largest  being  Forest 

W  UHMOB*      .       /-.„.i5»i\     ■    town    in  Park   (1370  acres),  and  the  most  beau- 

Sidnt   Lotus    ^tim^Africa.  Sital  Uful    i-ower    Grove    Park    (270    acr^.), 

n*  tho  French  nossewions  in  Senegambia,  adjoining    which    is    th©    splendul    Mis- 

Sn  an  isTffi^  ?f^  Seme  name  at  the  souri   Botanical  Garden. .  This  city  was 

™«.,!h  if  ^«  aeneeal      St.  Louis  is  the  the   location   of  the  Louisiana   Purchase 

ScSitJr  of  SeSgaLPo^  24,070.  Exposition  of  1904.   the  largest  and   in 

£?trT!I«?.    (!»'   or  »^i«).  •  «i*y   "«?•«  ""P?*^  ****  °'°"  beautiful  worlds 

saint  iiOulB    ^£    Missouri,   the  com-   fair  ever  held.  .v        oa 

.n..«i.i    mfttronoU.   of   the  central   Mis-       St.    Loui.,    with    its    more    than    20 

SSSl  ^U«^  situated  on  the  right   important  railroad  lines  and  its  command 

hS  of  the  MiMliippi.  Smiles  below   of    the    navigation    of    the    Mississippi 

STmouS  of  "e    MiMOuri,   and    1149   river,   i.  a   highly   important   center  of 

mile,  bv  rive-  (TOO  miles  direct)    from   distribution    alike    for    agricultural    and 

New  ofleaJr  The^cUy  is  laid  out  on   manufactured  products  and  has  a   verv 

thrrectaSSur  plan,  the  streets  running   heavy  shipping   trade   in  cot  on,   bread- 

ifa^SM^ing  numbered  Mrially  from   stuffs,   iive-stock,   wool,   metal   proJucU^ 

?he  river.    The  greater  part  of  it  lies  at   coal,   hides,   etc    It   is  of  note  also  a« 

an  elevation  of  400-500  fe^t  above  sea-   a  drug  market.     Its  manufactures  are  of 

fevetand  200  ab^etheriver  surface,  the   great     i'^Portance,    chief     among     them 

river-front   beinr   largely  a   levee,  along   being  tobacco   (tjj«.city  being  tje  larg- 

which  lie  the  numerous  steamers  engaged    est    tobacco    mart     n    the    world),    and 

to  the  MissiMippi  river  traffic.    The  mag-   "a^*  "<}»2™    <,'^^°"°*iHj?  Zr  ~ar) 

I^Anlnf   itjkIb  hriilr»    which  crosses  the    100,000,000   gallons   of   beer   per  yearj. 

me"  at  grWntr^n5sto  VK  siee!    Very   many  other  article,  are  produced. 

[tin-     ««7*    over    500    feet    long.      The    As    an   element    in    its    live-stock    truuy, 

Kha^    bridge,  ^nfin^d     o    reilroad    this  city,  is  the  Jargest  mule  market  .n 

sen'ice     is    thwi    miles    farther    up    the    the  ^  world.     St.    Louis    was    settled    m 

w^r      "Ifce  Municipal  bridge,  aonth  of  1764  as  a  trading  post  for  furs.    It  was 

ti?HaS^hM&e  longest  span  of  any  in    Louisiana,    then    lust    transferred    by 

Irf^JS^^itTtTDe  in  thrworW.    Among  Spain  to  France  and  purchased  by  the 

fhi^i^road^  which   enter  the  d^     are  United    States    in    1803.     It    was   char- 

tt.  "MuSS?ri     Pacific     the     Miiouri.  tered  as  a  citv  in  ipS,  ^ofn  .after  the 

Kanwui  *  T3xas,  the  Burlington  route,  admission  of  lliwuri  *<>*£«  Union,    In 

SS^ Wabash    tt>e   Vandalia,    the   Loui^  183()it.  populatfon  was  «I94;    in  18flO- 

X  *  NaibvUl^Ve  Ol^ralaod,   Cln- 100,778;    to   1880,   350,618;    ia.lt 


St.  Luda 


Saint  Paul 


975,288:    in  1910,  687.0-29.  it  Mnc  th* 
fourth  city  ia  pojpal«tioo  m  tht  Uniim. 

St  Lucia.    *»  ^''^  ***•*• 
Saint  Mary»8Biver,  ^^^^^ 

Lake  Superior  with  Lake  Huron,  havinf 
Bore  the  character  of  a  Uke  thw  •  riyer. 
At  Sault  Ste.  Mari«u  or  St.  Marr-a  FaU* 
there  ia  a  f  all  of  iS  feet,  and  to  enable 
▼eeselB  to  avoid  this  a  can^  T"<Sk' 
■tmcted  on  the  Michigan  side  in  1855, 
1800  yards  long  and  12  feet  deep,  witft 
two  lock?.  The  present  Michigan  <»nAl 
ia  2380  yards  long  and  108  feet  wide,  with 
a  hiue  lock  800  feet  long  and  100  wi^ 
capable  of  accommodatinst  Teesek  of  .^ 
feet  draught.  A  parallel  canal  on  the 
Canadian  side  has  a  lock  900  feet  long. 

StMihiel  teS-/n^tL'rigWaiJk 
of  the  Meuse  and  the  Canal  d6  rBst,  23 
miles  southeast  of  Verdun,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Meuse.  Its  name  comes  from  the 
Benedictine  Abbey  of  St.  Michael  founded 
here  in  700.  During  the  European  war 
(a.  V.)  which  began  in  1914  the  German 
troops  forced  the  French  back  from  the 
frontier,  creating  a  wide  oahent  southot 
Verdun,  with  the  apex  at  St.  Mihiel.  The 
plan  was  to  make  a  simultaneous  tnrust 
north  of  Verdun  and  bring  the  two  amies 
together,  thus  enveloping  the  citadel  1  nis 
plan  failed,  the  northern  '^nny  being  un- 
able to  bend  back  the  French  hne.  rRie 
southern  salient  stretching  out  to  St. 
Mihiel  remained  unaltered  from  its  estab- 
lishment in  September,  1914,  to  Septem- 
ber, 1918,  in  which  latter  year  the  Ameri- 
can First  Army,  under  General  Pershing 
(q.  v.),  captured  the  town  and  forced  the 

enemy  out  of  the  salient.  

Marshal  JofEre,  commanding  the  Frencn 
armies,  tried  to  pinch  out  the  aahent  in 
February,  1916,  and  agfin  in  the  summer 
of  the  same  year ;  bat  his  esorta  came 
S  nothing.  Witt  St., Mihiel  «d  the 
heights  o^  the  Menw  in  the  hands  rf 
tiie  Germans,  Oeoeral  Falkmhayn  ««*7ed 
a  Verdun  offensive  in  '^••>™"ry' ^•IS: 
The  ambitious  drive  was  continued  tor 
several  months,  but  the  ground  tempora- 
rily gained  by  the  Germans  bad  to  oe 
3?en  up.  The  St.  Mihiel  sahent.  how- 
ever,  remained  intact,  and  for  a  long  time 
it  was  one  of  the  quietest  sectors  on  tne 
long  whole  western  front.  It  was  hero 
that  several  American  division*,  wnicn 
had  arrived  from  overseas  in  1917,  were 

FoUorwing  the  greirt  retreat  cijaf  Qw- 


Parriiiiic,  and  nt  midnight  <m  BeptamMr 
12.  IWS,  the  American  artillery  pnvnr 
tiSn  bSkT  At  live  o'clock  the  troopj 
wait  over  the  top  on  the  whole  front  from 
Xivray  to  Fey-en-Heye,  aoath  of  tte 
aalienL  and  on  a  shorter  fwrnt  on  the 
SSrth^side.  Bather  leas  than  24  hours 
Uter  the  attadtlng  waves  met  at  ^e  vlT 
lace  of  VigneuDes,  thousands  of  prlsonws 
unable  to  retreat  qui«dldy  ««>aft '*?"!»? 
po^tt  were  captured,  and  the  famous 
salient  was  obUterated.  ji.,,j^. 

Sevoi  German  and  Austrian  division* 
were  ennged,  and  it  was  redtoned  that 
the  total  enemy  loss  exceeded  40,000  mca. 
In  the  battle  of  St.  Mihiel  more  Ameri- 
cans fought  side  by  side  than  in  any 
previous  battle  in  American  history ;  more 
men  were  engaged  on  both  sides  than  in 
any  battle  in  which  an  American  array 
under  an  American  general  had  ever 
foueht  It  was  the  greatest  uninterrupted 
advance  made  in  one  day  on  the  western 
front  since  the  war  began.  More  prison- 
ers were  trken  than  in  any  24  hours  or 
the  war  on  this  front ;  and  a  larger  area 
of  French  territory  was  liberated  than  in 
any  equal  neriod  since  the  lines  stabUised 
in  1914.  The  population  of  St.  Mihiel  in 
1914  was  9660.    ^  „^       .^      ,^„ 

Saint  Panl   KtS,'^kjigS^o^'"^e 

State  and  of  Ramsey  county,  is  situated 

on  the  Mississippi  River,  just  bdow  10^ 

neapolis,  the  sulmrbs  of  the  two  dtie* 

being  contiguous.    It  lies  350  DfiUes  K.W. 

of  CJhicago.    It  is  at  the  head  of  navi«j- 

tion  inthe  Miseisrippi,  the  F^  ,<»<J^ 

Anthony  b  ing  9  miles  above.    It  is  KUtt 

on  both  sides  of  the  ri»er,  the  two  partt 

being  connected  by  five  handsome  and  sub- 

staatial  highwar  bridges.     Owing  to  to 

favorable  position  it  has  gro^  In  aboot 

40  yean  from  an  insigniBcant  aetpot  into  a 

fine  dty,  and   a  great  wmmerdal  and 

manufacturing  center.    It  te  "arronndea 

by  a  eorapleta  network  of  railroads,  and  its 

■dtoation  on  the  Mibsissippi  offers  water 

eommnnication  of  exceptioual  vidue.    Mnn- 

nfaeturea  include  arehitectural  Iron,  ^Mst- 

ing  machinery,  fcir  goods,  railroad  rolUni^ 

stock,  «our,  leather,  boots  and  preserved 

provisions.    Thvn  are  also  large  raUroad 

repair     shops,     foundries     and     froeral 

machine    shops.      An    enormous    Jobbing 

trade  is  done  here,  eovering  BMnnwipta, 

the  Dakotas,  Idaho,  Montana.  Washlng- 

t(m  and   northern   Oregon.     Among  tne 


muis* f rom*  thdr " adVanoed  pSlriona . in 
the  spring  and  summer  of  1918,. 


ue  sprms  unu  nuuiure.  "'.-"j^^.'fVinKJ 
l\»h.  in  supreme  command  of  the  AUIed 
i^lea.  det^mined  to  iiMk«  tb9  ttteoipt 
40--W— ♦ 


ion    ana    nonuom    v/i^b"".      ^- — «»  ,ri 

buildings  of  note  are  flie  State  capitol. 
Municipal  auditorium,  ,Ropan  Cath<^ 
cathedral,  and  National  Chiard  a^mon^ 
The  •daeatioaal  in»titntions  include  tte 
««iiMdtana  iMfxtnm  9t  the  Ststa  wt- 


St  Paul  de  loanda 


iaint  flaini 


rvtritj,  Hainllii«  UniTcnity,  MacalMter 
OoUege,  «tc.,  also  the  State  Hiitorical 
Uhnxf,  whoae  coUection  is  rich  in  AiiMr- 
iean  htatorical  Ittentnre.    Pop.  286,246. 

St.  Paul  de  Loanda.   see  Lomtia, 

St.  Petenbnrg.  see  P^tngroi. 

St.  Peter  Port,  ^^' SS^  ^ 

Gnenii»y,  on  the  ea«t  coast  of  the  island. 
It  has  a  walled  sea-front  forming  a  pleas- 
ant promenade,  and  a  good  modern 
harbor,  consisting  of  two  massive  piers 
and  a  breakwater.  St.  Peter  Port  is 
mncfa  frequented  as  a  health  resort,  aaa 
trades  chiefly  in  fruit,  Tegetables  and  Ott. 
Pop.  18;26i. 

Saint-Pierre,     see  Pierre  («*.). 
fUint-Pierre   (Bap-pi-ar),  Jacques 

a  French  author,  bom  in  1737;  died  in 
1814.  He  learned  engineering,  and  in 
the  capacity  of  engineer  worked  in  Malta, 
Russia,   Germany,   and   for  about   three 

J  ears  for  the  French  government  in 
lauritius.  Having  returned  to  France 
he  betook  himself  to  literature.  His 
Btudn  de  '•  Nature,  published  in  1783, 
first  secured  him  a  literary  positicMi. 
Then  followed  his  chief  works:  Paul  et 
Virginie  (1787)  and  Chaumi^e  Indienne 
(1790),  both  of  them  (especially  the 
former)  highly  popular.  He  was  mar- 
ried twice  when  well  advanced  in  years, 
each  time  to  a  young  girl.  In  1795  he 
t      was  admitted  to  the  Institute. 

Saint-Quentin  irntr(W)'.   ^"" 

fioinfa  (s&ntz),  a  word  used  in  the 
DOiubB  jjg^  Testament  as  a  general 
term  to  denignate  all  believers  m  the 
gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  a  specific 
sense  it  signifies  persons  whose  lives 
have  been  deemed  so  eminently  pious  that 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  churches 
have  authorized  practices  of  commemo- 
ration and  invocation  in  regard  to  them. 
The  points  involved  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic doctrine  are  the  intercession  of  the 
saints  and  the  utility  of  invoking  them. 
According  to  the  Council  of  Trent  *  the 
saints  reigning  with  Christ  offer  their 
prayers  for  men  to  God ' ;  and  it  teaches 
ihat  '  it  is  good  and  useful  to  call  upon 
them  with  supplication,  and  in  order 
to  obtain  benefits  from  God  through 
Jesus  Christ,  who  alone  is  our  Re- 
deemer and  Saviour,  to  havp  recourse  to 
their  prayers,  help  and  aid.'  This  help 
and  aid  is  njjt  expected  to  be  given  di- 
rectly, but  only  through  the  favor  the 
saints  have  with  God,  and  through  their 
intercession.    As  to  bow  the  saints  art 


enabled  to  hear  praren  addvwsad  to 
them,  there  is  no  ^finite  teaching.  It 
is  chiefly  holy  men  who  have  died  since 
the  time  of  Christ  that  are  spoken  of 
as  saints.  The  doctrine  of  saints,  and 
the  ideas  and  usages  which  grew  out  of 
them,  form  one  of  the  main  pointa  of 
difference  between  tlie  Protestants  and 
the  adherenta  of  tlie  above-mentioned 
churches.  The  Roman  Catholics  regard 
their  beliefs  on  the  subject  of  saints  as 
supported  by  different  parta  of  the  Bible 
and  the  writings  of  many  of  the  early 
fathers.  Protestants  generally  object  to 
the  whole  doctrine,  allegUig  that  not  only 
is  the  idea  of  saints  as  intercessors  no- 
where contained  in  the  Bible,  hot  that  it 
originated  centuries  after  the  establish- 
ment of  Christianity:  and  that  it  is 
against  the  chief  doctrine  of  Christianity, 
which  declares  all  men  to  be  sinners, 
and  to  be  saved  only  by  Christ  Coun- 
tries, cities,  arts,  trades,  orders,  things, 
etc.,  have  their  patron  laintt.  or  saints 
who  are  supposed  to  be  specially  inter- 
ested on  their  behalf ;  but  the  church,  it 
seems,  determines  nothing  in  relation  to 
them.  St.  Denis  is  the  patron  of  France; 
St.  George  of  England  and  Russia;  St. 
Andrew  of  Scotland;  St.  Patrick  of  Ire- 
land; Olaff  of  Norway;  Canute  of  Den- 
mark; Nepomuk  of  Bohemia;  Cecilia  of 
music;  Hubert  of  hunting:  Crispin  of 
shoemakers,  etc.  See  Beatification,  Can- 
onisation, Belica.  .  „ 
SftiTifnhnrv  (sftntz'bir-i),  Geobge 
SainiSDUry  ^dwabd  Batekan,  an 
English  critic  and  historian,  l>om  in 
Southampton,  Oct.  23,  1845;  matricu- 
lated at  Merton  College.  Oxford  Univer- 
sity, in  1867.  He  published  A  Short 
Hittory  of  French  Literature  (1882)  ; 
E$*ay$  on  French  Novelitte  (1891) ; 
A  Short  Hietory  of  Enaliih  Literature 
(1898):  4.  Hittoryof  Oritieitm  and  Lit- 
erary Taete  in  Europe  (19(X)-04),  etc. 
After  gaining  a  high  reputation  as  a 
critical  writer  he  became  professor  of 
English  literature  at  Edinburgh  in  189B. 

Saints'  Days,  "*J3^  f«*  •»■'*  ^ 

"*•  J   '    traditional  usage  or  au- 

thority of  the  church  for  anniversary 
celebrations  in  honor  of  particular  saints. 

Saint-Saens  <-'^>.  ^-,t'^o"m! 

poser  and  mosidan,  bom  at  Paris  in 
1835.  In  1863  he  became  organist  of  the 
(3hnrch  of  St.  MCry  and  was  ornnist  of 
the  Madeline  in  Paris,  1868-77.  His 
works  include  nearly  every  form  of  com- 
position and  though  his  operas  have  never 
become  popular,  ms  choral  orchestral  and 
other  vocal  works  are  well  known ;  as  are 
also  many  of  Ids  symplionies,  suites,  con- 
certos, PtC. 


gftint-Serftn 


St.  Thomas 


SidnlrServaiL  gS-lT^f'li  NonS: 

wMtern  Prance,  department  of  lUe-et- 
Vilaine,  at  the  moath  of  the  Ranee,  near 
8t  Malo.  It  U  weU  buUt,  ha«  a  good 
harbor  and  doclM,  and  is  a  favorite  sea- 
■ide  nm>tt.  It  carriee  on  iteam-Bawlng, 
ahipbuildinf  and  rope-making.  fop. 
(1906)  9766.  ,      ^ 

Saint-Simon  ^^tr^'&uS^''^ 

founder   of  a   pbilosophlco-religiouB   sect 
of  aocialiats,  waa  born  at  Pans  in  1«60. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen   he  entered  the 
army,  served  in  the  closing  campaign  of 
the  American   war.     He    went    to   Hw- 
Und    in    178B,    and    to    Spain    in    17»7 
in  connection  with  canal  projects,      ue 
took    no    active    part   in    the    revolution 
which,    indeed,    caused   him    the   loss   of 
his  own  property;  but  he  speculated  In 
the    national    domains    created    by    the 
confiscation    of    the   landed    property   of 
the    nobiUty    and    clergy,    and    thus    by 
1797  had  realised  a  considerable  fortune. 
He  had  by  this  time.  It  Is  said,  conceived 
the  idea  of  regenerating  humanity,  and 
in  ordfr  to  qualify  himself  for  this  great 
task  he  engaged  in  extensive  studies,  and 
traveled  In  England  and  Germany.     He 
married  in  1801,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
year    ran    through    his    fortune.      After 
this  he  parted  from  his  wife,  and  hence- 
forth he  lived  In  almost  constant  penury. 
DSiinJ  the  ten  years  1803-13  he  wrote 
a    number   of    works    on    scientific    and 
poUtical    subjects,    such    as    L'Indiutrie 
a«    Diaenttiona    Poliitquea,    Moralet    et 
PWlSSVe.  (1817-ft),  and  Porabole 
(1819).    Augustln    Thierrv,    Saint    Au- 
bln,  and  Auguste  C!omte,  who  had  become 
his  disciples,  collaborated  In  these  later 
volumea.     Finding  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing the  means  of  subsistence  and  o£ 
publishing  his  works  increasing,  he  at- 
tempted suicide  by  shooting  (1823),  but 
recovered   with  a   mutilated   visage  and 
the  loss  of  an  eye.  _He  lived  for  ab^t 
cwo    years    after    this,    dying  jn    18». 
Previously  Comte  had  separated  himself 
from  8t-Simon  on  account  of  the  theo- 
logical  element  which  the  latter  grafted 
upon   his  socialistic  doctrines,  a  change 
which    led    to    the    production    of    the 
CatSchiame    Induairiel    (\^2i\nt.-s 
Houveau    CkriatuintBme    (18K).     Chris- 
tianity he  now  averred  to  be  a  progres- 
sive system,  and  taking  its  fundamental 
principle  of  love  he  held  the  church  to 
be  a  complete  organization  of  society  for 
ministering  to  the  wants  of  the  whole, 
and  especially  of  the  more  numerous  and 
poorer  classes    A  social  hierarchy  base<' 
on  capacities  and  services,  with  author- 
Uy  to  divide  hMfta«sa,  distribute  sala- 


ries, regulate  vocations,  and  take  all 
necessary  meani  for  makinc  the  Uumr 
of  all  contriboto  to  the  common  good, 
was  deduced  from  these  premises  by  bu 
disciples,  who  for  a  tlme^formed  a  aoine- 
what  prominent  sect.  Society  waa  di- 
vided by  the  St.  Slmonian  doctrine  mte 
three  classes,  priests,  savanto  bM  labor; 
era,  and  was  to  be  governed  by  the  chiefs 
of  the  three  classes.  Capacity  was  to 
be  the  ground  of  diatribatlmi  of  fuoo- 
tions.  All  property  was  to  become  oa 
the  death  of  the  proprietor  the  property 

of  the  church  or  society.  

OaiMi-  aimnti     Louis    db    Robtbot, 
Saint-Dimon,    dumb   db,   a    French 
writer,  bom  in  1675;  died  in  ITpS.    He 
was   brought   up   on   terms  of  intimate 
friendship   with   the    Duke   of   Orleans, 
and  when  the  latter  became  regent  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  tte  rM»ncy 
council!    From     1692-1702     St.     Simon 
served  in  the  army.    He  possess^   the 
esteem  and  to  some  extent  the  confloence 
of  Louis  XIV,  and  of  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans,   but    his    spirit    of    independoice, 
severe  morality  and  peculiar  views  abovt 
the  mission  of  aristocracy,  made  him  un- 
popular  at    the   court     Nevertheless   he 
succeeded    In    getting    himself    well    in- 
formed about  all  the  court  cabals,  and 
the  doings  and  sayings  of  almost  every 
notable  personage  of  the  France  of  the 
period.    This    Information    he    deposited 
in  his  M6moirea,  published  posthnmously, 
and  which  have  made  him  famous.    The 
first  complete  edition  appeared  m  Pans 
in  1829-31.  „      «  .  .  oi   .^ 

Saint-Simonians.  See  flf««.«-fiimoii. 


Q'f  Tlinmoa  (s&nt-tom 'as),  or  S. 
St.  1  nomas  .JiHOMt,  a  west  African 
island,  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  belonging 
to  Portugal.  Area,  355  sq.  miles;  pop. 
37,776;  capital  same  name  on  the  H.ic. 
coast.  There  is  a  lofty  mountain  In  its 
center,  culminating  In  St.  Thomas*  Peak, 
over  6000  feet  high.  Coffee  plantations 
have  taken  the  place  of  the  former  sugar 
plantations;  and  cocoa,  vanilla  and 
cinchona  are  raised  In  increasing  quan- 
tities. The  climate  is  unhealthy  for 
Europeans.  ,.        .  ,     . 

fl*   Tlinmao     »    West    Indian    island, 
Dl.  Xnomas,    ^^^  ^f  ti,c  virRin  group, 

belonging  to  the  United  States,  38  miles 
E.  of  Porto  Rico.  It  iKjssesses  a  fine 
climate,  due  to  the  trade  winds.  Area, 
33  square  miles.  In  Charlotte  Amalie 
(q.  v.)  it  poeaesscs  one  of  the  finest  iiorts 
in  the  Wert  Indies.  St.  Thomas  was  col- 
onized by  the  Danes  in  lfi72.  The  English 
■vere  iu  possession  1801-02,  and  1807-1&, 
tho  island  again  reverting  to  Donmark  un- 
til 1917,  when  it   ^  as  bought,   together 


St.  Thomas 


Salad 


with  St.  John  an.l  Sta.  Croix  f^^.^^S^ 
/*Jo«d«)  by  the  UnitPd  States.  Pop.tO.OOO. 

St.  Thomas,  \,f'J,  S-^laS^InS" 

capital  of  Elgin  Co. ;  served  by  aix  rail- 
roads. It  has  large  manufactures  includ- 
ing car  and  car-wheels,  wooden  ware, 
shoes,  farm  implements,  etc.  Pop. 
IK  fino 

01.  Vinceni  ^^g^  Indian  island,  in 
the  center  of  the  Windward  ^group. 
Area,  182  sq.  miles;  pop.  about  44,500; 
capital,  Kingston,  on  a  bay  of  the  same 
name  near  the  s.w.  extremitv  of  the 
island,  with  a  pop.  of  4.547.  The  center 
is  mountainous  (highest  peak  about  40U0 
feet),  the  soil  in  the  valleys  very  fertile, 
and  especially  adapted  for  sugar  cultiva- 
tion. The  climate  is  humid,  yet  healthy, 
and  considered  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
West  Indian  islands.  In  the  n.w.  is  an 
active  volcano,  called  the  Souffriere, 
about  3000  feet  high,  with  an  immense 
crater;  an  eruption  in  1872  caused  great 
damage  in  the  island.  Chief  exports, 
sugar  and  arrowroot.  St.  Vincent  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  a«d 
first  became  a  British  colony  in  IJtB, 
between  1779  and  1783  it  was  held  by 

the  French.  ^  .^ 

a*  Vitii»*tit  Cape,  a  promontory 
91.  vmccut,  forming  the  s.w.  ex- 
tremity of  Portugal.  It  is  celebrated 
in  naval  history  for  the  great  victory 
gained  here  in  1797  by  the  British  ad- 
miral Sir  John  Jervis  over  a  Spanish 
fleet  nearly  twice  the  strength  of  his 
own.  Sir  John  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
under  the  title  Earl  of  St.  Vincent. 

St.  Vitus'  Dance.     «•*  ^»*«*  <®'-^ 


flaia  (sa'ls),  a  ruined  city  of  Egypt, 
■**'  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Rosetta 
branch  of  the  Nile,  67  miles  northwest 
of  Cairo,  formerly  a  place  of  great  im- 

SiTftra  (84k-A'rA).  a  Tillage  of 
0KAJiai»  Egypt,  where  is  the  necropo- 
lis of  ancient  Memphis.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  ancient  monuments,  pyramids,  etc. 
MaVi  (st'ki),  the  common  name  of  sev- 
■■'• '  «ral  species  of  monkeys  inhabiting 
South  America,  closely  allied  t»  the  sapa- 
jous  (which  ■••),  but  ditering  from  the 
latter  ia  having  non-prehensile  tails. 
They  are  roughly  subdivided  into  long 
and  short-tailed  sakis.  They  are  all  for- 
est dwallers,  gregarious,  noctunial,  timid 
and  live  chiefly  on  hcmey  and  fruits. 
■A1  (atl).  one  of  the  most  valuable  tim- 
*•*  ber  trees  of  India,  Shoria  ro6««ta, 
Mt.  order  Dipterace«,  growing  to  ths 
height  of  100  fe*t.  Extensive  forests  of 
it  fslst  in  Bortbera  India,  where  tt  w 


Saki  Cuxio  (Pilhteia  tatmntu). 


largely  used  in  carpentry  of  all  kind^ 
the  wood  being  light  brown  in  color,  hard 
and  uniform  in  texture.  It  yields  a  whit- 
ish, aromatic,  transparent  resin  (some- 
times called  dammar),  used  to  caulk 
boats  and  ships,  and  also  for  incense. 
The  s41  forests  are  now  protected  by 
government. 

flalo    (sA'la),    Gbohqk    Augusttjs,     a 
OUAU,   journalist    and    author,    bom    in 
London    in    1827.    His    father    was    an 
Italian,  and  his  mother  an  actress  and 
singer   of    West    Indian    extraction.     He 
studied  for  art,  but  early  embraced   lit- 
erature.    Under  Charles  Dickens  he  be- 
came a  contributor  to  Household  Word». 
Subsequently    he    assisted    in    founding 
Temple  Bar,  of  which  he  was  editor,  and 
he   became  a   voluminous  contributor   to 
the  newspaper  press,  partly  JO—J***  PO»'" 
tion  of  special  correspondent.    The  Seven 
Sont    of    Mammon,    and    Captatn    Danr 
gerous,  are  novels  that  appeared  in  Tem- 
ple  Bar.    He   traveled   over   great   imrt 
of    the    world,    knew    the    great    capital 
cities  by  heart,  and  was  an  eyewitness 
of  some  of  the  most  important  ceremo- 
nials  during   the   best   part    of   his   long 
life.     The  experiences  of  his  travels,  and 
the  sights  seen,   be  described  in  a  style 
peculiarly     his     own;     kem,     vivacious, 
humorous.     Much  of  his  work  was  con- 
tributed to  the  London  Daily  Telegraph, 
but   AU   the   Year   Round,    the    CornhiU 
Magmaine    and    the    lUuairatea    London 
Neve  contain  many  productions  from  his 
pen.    He  died  December  8,  1895. 
a^laam      (sfl-lttm';       Arabic,       «eWm; 
Saiaam    .^p^aca    be    with    you'),    the 
common  salutation  among  Mohammedans. 
Solail     (sal'ad;    Freuih,    #al<ide.    from 
oaiaa    j^iia,   gal,   'salt'),   a    prepara- 
tion   of    row    vegetables    or    herbs,    suet 
as  lettuce,  endive,  red  or  white  cabbages, 
celery,  cresses,   radishes,  shalots,  onions 
green     mustard,     dandelion,     corn-salad. 
M«.:   or   at   cooked   bett-root,   potatoes 


Frtnch  b«an«,  etc.,  with  salt,  vin««r, 
olL  wucM  and  apices.  A  grMt  nambw 
of  MladB  may  be  made  by  suitable  com- 
binatioD  of  the  materiala  mentioned,  and 
still  further  variety  is  obtained  by  the 
admixture  of  different  Icinds  of  shredded 
meat,  fish,  eggs,  sausage,  lobster,  craba, 
prawns,  shrimps,  sardines,  etc. 
Sftladin  (»''a-din),  or  PropeVJ 
oaiHrUXii  Salah-ed-din,  a  celebrated 
sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  bom  1137; 
died  1193.     His  father,  a  native  of  Kur 


distan,  was  governor  of  Tekrit    (on  the 
Tigris).     He  early  distinguished  himself 
as  a  soldier,  became  vizier  to  the  last  of 
the  FatimJte  caliphs  in  succession  to  his 
uncle  Shirlcuh,  and  on  the  caliph's  death 
in    Egypt    (1171)    Saladin    usurped    his 
wealth  and  authority,  with  the  approval 
of    Nureddin,    the    sultan    of    Damascus. 
After  the  latter's  death   (1173),  Salndin 
succeeded   also   in    possessing   himself   of 
Damascus  and  southern  Syria.    He  rap- 
idly  extended    his   conquests   over   Syria 
and  the  neighboring  countries,  and  thus 
came  in  contact  with  the  Crusaders  during 
the  Third   Crusade.     The  disastrous   do- 
feat  he  suffered  from   the   Crusaders   in 
1177  compelled  him  to  return  to  Kgypt, 
but   in    1182   he    resumed    his   career    of 
conquest.     In  11S7  he  gained  the  famous 
victory  of  Tiberias,   and  Jerusalem  sur- 
rendered  to  him   after  a   gallant   resist- 
ance.    But  the  fall  of  Acre  in  1191  after 
a  two  years'  siege,  and  the  defeats  at  the 
hand  of  Richard  I,  compelled  Saladin  to 
conclude  a  truce  (1192),  which  was  fol- 
lowed   by    the    withdrawal    of    Richard. 
About   a   year   after   this   event   Saladin 
died    at    Damascus.     He    was   a   skilful, 
brave  and  magnanimous  general :  and  an 
astute,    l)eneficent    and    merciful     ruler. 
Saladin  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Ayoubites.     See  Crusades. 
Qaloiln     (sa-lii'tho  1 ,  a  river  of  the  Ar- 
oaiauu    gentine   Republic,   which    rises 
on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras, 
and  falls  into  the  Paranft  after  a  course 
of  750  miles.  .  ,     .       ., 

Qal    AArafns  Salera'tus      (sal-a-ra- 
Otu  A,ciatu9,  ^.yg)^  gQ  American  name 

for  a  baking-powder,  prepared  from  car- 
bonate (or  bicarbonate)  of  soda  and  salt. 
Sftl  fttn  anPft  <  sal-ft-man;ki ) ,  a  city  m 
Saiamiiui/H.  gpajn^  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  120  miles  north- 
west of  Madrid,  on  and  between  three 
hills,  and  on  the  river  Tonnes,  here 
spanned  by  a  fine  bridge  of  twenty-six 
arches,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  of 
Roman  origin.  In  pictureM|u«nflM,  aad 
in  the  magnificence  of  its  ancient  edificaa, 
Salamanca  is  hardly  surpassed  hy  any 
other  Spanish  city.  Chief  am«ng  the 
nuBMrous  attractieas  rank  the  catSMlral 


8alan>ii4«r 

(■iztMOtb  ccntary),  «  "Pifi^,**;!?]! 
of  florid  Gothic;  the  old  cathedral,  erMtad 
1102,  in  Romanesque  style;  U»  »»»«• 
■ity,  the  College  of  the  Jeaoits,  Kii>t> 
College  and  churches.  The  univenltT  is 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  In 
Europe,  and  when  at  its  aenith  in  ttte 
sixteenth  century  attracted  some  16,W0 
students  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Be- 
sides a  number  of  interesting  monaatte 
buildings,  there  are  also  some  large  and 
elegant  palaces  and  private  mansions. 
The  Plasa  Mayor  is  a  magnificent  square 
Salmantica,  the  ancient  Salamanca,  was 
taken  by  Hannibal  in  222  B.O.,  and  nor 
der  the  Romans  it  became  a  military  sta- 
tion. It  has  been  the  theater  of  many 
interesting  historic  events,  including  the 
victory  gained  in  its  vicinity  in  1812,  by 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  over  the  French 
under  Marshal  Marmont.  Pop.  25,C»0.— 
The  province  of  Salamanca,  chiefly 
formed  by  the  Douro  basin,  has  an  area 
of  4829  so.  miles,  and  a  population  of 
320.7«55.  It  is  rich  in  oak  and  chestnut 
forests  and  cereals,  and  produces  wine, 
oil  and  hemp.  ^ 

SnlflTTinTiPSl.     »  ""'"Jf^  in  Cattaraugus 
Saiamanca,    ^^^^   j,jew  York,  on  the 

Alleghany   River,  34  miles  E.  of  Jamee- 
town.     It  has  extensive  lumiier  and  man- 
ufacturing interests.     Pop.  5792. 
dalamflTiilior   (sal -a -man' d6r),    the 

aaiamanaer  ^^^g  ^1^^^  ^^  varioca 

animals  included  in  the  class  Amphibia 
(frogs,  toads,  newts,  etc.),  and  in  the 
order  Urodela  ('tailed')  of  that  claaa. 
The  salamanders  may  be  divided  into 
the   land  salamandera    (genus  Salaman- 


dro)*  and  the"  water  salamandera.  efU  or 
newts.    The   land   salamandera  have  an 


Common  SsUmander  {SalanMndra  rulgirU). 


elongated  liaard-like  form,  four  feet  and 
a  long  tail.  The  skin  is  warty,  with 
many  glands  secreting  a  watery  fluid, 
which  the  animal  exudes  when  alarmed. 
As  this  flaid  is  injurious  to  small  animals 
the  salamanders  have  the  reputation  of 
extreme  venomousneee,  though  they  are 
In  reality  entirely  hMilsM  The  best- 
known  species  is  the  #«if«wmndro  vtii^orM, 


Salamii 


SulsBt 


tkt  cMDiBon  MlamtBdw  of  Barop*.  It 
is  6  to  8  incbM  long,  it  foand  in  moist 
plscM  under  stones  or  tlw  roots  of  treeS) 
near  the  borders  of  springs,  in  deep  woods, 
etc.,  and  passes  iU  life  in  concealment 
except  at  night  or  during  rain.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  »potte4  salamander, 
from  th«*  bright  yellow  stripes  on  its  sides. 
There  are  various  other  species  in  Europe, 
Asia  utd  America.  In  America  the 
name  .^  often  given  to  the  menopome 
(ife^>poma  alleffanietue) .  Salamanders 
feed  on  worms,  slugs,  snails  and  insectik 
The  old  legend  that  salamanders  could 
live  in  the  midst  of  fire  is,  like  their 
venomousness,  a  fiction,  although  it  is 
possible  that  the  watery  secretion  of  the 
skin  might  enable  these  animals  to  resist 
heat  with  impunity  for  a  longer  period 
than  other  forms. 

aalamia  (aara-mls),  or  Kolum,  an 
Saxamu  j^j^^^  ^^  Greece,  in  the  Gulf 
of  iE^gina,  close  to  the  shore  of  Attica. 
It  has  a  rockv  surface,  with  a  thin  but 
not  unproductive  soil,  and  in  some  parts 
is  well  adapted  foi  the  olive  and  vine. 
The  celebrated  batt  «,  b.0.  480,  in  which 
the  vast  and  unwJp    y  Persian  fleet  under 


defeated  by  a  mudi 
was  foaght  here, 
aj-a-mta'i-ak),  the 
toride  of  ammonium, 
isd  from  the  refuse 
ased  in  calico-print- 
ftm,  in  soldering,  etc. 


Xerxes  was  signa 
smaller  Grecian  ^ 

Sal-ammoni* 

now  generally     ife 
of  gas-works,     it 
ing,  in  galvao  tug 
See  Ammoni' 

Salangane  <,«'    ,\'«??^U«?T^ 

phaga)  'ommon  t  igbout  he  Eastern 
Archipela^fi  ,nd  faih  ns  a«  ^  producers 
of  the  'eii    ic  birds    aest  .'     See  Birds' 

fiplawnffv  (aa-la  *ft'te),  an  island 
Daill>WHl<l.y     Qg  jjjg  western  extremity 

of  New  Guinea,  to  the  Dutch  portion  of 

which  it  is  regarded  as  belonging;  area 

about  760  sq.  miles.     Pop.  3000. 

ftnlflanha.  "Rav    (sal-dan'ya),    a    bay 

Baiaanna  j»ay  ^^  ^^^  Atlantic,  on 

the  west  coast  of  Cape  Colonv,  South 
Africa,  80  miles  n.  of  Cape  Town.  It 
forms  a  fine  natural  harbor,  with  excel- 
lent shelter  and  anchorage  at  all  seasons, 
but  scarcity  of  water  and  fuel  causes  it 
to  be  little  frequented. 
fialA  (s&i),  George,  oriental  scholar, 
Daie    ^j^g  j^pn  in  i(}go;  died  in  1736. 

He  was  a  lawyer  by  profession,  and  a 
contributor  to  several  important  publica- 
tions ;  but  he  is  best  known  by  his  trans- 
lation of  the  £oran,  which  appeared  in 
1734. 

flol*  ^IB  ROBEBT  Henbt,  a  British 
•'"■*^»  majpr-general,  born  in  1782;  died 
iu  1846.    Be  entered  the  army  at  a  very 


early  ag*.  and  his  brUlUmt  miUtaqr^eamr 
supplies  som«  stirring  pagaa  in  tb«  ha«m 
of  the  British  Indian  Bmpir*  of  tbs  fint 
half  of  this  century.  In  India,  BomaB. 
AfghanisUn,  wherever  he  was  employed, 
he  distingaished  himself,  especially  in  Af- 
ghanistan, where  he  forced  Dost  Moluun- 
med  Khan  to  surrender,  and  inflicted  a 
crushing  defeat  upon  Akbar  Khan  at 
Jelalabad  (1842),  subseauenUy  assisting 
in  the  recapture  of  Cabul.  ^  ,  , , 
SaUm  (fi'lem),  a  city  of  Columbiana 
oU.tm  bo.,  OWo.  20  miles  s.».w.  of 
^oungstown.  It  is  in  a  coal-mining  and 
rich  agricultural  region.  lU  industries 
include  flour  mills,  machine  shop^  shset- 
metal,  steel  and  wire  work,  manufactures 
of  steam  and  gas  engines,  tools,  pomps, 
etc.    Pop.  8843. 

fla1*m  A  city  and  seaport  of  Essex 
OKXciu,  county,  Massachusetts,  about 
17  miles  N.  R.  ■.  of  Boston,  on  the  main 
line  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  railraad: 
in  the  famous  North  Shore  district  of 
Massachusetts,  a  summer  resort  region. 
Salem  formerly  had  a  c(msiderable  for- 
eign trade,  especially  with  the  East 
Indies  and  China,  and  has  still  a  large 
coasting  trade,  while  its  manufacturing 
industries  are  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
including  cotton  and  leather  goods,  boots 
and  shoes,  boats,  toys,  steam,  gas  and 
water  specialties,  machinery,  carriages, 
medicine,  etc.  Salem  has  many  interest- 
ing buildings,  including  the  East  India 
Marine  Museum,  the  Feabody  Academy 
of  Sciences,  the  Athenteum  and  the  Es- 
sex Institute.  It  played  a  promineut  part 
in  the  earliest  history  of  the  States,  being 
founded  in  1028.  Among  its  interesting 
remains  is  the  bouse  where  Roger  Wil- 
liams dwelt,  and  First  Church,  the  oldest 
Protestant  Church  in  America.  Salem 
was  the  birthplace  of  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorqe  and  Joseph  H.  Choate.  Pop.  48,697. 
Qa1»Tn  a  city,  county  seat  of  Salem 
anicuif    Q^^    jjg^    Jersey,    on    Salem 

River,  37  miles  s.  s.  w.  of  Camden,  is  the 
business  center  and  shipping  point  of  a 
fertile  farming  district;  has  manufac- 
tories, including  Heins'  catsup,  brass  and 
iron  works,  glus,  tinware,  oil-cloth,  etc. 
Pop.  6614. 

flalAvn  a  town  of  Forsyth  Co.,  Nwth 
"**®™»  Carolina,  since  1913,  part  of 
Winston-Salem  on  a  branch  of  the  Tad- 
kin  River,  109  miles  w.  N.  w.  of  Ralei^. 
It  has  iron  works,  cotton  mills  and  wood- 
working plants.  Pop.  5533. 
SaIath  ^^^  capital  of  Oregon  and 
BoxciU)  county  seat  of  Marion  county, 
Oregon,  is  situated  on  the  navigable  Wil- 
lamette River  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
R.  R.,  53  miles  8.  by  w.  of  Portland.  It 
has  varioH*  State  iastitutiona,  and  manu- 


Mm 


tectnrM  ©f  flour,  lumber,  wwoleM,  tou^ 
dry  produeti,  doom  and  Mdi,  •Jc.i*«o 
fruit  packing  industriMk  Pop.  20.000. 
oTum  a  abtrlct  and  town  o!  Hin- 
DftiCm)  dnatan,  Madras  Preaidcncy. 
Area  of  district.  76B8  square  miles :  pop. 
2.204.974.  Population  of  the  town  of 
talemT  tile  caoVui  of  tlie  district,  70,621. 
Salayer.    ^Saleyer. 

fialATi  (sal'ep),  obtained  from  the  to- 
o***P  berous  roots  of  several  spe- 
cies of  orchis,  especially  O.  »»fl«c«»«i ."^ 
the  finest  Is  obtained  from  Asia  Minor. 
It  occurs  In  commerce  In  small  oval  bans 
of  a  whltlsh-yellow  color,  of  a  horny 
aspect,  hard,  with  a  faint  pecuIUr  B«»ell, 
and  a  somewhat  insipid  taste.  It  Is  mu<ft 
valued  in  the  Bast  lor  its  supposed  gen- 
eral stimulant  and  nutritious  properties. 
For  use  it  is  ground  Into  a  fine  powder, 
and  mixed  with  boiling  water,  sugar  and 
milk  being  added  according  to  taste.  It 
li  to  some  extent  used  in  Europe  as  a 
food  for  weakly  persons. 
Salera'tHS.     »^  Sal  Aeratn$. 

a^l^iTiA  (8A-l*r'n6;  anciently  Baler- 
OaiemO  „„«),  a  town  and  seaport  of 
It»lv  caoital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
nSe,  Tthe  Gulf  of  Salei-no.  30  mile, 
■outheast  of  Naples,  finely  situated  on 
the  side  and  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  "owned 
by  the  remains  of  an  ancient  Norman 
citadel.  It  has  an  excellent  marine  prom- 
eimde.  and  a  cathedral  dating  from  the 
eleventh  century.  Its  university  (estab- 
llshla  1150.  abo'lished  1817)  was  famous 
in  the  middle  ages,  Mpecially  in  medi- 
cine. Its  well-sheltered  port  has  recently 
been  much  Improved.    It  was  a  P'ace  of 

Seat  importance  under  the  Romans, 
oths,  L«Bmbards  and  Normans.  Silk 
and  cotton  are  manufactured,  rop. 
42,727.— The  proving  has  an  area  « 
2126  square  miles,  and  a  P<'P;„°^x^^  n"" 


than  have  been  tmn^atwl  into^  tts 
iMdlng  lanftussa  of  Barops.  Tba  MM 
taow?  iinSTfUroduotiom  to  •  iW*^ 
Ufe.  In  1686  h«  was  canooised  by  Pops 
Alexander  Vil.  ,   _»i    .«\    ►»« 

Salesian  Himi  iSs'lf 't""^o.& 

of  the  VlsiUtion  of  the  Vintin  Mary, 
founded  by  Francoia  de  Sales  (ses 
above),  and  his  friend  Madame  de  Chan- 
tat  one  o'  »>»•  disciples,  in  1610,  at  An- 
necy,  in  Savoy,  as  a  refu^  for  widows 
an/'sick  females.  In  the  »'«»>teenth  cwj- 
turr  there  were  100  convents  and  6000 
nuns  of  this  order.  There  are  still  Sales- 
Ian  nuns  In  the  principal  cities  of  Italy, 
devoting  themselves  to  the  healing  of  ths 
sick  and  the  education  of  young  g'rl«- 

Saleyer  Islands  irl^^^T^ 

Indian  Ocean,  south  of  Celeb«^  from 
which  Great  Salever  la  "epaf'tef.  {^  *^ 
Saleyer  Strait.  They  are  about  thirty  ta 
number;  have  a  pop.  of  alwut  80,000 
Mohammedan  Malays  governed  by  native 
rajahs  under  a  Netherlands  agent- 
Ebony,  teak,  indigo,  coffee,  earth-fruits 
and  cotton,  are  among  the  products. 
fial^AWl  (sal'ford).  a  municipal  and 
^»*"®'^  parliamentary  borough  of  Eng- 
land, in  Lancashire,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered an  Integral  portion  of  Manchester, 
though  it  has  a  mayor  and  corporation 
of  its  own,  and  a  distinct  parliamentary 
constituency  returning  three  members. 
Among  its  buildings  may  be  mentlopeo 
the  law  conrU  and  the  railway  station. 
Pop.  (1911)  231.380.    See  MaMkeiter. 


fialM    l"*'-  »*•»>•  S^^N"^  Francois  d»j 
OHlOB    ^ighop  of  Geneva,  was  bom  of 
noble  parents  at  the  castle  of  Sales,  n^^r 
Annecy.   Savoy.  in.l567;   died   m   1022. 
He   received   his  higher  education  at  a 
Jesuit  college  in  Paris,  and  fiually  de- 
voted some  years  to  the  study  of  juris- 
prudknce   at    Padua.    Early   In    life    he 
■bowed   s   decided  predUectkB   for   the 
clerical    Ufe,    and,  .agaiag    1^    fath»^ 
desire,  took  orders  ta  1588.,    Geneva  te- 
came  the  scene  of  his  ecclesiastlcnl  wort, 
and    here,    as    dean,    coadjutor    wmap 
(1698),  and  biahop  (liW),  he  speM  the 
best  part  of  bis  life.    His  eloqa^t,  yrt 
aimple  and  persuasive  senmns,  snd  M 
exemplary  life,  exenase*  a  powerful  Jj- 
fluence  for  the  benefit  of  his  church,    ms 
writings  were  much  valiMii.  and  some  oC 


SalioTia  '(sa'li-ans),  or  Saliav 
aiiana  Fbankb,  is  the  name  given  to 
that  section  of  the  Franks  who  from  the 
third  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
were  settled  <m  the  left  hank  <rf  ths 
Lower  Bhiaa.  Their  origin  is  uomt^ 
but  we  know  thM  the  earUest  FiaMlM 
kings  were  Saiian  Franka. 
SfilinftfiilK  (8al-l-kl'se»).aB«t.arder 
DailcaoeK  ^^  apetalom  enwensv  dis- 
tinguUhed  by  a  tw«-valved  capwila.  and 
numerous  see^  tufted  with  loag  a™™- 
The  species  are  trees  or  ahruba,  iptabit- 
ing  woods  ta  the  northctv  di^ncts  oi 
Europe,  Aria  sad  Ammea.  Only  two 
genera  are  inciaded  in  the  order,  »Mui 
or  willow,  and  Popiilru  or  poplar. 

PEilOlTIt  1^  aabstance  obtained  frooi 
the  bait  of  willows,  awl  used  in  sMdi- 
etee,  e^ecially  te  the  ttealaww  «rf  «*«- 
■»tlc^wr.  Am>  m  nemcalgla  aad  neural 
afa  hwiaclMa 

SLu-  Taw    (sal'a) ,  the  «A  of  lawn 
SalM  4*W   ^     ,1^"  saii,^     Frank.. 

One  of  the  Uws  ia   this  «>*.  ««-''»^ 
wwnen    from    iah^tiag    c«tain    lands, 


BilioyUo  Add 


SftliiVttry 


l^robaUr  bacmuM  cwrtain  millUiry  datitt 
wen  conaecttd  with  the  holdfaif  of  thOM 
laatb.  la  the  fourteenth  centarjr  fmuilei 
were  ezcladed  from  the  throne  of  France 
by  the  applicatioo  of  this  law  to  the  etw* 
cceeion  to  the  crown,  and  it  ia  in  thia 
amae  that  tlM  term  mho  teto  ia  commonly 

SalicyUoAcid  irJi'-^ISJ- ^,  <>- 

aweetiah-aonr  taate,  without  amell,  poe- 
aeaainff  great  antiaeptic  and  anti-putre- 
factive propertiea.  It  occura  in  nature 
in  the  flowera  of  the  meadow-aweet,  and 
in  the  wbortIe-i)erry ;  but  that  preferred 
by  the  medical  profession  ia  procured 
from  the  oil  of  the  winter-green  {Oaul- 
tkeria  procumbcns) .  There  are  now  sev- 
eral procesaea  for  manufacturini;  aalicylic 
acid  on  a  large  acale,  and  it  forms  an 
important  article  of  commerce.  It  is 
largely  employed  in  medicine,  having 
properties  similar  to  those  of  quinine,  and 
Is  given  in  acute  and  chronic  rheumatism, 
uaed  as  a  lotion  in  irritation  of  the  sliin, 
etc.  A  salt  prepared  from  it,  salicylate 
of  sodium,  is  often  preferred. 
flftlitift  (84-lI'n&),  a  city,  seat  of 
Saline  Co.,  Kansas,  on  the 
Union  Paciiic  Kailroad,  18  miles  e.  of 
Monterey.  There  are  salt  springs  and 
gypsum  quarries  in  the  vicinity,  and  it 
18  the  commercial  center  of  a  farming  and 
stock-raising  region.  It  has  grain  ele- 
vators and  various  manufactures.  Here 
ia  the  K&nsaa  Wesieyan  University  and 
other  educational  institutions.  Pop. 
9U8S. 

Salina  Cmz,  ^*°'™  of  the  state  of 

■vvMAuni  vit^Mtf  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  near 
Tehauntepec,  of  which  it  is  the  port.  It 
is  the  Pacific  terminus  of  the  Tehaun- 
tepec Railway.  Its  open  roadstead  haa 
been  made  into  a  safe  harl)or  by  two 
great  converging  jetties.  The  railroad 
aervice  ia  giving  it  a  rapid  growth. 

Salina  Formation,  J5«  |r  Vnu'eS 

States  to  a  subdivision  of  the  Silurian 
■yatem  in  geology.  It  appears  to  corre- 
spond with  the  lower  portion  of  the  Lud- 
low rocks  of  the  British  series. 
gftling  (sA-ian;  ancient,  SaUiuB),  a 
*~**''*"  town  of  France,  department  of 
the  Jura.  It  owes  its  name  to  saline 
springs  which  were  worked  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  still  form  the  chief  wealth 
of  the  town.     Pop.  4358. 

Salisbury  ("«i»'be-ri),  or  n«w  sa- 

^  RUM,  an  ancient  city  of 
England,  capital  of  the  county  of  Wilts, 
80  milea  southwest  by  west  of  London, 
at  the  Junction  of  the  Upper  Avon  with 
the  united  atrcama  of  the  Willey,  Nadder 
and  the  Boum.    The  city,  which  ia  ref 


alarly  laid  oat,  ia  chiefly  interesttnt  'or 
ita  historic  aaaociationa  and  anttqaitiea, 
and  for  its  magniBcent  cathedral,  built 
between  1220  and  1X6,  entirely  in  the 
early  English  style,  and  on  a  nniform 
and  well-arranged  plan.  The  apire  (404 
feet)  was  added  between  1835  and  1375, 
and  ia  the  highest  in  England.  Salia- 
bury  waa  at  one  time  celebrated  for  its 
woolen  manufactures  and  fine  cutl«>ry, 
but  these  indufitricH  are  now  all  but  ex- 
tinct.    Pop.  (1011)  21,217. 

Salisbnrv.  *  *^*y'  co"oty  M*t  of  a©- 

^^^  *»    wan  county.  North  Oro- 

lina;  in  the  heart  of  a  rich  farming 
country,  the  Piedmont  Section.  It  haa 
large  railroad  shops,  granite  works,  cot- 
ton mills,  lumber  plants,  mattress  plant, 
flour  mills,  iron  and  metal  work'j.  oil 
mills,  etc.     Pop.,  including  suburbs,  W,(XX). 

Salisbury,  eabl  or.  Seo  Ceo«. 

51ali«"hnrv  *  town,  seat  of  Wicom- 
ouiisuuijr,  ipo  (jo^  Maryland,  on  the 
Wicomito  River,  32  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Crisfield.  It  has  a  railroad  repair  shop 
and  canning  and  other  factories.  Pop. 
0080. 

Saliabnrv  Robert  Artucb  Talbot 
M<u««wu,Aj,  gascotne  Cecil.  Third 
Mabquis  of,  English  statesman,  was 
born  at  Hatfield  (county  of  Herts)  in 
1880,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford. 
As  Lord  Robert  Cecil  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment aa  member  for  Stamford  in  1803, 
and  gradually  made  his  way  till  in  I860, 
on  the  formation  of  Lord  Derby's  third 


Marquis  of  Sslisborr. 

administration,  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  State  for  India.  In  1806  he  be- 
came Lord  Cranborne  and  heir  to  the 
marquiaate,  on  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother.  C)wing  to  difference  of  opinion 
on  the  subject  of  the  franchiae  he  retired 
from  the  ministrv,  but  on  the  death  of 
Ub  father  ia  1868  and  his  consequent  ele- 


Sdiilmry  Flain 


vatlon  to  the  Houw  of  U«te  »>•  rHwwtA   IW«.  M*^'. 
to   hto   old   ptrtjr   ••«»«fa»«J«»\.  »*?  ^ 
nuatd  the  ■ecretarythip  %_i°«'»j°,"X 
Dbratlt  lovtnunent  of   18T4.    He  took 
part  In  the  conference  of  Conrtanijnople, 
SThlch  wa.  expected  to  eettJe  the  dUpute 
between  Rueela  and  Tnrkey;  and  at  the 
end  of  that  war,  having  become  fowlpj 
miniater.  he  Inalated  on  the  trMtjr  which 
Ruuia  had  forcsd  on  Turkey  belnf  aub- 
mitted  to  a  congrew  of  the  powers,     in 
1878  he  accompanied  Disraeli  to  the  con- 
greaa  at  Berlin,  and  on  the  death  of  that 
Statesman  became  the   recogniml   leader 
of   the  Conservative  party.     He   became 
premier  as  well  as  foreign  secretary  on 
the  fall  of  the  Gladstone  government  in 
1885.      Gladstone     succeeded     again     to 
power  in  the  end  of  the  same  year,  but 
In  the  June  following  was  defeated  on 
the  Irish  bills  (see  Ireland),  when  Salis- 
bury again  became  premier  and  foreign 
aecretary.     His  party  maintained  a  ma- 
jority by  means  of  the  adherence  of  the 
Liberal  Unions,  who  were  representcdln 
the   cabinet   by    Mr.   Goschen.     In    1HS«, 
the  majority  in  Parliament  being  in  ra\or 
of  a  Home  Rule  bill  ^o^  Jic>«Vj''  ^*Jlf: 
bury  retired  from  office.     In  IS'Jo.  on  tne 
fall  of    the    Rosebory    ministry,    he    was 
reralled      He  was  again  returned  to  Office 
iTlSoo;  resigning  iu  1902.     He  died  Aug. 

^'liS?««,  -DlQin  a  tract  of  downs 
SallSDUry  rlain,  ^^^  i,e„th  in  Wilt- 
shire. England,  between  S'llisbury  and 
Devizes.  It  is  about  20  miles  in  length 
(north  to  south),  and  I*  l"-oad  (east 
to  west).  Upon  it,  about  8  "'!"  north 
of  Salisbury,  is  Stonehcnfe  (which  see). 
QaliiTft  (sa-ll'va),  the  transparent 
Saiiya  ^-atery  fluid  secreted  by  glands 
connected  with  the  mouth.  The  qiiantity 
secreted  in  twenty-four  hours  varies ;  us 
average  amount  is  probably  from  1  to  a 
pints.  The  purposes  served  by  saliva 
are  mechanical  and  chemical.  It  keeps 
the  mouth  in  a  due  condition  of  mois- 
ture, and  by  mixing  with  the  food  during 


detanalavd   tocally   bjr 
■  rltants,  or  by 
wbeU  aytttm, 


iMTof^iBaatieatini  irritants,  or  by 

wUcli  act  opooT**  *»•»•  »?»?i«"%„"X 
clally  by  mercurial  preparatjona.    In  tl» 


laat  case  it  is  accompanied  by  a  eopptvy 
taste,  by  swelling  of  the  mma  and  •©ma- 
times  by  looseness  oS  tha  teeth. 
gjJ5jj'(ai'lll»>.    BeeWWfcMO. 


mastication  it  makes  it  a  soft  pulpy  mass, 
such  as  may  be  easily  swallowed,     lue 


chemical  action  of  saliva  on  the  food  is 
to  convert  the  starchy  elements  into  some 
kind  of  sugar.  Ths  salivary  glandt  are 
compound  tubular  glands  known  as  the 
•oroiid.  the  $ub-ma9illary.  and  the  »«5- 
Untfual,  and  numerous  smaller  bodies  ol 
similar  structure,  and  with  _  separate 
ducts,  which  are  scattered  thickly  be- 
neath the  mucous  membrane  of  the  lips, 
cheeks,  soft  palate  and  root  of  the  tongue. 
Salivary  gland;  are  absent  in  some  mam- 
mals and  reptiles,  and  in  most  fishes. 


OaUee  l^^  western  coaat  of  Morosco, 
on  tie  Atlantic,  100  roilea  ««»  ««J«f»; 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Buregrt-b,  tonutiy 
a  stronghold  of  Moorish  P'«<?y-..9?.{i? 
opposite  side  of  the  Hw  •<"J»^»  ^'*' 
(which  see).     Pop.  about  12,000. 

Sallow  ie'?a'.icro"2"^inor  £.' 
SalloW-thom  <f'5rnW'tLTt 

order  Bleagnaceas.  Uippopkai  r*««»- 
Midea,  an  European  apecies,  is  a  ^»nT 
shrub  with  diceclous  leaves  and  amall 
orange-colored  berries,  growing  on  cllffa 

Solli*k"l">'«»t).    CaIUS    SALLU8TTOB 

SaUnSX    ^rispub,  a  Roman  historian, 
bom    B.O.    86,    at    Amitemum;    died    at 
Rome  B.C.  84.    He  became  tribune  inB.C. 
52,  and  in  the  civil  war  sided  with  C«aar. 
In  B.C.  47  he  was  pnctor  elect,  and  in  the 
following  year  accompanied  Ltpsar  to  ine 
African  war.  where  he  was  left  as  gov- 
ernor of  Numidia.     He  returned  with  im- 
mense wealth,  was  accused  of  maladmin- 
istration    and     oppression,     and     alter 
Cwsar's  death  lived  in  luxurious  retire- 
ment.   Sallust    wrote    several    hlstoriwl 
works  in  a  clear  and  concise  style.     Htt 
Bellum  Caiilinarium  is  a  history  of  the 
Catiline    conspiracy.    The    JugurtKa,   or 
Bellum  JmgurtktHum,  is  a  hi«og[  «' »• 
war  against  Jugurtha,  king  of  Nomidia, 
from  B.C.  111  to  B.C.  106.    _ 
flallir  r\nrf      *»  fortiBcation,  a  posten^ 
SaUy-poni,    ^^  ^  nassag*  undergrwmd 
from  the  inner  to  the  outer  works,  to 
afford  free  egress  to  troops  m  making  a 
sally,  closed  by  maasiT*  gatsa  when  ■ot 

succeeded  Joseph  Scaliger  as  professor  In 
Leyden  University.  In  1649  he  wrote  a 
defense  of  Charles  I  (De/en»io  Re^w  pro 
Cmrolo  I),  which  was  brilliantly  an- 
swered by  Milton's  Defenaio  pro  Populo 
Anglioano.  His  other  important  worte 
are:  PUnianas  Exeratattoneg  m  «ot»- 
»«m;  8crip1ore$  BUtoria  AuguitcBjDe 
Mutuo;  Obtervattontt  *n  Ju*  AUu^»m  •» 
JtowKHWlw.  ate 


^1).  Tb«  MbnoB  iBbabitt  both  wit  aad 
lb  Wittn,  and  nnksproninflat  ■mou 
food-AshM  of  m  United  Statw  and 
otiicr  coantrira.  It  gMierally  attaiu  a 
lM«th  ol  frofli  8  to  4  ftet,  and  an  a»tf- 
af*  walfht  d  (ram  12  to  SO  Iba.,  bat 
tfaat  Ifanita  of  aiie  and  weifht  an  frt* 
aaaatlf  acceded.  The  typical  color  of 
tba  adnlt  flab  la  a  ateel-blue  on  the 
back  and  bead,  becoming  lighter  on  the 
ridaa  and  belly.  Tectfa  are  present  in 
tba  upper  and  lower  Jaws,  palate,  and 
T<HSCr  or  roof  of  the  mouth;  the  edgea 
of  the  tongue  are  also  toothed  or  notched, 
^e  food  consists  of  animal  matter,  and 
BUM  vary  with  the  rhanges  of  habitat 
from  aalt  to  fresh  water,  and  vice  veru. 
In  the  autumn  the  salmon  quite  the  sea 
and  ascends  the  rivers  for  the  purpose 
of  apawning,  often  haviog  to  surmount 


MrM  it  attalao  •  toofth  ol  8 
WbM  tba  asaaon  of  ita  a^tloa  uriTaik 


cMMftlly  iMtwecn  Mareb  and  Jiwa,  Ow 
lao   iavo  becoae  darker  and  tbe   fab 


baa  taauned  a  silvery  bue.  It  «s  .^ 
kaowB  aa  •  eaielf  or  aaloion  frp.  Tbt 
•noita  now  congragata  into  aboa^  and 
Btoceed  leianrely  aaaward.  On  reftcblag 
the  eatuary  they  rwnaia  in  ita  bnMfclab 
water  for  a  m>rt  time  and  then  aoMike 
for  tbe  open  sea.  Leaving  ita  native 
river  aa  a  flab,  weU^ing  fftqneBtly  not 
more  than  2  oia.,  the  amolt,  after  three 
nontba'  abaencc,  may  return  to  faeab 
water  aa  a  grilae,  weighing  4  or  5  iba. 
In  the  grIhM  stage  or  —fmcn  peel,  aa 
it  is  sometimes  called,  the  flsb  ia  capable 
of  depositing  eggs.  After  spawning  ia 
the  fresh  water  tbe  grilse  again  aeeka 
the  sea  in  the  autumn,  and  when  its  aec- 
ond  stay  in  the  ocean  is  over  it  returns 
after  a  few  months'  ahaence  as  the 
adult  salmon,  weighing  from  8  to  10  Iba. 


HsdSsImoii. 


considerable  obstacles  such  as  falls  of 
some  height,  in  its  progress.  In  many 
streams  they  are  now  assisted  in  this  by 
artificial  structures  known  as  'salmon- 
ladders,'  or  the  like.  Tbe  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  a  shallow  trough  or  groove  ex- 
cavated in  the  gravelly  bed  of  the  river. 
After  spawning,  the  salmon,  both  male 
and  female,  return  to  the  sea  under  the 
name  of  apent-fith,  foul-fish,  or  keU$,  the 
females  being  further  distinguished  as 
aheddera  or  baggits.  In  from  70  to  150 
days  the  young  fish  emerges  from  the 
egg,  and  in  its  embryo  state  it  is  not 
unlike  a  tadpole,  being  on  the  average 
about  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  lengtn. 
About  50  days  later  it  assumes  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  fish  and  now  approaches 
the  definite  or  parr  stage  of  its  existence, 
beginning  to  be  marked  by  transverse 
ban  of  dark  color.  It  usually  continues 
tn  tbe  sballowa  of  its  native  stream  for 
two  year*  ^f^  batiching,  and  daring  tbis 


The  salmon  returns  as  a  rule  to  tbe 
river  in  which  it  passed  its  earlier  eziat- 
ence.  The  fertility  of  the  fish  is  enor- 
mous; it  has  been  calculated  tlut  over 
150,000,000  of  salmon  ova  are  annually 
deposited  in  the  Scotch  river  Tay  alone, 
and  of  these  only  about  a  third  come 
to  life  and  attain  the  parr  stage,  while 
of  these  parrs  only  20,000.000  become 
smolts;  and  in  time  only  100,000  remain 
aa  perfect  salmon,  of  which  70,000  are 
caught  and  30,000  left  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. Salmon  are  caught  by  the  rod, 
and  by  means  of  nets.  For  purposes  of 
commercial  supply  they  are  taken  in 
nets  of  special  construction  and  of  vari- 
ous forms,  the  fishing  being  regulated 
by  law  not  only  as  to  their  seasons  and 
times,  but  also  as  to  the  forms  and  dis- 
positions of  the  machines  for  the  cap- 
ture of  the  fishes.  In  Europe  the  fiab 
is  found  between  the  latitudes  of  46*  and 
78°,  in  Nwrtb  America  in  vUtawipoodlog 


flilplAgotoiiij 


i.gasi  "s:"  ^^^Jr^A  sSjes:  ^ ""  *"*•  *"•  '•''*'  "^ 

troat,    otc.    What    to    !«>«*»  ,"  ^*C  maetoa  of  Mlmoa  whteb  grows  to  »  tonftli 
•toad-locksd'  lalinoii.  which  »•««»««-»  STs  f^,^  to  Doi«roM  !»•«»•.«« 

S?'ftia*J'.tr»nS?d«  ii^5|  Llmon  in  '^^SX^J-;.-"? fe^f  & 
So  n*.  to  by  oomo  regarded  m  •  dto-  "»JS?n  "^,V*?5^S5lfX  tboagh  ra 

b7  othon  not.    In  the  water*  pt  «oriD_   «.■•«'•  .'j,,^  »„  ,h«  wMk.flab. 
westora    Amorka 
bdonfing 
dkiM.    i 

back  iataon.  The  Q«'°°»*  C^io^Si  bui  BucSTreat  in  1013.  It  1h  situated  on  a 
ckm)  haa  an  •»«»«• 'ff'R"  **  B?th^i'  and  pSf  of  the  Aegean  Sea,  140  mile.  «.  of 
wmetimcB  rc«chea  100  Ibo.    Botn  «t  anu  |^  ^  ^    ^,  Conatanti- 

the    blue-back    salmon    iO.    Mfka)    are   o^a^  ««  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  j^  ^^,  ^ 

caught  In  immense  o'lmDen  »,  tne  ^^  J  ^pUth^ter.  Its  harbor  to  excel- 
ColSmbto.  Swramento,  Fra^^kon  J^f^J^Pn,  ^.^.tead  weU  sheltore.1. 
sod  other  rivers,  and  are  pre«rv«l  oy  j^^  j  ^j^p^rt,:  cotton,  com.  leather, 
canning.  The  Aesh  «'  t^?^,"?C°°  „!  silk,  carneta.  bricks  and  soap.  There  8r« 
todtotlnguiahable  'fo"  tj^",'  *•' ;*'!,#*^the  many  splen^^id  mowjues  in  tW  city,  somo 
moB   form.    The  aalmon   is  one  of   the  n      y    p  ^^^^^^  century. 

«•»«•    *>»"'    ?"'Ki*r'^*r  and^^arioSJ  St    Paul  prench«i   the  GoHpel  here,   and 

ptociculture , J^Ji«?,„"«t^V«  Sen    intrc^  addrcwKsd  two  of  Wh  cpistleH  to  the  Chrisj 

species  of   the  family   bav*.  |^?°  J^^IZ  tian  converta  of  the  place,   then  called 

d^Med  Into  waters  n<»*X^''°»Y-J°^''^  Thessalonico.    Great  Britain  and  Prance 

ited  by  them.  Since  l^g)  over-fiBhing^  m  ^  j^  Salonica  in  1915  during  the  Bu- 
Americanwatenihasrender«lthei.nlmm.       ^  ^,^.,^   ^^^  neutna. 

todustry  much  less  P~fi^,^l«'c"omm5«^n  Later  cventn.  which  culminated  In  the  ab- 
ate  being  made  bj  the  Fish  <-on»iniMion  ^j  j  j  j^,„  Constantino  and  the  rise 
to   replant   the   rivers   with   the   young.  Veniselos.  the  former  premier 

bia,  which  was  once  full  j'  "»\'°«°v^°^  a^,  ^  (sal'pa),  a  genus  of  ascldlan  or 
moat  wasteful  ">«  ft « *'Li5?f  o!  eiS)"  °*^P*  t  "uSte  mollnaca^  fonnhM  tibo 
been  employed,  with  the  result  oj  e™'-  xl.j-g    example    of    the    family 

monslT  i5rfucing  the  supply.  ,  An  attempt  "Pj^^^^^^'h^ese  whiato  are  found  float- 
to  be&g  made  to  «"*»"**  ^^  ^^^l  togTnThe  tSe?nuiean  and  the  warmer 
ing   the   stream   with  salmon   fry.     ine  ™»  "*  ^the  ocean,  and  are  protected  by 


MICROCOPr  RfSOWTION  TBT  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TfcST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 


I.I 


ISO     ^^" 
IM    Hi 


IB 


L4.0 


■  2.2 
12.0 


I 


1.8 


^    /JPPLIED  \hMGE    Inc 

165}  East  Main  Street 

Rochester.  Ne»  York        14609       USA 

(716)  482  -  0300  -  Phone 

(716)  288-5989  -Fax 


8al  PnmeUa 


Salt 


timx  of  raeh  ondeairaU*  eltiMnta.  It  !■ 
A  legal  op«tmtion  on  thcM  cUumm  in 
«Ight  States.  Like  wueetomv  (g.  «.).  it 
la  a  distinct  adrantage  to  the  penon  op- 
erated apon,  aa  well  as  to  the  community. 

Sal  Pnmella  ^'?.''J"i!'°'K''^'J?''!5 

M«M  AAiukvun  ^iij^jIj  has  t>een  fused 
and  cast  into  cakes  or  balls,  and  used 
for  chemical  purposes.  Bee  Niter. 
Sftliiafv  (sal'sa-fi:  Tragopogon  porri- 
"*""y  /o«ii»),  Ulongs  to  the  nat. 
order  Ccmposlta,  and  is  allied  to  the 
endive  and  dandelion.  It  is  cultivated 
for  the  use  of  its  long,  white,  fleshy 
roots,  which  are  cooked  and  served  in 
various  ways.  It  is  also  known,  from 
its  peculiar  flavor,  as  the  eyster  plant. 
The  leaves  &re  narrow  and  long;  the 
flowers  are  solitary  and  terminal,  with 
vlwl^l  vuiple  oorelias.  See  Oott'a 
Bemri. 

Salse  (''^'■)i  tt°  eruption  of  hot  acidu> 
^^  lated  mud  from  a  small  eriflce, 
generally  in  volcanic  regions,  and  fre- 
quently accompanied  by  steam  and  gases 
at  a  ugh  temperature,  which  act  power- 
fully on  the  surrounding  solid  matters, 
disintegrating  and  decomposing  them,  and 
forming  new  compounds.  In  some  dis- 
tricts the  gases  are  inflammable,  and 
flames  issue  from  the  orifices. 

Saliette  [^^^  V'SSmS^  «S 

connected  with  Bombay  island  by  bridge 
and  causeway;  area,  241  square  miles. 
(See  Bombay.)  A  broad  range  of  hills 
runs  along  the  center  of  the  island  from 
north  to  south,  while  the  lowlands  are 
■tuch  intersected  by  tidal  creeks.  There 
are  no  large  fresh-water  streams;  but 
the  supply  of  water  from  wells  is  of 
fair  quality,  and  pretty  constant.  'The 
staple  crop  is  rice,  and  most  of  the  up- 
lands are  reserved  for  grass  for  the  Bom- 
bay market.  The  coast  abounds  in 
coooanut  groves,  and  the  palmvra  palm 
grows  plentifully  over  most  of  toe  island. 
Tka  island  is  remarkable  for  its  great 
rock-cut  caves,  with  colossal  statues  of 
Buddha. 

Sal'iif y.    ^^  saUafg. 

S&lsilla.  (sel-sira),  a  name  of  several 
•«wAuucai  amaryilidaceous  plants  pro- 
ducing edible  tubers,  and  belonging  to  the 
genus  Bomurea,  or  to  the  closely-allied 
genus  Alstrameri:  One  species  {B.  or 
A.  eiilit)  is  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies,  its  roots  being  eaten  like  the 
potato  i  it  is  diaphoretie  and  diuretic. 
Other  ppecies,  such  as  5.  Salailla,  are 
natives  of  the  Peruvian  Andes,  and  are 
pretty  twining  plants  with  showy  flowers. 
Salsnla  (>ars6-Ia),  saltwort,  a  geaos 
°**^**  of  plants  wUch  belM«i  to  the 


nat  order  OienopodkcetB,  and  com* 
prises  about  fortv  species  of  mostly  hatdy 
shrubs,  or  sub-shrubs,  of  variable  habit, 
mainly  natives  of  saline  districts  in  tras* 
perate  regions.  The  ashes  of  8.  Ktli, 
the  prickly  saltwort,  a  British  plant, 
and  of  8.  8oia,  a  south  Euro];>ean  and 
North  American  species,  were  formerly 
much  used  in  the  production  of  an  im- 
pure carlionate  of  soda,  known  as  (an'IZa. 
Salt     (''fl'^^'  ^°  chemistry,  a  compound 

"  usually  obtained  from  the  action 
of  an  acid  upon  a  base.  It  is  impossible 
to  state  in  very  precise  terms  what  is  the 
idea  attached  to  the  word  salt,  as  at 
present  used  in  chemical  science.  It  may 
perhaps  be  most  correctly  defined  by  say- 
ing that  it  implies  the  capability  of 
readily  undergoing  double  decompoattion. 
In  its  most  restricted  signification  t!ie 
word  salt  suggests  a  substance  which,  if 
soluble  in  water,  can  produce  rapid 
double  decompositions  with  other  soluola 
substances,  or  if  insoluble,  can  he  pro- 
duced as  a  precipitate,  as  the  result  of  • 
rapid  double  decomposition  taking  place 
between  soluble  substances.  This  is  cer- 
tainly the  idea  suggested  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  word  salt  to  nitrate  of  potas- 
sium, chloride  of  sodium,  etc.  The  term 
salt  is  also  sometimes  appUad  to  sub- 
stances which,  like  chloride  of  ethyl, 
give  rise  to  alott  processes  of  double  de- 
composition with  aqueous  solutions  of  the 
salts  specially  so-called.  The  name  is, 
however,  most  commonly  and  most  ap- 
propriately applied  to  those  bodies  of 
which  reaction  by  double  decomposition 
is  the  most  characteristic  property,  and 
which  exhibit  such  reactions  under  the 
most  familiar  conditions. 
Salt     ("!'<:)>     OouuoiT     (chloride    of 

"  sodium,  NaCl),  a  substance  in 
common  use  as  a  seasouer  and  preserver 
of  food  from  the  earliest  ages.  It  exists 
in  immense  quantities  dissolved  in  sea- 
water,  and  also  in  the  waters  of  salt 
springs,  and  in  solid  deposits,  sometimes 
on  the  surface,  sometimes  at  greater  or 
loss  depths,  in  almost  every  geological 
series.  Rock-salt,  that  is  salt  in  the 
crystalline  or  solids  form,  is  found  in 
abundance  in  nsarlyveverv  region  of  the 
earth.  The  basin  of  the  Indus  and  other 
parts  of  India  possess  extensive  salt 
plains.  In  China  deep  salt-wells  abound. 
The  Sahara  and  (Central  and  Southern  Af- 
rica afford  inexhaustible  supplies.  South 
America,  Europe,  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
United  States  also  have  large  natural 
supplies.  Salt  manafactarcd  from  sea- 
water  is  produced  extensively  along  the 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  seaboard. 
It  is  chiefly  made  by  natural  drying  in 
shallow  reservoirs,  but  also  by  Doiuoc. 


Sfdt 


Salton  Sea 


Bon-dried  salt  is  the  purest  Salt  'rom 
sea-water  is  usually  known  as  bay-tmlt. 
Most  salt,  however,  is  produced  from 
rock-salt  or  from  brine  springs,  the  latter 
being  due  to  the  melting  of  rock-salt  by 
water.  The  salt-mines  of  Wielicssa  in 
Gftlicia  were  worked  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  are  the  most  celebrated  in  the 
world.  The  salt  deposits  of  the  United 
States  extend  widely  through  the  geologi- 
tal  strata.  The  most  important  salt- 
yielding  State  is  Michigan,  whose  depos- 
its are  of  remarkable  richness.  The 
wells,  which  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Sagi- 
naw Bay,  seem  inexhaustible  in  supply. 
Some  are  over  1900  feet  in  depth.  The 
wells  at  Syracuse,  New  York,  yield 
largely.  In  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
salt  springs  and  wells  are  numerous.  In 
Louisiana,  on  an  island  near  New  Iberia, 
is  an  immense  deposit  of  rock  salt  of 
unusual  purity;  the  area  of  the  mass  is 
144  acres,  and  the  quantity  of  salt  it 
contains  is  estimated  at  28,000,000  tons. 
On  Virgin  River,  Nevada,  there  is  a  bed 
of  rock  salt,  extending  as  a  bluff  along 
the  river,  for  over  twenty-five  miles ;  more 
than  60  per  cent,  of  the  cliff  is  salt  of 
great  purity.  California  has  abundant 
salt  springs  and  saline  marshes.  Salt  is 
used  largely  as  a  condiment  and  an  anti- 
septic, as  a  glaze  for  coarse  pottery,  as 
a  mordant,  for  giving  hardness  to 
soaps,  for  improving  the  clearness  of 
glass;  it  is  the  source  of  soda  and  of 
chlorine,  and  is  thus  of  immense  indus- 
trial importance. 

Coif  Sir  Titus,  born  at  Morley  in 
O****-?  Yorksiiire  in  1803;  died  in  1876. 
He  commenced  business  as  a  woolen  man- 
ufacturer in  Bradford  in  1824,  and 
rapidly  acquired  a  fortune.  In  1853 
he  began  the  erection  of  a  model  menu- 
facturing  village  on  the  banks  of  the 
Aire  (Saltaire;  which  see).  He  repre- 
sented Bradford  as  a  Liberal  1859-61, 
and  was  made  a  baronet  in  18G9.  He 
was  the  head  of  the  firm  of  Titus  Salt, 
Sons,  &  Co.,  and  was  liberal  in  contribu- 
tions to  many  public  institutions. 
fiolfa  (sillta),  a  province  and  town  of 
oaibH,  jjjg  Argentiafe  Republic.  The 
province,  which  is  the  frontier  one  to 
tiie  north,  consists  of  ramifications  of  the 
Andes,  fertile  valleys,  and  wooded  or 
pasture  lands;  area,  about  00.000  square 
miles.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Bermejo 
and  Salado.  Pop.  13G,05a— The  town 
is  about  800  miles  northwest  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  at  the  bottom  of  a  marshy  valley, 
liable  to  occasional  inundations,  has  a 
neat  appearance,  possesses  a  cathedral 
and  several  churches,  but  from  its  sitiia- 
tivB  is  unhealthy.  The  climate  is  hot 
with  a  wet  and  dry  season.    Pep.  18,|0flCL 


flaliAirA  (■ftl-t&r') ,  a  town,  West  Rid- 
PUlUre  j^^  Yorkshire,  on  the  river 
Aire,  4  miles  K.w.  of  Bradford.  It  is 
•  model  town,  with  well-planned  streets,* 
and  is  named  after  its  founder.  Sir  Titus 
Salt,  who  planted  here  his  vast  factories 
for  the  manufacture  of  alpaca,  and  built 
dwellings  for  his  empleyees.  Pop.  about 
5000. 

SaltflAAts  (sftlfkSts),  a  town  of  Scot- 
BUlGOaiB    jgjjj     in    Ayrshire,   on   the 

Firth  of  Clyde,  29  miles  southwest  of 
Qissgow.  The  inhabita:  ts  are  mainly 
employed  in  coal-mines,  shipbuilding- 
yards,  iron  foundries  and  dynamite  works. 
Pop.  8121. 

fialfilln     (sAl-tiry5),  a  town  of  Mex- 
0axi.xixu    j^^  department  of  Coahuila. 
on  the  Tigre,  a  well-built  town,  with  ex- 
tensive    manufactures     of 
woolen    blankets    and    sc- 
rapes '  or    ponchos.      Pop. 
23  900. 

Sftlfirik  (sal'tSr),  in  her- 
Oaitire  ^j^^y^  ^q  ordi- 
nary in  the  form  of  a  St. 
Andrew's  cross,  formed  by 
two  bends,  dexter  and  sin- 
ister, crossing  each  other. 
See  Heraldry. 

Salt  Lake,  IT^-   ««« 


Saltire. 

Great    Salt 
Lake, 

Salt  TaTcp  Citv  *he  capital  of  the 
Oail  JjaKe  UlXy,  g^ate    of    Utah,    2 

miles  from  the  Jordan  River,  and  11  miles 
from  Great  Salt  Lake.  It  stands  at  the 
base  of  Wasatch  Mountains,  4250  feet 
r.bove  sea-level.  The  city  is  laid  out  in 
blocks  660  feet  square  with  streets  132 
feet  wide.  Temple  Block,  the  '  sacred 
square '  of  the  Mormons,  covering  ten 
acres,  is  the  center  of  the  city.  Here  is 
the  great  Temple  with  its  six  spires;  the 
Tabernacle  with  its  wonderful  pipe  organ, 
a  huge  oval  auditorium,  seating  8000 
people,  and  the  Assembly  Hall,  with  seats 
for  3000.  Other  notable  buildings  are 
the  University  of  Utah,  University  of 
Latter-Day  Saints,  Co-operative  Mercan- 
tile Institution,  etc.  The  city  is  the 
metropolis  of  the  Mormons,  and  was 
first  settled  in  1847.  Fort  Douglas  is 
three  miles  east  <^  the  city.  Pop.  120,000. 
fioH  lir»lr  a  place  where  salt  appears 
Dail'llt/K,  on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  to  which  animals  resort  to  lick  it 


up. 

Salt  of  Sorrel. 


See  Oxalic  Acid. 


Salton  Sea  «'  Sink,  ^,,'^^,-^, 

lake  in  Riverside  and  San  Diego  <>s.. 
California,  MO  ft.  below  sea-level,  which 
was  converted  1905-06  inte  a  frasfc-water 
lake  coverinc  600  sq.   m.,   *r»ugh  the 


Saltpeter 


Salvation  Army 


bx««king  of  the  canal  banki  from  ^ 
Colorado  River,  built  to  irrigate  tte 
Imperial  Valley.  It  overflowa  a  omsid- 
erable  cultivated  district  and  the  road- 
bed of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad. 
The  break  in  the  river  bank  was  re- 
paired with  great  difficulty,  leaving  the 
reduction  of  the  lake  to  evaporation. 

Saltpeter.  see»««r. 

Q-14.  ■Oartertk  a  hill  System  of  India, 
Salt  Jlange,  ^  Jehlam,  Shahpur, 
and  Bunno  districts  of  the  Punjab,  de- 
riving its  name  from  its  extensive  de- 
posits of  rock-salt;  greatest  height  BOlO 
feet. 

Qolta  Smeixino,  a  preparation  of  car- 
otuitB)  bonate  of  ammonia  with  some 
agreeable  scent,  as  lavender  or  berga- 
mot,  used  by  ladies  as  a  stimulant  and 
restorative  in  fits  of  faintness. 
Sa14-Tia  Edoab,  novelist,  was  bom  at 
OailUS,  jjg^  York  in  1858,  and  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  in  1880.  He 
published  two  works  of  humor,  the 
Philosophy  of  DUenchantment  and  The 
Anatomy  of  Negation.  His  novels  in- 
clude The  Pace  that  KUh,  Madame  Sap- 
phira.  When  Dreamt  Come  True,  Puttie 
and  Fine  Women,  and  various  others. 
Saltwort.     »^Sai,ola. 

flolnta  (sa-mf),  Abmt  and  Navt,  the 
oaiutc  gring  off  of  guns  in  honor  of 
any  person  of  rank  or  distinction.  Ac- 
cording to  the  rank  of  the  person  to  be 
saluted,  the  number  of  guns  fired  vanes. 
A  general  salute  is  given  by  a  body  of 
troops  on  parade  to  a  general  oflicer  by 
presenting  arms.  .  ,    , 

tUtlnyvn  isft-lat'zS) .  a  town  of  Italy, 
Dftiuzau  f  iedmont,  province  of  Cuneo, 
30  miles  south  by  west  of  Turin.  It 
consists  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  town, 
is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  large, 
interesting,  and  bandsome  cathedral  be- 
gun in  1480.  Pop.  10,306. 
fiolvailnr  (sai-va-dor'),  a  republic  in 
otuvauux  Central  America,  lies  along 
the  coast  of  the  Pacific  and  is  bounded 
by  Honduras  on  the  north  and  east, 
and  by  Guatemala  on  the  northwest; 
area,  7212  square  miles.  A  range  of 
volcanic  pealis,  varying  in  height  from 
4000  to  9000  feet,  runs  through  the  center 
of  the  country,  dividing  an  interior  valley 
from  the  lowlands  on  the  coast.  The 
largest  river  is  the  Lempe,  which  is  only 
navigable  in  parts.  The  soil  is  remarka- 
bly fertile.  The  most  important  crop  for 
a  long  time  was  indigo,  which  was  of  ex- 
cellent quality ;  but  it  is  now  little  grown. 
Maize,  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  rubber,  and 
some  cotton  are  grown  and  thrive  welL 
C^ttle4>reeding  is  carried  on,  but  nor  <«• 


tnisiTelT.  The  mineral  deporita  Indod* 
cold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  mercury. 
The  chief  exports  are  coffee,  indigo,  aUver, 
raw  sugar,  balsam  of  Peru,  leather,  etc. 
The  population  consists  of  a  small  num- 
ber of  whites  (of  Spanish  descent), 
Spanish-speaking  Indians,  and  haU- 
breeds.  The  established  religion  is 
Roman  Catholicism.  The  government  is 
carried  on  by  a  president  and  four  minis- 
ters. There  is  a  congress  of  aeyenty 
deputies  elected  by  universal  auffrage. 
Pop.  1,1164253.  Salvador  remained  under 
Spanish  rule  until  1821,  when  it  as- 
serted its  independence,  and  Mned  the 
Mexican  Confederation.  In  1823,  how- 
ever, it  seceded  from  the  Confederation, 
and  subsequently  formed  part  of  the  Re- 
public of  Central  America,  ^i^,  l°o8,l' 
became  an  independent  republic  Ita 
progress  has  been  much  hindered  by 
revolutions  and  counter-revolutions. 
fioWailnrn.  {sal-va-d6'ra),  a  genus  of 
SaiVaaora  ^ji^nta,  tvpe  of  a  nat  order 
(SalvadoracesB)  of  monopetalous  dicoty- 
ledons,  allied  to  Oleacese  and  Jasiminacee. 
They  have  stems  with   slightly   swollen 

J)inta|,  opposite  entire  leaves,  and  loose 
ranching  panicles  of  small  flowers.  S. 
peraica  &  supposed  to  be  the  mustard- 
tree  of  Scripture,  which  has  very  small 
seeds,  and  grows  into  a  tree.  Its  fruit 
is  succulent,  and  tastes  like  garden  cress. 
The  bark  of  the  root  is  acrid. 


ftnlvacri*  (Ma'vijY,  a  recompense  al- 
oa.XVH.^6    jg^g^  ^y  1^^  to  anyone,  by 

whose  voluntary  exertions  ships  or  goods 
have  been  saved  from  the  dangers  of  the 
sea,  fire,  pirates,  or  enemies. 
flalvttvaA*  the  name  given  by  Fro- 
Oft*VW*»%  fessors  Ehrlich  ajid  Hat* 
to  a  claimed  specific  for  syphilin  di»- 
covered  in  1907,  and  also  Known  «• 
•606,*  because  it  was  the  606th  arsenical 
compound  tried  by  the  experimenters.  lU 
chemical  title  is  Amido-arseno-bensoL 
and  it  belongs  to  the  same  series  of 
arsenical  compounds  as  atoxol,  advocated 
as  a  remedy  for  sleeping  sickness. 

Salvation  Army  ieSis^oiiii-a^ 

tion  originated  in  Bast  London  by  Wil- 
liam  Booth,  its  leader  and  general,  m 
1865.     The  society  was  developed  in  Its 

? resent  form  and  toceived  its  name  to 
870.  With  the  name  army  came  mili- 
tary phraseology.  Prayer  wa*  called 
knee-drill;  the  leader  a  aeneral;  evang^ 
lists,  officers  (of  different  grades)  ;  and 
candidates,  cadets.  A  semi-military  at- 
tire was  assumed,  barracks  were  buUt, 
and  the  army  marches  out  with  banners 
displayed  and  bands  of  music.  The  object 
is  to  attract  persons  who  would  not 
enter  church,  and   for  thia  cause  pnb* 


8d  Volatile 


Samar 


Eoods 
I  the 


Uc-hooMi,  prlwn.,  etc..  aw  v'"*^.  •« j 
0Mn-«ir  meetings  are  held.  The  weekly 
Joomal  of  the  amy  Is  the  Wcir  Crv.  The 
army  now  carries  on  operations  in  most 
countries  of  the  world,  and  has  made 
^t  progress  in  the  United  States.  Dur- 
ing the  European  war  It  performed  valiant 
service  In  keeping  up  the  morale  of  the 
men.  ^  work  of  any  oreanization  was 
more  popular  with  the  soldiers  in  France. 
^mA  XrtAtxk\^a  (sal  vora-tU),  carbon- 
sal  VOlatUe  ^te  of  ammonia.  The 
name  Is  also  applied  to  a  spirituous  solu- 
tion  of  carbonate   of   ammonia   flavored 

with  aromatlcs.  „ 

flalwiTi     (slirwgn),  Salwxen',  or  Sal- 
9UWU1    ^j-j,^  ^  river  of  Burmah,  with 
a  general  north  and  south  course,  parallel 
to  the  Irrawady,  rising  in  Southwestern 
Chhia.  and  falling  into  the  Indian  Ocean 
(Gulf  of  Martaban),  the  towns  of  Mar- 
taban.  Moulmein,  and  Amherst  being  at 
or  near  its  mouth.    The  river  course  is 
interrupted    by    rocks    and    rapids,    but 
Teasels    of    the    largest    size    can    reach 
Moulmein.     Vast  quantities  of  teak  are 
annually   floated   down   the   Salwin  and 
shipped    at    Moulmein    for   export.     The 
area^  the  Salwin  basin  is  62,700  square 
miles ;  the  river  is  800  miles  in  length, 
and  from  1  to  4  miles  in  breadth. 
oTl^A -DAflnno     (8>  l'v6     re-jl'na),^    a 
Salve  llegina    fjoman    Oathollc 
hymn    to    the    Virgin,    named    from    its 
first  words.     It  dates  from  the  eleventh 
century,   but  first,  found  a  P>ac?^"  tgf 
breviary   of   Cardinal   Quignon    in   1536, 
and  thence  in  that  of  Pope  Pius  V  m 

JShnni  (sal-ve'nS),  Tommabo  an  I tal- 
DKIVIIU,  |j^^  tragedian,  bom  in  Milan, 
in  1830:  died  in  1916.  His  fatter  and 
mother  were  both  actors.  In  1849  he 
fought  witii  distinction  m  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  He  scored  successes  in 
Bnuaels  and  Madrid  and  visited  the 
United  Starts  in  1874,  England  in  18*  5, 
but  after  ^ther  visits  to  the  United 
States  an«  Great  Britain  he  retired  frwn 
the  stage  to  enioy  a  life  of  leisure  in 
his  villa  near  Florence.  His  most  strik- 
ing parts  were  Othello,  xlamlet,  Mao- 
betk,  and  Lear.  His  son,  Alessandbo, 
adopted  his  career  and  inherited  much 
of  m»  talent 

aalvltimnTi  (sAlts'bryn) ,  a  town  oC 
BalZDnmn  Prussian  Sllesia,  43  miles 
by  railway  from  Breslau,  1270  feet 
above  the  sea,  with  saline  mineral 
springs,  which  cause  a  considerable  in- 
flux of  visitors  from  May  to  October. 
The  waters  are  cold,  are  used  both  for 
bathing  and  drinking,  and  are  recom- 
mended for  gravel  and  gout.  It  mano- 
factoiM  gUun  and  porceuun.  Voo.  5141. 
5-0 


Oalivltnm*    (s*lts'bur*),  a  city  of  Am- 
SalZDUrg   t\|a,  capital  of  the  Duchy 


(or  province)  of  Salaburg,  is  most  plctur- 
esouely   situated   on  both  banks  of   the 
rapid    Salza,   which    Is   here   hemmed   in 
between  two  Isolated  hills,  63  miles  south- 
east of  Munich.    It  is  partly  walled,  and 
has  several  handsome  squares  and  streets, 
ornamental  grounds,  park,  and  river  prom- 
enades.   The  principal  edifices  are  the  ca- 
thedral (1614-28)  built  in  imitation  of  St. 
Peter's,  Rome,  several  other  churches,  the 
archbishop's  palace  (now  belonging  to  the 
town),  imperial  palace,  exchange,  museum, 
and  several  benevolent  institutions.    It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Mozart,  and  there  is  a 
bronze  statue  of  the  composer.by  Schwan- 
thaler.    There    is    a    theolojtical    college, 
and  other  high-class  educational  institu- 
tions, extensive  libraries,  etc.     The  manu- 
factures are  varied,  but  not  individually 
of    importance.     The    environs    of    Salz- 
burg    furnish     charming     scenery.     lUe 
town  was   the  see   of   a  bishop   in   the 
seventh  century,  which  in  « 98  was  raised 
to    an    archbishopric.    The    bishops    of 
Salzburg   were   princes    of  .the   Uennan 
Empire,  and  held  the  position  of  sover- 
eigns over  the  archbishopric  till   it  was 
wcularized  iu  1802.     Pop.   36.206.— The 
Duchy  or  crown-land  of   Salzburg,   area 
2767  square  miles,  is  in  the  region  of  the 
Alps,  and  is  a  rugged  mountainous  coun- 
try,   intersected     by     numerous     valleys, 
chiefly  pastoral,  but  too  broken  for  much 
cultivation.    Wood  is  abundant,  and  the 
minerals,   which   are   very   valuable,    in- 
clude  gold,   silver,   1™*,  copper    c^U, 
iron,  salt,  and  marble.    Po?;  1^2^;. 

Salzkammergut  i^^^{t^i\ 

Austria,  between  Salzburg  and  Styria, 
with  an  area  of  340  square  milea.  it  is 
alpine  throughout,  is  celebrated  for  Us 
scenery,  and  contains  the  beautiful  lakes 
of  Traun  and  Hallstadt.  It  has  Uttle 
arable  land,  'out  rears  great  numbers  of 
cattle;  is  well  wooded,  and  is  rich  in 
minerals,  including  marble,  coal,  and 
more  especially  salt.  The  chief  towns 
are     Ischl     and     Laufen.    Pop.     about 

OQOOQ 

SalTwedel  (aAJts'vft-dl)  ,^  a  town  of 
Saxzweuei  j»ruBsia,  in  the  province  of 
Saxony.  64  miles  N.  N.  w.  of  Slagdeburg, 
on  both  sides  of  the  JeeUe;  with  various 
manufactures.  Pop.  (1905)  11,1^. 
cUm..  (sa-mttr'),  one  of  the  Philip- 
*'*™'**  pine  Isles,  separated  by  chan- 
nels from  Luzon  on  tne  north,  and  Levte 
on  the  south.  Area,  5000  square  miles. 
The  island  is  densely  wooded  and  the 
■oil  fertile.  The  chief  products  are  rice, 
cocoa,  m"ai-oll,  hemp,  and  timber.  Pop 
222,60U 


'i  S 


;^:. 


Samara  of  the 
Common  Maple. 


Samara 

Samara    (nm'ti-n),  a  name  firen  in 
#    !.     ^  botany     to     an     indehiscent 
iruit,  producing  a  wing 
from  its  Daclt  or  end; 
•uclj  aa  the  fruit  of  tlie 
maple,  asli,  etc. 

Sama'ra,   ^  *own. »' 

...      .'     Russia, 
capital   of  the   govern- 
™^t    of    same    name, 
550  miles  e.  s.  e.  of  Moscow,  at  the  con- 
fluence  of   the   Samara   with   the   Volga. 
It  has  manufactures  of  leather  and  soap, 
and  IS  now  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  centers  on  the  Volga,  carry- 
lhf»„°°  *  large  trade  in  com.  meal,  salt, 
linen,    wool,    fish,    and    caviare.     Three 

f^iuuuf  "A  ^^^^  annua"?;  Pop.  about 
lou.uuu.— rhe  government  lies  on  the  left 
Mono"^  the  Volga,  and  has  an  area  of 
^fti^^^'t  ?'}^-  .  ^  8'"«'^t  part  is  flat 
2?rJ  "^'AJu'  •'"?  ^?.  ^*  present  little  culti- 
vated. There  IS  little  wood.  Wheat  and 
other  kinds  of  grain  are  the  chief  prod- 
ucts. There  are  a  considerable  number 
or  Swiss  and  German  colonists  here,  also 
PoT2,763.478f'    ^^^^^'"'   «°<*    Kirghis. 

Samaraner   ("^-ma-ning'),  a  town  of 

«#   ♦!,     <  I     J    ''"^"»  °°  t''e  north  coast 
or    the    island,    near    th«    mouth    of    the 
Samarang   river.     Next    to   Batavia   and 
Surabaya    it    ranks   as   the   most    impor- 
tant commercial  port  of  Java.     Its  har- 
bor  IS    not   good,   and    large  ships   have 
?    anchor    at    some    distance    from    the 
shore      Top.  96  660.     It  is  the  capital  of 
a  residency  of  the  same  name. 
Samaria    (sa-ma'ri-a),      or     Sebaste 
(modem  Sebuatich),  an  an- 
cient   town    of    Palestine,    formerly    the 
capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel,  finely 
B'tuated  on  a   hill  surrounded  by  higher 
hills,    06    miles    n.n.  w.    of    Jerusalem. 
Samana    was    built    by    Omri,    king    of 
Israe,  about  b.c.  925,  and  was  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  ten  tribes  till  they  were 
?ort      A*?^"?L  '5*°   captivity   about   b.o. 
7^0.     After  its  destruction  by  John  Hyr- 
^nus    It    was    rebuilt,    and    given    by 
Augustus    to    Herod,    who    gave    it    the 
name  of  Sebaste.     There  is  now  an  in- 
significant village  here  and  some  strikina 
ruins.  " 

Samaritan  Pentatench.  *,°  »°- 

'  ci6Dt  ver- 
sion  of  the  five  books  of  Moses,  which 
has  been  preserved  by  the  San-.aritans  as 
^he    canonical    Scriptures    have    by    the 

Samaritans  (sa-mar'i-tanz),  a  mixed 
rh-  ~  .  K  .  people,  who  inhabited 
ni*  region  between  Judasa  and  Galilee, 
and  who  formed  a  sect  among  the  Jews. 
They  consisted  partly   of  the  tribes  of 


Sambnoni 


Ephraim  and  Manasseh  left  in  Samaria 
b^  the  King  of  Assyria  when  he  had  car- 
ried   their    brethren    away   captive,    and 
partly  of  Assyrian  colonists.    On  the  re- 
turn  of   the   Jews   from   captivity   they 
declined    to    mix    with    the    Samaritans, 
though  united  with  them  in  religion.    The 
latter  attemoted  to  prevent  the  Jews  from 
building   the   t?mnle  at   Jerusalem,   and, 
failing  in  this,   ibey  built  a   temple  on 
Alount  Gerizim  exclusively  for  their  own 
worship.     A   few  of  the   race  still   exist 
scattered  in  Egypt,  at  Damascus,  and  at 
Gaza.     They  adhere  strictly   to  the  Mo- 
saic law,  but  are  regarded  by  the  Jews 
as  heretics,  as  they  accept  only  the  Pen- 
tateuch,   of    which    they    have   a    special 
version    of   their   own.     They   believe   in 
the  existence  of  angels,  in  a  resun-ection 
and    future    retribution,    and    expect   the 
coming  of  a  Messiah,  in  whom  they  look 
only    for   a    prophet.     In    the   synagogue 
tne  Aramaic   bamaritan   dialect   is  used, 
but   they  generally  speak  Arabic.     They 
avoid   any  connections   with  other  sects, 
and  marry  only  among  their  own  nation. 
Samarkand     (8*m-Ar-k&nt').    a    city 
♦i,«  <y  ^«  u        .  *•*   Asiatic    Russia,   on 
the  Zerafshan  river,  130  miles  e.  of  Bo- 
khara, situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  capital 
of  a  territory  of  the  same  name.     It  is 
surrounded   by   a   double   wall,   and   con- 
tains   numerous   gardens.     The    tomb   of 
Xamerlane  is  an  octagonal  building  paved 
with  white  marble.     The  mosque  of  Shah 
ZicJeh,  outside  the  city  walls,  is  one  of 
the    finest    in    Central    Asia.     Caravan- 
saries and   bazaars  are   the  other  large 
buildings.     It  was  once  the  capital  of  a 
powerful    .Asiatic    kingdom,    and    subse- 
quently of  Tamerlane's  empire.     Samar- 
kand was  ceded  to  Russia  in  1808,  since 
When    extensive    irrigation    works    have 
been   constructed,   and   the   Transcasyian 
Railway  now  extends  to  the  city.     It  is 
snu  a  center  for  the  caravan  trade  and 
has  important  native  industries,  compris- 
ing  gold  and  silver  ware,  leather  goods, 
tanneries,    d.vemg,    harness,    cottons    and 
«Ik,  wine  and  pottery.    Pop.  89,093.    See 
uoKnara. 

Sambas  (sam-bas'),  a  town  of  West- 
^  ,  ern  Borneo,  on  the  river  Sam. 
Das,  not  far  above  its  mouth,  seat  of  h 
Dutch  resident.  Pop.  10,000. 
Sambor  .^*'^™'*'9')»  a  town  of  Austria, 
T>  -i^rton""  Gahcia,  on  the  Dniester. 
Pop.  17,039. 

Sambre  /,sap-br),  a  river  of  N.  B. 
France  and  Belgium,  a  trib. 
utary  of  the  Meuse,  which  it  enters  at 
Namur;  length  110  miles,  great  part  of 
which  IS  useful  for  navigation. 

SambuouB  i^'^^^'^i^  «"*»  •• 


fltmbiir  D«er 


Uaonx 


Samlmr  Deer  fir^SSi''""^^'  S 'ciS  SSLSlS^ 

oe?  «"?*  .         bii*»  out  in  the  island  in  th*  Into  niat; 

tcenth  cantary  tbrooch  ti»«  J«»»«wy  «' 
foreign  Mttien  nnd  tbe  intricna  of  tte 
Germans  among  tbe  native  leadefs,  mit 
hi  1889  an  agreement  waa  made  between 
Gemany,  Great  Britain,  and  tbe  United 
States  guaranteeing  tbe  nentrality  of  tbe 
islands,  and  placing  each  power  on  an 

!Sd    itffiSi  ^Sir^eir   flist   wS  States  and  Gennany  was  made  betwe« 
:iltti  thife^^nltedta  favo^of  the  Ae.  three  .power.|.__tBe_  claim  j)f^r«U 


Samian  Ware  ilJ^rii 'an'SS? 

kind  <rf  Oredt  pottery  made  of  Samian 
earth,  or  to  a  variety  of  Rmnan  pottery 
made  in  imitation  of  this.  The  vases  are 
of  a  bright  red  or  black  color,  covered 
with  a  histroas  siliccoos  glase.  with  sepa- 
ntely-^nolded  ornaments  attached  to  them. 


latter,   and  secured  a   Samnitealliance 
during   the  Latin  war    (840;888  IWJ.). 
The  second  Samnite  war  i^»r^  B.O.) 
was  a  fierce  contwt,ta  which  the  Bo- 
mans  were  shamefully  defeated  at  the 
Caudine  Porks,  but  were  Anally  succe». 
fuL    The  third   Samnite  war    (288-MO 
Mjo.)  saw  tlie  overthrow  of  the  BamnitM 
and  Gauls  at  Sentinum.    When  the  Ital- 
ian allies  of  Bome  revolted  against  her  in 
80  BjO,   the   Balanites  once  again   rose 
ngainst  their  oppressors  but  were  con^ 
pletely  subdued  and  atanost  extirpated  by 
Bulla.    The    Samnites    appear    to    have 
been  a  rude  iwstoral  people.    Their  form 
of  Kovemment  was  democratic. 
OA*n  Ao    (sa-m6'a) ,  or  Nayiqato*  leum, 
^fl^f^  a  group  of  volcanic  islands  in 
the  Soutii  Pacific  ic.l.  of  .the  Fiji  group, 
made  up  of  three  large  islands,  UpoUu 
Savaii.  and  Tutulla;  «»<»  a  number  of 
smaller  ones;  total  area  *»>o°t  Itg'  "S- 
miles,  with  a  population  of  nearly  30,000. 
The  most  important  island  of  tbe  group 
is  Upola,  with  an  area  of  840  sq.  miles, 
diversified    by    mountains    and    fertUe 
pUins;    pop.    about    17,000.    Apia,   tto 
seat  <»  government,  is  a  town  oi  louu 
inhabiunts   situated  on   a   bay   onfte 
S^  side  of  Upola.    SavaU,  the  hwgest 
of  the  group,  has  an  area  of  6d8  sq. 
miles,    and    b    extremely    mountainous 
(greatest  height  6350  feet),  the  interior 
being    hardly    known.    Tutulla    has   an 
area  of  54  sq.  miles.    The  Samrans  are 
of  the  Polynesian  race,  and  vary  in  color 
from  a  dark  brown  to  a  light  copper, 
occasionally  to  a  shade  of  olive.  ,Tb^ 
an  of  fine  physique  and  of  a  gentle  di»> 
position,   and    are   now   all    Christiana, 
l^eir  language  contains  thirteen  letters, 
and  is  soft  and  liquid.    The  leading  in- 
dustries are  fishing,  collecting  copra,  the 
cultivation  of  fruit,  cotton,  and  Mro,  aM 
the  manufacture  <«  tajM,  a  native  clot^ 
The  cocoanut,  breadfruit  tree,  tan.  and 
banana  form  the  staple  food  of  tlie  pe<^ 
pie.    The  fwmer  government  consulted 

4B.— U-5 


Britsin  being  given  up  for  conceasiom 
elsewhere.  The  United  States  obtatoed 
Tutulla,  and  some  smaller  islands,  witii 
the  fine  harbor  of  Pago  ^igo. 
OaniM  (s&'moo),  now  Baho,  an  islaad 
^'amOT    Gi  the  Grecian  Archipelago  near 

tbe  coast  of  Aaia  Minor,  4S  n>»e«  «»«& 
west  of  Smyrna,  forming  a  pgidpauty 


tributary  to  Turkey;  area,  —  -::, 
miles.  It  has  ■  a  mountalnoos  surface, 
partly  covered  with  pine  foresta;  several 
fertile  and  well-watered  valleys;  produce* 
com,  fruit,  and  excellent  wine ;  and  has 
several  valuable  nUnerals.  indudtaig  w- 
gentiferous  lead,  Iron,  and  marble.  Tl» 
principal  town  is  Vathe,  with  a  good 
harbor  on  tbe  nmrtheast  M»  Off  tie 
island.  Tbe  principal  expwrta  afe  taimna, 
skins,  wine,  and  oil:  imports,  sreto, 
colonial  produce,  and  woven  tabnes. 
Samos  waa  inbalrfted  in  antiqolty  by 
Ionian  Greeks,  and  bad  an  ImportaBt 
position  ammig  tbe  Giedc  eommoidties  aa 
early  aa  tiw  aeventli  oentnry  WM.  I*  tiis 
lattn  half  of  the  sixth  eentanr  it  was 
in  a  qpecially  flouririiing  condition  under 
Polycrates,  and  subsequently  was  u»d« 
the  domination  of  Athens.  Pop.  40,788, 
mostly  Greeks.     ,       .     ,.      >         «  _ 

Samothrace  JsSSjTn^'iSJI^ 

the  H.  of  the  .Olgean  Sea,  belmuring  to 
Turkey,  about  14  miles  long  by  8  milea 
broad.  It  has  a  very  mountainous  sur- 
face, <me  of  ita  summits  exceeding  6000 
feet  Ita  dhM  prodncta  are  com  and 
oiL  The  island  is  of  interest  as  being 
in  antiquity  the  chief  seat  of  the  wonMy 
of  the  Oablri  (see  Cabin),  ami  crij- 
brated  for  ita  rdigions  mysteriwk  It  to 
interesting  also  as  being  visited  by  Bt 
Paul  Inthe  course  of  his  secraid  mbHrim 
ary  journey  (Acta  xvi,  11).  Kee*» 
arclwdogleal  researdwa  have  produced 
valuabte  lesnlta.  ,  »«.*-- 
RftmovAV  (sam'n-vftr),  a  Busrian  tM 
wamgvmr  ,TOaratu8,  the  water  to 
wUeh  to  tafiS  by  means  of  hot  eeals 


SamoyedM 


SamiMl 


cootalned  In  an  Inm  tube,  and  thM 
poored  over  tb*  tM. 

Altaic  stock,  inhabiting  the  ■bor«a  of  tlie 
Arctic  Ocean,  both  in  Europe  and  Asia, 
from  the  Ye^aei  to  the  White  Sea.  They 
consist  of  two  main  groapa,  a  soathem 
resemblinf  the  Tartars,  and  a  northern 
and  more  degraded  jgroop.  They  are 
nomadic,  and  live  chiefly  by  fishing,  bant- 
ing and  keeping  reindeer.  They  are 
of  small  stature,  have  a  flat,  round,  and 
broad  face,  thick  lipa,  wide  nose,  little 
beard,  black  hair.  In  small  quantity. 
Their  religion  ia  fetishism,  though  they 
have  an  idea  of  a  great  divinity ;  they  are 
extremely  superstitioas,  and  generally 
peaceable.  The  reindeer  supplies  them 
with  food,  clothing,  tents,  utensils,  etc. 
They  number  about  25,000. 

Sampan  J[*?ff'p"l/»  **•!«' Iff**" 

*^  build  used  on  the  ChliMae 
rivers,  at  Singapore,  and  elsewhere,  for 
tha  conveyance  of  merchandise,  and  also 


Ssmpui,  Osnton  Biver. 

frequently  for  habitation.  They  are 
swift  sailers  both  with  oar  and  sail. 
Samnhire  (ram'flr;  Crithmum  mori- 
*^*"*''  tlmutn),  an  umbelliferous 
plant,  very  succulent,  pale  green,  with  bi- 
tntemate  leaves  ana  lanceolate  fleshy 
leaflets.  It  grows  wild  alcmg  the  sea- 
coast  of  Borope,  and  where  it  abounds 
it  is  used  by  the  inhabitants  as  a  pickle, 
as  an  ingredient  in  salads,  or  aa  a  pot- 
herb. 

Samnson  i«mip'Bun),  William 
.  *^**'  Thomas,  naval  officer,  waa 
bom  at  Palmyra,  New  York,  Feb.  9, 
18^,  and  was  g^raduated  from  Weat 
Point  in  1S57.  He  served  in  the  Civil 
war,  and  gradually  rose  in  rank,  being 
promoted  from  captain  to  commodor.  and 
rear-admiral  during  the  Spanish  war  of 
1806.  He  commanded  the  fleet  block- 
ading Santiago,  Cuba,  during  this  war. 


bat  was  absent  on  tiia  flafship  ^aw  York 
dartag  the  fl|^t  with  and  daatraetlon  of 
tba  Spuish  fleet,  in  its  attempt  to  aacapa 
fimn     Santiago     harbor.    TUa    drcnm- 
atanca  led  to  a  controvuiy  betweMi  him 
and  Commodore  Schley  that  excited  much 
attmtion.    He  died  May  6,  1902. 
CUjnaX    (s4m'se«),  a  small  ialand  ha- 
7~7^    longing   to   Denmark,   situated 
III   the   Kattegat^Jbetween   Seeland   and 
Jutland.    Pop.  OSSO. 
SftinaAii    (aam'sun ;  Hebrew,  Skkmkon, 
,       ■ .         of     uncertain     import),     an 
laraelite  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  the  son 
of  Manoah,  a  popular  hero,  and  an  enemy 
of  the  Philiatines.    He  ia  classed  among 
the  Judges  of  Israel  and  the  date  of  hia 
career  ia  eatimated  at  1116-1006  b.o.    Ha 
was  celebrated  for  hia  enormous  atrength 
and  the  story  af  his  exploits  and  dntp 
matic  death  are  of  much  Intereat 
ganuOOn    <«*n>-^«»').  or  Sahbum',  a 
Z^^^      seaport   of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
m  the  pashalic  of  Sivas,  on  a  bay  of  tha 
same  name  bi  the  Black  Sea,  166  miles 
w.  K.  w.  of  TreUsond.    It  ia  a  steamahip 
station,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade  in 
copper,  timber,  tobacco,  and  agricultural 
produce.    Pop.  about  13,000. 
Samuel  /•■^*"«i'  Hebrew,  fi»«i»iiaL 
^TTf^l  'Mked    from,'   or    'heard   of 
Qod'),  the  flrst  of  the  order  of  prophets 
and  the  last  of  the  judges  of  Israel.    He 
waa  the  son  of  Elkanah  of  Ramathaim- 
sophlm,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
and    waa    c<msecrated    by    Hannah,   hia 
mother,  to  the  service  of  Jehovah.    He 
was  educated  in  the  house  of  the  chi^ 
pnest  Eli  at   Sbiloh,  and  had  the  dis- 
asters revealed  to  him  that  ahould  befall 
the  house  of  Eli.     He  assumed  the  judge- 
ship of  Israel  about  twenty  years  after 
the  death  of  Ell,  and  headed  a  successful 
expedition    against   the    Philistines.    He 
mentions  his  own  name  in   the  list  of 
warlike  chiefs  by  whom  the  Lord 'sent 
deliverance  to  his  people,  and  it  is  re- 
corded   that   he   judged    Israel    as   civil 
ruler  all  his  life,  going  a  yearly  circuit 
from  Ramah,   where  was  his  home,   to 
Bethel,  Oilgal,  and  Mizpeh.    His  admin- 
istration was  distinguished  by  the  restora- 
tion of  the  neglected  worship  of  Jehovah. 
He  also  save  a  new  vigor  to  the  theo- 
cratical    tnstitutions    of    Mo^  -i    by    the 
establishment  of  schools  of  the  prophets. 
In  bis  old  age  Samuel  anointed  Saul  as 
king,  and  when  Saul  failed  in  his  duties 
Samuel    anointed    a    new    king,    David. 
He  did  not  live  to  see  the  contest  be- 
tween David  and  Saul  decided. 
Samnel.    boom  ot,  in  the  Old  Teata- 
""~"~''*»    ment,  are  two  in  number  in 
the  modern  editiona  of  the  Hebrew  text 
In  Hebrew  M8S.  tba  woA  ia  one,  the 


Suut 


StnotiilMtioii 


dhriaion  Into  two  book*  bjlnf  *"»  J"^ 
doMd  by  Bomberg.  in  1518,  at  YmiWw. 
Tl»  coitenu  of  tho  boolwPMwnt  m 
with  a  more  or  \«m  ooMfCoUye  narra- 
tiro  of  events  relatinc  to  the  »»«"«*• 
ttaa  the  priesthood  of  Eli  to  the  death 
of  David.  The  principal  Per»odii  em- 
braced in  the  record  are -.  —  the  rertora- 
tion  of  the  thwracy  under  Samoel  (book 
I,  chap.  i.-xii.  b.0.  1171-1098) ;  the  hl|h 
tory  of  Saul  s  reign,  ending  with  hit 
death  (boolt  i,  chapfc  xlii.-xxxi,  ».o. 
1006-60):  and  the  W»tory  of  Davids 
Sl^(b«)ok  ii,  B.C.  1065-15).  As  re- 
nids  the  authorship  of  thes*  books  it  is 
evident  they  could  not  have  been  written 
by  &imuel,  aince  his  death  is  recorded  in 
book  i.  chap.  zzv.  .     «    ^,.       <. 

a«««  (si-na'),  a  town  in  Southwett- 
8*'"^  era  AMibia,  capital  of  Yemen, 
170  miles  W.W.l.  of  Mocha,  situated  in  a 
valley  4000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
streets  are  wide,  and  the  town  i»  encircled 
by  a  wall  about  5  miles  in  circuit.  There 
are  many  handsome  houses,  numerous 
fonntains,  two  ^largc  ?»>«»«»•,,  "^J 
mosques,  some  of  them  with  tall  min- 
arets, baths,  caravansaries,  and  an  aque- 
duct. The  chief  manufactures  are 
articles  to  gold  and  silver,  and  the  prin- 
cipal commerce  is  in  coffee  and  in  its  husk. 
Pop.  about  50,000.  ... 

Son  AntAnin    ("n  an-t5'ni-«),  coun- 
San  AniOniO    ^y  ^^^  of  Bexar  Co., 

Texas,  the  largest  city  in  the  State.  It 
conteina  a  government  building,  a  One 
court-house,  cost  about  11,OW,OUO,  a 
cathedral,  and  especially  the  Atamo,  part 
of  the  buildings  of  an  old  Franciscan 
mission,  the  defense  of  which  and  the 
massacre  of  its  surviving  defenders,  in 
1838.  is  a  notable  event  in  the  history 
of  the  Stote.  It  is  a  busy  manufactur. 
inc  city  and  an  entrepot  for  the  shipping 
of  livenitock,  cotton,  wool,  gram  and 
hides.  It  is  one  of  the  leading  live-stock 
markets  of  the  country  and  has  large 
flour  mills,  breweries  and  iron  works. 
It  has  an  excellent  water  supply,  pos- 
sess^ a  very  salubrious  climate,  with  a 
remarkably  even  dry  temperature,  which 
has  made  it  a  winter  health  resort. 
There   are   a   number  of  historic   lauad 


fUn.VMTiito    (•an-be^»e't<^),  a  kind  of 

painted  with  flames,  figure*  of  aarlM, 
the  person's  own  portrait,  etc.,  and  worn 
by  persons  condemned  to  death  by  toe 
Inquisition  when  going  to  the  sUke  on 
the  occasiwi  of  an  autoie  fe. 

San  Bernardino  i'Ttf^^d  VhS 

county  seat  of  San  Bernardino  COnCal- 
ifomia,  in  a  fertile  valley,  «0  mites  «. 
of  Los  Angdes.  Fruit  and  alfalfa  are 
grown  in  the  victoity  and  jhew  are 
various  kinds  of  mineral  and  tbennal 
There  are  railroad  shops  in  the 


-ks,  the  city  being  founded  in  1718. 

Pop.  126,000.  .  .  . 

Sanatoiinm  e^^^'fitte'  loSSS 

fnan  ««Mre,  to  cure),  a  place  to  which 
people  resort  for  the  sake  of  their  healu, 
the  term  being  applied  to  military  or  civil 
stations  on  the  mountains  or  table^nda 
of  tropical  countries,  with  climates  suited 
to  the  health  of  Americans  or  EuopeaiUL 
and  to  health  raaortt  in  many  parts  of 
tiM  United  Btataik 


waters.       xuere  aiw   »»•••»»"»•——■-—   —   — j 

town,  and  a  stiipping  trade  in  honey  and 
fruits.     Pop.  12,779. 

SanCataldo  ffi?f*S,v'c*21Sni2! 

setta,  with  rich  sulphur  mines  in  vicin- 
ity.   Pop.  17,941.  1^  ♦».«.% 

Sanohnniathon  ir'H^i^tlfl' 

THOif,  a  Phamician  historian  and  phUofr 
opher,  who  is  supposed  to  have  llvea 
about  1250  b.o.  <5nly  fnunnenUi  of  his 
works  remain,  quoted  by  Eusebius  from 
a  translation  into  Greek  by  Philo  of 
Byblos.  Some  modem  critics  have  sala 
that  the  fragments  were  forgeries,  and  It 
is  now  doubted  by  many  whether  he  ever . 
fixistCu 

San  Cristobal  <?MS'i;5tJr3 

the  state  of  Chiapas,  460  mites  ■.■.■.«£ 
the  city  of  Mexica  Manufactures  earth- 
enware and  coarse  textiles,  but  the  chief 
occupatioa  Is  cattle  tasinf.  Pop.  about 
20000 

1616.    He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge,  and  obtained  a  fellow- 
sUp  in  1U42,  but  was  rejected  because 
he  refused  to  sign  the  *  engagement 'to 
support  the  Covenant  and  tha   Presby- 
terian party.    After  the  Rortoratlon  he 
became  successively  dean  of  York  and  St 
Paul's,  in  1068  archdeacon,  and  in  1678 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.    He  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower  in  1687  with  six 
other  bish<^  for  refusing  to   read  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  but  they  were 
all  acquitted.    On  the  Revolution  aettle- 
ment  he  became  a  non-juror,  and  thereby 
forfeited  his  archbishopric.    He  was  su<> 
cecded  by  Tillotson,  and  lived  wcluded 
till   his   death   in    1693.    Bancroft   pub- 
lished  some   sermons,    Modem    Polmca, 
and  one  or  two  other  works   of  little 
permanent  value.      ,        ^  ^.  -  ..-»  v  ..\ 

Sanotifioation  <rt;£-\*^Sd"i: 

Scrlptiire.  aa  weU  as  in  theolocr,  to  de- 
n«>te  the  process  by  which  the  elcaced  Im- 


teneti  Spiritvi 


Sandal-wood  Idaad 


Wt  9l  QM  in  nun  1>  rwtond,  and  th« 

ft?   !5"fl^.''uP«''    *^   COOUBUnlciltBII 

H^  Holy  Spirit,  gaactiflcatioa  is  dli- 
tintniatatd  from  JuatiBcation  in  thia.  that 
whlla  Juatiilcation  ohangea  tb«  atate  of 
tiM  ainner  in  iaw  befora  God  aa  a  Judge. 
nnctlAeatimi  chaona  the  heart  before 
■i"  •■  »  '•tharrTruatiflcatlon  precedea 

fullt,  the  other  tha  power  of  ainT  The 
lomar  ia  an  act  dona  at  once,  the  latter 
to  a  rradual  proceaa. 

Sanoti  Spiritns  {or)"f'l**Jt*'^ 

Santa  Clara  prorince,  Cuba,  about  BO 
S.  ■•JL'^  ?■"*•  Clara,  on  the  Yayabo 
Biver.  The  city  haa  an  aavlum  for  girll^ 
boqiitala,  a  colfege,  etc.    Pop.  17,440. 

Sanotnanr  (Mnck'ta-a-rn,  rioht 

I—  ♦  J^i  °F'  '•  *^«  privilege  attach- 
ing to  certain  placea  in  virtue  of  which 
criminals  taking  refufe  in  them  are  pro- 
tected from  the  ordmary  operation  of 
«A-'*7'  tS^  *?•  Levitlcal  law  there 
were  aix  dtiea  (rf  refuge  in  Paleatine  for 
tlw  Involuntary  manalayer,  and  a  aome- 
wtat  aimilar  provlaion  ia  traceable  among 
heathen  nationa.  From  the  time  of  Con- 
st ntina  downwarda  certain  churches 
were  act  apart  in  many  countries  to  b€ 
an  aaylum  for  fugitivea  from  the  banda 
of  Justice.  During  the  middle  agea  the 
cmtom  of  aanctuary  was  much  abused, 
the  privilege  being  often  extended  to 
wilful  malefactors.  In  England,  partic- 
ulariy  down  to  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tlOT,  any  person  who  bad  taken  refuge 
in  a  aanctuary  waa  secured  from  puni£- 
ment  — except  when  charged  with  trea- 
son or  sacrilege  —  if  within  the  space  of 
forty  days  he  gave  signs  of  repentance, 
Md    subjected    himself    to    banishment 

lis?!*""/'"*,  ^f®.  ^?«"y  abolished  in 
169T.    In  Scotland  the  Abbey  and  Pal- 

wi„SL  ^^'^5J^' «''**'»  ♦'»«^  precincts, 
including  Arthur  Seat  and  the  Queen's 
Park,  have  the  privilege  of  giving  sanc- 

S?„?  *?  f  ^"  /'*"°"'  ^»t  «i°ce  the  abol 
Ution  of  imprisonment  for  debt  the  im- 
portance of  thia  protection  has  ceased 


trnt  daacrts  of  the  workL  Yahiabla 
metallic  orea,  aa  tboae  of  gold,  pktinuok 
fi^Vi:??^'''  *5»^  tiUnlom,  oftin  occnr 
m  tha  form  of  aand  or  nixad  with  that 
aubatance.  Pure  alliceoua  aanda  ai«  vary 
valuable  for  tha  manufactnra  of  claaa^ 
for  making  mortar.  Altera,  amalioritlng 
denae  clay  aoila,  for  making  moMa  fi 
rounding,  and  many  other  purpoaaa. 
Sand,  Q"®***-    »«•  Dnitvnt. 

Sandal  (•«>'<tol)..a  kind  of  ahot  or 
"•"covering  for  the  feet  uaed 
among  the  ancient  Jewa,  Qreeka,  and 
Romans.  It  consisted  of  a  aole  faatraed 
to  the  foot  by  meana  of  atrapa  croaaed 
over  and  wound  round  tha  ankte.  Orig- 
inally made  of  wood,  vegetable  leavea  or 


Sandal- wood  (SanOBum  ttbum). 


oi^?'..?r  1 '''■*^*'''  t''fy  I'terwards  be- 
^?"-.*A'"n**  °'  «•?■*  luxury,  being  made 
ri«if 'l'„5"l!!'  f.5**,.°*'»"  Precioua  mate- 
n^i '  "rl  beautifully  ornamented.    Cap- 

Itr  «S2?^  *'''•"'  '^  ^"^  *»'-*•»*  ^y 

Sandal-wood     (ff'^^^SaHtHum,  nat. 
.  order   Santalacea).   a 

tree  belonging  to  the  Eaat  Indiea  and  the 
Malayan  and  Polynesian  iaianda.  remark- 
able  for  its  fragrance.  Its  wood  is  used 
"f  a  perfume,  and  is  manufactured  into 

Sand.-  fiper^rticlS^ Vf"  sISner pSlc-  teruSd'^S  te«n j?*£* fh'iJ**^'*''  m^*  ': 
Jlr'^LyM^.o!  -'"ceouB.stoU^ln   a  B5gSaSrJn5'B*S?dhiStl°   The«'aiVv- 

cral   species  which  furnish  sandal-wood, 
the  common  being  8.  atbvm.    Some  treea 
'  other  genera  are  called  false  sandal- 
wood.   See  also  Adenenthere. 


li 


loose  state,  but  not  reduced  to  powder 
or  dust :  a  coUectlon  of  siliceous  granules 
not  cohermt  when  wet.  Most  of  the 
5?5^  ''T^  ^^  observe  are  the  ruins  of 

disintegrated   rocks,   aud   differ   in   «>lor  a       j   i "",  "-J"-—"''-- 

accordtog  to  the  ricks  from  "hch  They  Sandal-WOOd  Island,    «'    '««»- 
were  derived.     Sands  occur   ve^   abun-   i—   .-•--   -    ..^^..'    »>w.A..    a 
dwiUy,  not  only  on  the  sea  bottoms,  but 
in  many  inland  locations,  formerly  sea- 
bottoma,    and    very    extensively    In    tha 


large  island  in  the  Indian  Archipelago 
belonging  to  the  ^  Dutch  reaidency  of 
J™ori  crossed  by  the  meridian  of  120»  t ; 
area,  4866  square  miles;  with  a  popvla- 


JMitomtit 


lud-firaN 


tk»  of  about  l,O0O,O0a  Tbc  cout  !■ 
bold,  ud  tormiutM  at  Uw  •ontbcn  «• 
trwnltj  In  a  lofty  and  inaoceMibla  pan- 
inrala.  Tbe  interior  is  mountainooa. 
Edibit  birds'-neats,  Iteea'-waz,  and  undal- 
wood  ar«  obtained  here.  The  nativea  are 
daacribtd  aa  treacherous  and  ferocious. 
cUnHArAAYi    (san'da-rak),      a      resin 

Banoaraon  ;,hich  exudM  from  the 

barit  of  tbe  sandarach-tree  (which  see). 
It  Is  used  aa  incense,  and  for  mailing  a 
pale  varnish.  It  is  also  used  as  pounce- 
powder  for  strewing  over  paper  erasures. 
Called  also  J«H<per-re«t>;. 

Sandarach-tree  [Sk'  a'*u1S 

coniferous  tree  with  straKgling  branches, 
yielding  the  resin  described  in  preceding 
article.  It  is  a  native  of  Morocco,  Al- 
geria, and  Northern  Africa  generally. 
The  timber  is  fragrant,  bard,  and  dur- 
able, and  is  largely  used  in  tbe  construc- 
tion of  mosques  and  other  buildings,  as 
well  as  for  cabinet  work. 
fUnilAv  (san'da),  on.  of  the  Orimera, 
•*•**»»•/  an  island  of  very  irregular 
shape,  generally  with  a  very  Bat  surface 
and  a  light  sandy  soil ;  greatest  length 
fully  18  miles.  There  are  a  number  of 
small  lakes.  Pop.  2082.— There  is  an- 
other small  island  of  same  name  in  tbe 
Inner  Hebrides,  connected  with  Canna 
at  low  water,  4  miles  northwest  of  Rum. 
Pop.  62. 

flflVKDianli  (sand'bach),  a  market- 
Sanaoacn  ^own  of  Cheshire,  Eng- 
land, 4%  miles  northeast  of  Crewe.  It 
has  a  handsome  church,  a  spacious  gram- 
mar school,  and  in  the  marketplace  are 
two  antique  obeliskn.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood are  saltworks.  Pop.  5723. 
flanil.lilnaf  &  method  of  engraving 
Bana-DiaSX,    ^^^      uttlng    glass    and 

other  hard  materials  hy  the  percussive 
force  of  particles  of  sand  driven  by  a 
steam  or  air  blast. 

Sandbox-tree.   ^Bura, 

Ronfl.nro'h     or  Racinq  Crab,  a  genua 

Bana-orao,  (Oow»<wo)  of  crabs, 

which  live  in  holes  iu  the  sand  along 
the  sea  shores  of  warm  countries.  O. 
curtor  inhabits  tbe  Mediterranean,  Red 
Sea,  and  Indian  Ocean,  and  is  remark- 
able for  the  rapidity  of  its  motions. 
San^-AAl  a  genus  of  teleostean  fishes 
DlUiU-cci)  belonging  to  the  suborder 
Anacantbini.  The  body  is  slender  and 
cylindrical,  somewhat  resembling  that  of 
an  eel,  and  varying  from  4  inches  to 
about  1  foot  in  length,  of  a  beautiful 
ailvery  luster,  destitute  of  ventral  fina, 
and  tne  scales  hardly  perceptible. 

Sandemanians  iToiHS^'^^i, 


i«et  fooBdad  br  John  OkM,  a  Swl^ 
man.  about  172&  Ha  waa  originally  « 
Presbyterian  minister,  but  waa  aoapaiMad 
for  holding  heretical  opiniooa.  Anoof 
other  views,  he  held  that  the  Ctanrch  and 
State  should  be  in  no  way  conneetad, 
and  that  there  should  be  no  esUblisliad 
church.  These  doctrines  were  much  de- 
veloped by  his  son-in-law,  Robert  Sande* 
man  (bom  at  Perth,  1728;  died  in  Abmt- 
ica,  1771),  who  establiahed  th«  sect  In 
London  and  America.  He  mainuined 
thai  Justification  by  faith  meant  noth- 
ing more  than  a  simple  assent  to  tba 
divine  mission  of  Christ.  The  Sande- 
manians still  exist  aa  a  very  small  body, 
and  have  revived  several  cuatoma  of  the 
primitive  church,  such  aa  tba  kiss  of 
charity,  the  use  of  the  lot,  and  the  weekly 
love-feasts. 

flaTi<1*r  (san'dir;  Lueiopere*  MNdra ) , 
OKUaer  ^  ^p^i^  of  fishes  belongUiff  to 
the  perch  family,  and  found  in  fresh- 
water rivers  and  streama  in  Oermany 
and  the  east  of  Europe  generally.  It 
attains  an  average  length  of  from  8  to 
4  feet,  and  ia  esteemed  aa  an  article  of 
food.  It  is  known  under  the  nam*  of 
pike-perch. 

flanilairliiifF  (san'd«r-ling;  CalMris 
Sanaerungr  ireaoHo ) ,  awadlng  bird 
averaging  from  6  to  8  inchea  in  length, 
which  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
in  winter  migrates  southward.  It  feeda 
on  small  marine  animals,  and  chiefly  In- 
habits the  sandy  tracts  of  the  sea-baacli 
and  the  estuaries  of  rivers.  Tbe  fleab  la 
nutritioua  and  pleaaant  to  the  taste. 

Sanders-wood.   »^  samai^ood. 

Sand-flea.     ^»^«  —  Band-kopper. 

fianil.flipa  (genus  SimuUvm),  the 
Dana-mes    ^^^  ^^  ^^^aln  flies  found 

in  varfoua  countries,  tbe  bite  of  which 
may  give  riae  to  painful  swellings.  They 
are  included  in  the  family  Tipulids, 
which  also  includes  the  well-known 
*  daddy  long  lega,'  or  crane-flies. 

Sand-grouse  i2S»f « V  %,^^,oi 

birds,  belonging  to  the  family  Pteroclids, 
and  difFering  in  several  respects  from  tbe 
common  grouse  (which  see),  belonging 
to  the  family  Tetraonide.  They  are  na- 
tives chiefly  of  the  warm  parta  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  are  most  abundant  in 
arid  sandy  plains.  The  legs  are  longer 
than  in  other  grouse,  and  tbe  tail  and 
wings  are  pointed.  Pallas's  sand-grouse 
differs  from  these  in  Laving  feathered 
tarsi  and  united  toea.  It  has  been  mad« 
the  type  of  the  genus  Byrrhaptea,  and  is 
a  native  of  the  sandy  plains  of  Central 
Aaia,  where  it  occurs  in  vast  numbers. 


■  ^ttijS   VMt 

famidM  iBiinpa.    Tnin 

^t  Im,  sad  wtrt  fooad  to   

4MbM  BOBiNn  tlooacheat  Briuln  and 

[[r  "»'r Jf«*  ipwiw  of  hmUI  Inawt- 
ttk*  erattacwM  of  tlw  ordtr  AmpUpodt, 
epuMS  akmf  moat  am  ■hovM,  whoit 
thoy  BUT  bo  iBtt  loopiu  obont  tho  Miido 
tat  gtml  qiuttititlM  aftor  tbo   neodiag 

tidOk 

utlj  ■hutcd  on  the  Blackwour,  wul 
nuBOM  for  it!  njtH  mlUurv  eolloio^ 
MidBally  founded  at  Great  Marlow  In 
1808.  but  nmoTed  to  Bandhont  in  1812. 
It  is  now  used  for  givinf  one  year's  spe- 
eial  training  in  tbe  theoretical  part  of 
tbo  science  of  war  to  those  cadets  who 
have  passed  by  competition  for  tbe  army. 

San&nnt  JSffl  Str^Si^ 

toria,  Autralia,  about  100  miles  k.  it.  w. 
of  Meibonme,  with  which  it  has  railway 
commnnieation.  The  town  contains  a 
tMndsome  pile  of  pnblic  baildings.  It 
has  a  town^ll,  homital,  benevolent  asy- 
Ina.  mechanics'  institute  (with  a  library 
<tf  l^BOO  volumes),  a  theater,  and  nu- 
SMTons  places  of  worship.  Bandhumt  is 
well  lighted  and  supplied  with  water.  It 
is  the  center  of  a  rich  auriferous  coun- 
try. Besides  gold-mining,  in  which  be- 
tween 4000  and  BOOO  miners  are  em- 
ployed, the  most  important  industries  are 
iron-founding,  coach-building,  tanning, 
and  in  addition  farming  and  vine-growing. 
Pop.  48412. 

wMu  sfAv^v  eoun^y  seat  of  San  Diego 
Co.,  CaUfomia,  located  in  the  extreme 
southwestern  comer  of  the  United  States 
on  the  '  Harbor  of  the  Sun ' ;  15  miles 
north  of  the  Mexicrn  border.  It  it  a 
popular  resort  for  Livalids,  its  climats 
bnng  perhaps  the  mildest  and  most 
eqnable  known.  It  has  an  important 
foreign  commerce,  with  several  ocean 
steamship  lines,  and  is  the  first  port  of 
can  from  Panama.  Fruits,  fertilisers^ 
•te.,  are  among  the  articles  of  export. 
Pop.  aOJS78. 

Swd-liz&td   e^fe^"  «»?«*•).  «  ita- 

^^  ard    found    on    sandy 

heatiis  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  about  7 
indes  long,  variable  in  color,  but  gen^ 
•rally  sandy-brown  on  the  upper  partsi 
witii  darker  blot<^6«  intenperwd. 

Sud-nurtin,  -7„<„«rr"K 

riporis),  a  Urd  included  in  the  fan^ 
or     mraOowa-    «    summer    visitant    to 


Britain,  vhm  It  is  eoaaoB  ta 

Mssabsr  of  its  naily,  and  is  so  naiiMl 
froa  its  habits  <rf  nsM-boildlBt  ta  heiss 
dng  ia^the  high  banks  <rf  riven,  In  tbe 
sides  of  sand  or  navel  pits,  and  in  sim- 
ilar sitbatioBs.  Tbe  color  of  the  sand- 
martin  is  a  wtat  brown  on  the  head  and 
upper  parts,  and  whits  brtow,  with  a 
dark  brown  band  on  the  chest 
Sftnd-molA  *  Souta  African  rodent, 
DWIO  moM,  of  ths  sise  of  a  rabbh! 
with  light  gravish-brown  fur.  The  eyes 
are  very  small:  external  ears  wanting; 
tail  short 

Sui  Domingo.  S  £5(&fa?*^ 
San  Domingo   (*^;5»to'g5;-g« 

XIKOO),  the  capital  city  of  the  Domin- 
lean  Republic  which  includes  the  eastern 
part  of  the  iaiand  of  Hayti.  The  town 
is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Osama 
on  the  south  coast,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  government  and  a  bishop's  sec.  It 
has  spacious  streets  and  squares,  a  ca- 
thedral dating  from  IMO,  a  nniversity, 
etc.  Ban  Domingo  is  the  oldest  Euro- 
pean city  of  the  New  World,  having  been 
founded  by  Bartholomew  Columbus  in 
1406.  Columbus  wss  buried  here  in 
1586,  but  his  remains  were  removed  to 
Havana  in  1794.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

Sand-vaner.  •■  "■^*  ^  *•»•  '^^J^V 

T~  y-yw*!  „  emery-paper,  with  the 
dilierence  that  oand  is  substituted  fcr 
emery.     See  Emer^. 

Sand-pipers,  i^SS^/^  Jj  Ta^d!?!; 

birds,  belonging  to  the  family  Scolopa- 
cid»  or  snipes.  These  birds  inhabit  the 
shores  of  the  sea  and  the  estuaries  and 
banks  of  rivera,  and  grope  in  tlie  soft 
mud  for  tbe  worms,  small  molluscs,  in- 
sects, etc.,  upon  which  they  feed.  They 
migrate  southwcrds  in  winter  in  flocks, 
and  appear  to  molt  twice  a  year,  the 
summer  plumage  differing  from  tbe  win- 
ter dress.  The  voice  is  shrill  and  un- 
musical; and  they  are  able  both  to  run 
and  to  fly  with  rapidity.  There  are  sev- 
eral European  species  and  various  spe- 
cies exist  in  the  United  States,  wintering 
in  the  West  Indies. 

Sand-screw  i^*^,r^^^ 

neariy  allied  to  the  sandhoppers  (which 
see),  and  so  named  from  the  tortuous 
manner  in  which  it  excavates  its  burrows 
in  the  sand. 

Sand-Star  <£aSS>Unggf?o  t£ 

order  Ophluroidea.  In  the  sand-stars 
the  arms  or  rays  are  mere  appendages  to 
ths  body,  and  not  definite  parts,  aMi  tba 


laiditegM 


fltadsTft 


vkMtm  or  oiiaM  of  tb«  body  do  not  tS' 
twd  late  tiM  ra]r*,.bat  art  confinod  to 
ST  etntnl  body-piw!*  or  •dke.'  TIm 
•■ibttlaeral  tyutua  of  tmmIo  is  not  woll 
dtf tioiMd.  and  dow  not  aubMrvo  tocomo- 
tkm  totlM  MUM  «xt»t  m  in  tho  Ao- 


BftllanOnei)  ^  «aarU  agf  r«cat«d  into 
a  eoBpaet  rocli.  whlcli  ma*  atoo  con- 
tain particlaa  of  felapar,  mlnate  aca  «>• 
of  mS,  and  an  admiitare  of  day.  In- 
dicating in  many  places  tlwir  immediate 
derivation  from  the  d«bris  of  frsnltic 
rocks.  Bandstooes  are  in  most  cases 
chiefly  composed  of  particles  of  qnarta. 
onited  by  a  cement.  The  cement  is  in 
variable  quantity,  and  may  be  caJcareoos 
or   marly.   arfiUaceous   or   argillo-fcrm; 


■inous,  or  even  siliceous.    The  gratoa  of 
qnarta    are    sometimes    scarcely    distin- 
luishable  by  the  naked  eye,  and  some- 
times are  equal  in  aise  to  a  nut  or  an 
egg.  as  in  those  sandstones  called  conglom- 
erates,   or   sometimes    pudding-stone    or 
breccia.    The    texture    of    some    sand- 
stones is  very  close,  while  in  others  it 
is  very   loose  and   porous.    Some   sand- 
stones have  a  fissile  fetructure,  and  have 
been    called    sandstone    slate.    In  .color 
sandstone   varies  from  gray   to  reddish- 
brown,  in  some  cases  uniform.  In  others 
variegated.     In  addiUon  to  quarts  some 
sandstones    contain    grains    of    felspar, 
flint   and   siliceous   slate,   or   plates   of 
mica.    Some  sandstones  are  ferruglnoufc 
containing  an  oxide  or  the  carbonate  of 
iron.    Sandstones  have  been  formed  at 
different  periods  and  under  different  dr- 
cnmstances,  and  are  hence  associated  with 
different  rocks  or  fortnatioM.    They  are 
in  general  dtotinctiy  stratified,  and  the 
beda    horixonUlly    arranged,    but    some- 
times  they    are   much   inclined   or   even 
verticaL     Sandstone  in  some  of  its  varie- 
tiea  is  very  useful  in  the  arts,  and  wh«» 
it  has  no  tendency  to  split  is  known  by 
the  name  of  freeitonc.    When  sufliciently 
solid  it  is  employed  as  a  building  stone. 
Some   varieties   are    used    as    millstones 
for  grinding  meal,  or  for  wearing  down 
other  materials  preparatory  to  a  polish, 
ac<d  some  are  used  Tor  whetstones.    For 
the   New   Red   Sandetone,   and   the  OW 
Bed  Sandetone.  see  Geolow. 

Sandusky  i-fi^S^  o\  e^?Co1 

on  a  sandstone  ridge  on  the  southern 
aids  of  Sandusky  Bay,  I^ake  Erie,  about 
81   miles   w.   of  Cleveland.    Among  the 

frindiMtl  buildings  are  a  court-house, 
edetal  bnilding.  Soldiers'  Home  and 
Statt  fob-hatchery.  It  has  a  good  har- 
bta,  and  an  extensive  trade  \»  done 
to  (Ml,  lit9ber,  Uatestoiie,  ipmi^fictiirfd 


wood-work,  fraMa  and  wtas;  and  thMO 
aro  large  BMcklM-shops,  stselworka,  m^ 
gin*  and  bolter  works,  carpaatan'  amI 
other  tool  worka,  etc.  The  fisheries  art 
valuabio.    Pop.  19,989.  

AmmopkUti,  belmging  to  a  group  whkb. 
from  their  peculiar  habits,  ars  termed 
Foeeoree  or  diggers.  The  sand-wasp 
inhabits  sunny  banks  in  sandy  ^toatioBs, 
running  smong  grass,  etc.,  with  graat 
activity,  and  oontinoalir  vibrating  Ita 
antenna  and  winga.  The  famalo  ia 
armed  with  a  sting.  ,  .     , 

Sandwich  i^a.^lli  ^^T& 

Cinqus  Porte  of  England,  In  the  eonaty 
of  Kent,  on  the  Stour.  4  mitoa  frwn  tho 
sea  at  Pegweli  Bay,  78  miles  ■.  of  XiOn- 
don  by  rail.  Th«  streets  are  narrow,  and 
part  of  the  old  walls  and  one  of  tbo 
gutea  are  still  standing.  It  was  mado 
a  Cinque  port  by  Edward  the  Coafsssor, 
and  was  the  ro/ai  nava.  port  until  tho 
time  of  Richard  II.  It  haa  an  uidMt 
guild-hall,  nd  a  parish  church  in  the 
early  Norman  style.  The  placo  baa  a 
considerable  trade,  and  carries  <m  brew- 
ing, malting,  tanning,  etc.  Th«  harbor, 
long  neglected,  haa  been  improved,  and 
now  admite  vessels  drawiii«  10  feet. 
Pop.  8040. 

BanawlCU)  article  of  food  consisting 
of  a  slice  of  meat,  fish,  fowl,  or  othsr 
savory  food  placed  between  two  slices  of 
breadi,  which  may  be  plain  or  battered. 
The  term  is  said  to  hav  arisen  fnmi 
an  earl  of  tide  name  having  been  m  tba 
habit  of  providing  himself  with  ws  in 
his  pocket  to  avoid  dining  in  town. 

SandwiolL  Islaiidi.  ^  ^•^•**- 


Dftua-woriU)  qj  ^Y^^  nnmeroua  worma 
livhig  in  the  sand  of  the  sea-shore.  The 
fisherman's  Ic^worm  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  these.  Hidden  under  stones 
or  burrowing  de  'y  in  the  sand  m* 
numerous  species  of  errant  Gluetopcds, 
while  the  tubes  of  Terehella  condrUega, 
mostly  composed  of  fragments  of  shell, 
are  familiar  objecte  in  the  sands. 

Sandy  Hook,  j/^e  e^r^n^f"^^ 

York  harbor.  On  the  n.  point  are  a  fixed 
light  90  feet  high  and  a  government 
provbig  ground.  See  New  York, 
Qanflva  ("an'dls  or  sands),  Bdwim. 
"*"**y*  Archbishop  of  Xortt,  was  born 
in  Lancashlro,  England,  in  1519,  and 
edocated  at  Cambridge  University,  whers 
be  became  maater  of  Catherine  Hall  ami 
lobMftMBtljr  Tiw^ifWfUpr  ol  ^0  ma- 


Sau  Fernando 


San  Frandtco 


Jil 


venlty.  Bring  «  partisan  of  Lady 
Jane  Qny  he  was  impriMned  in  toe 
Tower;  but  be  was  liberated  at  the 
end  of  foar  months,  and  crossed  to  Ger- 
many. On  tlie  iccession  of  Elisabeth  he 
retamed  to'  England,  and  was  made 
bishop  of  Worcester  in  1559.  In  1570  he 
was  made  bishop  of  London,  and  arch- 
bishop of  Ydtk  in  1577.  He  died  in 
1588. —  His  son.  Sir  Edwin  Sandts 
(bom  1661;  died  1629),  was  employed 
by  James  I  on  several  missions,  received 
the  honor  of  knighthood,  was  connected 
with  the  Second  Virginia  Companv  and 
otherwise  with  the  American  colonies, 
and  published  Europa  Speculum,  a  Sur- 
vey of  the  State  of  Reliaion  in  the 
Wettern  Porta  of  the  WorW.— Another 
sen,  Geobge  Sandys  (born  1577;  died 
1644),  published  a  Relation  of  Travels 
in  the  Eatt,  a  metrical  translation  of 
Ovid's    Metamorpho»ea,    m.;trical    para- 

ghrases  of  the  Psalms,  Job,  Ecclesiastes, 
ong    of    Solomon,    etc.     His    poetry    is 
praised  by  Dryden  and  Fope. 

San  Fernando  ^Tla^  lk'S^n,°I 

strongly  fortified  town  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  7  miles  southeast  of  Cadiz,  sit- 
uated on  a  flat  in  the  Isla  de  Leon.  The 
Kown  is  of  modern  construction,  and  has 
two  hospitals,  several  convents,  a  marine 
school,  an  observatory,  and  an  extensive 
arsenal.  Salt,  the  staple  trade  of  the 
town,  te  made  in  the  s\.linaa  and  marshes 
between  San  Fernando  and  Cadiz.    Pop. 

iSoTilnril  (san'fftrd),  a  city,  connty 
»«"«'*'*  seat  of  Seminole  Co.,  Flor- 
ida, at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  St. 
Johns  River.  It  is  an  important  railway 
center  and  is  in  the  largest  vegetable- 
producing  section  in  the  State — what  is 
known  as  the  flowing  artesian-well  dis- 
trict.   Pop.  4750. 

Qonfnrrl  a  village  ia  Sanford  town- 
oauxora,  ^^^-  (town),  York  county, 
Maine,  about  3u  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  Port- 
land. It  has  good  water  power  and  pro- 
duces, dress  goods,  carriage  robes,  yarn- 
shoes,  etc.  Pop.  of  to-vn  10,000. 
San  'Fmnrifirn     ^^^  fran  •  sis '  kd) , 

seaport  of  California  and  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  America,  is  situated  on  a 
peninsula  or  tongue  of  land  between  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  entrance  to  the  latter  being 
through  the  Golden  Gate,  a  waterway 
about  5  miles  long  and  1  mile  wide.  The 
bay  to  which  it  leads  is  deep  and  spacious, 
being  60  miles  long  and  from  3  to  12 
miles  wide.  The  city  was  originally  of 
wood,  but  this  has  been  largely  replaced 
by   brick  and  stone,  there  beinf  many 


large  and  costly  buildings  of  marble 
granite  and  terra  cotta,  with  steel 
inner  framework.  Notable  among  these 
are  the  large  and  handsome  city  hall 
and  post  office,  the  Hall  of  Justice,  Cus- 
tom House,  mint.  Merchants'  Exchanges, 
and  the  large  Ferry  Building,  a  museum 
of  geological  and  ethnological  collections. 
The  educational  institutions  include  the 
Hopkins  Art  Institute,  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, Memorial  Museum,  Mechanics'  In- 
stitute, Sutro  and  Public  libraries.  School 
of  Mechanical  Arts,  Cooper  Medical  Col- 
lege, mer!ical  and  legal  departments  of 
the  University  of  California,  etc.  Mar- 
ket  Street,   with  a  length  of  about  3i 


Sak  Francisco 
Harbour. 

noiiM  itn.u 


miles,  is  the  chief  commercial  thorough- 
fare. Of  the  city's  parks  the  largest  is 
Golden  Gate  Park,  with  an  area  of  1050 
acres.  Originally  a  tract  of  barren  sand- 
dunes  between  the  city  and  the  ocean,  this 
has  been  made  a  beautiful  and  attractive 
pleasure  ground.  The  climate  is  mild, 
and,  on  the  whole,  healthy,  but  during  the 
summer  months  a  disagreeable  day- 
wind,  coming  through  the  Golden  Gate, 
is  apt  to  blow  across  the  city.  Of  the 
diversified  industries  the  largest  are 
those  of  shipbuilding  (including  battle- 
ship construction),  the  manufacture  of 
foundry  and  machine  shop  products, 
slaughtering  and  packing,  and  fruit  can- 
ning. The  commerce  of  the  city,  lioth 
with  foreign  and  domestic  ports,  is  very 
large,  especially  in  shipments  of  gold, 
silver,  and  other  minerals,  wheat,  liquors 
and  lumber,  and  receipts  of  sugar,  cof- 
fee and  tea.    There  are  steamship  lines 


Songallo 


Sftnitation 


to  f  11  principal  Pacific  porta  of  Amflrica,  rated.    The  ialand*  are  all  moaBtainotu 

Asia  and  the  Pacific  islands.  and  partly  volcanic    In  an  emption  of 

The  site  of  San  Francisco  was  first  Aboe,  a  volcano  on  Great  Sangir,  la  Jnne, 

occupied  by  white  settlers  in   1776,  an  1892,  the  greater  part  of  the  island  was 

Indian  mission  being  founded  by  Span-  devastated,  and  nearly  10|000  inhabitants 

lards.     Sixty  years  later  the  little  viUage  perished.     Pop.  about  50,000. 

of  Yerba  Buena  sprang  up,  the  name  of  ganiygter    (■a'>«5*er),     Chaujs,     a 

San   Francisco   being   adopted   in   1847.  oa^HP''*'*    Canadian     poet,  ^bpm    at 

The  conquest  of  California  from  Mexico  Kingston,  Ontario,  in  1822 ;  died  in  1^ 

and  thediscovery  of  gold  in  1848  led  to  He  was  for  15  years  an  editor,  and  for 

a    rapid    influx    of    inhabitants,    there  18  years  a  post-office  official  at  Ottawa, 

being  20,000  by  the  end  of  1849.    The  He  wrote  The  8t.  Lawrence  and  Bague- 

city   has   elnce    then   grown   with   great  nay  and  Hesperut  and  other  Poem*. 

rapidity,  though  it  has  been  visited  by  fiaii^gter     M  A  B  o  A  B  ■  T    Euzabbth 

^fiagrations'^and    earthouakee    of    de-  P»"6»^J*'    Munbon,  American  author, 

structive  character.    In  1900  the  popu-  born  ir  New  RocheUe,  N.  Y^  in  1888; 

lation    ras    342,782.     Six    years    later,  died    in    1912.      She    was    educated    in 


in  -'.pril,  1906,  there  came  a  frightfully 
destructive    earthquake,    followed    by    a 


Vienna  and  New  York  City  and  in  1858 
married  George  Sangster.     She  became  a 


terrible  conflagration,  which  threatened  favorite  contributor  to  home  manaioM, 
\o  I  luce  the  whole  city  to  ruins.  Yet  and  was  the  author  of  a  number  or  books 
tho  effects  of  this  disaster  have  largely   and  poems. 

disappeared,  the  business  activity  of  the  Sansminaiia.     ^^  Blood-root. 
city    has    been    fully    resumed,    and    in  o  ,       -     ..    v  a 

1910  its  population  had  grown  to  416,912.  Sanhednm  (»anT»e-"n™).  ^r  BAR. 
\mong  these  is  included  the  largest  "»"««'»"*"»  hbdbin  (corrupted  fr«n 
Chinese  settlement  in  America.  the    Greek  junednon,    a    councU),    the 

CA^flmllA  (sang-gal'o),  Antonio,  an  supreme  judicial  tribunal  of  the  Jews, 
BangaUO  Italian  architect,  bom  ui  the  existing  in  the  time  of  the  Maccaljjees 
environs  of  Florence  in  1485.  He  sue-  and  in  New  Testament  tlmeiL  Accord- 
ceeded  his  master  Bramante  as  architect  ing  to  the  Talmud  it  was  founded  by 
cf  the  church  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome,  Moses  when  he  elected  seventy  elders  to 
and  was  much  employed  under  the  popes  assist  him  in  judging  the  children  of 
Leo  X.  Clement  VH  and  Paul  III,  both  Israel  in  the  wilderness,  but  this  view 
:•-  fortifying  places  and  in  the  construe-  is  now  generally  rejected.  Tie  sanhe- 
tic  a  cf  public  buildings,  the  grandeur  and  drim  consisted  of  seventy  members  b«- 
soliditv  of  which  have  been  much  ad-  sides  the  president,  who  was  usually  the 
mired.  He  died  in  1546.  His  two  un-  high-priest  They  were  chosen  from 
cles.  Antonio  and  Giuliano  Sangallo,  were  among  the  priests,  elders,  heads  of  fam- 
ahm  distinguished  architects.  lUes,  and  scribes  or  doctors  of  law,  and 

o»«ifl>A»lia'naA'n  (zAng'6r-hou-zn),  a  had  power  to  deal  with  both  secular  and 
DangeraauBcU  town  of  Prussian  spiritual  matters.  The  council  becama 
Saxony,  33  miles  w.  N.  W.  of  Merseburg,  extinct  in  425.  .     .  ^     ^     ,. 

on  the  Gonna.  The  town  has  two  castles,  go jntfttion  ("an-i-ta'shim),  the  meft- 
and  manufactures  of  iron-ware,  machin-  »»•»"•«••'*»'"■  ods  employed  to  maintain 
ery,  etc    Pop.  (19(^)   12,439.  health  and  ward  off  disease.    The  science 

fiovi  aimifrnoTin  (s&n  ji-min-y4'no),  of  sanitation  treats  more  especially  of 
San  UUnignanO  ^  ^.^J  ^f  S  l  e  n  a  what  is  reoulred  of  each  individual  in  his 
province,  Italy,  six  miles  s.  w.  of  Siena,  duty  to  bia  neighbor,  so  that  by  using 
It  is  notable  for  the  mediaeval  aspect  of  such  means  as  may  ensure  his  own  health 
its  old  walls,  its  many  towers,  and  Gothic  he  may  in  a  negative  way  preserve  that 
edifices,  and  is  rich  in  splendid  works  of  of  his  neighbor  also.  The  subject  natu- 
art.  imong  them  beautiful  frescoes  and   rally  divides  itself  into  four  main  divl- 


sions :  —  1.  That  relating  to  our  dwell- 
a  town  ings;  2.  Food;  3.  Clothing;  4.  Cleanli- 
on  the  ness.  As  regards  the  first  Lead,  our 
Bay  of  Naples,  a  suburb  of  the  city  of  dwellings  should  be  situated  so  as  to  en- 
Naples.  Pop.  20,797.  sure  a  free  circulation  of  air  round  them. 
fiaiKvir  Talan^a  (stn'gftr),  a  group  and  a  thorough  system  of  drainage.  The 
Dau^ir  XUauOB  ^j  g^^j,  jgiands  in  rooms  should  be  large,  airy,  and  well 
the  Indian  Archipelago,  inhabited  by  the  ventilated.  A  most  pernicious  source  ot 
Malay  race  (Christians),  and  belonging  impurity  is  sewer-gas,  which  can  only 
to  the  Netherlands.  Most  of  theni  are  enter  houses  where  waste  and  soil-ptpes 
inhabited  and  are  covered  with  cocoa-  are  in  direct  communication  with  the 
Bice,  piaang,  and  sago  are  coltl-  main  system  of  sewers.    The  decompoai' 


pamtings  of  past  centuries.    Pop.  9848. 

San  Giovanni  <tt^''S^,, 


Sanitation 


Sanitation 


tloii  of  teeal  and  otbw  matten  in  dndns  dona  in  draina  and  pipca,  and  i^ 
prodocea  botli  aamoniacal  and  oUiar  aal-  throach  tlie  water-trapa  of  cloaata,  ainta^ 
phorona  gaaea.  Tbeoe  gaaea,  owing  to  etc.,  into  oar  honaea,  and  iMCome  a  moat 
Sair  Uflit  qtedfie  gian^,   iIm  to  the  potent  atmoaplwrie  impurity.    They 


A  OoBTeniently  Appointed  BathiooBi. 

hifilheat   point   in    the  pipes,    and   from  of  two   kinda  —  an  odorlferoos  and   as 
I  hence  force  their  way  through  imperfec-  odorless  gas.    The  former  ia  almost  in* 

nocuous,  but  the  latter  is  most  deadly, 
since  it  depresses  the  general  system  and 
frequently  contains  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease. Sunlight  and  thorough  ventilation 
destroy  the  properties  of  this  gaa.  In 
order  to  prevent  sewer-gas  fr<Hn  entering 
a  house,  all  waste-pipes  in  connection 
with  the  sewers  should  he  carried  along 
outside  the  house  and  fomiahed  with  a 
ventilator,  ao  that  the  gaa  may  escape 
into  the  external  air.  The  ventilntor 
should  discharge  at  the  root  of  the  house, 
and  not  near  to  a  window  or  other  open* 
ing  into  the  dwelling.  The  outlet  of 
pipee  from  wash-basins  in  bed-rooms 
should  discharge  in  the  open  air,  and 
should  not  be  directly  connected  with 
drains.  Foul  smells  and  gases  arlae  from 
many  other  causes,  such  as  dec<Mn90si> 
a,  Tisp.  tion  of  organic  matter  within  tba  honast 


Trap  ia  Pipe. 
a«  OatM.    Ob  Floor. 


(tenJajL 


San  Jvan  Boundary  (^ueitl<m 


•manatioiw  from  the  nirface  of  the  body, 
preparations  of   arsenic  and  copper   in 
walTpaper,   etc    Flowers   also   five   off 
carbonic   acid   cas   at   night,   and    gw- 
Jets  also  pour  much  impurity  into  the 
atmosphere.    Over-crowdiif  also  greatly 
vitiates  the  atmosphere.    Thorough  drain- 
age of  our  bouses  is  also  very  necessan 
in  order  to  prevent  dampness,  whjch  is 
a  •noat  prolific  source  of  disease.    Every 
portion  of  a  bouse  should  be  kept  scrup- 
ulously clean,  and  after  infectious  or  con- 
tagious dlMase  there  sliould  be  a  thor- 
ough  cleansing  and   disinfecting   of    the 
furniture,  bedding,  carpets,  etc^    As  re- 
gards food  and  clothtaig.  enough  has  al- 
ready been  said  in  the  articles  Dietetict 
and  Clothing  (which  see).    A  few  words 
require  to  be  said,  however,  on  the  last 
division  of  the  subject  — that  of  clean- 
liness.   The  neglect  of  an  efficient  use  of 
cold  water  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
potent    and    prolific    causes    of    disease. 
The  first  duty  of  every  human  being  is 
to  attend  thoroughly  to  the  cleansing  of 
the  whole  body,  and  this  can  only  be  done 
by  the   free  application  of  water.    The 
frequent  use  of  a  cold  bath  is  not  only 
conducive  to  kealtli,  but  a  powerful  pre- 
ventive against  disease.    It  is  always  de- 
■irable  when  we  leave  a  bath  that  a  glow 
—  called  the  reaction  —  should  be  felt  all 
over  the  body,  and  this  can  be  assisted  by 
the  vigorous  use  of  a  rough  towel.    Bath- 
ing in  this  way  is  a  powerful  natural  tonic 
to  the  skin,  nerves,  and  muscular  system. 
It  promotes  digestion,  regulates  the  bow- 
els, and  ia  in  fact  invaluable  as  a  sani- 
tary measure.    All  underclothing  should 
be  changed  at  least  ouce  a  week;  and 
socks  and  stockings  every  few  days.    AH 
household  furnishings  should  be  kept  thor- 
oughly free  from  dirt.    One  or  two  other 
pouts  should  also  l>e  noticed.     Exercise 
b  one  of  these.     It  may  be  walking  or 
hone    exercipe.    Roth   are    invigorating; 
both  p.x>mote  appetite  and  digestion  and 
the  healthy  action  of  the  functions  gen- 
erally.   An  outdoor  occupation  is  to  be 
preferred    on    the    score   of   health   and 
exercise  of  any  kind  may  be  taken.  In  ad- 
dition, freedom  from  anxiety,  cheerful  so- 
dety.  honesty,  and  the  practice  of  all  the 
Tirtnes  are  most  conducive  to  the  pnnno- 
tion  and  preservation  of  health.     See  also 
Owm  Tkeorp  of  Dkeate,  Di$infectant. 
flanift^    (san'Jak;  Turkish,  'a  stand- 
*'*"J**'    ard*)    is  the  name  given  to 
a  snbdlvision  of  an  eyalet  or  minor  prov- 
ince of  Turkey,  fnnn  the  circumstance 
that  tlM  fovemor  of  such  district  hi  en- 
titM  to  carry  tn  war  a  standard  ni  one 
hona-taiL 


eraes  the  valley  of  the  same  name  from 
the  Tulare  Lakes.  Joins  the  Sacramento, 
and  falla  into  Suisun  Bay.  It  has  a 
length  of  350  miiea. 

Sftn  Jos^  (*6-sa'),  a  city,  the  capital 
Sau  1IOB6  q(  Qg„m  cUira  county,  Cal- 
iforahi,  in  the  valley  of  Santa  Clara,  40 
miles  by  rail  s.  of  San  Francisco.  Tlie 
city  is  embowered  in  trees  and  shrul>> 
beries,  and  ban  a  fine  park,  6  miles  dis- 
tant, to  which  leads  a  beautiful  avenue 
of  trees.  It  contains  a  city  hall,  court- 
house, theaters,  state  normal  ,sdiool,  a 
public  library,  and  several  educational 
instittitious.  It  has  extensive  fruit-grow- 
ing and  packing  interests,  the  vaUey 
beW  rich  In  fruits,  and  has  various  man- 
ufactures. Pop.  38,600. 
Oon  Ja«a  capital  of  the  republic  of 
•au  4U5C)  (jogta  Rica,  Central  Amer- 
ica. It  stands  on  a  table-land  4300  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  The  streets  are  nar^ 
row,  and  there  are  few  public  buildings 
worthy  of  note.  It  is  the  center  of  the 
trade  of  the  state.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  and  the  town  is  surrounded  with 
coffee  plantations.    Pop.  about  26,b00. 


fioTi  Jna-n  (Au-4n'>,  the  name  of  a 
Dan  4  nan  ^^j^bet  of  towns  Ui  what 
was  formerly  Spanish  America.  1.  S.  J. 
DB  LO8  Lagos,  in  the  Mexican  state  of 
Jalisco.  Pop.  13,500.  2.  S.  J.  de  ix>s 
Reukdios,  in  Mexico,  state  of  Durango. 
Pop.  5000.  3.  S.  J.  DEL  Rio,  in  Mexico, 
state  of  Quer^taro.  Pop.  8500.  4.  S.  J. 
Baotibta,  in  Mexico,  state  of  Tabasco. 
Pop.  10,543.  5.  S.  J.  DE  LA  FbontebAj 
a  town  of  the  Argentine  Republic  capital 
of  the  province  of  San  Juan.  It  has  • 
cathedral,  school  of  mines,  botanic  gar- 
den, etc.  Pop.  ll^SOO— The  province  is 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Andes. 
Area,  83,715  square  miles;  pop.  90,966. 
The  climate  is  dry  and  warm,  and  tha 
country  fertile.  It  contains  rich  gold 
and  silver  mines.  Wheat  is  extensively 
cultivated.  In  the  southeast  of  the  prov- 
ince is  the  large  Lake  of  Qnanacache. 
There  are  several  towns  of  this  name  in 
the  Philipphie  Islands.  See  also  Porto 
Rioo  {Ban  Jm»»  4e)  and  Oreyiown. 

fiftfi  Juan  *■  "^er  of  Central  Amer- 
DIUI  <l  uau,    jp^      ^ig,^     carries     the 

water  of  Lake  Nicaragua  to  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.    See  Nioaragua. 

San  Juan  Boundary  Question. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Washington  (June  15, 
1846)  it  was  provided  that  the  bound- 
ary line  between  British  North  Amer- 
ica and  tha  Unit^  States  should  be 
eoDtinned  to  tha  middle  of  the  channel 
between  Taaeonver'a  Islsnd  and  the 
coctineiit,  and  thence  south  to  the  Pa- 
dfie  Ooaaa.    Bat  tbe  island  of  San  Jwui 


Bankey 


fhtnntnxo 


11m  in  tb*  middle  of  this  channel,  and 
a  Qoeetlon  Immediately  aroae  a«  to  whom 
the  kUnd  ahoold  heUmg.  It  was  a  sub- 
ject of  long  and  bitter  dln>ute,  but  at  last 
the  matter  was  submitted  to  the  arbitra- 
tion of  the  Emperor  William  of  Germany 
without  appeal.  The  emperor's  award, 
dated  October  21,  1872,  was  given  unre- 
servedly in  favor  of  the  American 
claim,  on  the  ground  that  the  American 
view  of  the  treaty  of  1846  was  the  more 
correct  one. 

fiATilre-v  (wn'H),  Iba  David,  evangel- 
09in&ej  ,,♦  j^„  ^t  Edinburgh,  Penn- 
sylvania, In  1840.  He  had  fine  vocal 
powers,  and  for  a  number  of  years  was 
associated  with  Dwight  L.  Mood/,  the 
evangelist,  holding  the  attention  of  large 
audiences  by  singing  hymns  composed  by 
himself.  He  died  In  1908. 
fi&nkYiVA  (B&ng'kya;  Sanskrit,  nu- 
OfUU^Jiy^  ^g,J  oj  rational),  is  the 
name  of  the  chief  philosophical  system  of 
iLdla.  Its  doctrines  are  attributed  to  the 
sage  Kapila,  fabled  to  have  been  a  son 
of  Brahma  and  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 
It  '  :  -hes  the  eternity  of  matter  and 
sp.it  idependent  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
and  y  .^pounds  a  code  of  twenty-five  prin- 
ciples, by  the  observance  of  which  eternal 
happiness  or  complete  exemption  from 
every  kind  of  ill  can  be  obtained.  The 
Sflnkhya  philosophy  is  supposed  to  date 
from  a  period  anterior  to  the  eighth  cea- 
tury  B.C.  , 

SuL  Incar-de-Barrameda  ^'f; 

d&  bir-r&-m&'th&),  a  seaport  cf  Spain  in 
Andalusia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, in  a  sandy,  treelesb  district,  18 
miles  north  of  Cadis.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable trade,  especially  in  wine.  Ma- 
gellan embarked  here  in  1519  on  his  first 
voyage.    Pop.  23,883.  ,  ,    ^ 

Qon  T.nia  (i»-«8'),  a  province  of  the 
San  JjTUS  Argentine  Bepw  Area, 

28,535    square    miles.    Th(  ate    is 

healthy,  and  rain  seldom  falls,  .ue  prov- 
ince is  rich  in  copper  and  other  metals. 
The  leading  industry  is  cattle-rearing. 
Pop.  97,468. —  The  chief  town  is  Saw 
liOiB  PE  LA  PtTNTA.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  mud  huts  surrounded  by  mimosa  thick- 
ets. A  trade  is  done  in  cattle  and  hides. 
Pop.  10,500. 

San  Inis  Obispo,  LS^L^U' 

C!o.,  California,  90  miles  x.w.  of  Santa 
Barbara.  It  is  near  the  Pacific  and  has 
some  manufactures.    Pop.  5157. 

Baa  Ini.  Potori  feS'^pfa 

of  the  state  of  same  name,  198  miles  n.  w. 
of   Mexico,   tf350   feet   above   sea-level; 


regularly  built,  with  fine  streets.  It  has 
a  nandsome  cathedral ;  mannfactnres  ol 
clothing,  shoes,  hats,  etc.,  railway  woric* 
shops;  and  a  considerable  trade.  Pot>. 
82,946.— The  state  has  an  area  of  26,- 
316  sq.  miles,  is  generally  fertile,  and  has 
rich  gold  and  silver  mines.    Pop.'  676,4^2. 

San  Marco  in  Lamis  ,^°}*3.5,  *S 

town  in  the  provfaice  of  Foni^t  Italy. 
Pop.  17309. 

San  Marino.   Sw^«»*^- 

Son  Martin  ("A°  m4r-t6n'),  Joa 
San  mamn   ^^   nberator    of    Chlle, 

was  bom  at  Zopeyer,  Argentina,  in 
1778.  He  joined  the  Spanish  army  and 
fought  in  the  campaigns  against  France 
from  1793  till  1811,  becoming  lieutenant- 
colonel.  Resigning  in  1812,  he  sailed 
for  Buenos  Ayres,  and  joined  the  patriot 
army.  Here  he  formed  and  drilled  an 
army  of  invasion  and  in  1817  led  a 
body  of  4000  men  in  a  famous  march 
across  the  Andes,  traversing  a  pass 
12,800  feet  high.  Reaching  Chile,  he 
gained  a  victory  at  Ghacabuco  on  Feb. 
12,  following  on  the  15th  with  the  cap- 
ture and  occupation  of  Santiago.  He 
was  defeated  on  March  19,  1818,  but  on 
April  5  gained  a  splendid  victory  at  the 
Mulipo,  which  drove  the  Spaniards  from 
Chile.  He  was  offered  the  supreme  dic- 
tatorship, but  declined  it,  and  began 
preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Peru. 
On  July  19,  1821,  he  took  Lima  from 
the  Spaniards,  and  carried  Callao  after 
a  hard  fight.  On  August  3  he  was  pro- 
claimed supreme  protector  of  Peru.  At 
the  same  time  Bolivar  was  marching 
south  to  Peru,  and  to  prevent  rival 
claims  San  Martin  resigned  his  office, 
leaving  Bolivar  to  complete  his  work. 
Withdrawing  from  South  American  af- 
fairs, he  went  to  France  and  lived  there 
In  reduced  circumstances  until  his  death, 
August  17,  1856.  .    „  ,     ^ 

fian  Hficmpl     »    ^°^^    »'    Salvador, 

name,  and  capital  of  department  of  San 
Miguel.  Its  trade  is  largely  in  indigo. 
Pop.  24,768.  ^    ,      „  ^, 

San  Miguel  AUcnde  ^y'^L'^l)."; 

town  of  Mexico,  state  of  Guanajuato,  on 
the  Rio  de  la  Lara,  with  manufactures  of 
woolens,  saddles,  weapons,  etc.  Pop.  10,- 
000. 

fianviayarA  (84n-&d-s&'r5),  Jaoofo, 
O&UUasaro  ^^  Italian  poet  who  wrote 
both  in  Latin  and  lulian^m  at  Naples 
In  1468;  died  fai  1688.  He  was  patron- 
ixed  by  King  Ferdinand  of  Naples  and 
his  sons  Alphoeso  and  Frederick,   and 


8ui  Btfiftl 


Sukikrit  Languagv 


's; 


th*  Utter  gave  him  the  delUhtf nl  vm 
of  MergelUiui,  with  a  peufon  of  600 
docats.  Sannaiaro  wrote  Bonnets  and 
caiuoiU  and  an  idyl  (Aroadia)  in  Italian, 
Latin  elegies,  eclogues,  epigrams,  and  a 
longer  poem,  De  Partn  Vtrgtnu,  in  three 

to  Eaf  ad,  -co^%^^iS^\¥'^^ 

K.  of  Ban  Francisco,  on  San  Francisco 
Bay.  It  is  a  residential  city  and  a  pleas- 
are  roort.  Pop.  6034. 
Qa-n  Tltfinn  (ra'mS),  a  town  in  the 
San  JiemO  province  of  Porto-Mau- 
rizio.  Italy,  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa.  It  is 
noted  as  a  climatic  health  resort,  and 
is  situated  in  a  beautiful  district.  The 
old  town  is  small  and  badly  built  The 
new  town  contains  many  beautiful  Tillas, 
and  is  frequented  in  winter  by  persons 
suffering  from  pulmonary  affections.  Pop. 
21440. 

fitan  V/wiTiA  (rO'ke),  a  town  of  S. 
Ban  JUique    ^p^i^,  near  the  penhisulp 

of  Gibraltar.  Pop.  8669. 
Ran  Salvftrlnr  (sai-va-d6r'),  a  town 
Ban  Baivaaor  ^  Ontral  America, 
capital  of  the  state  of  Salvador,  situated 
near  the  volcano  of  same  name.  The  in- 
habitants are  chiefly  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture. The  town  was  completely  destroyed 
by  earthquake  on  April  16,  1864,  and  has 
suffered  severely  since.  It  was  founded 
originally  in  1^.  Pop.  00,000. 
fUinaAvifli^  (sttn-san-dig'),  a  town  in 
wansanoig    ^^^^^     western    Soudan, 

Africa,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Niger. 
It  has  an  extensive  trade  and  a  pop.  es- 
timated at  10,000-30.000.  ^ 

Sans-Cnlottes  k\&l^^^r, 

the  name  given  in  derision  to  the  Jacobins 
or  popular  party  by  the  aristocratical 
in  the  beginning  of  the  French  revolution 
of  1789,  and  afterwards  assumed  by  the 
patriots  as  a  title  of  honor. 
flan  fUhflnfiaTi  (Bft-vOs-te-ftn'),  a 
Ban  BeoaSlian     ^^y  ^^^  seaport  in 

the  northeast  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Guipuzcoa,  partly  on  the  side 
of  Mount  Orgullo,  which  projects  into 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  partly  on  the 
isthmus  connecting  it  with  the  mainland. 
It  was  once  strongly  fortified,  its  forti- 
fications including  the  castle  of  Mota 
on  the  summit  of  Orgullo,  4^  feet  high. 
The  town  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
modern  houses  arranged  in  spacious 
streets  and  squares.'  The  manufactures 
consist  chiefly  of  cordage,  sail-cloth, 
leather,  candles,  and  soap.  The  harbor 
is  small,  exposed,  and  difficult  of  access, 
and  the  trade  has  greatly  decayed.;  but 
the  placa  is  much  frequoited  for  sea- 
bathmf  .    San  Miaatian  is  of  considera- 


ble antiquity,  and  having  by  its  earir  for> 
tifleation  become  the  key  of  Spain  on 
the  side  of  France  fignrea  much  in  all 
the  wars  between  the  two  countries.  In 
1813,  when  held  by  the  French,  it  was 
stormed  by  the  British  and  largely  de- 
stroyed. Pop.  (1910)  47,804.  ^  _,  ^. 
Oavi  fi^vmrn  (eA-vft'iO).  a  flourisliipc 
San  BeverO  ^^^wn  of  riouthem  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Foggda,  89  miles  i.  sr.  ■. 
of  Campobasso.  It  Is  tolerably  well- 
built,  and  contains  a  cathedrah  It  wa.^ 
destroyed  by  the  French  in  1799.  Pop. 
30040 
SanSCVie'ra.    see  Bon>ttring-%emp. 

Sanskrit  Lang^iage  and  Lit- 

AT>o4-nr»    (san'skrit).    Sanskrit  is  the 
ciabuic    ^j^mg  jjj^gQ  t^,  tjie  learned  and 

classical  language  of  the  Hindus,  the  lan- 
guage in  which  most  of  their  vast  litera- 
ture is  written,  but  which  has  not  been  a 
living  and  spoken  language  since  about  the 
second  century  before  Christ.    It  is  one  of 
the  Aryan  or   Indo-European  family  of 
tongues,  and  may  be  descnbed  as  a  sister 
of  the  Persian,  Greek,  and  Latin,  Teu- 
tonic,  Slavonic,  and  Celtic  tongues.     It 
stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  modem 
Aryan  languages  of  India  as  Latin  stands 
to    the    Romance    languages.    It    is    a 
highly  hi  fleeted  language,  having  in  this 
respect    many    resemblances    to    Greek. 
To  philologists  it  has  proved  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  of  tongues,  and  it  was  only 
after  it  became  known  to  Europeans  that 
philology  began  to  assume  the  character 
of  a  science.     Its  supreme  value  is  due 
to  the  transparency  of  its  structure,  and 
its  freedom  from  the  corrupting  and  dis- 
guising  effect   of   phonetic   chaiwe,   and 
from  obliteration  of  the  original  mean- 
ing of  its  vocables.    The  name  Sanskrit 
means  carefully  constructed  or  symmet- 
rically formed,  and  was  given  to  distin- 
guish  it    from    the   vernacular   dialects, 
which  were  called  Priikrit,  that  is,  com- 
mon   or    natural.     It    is    probable    that 
Sanskrit,  hi  its  more  highly  e<  'orated 
form,   was   never   spoken   by   a        ^reat 
body    of    the    people.    The    aU       at    is 
usually  known  as  the  Nigari  o.   Deva- 
Nigari,   and   in   its  earliest   form  dates 
back  several  centuries  before  Clirist.    It 
consists  of  fourteen  vowels  and  diphthongs, 
and  thirty-three  consonants,  besides  one 
or    two    other    characters.    Among    the 
phonetic  peculiarities  of  Sanskrit  may  be 
mentioned  the  absence  of  f  and  the  ezist- 
ence  of  consonants  such  as  kk,  gh,  tk,  ih, 
in  which  the  h  is  distinctly  heard  after 
the   other  sound.    When   several  conso- 
nantiii  come  together  they  are  fused  into 
one   compooiMr  character   in  which    the 


Itaikxit  liagUAff 


imtft  Ahm 


origlaal  conpoMnts  ar*  eftM  hard  to  dl»> 
tinffoiah.  In  Sanakrit  nwta  play  a  laoat 
faBportant  part,  the  proctaMa  of  dMl«ii< 
aion  and  eoajagatton  btiag  loolwd  npon  aa 
eooaiatiac  ia  tbt  appcBding  of  cartain  t«^ 
minationa  to  root-fonna,  or  roota  modiocd 
in  certain  wajra  to  form  inflaetiTC  baaea. 
Tbm  ayateu  of  eaae-tennlnatioiia  k  aimllar 
to  tboae  ta  Latin  and  Ore^  bat  in  de> 
denaional  forma  Sanslu-it  ia  richer  than 
either  of  thoae  languagea.  There  are 
eight  eaaea  —  nominative.  aecoaatlTe,  in- 
atmmenul,  dative,  ablative,  genitive,  lo- 
cative, and  vocative.  There  are  three 
numbera — aiiuralar,  dual,  and  plural--- 
and  t'^ree  gendera.  The  verb  in  Sanakrit 
czhibita  mapT  atriking  analogiea  to  the 
verb  in  Oreek,  but  it  ia  not  bo  rich  in 
forms.  Prepoaitiona  are  acarcely  used  in 
Rantkrit  to  govern  noona.  aa  in  other 
Aryan  languages,  but  aa  preHzea  to  verbs 
they  are  of  constant  occurrence.  Syntax 
holds  but  an  unimportant  place  in 
Sanskrit  grammar.  The  excessive  use  of 
Gumbroua  compounds  —  some  of  them 
of  extraordinary  length  and  complexity 
—  ia  a  very  general  feature  in  Sanskrit, 
appearing  in  all  styles  of  composition, 
but  especially  in  the  more  artiflciaL 

Sanakrit  literature  covera  a  period  ex- 
tending from  at  least  IBOO  B.a  to  the 
{•resent    time.    The   great    mass   of    the 
iterature  ia  in  meter,  even  works  on  sci- 
ence and   law   having  a  poetical   form. 
The  oldeat  literary  monuments  are  the 
Feda*-~  the  Rig,  the  yajar,  the  Bama. 
and  the  Atkarva  Veda.    Tbey  are  looked 
npon  aa  the  source  of  all  the  thittnu 
or  sacred  writinga  of  the  Hindus,  which, 
however,  include  works  upon  ethics,  sci- 
ence, and  philosophy  as  well  as  religious 
works.     (See  Veda.)     The  Pmrina$  form 
another    important    department    of    the 
religions  literature,  but  are  very   much 
tater  than  the  Vedas.    Ther«  are  eight- 
een of  them  altogether,  forciin*-  a  vast 
body  of  literature  of  varied  contents,  the 
aubjects    treated    comprising    mythology, 
legendary,  history,  cosmogony,  with  many 
digressiens  c*  a  philosophical  and  didac- 
tic  nature,    though   some   of   them   also 
oontafai  deiwriptions  of  places,  and  pre- 
tend to   teach    medicine,   grammar,    etc. 
The    oldest    law-book    is    the    Dharma- 
SkMtra,   ascribed   to  the   mythical    per- 
sonage Alano.    In  the  department  of  epic 
poetry    th<»    chief    productions    are    the 
epics    ca!    1    the    KHmdyana    and    the 
MolMMr^ia.    The     RamHyana    is     be- 
lieved to  be  the  older  of  the  two,  and  to 
have  been  current  in  India  as  early  aa 
the  fifth  cmtury  B.a    The  ifakibMrata 
la  a  huge  epic  of  about  220,000  lines, 
fbming   rather  a  cyclopaedia  of  Hindu 
TBphiAatJi  lagndary  hiatory,  and  phiioa»> 


pkr  tkaa  a  vmm  wM  a  atafla  MblMt. 
It  la  tba  pfodoetkB  of  vaneita  pwioda 
and  variooa  aothonk    (Saa^  JtwMwaM, 
JfaAaMorala.)     In  tha  provlnee  of  iyrle 
poetnr  wa  meet  with  poena  of  the  gnat- 
eat  alcganca,  tender  aantlmant,  and  baaa- 
tlfnl  deacriptiona  of  nature.    We  ojoat 
mentioo    in    particular    tte    M9$h*d»tm 
(' Cloud  Mcaaenaer')    of  KUMiaa:   tha 
AitaasaMra   (' Circle  of  the  SeaaoM*) 
of  the  aame  poet:  and  the  Oilsfoeiada 
of  Jayadeva,  describing  the  adventures  of 
Krishna.    Though  the  Hiodua  can  boaat 
of  some  excellent  apecimena  of  dramatic 
poetry,  yet,  on  the  whole,  their  dramaa 
are  much  inferior  to  thoae  of  the  Greeka 
or  of   modern   Europe.    The   playa  are 
written  in  mixed  prose  and  verse,  and  the 
lower   charactera    and   all    femalea    are 
made  to  speak  not  in  Sanakrit  but  in 
Prakrit,   only   the   higher   nMie  charac- 
tera using  the  former.    The  Hindu  poetic 
talee  and  fablea  have  exercised  a  moat 
important  influence  on  the  whole  litera- 
ture of  the  East,  and  even  on  that  of 
our  own  middle  agea.    Among  the  collec- 
tiona  of  thia  class  are  the  Panekatantra 
('Five  Books'),  from  which  Europe  de- 
rived the  fablea  of  BUlpai  (or  Pilpay )  aad 
the  Attopadetika  ('Salutary  Instruction'), 
a  somewhat  later  collection  of  the  same 
material ;  alao  the  twenty-five  TaUt  of  ik« 
Dtmon,  seventy  Tatea  of  the  Ptrrpt  (which 
gave  rise  to  the  well-known  atoriea  of  the 
Seven  Wi$e  Matten),  etc.    The  KathA- 
tarit-tigara  ('Ocean  of  Streams  of  ^ar- 
ration ')  compiled  in  the  eleventh  century, 
is    an    extensive   collection    of    the   best 
Indian  tales.    The  scientific  literature  of 
India  ia  likewise  large.    Cirammar  aeeroa 
to  have  had  a  special  fascination  for  the 
Hindua.    The  oldest  extant  grammar  hi 
that   of    P&nini,    which    belongs    to   the 
second   or   third   century    before  Christ. 
In     mathematics     and     astronomy     the 
Hindus  have  greatly  distinguished  them- 
selves, aa  also  in  medicine  and  philosophy. 
Sanskrit   literature  was  first   introduced 
to   the   Western  world   by   Sir   William 
JOnea  in  the  end  of  last  centar:^ 


Qona-annni  (sttn-sii-sS;  French, 
SanS-80Tl(a  .^i^out  care'),  a  pal- 
ace near  Potsdam  built  for  Frederick 
the  Great  in  1745-47,  mainly  intereating 
for  ita  aasodationa  and  relica. 

Santa  Ana,  onuS  ^Tcaiitomia, 

33  miles  8.  K.  of  Loa  Angelea.  It  ia  tiia 
commercial  center  <flF  a  nch  agricultural 
and  horticultural  district,  watered  by  ir» 
rigatitHi.     Pop.  12^000.  ^    . 

Santa  Anna  iSK^STl' nSffiS 

preaident,bomin  1796;  died  faille.  Ua 
expelled  the  Spaniarda  from  Mexioo,  aad 


Si&ta  Barbtxft 

Btodaimcd  tho  Meztean  BMoUie  te 
1822.  He  was  la  the  frrat  onrinc  (^ 
the  Mexican  trouWea  aad  ia^l^ 
became  preaident  la  1886  be  attadtad 
the  rerolted  Teaaaa,  ahowing  fwat 
crudty,  but  waa  defeated,  and  tak« 
Iffiaoner  by  the  Texana.  He  waa  reteaaed 
tb»  foUowlns  year  and  was  again  preai- 
deot  in  1846  and  in  ia»«. 

Santa  Barbara  i'Si^t^^'j;.*''^ 

Banta  Barbara  conntr,  California,  on  the 
Paeifie.  about  100  niUes  N.  ic  w.  of  Loa 
Angelea  on  the  coaat  line  <d  the  Southern 
Pacific  B.  B.  It  haaextenrive  fnUt- 
froerlng  interests  and  is  noted  for  its 
.scenery  and  its  climate.  It  exporto 
•  fruits,  nuts,  lima  beans,  etc.    Pop.  14,000. 

Santa  Catharina  <"-2:S'2>'  • 


southern  state  of 

Braail ;  area,  28,626  aquare  mUes.    It  U| 

watered  by  numeroua  streama,  the  soil 

it  fertile,  the  climate  mild,  and  the  sea- 

aons  regular.    Sugar,  coffee,  rice,  maiae, 

mandioca,  and  wheat  are  the  chief  culn- 

Tated  producta.    Agricultural  and  catue- 

jeariag  are   the  cKief   industries.     The 

capital  is  Deaterra    Pop.  about  300,000, 

indnding  many  Qerman  aettlers. 

flaTifa  fnATA.  •  «i*y  ■.°*'  province  of 
Danxa  l»iarH)  q^^  .  ^he  province,  of 

9660  aq.  miles,  lying  between  Matanxaa 
and  Puerto  Prindpe ;  the  dty,  194  mUe* 
by  laU  B.  8.  ■.  of  Havana.  It  is  in  a  re- 
gion of  tobacco  and  of  mines  of  gold,  cop- 
per and  graphite.  Pop.  16,702. 
fUnfo  rfpny    (krOe),   a   city,   oranty 

eoonty,  California,  on  Monterey  Bay,  T6 
Bika  B.  8.  >;  of  San  Francisco.  It  to 
acted  for  its  scenery  and  ita  giant  red- 
wooda,  and  ia  a  popular  resort  Ltaae, 
cement,  asphalt,  powder,  leather,  lumber, 
etc.,  are  produced;  also  miscellaneoaa 
fruits.    Pop.  11.146.  .     . ,  ,       ^ 

CUvifa.  Crnv  capital  and  chief  port 
GianTa  l^rOZy  ©f  the  Canarv  Island^ 
on  the  R.  ■.  coast  of  TenerifFe.  The 
streets  are  well  paved,  but  the  houses  ar» 
small,  and  tho  public  buildings  few. 
There  is  an  excellent  harbor  protected 
by  a  mole.  Wine,  brandy,  and  cochineal 
are  expwted.    Pop.  (1910)  63,004.     .     , 

Santa  Gmz  de  la  Sierra,  I'i^l^ 

department  of  Santa  Crui  in  Bolivia,  sit- 
uated on  die  banks  of  a  small  tributary 
of  the  Piray.  The  houses  are  bu&t  <rf 
Mrth  and  timber  with  large  balcoDisBi 
Pop.  est  (1906)  20,535. 
fiatitfl  VA  (f&)t  a  dty,  capital  ef 
Sania  Jre  i^^^  Mexio^T  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  which  it  is  rituatad,  20  mUea 
B.  from  the  Bto  Grande  dd  Norta^-  TM8 
fiat  abov«  the  aaa.    Many  oC  tte  MHM» 


StatalfWood 

$M  boat  of  oaboiBt  M»Ma*  iMffekJ" 
the  Spanlah  style  of  "l^i^SSf^-rfBS! 
are  many  toe  public  b^diaga^toclwltof 
the  Old  Palace  ^  tha  Ogwnow.  Aftw 
8t  Auguatine,  Banta  W  >  the  oMajJ 
settlement  of  Europeana  in  the  VaUad 
States,  and  it  waa  the  seat  of  an  wgaalaad 
pweftlo  community  many  hnndreda  or 
years  before  Ck>lumbna  fflaoovered  Amw- 
ica.  It  ia  the  center  of  .^jo"^^'^;^ 
mining  industry ;  in  the  midst  ««  *  ■*«3* 
raising  district  and  in  a  very  fertUe  irri- 
gated valley.    Pop.  6200.  

fianto  VA  *  town  of  the  Argen^e 
Santa  Jre,  BepubUc,  capital  d  fte 
province  of  aame  name,  situated  at  we 
confluence  of  the  Sa^ado  with  the  Parana, 
280  miles  R.  N.  w.  of  Buenos  Ayres,  on  an 
unhealthy  site.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Mshw, 
haa  a  cathedral,  Jesuits' a>Uege,  etc.   ga 

frindpal  trade  is  in  hides  and  timber, 
•op.  ^  (1904)  86,2()p. 

Santalaoee  te;^?^ii^  2- 

ogenous  plants.  ^They  ate  shnibs  or 
fairbs,  with  opposite  or  alternate  exstimi- 
lateleavea,  and  a  one-celled  ovary  with 
dry  or  fleshy  albumen.  In  the  form  of 
w^  the  genera  are  found  in  Europe  «id 
North  America ;  in  Australia,  tl»  Eai* 
Indies,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands  th^ 
exist  as  large  ahrubs  or  sma"  trees. 
Santilum.  sandal-wood,  is  the  chief  gwiua. 

Santal  Parganas  iSiVaf  tA"* 

gfnSf;  ^rS*  &^^  2i?i~^ 
Ganges,  which  bounda  the  district  on  W 
north  and  partly  on  the  east,  fonna  alao 
its  chief  drainage.  Various  mineral^  M 
coal,  iron,  andallver,  have  been  foui^to 
tUs  district  The  district  is  named  from 
the  Santila,  who  form  the  most  cMrae- 
teristic  portloii  of  ita  |n»«Wt^»VS^  ^ 
also  found  elsewhere  in  India.  IHey  are 
Sne  of  the  aboriginal  races  bel^glMto 
the   Dravidian    stock, ,, are   «•*■«»•«•*• 

and  mostly  profess  a  "««*<>«»  «'*5flf,''r^ 
in  which  the  worship  of  a  chief  deity  and 
subordinate  deities  and  a  aort  of  aaceator 
worehip  phiy  a  chief  ~rt  Thw.Jlve 
chiefly  by -hunting,  and  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  finte-playing,  dancing,  and  sing- 
ing. Education  has  been  promoted  by 
the  Chnreh  Missionary  Sodety. 

Santa  Lnda.    see  l«c«»  (««.). 

Sonfal.ivAAil  »  dye-'^ood  obtabnd 
Saniai-wOOa,  j„m  pterooanut  ttm- 
«aIfttM,  a  leguminous  tree  of  the  Bart 
Indies,  Madagascar,  «*«- ;•!*>. <**S 
sandeiB  or  aaundera  wood  ana  rea 
sandal-wcri.  BantuHne,  a  snbatanca  *• 
tained  f  rom  it,  ia  uaed  in  dye»nf  blue  a«l 
browit 


Iftato  Xuia  di  Capoft-Y «t«n 


Stntlago  del  Iito* 


i 


S«bU  Xaiia  di  Capiia-Y«tere, 

«  town'  of  Booth  Italy,  In  tlw  provloM  of 
Cawrta,  8  mile*  MutbMit  of  Ctpoa. 
It  is  bnilt  on  the  site  of  ancient  Capaa, 
of  which  there  are  many  remarkable 
rulna,  inclndinf  remains  of  a  Boman  am- 
phitheater.   Pop.  21326. 

Santa  Maura,  see  L««oo«if«. 
Santa  Monica,  ^Ai^c^oX 

15  miles  w.  of  Los  Angeles.  It  is  a  seii- 
side  resort  and  a  shipping  point  Poit. 
7847. 

Ran't^nilAr  (sln-tad-dlr').  a  city  and 
Santanaer  iaport  of  N.  fepain,  capi- 
tal of  the  provfaice  of  same  name,  on  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  with  a  good  and  secure 
harbor.  In  the  more  ancient  quarter  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  straight,  while  in 
the  modem  the  streets  are  spacious,  and 
the  houses  of  good  architecture.  There 
is  a  town-house,  small  cathedral,  theater, 
two  public  markets,  promenades,  etc.  It 
has  a  large  cigar  manufactory,  foundry, 
brewery,  cooperages,  fiah-curing  establish- 
ments, tanneries;  besides  manufactories 
of  refined  sugar,  candles,  vermicelli,  hats, 
etc.  It  is  also  a  resort  for  sea-bathing. 
Pop.  66,040. — ^The  province  is  bounded 
by  Biscay,  Burgos,  Palencia,  and  Oviedo, 
and  has  an  area  of  2111  square  miles. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces  large 
quantities  of  maize^emp,  flax,  oranges, 
lemons,  figs,  etc.  Tber?  are  also  lead, 
coal,  and  iron  mines,  quarries  of  lime- 
stone and  marble.  The  rearing  of  cattle 
is  common,  and  the  fisheries  along  the 
coast  are  well  developed.  Pop.  276,003. 
flA-ntjir*Tn  ( s&o't4-ron ) ,  a  city  of 
Saniarem  i.ortugal.  beautifully  situ- 
ated in  the  province  of  Estremadura,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  46  miles 
northeast  of  Lisbon.  It  has  an  im- 
portant Jesuit  seminary.    Pop.  8628. 

SiLTltfl.  "Rabs.  (rO'sa),  a  city,  capital 
Sauia  AOSa  ^j  Sonoma  county,  Cali- 
fornia, 57  miles  v.  by  w.  of  San  Francis- 
co. It  has  various  mills  and  factories, 
and  an  extensive  trade,  in  a  wine-growing 
and  agricultural  region.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  equable.    Fruit  canning  is  an 

important  industry.    Pop.  7817.         

Sa  Ti  f  «n>*    ( 8&9-tar ) ,  Antoike  Joseph, 

sanierre  ^o^  j^  pa^jg  j^  1752;  died 

in  1809.  As  a  wealthy  brewer  he  was 
notable  during  the  French  revolution  for 
bis  influence  over  the  Parisian  mob  in 
the  attacks  on  the  Bastile  and  the 
Tnileries.  He  rose  to  be  commander  of 
the  National  Guard  and  a  field-marshal. 
flantiaffo  (8ttn-te-a'g&),  the  capital  of 
"■""*B0  the  BepuWic  of  (3hUe  and  of 
tlw  j^roriaoe  ckC  the  aame  same,  is  bean- 


tifally  sitmted  at  tb*  foot  of  tha  Andsa, 
112  miles  by  raU  ■.  of  YahMuralso.  It 
Is  intefseeted  by  the  Mapoeno.  a  rapid 
stream  issning  from  tho  Andes,  naa  water 
channels  in  many  of  the  streets,  is  lighted 
by  electricity,  and  furnished  with  tram- 
ways. Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  earth- 
quakes the  houses  are  mostly  of  one  stmy, 
and  generally  occupy  a  large  space  of 
ground,  havmg  gardens  and  ^tios  or 
courts  in  the  interior.  The  Plasa  or 
Great  Square  is  a  large  open  area 
adorned  with  a  fine  fountain;  around  it 
are  the  municipal  buildings  and  criminal 
courts,  the  post-office,  the  old  palace,  for* 
merly  the  residence  of  the  presidents, 
now  used  as  barracks,  the  cathedral,  etc. 
There  are  also  a  mint,  a  well-appointed 
university  with  about  1000  stndenta, 
high-class  secondary  schools,  school  oC 
art,  military  school,  normal  schools, 
theater,  museum,  etc.  The  city  was 
founded  in  1541.  The  most  memorable 
event  in  ita  history  was  the  burning  of 
a  rhurch,  in  which  about  2U00  persons 
perished,  in  1863.    Pop.  378408. 

Santiago-de-Ck)mpo8tella  <^: 

t&'la),  a  city  of  Spain  in  Galicia,  in  the 

Jrovince  and  32  miles  south  of  Corufia. 
t  is  picturesquely  situated,  and  well 
bnilt;  streeta  for  the  most  part  broad 
and  paved.  The  chief  edifice  is  the 
cathedral,  a  Bomanesque  building  founded 
in  1078,  having  in  one  of  the  chapels 
the  image  of  St.  James  (Santiago)  of 
Compoatella  (more  correctly  Compos- 
tela),  which  has  long  attracted  numer- 
ous pilgrims.  Other  buildings  are  the 
archiepiscopai  palace,  the  ecclesiastical 
seminary,  the  town-house,  the  convent  of 
St.  Martin,  and  the  university.  The  town 
has  manufactures  of  leather,  linen,  etc. 
Pop.  24,120. 

Santiago^e-Cnba  ^^'»«> -^  '^ 

the  southeast  coast  of  the  Island  of 
Cuba.  It  is  the  oldest  town  of  the 
island  (having  been  founded  in  1614)  ; 
has  a  fine  cathedral,  several  other 
churches,  and  a  harbor,  which,  though 
difficult  of  access,  is  spacious  and  deep. 
It  is  the  center  of  a  larj^e  agricultural 
and  mining  district,  has  important  iron 
and  tobacco  manutactures,  and  exporta 
largely  to  the  United  States.  It  was 
invested  and  taken  by  the  Americans  in 
the  war  of  1898.    Pop.  (1914)  61,5ia 

Santiago  del  Estero  iSf' S^'thJ 

Argentine  Bepublic,  in  the  provlnoe  of 
same  name,  in  a  fertile  district  on  the 
Bio  Dulce.  Pop.  miOO.— The  provtoec 
has  an  area  of  31,500  sq.  miles,  and  ii 
well  suited  for  cattle-rearins  ud  Miir 
culture.    Pop.  180,206. 


aaatipnr 

tb*  tint  Hooffaly.  It  to  weU-known  for 
its  cloth  numafactanf,  hM,  an  umtui 
fair  wlkich  laata  for  thrw  dars,  and  a 
coiuidorablo  local  trade.  Pop.  29,687. 
fkiiitlAV  ("antni),  Chablbs,  a  pobllc 
SBIluey  ginger,  waa  bom  at  LiTcrpool 
in  1884;  acqaircd  a  knowledge  of  hto  art 
in  Italy  under  Qaetano  Nava.  and  in 
London  under  Garcia:  appear*^  for  tbe 
fint  time  in  1857,  and  achieved  his  firat 
great  success  at  the  Handel  Festival  in 
the  Crystal  Palace  in  1862. 

Santo  Domingo.   f^nS^S^SS 

BtpuUio,  ,     „  

O.V.4.«.«4«    (san'tu-nin),  SAKTOirara 

Santonin   Jc-H-O.),     i     proximate 

principle  possessing  "Id  propertieB.  o^ 

lainetf  fromthe  seed  of   southernwood 

(ArtemUia   tantontoa).    It   is   colorless, 

crvBtalUsable,  and  soluble  in  alcphoL 

ci««i4>AM«i    (san-to-r*n'),   Taak,  ot 

SantOnn    ijAijjOTE,  the  largest  of  a 

•mall  group  of   islands  in   the   Grecian 

Aichipelago,  60  miles  north  of  Crete.    It 

is  somewhat  crescent-shaped,  and  nas  a 

circuit   of   about   80   miles,    though   its 

breadth  nowhere  exceeds  3  miles.    The 

■bores  of  the  inner  curve  are  precipitous. 

but  they  slope  gradually  down  to  those  of 

the  outer  curve,  which  are  covered  wltn 

vineyards.    Wine   is   the   staple  of   the 

island.    The  inland  to  of  volcanic  orighi, 

and     adjoining     it     are     several     wnall 

tolands  thrown  up  by  eruptions  in  historic 

times,    the    last    having   taken   place   in 

1866.    Pop.  about  16,«)0.  ^  _^ 

ea«4>Aa   (sln'tnsh),  a  city  and  seaport 

SaniOB  Jf  BrSil,  in  the  province  and 

BO  mUes  b.b.1.  of  Blo-Paufo,  on  a  bay 

of  the  South  Atlantic    The  harbor  to  the 

best  in  the  provtace,  and  the  chief  outlet 

for  its  products,  which  are  fou^.  8ug«. 

tobacco,  hides,  etc.    Pop.  about  90,000. 

Santos-Dnmont,  So^^STslo'S 

Braail,  In  1878,  son  of  a  wealthy  coffee 
planter.  He  began  experiments  in  aero- 
sution  at  Paris  in  ifiM,  constructed  a 
8ucce«Bion  of  air-ships,  imdin  1901  won 
the  Deutsch  prise  of  100,000  francs  by 
traverring  a  dtotance  of  about  8  miles, 
in  which  he  sailed  round  the  Eiffel 
Tower.  On  the  invention  of  the  aero- 
plane he  was  one  of  the  first  to  experi- 
ment with  it,  and  in  1906  won  a  prize 
of  f  10,000  by  making  a  flight  of  one 
kilometer.  ,  ,         ^.  _    . 

Sao-Francisco  i^^,;^fSSli 

rises  in  the  southwest  of  the  pioriace 


of  MhMs^ntes^  flows  v.v.%.  tiumafb. 
tbat  proriooe  and  the  pronnos  of  Buia. 


gJO-PftllO 

forau  tba  boundary  bstwaMi^^,.li^t«r 
piovtaMs  and  Pemambneo,  and^talli  iato 
iha  Atlantic  BO  mitoa  v.  n.  ■.  eCtba  tflfB 
<a  Sergipe-del-Rey;  length,  1600  nllw. 
with  nnmerons  rapids  and  cataraeta, 
which  make  its  contlnuoas  navigatloB 
Impossible.  _ 

RaAha  i»8«»5  "«•  Arsf).  a  river  of  m. 
O*®"®  France,  rises  in  the  Vosgw,  «• 
ten  tbe  department  of  Haute-Satae,^ii 
flows  through  the  department  of  Cpte- 
d'Or,  continues  southwest  and  nealvsa 
tbe  Doubs  as  tributary,  reaches  Cbtk«, 
where  it  flows  due  south  until  it  Joins  tbs 
Rhone  at  Lyons;  length,  280  miles,  of 
which  100  are  navigable.  It  to  Munected 
by  canato  with  the  Rhine,  Loir*  and 
^ne.  .__ 

OtJinm  Hauib  (Ot  8«n;  'Upper 
oaone,  ga^ne'),  a  departuent  in  tiM 
east  of  France ;  area,  2CQ8  »Q'»"  «]*»• 
It  to  drained  by  the  Satoe,  the  0«noB, 
etc.,  and  there^  are  many  small  tokefc 
A  part  of  the  department  belongs  to  the 
Tosgei  Mountains.  This,  which  com- 
prises about  a  fourth  of  tbe  whole,  to 
rugged  and  the  soil  arid,  but  the  low- 
lyiEg  basin  is  well  watered  and  produ<> 
tiveT  In  addition  to  cereata  flax  and 
hemp  are  extensively  cultivated ;  the  oral- 
nary  fruits  generally  thrive  well,  Md 
some  districts  are  almost  covered  with 
cherry  plantations.  Iron  is  extwisively 
worked,  but  the  main  occupatl<m  to  agri- 
culture. Vesoul  to  the  capital.  Fop. 
266.179 

Sadne^t-Loire,  <S?tre'!?^'o?  t 

France;  area,  8270  square  milea.  It  to 
divided  by  a  mountain  range,  which  be- 
longs to  the  Cevennes,  and  it  takes  Its 
name  from  the  two  streams  which  bound 
the  department  on  the  southeast  and  west 
respectively.  The  soil  on  the  whole  to 
not  of  remarkable  fertility,  the  finest 
part  of  the  department  being  the  valley 
of  the  SaOne.  The  vine  to  extoisively 
cultivated.  The  most  important  mineral 
to  coaU  of  which  there  to  an  extensive 
field;  iron  to  also  worked.  There  are 
manufactures  of  leather,  glass,  linen  and 
cotton  goods;  and  the  trade  is  chiefly  in 
agricultural  produce,  coal,  iron,  wine, 
and  leather.  M&con  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
(1906)  618,877. 

S&o-Panlo  t&-tr'o?^^rirS 

tweoi  Minas-Geraes  and  Parani;  area, 
112,812  square  mUes.  The  coast-line  to 
bold  and  rocky:  behind  are  mountain 
chains  which  divide  the  province  into  two 
basins.  That  m  the  east  side  SCTds 
its  wateia  dinctly  to  the  Attontic;  wWIe 
the  far  torger  interior  basm  drains  Into 
tb*  Auani,  which  hounds  the  province 


ZSy^omSr  Witk  lonati.  wUk  ob  Om 
Ewar  dww  tkt  erupt  irown  art.  nifaf 

eon«.   S«ttOB,    BMiM, 


bacce, 


terbora  oa 


OUO  luUaa - 

oMna.— 8io-PAUU>>  the  capital,  ia  tbe 
vtntn  of  tbe  proviucUI  raiiwaya,  ^80 
luUea  from  ita  aeaport,  Bantoa.  and  148 
nil«a  from  Rio-d«-JaiMfIro.  The  princi* 
pal  ediflcea  are  the  cathedral,  •evfral  cioa- 
OHterlee  and  muTcnta,  the  Kovccuori  and 
tbe  biahop'a  palace,  the  towu-boase,  etc. 
It  ia  one  of  the  oldeet  citiea  of  Brazil, 
baviof  been  built  in  15M.  and  ia  tbe 
Induatrial  centttr  ot  the  state.  Pop.  eatl- 
mated  at  400.000.    .  „      „      _, 

SaOUari    (»*-9-»«*>-    SeeSoaoH. 

Can  ia  military  nfFairs,  a  narrow  ditch 
™'i'»  or  trench  by  which  approacb  ia 
made  to  a  fortress  or  beaieged  place  wht^n 
within  range  of  Ore.    It  runs  in  a  zig- 


•ompaajriaf  Sfora  aha  do^la  MP  oa 

tba  serpentio*  ptaa;  h,  Metloa  af  difla 

•ap,  tbowinf  portloo  ot  fabloaa;  e,  ase- 

tioB  of  covered  sap;  d,  MP  oa  laetaafa- 

lar  plan. 

Onn     tba  Jalc*  or  flald  wbldi,  drenlatM 

^*lft   in  all  pUnta,  btli«  m  ladtowaap 

bla  to  vefeUble  Ufa  aa  tba  bteod   to 

animal  life.    It  ia  the  flrat  pndoet  o( 

the  digestion  of  plant  food,  and  coatabM 

tbe  elemenU  of  vegetable  growth  in  a 

diaaolved   condition.    Tbe   absorptioa   of 

nutriment  from  tba  aoil  ia  effected  by  tba 

minute  root-baira  and  papillm,  tba  ab> 

aorbed    nutriment    being    mabily    oom- 

poaed  of  carbonic  acid  and  nitroffsooaa 

compounds     diaaolved     fai     wattr.    Tbia 

ascenUing,  or  m  it  la  termed  ermit  MP. 

ia   nppurently    transmitted   tbroivh    tba 

Iocs  cells  In  the  vaacuhir  ttsaoa  of  tba 

clem  aud  branchea  to  tbe  Icavaa,  paaamg 

from  cell  to  cell  by  tbe  proceM  known  m 

eu(lo«mose,    and   changing    in    character 

under   the   influence   of  snnlight  acting 

upon  it  through  the  leaf  tisane.    It  tbea 

deacends  aa  ebiborated  plant  food. 

SAHftion  (■ap'a-JO),  tba  aama  gtaj 
DapajOU   ^„/Jy  j|y„  to  a  group  of 

South  American  prehenaile-tailcd  nK»- 
keys,  including  fifteen  or  sixteen  apwiai, 
whoso  characteriatica  it  ia  exceedingly 
dlfllcult  properly  to  define.  Among  tba 
species  may  be  named  the  Cebae  (•*»«• 
l««,  or  homed  Hpajoo  (atoo  called 
homed  capucfai) ;  tbe  C.  moH»cku$  and 
C.  capucinua,  often  called  tbe  eapadn. 
One  of  the  moat  common  apeclM  ia  tba 


Sap,  ■■  Tsriouly  eoaatraeted. 

lag,  sffpantine,  or  similar  direction,  ao  aa 
not  to  be  enfiladed  by  tbe  fire  of  the  for- 
tress. The  trench  is  formed  by  trained 
men  (Mppera),  who  place  gabions  as  a 
cover,  filled  with  the  earth  taken  from 
tbe  trench  akmg  tbe  intended  line  of  par* 
apet;  the  earth  excavated,  after  tbe  ga- 
bions have  been  filled,  being  thrown  up  CapnrtnSapaJou  (C*«.c.pii«<m«). 
to  form  a_parapet  capable  of  resisting  '  '^ 

aitillery.    The  aingle  sap  has  only  a  sin-  __^  ,, 

gi«  parapet:  tbe  double  has  one  on  each  weeper  (Cebas  apeHa).  They  aia  amall 
SSe.'^S^timea  the  sap  ia  entirely  cov-  in  size,  playful  toj«gSj«?^J2,^5« 
end  in.  The  digging  of  a  np  ia  gen-  a  gregarious  life,  and  feadlnf  tMtOj  oo 
•calljr  »  dangaroua  operftUos.    i«  tbe  ac-  f  mlta  and  iinect*. 


li^ttlMlt 


■toOMtrM.  bdifmww^to  BUa,  Iter-  tfc  "^^^^W  "gj^^"  *S^^ 
■ah.  India,  rtc  aad  OMd  m  •  dy«-wood.  dr»  ^0«ftei   *■»«•   P»ww«»   »•  •■««• 
K.  djTlt  yitllto  to  of  •  ltd  color,  bat  M»k*  o£  «"■»*«*•-,,  n^.^,  ^„., 
mtlMff  Inferior.  .^    w.  BaWUl-WOOd.     "^  ««l>«»-«»^ 

tka  harrlM  af  th«  ^AmMM  MlMTtifiM.    ^yif^*      tiM     COQSWt     in     COnMrtMUBg 

SThSSffirS:  iTdSw^Si  With  ;  ■>?•  or  otiitr  field-worta.  etc  Fonntf^ 
Uttte^imu  It  to  .oluwr in  w«ttr:  ncids  tiM  non-con>into.i«n«l  ofllcen  and  prirauo 
SSto^if  Iwt  tho  XllM  and  aikalino  of  the  Royal  Enflneert  rtcjWjd  tta 
Mfftte  NMiton  tb«r««  color-  It  to  iu«d  pnoral  apptltotion  of  tiM  Sapparv  and' 
by  watarswior  pabitcn  u  a  patn  plf-  Minww.  ,„~,,v     .  «,«^«.„  -*«■,- 

--Bt    Caltod   alM   blaJder-grecn,   being  Sapphire    ^*^P!2\^J^VSa^SS: 
A  in  btoddcr*  to  dry  Hod  hanUa  HayF******   next  in  baidneao  and  raioa 

x  in  o«oa«r.^io  ar^^         ^   German  to  the  diamond,  lielonginf  to  the  coran- 
bumoriat.   born   at   Pe«iU.   of  dum  cln«i.    Sjpph'f^  ■"..found Jnfarl- 


Ml* 


fkphir 

Jawlab  partntage,  in  17tii>;  died  iu  1858. 


ou«  plttvea,  aa  Burmab,  India,  and  Ceylon, 


At  M  Jariy  a«  bi  went  to  Berlin,  and  iu  Aala;  and  Bohemia  and  »»!«>«;«« 
iwKMairal/  edited  the  Berliner  Sehttell-  Europe.  The  aappbire  proper  to  a  b^utl- 
MDtr  bemttehe  Hortooat,  Dcr  foraar,  fult.-an«parent  atone  of  vorioua  aUdaa 
Md  Oar  If  amorist.  of  b'.ue  color.     See  Corandvm.  .    .  ^      ^ 

Su«4i!^«il«  («»P-b»-<la'»e^).  •  a*t-  SaCDho  ^^^^^'  ■  <»>"»l«»gulab€d  Qiatk 
tepindaoee  ^'^^ot  polypetaloua  oapp^O  poote«a.  bom  at  Mitylenewon 
dkotyledona.  It  conaiata  ol  trees  or  tba  laland  of  Leeuoo  and  flourtohed  ab«wt 
SKoba  with  erect  or  climbing  stoma,  in-  flOO  B.c.  Little  to  known  regarding  bar 
kablunta  of  moat  porta  of  the  tropica,  life,  tliouah  she  to  »raUe  tbe  aabjact  ot 
-m»t  eapccially  of   South   America   and   various  leg?nd«.    <  ^  may  ba  men' 

Indbi.  The  leaves  are  usually  nltemnte,  tioucd  the  Loinmcu  y  of  her  lovo  lor 
aimnie  or  comnouud.  and  the  floners  oi'toa  Tliaou,  which,  bein^  unrequited,  catiaed 
irregular.  The  fruit  of  the  Sainndua  her  to  leap  down  trom  the  Leocadlan 
twnaria  to  uaed  for  washing  linen.  Kock.^  At  Mltylene  Sappho  appcara  to 

fl»^.li11o  (aap-u-dll'a),  a  tree  of  the  hsve  been  the  center  of  a  femato  cottrto. 
Bapoailla  **S;  Ackra$,  the  A.  So-  most  of  the  members  of  whicb  wert  bar 
Mta,  nat.  order  Sapotaceaj,  and  found  in  pupito  In  poetry,  faablon,  and  f*U»tnr. 
fha  West  Indiea.  !fiie  fruit  resemblea  a  ller  odea,  elegiea,  epigrama,  of  wbicb 
b«mmot  near  in  abape  and  slae.  It  la  only  fiagmenU  have  come  down  to  na, 
St«3lenL«keAS  wd  to  much  prtoed  dtoptoy  deep  feeling  and  in«fla«tton; 
a"  an  articto  of  diet!  Tbe  bark  of  the  Her  reputation  among  the  ancients  abnoat 
aapodllto  is  nsefl  in  medicine  aa  an  borders  on  extravagnnce  ^  ,  ,  ,  . 
aatrU»cent,  and  the  aeeda  aa  a  diuretic.  Saprolegnia  iSf,: 'Jf '^nS  wU<^ 
QatkAvtin*    (aap'o-nln;     ChHmOm},     a        •^         ^  f   ,,'.        »"«>•»   wmca 

Saponme  non-nUrogenoua  vegetable  grow  on  dead  and  living  auuuato  and 
prfndpte  found  in  the  root  of  Sopoijoria  pLuita  in  water,  and  form  the  cbarae- 
S|le<«dlT«  and  many  other  ptonts.  It  to  teristk  feature  of  tbe  aaimon  dtee|i!|e. 
SStaWe  in^teTind  its  wlutlon,  even  Sap-rollsr.  *  "".T**  «»";?/L'^"^  ^ 
when  much  diluted,  frotha  on  being  agi-  w»F-*v*«*,  another  gabion  of  toaa 
Uted  like  a  aolutlon  of  soap.  ...    diameter  aa  well  as  with  faacinea.    It  fa 

aawA^ifA  (sap'u-nit),  a  hydroua  sili-  used  by  aappera,  who  roll  it  before  tbem 
Bapomie  ^^^  ^f  magnesia  and  alu-  in  diggbig  a  aap  to  protect  them  from 
mina.    It  occura  in  soft,  soapy,  amor-   the  Bn  of  tbe  enemy.    Sea  8ap,  tifaMoa. 

{Sn.SSSTlS'PnXi'-  '"  "'^''"  Saprepkjte.  ^r  pZ''^^ 

SttviAiAMM     (sa-po-tft'se-*),  a  nat  or-  organic  matter.    The  iungl   aw  exam- 

oapoiKOCK    j^,  of  planta  belongbu-  to  plea,  aoma  cf  tbem  living  on  dead  organ- 

tlia  polyearpous  group  of  monopetaiooa  Isma,  aomc  ca  living  ones.    The  former 

exogetn.     It  conaiata  of  treea  and  sbraba  live  on  tbe  bark  of  trees,  and  the  leaf 

.wbfcb    frequently    abound    in    a    milky  aoil  of  toreata  and  meadows   (theae  m- 

inice.  Vhich  may  be  used  for  albnenury  cloda  tba  muahrooma) ;  tbe  latter  (aa  ibo 

purpoaea.    Tbey  bave  alternate  undivided  molda  and  yeasta)  on  the  Juice  of  fruits 

taavea.  amall  aolitary  or  cluatered  aziltory  and  angary  aolittiona.    Examniea  of  sap- 

flowera.   and   a   baccate   or   drupaeeona  ropbytea  are  atoo  found  in  tbe  Pbaaara- 

frvit    Thagr  at*  <Aiafiy  natlTaa  of  ladia.  gaooa  aad  tba  Bacteria. 


liftotiitt  AvokittotBii 


*  «•!  nail 


of  MTi 


OkUkMM  city.  It  kM  ifium  fMtorlM, 
■mUm  ■bopt,  brick  plaata.  tte. ;  daetrie 
MWMrpl«it,«a4iiataralfM.  Pop.l(MXM. 

v«*»iintnii  j^  8p«lB.  or  tbt  Bask 
•dapt«4  t»  tte  daoMi  Thto  ta  m?t  and 
tspnnlvt  la  ekanetw,  writtta  la  | 
or  I  tiiao,  aad  cooalsto  of  two  parts. 
Haadol  aad  otbor  aiaatora  frtqoMtly 
wroto  toBM  of  thia  klad. 
a««iAiMni  (tar'a-saa),  aa  AraUaa  or 
■"■**"  othm  MuMolaiaB  of  tbo  oaiiy 
aad  pRwdjrtiBiac  poriod ;  a  proptgator  of 
MohaaiBMdaaism  in  conatriM  iyinf  to 
tho  wwt  of  Arabia.  By  awdicTAl  writers 
tho  ttm  waa  variootljr  cmploTod  to  d«o- 
IgaaM  tba  Araba  gonerally,  tb«  llobam- 
— daaa  of  Syria  and  Paleatino,  or  tit* 
Arab-B«rbar  racos  of  Nortbtm  Africa. 
At  a  lattr  time  it  was  alao  applied  to 
aup  inlldal  nation  againat  wbicb  era- 
aaoaa  war*  praacbad,  aucb  aa  tba  l\trlia. 

Suaoenio  Arohiteotnre  ^^^'i^V 

tka  atyla  adopted  by  tba  followers  ol 
lldiaBUDed  in  buildinff  their  mosguaa.  pal- 
acao,  and  toaba.  Oricinally  tba  Araba 
poaaaaaad  no  distioctiva  arebltectural 
atyia^  aad  tba  atyla  wbicb  tbey  at  length 
nude  their  wwn  waa  developed  by  archi- 
tacla  beloogiaf  to  the  countriea  wbicb  tbey 
bad  ccnquereo.  Tbto  atyle  ia  chiefly  rep- 
raoanted  in  lifPt.  Ftraia.  Spain,  Turkey, 
and  India,  bat  the  Saracenic  arciiitectura 
of  Spain  ia  generally  called  by  tba  distinc- 
tiva  aaaM  of  Moorish.  (See  Mooritk  Ar- 
o*<<e^sre.)  The  moat  prominent  featurea 
of  the  atyle  are  tha  dome,  the  minaret,  and 
tM  pointed  arch.  The  Saracenic  domea  rise 
from  a  aqua  re  baae,  are  graceful  in  form, 
sometimea  in  groupa  of  three  or  more, 
and  frequently  enriched  externally  with 
colored  tilea  or  other  decorationa.  The 
minareta  are  alender  towera  of  considera- 
ble height,  rising  in  atagea  or  atories, 
each  with  a  balcony,  and  are  moat  fre- 
quently octagonal,  sometimes  cylindrical, 
rising,  however,  from  a  square  base.  The 
arch  u  of  the  pointed  variety,  this  form 
of  arch  having  jeen  used  by  the  Arabs 
in  E^ypt  before  tlie  rise  oi  the  Qotbic 
in  Europe.  It  ia  aometimes  of  the  horae- 
ahoa  form.  (See  ArcA.)  The  uae  of 
cluatered  pendentivea  (koneycomb  leort) 
to  form  a  tranaition  from  ihe  quadran- 
gular area,  under  a  dome  to  the  arch 
of  the  dome  itaelf  is  very  peculiar  and 
cmnmon.  Externally  the  tops  of  walla 
are  often  finiabed  off  with  an  upright 
ercatlng,  which  may  be  regarded  aa  an 
onamaat  taking  tte  place  of  a  oacnioa. 


Vtat  oarfteao  are  fraaly  oraaatatad  witk 
a  prafoolM  ol  aeioU^work  and  ooavaa* 
tloial  foUagti  efiaa  ia  latrkata  aad  baaa* 
tifal  daaifaa.  Btocco  la  aia^  naad  la 
oraaamtatloB.  Th»  BMaqaa  al-Akaah  at 
JamaaleBt  ncoastroeted  by  Abd  el 
Maiek  la  aa  flBl,  abowa  arMaaet  of  tte 
Cbriatian  art  of  tte  tioM  ia  iu  baailica 
of  sevea  alaiea.  Ia  Egypt  tte  Saraoeaie 
art  bagaa  with  tte  moaqne  which  Aarn 
errttedat  Old  Cairo  ia  tte  21at  year 
of  tte  Hejira  (a.i>.  642).  SabaeqoMitly 
repaired  and  altered,  it  aiay  now  te  cm- 
sldarad  as  a  good  apedaen  ol  Uoalan  ar» 
ebitaetural  art  wtea  freed  fron  Cbriatiaa 
inflnence.  But  tte  perfected  Saracanle 
art  datco  f«"a  tte  boHdiag  of  a  aoaquo 
at  C!airo  by  Ito  Toolooo  fan  8T6  aa 
Thia  building  ia  nearly  aqnaio  (880  ft 
by  46B)  with  a  ceatral  court,  aronad 
which  OB  three  aides  are  two  rangea  )f 
arcadea,  while  on  the  aide  towarda 
Mecca  there  are  five.  It  ia  built  of  brick 
covered  with  atucco.  The  aoaque  aad 
tomb  of  Kaid  Bey,  erected  in  14(0  out- 
aide  Cairo,  ia  one  of  the  moat  graceful 
apecimens  of  Saracenic  architecture. 
When  tte  Turta  captured  Cmiatantlnoplo 
in  1453  ttey  appn^riated  tte  Cbriatiaa 
churcbaa  of  tte  city,  tte  mmt  important.^ 
of  which  waa  St.  Sophia.  Such  was 
their  appreciation  of  thia  Bysantlna 
building  ttet  ttey  adopted  Its  arcbitee* 
tural  atyle  with  modificationa  in  all  tha 
moaquca  which  tbey  aubaequently  built 
there.  The  fineat  among  these  waa  built 
by  Suleiman  in  ISSO  ▲.D^and  ocemiim 
nearly  a  aquare,  teing  2S25  ft.  by  206. 
In  Peraia  the  Saracenic  architecture  is 


Wall-ertstinf,  Mosqna  of  EI-Aihar,  Cairo. 

suppoaed  to  te  a  development  of  the  old 
Babylonian  or  Aaayrian.  The  ruined 
moaque  of  Tabrees,  one  of  the  fineat  of 
ita  kind,  telonga  to  tte  Mogul  dynaaty, 
and  waa  becun  by  Obaxan  Khan  in 
1294  ▲.!>.  In  form  it  rcaembles  a 
Byzantine  church,  but  it  ia  chiefly  re- 
msrkuble  for  the  decorative  results  <d>- 
tsined  by  mosaic  of  glased  bricka  and 
tilea  in  brilliant  colore.  The  moat-aplen- 
did  of  Saracenic  buiidinga  in  Peraia  waa 
built  during  the  dynasty  of  the  Sufls 
by  Steh  AUiaa  (1585-lffiiO)  in  Ua  capi- 
tal of  Ispahan.    This  was  tte  Jfstdaa 


doMd  ^  M  •led*  two  atfrits  ta  Mfht 


to  which  wM  "J*"*^-.!**  c^q: 
BowiiM  of  MnJid  Bhfh  and  o«hir  Mkk 
\m  Tho  lattor  balkUac  to  S8  ft.  hy 
180,  tho  0Mit«r  eoBMrtflMBt  b«lBC  osr* 
nouotod  hi  •  douhlf  doM,  who^  «• 
tfraal  h«i|bt  k  166  fMt  TftkM  ia  tho 
BOM  tho  Mtldui  Shah,  with  Ita  i»tM 
and  nooqiiM,  raporbljr  docoratod,  to  wjo 
of  tho  moot  tfftctivo  ncciiMM  w  Ban* 
etnic     architoetaro.    Bto     atoo     /iuImm 

Anfoa.  '^plUl  of  tho  provlnct  of  tho 
■am  iiaii.f.  200  mitoo  ha  oI^  Madrid 
"  fortUo  pUin  Irrlfatod  by  tho  Ebro. 
Tho  houoM  aro  built  in  solid  tauoMj, 
and  in  a  liiihly  ornamontal  •tjrl«.  Tho 
principal  ediflcoo  ant  tho  two  catbedrato. 
lisS?  and  El  Pitar.  ,Tho  forinor  to 
tho  metropoHUn  archioplK»pal  cbarcb, 
and  to  mainly  Qotbic  in  otyi  dating  from 
tho  twelfth  century;  the  ..  to  *  hu|0 
unattractive  building  beg;  in  ^1077. 
CMher  buUdinga  are  the  v--t  •'cn»P»- 
copal  patoce,  the  Torre  Nuera.  an  octan- 
gular clock-tower  for  the  city,  which 
leans  about  0  feet  out  of  the  .perpen- 
dicular: the  old  irregutar  dtadel  called 
the  Afeferia.  built  by  the  Moonj.  town- 
houae,  hoopitalo,  "change,  muaeum.  ete. 
There  to  a  unirerrity  oi  three  facultioa 
and  about  800  atudenta.  The  chief  man- 
ufacture.  are  lilk.  woolen  cloth,  leather, 
■oaM.  hats,  etc  It  is  famous  for  tto 
«C  wKtance  which  its  citiaens  made 
to  tin  French  in  1808-00.  Pop.  111.704. 
CUva^AiM  Battub  or,  tho  name  of 
BWratOga,    ^^  i^ttles  of  tho  AmoiJ- 

lean  Rorolution  t2°^-?L*^^o^ 

Bnrgoyno  and  the  AmoriojiMi  undor  Oateo, 
who  had  soeeeeded  Gen.  Sdraytor  (q.  t.). 
Tho  first  was  indedslTe;  tho  second  a 
neat  vletory  for  the  Ameilcans,  WS^OW 
In  tho  sarrmider  of  Burgoyno  ^2™  Ms 
wholo  force  of  nenrijr  6000  men.  The  jte- 
tory,  which  was  mainly  duo  to  tho  loader- 
ship  of  Benedict  Am<*l,^  secured  for  tho 
Amerieans  tho  alHanco  of  Franco  and  tod 
to  tho   acknowledgment   of,  tho   Umtod 

Stillwater  and  tho  hattlo  of  Froenuui'ai 

Fann.    Se©  Bwr90V*«-  ^,.    . 

Saratoga  Springs  aT'S"^.^ 

Tork.  about  88  miles  north  of  Albany, 
and  180  miles  north  of  New  York  city 
by  rail.  It  oweo  Its  proq>erity  to  its  min- 
eral springs,  whkh  havo  mado  it  ono  M 
the  most  ftshionaWo 


Mts  ooBhtood  with  eaiboato  add,  fM. 
it  has  aaaorous   torfs  and  haadioiiis 


I  KKHTta  hi  tho  United 


hototo,  atfotal  chaKhoo,  etc.,  aad  da^ 
tho  seaaoQ  haa  an  iafinx  <a  ahoat  8IMMI0 

vtoitofs.    Pop.  ^12,898.  

CUMtAV    (aA-il'tof),  a^dty  of  Baf 
«*"«'*    sia,  caplul  of  tho  lomB- 
■oat  of  saiM  nano,  to  boiU  oa  iMohoa 
and  nndutotlag  ground  oa  tho  nnt  baak 
S^thT  Volga!  %B0  mitoa  aoatCast  o< 
Moocow,    and    aurrounded    by    fara*"f: 
Ita  streets  aro  wide,  'f?««l*'> -•«*.  •tf 
pavod.  and  it  has  a  number  of  fiao  bolW- 
lus,    including    new    cathedral,    publle 
ofkes,   thester,   railway-aUtion,   otc.    It 
has    manufactures    of   cordage,   pottory, 
tobacco,   woolen   cloth,   cottra  aad   alOt 
stuffs,  etc.     Pop.  MTjOOO.— The  goTon- 
ment  has  an  area  of  82.614  aqn^re  mUes. 
Tho  oastern  boundary  to  formed  by  tho 
Volga,  but  the  greater  part  of  tho  gov- 
ornmMit  to  drained  chle^by  i^oonta  of 
the  Don.    The  surface  is  generally  diverai- 
fled  by  numerous  bills  and  Taltoys,  where 
a  mild  climate  and   good   soil  combine 
in   raising   heavy   crops.    The   principal 
exports   are   com,   hemp,    flax,    tobacco, 
hops,  and  madder.    Pop.  2,4103S». 
Sftrkwak    (aA-rtl'wfck),  a  rajahsblp  to 
DaraWKK    ^^  island  of  Borneo,  under 
Brittoh  protection.    It  to  aituated  on  tho 
west  and  northwest  side  of  th«  totond, 
and  has  a  coaat-llne  of  about  800  mitoa, 
and  an  undefined  Bemlciceular  swoop  in* 
tond.   area   about  40,000   ■ft»«w   "gS 
Tho  soil,   constotlng  ••"•""y  •'*»»? 
vegetable  mold,  to  pecultorly  adapted  to 
the  augarsMne,  which  growa  readily  eyoa 
without  cultivation;   but  the  more  im- 
porUttt  vetoUbto  prodnctiona  are  cocoa- 
^ts.  rice,  and  aago.    Tho  mlaerato  in- 
clude gold,  antimony,  and^««d*»»W' *»4 
dtom<mda  aro  atoo  foond.    Tho  original 
inbabitanta  aro  D/aka,  but  an  now  vow 
much     intermixed     with     Matoya     and 
Ohineso.    The   raiahsbip   was   conferred 
upon  8ir  James  Brooke  by  the  Sultan  of 
Bwneo   in    1841   in   return    for   dtotln- 
gntohed  aervices  in  quellina  dlsturjwnces 
and  restoring  order,  and  when  be  died  in 
1868  he  waa  succeeded  by  bto  nephew  (scf 
Bir  Jmf  Brooke).    The  mgitary^forc 
— aome  260  men  —  Is  tmder  Earitoh  coa 
trol.    Pop.    estimated    from   8W,000    to 

600,000.— 8a«awak  ('o">?L^*'^ASSf^* 
its  capital,  haa  a  pop.  of  about  80,000., 
flAmina     (sur-B4'na),  a  genus  of  bmo. 
Paroina    ^j,  pi^nt,  ^  lo^  organlM* 

tioM  and  doubtful  nature,  but  generally 
beltovcd  to  bo  funuri,  commwhr  loondto 
matter  discharged  by  vomiting  from 
atoaaaeha  aCected  with  eaacer  aad  ear* 
tain  foimsof  dj^epaia. 


ouoooup 


SardiaU 


SmxA,  \  ▼■riety  of  duilccdmij,  wkkh 
^^~*  ,displajra  on  its  surfact  a  rid 
rcddbh  brown,  but  when  held  between 
the  eje  and  the  light  appean  of  a  deq» 
blood-red  camelian.  C&Ikd  abo  8w- 
doJii. 


M»*wv«M|>  ^  jj^j^  j^jj  ^£  certain 
fralta,  pfawcd  bctweea  the  qMcarp  and 
the  endocarp.  It  ia  that  part  of  fleahy 
frnita  which  ia  naually  eaten,  aa  in  Um 
peach,  plum,  etc.  ...^ 

.   ,.       •emltranmarent   fam-reabi,  "~*-"»«»«iw»»i«i    the  name  in  Greek  of 

Imported   from    Arabia    and    Persia    in  

craina  of  light  yellow  or  red  color,  and 
fMnerly  oaed  medlcinallr. 
g^rnode  (fAr'kdd),  the  name  given  to 
7^^~  the  unorganised  or  stnicture- 
Ifoa  gelatinous  matter  forming  the  aub- 
atance  of  the  bodiea  of  animals  belonging 
to  the  diviaion  Protoaoa.  It  is  nearly 
eqniraloit  to  protoplasm,  so  that  it   is 


aometiniea  called  *  animal  protoplasm  '  or 
*  Uoplaam.' 

SarboBliaflnil  (*ir-kof 'a- stub),  a 
^rrz'^T^  coffln  or  tomb  of  stone ; 
a  klDd  of  stone  chest,  generally  moie  or 
MSB.  omamerstal,  for  receiving  a  dead 
body.    The  oMeat  known  aarcophagi  arc 


■gyptisa  Ssieophagna  —  Third  PTramld. 

rtyptian,  and  have  been  found  in  certain 
ot  the  pyramids.  IVo  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  tbeae  are  the  great  sarcophagus 
talwn  by  the  Britiah  in  Egypt  in  1801, 


SeaMn  ScreoiAagna  —  Tomb  of  Seipioa. 

new  in  the  Britbh  Moseom,  and  the  ala- 
baster sarcppbagoa  fai  the  Sonne  Mtiaeum, 
London.  Sarcopb^jii  were  also  used  by 
the  Phoenicians,  Persians,  and  Romana; 
and  in  modem  times  stone  coffins  have 
not  been  unctoimon  for  royalty  and  par> 
aona  of  high  rank. 

tnrea,  laghidiag  tha  oondor  and  the  king 


fcM«    ■■■■HIT    UB    \JilWB    Vft 

aereral  kinga  of  Assyria,  one  of  whom  ia 
said  to  have  been  the  last  king  of  Assyria. 
He  is  represented  by  Cteslas  aa  a  very 
eifeminate  prince,  wholly  given  to  senaual 
indulgence  and  inactivfty,  and  it  b  re- 
lated that  Arbacea,  a  &Iedian  satrap,  in 
conjunction  with  Belesis,  a  Babylonian 
priest,  raised  an  armyof  Medes  against 
falm  about  786  B.a  This  army,  attack* 
ing  hia  camp  by  night,  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory, and  pursued  the  fugitives  to  the 
Sates  of  Nineveh.  Here  Sardanapaiua 
ef ended  himself  for  two  years,  but  ulti- 
mately set  his  palace  on  fire  and  per- 
ished in  the  conflagration  with  all  hia 
wivea  and  attendants.  This  story  ie  fabu- 
lous, but  in  some  respects  the  Sardana- 
palns storv  agrees  with  that  of  Saracus, 
the  actual  last  king  of  Assyria.  The 
name  of  Assur-bani-pal,  the  greateat  Aa- 
urrian  king,  was  also  transformed  Into 
Sardanapaiua.    See  Aeeyrta. 

Sardhana  1"*';1*''"'>'3.»  .*<"™  '° 

w«*«uMua,    j^g  Meerut  district  of  the 
Northwest  Provinces  of  India,  about  12 
miles  w.w.  of  Meerut    Pop.    12,407. 
Sardica     .(■«J'<1H»).  anciently  a  town 
.    .  in  Lower  Dacia,  on  the  aite 

of  the  modem  Turkish  town  of  Sofia  or 
Sophia.  The  town  ia  chiefly  celebrated 
as  the  place  where  an  ecciesiaatical  coun- 
cil was  held  in  347,  at  which  Athanasius 
defended  himaeif  againat  the  Arians. 

Sardine   («'^<>e';;  S}»p«*  —mn*). 

Senna  aa  the  herring  and  pilchard,  abun- 
ant  in  the  Mediterranean  and  also  on 
(he  Atlantic  coasts  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal.  It  is  much  esteemed  for  its 
flavor,  and  large  quantities  are  preserved 
by  being  salted  and  partly  dried,  then 
Bcal^l  in  hot  olive^il,  and  finally  her- 
meticallv  sealed  in  tin  boxes  with  hot 
salted  oil,  or  oil  and  butter.  The  young 
of  the  herring  and  aome  other  fidiea  are 
uaed  in  imitation  of  the  aardine. 
Sardinia  (•*f-<««n'i-«;  Italian,  aar- 
«««.  d««riia).  an  bland  in  tha 
weatera  half  of  the  Mediterranean,  form- 
ing part  of  the  Italian  kincdom  and 
separated  from  the  island  of  Corsica  by 
the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  not  quite  7  miles 
wide;  length,  132  miles:  central  breadth, 
about  60  mllea;  area,  0860  aqnaxa  miles. 
The  «oast  is  in  great  part  rugged  nnC  pre- 
cipitous, and  though  the  island  ia  neariy 
In  tha  taim  <tf  a  parallelogran  tlb^  nr^ 


gftrditiif 


Surdii 


mnm  tmportant  indentations,  aucb  m  the 
Oulf  of  Aiinara  in  tlie  northwest,  the 
Bay    of    Oristano    in    the    west,    and 
the  Gulf  of  Cagliari  in  the  southeast,  on 
which  Cacliari,  the  capital  of  the  island, 
is    situated.    The    interior    is    generally 
mountainous ;  the  chain  which  traverses 
Sardinia   sends   out   hranches   east   tmd 
west,   and  culminates   in   Brunca,   €291 
feet,   and   Gennarsentu,  6132  feet.     Be- 
tween the  mountain  ridges  are  extensive 
plains  or  valleys.    The  streams  are  nu- 
merous,   but    unnavigable,    the    largest 
being  the  Tirso,  which  pours  its  waters 
into  the  Gulf  of  Oristano  on  the  west 
coast.     In  the  vicinity  of  the  coast  are  a 
series  of   lagoons.    As  regards   the  geo- 
logical structure  of  the  island  crystalune 
rocki    occupy    a    considerable    area,    in 
which    granite,    overlaid    by    gneiss    and 
mica-flchist,  predominates,  but  sedimentary 
rocks  are  also  well  represented,  as  also 
volcanic  formations,  a  number  of  ancient 
craters    being    traceable.    The    mineral 
riches  of  the  island  consist  chiefly  of  lea^ 
sine,  copper,  quicksilver,  antimony,  and 
iron  of  ezcelleut  quality.     Iglesias,  near 
the  west  coast,  is  the  center  of  the  min- 
ing district    The  other  minerals  are  por- 
phyry, alabaster,  marble,  lignite,  etc.    The 
climate  is  similar  to  that  which  obtains 
generally  over  the  Mediterranean  region. 
The  range  of  the  thermometer  is  between 
84°  and  90°,  and  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature 61*  7'.    During  the  hot  season 
an   unhealthy   malaria   infects   the   low- 
lying    tracts.    The    winter    months    ara 
rainy,  and  the  pieasantest  season  is  in 
the  autumn.    Much  of  the  land  is  of  re- 
markable   fertility.    The    principal    crop 
is  wheat:  barley,  make,  beans,  etc.,  are 
extensively    grown;    the    vine    Is    well 
adapted  both  to  climate   and   the  soil; 
and  olive-grounds  are  met  with  in  various 
quarters.    The     rearing    of    live    stock 
forms  an  important  industry.    Game  of 
all  Unds  is  very  abundant.    Wild  boan, 
stags,   deer,   and   mufflons    frequent   the 
woods  and   forests.    The  most   valuable 
fishery  is  that  of  the  tunny.    Manufac- 
tures are  chiefly  confined  to  a  few  coarse 
tissues    woven   by   the  women   at   their 
homes  for  private  use.    The  trade  con- 
sists of  the  exports  of  corn,  wine,  brandy, 
timber.   Bah,  cattle,   lead   ore,  calamine, 
salt,    etc.;    the    imports   include    cottra. 
colonial  produce,  hosiery,  hardwara  and 
metate,    coal,     etc.    For    administrative 
purposes  Sardinia  is  divided  into  the  two 
prorinces  of  Cagliari  and  Sassari.    The 
inhabitants  are  of  Italian  race,  with  a 
mixture  of  Spanish,  and  an  cnaracter- 
iied  by  a  chivalric  sense  of  h«ior  and 
hospitality,  but  the  family  feud  or  ven- 
itUt  rtill  exiata.    ESdocatfoB  fa  in  a  vwy 


backward  sUte,  and  altogether  civllbn* 
Hon  te  rather  prhnltive.  The  early  tifa* 
jry  of  the  island  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity.  It  passed  from  Carthage  to 
Rome  in  238  B.O.,  and  latterly  caua 
successively  into  the  bauds  of  the  Van- 
dals, the  Goths,  the  Longobards,  and 
Saracans.  In  1297  Boniface  VIII  to- 
vested  the  ktogs  of  Aragon  with  Sardinia, 
and  it  continued  in  the  possMsion  of 
Spain  till  1708,  when  it  was  Uken  pos- 
session of  by  the  British.  By  the  P<»ce 
of  Utrecht  it  fell  to  Austria,  and  in  1720 
to  the  House  of  Savov,  being  from  that 
time  onward  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sai^ 
dinia.  Capital.  CagliarL  See  next  axti* 
cle.    Pop.  791,764. 

finrilinift     Kinodoic    or,    a    fotiMt 
Darouua,    kingdom   of   the  aoath   of 
Europe,  composed  of  the  Island  of  Sar- 
dinia, the  Duchy  of  Savoy,  the  Princi- 
pality of  Piedmont,  the  County  of  Nice, 
the  Duchy  of  Genoa,  and  parts  of  the 
Duchies     of     Montferrat     and     Milan; 
28.229  square  miles;  pop.  (1858),  5.194,- 
807.    In  1720  Victor  Amadeus  II,  duke 
of  Savoy,  <m  receivtog  the  island  of  Sar- 
dinia in  exchange  for   Sicily,  took  the 
title  of  King  of  Sardinia.     Be  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Charles  Emmanuel  III,  Victor 
Amadeus    III.    and    Charles    Emmanuel 
IV,  who  in  1802  abdicated  in  favor  <^ 
his  brother  Victor  Eiumanuel  I,  the  rofal 
family  having  by  this  time,  during  tb« 
domtoation  of  Napoleon,  takoi  reftue  ott 
the   faland    of    Sardinia.    In    1814   tb* 
king  Ktumed  to  Turto,  where  the  aeat 
of  government  was  established.    An  to* 
snrrection   occasioned   his   abdication   to 
1821  to  favor  of  Charles  Felix,  who,  after 
a  reign  of  ten  years,  was  succeeded  by 
Charles  Albert.     In  1848  he  headed  the 
league  which  endeavored  to  drive  the  Aaa- 
trlans   from    Italy.    The   defeat   of   tb* 
Sardinian  forces  at  Novara   (1849)   bv 
Radetsky,  however,  caused  him  to  abdi- 
cate to  uvor  of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel 
II.    The     position     of     Sardinto     was 
strengthened  by  the  part  which  it  played 
(1854)    to  the  Crimean   war,   while  to 
1850  the  coSpention  of  France  was  se- 
cured  to   a   war  against   Austria.    The 
brief  campaign  whh;h  followed  ended  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at  Rias«>ta 
and   Solferino,  and   led  to  Sardinia   re- 
ceiving   a    large    increase    of    territory, 
though  she  had  to  cede  Savoy  ond  Nice 
to  France.    Soon  after  this  the  Sarrtinian 
kingdom  was  merged  in  a  united  IcalUn 
kingdom   under    victor   EmmanueL    Bet 

flnmlin  (sai'dfa),  or  Sabmcs.  the  an- 
"***"  dent  capital  of  LydJa,  oa  tha 
river  Paetcdoa,  not  far  from  the  mount 
Tmobm.    Under  tha  Persians  it  wa*^  • 


Soxdimyz 


magnificent  city  on  the  commercial  roata 
from  Aala  to  Borope.  Satdia  waa  tlM 
aeat  <tf  «Be  of  tlt«  aeven  charcliea  of 
tlM  Apoealjrpaa.  A  mail  Tillage  witli 
aome  niina  atanda  at  preaent  on  ita  aite. 
Surdonvx  (•*f"<ion'ika),  a  pndoaa 
0Kiiiuajr&  atone,  a  iMautifnl  and 
ran  Taxiety  of  on/x,  conalating  of  alter- 
nate  layera  of  aard  and  white  chalcedony. 
Tlie  name  haa  aometimea  t>een  applied  to 
a  reddiah-yellow  or  nearly  orange  variety 
of  ciwicedonic  quarta  resembling  car- 
nelian,  and  also  to  camelians  whose 
colon  an  in  alternate  bands  of  red  and 
white. 

Sardon  (Mr-dO),  Yictobien,  a  Fnnch 
wcMwu,  dramatist,  bom  at  Paris  in 
1831.  The  son  of  a  professor,  be  at  fint 
studied  medicine,  but  abandoned  this  in 
favor  of  literature.  His  earliest  venture 
waa  the  comedy  of  La  Taveme  de» 
itudUtnta,  which  proved  a  failure  at  the 
Odfon.  Be  was  successful,  however,  with 
two  plays  which  he  wrote  for  D4jazet 
called  if.  Oarat  (1860)  and  Let  Frit- 
8mint-Oervai»  (1862).  His  better^known 
works,  many  of  which  have  been  produced 
OP  the  English  stage,  an  Let  Pattet  de 
Momek«t  2foa  Intimet,La  Fatrie,  Daniel 
BodMtt  and  Dora.  His  hiter  successes 
wen  aasociated  with  Madame  Bern- 
hardt, for  whom  he  wrote  Fidora,  Thit- 
dora,  and  La  Totca.  He  died  November 
8,im 

fioTAA  iM're),  a  cotton  fabric  worn  by 
^^  Indian  women  to  wrap  round  the 
person;  also,  an  onbroidered  long  scarf 
of  gauae  or  ailk. 

Sanrasso  Sea.   **•*  "P®  ,**^*°  *• 

•^^^  «.^«^  several  immense 
arena  of  floating  vegetation  found  in  mid- 
ocean  in  different  parts  of  the  earth, 
and  formed  by  a  sea-weed  named  8ar- 
gattum  hacciferum,  and  known  popularly 
aa  gulf-weed,  sea-entils,  sea-grasses,  and 
sargasso.  The  most  celebrated  of  these 
occupies  a  great  section  of  the  Atlantic 
between  Africa  and  the  West  Indies, 
from  20*  to  about  65'  w.  Ion.,  and  20"^ 
to  45*  IT.  lat.  It  was  first  traversed  by 
the  ahips  of  Columbus.  This  vast  meadow 
of  floating  sea-weed  is  also  remarkable 
for  the  great  variety  of  animal  life  inhab- 
iting it,  all  these  animals  ( Crustacea,  an- 
nelids, molluscs,  polyzoa,  fishes,  etc.),  be- 
ing of  the  same  general  tint  as  the  weed, 
so  that  they  are  often  difficult  to  dis- 
cover at  firat  sight.  The  weeds  are  sup- 
posed to  be  carried  to  this  position  by 
ocean  currents,  and  continue  to  grow  here, 
though  they  do  not  produce  roots  or  fruit. 
See  Oulf  Weed. 

OaroMnt  Ckaklsb  Spbaottb,  botan- 
*'**»'"''>    iat,  bom  at  Boston,  Massa- 


choaetts,  in  1841.  He  atrved  aa  a  toI- 
anteer  stafl-ofllcar  In  the  OtU  war  and 
afterwards  waa  made  director  of  the 
botanic  gardoi  and  tlwn  of  the  arboretum 
of  Harvard  Dnivenity,  and  professor  of 
horticnlture.  He  alao  edited  Fonat  and 
Stream  (1887-07),  and  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1885.  He  is  the  author  of  nnmeroiM 
worka  on  the  forests  of  North  America 
and  on  other  botanical  anbjecta. 
Sarflrent  John  Sinoeb,  artiat,  bom 
O^TBCni,  at  Florence,  Italv,  iS  1850, 
the  son  of  an  American  doctor.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  received  a  medal 
of  honor  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889, 
and  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  the 
same  year.  His  La  Carmenoita  was 
bought  by  the  French  government  in 
1892.  He  was  noted  espedally  aa  a  por- 
trait painter. 

Sar&rent    i»ar'i>nt).   Bm»,   poet   and 
o  dramatist,  waa  bom  at  Glou- 

cester, Massachusetts,  in  1812.  He  waa 
educated  in  the  latter  city  and  at  Har- 
vard Univeraity:  became  associated  with 
the  Boaton  Advertiter  and  the  Atlat;  re- 
moved to  New  York,  where  he  waa  anist- 
ant  on  the  Mirror;  and  aubsequentiy  re- 
turned to  Boston  to  become  editor  of 
the  Eoening  Trantcript.  He  afterwards 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature,  and 
produced,  among  other  plays.  The  Bride 
of  Genoa,  a  poetical  drama;  Velatco,  a 
tragedy;  various  novels  and  books  of  ad- 
venture; a  Life  of  Henry  Clay  (1852)  ; 
and  two  volumea  of  poetry.  He  was  the 
author  of  that  well-known  lyric,  A  Life 
on  the  Ocean  Wave.  He  died  December 
30,  1880. 
Salmon    l»*''|on),  an  Aaayrian  Ung. 

Sari  .<■*-'*')•  a  town  of  Peraia,  cap- 
■™"**  ital  of  the  province  of  Mazan- 
deran,  22  miles  east  of  Balfrush,  and  15 
miles  from  the  shore  of  the  Caspian.  A 
conaiderable  trade  is  carried  on  with  the 
interior  of  Persia  and  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment of  Astrakhan.  Pop.  estimated 
from  8000  to  20,000. 
Sark  L»*rk),  or  Sircq,  one  of  the 
*™**  Channel  Islands,  situated  alMut 
8  miles  from  Guernsey.  It  is  divided  into 
Great  Sark  and  Little  Sark,  the  connec- 
tion between  these  lying  a  narrow  neck 
of  land  called  the  C)ui^;  length  about 
5,  and  breadth  abcut  3  miles.  The 
island  is  surrounded  by  almost  inaccessi- 
ble rocks,  and  the  carriage-ways  are 
steep.  Fishing  is  the  chief  employment 
though  some  dqrree  of  agriculture  ia  car- 
ried on.    Pop.  506. 

SarlaC.    8a«uk   (wr'Hk),  a  name  of 
"»**»»'>    the  yak.    See  Yak. 


Sarmatiam 


Sarmstiaiu  i^'^^^^^J^l' LS^c 

twee,  who,  fa  the  time  of  the  Romana, 
occupied  the  vast  region  between  the 
Black.  Baltic,  and  Crapian  aeaa.  They 
were  a  nomadic  race,  whose  women  went 
to  war  like  the  men,  and  they  were 
said  by  tradition  to  be  descended  from 
the  Amasons  by  Scythian  fathers.  Sar- 
matla  coincided  in  part  with  Scythia,  but 
whether  the  people  were  of  the  same  race 
is  doubtful.  .     _    ,^ 

Soi>ti»Ti     (sar'nen),  a  town  fa  Switzer- 
oarueu    j^^^   capital  of  the  canton  of 
Unterwalden,  near  a   lake  of   the  same 
name,  where  the  Aa  issaes  from  It,  11 
miles  8. 8.  w.  of  Lucerne.    Pop.  »)40. 
RArnift     (sttr'nl-a),  a  town  of  Canada, 
0»raiK    province    of    Ontario,    on    the 
rive/"  St.  Clair,  near  where  it  issues  f lom 
La?      Huron,  and  opposite  Port  Huron. 
It  .     a   flourishing    place,   with   various 
manufactures,  and  a  large  trade,  by  raU- 
road  and  steamer.     Pop.  11,000. 
ClomA     (Bttr'no),  a  town  of  Southern 
saruo    f^iy^   in    the  province   of   Sa- 
lerno, at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  near 
the    source    of    a     river    of    the    same 
name,  12  miles  N.  N.  w.  of  Salerno.     It 
is    well    built,    has    a    cathedral    (1625), 
mineral  springs,  copper  and  other  foun- 
dries, paper-mills,  etc.     Pop.  lo.laO.      , 
ClornTifr     (sa-rong'),  a  garment  used  m 
Oarong    the    Indian    Archipelago.      It 
consists  of  a  piece  of  cloth  wrapped  round 
the  lower  part  of  the  body.    The  sarong 
is  worn  Jby  men  and  women.     „        ,      . 

Saronic  Gulf  i^Jl^Aenf^'Z^fli 

the  Gulf  of  .Slgina. 

Samnv  (sa-rO'ni),  Napoixon,  artist, 
oarony  ^„  ^^  Quebec,  Canada,  fa 
1821;  died  in  1800.  Beginning  as  a 
lithographer,  he  opened  a  photographic 
studio  in  New  York  after  the  Civil  war, 
and  became  the  most  popular  artist  m 
his  line.  His  great  collection  of  photo- 
graphs numbered  over  00,000,  including 
the  most  notable  Americans  of  his  time 
and  many  distingulslied  Europeans. 
darns  (sar'os),  a  cycle  of  eclipaes, 
oarOS  ^ing  i8y  lod.  7h.  and  42m. 
during  which  all  eclipses,  whether  solar 
or  lunar,  occurring  in  one  saros  are  re- 
peated in  the  next  saros  and  nearly  in 
the  same  order.  This  cycle  was  knowu 
to  the  Babylonians,  but  its  cause  was 
not  known  until  long  after. 

Sarothamnns   <eTu;°of'"".Smii-ouSI 

plants.    8.  »eopariu$  is  the  well-known 
broom,  the  Cytuut  toopariut  of  De  Gon- 

dolle.  ,,    V    .     ^     •_ 

aai>n*<1nii    (s4r-p6'don) ,  fa  Greek  my- 
Sarpeaon    t'jjoiogy,  a  wm  of  Zeu*  and 


Sartain 

Laodamia,  king  of  the  Lycians  and  ally 
of  the  Trojans.  He  was  alafa  by  Fa- 
troclos.  «...        «        .V 

SarpeaOIL  beautiful  species  of  butter- 
flies found  Jn  Asia,  AuKtralia,  and  the 
Sandwich  Islands. 

Afimi  i»Ar'P«).  Pi«tw),  known  also  m 
^'^^P*  Fra  Paolo,  bom  at  Venire  in 
1552;  died  in  1023.  He  entered  the 
order  of  the  Servites,  and  became  their 
procurator-general  in  1585.  Sent  to  the 
Venetian  Republic  as  representative  from 
Pope  Paul  V  in  the  controversy  of  Church 
and  State,  Sarpi  upheld  the  claims  of 
the  republic,  and  in  consequence  was  ex- 
communicated. In  the  seclusion  of  his 
cell  he  wrote  and  published  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Pietro  Soave  Polano  an 
elaborate  attack  on  papal  policy  called 
I$toria  del  Coneilio  Tridentino  'History 
of  the  Council  of  Trent'). 

Snmlar  ("ftf'pJaf).  »  large  sack  or 
Darpiar    |^^,g    ^f    ^^^    containing   80 

tods ;  a  tod  contafas  2  stone  of  14  pounds 

SaJraceniacea  i-'tl^ofd^r^fi'Si: 

petalous  excjens  which  consists  of  herlm- 
ceous  perennial  'ants,  remarkable  for 
their  pftcher-like  ives.  There  are  three 
genera  (Sarracenia,  Darlingtonta,  and 
Heliamphora)  the  species  of  which  are 
inhabitants  of  northern  or  tropical  Amer- 
ica. The  pitcher-like  leaves  of  Sorrocenia 
are  capable  of  holding  water,  and  the 
older  leaves  are  usually  full. 

SarsapariUa  iS^^i^^f  'i'velS 

plants  of  the  genus  Smilam.  8.  medica 
supplies  the  sarza  of  Vera  Cruz.  8.  $ipki- 
littca,  or  8.  papyracea,  yields  the  Lisbon 
or  Brazilian  sort.  8.  olficinalU  belongs 
to  Central  America,  although  it  yields  the 
kind  known  as  Jamaica  sarsaparilla. 
Hemule«m«a  indUma  (an  aaclepiadaceoua 
climber)  yields  the  East  Indian  sort. 
Sarsaparilla  is  valued  in  medicine  on  ac- 
count of  its  mucilaginous  and  demulcent 
qualities.  ^ 

QaivATi  (s&r'sen),  SAR8EN-SToint,  a 
antscu.    ngmg  giypn   („   ti,e   large  flat 

blocks  of  sandstone  found  lying  on  the 
chalk-flats  or  downs  of  Wiltshire,  etc. 
Also  named  gray  wether  and  druid$'  tione. 
fiorsia  (sArVii-a;  from  the  Norwegian 
"*""*  naturalist  Sars,  1805-«9),  a 
genus  of  ctelenterate  animals,  belonging 
to  the  Medusidn  or  jelly-fishes,  and  per- 
haps more  properly  regarded  as  the  float- 
ing reproductive  buds  ot  gonophores  of 
fixed  soSphytea. 

fiai4aiii  (»r'tan),  JoHW,  engrarer, 
"»****"  waa  bom  In  London,  Bnr 
land,  Oct  21,  1806;  came  to  the  JJaUmi 


SarUw 


Saikatohewaii 


States  in  1830,  and  w«i  one  of  the  first 
to  introdoc*  messotint  engrsTinf.  He 
settled  in  Pliiladelphia,  field  various 
oflices  in  tiw  Artists*  Fund  Society,  tlw 
School  of  Design  for  Women  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy;  was  elected  a 
member  of  tlw  Society  Artis  et  Amiciti» 
in  Amsterdf>m,  Holland,  in  18U2,  and  in 
187tt  had  charge  of  the  art  department 
at  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Eiposi- 
tion.  Be  was  the  author  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  engravings  for  book  illuKtration. 
and  engraved  many  historical  paint  Inga; 
designed  the  monument  to  Washington 
and  Lafayette  in  Uonument  Cemetery, 
Philadelphia.  He  founded  ISariain'a  Mag- 
Arine  and  published  interesting  pergonal 
reminiscences.  He  died  October  2S,  1807. 
SsLrtlm  (•Art),  a  department  of  North- 
*******"  west  France:  area,  2410  sq. 
milea.  It  has  a  diversified  snrface,  pre- 
senting fertile  plains,  vineyards,  and  ex- 
tensive forests.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  beet- 
toot,  and  hemp  are  grown,  while  cider  and 
wine  are  largely  produced.  The  only 
mlDeral  of  any  consequence  is  iron,  but 
there  are  excellent  sandstone,  limestone, 
millstone,  slate,  and  marble  quarries. 
The  capital  is  Le  Mans.  Pop.  421,470. 
Oarti  (sftr'te),  Giuseppe,  an  Italian 
******  composer,  Iwm  in  1729;  died  in 
1802.  At  tiie  age  of  twenty-two  bis  first 
opera,  Pitmpeo  in  Armenia,  was  put  upon 
the  stage  at  Faensa,  his  native  place. 
Other  operas  soon  followed,  and  he  be- 
came successively  court  chapel-master  at 
Copenhagen ;  director  of  the  Conservatory 
dell*  Ospedaietto  at  Venice,  and  chapel- 
master  of  the  Milan  cathedral.  In  1<84 
he  waa  invited  by  the  Empress  Catherine 
to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  founded  a 
musical  conservatory.  He  wrote,  in  all, 
about  thirty  operas,  and  was  for  some 
time  teacher  to  Cberubini. 
Sartn  (a&''td),  Andbea  del,  a  painter 
wnxhw  j,j  ijjg  Florentine  school,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  paintei-s  of  the 
aixteenth  century,  iKtrn  at  Florence  in 
1480;  died  of  the  plagae  in  1531.  His 
proper  name  was  Andrea  d'Agnolo.  the 
name  del  Sarto  (of  the  Tailor)  being 
applied  to  him  from  the  occupation  of 
bla  father.  He  painted  many  fre8"oes  in 
his  native  city,  and  Francis  I  ir-^uced 
him  to  go  to  France  in  1518.  He  soon 
returned  to  Itaijr,  and  having  appropriated 
large  sums  which  had  been  given  him 
by  his  loyal  patron  to  purchase  the  pic- 
turea  of  great  masters  in  Italy,  he  could 
not  go  baclc  to  France.  Among  his  most 
important  easel-pictures  are  the  Sacrifice 
cf  Abnham  and  the  Marriage  of  St.  Catk- 
arine,  in  the  gallery  of  Dresden:  the 
Uadonna  dt  San  Franceaco,  an  Aimaii- 
tfwtion,  acd  an  A$—mpiion  of  tha  Ytr- 


n,  at  Florence;  Ybrgin  and  CMM  vMh 
t.  Jotepk,  at  Madrid.  He  is  beat  known 
in  gaiieriea  hj  hia  HoIk  PamUiea.  He 
waa  highly  diatinguiabed  for  hia  «ieel- 
lence  in  fresco,  and  it  waa  in  this  form 
ef  art  that  his  naturalness  of  design, 
fineness  of  color,  and  careful  ezecution 
became  most  apparent 

Sartorins  Muscle  JS[ro*;?-°5liie^ 

in  anatomy,  a  muscle  of  the  thigh,  so 
called  from  the  fact  that  by  its  contrac- 
tion the  legs  are  crossed  in  sitting  in  the 
manner  in  which  tailors  usually  do. 
Snrfa  the  name  given  the  settled  In- 
oarbS,  habitants  cf  Turkestan,  Af- 
ghanistan, Persia,  and  adjacent  regions  of 
Asia,  as  distinguished  from  the  nomad 
desert  dwellers.  The  word  is  often  used 
to  designate  the  Aryan  aborigines  of  tliose 
regions,  who  properly  are  called  TnjitKi. 
Sarzana  Mr-dza'nft),  a  town  of  N. 
Itely,  province  of  Genoa,  8 
miles  east  of  Spezia,  near  the  Magra.  It 
has  a  cathedral  in  the  Italian  Gothic  style 
(135&-1470).    Pop.  (commune)  11,860. 

Sarzean  ifTrlnA'^^^^Ln 

Morbihan,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Bay 
of  Morbihan,  14  miles  from  Yannes. 
Pop.  5704. 

Sasin  ('*Ao'i°)f  the  common  Indian 
Mwuu,  anjpiopg  (AntUope  cervieafira), 
remarltable  for  its  swiftness  and  beauty. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  open  dry  plains  of 
India,  in  flocks  of  from  ten  to  sixty 
females  to  a  single  male.    It  is  grayish- 


Sasin  or  Indian  Antslops  (AntOopa  etrvteapra). 

brown  or  black  on  the  upper  parts  of  tho 
body,  with  white  abdomen  and  breast, 
and  a  white  circle  round  the  eyes,  and 
stands  alraut  2  feet  6  inches  hign  at  the 
shoulder. 

(sas-kach'e-won),  a 
great  river  of  Can- 
ada which  riaea  in  the  Rocky  Mountains 
near  Ion.  115"  w.  by  two  principal  heads, 
the  sources  pf  which  are  not  far  apart. 


Saskatchewan 


8aikateli«wta 


tetin 


TImm  brtncbM,  often  callwl  tb«  North 
and  tbo  Booth  Sukatcbewaa,  flow  md- 
erally  wtt  to  their  ionctioo  about  100 
mlleii  nwthweet  of  the  northwest  anffie 
of  Manitoba,  whence  the  river  takea  a 
curve  northeast  and  southeast,  and,  pass- 
ing through  Cedar  Lake,  empties  itself 
into  Lake  Winnipeg,  after  a  cpurso  of 
about  1300  miles,  measuring  along  the 
south  branch,  some  70  less  measuring 
along  the  north. 

Saskatchewan,  S JT?«^'S^ 

Canada,  named  from  the  above  river, 
bounded  on  the  s.  by  the  United  States, 
B.  by  Keewatin  district  and  Manitoba, 
N.  by  Mackensie  district,  and  w.  by 
Alberta.  The  new  province  embraces  the 
greater  part  of  the  old  district  and  of 
the  former  districts  of  Athabasca  and 
Assiniboia.  Area  250,660  square  miles. 
Grain,  especially  wheat,  and  cattle  rais- 
ing are  the  principal  industries,  and 
dairying  is  developing  under  government 
encouragement.  This  province  forms  part 
of  the  great 'wheat  district  of  Canada, 
nearly  100,000,000  acres  being  under 
wheat  and  other  grains.  The  wheat  yield 
of  less  than  6,0(K),000  bushels  in  1898^ 
had  increased  to  112,369,406  by  1913,  to- 
gether with  110,210,636  bushels  of  oate. 
Capital,  Regina.     Pop.   (1911),  492,432. 

SUt^alrlLf  nn-n  *  ^°^^  *°  *^®  province  of 
oaSKavOOn,  Saakatchewan,  Canada,  on 
South  Saskatchewan  River;  160  miles  N. 
of  Regina.  It  is  the  seat  of  Provincial  Uni- 
versity, Agricultural  College  and  Experi- 
mental Farm.  The  industries  indude 
cereal  pTant,  brewery,  tractor,  garment 
and  woodworking  factories,  brick  plants, 
etc.    Pop.  80,00a 

Oag^VY  (sas'a-M)  (Dom«»»  lund- 
^■*"'**'J'  U$),  an  antelope  found  in 
South  Africa,  living  gregariously  in  herds. 
The  body-color  is  a  reddisb-brown,  the 
limbs  being  of  dark  hue,  while  a  black- 
ish stripe  marks  the  forehead  and  face. 
QaaaafriiA  (sasa-tras),  u  genus  of 
OttWMUitw  plants,  nat.  order  Laura- 
ce«B.  The  species  most  known  is  the  8. 
officinale  (the  sassafras  laurel),  ca  ac- 
count of  the  medicinal  virtue?  of  its 
root.  It  is  a  small  tree  or  biis>'j  inhab.t- 
ing  the  woods  of  North  Araerica  from 
Canada  to  Florida.  The  taste  of  sassafras 
is  sharp,  acrid,  aromatic;  it  is  used  for 
flavoring  purposes,  and  in  medicine  as  a 
stimulant.  Stcamp-taaaafrat  is  the  ilo^ 
Molta  glauca,  an  American  tree. 

Sassanids  fcT'ot^kink'^w'SJ" 

succeeded  the  Parthian  dynasty  of  :he 
Arsacidn,  and  r^gned  from  2m  B.O.  to 
about  A.D.  636.  The  dynasty  began  with 
Ar^bblr  Babig&n,  and  owes  its  name  to 


the  gimndfathcr  of  that  princ*.  naiiMd 


o^aaAn*  (*s's4-re),  a  town  of  Italy, 
^■■■*"  in  Sardinia,  caplul  <rf  the 
province  of  same  name,  106  milea  H.  H.  W. 
of  CagUari.  It  has  a  large  cathedral, 
several  palaces,  a  picturesoue  castle,  a 
university,  hospital,  etc.  The  only  man- 
ufacture  of  importance  is  tobacco,  and 
the  trade  is  chiefly  in  grain,  oil,  cheese, 
and  goat-skins.  Pop.  of  town,  ^,897; 
of  province  occupying  the  north  and  more 
fertile  part  of  the  island,  308.200. 
QaaaAram  (»tt«'*r-an»),  a  town  of  In- 
Sasseram    ^j^     j^    Bengal,    about   70 

miles  s.  B.  from  Benares.  The  town,  oth- 
erwise of  small  importance,  contains  the 
tomb  of  the  Afghan  Sherc  Shah,  who  be- 
came Emperor  of  Delhi.  Pop.  about 
20  000 

Sissoferrato  &tS;  S^U'Vro.; 

the  place  of  his  birth,  a  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Ancona,  in  Italy.  His  true  name 
was  Giambattiattt  Salvi.  Be  was  bom 
in  1606 ;  and  died  in  1686.  His  paUitinga 
were  chiefly  the  Madonna  and  Child,  the 
latter  sleeping. 

Rnssnlin  (sns'u-lSn),  native  boraoic 
oassuxiu  gpj,i^  occurring  as  a  deposit 
from  hot  springs  and  ponds  in  the  lagoons 
of  Tuscany,  and  first  discovered  near 
8a$so,  in  tlie  province  of  Florence. 

SataU'eh.   Se«^«'«**«- 
Satan.    »^Deviu 

Sfttara     (sa-ta'ru),  a  district,  In   the 
onbarH.    Uombny     Presidency,     India; 
area,  4987  so.  miles,  forming  part  of  the 
table-land  of  the   Deocan.  much   broken 
by  ridges,  ravines,  and  isolated  heights. 
The  chief  river  is  the  Kistnn,  which  flows 
southeast  through  its  center.-— The  cap- 
ital of  the  district  is  also  called  SatAra, 
and  is  situated  55  miles  south  of  Pooaa. 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Krishna  and 
the  Yena.    Pop.  30.000. 
Snfpllitft     (sat'e-llt),  a  secondary 
oatciubv    planet,   or  moon;    a   small 
pknet  revolving  round  a  larger  one.    The 
earth  has  one  satellite,  called  the  moon; 
Neptune    is   also    accompanied    by  one; 
Mars  by  two;  Uranus  by  four;  Jupiter 
by  seven ;  Saturn  by  ten.    Saturn's  ringa 
are  suppoaed  to  be  composad  of  a  great 
multitude  of  minute  satellites. 
Saf<»»n   (8at-«n'),  a  woolen  or  cotton 
oatccu    fabric^   ^I'ith  a  glossy  surface 
hi  imitation  of  satin.     It  is  made  thin 
and  light,  or  stout  and  heavy,  for  diiler- 
ent  uses,  as  for  drasses,  linings,  etc. 
Satin    (Mt'in),   a   soft,  cloaely-woven  ^ 
Saun    ,  :.^^  ^iti,  a  glossy  surface.     In 
the  OMura^ctore  of  Ktln  part  of  the  weft 


Siitia-Ufd 


tetimialia 


!■  left  boiekth  the  warp,  which,  pra- 
wntiiit  •  doM  and  ■mooa  earface,  ac- 
qnirea^  after  being  paMcd  orer  heated 
cyliodm,  that  luster  •which  dietincuiiihea 
It  from  other  kinds  of  silka. 


chrTsanthemvin  la  a  favorite  flower  in 
their  Vaae  decorationa;  the  orane  and 
ether  birds  are  IntrodnciBd,  and  fignrca  of 
warriors  and  women  are  effectiTMy  em- 
ployed. 

Stt tin-bird     *">  Australian  bird,  the  Sfttnrftfinn     (sat -O-rft' shun).      In 
DttUn  Oira,   ptuonorhvnohua     holo-  oaiUraUOn     meteorology   the  air  is 

said  to  be  saturated  wiUi  aqueous  Tapor, 


mHovks,  so-called  from  the  glossy  dark- 
purple  phimage  of  the  male.  It  is  one  of 
the  bower-birds  (whidi  see). 
Satintt  (8at-i-nef),  a  twUled  doth 
wOTMUbM  made  of  woolen  weft  and  cot- 
ton warp  pressed  and  dressed  to  produce 
a  glossy  surface  in  imitation  of  satin. 
fla.tiTi-Rnfl.r  *  rariety  of  calc-spar  or 
oaim  spar,  carbonate  of  lime,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  silky  luster  and  fibrous 
structure.  The  name  is  also  sometimes 
applied  to  fibrous  gypsum  or  sulphate  of 
lime. 

tree 
genus  VMor<uey- 
Ion,  the  0.  $%oietenia,  nat  order  Gedre- 
lacen.  It  is  a  native  of  the  mountain- 
ous parts  of  the  Circars  in  the  East 
Indies.  The  wood  is  of  a  deep  yellow 
color,  close-grained,  heavy  and  durable 
and  has  a  silky  luster. 
Satire  (Bt't'ii')'  ^  ^e  widest  sense  of 
M»MA«  the  word,  pungent  ridicule  or 
catting  censure  of  faults,  vices,  or  weak- 
nesses. In  a  narrower  sense  it  is  a  poem, 
of  whidi  ridicule  and  censure  are  the 
object  and  chief  characteristic.  This  spe* 
dea  of  poetry  had  its  origin  with  the 
Romans,  but  satires  may-  also  take  the 
forms  of  epistles,  tales,  dialogues,  dramas 
(as  with  Aristophanes),  songs,  epics, 
sables,  etc.  The  didactic  satire  originated 
with  Lucilius  (14»-1U3  B.C.),  and  Hor- 
ace, Juvenal,  and  Persius  developed  it. 
Satirists  are  common  in  all  modem  lit- 
erature. 

Satlej.    See  Sutlej. 

Satran  (sat'rap,  sa'trap),  in  the  an- 
*^  deut  Persian  Empire,  the 
name  given  the  governors  of  the  prov- 
inces which  were  called  aatrapiea.  The 
power  of  the  satrap,  so  long  as  he  re- 
tained the  favor  of  his  sovereign,  was 
absolute;  he  levied  taxes  at  his  pleasure 
and  aped  the  capricious  tyranny  of  his 
master  unchecked. 

Satsnma  Ware,  **>«  most   famous 

'  variety  of  Japanese 
pottery,  so  called  from  being  introduced 
by  the  formerly  powerful  princes  of  Sat- 
suma.  It  is  of  a  .pale  yelfow  color,  with 
minute  cradcles  in  the  irlaze,  very  richly 
painted  and  lavishly  gilt.  Modem  Sat- 
suma  is  of  deeper  yellow  tinge  than  the 
genuine  old  ware.  The  Japanese  also 
excel  in  making  egg-shell  porcelain,  so 
callaa  xtom  its  extreme  thlnnnw.     The 


if,  when  the  temperature  is  slightir  low- 
ered, condensation  takes  place.  Tue  de- 
gree of  saturatoa  at  any  place  is  called 
the  hygrometric  state.  (See  Hygrome- 
ter.) The  term  ia  applied  in  chemistry 
to  the  union,  combination,  or  impregna- 
tion of  one  body  with  another  in  such 
definite  proportions  as  that  they  neutral- 
ize each  other,  or  till  the  receiving  body 
can  contain  no  more. 

Saturday  (j»^*^^'^\i  a.  sax.  Bitter- 

*  dag,  Satemdeey  —  Bteter, 
Baetem,  for  Batum,  and  dag,  a  day — 
the  day  presided  over  by  the  planet  Sat- 
urn), the  seventh  or  last  day  of  the 
week;  the  day  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath. 
Saturn  (x^t'urn),  an  aadent  Italian 
diety,  popularly  believed  to 
have  made  his  first  appearance  in  Italy  in 
in  agriculture,  gardening,  etc.,  thus  elevat- 
the  reign  of  Janus,  instructing  the  people 
ing  them  from  barbarism  to  social  order 
and  dvilixation.  He  was  consequently 
elected  to  share  the  government  with  Ja- 
nus, and  his  reign  came  afterwards  to  be 
sung  bv  the  poets  as  '  the  golden  age.'  He 
was  often  identified  with  the  Cronus  of 
the  Greeks.  His  temple  was  the  state 
treasury.  Ops  was  his  wife.  He  is 
often  represented  as  an  elderly  man,  with 
a  sickle  and  ears  of  com  in  his  band. 
See  Batumalia. 

Saturn  *^°®  *^^  ^^^  planets  of  the 
'  solar  system,  less  in  magni- 
tude than  Jupiter,  and  more  remote  from 
the  sun.  Its  mean  diameter  is  about 
70,000  miles,  its  mean  distance  from  the 
sun  somewhat  more  than  872,000,000 
miles,  and  its  year  or  periodi«iI  revolu- 
tion round  the  sun  nearly  twenty-nine 
years  and  a  half.  Its  mass  is  about  90 
times  that  of  the  earth.  Saturn  is  at- 
tended by  ten  satellites,  two  of  them  of  re- 
cent discovery  and  very  small  size,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  system  of  flat  rings^  which 
are  no^  supposed  to  be  an  immense  mul- 
titude of  meteoric  masses,  mixed  probably 
with  vaporous  matter.     See  Planet. 

Saturnalia  <?■*;"'■??'?'-»>•   »   '««• 

tival  held  by  the  Romans 
in  honor  of  Saturn,  and  during  which 
the  dtizens.  with  their  slaves,  gave  th«n- 
eelves  up  to  unrestrained  freedom  and 
mirth.  It  embraced  at  first  one  dav; 
then  three;  afterwards  five;  and  finally, 
under  the  Cesars,  seven  davs,  namely, 
from  the  17th  to  the  23d  of  December. 


Satyn 

Darinf  it*  oontinuance  no  pobllc  bnsi- 
oeH  oottld  be  tranaacted,  the  law  courto 
were  doaed,  the  achoola  kept  holiday,  and 
alayea  were  freed  from  reatraint  Maa- 
tera  and  alavea  even  changed  place*,  ao 
that  ^hile  the  aervanta  aat  at  table,  they 
were  waited  on  by  their  maatera. 
fUfvra  (Mifera),  in  Greek  mythology, 
Saiyn  \  ^i^^  ^f  woodland  divinities 
in  later  timea,  inaeparably  connected  wlta 
the  worship  of  Dionysua  (Bacchus). 
The  aal^ra  appear  in  works  of  art  aa 
half-man  and  half-goat,  having  horns  on 
the  head,  and  a  hairy  body  with  the  feet 
and  tail  of  a  goat  They  are  described 
as  being  fond  of  wine  and  of  every  kind 
of  sensual  gratification.  One  of  the  most 
famous  specimens  of  Greek  art  is  the 
8atyr  of  Praxiteles. 

Saii*r1rranf    (sou'6r-krout) ,  a  favor- 
SauerKraUl    \^^   German    dish,   con- 


tewia 

chnaett*.  10  mile*  it.  K  of  Boston.  It  to 
on  Lynn  Harbor,  and  ha*  manafaetmea 
of  flannel,  rock-drill*,  leather,  et&  Po^ 
8047. 

Saidt  Sainte  Marie    <S!tSS»J 

Michigan,  capital  of  Chippewa  Co.,  A. 
the  St  Marr*  Bi^er,  at  it*  effloz  from 
Lake  Supeiior.  Here  are  great  ahip 
canal*,  passing  the  river  rapids  (see  8t. 
Mary'$  River).  The  dty  ha*  large  wa- 
ter-power and  manufactnres  lomber, 
paper,  flour,  woolen  good*,  carUde*, 
dredge*,  etc.,  and  ha*  a  fiah-packing  in- 
dustry.    Pop.  14,600. 

Sanlt  Sainte  Marie,  ^^Z^'c^- 

ada,  lying  opposite  Michigan  City  and 
connected  with  it  by  a  bridge.  It  ha* 
ahipping,  mining,  steel  and  manufactonng 
intefestk    Pop.  (1913)  12,808. 


sisting  of  cabbag^s^cut  fine,  pre^  into  gaillliareZ,    ?£,  ^Ty^l^^^J,?''?!^ 
ik,  with  alternate  layers  of  salt,  and  *'"»**»*^*»'">    rft),,  jAiots,   Babor^  M, 


a  cask,  with  alternate  layers  of  salt,  and 
suffered  to  ferment  till  it  becomes  sour. 
fifliKmr     or   Sagab    (rtl'gur),    a   dis- 
DttU}^r,    jy}p^   Qf   jijg    jabalpur  divi- 
sion. Central  Provinces,  India ;  area,  40WJ 
eq:  miles.    In  some  parts  the  soil  is  ^food, 
and  wheat  is  grown  in  large  quantities. 
The  district  is  administered  by  a  deputy 
commissioner. — The   principal    town    ha* 
the  same  name,  and  is  situated  near  a 
fine  lake  surrounded  by  hills,  about  180 
miles   north   of    Nagpur.      The   town   i* 
well  built  and  has  a  considerable  trade 
and  a  military  cantonment.    Pop.  42^S». 
— Savoob  is  also  the  name  of  an  island 
of  Bengal,  in  the  Ganges  delta,  B.  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Hugli.     It  is  visited  an- 
nually by  multitudes  of  pilgrims  and  is 
tb»  seat  of  a  great  annual  fair.    It  wa* 
devastated  by  a  tidal  wave  in  1864,  when 
most  of  the  inhabitants  perished. 
floni       (b«1).  king  of  Israel  from  about 
*»*"*       lOOR  B.C.-1056  B.C..  and  the  son 
of  Kish,  a  Beniamite.     Selected  for  this 
ofHce  by  Samuel,  he  obtained,  by  his  per- 
sonal courage  and  military  capadty,  sev- 
eral successes  over  the  Philstines,  Edom- 
ites,  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  by  means 
of  which  he  consolidated  the  tribes  and 
confirmed  his  authority.     After  a  long 
reign   the   wild   nature   of  the  king   at 
length  showed  itself  in  a  kind  of  religion* 
frenzy.    This  frenzy,  whidi  is  briefly  de- 
scribed in  the  Bible  as  an  'evil  cpirit 
of  God,*  led  him  to  the  massacre  of  the 
priest*  of  Nob  and  various  similar  ex- 
cesses.    Meanwhile  the  prophet  Samuc^ 
estranged   by    the   king's   mlideeds,    had 
anointed  David  as  hi*  successor.     Sam, 
with  tiiree  of  his  sons,  wa*  killed  in  a 
battle  with  the  Phillatlnes. 

IMI^iU  townriiip,  Enwx  Co.,  VLwmn- 


an   English  admiral,  bom  in  St  Peter 


Port  Guernsey,  in  1767;  died 

He  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  thir- 
teen ;  accompanied  Sir  Peter  Parker  in 
the  attack  on  Charleston,  and  served  in 
America  four  yeurs;  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  commander  for  his  conduct  in 
the   engagement   against   the   Dutch  off 
the  Dogger  Bank  (1781)  ;  contribated  to 
Rodner  *  victory  over  De  Gra**e ;  in  1788 
waa  knighted  tat  the  capture  of  ,a  Frendi 
frigate;    in    1706,    in    command    of   tiie 
Ortoft,  *eventy-fonr,  opened  the  battle  of 
L'Orient  where  the  French  fleet  wa*  de- 
feated;  shared  in  the  victory  off  Cape 
St  Vincent  (1797)  :  and  was  second  m 
command -to  Lord  Nelson  In  the  victory 
of  the  Nile   (1798).     On  hi*  retom  to 
England  he  waa  made  rear-admiral  of 
the  blue.    In  1801  he  defeated  a  Franeo- 
Speniah  fleet  of  ten  sail  of  the  line  and 
foni'  frigate*,  hi*  own  squadron  consisting 
of   only    half    that    number.      For    thi* 
action   he   received  the  thank*   of  botii 
honse*  of  parliament,  and  a  pension  of 
£1200    per   annum.      In    1831    he    wa* 
raised  to  the  peerage. 
SsMimnr    (eft-mar),  a  town  of  North- 
Sauiaur    ^^^  France,  department  of 
Maine-et-l4>ire,   on  the   Loire,  26  mUes 
s.  8.  K  <tf  Angers.  It  ir  Irregularly  bBilt, 
ha*  aa  old  caade   (dating  fnHn  1240), 
now  an  araenal  and  gunpowder  nctory, 
three   andent   churches,    a   court-house, 
town-hoose,    communal   college,    milibury 
and  odier  sdiools,  etc.     Sparkling  white 
wine*  are  ectmsively  grown  in  the  ndgh- 
boihood.    Po|^  (IWe)   14,747. 

Dauna  ^^  ^,^t  0^^  of  Usard*  is 
Bometimea  ctedgnated.  Including  not  on^ 
the  ff^^g  Usard*,  crocodile*,  monitor*. 


Sftvxoid  FiihM 


SftTiima 


kmaas.  ctoadtOM.  etc..  bat  alio  thoM 
AhU  ra^Uw  tlw  fekthyoMunw,  plMio- 
MrartM,  ictuiiodMi,  irtvradactTlc.  tte. 

Sauroid  Fiihei  iS5fl?7i;ii."SS 

cobMim  In  tteir  •tnictun  certain  char- 
actcn  of  reptile*.  Tbe  esisting  uuroid 
fishM  ooatiat  of  ■eTeml  epeciei,  tbe  beet 
ktaowa  beioff  tbe  bony  pUms  and  atur- 

•eeood  of  bia  tbree  primary  aections  of 
vertebratea,  eomprisinf  birda  and  reptilea. 
Tbe  animala  of  tbia  aevtioo  are  cbarac- 
teriaed  by  the  abaence  of  yilla,  by  baving 
tb*  aliull  Jointed  to  tbe  vertebral  column 
by  a  tingle  occipital  condyle,  tbe  lower 
Jaw  compoaed  of  aeveral  piecea,  and 
united  to  tbe  akull  by  meana  of  a  apecial 
(qnadrate)  bone,  and  by  poeaeasinc 
nucleated  red  blood  corpusclea,  a«  well 
at  by  certain  embryonic  charactera^ 

Sauropterygia    ^^''i^r.-^'tiS^h 

reptilea,  of  which  tbe  PIe«io«a«r««  may 
be  regarded  aa  tbe  type. 
fia.nmr»  (•ftr'a-r« ;  '  lisard-taila ') ,  an 
SaururS  ^jj^^  ^rder  of  birda.  includ- 
ing only  a  aingle  member,  tbe  Archaop- 
ter^m,  which  baa  a  lizard-like  tail  longer 
than  tbe  body.    See  ilrcAeoptery*. 

Saury-Dike  <"»''* ^i,  •  ^^^^  *',*^* 

BAiu,/  ^Mkv  genus  fioombereso*.  fam- 
ily Scombereaocfdc,  and  order  Pharyn- 
gognatbi,  having  a  greatly  elonnted  body 
covered  with  minute  acalea.  The  jawa 
are  prolonged  inO  a  long  sharp  beak. 
One  apeciea  {8.  aamr*$),  about  15  inches 
long,  occurs  plentifully  on  the  British 
coarta,  freqnenthig  firtha  in  shoals  so 
dense  that  it  may  be  taken  in  pailfula. 
In  order  to  eacape  the  parauit  of  the 
porpoise  and  large  fiahes  it  often  leapa 
out  of  the  water  or  akims  rapidly  along 
tbe  surface,  whence  it  baa  obtained  tbe 
name  of  flapper. 

Sansam  (■«"'y>.  ««»  f**^'*  of  food, 

*'**'"****'  consicting  of  chopped  or 
minced  meat,  as  pork,  beef,  or  veal,  aea- 
aimed  with  aage,  pepper,  salt,  etc.,  and 
stuffed  into  properljr  cleaned  entraila  of 
the  ox,  sheep,  or  pig,  tied  at  short  in- 
tervals with  a  string.  When  aausages 
are  made  on  an  extensive  scale  tbe  meat 
is  minced  and  staffed  into  tbfc  intestines 
by  machinery. 

fU.nfifiiii%  (69-s8r),  H(mA.CE  Bekedxct 
0«uBBiuv  MB,  a  Swiss  aavant,  bom 
near  Geneva,  in  1740;  died  in  1799.  At 
tbe  age  of  twenty-two  be  waa  appointed 
profcaaor  of  philosophy  in  the  Univeraity 
of  Geneva,  and  continued  to  diacharge 
the  datiea  ot  tbia  oflBce  for  twenty-4v« 
yean.    ▲  favorite  object  of  bia  inveati- 


latloiw  waa  the  stroctare  and  hd^t  of 
Bonntalna;  and  he  rendered  Taioabla 
MTvicea  to  pbyaiep,  geology,  He.  Abmm 
bis  writinga  are  Btamif  $nr  FHpfromHrii 
and  Voyapet  daiie  lea  Jtlp*$. 
Santeme    (■*•»•").■*»»»*•  Bordeaux 

duced  from  grapes  grown  in  tbe  neigh- 
borhood of  tfaN^emee,  a  village  in  the 
department  of  Qironde,  a.  B.  of  Bordeanz. 
SftVAffA  (wv'ij),  Richard,  a  poet  and 
**"•"»"  literary  character  who  baa 
been  made  famous  by  Dr.  Johnson  in  bis 
Livei  of  the  Poett.  Bom  at  London  in 
1688,  be  claimed  to  be  the  illegitimate 
aon  of  Richard  Savage,  Earl  Rivera,  by 
the  Counteaa  of  MaccleaBeld.  Tbe  mya- 
teriooa  atory  of  his  birth  and  tbe  pro- 
tracted persecution  to  which  he  claimed 
to  have  been  aubjected  by  his  mother, 
although  believed  by  Dr.  Johnson,  have 
not  been  above  suspicion.  What  la  cer- 
tain ia  that  he  waa  apprenticed  to  a  aboe- 
maker,  and  diaplayed  bis  literary  capaci- 
ties in  the  two  comedies  of  WoMon'a  a 
AMAe  and  Love  in  a  VeiL  Theae  efforts 
prccured  him  favorable  notice,  and  he 
afterwarda  produced  bia  tragedy  of  Bir 
Tkomat  Overhurif,  And  tbe  poema,  tbe 
Baatard  and  tbe  WoNderer.  In  1727  be 
waa  condemned  to  death  for  killing  a  Mr. 
Sinclair  in  a  tavern  brawl,  but  bia  par- 
don was  procured.  Thereafter  be  lived 
upon  the  bounty  of  bia  frienda  and  a  pen- 
aion  from  government  of  £60;  but  bis 
dissipation  and  extravagance  eventual!) 
brougbt  him,  at  the  instance  of  bia  cred- 
itora,  to  Newgate,  where  be  died  in  1743. 
SavA0«  (eeVij),  Minor  JmMBOH,  a 
wnvn5c  clergyman,  born  at  Norridge- 
wock,  ISaine.  In  1841;  died  In  IMS.  He 
httaca.  aa  a  Googregatloaaliat  preacher, 
but  joined  the  Unitariana.  and  waa  min- 
ister of  tbe  Church  of  the  Unity,  Boa- 
ton,  1874-96,  afterwarda  tbe  Chureb 
of  the  Messiah,  New  York.  He  became 
widely  known  as  an  exponent  of  radical 
evolutionary  views,  also  of  spiritualistic 
doctrines.  He  wrote  many  woriu  of  evo- 
lutionary theology  and  in  support  of  the 
theory  of  Spiritualism,  including  lAf-i 
Beyond  Death,  etc. 

Savage  Island,  S.X"kS?^<5S'^' 

iat.  \V  8.,  ion.  170"  w.  It  ia  about 
30  mi  lea  in  circuit,  and  baa  a  populatioa 
of  6000  nominal  Christiana.  It  waa  an- 
nexed by  Britain  in  1888. 
SftTaimft  Satawwah  (sa-van'a),  an 
oavoiiun,  extenaive  open  plain  oi 
meadow  in  a  tr<q>ical  r^on.  yielding 
paaturage  in  tbe  wet  aeaaon,  and  often 
having  a  growth  of  nndersbruba.  TIM 
word  ia  chiafly  oed  in  tbe  Soathero 
Unltad  Btatao. 


BaTtanali 

MTinilftJl)  northeast  boiindajrr  of 

C  -^rfta,  and  •maratea  It   fwm   fcuth 

C     itna.    It  la  foniMd  by  the  Innctlim 

«f  the  Tnialoo  and  Kaowee,  100  milaa 

by  tht  cottrw  of  tba  rivar  above  Ancnata, 

and  ii  narlfable  for  vgweb  diawtoa  over 

18  feet  to  the  city  of  Savannah,  18  milea 

from  the  eea.  ^     .  ^-.    . 

BavaiuirIi    »  «'*'•  *•>•  ■^*  of  Chat- 
SavaiUl&Jlf    imj,  county,  Qeorgia,  on 

the  aouth  bank  of  BaTannah  Biver,  18 
milck  from  the  eea.    It  is  built  on  a  flat 
sandy  bluS  40  feet  high,  and  Is  beantl- 
fully  laid  out  with  wide  streets  and  many 
squares,  most  of  which  are  adorned  by 
magnolZts,   Uve-oaks.   and   other   stately 
SreM.    It  has  the  beautiful  Forsyth  Park, 
with  its  varied  and  attractiye  woodland, 
and  nearly  80  umbraceous  squares  within 
Its  limits.    Thew,  with  its  shady  itreets, 
have  given  it  the  name  of  the  'Forest 
aty.'    Among   its   works   of   soilptural 
art  are  monuments  to  Pulaski,  Sergeant 
Jasper  (both  of  whom  fell  here  in  bat- 
tle), and  Qoieial  Greene;  also  a  Con- 
federate    war     monument.    Its     public 
buiMings  embrace  the  city-hall,   fede»l 
buUding,    custom-house,    Telfair    Acad- 
•my    of    Ats    and    Sciences,    Hodgson 
HaU.  and  various  others.    This  city  s  the 
leading  cotton  port  on  the  South  Atlantic 
coast  and  the  first  naval-stores  port  in 
the  world.    It  has  also  vew  heavy  ship- 
ments of   luirber,  rice  and   phosphates. 
The    manofac«,-ree    include    loconwtives, 
cars,  fertilisers,  flour,  cotton^seed  wl,  et& 
Savannah  was  founded  on  the  settlemmt 
of  Georgia   in  1733.    It  was  taken   by 
the  BritGh  in  1778  and  by  General  Sher- 
nan  in  1864.    Pop.  66,004. 


flftTiagt-bftiilDi 


Davory  Mamb-Ren*.  Duke  of  Bovigo, 
i  French  gM»era»,  born  in  1774;  died  in 
1883.  In  1788  he  entered  an  infantry 
cegiment,  and  being  appointed  adjutant 
to  Bonaparte  after  the  battle  of  Marengo, 
he  rose  high  in  his  confidence,  and  was 
entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  Duke 
d'Enghien,  finally  bemg  rewarded  with 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Bovigo.  He  was 
sent  to  Spain  to  arrange  for  Joseph 
Bonaparte  oeing  made  kii^  and  in  IslU 
succeeded  Fouch6  as  minister  of  police. 
When  the  onperor  returned  from  Eliia  he 
was  joined  by  Savary,  who,  after  tlie 
defeat  at  Waterloo,  desired  to  share  his 
facprisonmect  in  St,  Helen*.  He  was 
afterwards  employed  by  the  government 
of  Louis  Philippe  as  commairaer-in-chief 
fai  Algeria.  _ 

flAv»  (b»'v*),  Incorrectly  Bav,  a,  river 
■****  of  Austria,  rises  in  the  Julian 
Alps,  flows  southeast  thioagh  C^utnkMa, 
■narates  C^uniola  from  Styria.  flows 
7-« 


throofh  Qroa£Ui,  ud  afttr  •  eoorsa  o< 
•boatMO  mlimiSm  the  Danobe  at 
Belgnida.    It  Is  In  mmt  part  navlgabla. 

Saverne.  »**«*«^ 
Saviffliano  fe«ff'ffiiy.%*^ 

of  Cuneo,  situated  ir  an  aiurie  knaM 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Halra,  a«* 
Giana,  81  miles  south  of  Turin.  H  !• 
well  built,  and  has  ancient  walls  and  ta^ 
ers.     Pop.  0896.  ,      ^  

»»¥ipiy    ^j^^  TO„^  »  German  jurist, 
bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-MaIn  In  li71»: 
died  In  1861.    Sent  to  the  University  of 
Marburg,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  Jurisprudence,   took   bis   degree,  and 
delivered  lectures  on  his  special  branch 
of   study.    In    1808    he   published    Dm 
Beeht  det  Betitte$,  which  was  translated 
into  English  by  Sir  Krskhie  Perry,  under 
the  title  of  8ifign^$  Tnati$e  on  PoMes- 
tion.    In   1808  he  became,  professor  of 
law  in  the  Uriverslty  of  Landshut,  Ba- 
varia, and  two  years  later  fllled  the  chair 
of   jurisprudence   in   the   University   of 
Berlin,  where  he  continued  for  thirty-two 
years.    His    principal    works    are:    O*- 
$ckickt0  dee  R6wti»cken  Rechtt  *m  Mit- 
telalter  (six  vols.  Heidelberg.  182^1): 
Svtem  de$  heutipen  RSmUeken  AeeMa 
(eight  vjrfs.  BerUn,  184048),  to  whIA 
J)M  OWvationtnckt   (two  vols.  Beriln, 
1851-68)  formii  an  appendix;  VermUd^H 
Sckriften  (five  vols.  Beriin,  1850). 
Sairile     °'  Saviluc  Gcobob.  see  J7a»- 

cUvilA  (■•vil).  Sib  Hbhit,  an  Ebt- 
DaYUe  ^^  icholar,  bom  in  Yorkdiira 
in  15tt;  died  hi  1622.  After  being  grad> 
uated  from  Brasenoae  College,  Oxford, 
he  removed  on  a  fellowship  to  MertoB 
College,  in  the  same  university.  Having 
made  a  tour  on  the  Continent  for  the 
puriKwe  of  perfecting  himself  in  litera- 
ture, he  was  on  bis  return  appointed 
tutor  L"  Greek  and  mathematics  to  Queen 
Elizabeu..  Subsequently  he  was  ap- 
p<dnted  warden  of  his  college  and  provost 
of  Eton.  He  founded  two  profesBorehiwi 
in  geometry  and  astronomy  at  Oxford, 
and  published  VommentarieB  on  Roman 
"Warfare;  R«rum  Ans/licarum  pott  Bedam 
Boriptoru;  Prwleetionea  in  Element* 
Enmdui  and  the  writings  of  St  Chry- 
sostom. 

Savin  (••▼T")'  SaViwb,  a  tree  or 
w**"*  Bfarub  of  the  genus  Jf««ij>^««, 
the  J.  Sabinea.  (See  Juniper.)  The 
savin  of  Europe  resembles  the  red  cedai 
(J.  vtnktiana)  of  America,  and  the  lat* 
ter  Is  tnerefme  sometimes  called  savio.. 

SaYingt-banks.  *«**^ 


HMnnff 


mTUITi  of  tte  BnlnrlaB  army,  bora 
l»  1897,  oi  a  BAtlT*  BoltariM  nuiiily. 
As  •  tMchMT  of  militaiy  wino*  Bvnm 
!■  wM  by  tho  «9ip«rti  of  Bwopo  m  Um 
■««t  MMCtMfnl  Midior  UtIiw,  and  tb« 
war  la  tta  Balkana  baa  won  bun  renown 
aa  a  atratagiat  He  bad  worked  oat  a 
pfauK  of  opanttkm  lona  before  tbe  eriala, 
and  ha  mowed  the  Tuae  of  bia  plan  at 
tbe  dedalTe  battle  of  Kirii-kUleaeL 
flUvAna.  (■a-vO'na),  a  eeaport  ot 
BATOna  ifortbem  Italy,  prorince  of 
Cknoa,  on  tbe  west  dde  of  the  Galf  of 
Qenoa.  It  ia  charmingly  dtoated  amid 
lenou  and  orange  garaena,  and  haa  a 
amall  bat  aecnre  harbor  defended  by  a 
fort  Tbe  induatries  indode  pottenr,  eilk, 
wool,  i^aae,  paper,  etc    Pop.  60,061. 

BAYOnarOia    lamo,  an  Italian  eccled- 
aatical  reformer,  bom  at  Ferrara  in  1462. 
Bdocated  for  the  medical  profeedon,  he 
aeeredy  entered  tbe  order  of  Dominicana 
at  Botonia  in  1*T>.     In  1482  he  waa 
aent  to  8t  Maik'a  oonirent  at  Florence^ 
apd  began  to  preach  there,  bat  with  little 
aoeeeMi     Be  retired  into  Lombardy,  and 
there  hia  inereaaing  fame  aa  a  preacher 
and  tbeolodan  indaoed  Lorenao  de'  Me 
dtei  to  invite  him   (1490)   to  retam  to 
Florence.     Now  hia  diaconraea  attracted 
aneb  crowda  that  the  charch  could  not 
oontain  tlmn,  the  great  theme  of  his  elo- 
QoeBce  being  the  corraptiona  in  Charch 
and  State,  and  the  general  iniqaity  of 
flie  tfanea.    In  1481  he  waa  elected  prior 
of   St    Muk'B.     He   claimed   to   be   a 
qwdal  meaaoiger  from  Qod,  to  be  the 
recipient   of   divine    revelatimu,   to   aee 
visiona,  and  to  have  the  gift  of  pnq>hecy. 
Be  foretold  the  death  of  tbe  pope,  the 
king  of  Naples,  and  hia  patron  Lorenxa 
When  the  latter  was  on  his  death-bed 
(1^^)  Savonarola  refused  to  grant  him 
atisolation  unless  under  ctmditiona  which 
the  prince  refused.    After  tbe  death  of 
Lor«Dso  and   tbe  expulsion   of  bis  son 
Ptero,  Savonarola  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  those  who  demanded  a  more  demo- 
cratical  form  of  government;  and  such 
waa  now  bia  commanding  influence   in 
Florence  that  be  ornmiaed  the  distracted 
idty  into  a  form  of  republic,  with  two 
'councila  and  a  governing  sifpaory.    But 
in  his  seal,  not  content  with  revolntionr 
iaing  Florence,  be  meditated  tbe  reform 
of  tbe  Boman  cmin  and  of  the  irregu- 
larities of  tbe  clergy.    To  tbb  end  be 
wrote  to  tbe  Christian  princes,  declaring 
that  the  charch  was  corrupt,  and  that 
it  waa  tbeir  du^  to  convoke  a  goiaral 
eoondL    Alamed  at  this,  Alexander  YI, 
who  waa  tbn  pop^  excommunicated  bim 
hi  lan,  and  tba  boll  waa  read  hi  tbe 


cathedral  at  Fiersaet.  But  bwMea  th» 
papal  and  politieal  ialMBcaa  wUdi  wen 
BOW  arrayed  agaiaat  lavoaMiola,  hia  ia» 

■       in  Sir    "        '^^ 


Bovathwa'iB  Si  Markka  and  other 
aateriea  bad  axdtad  the  eaadty  of  tha 
monka,  efQedally  the  Fraaeiseaas.  I» 
these  dreamataneea  Franceeeo  di  Pn^ia, 
a  FranclaeaB  friar,  challenged  Bavooap 
rola  to  test  tbe  truth  of  bia  divine  pr*> 
tenaimis  by  passing  with  bIm  thnMch 
the  ordeal  of  fire.  This  Savonarola  oa* 
cllned:  scenes  of  tnmult  and  riot  aroae: 
St  llark'a  waa  atormed  by  an  infurlatea 
mob  and  Savonarola  east  into  prison. 
Aa  tbe  result  of  tbe  mock  trial  with  tor- 
tare  which  followed  in  1496,  Savrnmrola, 
with  two  of  his  companicns,  waa  atian* 
gled  and  then  burned.  Bia  writings  coo* 
sist  of  some  theological  works,  a  treatist 
on  the  Oo«emme»l  of  FkirtnM,  ani 
numeroua  sermons. 

flavnw    (■a'voi),  one  of  the  cultivated 
ov.y9j    ^^pg,,  f^(  ti„  cabbage  {Bnatkm 

oleraoea)  wbicb  has  a  firm  bead  and 
crinkled  leaves.  It  is  good  for  winter 
uae,  and  ia  beat  after  a  slight  frost 
fiftVAir  BuoHT  or  (Italian,  £fa«o/aj 
OKWOJf  p,„^l^  SavaUi).  formerly  • 
division  of  tha  Sardinian  Kingdom,  now 
forming  two  of  tbe  departmcnta  of 
France ;  bounded  on  the  north  and  north* 
east  by  Switaerland,  on  the  east  and 
southeast  by  Piedmont,  and  on  the  sonA 
and  weat  by  the  French  departments  of 
Istee  and  Ain.  Savov  belongs  entirely 
to  the  badn  of  tbe  Bnime,  and  ki  aepar 
rated  from  Bwitserland  by  tbe  Lake  of 
Geneva.  The  climate  ia  in  general  cold, 
the  wintera  are  long  and  aevere,  and  tha 
aummera  freqooitly  follow  without  an 
intermediate  apring.  The  vine  ia  ealtl- 
vated  with  aooceas,  hot  tbe  chief  riches 
of  the  country  are  in  ita  cattle  and  dairy 
produce.  By  treaty  (1860)  Savoy  waa 
ceded  by  Sardinia  to  France  (aee  Bat- 
dinia,  Kingiom  of),  of  whfeh  it  now 
forms  two  departments,  Savoie^  area 
2388  aq.  m.,  pop.  264,781,  and  Bauta 
^voie,  area  IwtT  aquare  milea,  pop. 
250,695.  The  capital  of  the  former  ia 
Ghamb6ry,  of  the  latter  Annecy. 
Sftvov  BousB  or,  one  of  tbe  oldest 
"•'*»*»  royal  houses  of  Europe,  now 
repreaented  by  the  King  of  Italy.  Bam- 
bert  White  Hand  (Umberto  Blanca- 
mano),  tbe  reputed  deacendant  of  Wit- 
tekind,  the  laat  of  tha  Old  Saxon  ktaiga, 
was  the  first  o^  tbe  family  who  to(A 
a  prmninent  place  anumg  the  princea  of 
Northern  Italy*  ^«  family  draiiaions 
continued  to  inereaae,  and  under  Amadeos 
II  (110849)  were  ralaed  to  a  eoonty  of 
tbe  empire  (IIHL  and  now  received  tba 
name  of  Savoy.  Oonnt  Thosuu  I  (1188- 
1288)   obtalMd  invmrtaat  acissstoM  of 


UnS 


isisa''irr.S3tera4s?"8s 


and    »«rY_-i  i«  lion.  and  the  crown  de- 

Ami     and    some    other    places.     \  ictor 
Alba,    "°**,,""/"tft7''».1730'> .    grandson    of 

bim  the  title  of  kng;   ""J. ',?„♦„  a  us- 

a?ng  with  lafoy.  Pi^'-f^j^^SL'^^f 
other  dominions,  became     .^e  Kingdom  oi 

|ardinia.  |-/-a|??A"&ot  be- 
SaVOy,  ?weVthe'"strand  «id  th« 
Thames  Embankment  sue  of  he  Savoy 
Palace,  built  *>y  P«|J  oj^li/iJi  i245. 
of  Eleanor,  <l"f  "^  °*T^*t  '^yler  in   1381, 

S^s&eSW^^^^^^^ 

Kl"^  Jhich®  at  one  time  enW  «.« 
frivl^ege  of  Bancfuary.  was  greatly  in- 
jured by  fire  in  IStt*.  and  was  restored 
it^^  PToense  o£  Queen  Victoria.  It  i* 
SLe  •'of'^Ihe"*  aapj-royal  (Jeh*  ^°- 
mcted  with   tb«  dtichy  o£  I*«wt«>. 

48-U-5 


fkw4iti 

but  »t  tht  pnmnt  tliM  l«  uMd  M  •  dto. 
trict  o****"";^-  __„     an  ecclt.!/.- 

Savoy  Coiuerence,  n^i  confer- 

i'rwbytVrlan  divines    The  propoealniad. 

Savu  itf'oV  Si  &>.»  *JS"SJS 


Sawantwan  t\~  ,tate  m  the  Bom- 

hAv  Presidency,  situated  about  200  milw 
south  ^f  Bombay,  bounded  north  and  we« 
hv  the  British  district  of  Rato^f^'K  "™ 
ol  thl  south  by  the  Portuguese  terfitoa 
o£  Goa"°>a,;9(»  sQuare  mile-  Pop. 
(n.ostlyH.ndu)^  217.^32.^^  -tifl-onH.) 
SaW-nsn,   Jearly   related   on   the   one 

A  .r^ia  Int   bu  a  low  beak  ot  tnout, 

ceans  or  whales.      _  ^  „  _ 
Saw-flies,     Sf'in's^t^a 
belonging    to    the    order 
Hymenoptera,    and    dis- 
tinguished by   the  pecu- 
liar conformation  01  tne 
ovipositor  of  the  females, 
which  is  composed  of  two 
broad    plates,    with    ser- 
rated   or    toothed  ,  edges, 
by  means  of  which  they 
incise     the     stems     and 
leaves  of  plants,  and  de- 
posit   their   eggs   in    the 
slits    thus    formed,     ine 
turnip-fly  (Atkalta  cen«»- 
folia)     and    the    goose- 
berry-fly {NematuM  grot- 
iularim)    *w    •»«»»"• 


I 


I- 
I 


I 


SswHy. 
a.  Tn'nlp  MW-fly 
(ithalia    eenit- 
/oHo),    h.   Ori- 

Joiitor  of  Mtw- 
*  Btafniiied  to 
alMW  t»«  SIW. 


IftWf 


MOt-OoVvf-Qotba 


tewi, 


■(•  iBMnuMBt*  with  ft  dcnuted 
-  or  toothad  tdg*  •aplojr**  to  cut 
wood,  fttoot,  iTory,  or  other  iplld  oub. 
■tftoco.  and  art  tithar  ■trtight  or  rir- 
eokr.    In  form  and  sIm  the*  v«nr  frwn 
tho  minute  nirgicftl  or  danul  tool  to  tb« 
iMW  InstmnMnt  oaad  In  MW-mlllft.    Tb« 
0reM-o«*   Mte.    for   cutting   logs   trau- 
vaiMly.  is  ft  Iftrfo  straight  saw  wrought 
by  two  porsons,  on«  at  each  and.     Xbe 
ripiht9-MW,   htlf-ripper,   hand-tate,   and 
jmimI-mw  art  saws  for  the  use  of  om 
^(soo,    the    blades   tapering   In    length 
from  the  handle.    Teson-eoiee,  $Mh'MW$. 
dove-taU  MWf.   etc..  are  saws  made  of 
▼ery  thin  blades  of  steel  stiffened  with 
stoat  pieces  of  brass.  Iron,  or  steel  fiied 
on  their  back  edges.    They  are  used  for 
forming   the  shoulders  of   tenons,   dove- 
tail joints,  etc.,  and  for  many  other  pur- 
poses for  which  ft  neat  clean  cut  Is  re- 
quired.   Compatt  and  keu-hole  sows  are 
long  narrow  saws,  tapiring  from  about 
1  inch  to  V6  Inch  hi  width,  and  used  for 
making  curred  cuts.    Mpcbine  saws  are 
comprehended  under  three  different  classes 
—  circular,  reciprocating,  and  band-saws. 
The  ojroalar  taw  Is  s  disk  of  steel  with 
saw  teeth  upon  iu  periphery.    It  Is  made 
to  revolve  with  great  rapidity  and  force, 
while  the  log  Is  pushed  forward  against 
it   by    means    of    a    traveling    platform. 
The  recisrocalin^  taw  works  like  a  two- 
handled  band-saw,  being  driven  upwards 
and   downwards    and   tlie   wood    carried 
forward    against    its    teeth.    The    band- 
aato  or  ribbon-taw  consists  of  a  thin  end- 
less  saw    placed    like    a   belt   over   two 
wheels,  and  strained  on  them.    The  rib- 
bon passes  down  through  a  flat  sawing- 
table,  upon  which  the  material  to  be  cut 
Is  laid.    Saws  for  cutting  stone  are  with- 
out teeth.     The  sawing  of  timber  Is  an 
important    industry    in    some    countries, 
especially  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
where  immense  quantities  of  lumber  are 
produced.    Water-power     is    often     em- 
'  ployed    to   drive    the   machinery   of   the 
saw-mills,  but  steam  is  equally  common. 
fiav*    (s&ks),      Uebuann      Maurice, 
o«A.c    CoMTE    DE,    Marshal    of    France, 
natural    son    of    Augustus    II,    king    of 
Foland,  by  Aurora,  countess  of  KUnigs- 
mark,  bom  at  Dresden  in  1G9U:  died  in 
1750.    At  the  age  of  twelve  he  joined 
the  allied  army  under  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough and  the  Prince  Eugene,  and  was 
present  at  the  sieges  of  Lille  and  Tour- 
nay.     After  the  Treaties  of  UtiecLt  auf? 
Passarowitz  be  withdrew  to  France,  and 
at    Paris    made    himself    intimately    ac- 
quainted   with    professional    tactics.     On 
tne  death  of  his  father  he  declined  the 
command  of  the  Saxon  aruy,  offered  him 
by  Ui  brotfaar  Augustus  III,  and  joined 


tha  French,  with  whom  ba  dM  BgaMMd 
hlnaalf  at  Dattlngan  and  PhlllMbaHL 
and  la  1744  was  lawardad  with  tba  tUl 
of  ft  marabal  of  Franca.  Ba  was  a«* 
ployed  in  tha  wir  that  followed  tha  dsjtk 
of  tha  £mparor  Charles  VI,  and  In  1746 

Kined  tha  famous  battle  of  Fontaw. 
1747  ha  was  Tktorious  at  LftafakK* 
■nd  In  tha  following  yanr,  took  Mftca- 
trlcht,  soon  after  whieb  tba  Paaca  of 
Aiz-ia-Chapello  was  cooclodad.  Ha 
wrote  a  treatise  antitlsd  Met  BifmiM, 
on  tha  art  of  war. 

cUwA  John  OoDnucT,  >  .orist,  waa 
®**'>  bom  in  FrankllB  Cv.,  Varmoat, 
June  2,  1816.  He  studied  law,  but  ultU 
motely  took  to  journalism  and  litaratura. 
His  poems,  many  of  which  are  of  ft 
humorous  character,  have  been  very  pop* 
ular  in  America.  They  Uiciuda  Pragrttt. 
a  Hatirical  Poem  (184U)  ;  Hnmonm'jmi 
Satirical  Poemt  (1850)  :  UotuvKinf 
(1850):  Flifina  Dutchman  (18^): 
Clever  Btoriet  of  Manjf  NatU)iu  (1866) : 
The  Matqiurait  (1866)  ;  Fablea  and 
Lcgendt  (1872) ;  and  huitwt  ^  Dap 
AJkMiea    (1876).    Ha   died   iJareh   81, 

Saxij-Altenbiirsr  ^rrS-a-^'tate 

Altenhurg;  w\V  tka-kY  t«n-bnrk).  an  In* 
dependent  duchy  in  Thuringla,  forming 
one  of  the  states  in  the  German  Empire, 
is  divided  Into  two  nearly  ^oual  port'ons 
by  a  part  of  Reuss,  aud  -  boundeu  ou 
the  8.W.  by  the  Orand-duchy  of  Baza- 
Weimar-Eisenach,  on  the  If.  by  Prussia, 
and  on  the  X.  by  Saxony;  area,  611 
square  miles.  The  eastern  or  Altenhurg 
division  is  very  fertile,  while  the  western 
or  Saal-Elsenburg  portion  Is  hilly  and 
wooded.  The  duchy  Is  represented  by 
one  vote  in  the  Bundesratb  and  one  vote 
In  the  Reichstag  of  the  German  Empire. 
The  capital  b  Altenhurg.    Pop.  206508. 

Saxe-Cobnrg-Gotha  Csi^'-'gi^ul 

German,  Bachten-Kohurg-Qotha) ,  a 
duchy  of  Central  Germany,  one  of  the 
states  of  the  German  Empire,  compris- 
ing the  province  of  Gotha,  lying  between 
Prussia,  Schwarzburg,  Metningen,  and 
Weimar;  and  the  province  of  Coburg. 
lying  between  Meinlngen  and  Bavaria: 
Coburg  218  square  miles,  and  Gotha  642 
square  miles.  The  south  of  Gotha  And 
north  of  Coburg  are  both  mountr.lnoas. 
Both  divisions  are  fertile;  the  hilhi  are 
covered  w^ith  wood,  and  is  (Sotha  coal 
and  other  minerals  are  found.  Tha  chief 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants,  jwrtlc- 
ularly  in  Coburg,  are  cattle-rearing  and 
agriculture.  In  Gotha  there  are  manu- 
factures of  linen,  leather,  metal-wares, 
ate.    Tba  govarnmant  Is  a  coostitntional 


Bnmt  ArohitaetiiN 


SM^.  aod  Mch  profioct  Ihw  Its  own 
V*  MMBbiy.  wdII*  tbt  dudiy  mmIi 
OM  BMBlMr  to  tbt  BntidMnith  and  two 
to  tlM  HtlcbaUff  of  tb*  Utns».<  Ba* 
Itlrt.  For  affaira  comaion  to  twia  diri* 
•loM  tbo  «HeiobUM  mcot  conjointly  at 
Coborg  and  at  Qotba  aiternatalr.  tb«  two 
cbM  towns  of  tbo  dachy.  Tb«  ducal 
botiae  and  tbo  creatcr  part  of  tbo  jwpu 


latioo  profeaa  tbo  Lutberan  faitb. 
242^ 


wpu* 
Pop. 


T«nter).  a  namo  of  atvtial  brass  wtod* 
luatranH>nts  witb  a  wido  montbpioc*  and 
tbrce.  four,  or  fivo  pUtona,  niMb  sbh 
ployml  in  military  bands.  Tbtss  bemfc 
comprise  tbe  piccolo  comet  or  bigb  Mnall 
sax-bom,  tbe  sopmuo,  tbe  alto,  tbe  ttnor, 
baritone,  baas,  and  double-baas. 
SftxififtVA  (sak-sl-kt-ra),  a  genus  of 
pau«»v»  ni^fjne  lameillbrancbiats 
molluscs,  remarkable  for  escavating  bar- 
rows in  rock  to  serve  as  tb^ir  babitations. 


Saxe-Xeiniiigen  hTJSiSl'^'^X:^  Saxifrage  ir»V'„W;rio'us  "if^Sltl 


Mtintngtn).  a  duchy  of  Central  Uermany, 
snd  one  of  tbe  Ststen  of  tbe  Oerman 
Empire,  consisting  of  a  main  body,  and 
several  minor  isolated  portiims.  Area. 
966  squsre  mile*.  The  greater  part  of 
tbs  surface  is  hilly,  and  tbe  principal 
crops  are  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  tur- 
nips, hemp;  and  tbe  pastures  rear  con- 
sioerablo  number*  of  cuttle,  eheep,  and 
boracB.  Tbe  minerals  include  iron  and 
copper,  worked  to  a  small  extent,  and  the 
manufactures  are  chiefly  ironware,  por- 
celain, glass,  etc.  Tbe  government  is  a 
hereditary  and  constitutional  monarchy, 
and  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitant* 
are  Lutnerans.  The  duchy  sends  one 
member  to  the  Bundcsrath  and  two  to 
the  Reichstag  ot  the  German  Empire. 
Tbe  capital  is  Meiningen.     Pop.  2U8,Ul(i. 

Baxe-WeimaT)  kisenach  (saks- 
wf  mAr ;  German,  SackBen-  Weimar-Ei- 
tenaeh;  8*k's*n-vl-m&r-I'7.n-fcA).  a  gra^d- 
duchy  of  Central  Germany,  uue  of  tbs 
Statea  of  the  German  Empire,  and  con- 
sisting of  three  larger  portions,  Weimar, 
Neustrdt,  and  Eisenach,  and  twelve 
smaller  parcels.  Area  of  the  whole,  1421 
square  miles.  Tbe  forests  are  very  ex- 
tensive, and  form  the  principal  wealth 
of  tbe  grand-duchy.  The  mfuerals  are 
unimportant  In  Eisenach  woolen,  cot- 
ton, and  linen  tissues,  ribbons,  carpets, 
etc.,  are  made.  Tbe  chief  town  is  Wei- 
mar, and  there  la  a  university  of  consid- 
erable repute  at  Jena.  Tbe  government 
is  constitutional,  tbe 
legislative  power  be- 
ing vested  in  a 
bouse  of  parliament, 
consisting  of  one 
chamber  of  thirty- 
one  members.  Saxe- 
Weimar  sends  one  *[ 
member  to  the  Bnn- 
desrsth  and  three 
to  tbe  Reichstag  of 
the  German  Empire. 
Pop.  888,096. 

Saz-hom  i^^i^l 

tt    Fndi,    tbo    in-      BaseSaz-koak 


the  saiifrages  proner  belonging  to  tbe 
genus  Bamifrig;  of  tbe  nat.  order  Baxi- 
fragacea.  The  apecies  are  mostly  hibab- 
itants  of  alpine  and  subalplns  nviooa  of 
tbe  colder  and  temperate  parta  of  tbe 
northern  sone.  Most  of  them  are  troe 
rock  plants,  witb  tufted  foliage  and  pan- 
icles of  white,  yellow,  or  ml  flowers: 
snd  many  are  well  known  as  ornamental 
plants  in  our  gardens,  as  S.  umbrCa*. 
London  pride  or  none-so-pretty:  8.  grun- 
mlita,  white  or  grsnulated  meadow  saxi- 
frage: b.  hypnoiiet,  mosav  aaxifrage  or 
Indies'  cushion;  B.  craitifolia,  w  tbiek- 
ieaved  saxifrage:  8.  iarmentCta,  or 
Chinese  saxifrage.  The  genus  la  a  large 
one,  containing  upwards  of  180  species, 
of  which  at  least  fifty  aie  natives  of 
North  America. 

Saxo  Orammatious  ti? '*a?aiSi" 

rian,  or  the  Learned),  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  old  Danish  historians,  who  flour- 
isiiiu  iu  the  twelfth  century.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  native  of  Denmark, 
of  which  kingdum  and  its  dependencies 
he  compiled  (in  Latin)  an  elaborate  bis 
tory  down  to  118U.  Saxo  was  a  priest 
in  the  cathedral  of  Roeakilde,  and  died 
about  1208. 

Saxon  Architecture,  2'  ~?S*- 

five  English  architecture,  its  period  being 
from  the  conversion  of  England  to  Chris- 
tianity till  the  Conquest  or  near  it,  when* 
Norman  architecture  began  to  prevail 
(seventh  to  eleventh  century).  The  few 
relics  left  us  of  this  style  exhibit  its 
general  characteristics  as  having  been 
rude  solidity  and  strength.  The  walls  are 
of  rough  masonry,  very  thick,  without 
buttresses,  and  sometimes  of  herring- 
bone work:  the  towers  a:<d  niilars  thick 
in  proportion  to  height,  thi  'c-mer  being 
sometimes  not  more  than  t  ^  diameters 
high;  tbe  quoins  or  angle  .aasonry  are 
of  hewn  stonea  set  alteruately  on  end 
and  horizontally:  the  arches  of  doorways 
and  windowa  are  rounded,  or  sometimes 
these  openings  have  triangular  beads, 
tbelr  jambs  of  long  and  short  work  car- 
Tfiog  either   mdely   carved   imposts   or 


Saxons 

capitals  with  Bquare  abaci.  Sometimes 
heavy  moldings  run  round  the  arches, 
and  when  two  or  more  arches  are  con- 
joined In  an  arcade  these  are  on  heavy 
low  shafts  formed  like  balusters.    Win- 


Sazon  Architecture. 

«.  Tower  of  Somting  Church.  Essex,  h,  Tow-w 
of  Barton  •  on  -  Humber  Church,  Lincolnshire. 
C  Long  and  short  work,  d,  window  with 
a  baluster. 

dow  openings  in  the  walls  splay  from 
both  the  interior  and  the  exterior,  the 
position  of  the  windows  being  in  the 
middle  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 
Qo-vATis  (saks'uns;  German,  Badhsen; 
anxxMiUi  tatin,  Baxonea^,  a  Teutonic 
race  whose  name  is  generally  derived  from 
the  Old  German  word  «oft«  (a  knife  or 
short  sword).  They  are  first  mentioned 
by  Ptolemy,  who  speaks  of  them  as  in- 
habiting a  district  bounded  by  the  Eider, 
the  Elbe,  and  the  Trave.  In  the  third 
century  of  the  Christian  era  they  were 
a  numerous,  warlike,  and  piratical  people. 
In  the  fifth  century  considerable  hordes 
of  them  crossed  from  the  Continent  and 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  Saxon  king- 
doma  in  Britain  —  Essex  or  East 
Saxons,   Sussex    or   South    Saxons,    etc. 

iSee  England  and  Anglo-Saaont.') 
'hose  who  remained  in  Germany  (Old 
Saxons)  occupied  a  great  extent  of 
country,  of  vague  and  varying  limits, 
which  bore  the  general  name  of  Saxony. 
~  vigiA  a  thirty  yaan*  war 


Surony 

against  the  Saxons ;  and  Wittikind,  their 
national  hero,  with  many  of  his  country- 
men, submitted  to  his  arms,  and  em- 
braced Christianity.  See  Saxony,  King- 
dom of.  . ,  . 

Saxon  Switzerland,  Sasl^^^jS^i 

to  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  on 
the  Elbe,  southeast  of  Dresden  and  bor- 
dering on  Bohemia.  It  consists  of  a 
group  of  mountains  of  sandstone,  with 
valleys  and  streams  of  the  most  pictur- 
esque character,  in  which  isolated  masses 
of  sandstone,  large  and  small,  occur  i& 
very  fantastic  shapes.  It  is  about  2( 
miles  long,  and  equally  wide. 
Og-rnnv  (saks'un-i).  Kingdom  oif 
saxony  (German,  Bachaen),  a  king- 
dom of  Central  Germany;  bounded  op 
the  northwest,  north,  and  east  by  Prus^ 
sia,  southeast  and  south  by  Bohemia, 
southwest  by  Bavaria,  and  west  by  Reuss, 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  Saxe-Altenburg ;  great- 
est length,  135  miles;  greatest  breadth, 
75  miles;  area,  5786  square  miles;  pop. 
4,797,700.  For  administrative  purposes 
it  is  divided  into  the  four  districts  of 
Dresden,  Leipzig,  Zwickau,  and  Bautxen 
or  Budissin. 

Oeneral  Features.— With,  the  excep- 
tion of  a  very  small  portion  of  the  east, 
which  sends  its  waters  to  the  Baltic, 
Saxony  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Elbe, 
which  traverses  it  in  a  northwesterly  di' 
rection  for  about  70  miles,  the  most  im- 
portant of  its  tributaries  being  the  Mulde 
and  the  Elster.  The  surface,  though  very 
much  broken,  may  be  regarded  as  an  in- 
clined plane,  which  commences  In  the 
south,  in  the  Erzgebirge  chain,  and  slopes 
towards  the  north.  In  the  more  ele- 
vated districts  the  scenery  is  wild,  while 
on  either  side  of  the  Elbe,  from  the  Bohe- 
mian frontier  to  Pima,  is  a  remarkable 
tract,  covered  with  fantastic  sandstone  for- 
mations, which  has  received  the  name  of 
the  Saxon  Switzerland.  On  the  Prussian 
frontiers,  where  the  district  subsides  to 
its  lowest  point,  the  height  above  the 
sea  is  only  250  feet.  The  loftiest  summits 
are  generally  composed  of  granite   and 

5neis8,  and  are  rich  in  mineral  products, 
'he  Erzgebirge  is  continued  by  the 
Riesengebirge,  a  branch  of  whlcli,  ander 
the  name  of  the  Lausitzer-gebirge,  or 
Mountains  of  Lusatia,  covers  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  east  of  Saxony. 
The  climate  in  the  lo<"' 
tricts  is  very  cold,  bt 
tion  it  is  milder  than 
tries  of  Europe  under  ._.  -      ^  -  . 

Prodttctiont,  Indu$triea^  2tM  mort 
imporunt  crop*  are  rje,  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  potatoei;  and  orchard-fruity  !»»• 
tioolady  applM.  p«ai%  aad  phimi^  M« 


r  mountain  dis- 

with  this  excep- 

,ac  of  most  coun- 

he  F     -  latitude. 


Saxony 


Bucony 


Terjr  abnndcot  Considerable  attention 
ii  paid  to  tbe  culture  of  the  vine. 
Large  numbers  of  horned  cattle  are  ez> 
ported.  The  wool  of  Saxony  has  long 
been  celebrated  Tor  its  excellence.  Swine 
and  horses  are  of  a  sup^^rior  breed.  The 
minerals  are  of  great  M:r.crtance,  and 
include  silver,  lee  :.  liu,  irou,  cobalt, 
nickel,  bismuth,  ar  -  arsenic.  jSui  <  rous 
seams,  both  of  ligni  >  and  coal,  ar'>  lound 
in  various  districts,  a"d  are  v,'Oi  :ed  to 
a  considerable  extcLt  The  «r.iarr  .js  fur- 
nish in  abundance  granito,  porphyry, 
basalt,  marble,  serpentine,  and  sand- 
stone. Several  mineral  springs  of  repu- 
tation exist.  Saxony  is  an  important 
manufacturing  country.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  linen,  lace,  ribbons,  and  straw- 
plaitine.  Other  industries  are  earthen- 
ware, Dresden  ware,  leather,  chemicals, 
etc.,  and  the  printing  establishments  of 
Leipzig  are  well  known.  Tbe  railroads 
of  Saxony  are  connected  with  the  great 
trunk  lines  which  traverse  Central 
Europe. 

Adminittration,  etc. —  The  government 
is  a  constitutional  monarchy  (forming 
part  of  the  German  Empire),  in  which 
the  executive  power  is  lodged  solely  in 
the  crown,  and  the  legislative  power 
jointly  in  the  crown  and  two  chambers. 
The  members  of  both  houses  are  paid 
for  their  services;  the  amount  ($3  per 
day  during  the  session)  being  the  same 
for  the  members  of  each  bouse.  Justice 
is  administered  by  three  classes  of  courts, 
namely,  courts  of  primary,  secondary, 
and  tertiary  resort  or  instance.  In  re- 
ligion universal  toleration  is  guaranteed; 
but  the  religious  body  recognized  by  tbe 
state  is  the  Lutherans.  At  the  head  of 
the  educational  establishments  of  the 
kingdom  is  the  University  of  Leipzig, 
and  there  are  gymnasia  in  the  principal 
towns.  The  army  is  raised  chiefly  by 
conscription  —  all  male  citizens  being 
bound  to  serve  for  three  years  in  the 
active  service,  four  years  in  the  reserve, 
and  five  in  the  Landwehr.  As  a 
member  of  the  Qerman  Empire  Saxony 
has  four  votes  in  the  Federal  Council,  and 
(tends  twenty-three  deputies  to  the  Reich- 
stag. Of  the  states  of  the  empire  it  is 
the  fifth  in  size  and  the  third  in  popula- 
tion. The  chief  towns  are  Dresden  (the 
capital),  Leipzig,  Chemnitz,  Zwickau, 
Plauen,  and  Freiberg. 

Hittory. —  The  present  ruling  famil:^  in 
Saxony  claims  descent  from  Wittikind, 
the  national  hero  who  was  conquered  by 
Charlemagne  and  embraced  Christianity. 
The  territory  became  a  duchy  alraut  880, 
and  in  the  tenth  century  Duke  Henry 
was  alectad  Qemuui  emperor.    In  1127 


the  duchy  passed  to  the  Bavarian  brandi 
of  the  Quelf  family,  and  after  Mvetal 
changes  Frederick  tbe  Warrior,  mar- 
grave of  Meissen  and  landgrave  <A 
Thuringia,  became  (1423)  Elector  of 
Saxony.  His  grandsons,  Ernest  and 
Albert,  in  1485  divided  the  family  pos- 
sessions, founding  the  Ernestine  and 
Albertine  lines  respectively,  tbe  former 
retaining  the  electoral  dignity.  Ernest 
was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Frederick  III 
(1486-15%)  and  John  (1525-1BS2),  bat 
in  1548  the  elector  of  the  Ernestine  line 
was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire, 
and  tne  electorate  transferred  to  Maurice, 
who  represented  the  Albertine  line  which 
now  occupies  the  throne.  Mautice  was 
succeeded  ny  his  brother  Augustus  (1553- 
86),  who  made  important  additions  to 
the  Saxon  territories  by  purctuue  and 
otherwise.  His  son.  Christian  I,  died  in 
1691,  leaving  his  crown  to  his  son. 
Christian  II.  Christian's  brother  and 
succ^sor,  Jolin  George  I  (1611-66), 
joined  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  tne  Thirty 
Years'  war,  and  the  Saxon  forces  took 

gart  at  Breitenfeld  and  at  Lfitzen. 
'rederick  Augustus  I  (1694-1738)  em- 
braced the  Catholic  religion  (1697)  to 
obtain  the  crown  of  Poland.  Frederick 
Augustus  II  also  obtained  the'  Polish 
crown  (as  Augustus  III)  after  a  war 
with  France  and  joined  with  Austria  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war.  Frederick  Augus- 
tus III  (1763-1827)  .reluctantly  took 
part  against  France  when  war  was  de- 
clared by  the  imperial  diet  in  1793,  but 
after  the  battle  of  Jena  the  elector  and 
his  army  fought  side  by  side  with  thf> 
French.  Napoleon  conferred  upon  bim 
the  title  of  king,  and  large  additions  were 
made  to  the  Saxon  territory  in  1807  and 
1809.  In  1813  Saxony  was  the  scene  of 
Napoleon's  struggle  with  the  allies,  and 
the  battles  of  Ltttzen,  Bautzen,  Dresden, 
and  Leipzig  were  followed  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  (1814),  when  a  large 
part  of  the  dominions  then  under  the 
Saxon  mcmarch  was  ceded  to  Prussia. 
A  period  of  great  progress  followed,  in- 
terrupted somewhat  at  the  revolutionary 
period  of  1848-49.  In  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war  of  1866  Saxony  took  part 
with  Austria,  and  was  occupied  by  the 
Prussian  troops.  Prussia  desired  to  in- 
corporate the  kingdom,  but  Austria,  sup- 
ported by  France,  opposed  this  arrange- 
ment, and  Saxony  was  admitted  into 
the  North  German  Confederation  in- 
stead. In  the  Franco-German  war  Sax- 
ony united  with  the  rest  of  Glermany 
against  France. 

SftXOnv  PRUSSIAN,  a  province  of  the 
M<»A.wujr)  Prussian  monarchy,  of  Irreg- 
nlar  i^pe,  and  with  isolated  dlstricti^ 


Saxophone 


iff 


almost  in  the  ceuter  of  Germany,  to  the 
north  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony;  area. 
9720  sqaare  miles.  Originally  a  part  of 
Saxony,  it  waa  given  to  Prujwia  by  the 
CongreJs  of  Vienna  (1814).  The  northern 
and  larger  portion  belonra  to  the  North 
German  plain;  the  southern  and  south- 
western is  elevated  or  hilly,  partly  belong- 
ing to  the  Hara  Mountain  system.  The 
capital  of  the  province  is  Magdeburg; 
other  towns  are  Halle  (with  a  university), 
Erfurt,  Halberstadt.  Pop.  2,979,221. 
eavAnliA'nA  a  brass  wind  instrument, 
SaXOpnOne,    ^^  na^e^   from   Adolph 

Sax.  It  consists  of  a  conical  brass  tube 
curved  forward  and  upward,  containing 
about  twenty  lateral  holes  covered  by 
keys.  It  is  played  by  a  mouthpiete  and 
reed  as  is  the  clarinet.  The  tone  is  nch 
and  mellow. 

Qaxw    (sS),  JEAK  Baptiste,  a  political 
Day    economist,  bom  at  Lyons,  France, 
in  1767;  died  in  1832.     He  was  destined 
by  his  father  for  a  commercial  career, 
and  passed  a  part  of  his  youth  in  Eng- 
land.    On  his  return  to  France  he  was 
for  some  time  secretary  to  Clavitre.  the 
minister  of   finance,   and   from   1794  to 
1800    conducted    a    journal    called    the 
Dhsade.    In  1799  he  was  a  member  of 
the    tribunate,    but    being    removed    by 
Napoleon   devoted    himself   to   industrial 
pursuits.     In  1819  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  industrial  economy  at  the  Con- 
servatoire des  Arts  et  Metiers,  and  m  1S31 
was  nominated  to  the  chair  of  political 
economy  at  the  College  de  France.    His 
chief  works  are   his   TrattS  d'Economte 
politique,  and  his  Coun  complet  d  Econo- 
mte  politique  pratique.  ^      „i, 

0««.  Jean  Baptiste  L6on,,  a  French 
*»"'y»  statesman  and  economist,  grand- 
son of  the  above,  was  born  at  Fans, 
in  1826  He  was  returned  to  the 
National  Assembly  in  1871,  and  in  the 
following  year  became  fi?a°5«„."'°'8if^ 
In  the  government  of  M.  Theirs,  lie 
occupied  this  position  in  successive  min- 
istries; was  appointed  ambassador  to 
I^don  in  1880,  and  soou  afterwards  was 
elected  president  of  the  ^senate.  His 
chief  economic  works  are  flwfo.re  de  Jo 
C'awe  d'Eseompte;  La  UUe  de  Pqnj 
et  le  Cridit  Fancier;  and  Lea  muga- 
tioM  Populairef.  He  also  coot rlbuted  to 
the  Journal  de$  dihai:  He  died  April 
"1    1896. 

C«*r  Thomas,  an  American  naturalist, 
^y>  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1787.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academv  of  Natural 
Sciences  in  Philadelphia  in  1812;  par- 
ticipated in  a  scientific  exploration  of 
the  coasts  and  adjacent  islands  of  Georgia 
pvA  FloridA  in  1818;  was  chief  geologist 


Soad 

of  an  expedition  to  the  Rocky  M<»>n\»|™[ 
in  1810-1820.  He  is  auppoeed  to  have 
discovered  more  new  specie*  of  iaMcts 
than  any  naturalist  prior  to  bis  time.  He 
died  in  1834.  „  _ 

QotrnA    (»ft")^  Abchibajj)  HIlre^^  com- 
oayce    ^aratlve  philologist  and  orienUj- 
ist,    born    at     Shlrehampton,     England, 
September  25,  184&    He  was  educated  at 
Bath  and   Oxford,  where   he  became  a 
fellow  and  tutor  at  Queen's  College,     in 
1878  he  was  appointed  deputy  prof^r 
of    comparative     philology     una"     **" 
M  filler.     He  was  a  member  of  the  UiO 
Testament   Revision  Company,  and  was 
Hibbert    lecturer     (1887).    He    is    the 
author    of    many    works    on    philology 
and    on     oriental    languages,    including 
Principlea  of  Comparative  Philology;  in- 
troduction to  the  Science  of  Language; 
Ancient  Empires  of  the  Eaat;  ^styna, 
its  Princes,  Priests,  and  People;  A»«vrian 
Grammar:  Lectures  on  the  Ortgtn  of  tee- 
ligion,    The  Uittites,   The  Higher  Crttt- 
ciam  and  the  Monuments,  etc. 
Qoirr0     Lsa'en   or  s&t),   a   borough   ef 
dayre     Bradford  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  Susquehanna  River.  19  miles  8.  W.  of 
Owego.     It     has     railroad     shops,     car- 
wheel  works,  metal-work  industries,  etc. 
Pop.  (5426. 


SnoV  a  skin  disease  in  sheep,  analo- 
'"•"t  gous  to  itch  in  man  and  mange 
in  horses  and  dogs,  usually  propagated  by 
contagion,  and  caused  by  the  presence  ot 
minute  acari,  which  burrow  under  the 
skin.  Various  medicines  have  been  rec- 
ommended, such  as  lard  or  palm-oU.  Z 
lbs. :  oil  of  tar,  i  lb. ;  sulphur,  1  lb.,  mixed 
together  and  rubbed  on  the  diseased  spots. 

Scabbard-fish  i^5:.)t^^'*X'auttfSi 

fish  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  East- 
ern Atlantic,  so  called  because  in  shaiK 
it  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  sheatn 
of  a   sword.     It   is   of   a   bright   silvery 
whiteness,  with  a  single  dorsal  fin  run- 
ning along  the  back.  „    ,.,    \ 
Qnahinns    (skft'bi-us;    8caht6sa),    an 
OCaoiOUS    extensive   genus   of  annual 
and  perennial  herbs,  belonging  to  the  nat. 
order  Dipsacea.    They  are  annual  or  per- 
ennial herbs,  with  entire  or  divided  leaves 
and  heads  of  blue,  pink,  white  or  yel  ow- 
ish  flowers.    8.  succlsa,  devil  s  bit,  U  a 
common  plant.     It  possesses  great  astrbi- 
Kency    but    no    important    medicinal    vir- 
tues, although  it  was  formerly  supposed 
to  be  of  great  efficacy  in  all  scaly  erup- 
tions, hence  the  name.  i.^^. 
cUa J      or  HoBSE-MACKEBM.  {Trachfrus 
oCAa.f    tracharus ) ,  a  genus  of  teleostean 
fishes  included  in  the  famiW  Scomberidie 
or  mackerels,  found  in  the  North  Atlantic. 
It  appears  in  large  shoals,  and  the  amu 


SoiBTola 

altboofh  coarse,   is  esteemed  nnd  ealcn 
nlted  during  '  he  winter  months. 

Soavola.    ^^®  ^•"**  «<=«""'''•• 

SUaf«11  (Bka'fel),  or  Scaw  Feix,  a 
"«*i*"  mountain  of  England,  in  the 
■oath  of  the  county  of  Cumberland,  near 
the  borders  of  Westmoreland,  consists  of 
two  principal  summits,  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  deep  chasm.  Of  the  two 
peaks  the  higher  is  3229  feet,  the  other 
ma  feet  in  height.  ,  ^ 
fiAac>1in1a  (skAl-yi-«'!A) ,  a  ■  comppsi- 
OUH^UUXH  jiQn^  imitative  of  marble, 
used  for  enriching  columns  and  internal 
walls  of  buildings.  It  is  composed  of 
gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  calcined 
and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  with  the 
addition  of  water,  by  which  a  fine  paste 
is  made.  While  soft  it  is  bestudded  with 
splinters  of  spar,  marble,  granite,  bits  of 
concrete,  colored  gypsum,  or  vems  of 
clay,  in  a  semifluid  state.  It  is  suootbed 
with  fine  iron  tools  when  soft,  and  when 
it  becomes  hard  receives  a  high  polish  like 
marble.  .  „    . .  , 

R/tala.Unvfl.  (ska'la-no'va;  Turkish, 
OCaia-JXOVii  Susuadassi),  a  seaport 
town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  at  the  head  of 
the  gulf  of  same  name,  40  miles  south  of 
Smyrna.  The  ruins  of  Ephesus  are  in 
the  neighborhood.  Pop.  about  7000. 
Qnalaria  (ska-IAr'i-a),  a  genus  of  ma- 
isvaxaxxa  ^j^g^  turreted,  gasteropodous 
mollusca,  with  raised  ribs  or  ridges 
on  their  shells.  They  are  found  in  sandy 
mud,  at  depths  varying  from  7  to  13 
fathoms,  and  are  commonly  called  wentle- 
traps. 

QAalil.fiali      a  marine  flat-fish,  Bhom- 
acaia-nsn,     j,^,  Amogloaaw,  allied  to 
the  tnrbot,  sole,  and  fiounder.     It  is  not 
uncommon  on  the  British  coasts. 
Snft1rl.TiAii.(1     a  fungous  parasitic  dis- 

9caia-neaa,  ^^^  „£  tj,e  gcaip.   Se« 

Porm*.,  „    , , 

Scalds.     '^*  Bitrn«  and  Scaldt. 

Rnal^a      or  Skalds,  were  the  poets  and 
owuuB)     historians  of  the  Scandinavian 


race.  They  sang  the  praises  of  the  gods, 
and  celebrated  the  exploits  of  the  national 
heroes.  A  list  of  230  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished is  still  preserved  in  the 
Icelandic  records.  .    . 

q^alfi  (skal),  a  mathematical  instru- 
*'*''"*  ment  consisting  of  a  slip  of 
wood,  ivory,  or  metal,  with  one  or  more 
•eta  of  spaces  graduated  and  numl>ered 
on  its  surface  for  measuring  or  laying  oS 
distances,  etc. 

BAal*  in  music,  a  succession  of  notes 
*''*'"''»  arranged  in  the  order  of  pitch, 
and  comprising  those  sounds  which  may 
oeeor  in  a  pi«c«  of  music  written  in  a 


Scales 

givm  key.  In  its  simplest  form  the  scale 
consists  of  seven  steps  or  degrees  counted 
upward  in  a  regular  order  from  a  root 
or  prime  (the  tonic  or  key-note),  to 
which  series  the  eighth  is  added  to  form 
the  octave.  It  has  been  the  practice 
among  musicians  to  consider  the  scale 
having  C  for  its  key-note  as  the  natural, 
model,  or  normal  scale.  The  dlatoalc 
scale  ascetids  by  five  steps  (tones)  and 
two  half-steps  (semitones),  taking  if" 
the  names  of  the  notet  the  syllables  do. 
re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si,  do;  the  two  semi- 
tones occur  between  E  and  F  (mi  and 
fa)  and  B  and  C  (si  and  do).  Wlien 
the  scale  is  graduated  all  the  way  by  a 
series  of  twelve  half-steps  or  semitones 
it  is  called  the  chromatic  scale.  A  scale 
is  said  to  b-  major  when  the  interval 
iMtween  the  key-note  and  the  third  above 
it,  as  from  C  to  E,  consists  of  two  tones ; 
it  is  called  minor  when  the  interval  be- 
tween the  key-note  and  its  third,  as  from 
A  to  C,  consists  of  a  tone  and  a  half. 
See  Mvaic.  , 

QnolA-fprn       a   popular   name   for   a 

ocaie-iern,    ^^^ "  ^^    t^e    genus 

Ceteriich  (C.  officinHrum),  so-named  from 
the  imbricpted  tawny  scales  at  the  back 
of  the  fronds.  To  this  plant  was  for- 
merly attributed  a  m<«rvelous  influence 
over  the  liver  and  spK  It  is  a  Brit- 

ish species,  and  is  saiu  '  he  used  as  a 
bait  for  fish  on  the  coast  of  Wales. 

Clr>a1ik.iTi«i>rt  *  name  given  to  va- 
dCaie-inseCl,    ^^^^^     insects     of     the 

Coccus  family  injurious  to  plants.  See 
Coccus.  ,  , 

Qna1ik.mn«9  *  opular  name  given  to 
SCaie-mOSS,     ^j^g    Jungermannlas, 

plants  resembling  moss,  and  belonging  to 
the  order  Hepaticse.  They  grow  on  the 
trunks  of  trees,  in  damp  earth,  and  in 
similar  places,  and  are  so-called  from  the 
small  scale-like  leaves. 
Cina1»Ti»  (ska-len'),  in  mathematics,  a 
0(/tucuc  j„^  applied  to  a  triangle  of 
which  the  three  sides  are  unequal.  A 
cone  or  cylinder  is  also  said  to  be  scalene 
when  its  axis  is  inclined  to  its  base,  but 
in  this  case  the  term  oblique  is  more 
frequently  used.  ,  ^. 

Qnalas  ^he  imbricated  plates  on  the 
SunxcB,  exterior  of  certain  animals,  as 
the  pangolins  or  scaly  ant-eaters,  ser- 
pents and  other  reptiles,  and  especially 
fishes.  The  scales  of  the  latter  are  de- 
veloped beneath  the  true  epiderm,  and 
consist  of  alternate  layers  of  membrane, 
of  homy  matter,  and  occasionally  of 
phosphate  of  lime.  Fishes  were  classed 
by  Agassis,  in  accordance  with  the 
structure  of  their  scales,  into  Ctenoid, 
Ganoid,  Cycloid,  and  Placoid,  the  gen- 
eral appearance  and  character  of  which 


Soammony 


J  t 


Scale-tail ^ 

.«  Indicated  In  the  ^cco»^»7%KS  ^Calp,    '^%^  TsIS  t     .^ 
(Bee  alio  the  separate  terms.)     A  ^e  term  .^   tendonof   the  occipiio-frontal 

^le  is  applied  also  In  botany  to  a  smg  "P^J^^^jf^     of     intermediate    cellular 
rudimentary  or  met* "on)hoBed  leaf,  scalfr   mu»c».     ana   j^j^.^^^g^jg,     ^^^^e     the 
like  in  form  and  often  in  arrangement,   t»»J'®^j  *^^  ^ead  or  a  part  of  it,  with 
^^  ^^  ^^m  1^^  the  hair  belonging  to  it,  torn  or  cut  off 

^^■^^B  ^^H.  ^^B  by  the  American  Indians  as  a  mark  ol 

^^V^^P  ^^H  ^^F  victory  over  an  enemy. 

'^^  ^■^  ■^^*    ^^  o— !«;■««.      the  act,  peculiar  to  North 

^»  •  »  ♦  Scalping,     American  Indian  warfare. 

Scales  of  FUhes.  -  nartly   cutting,   partly   tearing  off   a 

1  Cten<dd  Sorie  of  th«  Perch.  a^cWd  Scale  .  ^  of  the  skin  of  the  head,,  with  the 
of  the  cSS.  3.  Gsaoid  Sodes  of  Dipteru..  4.  g|,^%ttached ;  whether  the  victim  was 
PlacoidSoJeofRmy.  ^^jj^^  oj  dead  at  the  time  does  not  affect 

constituting  the  covering  of  the  leaf-buds  Jje  ope^t>o-  J^he  Imlisms.  with^  whom 
of  the  deciduous  trees  in  CO  d  climates,  the   scalps    were  ^    ^^  ^^^  ^^   ^j^^ 

involucrum  of  the  CompositiB,  the  bracts  ^^,^y%^";    cha"™*"-    ^he    whites    at 
of  catkins,  etc  tj^-.^  encouraged   the  practice  by  offer- 

Scale-tail.     see  Anonalure.  {^'bounUes  for  scalps    especially   dur- 

Srali^er   (-kalW),  Joseph  Jxtstus  i^lg  ^Jfas^'eh^uttts^^ffered' £40  fTeveS 

bCallger  son  of  JuUus  Csesar  Scal  ger,  JJJp^Jf^'^S   Indian   over   12  years 

bom  at  Agen  in  France,  in  1540;  died  «f  ^P  "^^^^  ^  i^t  scalps  of  women  and 

in  1609.^  His  training  as  a  scholar  was  «.f|«'n"°"The  French  olered  bounties  for 

•&b^tfwSrp-t..r.11S'B.?.rt  s^ily  Ant-Eater.   so.p..^<.». 

the  modern  European  lfng"a?ff-  J  9^  fl«„«.««J«-  (ska-man'd6r),  a  small 
some  time  he  led  an  unsettled  life,  visit-  ScailiailQer  ^^^^^  j^  the  Troad,  in 
iag  Italy  and  Eng  and  in  las  search  for  ^^^^^  ^f'^sia  Minor,  associated 

manuscripts.     Haying   Income  a   1  rotes    ^^.J'^ty  ,^^,5  ^iver  .  . 

tant,  he  retired   gom  Fmnc^  after  ^he  ^irti^.the JiUle  river 

Sir  profess^or  ^l^'^ey^A-t  of  the  Trojan  war 
Geneva,  but  returned  to  France  m  15.4.   ScanullUS     ^"fj^ 
and  Uv4d  there  for  the  succeeding  twenty  -ncTent 

treadse  De  Bmendaftone  Temporum,  is  umn.  statue,  etc.,  to 
one  Tthe  most  important.  In  this  work  [f>f  •t'^Jf  "ot. 
h»  mve  the  first  complete  and  scientific  liae  a  peaesiai,  or 
chrraoloKicIl  system.  His  annotations  namented  with  any 
?5'ThSis.  &US.  Catullus.  Tibul-  kind  of  molding.  ^j 

lus,  Propertlus,  Seneca  (tragedies),  Scammony  t^e  ^enus  ConwIi«.l««, 
Varro,  Ausonius,  Festus,  are  character-  ««,««.onio    which  grows   abun- 

iild  ^y  an  excessive  subtlety  and  over-  th«  g' j^l^^Ta  and  Asia  M?nor.^  It  re- 
free  treatment  of  the  t/^*  — Sca"««^  gembles  the  common  bindweed  (0.  or- 
3VJJ.VB  Cjebjm,  father  of  the  above,  was  semDies   ine   ^o"  ^  j^  gj^^ 

bom  in  1484.  and  resided  in   Venice  or  ««.»•«),   ^"^  *s   iar|er.   a  a„iniony 

Padua   till   his   forty-second   year,   occu-  Ja*^^??*' .^°"  r^^is  is  the  inspi  sap 

pied  with  studjr  and  the  practice  of  medi-  «  "fjacted.  Tl^'^fJ^^lh  »?ay  color,  a 
cine.  His  writings  gave  him  a  high  «  "^  '"^^  °jl,  and  a  bittir  and  acrid 
rank  among  the  scholars  of  his  age,  al-  oauseous  '^^"^d  in  medicine  as  a  drastic 
^^""1'^    l*!?„^^Jfffaith  ,i~^«ted     hI  PuS.  and  usually  administered  .in  com- 

'^"i.*,"  ^S?  S?iffili?y  'iC  work    of  Mon^pelHer°  *£mmo^y    a    substance 

vanity    and    irritability.     "«  , T'"*,  "*  made  in  the  south  of  France  from  the 

neither  is  commensu«te  with  hU  fame.  madejn^  %^Tcvnanchum  montpata. 

Scallop.    ^**'^^''*^  <«;»  (order  A«;lepiadace«e),  row«i  mw 


a,  Scamillni. 


Seanderbeg 


Scape 


difftrcnt  mini  and  other  purgatiT*  sab- 
■tancca. 

Soanderbcg:  i'i^J^'X^U'VJ^ 

oc  Albania,  whose  proper  name  was 
Oeorse  Castriota,  son  of  John,  prince  of 
that  country,  was  bom  about  the  year 
1404;  died  in  14tt7.  Aa  a  boy  be  «as 
aent  as  a  hostace  and  educated  at  the 
Turldsh  court.  At  the  ace  of  eighteen 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  body  of 
troops,  but  hearing  of  the  death  of  his 
father,  Scanderbeg  renounced  Mohanune- 
danism  and  raised  the  standard  of  in* 
surrection  in  Albania.  He  repeatedly 
defeated  the  Ottoman  forces,  and  Mo- 
hammed II  found  it  necessary  (1461) 
to  accent  terma  of  peace.  After  hia 
death  Albania  again  fell  under  Turkish 
dominion. 

Scandinavia  Ite^i::';^-^^.*^: 

gion  now  comprehending  the  three  north- 
em  kingdoms,  Denmark,  Sweden  and 
Norway,  also  Sweden  and  Norway  alone, 
and  still  not  uncommonly  used.  These 
countries  were  inhabited  in  the  earliest 
times  by  people  of  the  Teutonic  stock, 
and  B.O.  100  the  nativea  of  Jutland  and 
Scbleswig  became  formidable  to  the 
Romans  under  the  name  of  Cimhri,  But 
it  was  chiefly  in  the  ninth  century  that 
tbey  made  their  power  felt  in  the  western 
and  southern  parts  of  Europe,  where 
hordes  of  Northmen  or  Vikings,  as  they 
were  often  called,  made  repeated  raidis 
in  their  galleys  on  the  coasts  of  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Holland,  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  where  they 
plundered,  destroyed,  and  sometimes 
founded  new  kingdoms.  (See  Northmen.) 
The  Old  Norse  or  Scandinavian  litera- 
ture, so  far  as  extant,  is  of  considerable 
Talue,  having  preserved  to  us  not  only 
the  old  Tersincation  peculiar  to  all 
natioAs  of  Teutonic  origin,  but  also  the 
mythology,  history,  and  laws  of  the  pagan 
period  of  these  northern  countries. 
Among  the  most  taluable  remains  are 
the  Edda  and  the  Sagaa  (which  see). 
For  the  ancient  mythology  see  Northern 
Mythology. 

SflandlX  (*kan'diks),  a  small  genua 
krvauuxAi  of  plants,  nat.  order  Umbel- 
lifene.  It  is  composed  of  annual  herbs 
with  striated  stems,  bipinnate  leaves,  the 
leaflets  divided  into  linear  lobes,  and 
small  umbels  of  white  flowers  which 
are  aucceeded  by  slender  long-beaked 
fraits.  A  common  species  is  8.  Pecten- 
Fenerts  (needle  chervil,  shepherd's  needle 
or  Venus's  comb). 

gnonBOrefl  (akan-aS'rCc),  an  order  of 
«'*'*'"""■  birtls.  poputarly  known  aa 
eUabiag  Idrda,  luTing  tlM  feat  pravidM 


with  four  toes,  of  wiiich  two  are  tuned 
backwards  and  two  forwarda.  Of  tlie 
two  toes  which  are  directed  backward 
one  ia  the  hallux  or  proper  hind-toe,  the 
other  is  the  outermost  of  the  normal 
three  anterior  toes.  This  conformation 
of    the    foot    enables    the    scanaores    to 


ScaniorM. 

m.  Head  and  foot  of  Cackoo.     h,  Do.  of  Oraan 
Woodpecker,     e.  Do.  of  Qreat  Jaeamar. 

climb  with  unusual  facility.  Their  food 
consists  of  insects  and  fruit;  their  nesta 
are  usually  made  in  the  hollows  of  old 
trees.  The  most  important  families  are 
the  cuckoos  (Cuculide),  the  wood- 
peckers and  wrv-necks  (Picide),  the 
parrots  (Psittacidn),  the  toucan*  (Ram- 


Soanaoras. 

a,  Skull  of  Parrot  {PtiUacut  erythaeut).  h.  Foot 
ol  tha  same:  a.  Hallux;  6,  Index:  e,  Middla  (oa; 
4,  Otttor  or  ring  too.    (After  BlsndianL}  i 

phastidse),  the  trogons  (Trcgonida;),  the 
barbets  (Bucconids),  and  the  plantain- 
eaters  (Musophagids).  Not  all  of  thia 
order  are  actually  climbers,  and  there  are 
climbing  birds  which  do  not  belong  to  this 
order. 

(sk&p) ,     in     botany, 


Scape 


an     no- 


branched  stem,  or  rather  pe- 
duncle, riaing  from  the  foot  and  bearing 
the  fructification  without  leaves,  aa  in  tte 


Soape-goat 


I 


■;jhSi 


! 


narcinui  «nd  hyacinth.—  In  architecture, 
tbTaprin/of  a  column;  the  part  where 
a  column  aprings  froia  it«  baae,  uaunlly 
molded  into  a  concave  aweep  or  cavetto. 
a«a«A  trna*  >n  tb«  Jewlah  ritual,  a 
DOape-gOai,  g^at  which  waa  brought 
to  the  doer  of  the  tabernacle,  where  the 
high-piiest  laid  his  hands  upon  him,  con- 
feeing  the  sins  of  the  people,  and  putting 
{hem  on  the  head  of  the  goat,  after  whicE 
Se  goat  was  sent  into  the  wilderness, 
bearing  the  iniquities  of  the  people.     Lev. 

eloTiiila  (skap'O-la),  or  Shoui-deb- 
ScapUia  Ijlab'e,  the  bone  which  in 
most  mammalia  forms  the  chief  bone  of 
the  shoulder  girdle,  '^^  which  chiefly 
supports  the  upp^r  umb  on  the  trunk  or 
axial  skeleton.  In  man  the  scapula  ex- 
ists as  a  flaitened  bone  of  triangular 
sbepe,  which  lies  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  on  the  back,  and  to^vards  the  upper 
and  outer  border  of  the  chest  or  thorax. 
The  internal  surface  of  the  scapula  is 
corco"?.  and  is  applied  against  the  ribs, 
lue  outer  or  dorsal  surface  is  divided  into 
two  portions  by  a  strong  ridge  which  runs 
obliquely  across  the  bone.  w  a  ^r 

o!.-««l«*^     (skap'Q-la-ri),  a  kind  of 
Scapnlary    ^rment    or    portion    of 
dress,  consisting  of  two  bands  of  vvoolen 
stuff  — one   going   down    the   breast   and 
the  other  on  the  back,  over  the  shoulders 
-worn    by    a    rcliuieus.    The    original 
scapulary  was  fiwt  introduced  by  St-  Ben- 
edict,  in  lieu  of  a  heavy  cowl  for  the 
shoulders,  designed  to  carry  loads. 
q-.-ovLt,-    (skar-a-be'us),  an  exten- 
aCaraDSUS   ^i^^  genus  of  coleopterous 
Inaeota   nlaced  by   Linnaeus  at   the   head 
oHhe  Gs^  tribes,  and   answering   to 
the   Mction    Lamellicornes    of    Latrei  le. 
They  are  sometimes  called  dung-beetlei, 
from  their  habit  of  inclosing  their  eggs 
in  pellets  of  dung,  which  are  placed  in 


Searabemu  taeer,  or  Sacred  Beetle. 


holes  excavated  for  their  reception.  The 
S.  aacer,  or  sacred  beetle  of  the  Egyptians 
was  regarded  with  great  veneration ;  and 
figures  of  it,  plain  or  inscribed  with  char- 
acters, weie  habitually  worn  by  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  as  an  amulet.  Large 
numbers  of  carved  icarabm  or  acaraM, 
nwd*  (rf  hard  iton*  or  gema.  art  atui 


Soarfi]^ 

found  In, Egypt.  »'»«» J"^^  ^^^ 
hieroglyphics.  Some  of  the  carved  acar- 
abs  are  three  or  four  feet  long.  Tw 
beetle  itself  was  also  embalmed 

Scaramouch  io'Sa^e'r "luiW  JSS: 

edy,  Imported  originally  '"»™„  Spain, 
whose  character  was  compounded  of  tralta 
of  vaunting  and  poltroonery.  His  cos- 
tume was  black  from  top  to  toe,  he  wore 
a  black  toque  (kind  of  ^«lJ>a'e-toPped 
cap),  a  black  mantle,  and  had  on  his 
f aw  a  mask  with  openings.  In  Prance 
the  scaramouch  was  used  for  a  greater 

Sctrborough  i^^f'^  bo WS 

seaport  of  England,  county  of  yofktNorth 
Riding),  is  beautifully  situated  on  t«o 
onen    sandy    bays   separated    by   a   bold 
J?omon"^^f  rock  3§0  feet  blgh.  on  th. 
illorth  Sea,  39  miles  northeast  of  lori. 
The  main  part  of  the  town  is  "outh  of 
ihis  promontory  and  a  deep  v"yey  divides 
It.  and  is  bridged  over  from  St.  Nicholas 
C  iff  to  the  South  Cliff.    Scarborough  has 
a    town-hall,    market-hall,    custom-Jouse, 
assembly-rooms,  public  'o?™"'^  theater, 
some  large  hotels,  several  hospitals,  a  fine 
aquarium,  a  museum,  spa  aaloon,  etc.     u 
is  much  frequented  for  rea-bathing  and 
for    its    mineral    waters,    which    contain 
carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  mngnesm. 
and  oxide  of  Iron.    There  Is  a  hne  sm- 
wall,   forming   an   agreeable   promenade, 
also,  a  promenade  pier  on  the  north  side 
of  the  town.     Scarborough  harbor  is  much 
u-ed  by  the  fishing-fleets,  and  though  con- 
fined at  the  entrance  is  easy  of  access, 
and  safe   and  commodious.    The  castie, 
which   stands   on   the   dividing   promon- 
tory, was  erected  about  1130,  and  is  a 
conspicuous  object  to  the  seaward.    The 
cliff  on  which  it  stands  is  expos^  to  a 
steady  and  rapid  denudation  by  the  sea. 
acar^rough  carries  .on  a  limited  foreipi 
trade,  principally  with  France,  Ilolland. 
^d  the  Baltic.     Shipbuilding    rope  and 
sail-cloth  making,  the  manufacture  of  jet 
Srnaments.  and  the  fisheries  give  employ- 
ment to  many  of  the  inhabitants.    Top. 

e«ili»!iLf+a'  (skUr'bru-lt),  a  mineral 
DCarDrOlie  ^f  ^  pure  white  color,  void 
of  luster,  and  composed  of  alumina,  silica, 
ferric  oxide,  and  water,  occurring  as  veins 
in  the  beds  of  sandstone  covering  the  ^l- 
careous  rock  near  Scarborough   (whence 

Jf!°Xi;  (s'^^r'fing).  a  particular 
Scarnng  i,ethod  of  uniting  two  pieces 
of  timber  together  by  the  extremities,  the 
end  of  one  being  cut  or  notched  aoaa 
to  fit  Into  the  other,  making  the  part 
where  the  Junction  takes  place  of  the 


SoftrifiMtioii 


Scaup  Duok 


Varioni  metbodi  of  Scarfing. 

same  thickness  as  the  rest  of  the  pieces 
of  timber. 

Scarification  (■kar-l-fi-ka'shun),  the 
ivv«>«>uv«>Mvu  operation  of  making 
several  incisions  in  the  skin  with  a  iancet 
or  scarificator  for  the  parpose  of  taking 
away  blood,  letting  out  fluids,  etc.;  or 
the  removal  of  flesh  about  a  tooth  in 
order  to  get  at  it  the  better  with  an  in- 
strument. 

Scarificator.  ■"  instrument  used  in 
wviu«uv«*«wA,  scarification  or  cupping. 
It  consists  of  ten  or  twelve  lancets  in  a 
sort  of  box  or  case,  which  are  discharged 
through  apertures  in  its  plane  8urfac«t 
by  ijulling  a  kind  of  trigger,  so  that  in 

gassing  they  make  a  number  of  incisions 
1  the  part  to  which  the  instrument  is 
applied. 

Scariatti  (sWr->*t't§),    auessan- 

"        **  DBO,    an    Italian    musician, 

bom  at  Naples  in  1050,  was  educated  at 
Rome  under  Carissimi,  and  after  residing 
some  time  in  Germany  and  at  Rome, 
passed  the  last  years  of  his  life  at  Naples, 
where  he  died  in  1725.  He  composed  a 
great  number  of  motets  and  about  200 
masses. 

Scarlet  (sUr'let),  a  beautiful  bright 
wviux«v  j.g^  color,  brighter  than  crim- 
son. The  finest  scarlet  dye  is  obtained 
from  cochineal. 

Scarlet  Bean,  or^scABLEx  RtjpEB, 

Hv»««w»  w»u)  jj  twining;  plant,  the 
Pka»eilu$  muUiflCrut,  a  native  of  Mex- 
ico, cultivated  as  a  green  vegetable  for 
its  long  rough  pods  or  as  an  ornamental 
plant 

Scarlet  Fever,   °'"  scablatina,  is 

Mww«««>w  AwvvA,  ^jj  extremely  infec- 
tions disease,  not  confined  to,  but  com- 
mon among  children.  In  ordinary  cases 
the  beginning  of  the  disease  is  indicated 
by  great  heat  and  drjrness  of  the  skin, 
shivering,  headache,  sickness,  and  sore 
throat.  Another  symptom  is  that  the 
tongue  is  coated  with  a  white  fur  through 
which  numerous  red  points  stand  up,  from 
which  appearance  it  is  called  the  '^strnw- 
berry  tongue.'  On  the  second  6mj  of 
Ow  fever   a   nub   appears  and   quickly 


apreads  over  the  whole  bod/,  begins  to 
fade  on  the  fifth  day,  and  disappeen 
before  the  end  of  the  seventh.  After  the 
rash  has  gone  the  skin  begins  to  be  shed 
in  large  flakes,  and  this  continuea  about 
five  weeks.  During  this  latter  stage  the 
disease  is  most  infectious.  At  the  first 
symptoms  the  patient  should  receive  « 
dose  of  castor-oil,  and  then  be  put  in  a 
warm  bath.  When  the  fever  has  gone, 
strengthening  food  and  frt^uent  bathings 
should  be  given,  and  an  equal  tempera- 
ture in  the  room  observed. 

Scarlet  Fish,  f  'RK'®" «'  '^^  '^""^ 

MV(UAvi>  A  ABU)  jj,  Chinese  waters,  and 
thus  named  t>ecause  of  its  color.  The 
eyes  in  these  fish  are  exceedingly  promi- 
nent, and  the  fins  are  double. 
Scam  (>l['^n>)>  Iq  fortification,  the  in- 
*******  r  terior  slope  or  talus  of  the  ditch 
next  the  fortified  place  and  at  the  foot 
of  the  rampart.     See  f  or(t/fcalion. 

Scarpanto  i?4J|)K-)f'an*i?iSil"oJ 

the  Mediterranean,  28  miles  southwest 
of  Rhodes,  27  miles  in  length  and  about 
6  broad.  It  contains  quarries  of  marble 
and  mines  of  i.on,  and  has  several  har- 
bors. Pop.  about  8000. 
Scarron  (sk&-ro9).  Paul,  a  French 
comic  author,  born  at  Paris 
in  1610;  died  in  1600.  His  father  wab 
a  councilor  of  the  parliament  and  a  mas 
of  considerable  means,  and  Scarron  was 
educated  for  the  church.  Before  he  was 
thirty  he  suffered  from  ailments  that 
left  him  paralytic  and  decrepit  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  After  suffering  from 
poverty  he  received  a  pension  from  the 
queen  and  one  from  Mazarin,  but  hia 
hostility  to  the  latter  and  his  writings 
in  .'avor  of  the  Fronde  lost  him  both 
patrons.  He  maintained  himself,  how- 
ever, by  working  for  the  book-sellers, 
and  having  at  last  received  part  of  his 
paternal  inheritance  he  entertained  at 
his  house  the  brilliant  literary  society  of 
Paris.  In  1652,  when  almost  wholly 
paralyzed,  he  married  Francoise  d'Au- 
Dign6,  a  young  girl  of  considerable  beauty, 
and  afterwards  known  as  the  famous 
Madame  de  Maintenon.  Of  Scarron's 
numerous  writings  the  best  is  the  Roman 
Comique  (1651)  ;  and  of  his  plays 
Joddet  (1645)  and  Don  Japhet  d'Ar- 
minie  (1653)  have  still  considerable  lit- 
erary value. 

SfiAmii  (akar'tu),  a  genus  of  fisbea  of 
s^"-*""    the  family  Labrid*.    See  Par- 

Soann  Duck  i'^U^^l'  ?,  fP^IP,*"  *' 

rtta.  It  is  common  in  North  America 
and  the  north  of  Europe;  and  is  found 
in  considerable  numbers  on  the  Britidi 


8o9pts 


gohafluttim 


i*iKt»  dnrin/  the  wlntw  monthj.  Itf««*« 
oa  •mall  wh,  moUuiCB,  and  limce  iu 
fleth  la  coane.  _  .   .  _ 

a^«+«i.  (MP'Wr).  »  itaff^or  baton 
oOepter  \,„^p  bV  a  monarch  or  other 
ruler,  as  a  symbol  of  office  or  authority ; 
%  royal  or  imperial  mace.  . 

fl««T«+i«iani   (  "kep'ti-eijm ;       Or e e k, 
BOeptlOlSm  ijtepi,-,,  reflection,  dmbt). 
in  the  wide  eenee,  ^^t^^  3oad\tiaaotmen' 
tal  conflict  in  the  warch  for  truth  which 
involves  nuspenslon   of  judrment  before 
opposinf    teatimony.  „  Spf  Ifi^""?'  ,?S^ 
e^iTitTiaB  been  applied  to  the  doctrine 
of  tie  Greek  Philosophers  called  Pyrrhon- 
ists,  whose  scheme  of  philosophy  den  ed 
the  possibility  of  knowing  anythingwlth 
certiinty.    Pyrrho  ^of     El  s      (SeO-JWO 
B.C.),  although  he  himself  left  no  writ- 
ings,   was    the    founder    of    this   school. 
Chief  among  his  immediate  disciples  was 
Timon  of   Phllus,   who  taught  that  ap- 
pearances are  neither  false  nor  true,  that 
tSlical  reasoning  has  no  adequate  sanc- 
tion,   and    that    lpPftHr*y'*""7i,J'f«ot« 
only   possible   attitude   before    the   facts 
of    life.     This    position    was    maintained 
by  the  founders  of  the  Middle  Academy, 
ArcesilauB  and  Carneades.  who  employed 
this  philosophy  of  doubt  against  the  um;- 
matlsm  of   the   Stoics.    Arcesitaus,  who 
lived  about  315-241  B.O.,  held  that  th« 
report   of   our   senses   is  untrustworthy. 
Carneades   (213-129  B.o.)   declared  abso- 
lute knowledge  to  be  impossible,  and  was 
the  author  of  the  doctrine  of  probability. 
To  the  later  skeptical  school  of  the  first 
century    B.c.     belongs     iEJnesidemus    or 
Cnossus,  who  expressed  his  doctrine  ol 
negation  In  ten  tropes.    These  were  re- 
duced  to   five  by   Agrlppa,   the  first  ol 
which  is  connected  with  the  irreconclla- 
Wlity  of  human  testimony;  the  second  is 
based  on  the  principle  that  eveir  proof 
requires  to  be   itself  proved:   the  tliird 
that  knowledge  varies  according  to  the 
conditions  under  which  it  is   acquired; 
the    fourth    forbids    the    assumption    of 
unproved  opinion;  and  the  fifth  seeks  ts 
discredit  the  reciprocal  method  or  prpoi 
in  which  one  thing  is  proved  by  another 
and  then  the  second  adduced  to  pw^e  tge 
first    In  later  times  Al-Ghazadi  (lOW- 
1111)    taught  at  Bagdad   a   philosophic 
skepticism   to  enforce   the  truth  of  his 
Mohammedan  doctrine.    In  }^^^^^ 
he  was  followed  by  Pascal  (1623-1662). 
who  sought  to  establish  the  necessity  of 
Christian  faith  by  a  skeptical  exposure 
of  the  fallacy  of  bnmaa  reasOTi.    Among 
modem  tikeptics  may  be  mentioned  Mon- 
taigne,  Bayle,   D'Alembert,   and   Hume. 
The  latter  limited  the  range  of  human 
reasoning    to    human     experience,     and 
affirmed  that  any  knowledge  ooooemiBC 


Ood  or  a  fntuia  sUte^  transcends  the 
■cope  of  our  faculties.  ,  Sfe^f »<'•*♦?,•  ^ 

Sohabziegei  ^^XS^LS^ 

ooerslea  (blue  melllot).  ««-. 

a!ri..^«X»  (sbA'dO).  JoHAi»w  QoTT' 
SonadOW  iSSS)?  sililptor,  bom  at  Uer- 
lin  in  1764:  died  in  1860.  He  early 
showed  a  liking  for  the  fine  arts^  and 
•t"died_.drawlng   and    sculptuw 


studiea    arawina    uuu    ■^"•»'v:  ,_  ~hZi^ 
native  city  until  he  went  to  It»'j»  where 
he  wrougk  from  1786  to  ITST  in  the 
museum  of  the  Vatican  and  of  the  Cap- 
Itol.    His  first  great  work  was  the  mon- 
ument erected  In  the  Dorothea  Church. 
Berlin,  to  the  memory  of  the  Count  of 
the  Mark,  and  this  was  followed  by  the 
rolosMl  statue  of  Ziethen;  the  etatue  of 
Frederick  the  Great  in  Btettin:  of  Leo- 
pold of  Desaau  in  Benin;  of  BlUcher  in 
Rostock;    the    To ucnziei*    monument    in 
Breslau;  of  Luther  in  Wittenberg,  etc. 
Three   sons   of    Schadow   devoted   theij- 
selves  to  art.     The  eldest,  RUDpU',  bom 
in   1785,   gained   some   reputation   as   a 
sculptor*  and  died  at  Rome  in  1822;  the 
second,  rBiEDMCH  WiLHiLM,  bom  Sep- 
tember 6,  1788,  became  a  painter  of  con- 
siderable eminence,  and  was  ennobled  in 
1843 :  and  the  third  son,  Fvux,  likewise 

became  a  painter.  

Q^\,a4f    (shAf ) ,  Phiup,  biblical  scholar, 
Sonaff   ^„  i^'m  in  Switzeriand,  Jan. 
1,     1819.     He     studied     at     Tubingen, 
Halle,  and  Berlin;  lectured  in  the  latter 
unive«ity  in  1842-44.  and  then  wjmt  to 
America,  where  he  was  professor  in  the 
theological  seminary  of  the  Germap  Re- 
formed   Church    at    Mercersburg    (Pa.) 
Kl844tri863.    In  186^  be  was 
lecturer  in  several  theological  Institutions, 
and  after  1870  was  professor  of  sacred 
literature  in  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New   York.    He  wa*   a   prolific   writer, 
his  works  including  Hietory  of  the  Appa- 
tolio  Chwrch;  Hittmritof  the  thrtattan 
Churohj    Creede    of    Chrutendom:    Be- 
NffioiM    £ncyoIopedta     (as    editor),    etc. 
Sod  October  W,  1898.  ^ 

Scliairhausen  <nJ?uSlid*  *?!?- 

ital  of  the  canton  of  "am*  »a™«»  "1"**?,*^ 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  24  miles 
north  of  Zttrich.  It  »  raoMirkable  for 
the  antique  arahltectnre  of  Its  hpuMs. 
The  principal  edlficea  are  the  feudal 
castle  of  Unnot  or  Mflnot,  on  a  height 
commanding  the  town;  the  parish  or 
St.  John's  Chare*:  the  minster  or 
cathedral,  bnilt  in  1062-1101.  in  the  Bo- 
manesque  style,  with  its  ancient  bell, 
Sadrfamous  by  Schiller  and  Longfellow; 
the  ImtbanMum,  eMlfld  by  Herr  Imthor^ 


Sditmyl 


Boheele'Hpraen 


n  LMidMi  buker,  coDUinlaf  a  thMttr, 
oitMfaHKbooli,  and  cxbibithm  romos: 
Ubranr.  muMom,  and  tbt  townbomt,  bnllt 
bi  1412,  and  containing  aooM  fio*  wood 
carrinc.  About  8  miles  btiow  tbe  town 
irR  tbe  celebrated  falls  wbkb  bMir  ita 
aame,  and  b*  wblch  tbe  wboto  Tolnine 

of  tb*  Rhine  la  E«ciP'*"*«i  "^•'^  J  iSl*'" 
of  more  thin  70  feet.  Pop.  16,*08.— 
The  canton  ia  tbe  moat  northerly  In 
Bwitaerland.  and  ia  aituatad  oa  tha  right 


gmbatioo  of  tha  army,  and  It  waa  tar 
liS  system  of  short  serrica  that  Pnuala 
wak  ao  well  prepared  to  declara  war  with 
France  in  1813.  In  thia  campaign 
Schamborst  accompanied  Blttcher  aa 
lieutenant-general  and  chief  of  tha  ataff, 
and  waa  mortally  wounded. 

Schanmbnrg-Lippe  ,lSSB?.'p'Sl: 

cipality  of  tbe  German  Empire,  in  two 
detached  portiona;  a  northern,  lying  Xf 


Bteee*  ia  SebsthaaseB, 


or  German  side  of  the  Rhine;  area,  116 
sq.  miles.  The  sui  ice  is  very  much 
broken,  being  traversed  throughout  by 
a  series  of  ridges  which  ramify  from  tbe 
Jura.  The  only  river  is  the  Rhine.  The 
inhabitants  are  generally  Protestants, 
and  the  language  spoken  ia  principally 
German.  Pop.  41.454. 
Schamyl.     SeeS*amyI. 

SnTiAHilail  ("bftn'dou),  a  favorite 
OCuKUaaa  gummer  resort  in  Saxon 
Bwitaeriand,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  21  miles  8.S.  of  Draaden.  Perma- 
nent  pop.   (190B)  3373. 

Scharnhorst  <!5i™;5S'S^^  gfv"» 

von,  a  Prussian  general,  bom  in  1756; 
died  in  1S13.  He  served  in  tbe  Hano- 
verian army  for  a  number  of  yeara,  and 
then  (in  1801)  transferred  hia  aervicea 
to  Prussia,  where  be  rapidly  rose  in 
army  ranlt,  and  was  ennobled  in  1804. 
After  the  humiliating  Peace  of  Tilsit 
(1807  —  see  iV««*>a)  he  waa  appointed 
^wOdaat  of  tha  crauaittaa  far  tka 


tween  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  and  Rhen 
iah    Prussia,    and    a    southern,    l)etweet 


Lippe  and  Hanover;  area.  131  square 
miT«i;  pop.  43.132.  It  is  drained  by  a 
number  of  small  streams,  tributaries  of 
the  Weser.  The  soil  is  fertile,  com  ia 
grown  for  export,  and  cattle  are  numer- 
ous. Schaumburg-Lippe  is  a  hereditary 
f»rincipality,  with  a  constitution  granted 
n  liBS.  The  diet  consists  of  fifteen 
members,  representing  six  different  estatea 
or  ordera.  Schaumburg-Lippe  sends  one 
member  to  the  Bundesrath  of .  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  Tbe  capital  is  BOckeburg. 
fiAliAfflA  ("hil;  Swed.  pron.  sbftni), 
SCneeie  ^gi.' wuhklm,  Swedish 
chemist,  bom  in  1742 ;  died  in  1786.  He 
discovered  tartaric  acid,  chlorine,  l)aryta, 
oxygen  abortly  after  Priestley,  glycerine, 
and  aneaata  of  copper,  called  Scheele's 
green. 

SchccleVgreen,  SonKg^'r" 

pnlveral»t  arsenate  of  copper,  firat  pr^ 
ired  by  Sokeele  (aee  above) ;  it  ia  naeii 
'  ki  «U  aad  watar-ootor  palntiac. 


tst 


SiBhiffer 


%Mnx 


I 


! 


) 


Dante,  etc.,  and  to  tae  «S"»'"r!!-j*  ,  oM«rt  of  ooaUiv*  phlloaophy  £•  defined 
the  lubiect.  be  <>ep>?t««>i..He  P»»°teJ.  •  2 nSlnt  wt  to  proyTtfie  extatence  of 
series  of  picture,  from  *^"t' /''ȴ*':  nUfroni  the  Wei  of  God.  but  from  the 
^'^^U-'  'x^Sr^rrelWou^tiWect- iaj  SS.o7«i.teJ«  to  prow 'the  divinity  of 
Beatrice.  AmMig  relJgwua  •uDje«»  b«jf  «  existent.  The  prindpai  writini«  of 
be  mentioned  <7*'^«"5»"*«^«^'  ^*SJ:  £hellin«^re:  Id^aifSTrnPIMotophj  of 
<M  Remunerntor,  OhrM  Beurtna  ait  ^"""'/iVot/ .t^'SmI  o/  the  World 
Cro,i,VhrUt  in   the  Qarden  of  OUve,,   ^^*^''  SlW gj^lS^if^  sUeitofThi 

^'",:h'?;™.«S"it  dfv'Si  Si  the'  &it  mile.  N.W.  of  EJd.p.5.    Tta'SSW  <a 
donbto  e«iurj.    Tbe  wnow  conn.  »  _^.|^^_.    ^^^^    c«pp«r.   Iron,  «r«9ilc, 

.tndjed  .t  IObto«».  '«•.*<■« ilSi:a  „,  ,k.  ^,„„  „.  tS:  .^«  ume,  oD  tb. 


^j-  of%i^x  r  fsUj  ijd  York  to..rji  ™  ^f/.pj- jat.iK 

became   8ecretar3^    He    iMturMai^    other  industries.     Schenectady  was  aet- 
angen  from  1820-26,  and  in  iKffi  oecame  °|"'^'^,'"",'i>i>    -ttacked   and   burned   by 

Kt'Sirol  ?h'l"pbi'roso?h'y"o?"mTtllo^4  '»^°4>2X'^«fe2^?^^^^^^ 
and  ^velation.,  Subsequently  he  cea|»ed  ^  PoP'}|fo°''  fet  19lfti.0(»T  ^ 
teaching,  and  lived  sometimes  at  Berlin,  »£«  in  itfiu.  /^%±y**'EMtoND  Hbkm 
i^metim^s  at  Munich  or  el^^ere  ScWrcr  ^^^n^  a  French  critic, 
Schelllng'*  syatem  of  Pj»'l^«P^y' .^''L"  ^.^tn  in  Paris^lSir;  died  in  1889.  He 
its  earlier  and  later  developments,  was  own  m  *j*^j^^°g^^'  j^  1843  became 
essentially  pantheistic,  but  Its  later  de-  ■™^>'^,"'X3J-e5;  at  Geneva,  a  pott 
velopments  are  marked  by  a  strong  P^Sf^'^  ra^^ldln  1860,  and  thence- 
eclectic  tendency,  which  indicate  the  d.s-  y^2^%™*'i^d£g  „,iAt  in  the  Hi*- 

own  reraUa.    The  principle  of  identity—  «»i  nanaimn  «»   *«v 


Bdmvr 


B*  WM  tkctfd  to  th«  AMtmbly  la  1871. 
uA  foor  7M««  afttr  btctm*.  a  wutor. 
bat  It  It  M  a  cntle  of  the  Uttraturt  ot 
tht  •Ichteenth  and  nineteenth  ccnturiea 
tbat  he  excelled.  He  contributed  largely 
to  the  Tempt,  the  London  DoUif  Newt, 
«tc.,  and  his  collected  atudies  have  given 
hHn  the  poeition  of  literarjr  locceeaor  to 
Saint-Beuve.        .     ,    „  „ 

aaanxZT  ^q  Mholar  and  historian  of 
llteratarc.  bom  in  IMl  at  SchOnborn, 
In  Lower  Austria;  died  at  Berlin  in 
1S86.  He  studied  at  Tienna  and  BerUa, 
became  profeasor  of  the  German  mn- 
foage  and  literature  at  Vienna,  and  then 
atStraaburg.  and  in  1877  went  to  Ber- 
lin ae  profesaor  of  modem  German  llt- 
emture.  Hia  moat  Important  work  waa 
hia  Uittorw  of  Oermmn  LiUroture  (*  Qe- 
aehlcbte  der  deutachen  Litteratur '),  which 
has  been  publiahed  In  Ibgllah. 
flnh^rffa  (AerfaO).  to  mualc.  genet- 
DOneiBU  giiy  applied  to  a  pasMg*  of 
a  aportlve  character  in  muaical  pieces  of 
aome  length  —  for  example,  in  sympho- 
nies, aonataa,  «tc«     ,  ...         ,  ^     . 

SohcveningCE  ffi^J'^uifir^knS 

much-frequented  watering-place  of  the 
Netherlanda,  In  the  province  of  South 
Holland,  2  miles  w.  of  The  Hague.  It 
la  aituated  on  sandy  dunea,  and  has  a 
Reformed  and  a  Uoman  Catholic  church, 
extensive  hotel  accommodation,  etc. 
There  are  boat-building  yards,  etc.,  but 
the  great  staple  of  the  place  la  ^e  flahing 
trade.  Permanent  pop.  nbo"*^**'";-  ^ 
fiUliioTiflr^lli  (skMl-p*-ren8),  GlO- 
SCniapareill  ^j^sm  Vibmnio,  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Savifnianp,  Italy,  in 
1^5:  died  July  6.  IDlO.  In  IStlO  he 
took  charge  of  the  observatory  at  Milan. 
He  ahowcd  the  relatioi  between  cometary 
and  meteoric  matter  to  Important  papers 
1800  and  1871.  and  waa  the  first  to  an- 
nounce the  discovery  of  the  'canala'  ol 

sKhiavone  ffitVr'^\'he'^'v»aS 


Bchool,  whose  true  name  waa  Med^a. 
bom  at  Sebenico,  in  Dnimatia,  In  1522; 
died  in  1682.  He  studied  under  Titian, 
who  employed  him  in  the  library  of  St. 
Mark,  where  he  la  aaid  to  have  painted 
three  entire  ceilings.  Two  of  his  compo- 
sitions are  in  the  church  of  the  Padrl 
Teatlnl  at  Rimini,  and  hia  Pirteut  ond 
Andromeda,  and  the  Apottlet  ftl  the  Sep- 
ukheft   are   In   the   royal   collection   at 

SAlii«i1aTn  (sU'dltm).  a  town  of  tho 
BOmeaam  Jjetherlanda,  to  th*  prov- 
ince of  South  Holland,  near  the  right 
tenk  of  thM  Maa<i»  4  ii>il«a  wept  nf  9o|. 
9-9 


tardam.    It  is  totenected  by  Bomtraaa 
canals,  and  lu  chief  bolldtoga  art  an  ax- 
cbange,  a  town-bouse,  a  coocart-hall,  a 
public    library,    and    various    hoswitalf. 
The  Staple  manofactura  Is  gto  or  Hol- 
lands,  nmnecteu   with    which   there  ara 
about  2U0  distilleries.    Pop.  82A«». 
CUVilUr    ("hl'ler).    /bhaiik    Fmbj- 
OOJUUcr   mp^  CHBMToru  vow,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  German  poets,  was  bora 
at  Marbach,  WUrtemberg,  Nov.  10,  17W. 
His  father,  originally  a  surgeon  to  the 
army,    waa   afterwarda   a   captain.   Md 
finally     (1770)     auperintendent    of    the 
wooda  and  gardens  attached  to  a  resi- 
dence—the   Solitude— of  the   Duke  of 
WUrtemberg.    Hia  first  lyem  Is  said  to 
have    been   written    the   day   before   his 
confirmation,  in  1772.    He  had  for  aev- 
eral  years  received  instruction  at  a  L«mi 
achooi  in  order  to  prepare  him  for  the 
univeralty;  but  at  this  time  Charles,  duke 
of  WUrtemberg,  founded  a  school  at  the 
Solitude  on  a  military-monastic  plan,  and 
ofCered  to  take  young  Schiller  as  one  of 
the  pupils.    His  father  could  not  refuse 
such  an  cJer,  and  In  1773  Schiller  was 
received   Into  this  institution.    Heire  he 
studied    jurisprudence;     but    when    the 
Bcliool  was  removed  to  Stuttaart,  and  ita 
scope   became   extended    (1775),  ochlller 
turned  his  attention  to  medicine.    When 
sixteen  years  old  he  published  a  transla- 
tion of  part  of  Virgil's  JBaetf  to  ha«- 
ameters   to   a   Suablan    periodioal,   and 
began  an  epic,  the  hero  of  which  waa 
Moses.    He  still  conttoued  his  medical 
studies,  however,  for  in  1780  he  wrota 
an  £i'«(ay  on  the  Cotmeciton  of  the  Ant- 
mat  and  InteUectual  Hature  of  Man,  and 
in  the  aame  year  waa  appointed  physician 
to  a  regiment  In  Stuttgart.     It  was  now 
for  the  first  time  that  he  had  enough 
leisure  and  freedom  to  flnlslK  his  trag- 
edy of  Die  BUnber  ('The  Robben'),  bj- 
gun    three    years   previously.    He   pub- 
lished this  piece  at  his  own  expense  to 
1781;  It  excited  an  Immense  amount  of 
attention,  and  to  1782  it  was  performed 
at    Mannheim.    Arrested    for    attending 
the   performance   without    leave   of    the 
Duke  of  WUrtemberg,  and  forbidden  to 
write  plays  by  the  same  despotic  author- 
ity,   Schiller    fled   from    Stuttgart,    waa 
naturalhwd  as  a  subject  of  the  E  ector- 
Palatine,   and   settled   at    Mannheim   as 
poet  to  the  theater    (1783).    Here  the 
plays  of  Fietco  and  Cabate  und  LMbe 
were  soon  after  produced.    In  IJoo  no 
went  to  Leipsig  and  Dresden,  where  he 
studied  the  history  of  Philip  II.    in  thie 
way   he  prepared   himself   not   only   to 
write  Ws  drama  of  Don  Cortos,  which' 
appeared  to  1787,  but  aiao  to  publish  • 
am^Tf  of  thp  fimlt  of  tho  Neth0ri9n4^ 


Mlfflhig 


tU   lAtttr 
pro- 

CMlarv    10    tk*    Mot*    Rtctnt    Timet 


It  wSoiww  olM  tLat  btt  returned  with 

portknlarly  after  17»,  W»,flneet  lyrical 
S^m  and' balladii.  From  l]W^e  lived 
Id  intimato  acqutlnUnce  with  Goethe  at 
Welma»rMd  publlehed  in  lucceealon  hie 
Anmu  WaU^ttm,  Maria  Stnart,  th» 
MiUQfOrlttnt,  the  Bride  of  Mettina. 
iS  ^iUiam  ittt.  He  also  adapted 
Bbakeapeaie'e  Mooheth,  Baclne'e  f}af^ 
rtc..  for  the  atage.  wfth  whkh  hi.  dra^ 
natlc  worka  cloae.  In  1««  he  wa» 
raised  to  the  ""k  of  nobility.  He  had 
lone  been  In  weak  bfa'tb,  and  be^ 
attacked  by  fever  be  died  May  9.  Iw**- 
Hte  corieepondence  with  Goethe.  William 
rm  Humboldt,  and  C  Q.  KO™«f  ^aa 
been  publlahed.  hi.  life  haa  been  written 
byCarlyle,  and  there  ar  several  English 
tramlauona  of  his  worxs.  _ 

oIauii;^    (shll'lnf),  JoHAHK,  a  Ger- 
Sonming    ^q  Kulotor,  bom  at  Mitt- 

weida.  Ba«ony,  In  18^  5  ,S»?'«f  ,?!i  *! 
BerUn  and  Dresden.  In  1808  he  became 
professor  at  the  Dresden  Royal  Academy. 
Mto  chief  worka  include  the  Foar  8eo- 
»n#  at  Drcwien,  Schiller's  •tatue  at 
Vienna.  Maximlllan'a  .tatue  at  Triwte, 
Vfer  Memorial  at  Hamburf,  and  the  Ger- 
mam  yational  Monument  on  the  Nieder- 
wald,  opposite  Blna en  on  the  Rhine,  with 
a  e^oaaal  fiiure  of  Qermania. 

bOILUlKei   ^CH.      German      architect, 


bom  at  Neu  Ruppln,  Brandenburg,  to 
1781:  died  In  1&41.  He  wa«  educated 
at  Bwlln:  entered  into  practice  as  arcni- 
tect:  went  to  luly  to  enlarge  hi.  knowl- 
c^:  and  on  hla  return,  finding  no  field 
tor  hla  art,  be  turned  to  landacape-paint- 
tog.  In  no  long  time,  however,  he  again 
demoted  hlmwlf  to  •«hitecture,  and  Ut« 
became  chief  di«^or  of  the  public  hulld- 
togs  in  Berlin.  He  wa.  architect  of  the 
BwHn  muwom,  the  Berlin  tbeater,  and 
other  prominent  buUdtom,  moatlj  in  the 
GrSsk  rtyle.  A  collectfon  of  hi"  •«»'l- 
aaetnral  deaii^a  waa  publishMl  in  twenty- 
•  Jte  partT  ws'Un.  162M7 ;  and  Ua 
WorhTSr  Uham  Bmtkuntt,  Potsdam. 
1MS4& 


8ohirt  i!S?>io'ra«aU*rv.«: 

foliated  structure  and  split  la  thin  irrei- 
alar  plate*,  cot  by  ragular  cleavage,  as 
tothi  case  of  claj-alate.  nor  la  tamlnan 
as  flagstones.  It  is  properly  cona»«dt# 
meUmorphle  or  crystalllBS  rocks  eoB> 
stating  ol  layers  of  different  mlnerala.aa 
gneiaa,  mica-schiat.  bombleBdraehist, 
chlorlte^biat.  etc.  ^».,.^»fc\     - 

Sohiwmycetci  fclSSTcff'tff'fw 

Bacteria.  It  refers  to  their  eommoneat 
mod*  of  reproduction,  b»  traworsa  dlvl- 
Bion.  T»*  term  SchfaophyU  la  alao 
aynonymoua  with  Bacteria. 

Schizopoda  if^^ii  1^ 

ahrimp  (which  aee).  furnishes  an  exam- 
ple of  these  creatures. 

Sohlangenbad  i^K-foJ-pffJl*  o'f 

Pruwia.  In  HeMN-NaMan,  0  S"J«*  I':  "•  T; 
of  Wieabaden.   amonc  wooded  hlila.    it 
copslata   chlet,-    of    lodflng-bouaee,    and 
two   large  batbtag  eatabllabmenta.    Ihe 
water  has  a  temperature  of  from  80    «» 
88%  and  to  beneficial  in  tayateria.  neural- 
gia, rheumatism,,  gout.  Pa»ly«l».  «t^ 
ari.i«<Mi     (shrt'g*l),    AuouBT    Wn^ 
Sonlegei    ^.uc'von.  a  distinguished 
German   "cholar,    bom    at    Hanover    in 
1767;   died   at   Bonn   In   1848.    At   an 
early  age  he  .bowed  an  aptitude  for  lan- 
raagea  and  poetry;  atudled  t  .eology  and 
philology  at  GOtilngen ;  ^beca«ne  a  tutoi 
In  Amsterdam;  contributed  to  Schillers 
periodicala;  wa.  appointed  profeawfirw 
it  Jena  and  then  In  Berlin ;  engaged  In 
a  bitter  controveray  with  Kotaebue :  trav- 
eled throuah  France.  Germany,  and  Itali 
with   Madame   de    8ta«:    and    In    1813 
acted  a.  eecretary  to  the  Crown-prince 
of    Sweden.    Five    year,    later    be   was 
made  a  professor  in  the  University  <rf 
Bonn.    He  wrote  varloua  poem,  and  l»l- 
lada.  delivered  lecturea  on  liteniture  and 
art,  nubllahed  a  tragedy  called  /on,  trana- 
lat^the  most  of  Shake.peare'a  and  OU- 
deron'B  play.  Into  German,  «nd  devoted 
the  latter  part  of   hi.  life  to  Oriental 
.tudies   and   the   translation   of   various 
worka  from  Sanskrit. 


BOniegei,  y^j,  ^  brother  of  the  f6re- 
going.  bom  In  1772;  died  in  ia».  He 
STudf^d  philology  at  G»tti°«*°  «l.^i^ 
'  ;,  and  became  an  accompliaaea  senomr. 


tie  early  contributed  to  various  P«nod- 
icala;  pnbliahed  Oreehtxttd  Jlo«oM,  and 
to  17&  wrote  Laein*.  an  nnflntohed 
romanca»  aad  Atorooe,  a  tiagecy:  and 
iSeauS^u  •  lriT»HlK«t  to  tba  Urn 


fffftififi*** 


Ttffillr  of  Jtna.  In  1808  b*  jolDtd  tto 
RooMB  Catholic  Church;  WM  •PP*»"t2* 
•n  Imptrial  weenutj  at  VImim  m  180b; 
•ad  was  councilor  of  la^tloB  for  Au»> 
trU  In  the  i  anhfort  diet.  ^Baaldaa  tht 
Iwturta  which  ht  publlahrf  hla  chief 
works  are:  HUtory  of  tht  OU  sad  Aw 
lAtwfrt  (1818) ;  Pkilotophif  otUft 
(1828);  PhUotopky  of  HUionf  (1^>; 
and  the  Philotopkp  of  I/Ojiffaape  (IWO). 
His  wife,  a  daushter  of  Moses  Mendels- 
sohn, wss  the  author  of  some  works 
published  under  Bchlegel's  nsme. 
flji1ilMAliAi>  (shll'JkSr),  AVQVn.  a 
SeUeiOner  ^«rmsn  philologist,  bom 
In  1821;  died  In  18(18.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Gymnasluni  of  Coburg.  at 
Leipslg,  Tubingen,  and  Bonn.  In  1850 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  compara- 
tive philologj  at  Prague,  and  In  1837 
became  honorary  proffMor  of  the  sci- 
ence of  language  and  Old  Clerman  philol- 
ogy In  the  Unlvenity  of  Jena.  Hla 
u'bllsh(  ■ 


published  works  embrace  a  number  of 
linguistic  productions.  Including  the  well- 
known  Compendium  der  vergMokenden 
Gnmmatik  der  indo-aermaniickeH8pro- 
eken  ('Comparative  Orammar  of  the  In- 
do-European Tonfues';  18«a).     ^.    ^  . 

ScUeiermacher  i'^^Zc^^££li 

Danixl,  a  German  Protestant  theologian 
end  philosopher,  born  at  Breslau  In 
1708;  died  at  Berlin  In  1834.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  Unlversitv  of  ball*:;  was 
ordained  and  appointed  assistant  preacher 
at  Landsberg :  and  afterwards  became 
minister  In  the  Charlt«-Haus  (a  great 
hospital)  at  Berlin.  In  1802  he  removed 
to  Btolpe.  ^ 

flAliliiaiiiti  (shli'sl-en),  the  German 
SCnienen    ^orm  of  SiJe«a. 

Sohleitadt.   »**  Bcuetutodt. 

flAhlMwiff  ("hles'vlfc;  Dantah,  filee- 
SCJUeSWl^  «V ) ,  »  seaport,  capital  of 
the  Pnisslan  province  of  Schleswlg-Hol- 
steln.  at  the  head  of  the  Schl^,  a  long 
narrow  inlet  of  the  Baltic.  The  most 
noteworthy  edifices  are  the  cathedral,  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  a  fine  Gothic  pile, 
with  a  fine  oak  altar-screen,  and  the  old 
ducal  castle  of  Gonorf,  now  a  barrack. 
The  Industries  Include  leather  goods,  ma- 
rhinery,  shipbuilding,  fishiny,  etc.  The 
town  was  an  Important  trading  center  m 
808,  and  became  a  bishopric  In  948.  Pop. 
(1905)  19.082.  ,^_,,  ^,    . 

Svoleiwijr-Holatem  ^^'jaS^i 

provfaice  of  Pmssia,  botinded  on  the 
north  Iw  D«UB»<rk:  cast  by  the  Paltlc, 
Lfibedc  and  .(Mecklenburg;  south  by 
Mecklenburg  and  the  territory  of  Ham- 
burg:  aonthweat  by  tba  Elbe;  and  west 


by  tht  jrth  Sea:  arw,  0278  aqoart 
mllca.  bchleawtf  Is  the  portleo  lylB| 
north  of  the  Elder:  HolsteIn  that  aoatk 
•f  this  river.  Bchleswlt-UolstslB  forms 
part  of  ths  same  penlMula  with  Jatlud, 
tf  which  in  lu  general  character  It  bears 
considerable  resembhince.  There  are  ei- 
tensive  moorlands;  the  weat  coaat  eon- 
slsts  of  sandy  and  marsh/  ilata.  protected 
In  Bchleswig  by  chsins  of  Island  la  Hol- 
steIn by  lofty  dykes;  the  east  coast  la 
scooped  out  Into  natural  harbors;  the 
principal  streams  flow  to  the  west,  to- 
wsrds  which  for  the  most  part  the  cow- 
try  slopes.  Lakes  are  numeroua.  The 
Eider  is  the  principal  river.  The, coon- 
try  Is  fertile,  and  is  chiefly  agricultural. 
The  great  majority  of  the  inhabltanta 
are  of  German  origin.  The  prhiclpal 
towna  are  Altona,  Kiel,  Flensbaif  and 
Bchleswig,  the  cspltal.  8chleswlg-Hol- 
stein,  which  became  a  united  duchy  to 
138U,  passed  over  to  Denmark  In  1778, 


and  was  appropriated^ by  ^'^}^^'^**^ 


the  war  of   18U6.     (See  Deaaiar*  and 
PruMtia.)     Pop.   1^504.248.  ^ 

schiettrtadt  h'SsiifX'tiriJ. 

Ince  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  on  the  left  oank 
of  the  111,  26  miles  southwest  of  Btraa- 
burg,  on  the  railway  to  Basel.     It  was 
formerly   fortified  by   Vauban,  and  con- 
tains two  fine  churches  of  the  eleventh 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  a  fine  Gothic 
gateway.    The    fortifications   have    hem 
removed   since   the   Germans   have   held 
the  town.     Pop.  (1905>  9100. 
RfiltUv    i»h»).      WiwroxD     Boon, 
SCmey     ^ear-Admlral,  bom  at  Fred- 
erick City,  Maryland,  Oct.  9,,1M9.^  Ha 
was  appointed    to   the   Naval   Academy 
from    bis    native    State,    was   araduattd 
tn  1859,  and  took  part  In  the  Civil  war. 
In  1884,  as  commander,  he  was  ant  to 
the   relief   of  Greely   In   the  Arctic  »•- 
glon,  and  return«Hl  with  the  remnaiitof 
Qreely's    expedlti.">,    barely   savedftwi 
starvation.    Ab   <.ommodore   in    1898  IM 
took  part,  a^  second  in  command  cf  the 
fleet,  Tn  the  blockade  of  Santiitgo  de  Cuba 
and  was  the  senior  in  actuhl  command 
at  the  battle  of  July  3,  1898,  when  Ad- 
miral Cervera's  Spanish  fleet  was  amu- 
hilated.    He  retired  In  190L    He  has  pub- 
lished Tkc  Retoue  ofOreelymdForiih 
five  Yeara  under  the  Flag.    Died  1911. 

Schliemann  i'^^'^J^'arSK 

bora  in  1822.  Having  obtatoed  a  place 
as  correspondent  and  book-keeper  to  an 
Amsterdam  firm,  and  having  been  «^ 
by  them  to  St  Petersburg,  he  estebllshcd 
himself  there  in  business  on  his  own 
accoont  Be  traveled  widely  and  •c- 
qoirad  many  languages,  and  having  maat 


SeUoner 


Solimalkalden 


n  fortQiM  comiMoced  a  MriM  of  archaep- 
fMteal  UivwtlMtloiM  to  the  East.  In 
1880  be  published  at  Paris  his  Ithttque, 
Lt  PHoptmnMe,  Troie:  Reokerehet  Ar- 
dMologique;  an  account  of  his^avels 
in  these  regions,  and  this  was  followed 
to  1874  by  bis  Trojaniaehe  AUerthumer. 
givtos  the  results  of  bis  researches  and 
excavations  on  the  plateau  of  Hiuarlik, 
the  alleged  site  of  ancieiU  Troy.  In  18i5 
be  commenced  excavations  at  Athens  and 
Mycen*.  and  in  1877  discovered  the  five 
royal  tombs  which  local  tradition  in  the 
time  of  Paasanias  asserted  to  be  those 
of  Agamemnon  and  his  companions. 
Many  treasures  of  gold  and  silver  were 
brought  to  light.  His  Jfycene,  a  narra- 
tive of  researches  and  discoveries  of  My- 
cen»  and  Tlryns,  was  published  m  1877, 
with  a  preface  by  Gladstone.  He  re- 
ceived valuable  assistance  in  his  inves- 
tigations from  his  wife,  a  native  of  Greece 
and  an  accomplished  scholar.  His  Trota 
(1888)  and  his  Tirytit  (1886)  are  in  a 
measure  supplementary  to  hw  earlier 
works  on  Tri>y  and  Myccna?.  He  died 
December  29,  189a       ,     „    * 

OCIUOBBwr     CiiBisTOPB,  a  Germsn  his- 
torian, bom  in  1775.    He  was  educated 
at  GOttingen,  in  1812  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  newly-founded  Lyceum  of 
Frankfort,  and  when  it  ceased  to  exist 
in    1814   he   became   city    librarian.     In 
,1817  be  was  called  as  professor  of  his- 
tory to  Heidelberg.     His  first  great  'us- 
toricai  work,  the  Hwiory  o/  <fce  IForW 
in  a  connected  narrative  (1817-24),  was 
followed  in  1823  by  his  Uiatory  of  the 
Eiahteenth  Century,  which  in  its  subse- 
quecitly  enlarged  form  won  bim  yet  wider 
fame.    His  other  works  include  a  View 
of  tk0  HUtorv  of  the  Old  World  and  tt» 
(jiviiitation  (1824^),  and  a  B»tory^ 
ihe  World  for  the  German  People  (1844- 
tB).    Along  with   Bercht  he  edited   the 
collection  of   Archivei   for  Btttory   and 
Literature  (1830^).    He  died  at  Hei- 
delberg to  1861.  ,     ^  _ 
SAhlfizor    (8chle«'ts*r),  August  Lto- 
SClUOZ<^r    ^,Q    VON,    a    German    his- 
torian, bom  in  1737.    After  studying  at 
Wittenben   and    GOttlngen    he  went    as 
tutor  *3  Sweden,  and  lived  at  Stockholm 
and  at  Upsala.     In  175»  he  returned  to 
QOttingen  r  id  commenced  the  study  of 
mediciuw.    In  1701   he  proceeded  to  St. 
Petersburg  as  tutor  to  the  Russian  his- 
torian Mttller.  and  engaged  diligently  in 
tiw  study  of  the  Russian  language  and 
history.    In  1706  he  was  appointed  a  prp- 
fcaaor  to  the  Academy,  but  subsequently 
rvtnmed  to  Germany,   having  been   ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  pplitlcai  science 
It  OOtttofca,  »  poft  b«l4  bjr  him  till  his 


death  to  1809.  The  frait  of  his  r«ri- 
dence  and  studies  to  Sweden  and  Russia 
wr<<  bia  AUgemeine  Nordiiche  Geeohtehte 
(1772)  and  a  translation  .«nd  exnosition 
of  Nestor's  Ruttian  AnnaU  (1802).  At 
a  later  period  appeared  his  Wewg- 
#cWc»«e,  or  Uittorv  of  the  World  (1792- 

ffiialkalden  t^^'of^-pmU 

province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  Schmal- 
kalde,  30  miles  s.  of  Eisenach.  It  is  an 
antique  and  picturesque  town  with  double 
wail  and  ditch,  narrow  streets,  two  cas- 
tles, and  a  handsome  Gothic  church 
(fifteenth  century).  The  staple  manu- 
factures are  iron  and  steel  wares,  and 
there  are  extensive  mines  and  salt-works 
in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  9620. 


SciiiiOkiadeir^gr  foS'ed  *it 

the    close    of    1530    by    the    Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  assembled  at  Schmal- 
kalden,  to  resist  the  aggressive  measures 
contemplated  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
It  ultimately  included  seven  princes,  two 
counts,    and    twenty-four    cities,    repre- 
senting the  whole  of  Northern  Germany, 
Saxony,  WUrtemberg,  and  Denmark,  withi 
portions    of    Bavona    and    Switzerland. 
The  object  of  the  league  was  the  common 
defense  of  the  political  and  religious  free- 
dom of  the  Protestants,  and  the  confed- 
eracy was  first  intended  to  continue  only 
for  six  years,  but  subsequent  evenU  to- 
duced  them  in  1535  to  renew  it  for  an- 
other period  of  ten  years,  and  to  raise  a 
permanent  army  to  carry  out  the  objecta 
of  the  league.    About  this  time  it  was 
joined,    among    others,    by    the    king   of 
France,    Francis    I,    though    only    from 
political    motives,    and    Henry    VIII    of 
England  declared  himself   its   protector. 
The   confederacy    received  a   fuller  con- 
solidation  by  a  new   Protestant  confu- 
sion, drawn  up  at  the  instance  of  John 
Frederick  of  Saxony  by  Luther  and  other 
divines,  and   known  as   the  Articles  of 
Schmalkalden,  from  the  circumstance  of 
their  having  been  signed  (1537),  like  the 
league   itself,   at   the    town   of    Schnaal- 
kalden.    These   articles  were   essentially 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg.    The  league  was  subsequently 
crippled  by  mutual  jealousy  and  the  con- 
flict of  interests,  and  its  early  successes 
in  the  so-called  Schmalkaldic  war  were 
ultimately  more  than  outweighed  by  the 
complete  rout  at  Mtihlberg  and  the  cap- 
ture  of   John    Frederick.    The    enda   of 
the    league,     however,    were    ultimately 
gatoed    through    the    instromentality    of 
Duke  Maurice,  who  had  been  made  elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  and  in  1652  declared  wai 
agatost    the    emperor,    fprctoff    lun    U 


flehmiti 


Seholaitioifiii 


grant  the  Treaty  of  PaMju,  whkh 
secured  the  religious  liberty  of  the  Prot- 
estanbk 

fiUtlimUv    (shmits),     LiONABD,     Wsto- 
'*<'"'''"'*   rian,   bom   at   Eupen,   near 
Alx-la-Ohapelle,    in    1807 ;    educated    at 
Bonn  under  Niebuhr  and  Welcker.    He 
settled    in    England    in    1836,    and    was 
prominent  as  an  educator  and  writer  ol 
text-books,     publishing     a     U***ory     of 
Rome,  Manual  of  Anctent  Htttory,  and 
other  works.    He  died  in  1890. 
eAl.«iifi*Ai>    (shnit's6r),      Edward 
SOnnitZer    Jemin    Pasha),    an    Af- 
rican explorer,  was  bom   in  Neisse,   to 
Silesia,  March  28,  1840.     Studying  med- 
icine,  he  was  graduated  in  1884.    Pro- 
ceeding to  Turkey,  ho  practiced  his  pro- 
fession.   He  adopted  the  name  of  Emln 
and  Turkish  habits  and  customs,  enter- 
inc  the  Egyptian  medical  serrice  as  Dr. 
Emin    Elfendi.     In    1878    he    was    ap- 
pohited   by   Gordon    Pasha   governor   of 
the    Equatorial     Province.    Pressed    by 
the  Arabs  during  the   Mahdi  outbreak, 
he  was  rescued  from  his  perilous  position 
by    Stanley    in    1889    and    conducted    to 
S&nzibar.     He  entered  the  German  serv- 
ice in  1889  and  commanded  an  expedi- 
tion   to    Central    Africa;    founded,   three 
larze  German   stations  on    Victoria   Ny- 
anza;   in  1891   pressed  onward   into  the 
heart    of    Central    Africa,    and    in    1»K 
southwards    towards    the    equator.    His 
services  to  anthropology  and  natural  His- 
tory were  great,  his  collections  of  natural 
history    specimens    and    native  vocabu- 
laries being  large.    He  was  murdered  by 
Arabs  in  1892. 

Schnorr  von  Karolsf eld  }^i^r, 

rols-felt),    Juuus,    a    German    Painter, 
born  at  Leipzig  in  1794.     From  1817  to 
1827  he  resided  in  Italy,  and  was  then 
invited  by  Ludwig,  king  of  Bavaria,  to 
Munich,   where  he  became  professor  ot 
historical    painting   in    the   Academy    of 
Fine  Arts.    His  Irescoes  in  illustration 
of  the  Niebelungenlied,  and  of  the  lives 
of    Charlemagne,    Frederick    Barbarosa, 
and  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  at  Munich,  are 
among     the    most    famous    of     modern 
works    of   this    class.     In    1846    he    ac- 
cepted an   invitaiion  to  become   director 
of  the  picture  gallery  and  professor  at 
the  Academy   of  Fine  Arts  in   Dresden. 
While  here  be  completed  his  Illu$trationa 
of  the  Bible,  which  were  engraved  and 
published  under  the  title  of   Die  Btbel 
tn  Bildem   (240  plates,  large  4to,  Leip- 
zig,   lSi2-60),    These    have    be«J    pub- 
lished in  Great  Britain,  with  descriptive 
English    text.    They    exhibit    wonderful 
animation,  variety,  and  power,  and  are 
kccoontad  the  fineat  extMuiva  senaa  of 


illuatrationa  of  the  Bible  that  haja  em 
been   prodoced   by   one   artiat    To   tte 
Drewlen  period  also  belwig  the  o^pmlnt- 
ing  of  Luther  at  the  Dtft  of  WoriM, 
and  the  designs  for  a  window  for  Bt. 
Paul's,    London.    Thle    wUidow,    WPJ»" 
sentlng  the  converalon.  and  cute  of  Bt. 
Paul,  was  Inserted  In  its  place  in  IWl. 
He  <iied  May^26,  18T2. 
Sn1in»iiiia    (elte'nus),  a  genue  of  bog 
oCnCBnuB    plants,   nat   order   Cypera- 
cete.    The  black  borrush    (Bcheentu  •<- 
Bricant)  ia  the  only  Euproean  speciea. 
o^VxtfAW  (sheurftr),  PrriB,  an  early 
Scnoffer  ^^atn,  him  at  Gernaheim, 
near  Darmstadt,  between  1^  and  14»B; 
educated    at    the    University    of    Parte, 
where  he  was  a  copyist  In  !**»  "i  """'Jf 
tc  Mains  in  1450,  ""d  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  Johann  Fust.    He  is  credited  with 
having  perfected  the  art  of  print"»f  Jof 
devising  an  easier  mode  of  casting  type. 
He  died  in  1502.    See  Printing. 
Sl-U^A^IA    (skS'feid),  JOHM  MoAixia- 
Sononeld  ^  ^laU,,  bom  in  Chau. 

tauqua  CJa,  New  York,  in  1831 5  _gied 
Mareh  4,  1906.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  In  1853,  was  made  captain  in 
May,  18G1,  and  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers in  November,  becoming  major- 
general  in  May,  1803.  After  wrvice  in 
Aritansas,  he  joined  Sherman  a  army, 
and  was  sent  by  him  In  October,  186^  to 
reSnforce  General  Thomas  at  Naahville. 
He  was  attacked  by  Hood  at  Franklin, 
repulsed  him,  and  aided  in  Thpmaan 
brilliant  victory.  He  took  part  in  the 
operations  in  North  Carolina  at  the  end 
of  the  war.  He  was  secretary  of  war 
May,  1868,  to  March,  1860;  was  cwa- 
mander-in-chief  1888^  and  retiredwlth 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1880. 

Scholarship  ie'SKr^^^^tafn  clS 
of  foundatlona  in  colleges  for  the  main- 
tenance of  studenU;  generally  the  an- 
nual proceeds  of  a  beqneat  permanent!) 
invested.  .  .     .    ,^,   .     x     *v 

Scholasticism  ijS^^^iJ^rtJ,'  \ll 

system  of  philosophy  taught  by  the  phl- 
losophera  of  the  middle  ages,  who  were 
called  «c*oIo«tic»  or  «cAoo/men  from  the 
circumstance  that  their  philosophy  orig- 
inated in  the  schools  instituted  br  and 
after  Charlemagne  for  the  education  of 
the  clergy.  The  philosophy  here  taught 
consisted  in  a  collection  of  logical  rules 
and  metaphysical  notions  drawn  from 
the  Latin  commentators  on  ArlstoUe, 
and  from  the  Introduction  of  Porphyry 
to  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  IJe  char- 
acter  «rf  the  scholastic  philosophy,  how- 
ever, varied  conaiderably  at  diner«tf 
pe^di.    Hiatoriaos  are  not  afreed  at  t» 


Soliolaitidim 


Sohombvrgk 


dM  tzMt  period  of  itoi  prifto.  Tbow 
who  W»r particuUriy  it»  theological 
SMtdSTmakTAuguetlne  Ite  founder: 

5Se»  coMlder  It  *•  ,»«'i°«  «»"l"?"S?S 
in  the  M<mophy»lte  dinatee  of  the  fifth 
and  flxth  centuries    The  great  aim  of 
the  achoolmen  waa  to  redace  the  aoc- 
trinea  of  the  church  to  a.iclentific  n*- 
temTThey  atarted  with  the  awumptfon 
that  the  creed  of  the  church  w"  »hao- 
lutely  true.    The  criterion  of  truth  and 
falaebood  in  mattera  common  to  pn»<>"- 
ophy  and  theology  was   not   aought  in 
Xerration  and  ^  ^o^fht  ItKH.  tut  in 
the   dogmas    of    the    church.    The    firet 
PCTiod  of  the  achoolmen  may  be  consld- 
md  as  extending  from  the  ninth  to  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  is  chaMCterlied 
br  the  accommodation  of  the  Aristotelian 
l4ic.  and  of  Neo-Platonlc  phllosophemes 
to    Ae    doctrines    of    the    church.    The 
neriod  begins  with  John  Scotus  EriMna, 
tMd  numbers,  among  other  names,  those 
Sserengarina  of  lV)ur8  and  his  omwnent 
Lanfranc,  Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury,  Ricellinus,  Abela^,,  Peter  Dom- 
bardns    and    John    of    Salisbury.    The 
period  is  marked  by  the  «>nt«>ye™  *?»! 
raged  between  the  Nominalists  and  the 
Realists,  and  which  termmated  at  lengtb 
In  the  triumph  of  the  latter.    The  second 
period  of  scholasticism,  extending  from 
&  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  century  — 
from  Alexander  of  Hales  to  the  close  of 
the  middle  ages,  when  classical  studies 
were  revived  and  the  sciences  of  nature 
and  human  nature  began  once  more  to 
be  studied  — presents  us  with  the  com- 
nlete  development  of  scholasticism,  and 
also    with    its   dissolution.    During   this 
period    the   Aristotelic    philosophy    exer- 
ctoed  a  more  marked  influence;  Realism 
was  also  triumphant,  until,  towards  the 
end   of   the   peldod,    William   of    Occam 
tose  up  as  the  champion  of  Nominalism, 
and  in  distinguishing  thought  from  being, 
and   the  theoretical   from   the  practical, 
gave  to  philosophy  a  wider  range  and  a 
Seer  spirit.    The  aenith  of  scbolasticiam 
is   constituted    by    Thomas    Aquinas,    a 
Dominican „  (died     1274),     and     Duna 
Bcotus,  a  Franciscan    (died  1308),  who 
were  the  founders  of  the  two  schools  into 
which  the  entire  movement  waa  thence- 
forward divided.    With  the  separation  of 
theory  and  practice,  and  stUl  more  with 
the  separation  in  Nominalism  of  thought 
and  thing,  philosophy  was  disjoined  from 
theology,   and    reason    from    faith.    The 
ceault  of  this  was  that  religious  minds 
tamed  away  from  a  theology  which  had 
hecome  a  mere  formal  logical  system  to 
take  refuge  in  mystic  experiences  of  the 
*mie  life;  while  others,  wnoundng  the- 
^0(7   attogether,  sought  an  outlet  for 


thdr  mental  energies  in  the  atudy  of 
natuK  and  mind.  The  former  of  theae 
tendenciea  culminated  in  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  the  latter  in  modem  philosophy. 
OAliAlia  (akO'li-a),  explanations  an- 
SonOlia  iS^  toOreek  or  Latin  au- 
thora  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  gramma- 
rians (toholiattM).  There  are  many 
scholia  to  Greek  authors  extant,  fewer 
to  Latin.  The  names  of  the  scholiaats 
are  mostly  unknown.  Those,  however, 
of  Didymus.  John  Tsetses,  and  BusU- 
thius,  the  famous  scholiast  of  Homer, 
have  been  preserved.  The  two  last  be- 
long to  the  twelfth  century. 

Schombeie  fSS2S'*bS5T'^ 

Schomberg_  by  the  daughter  of  Lord 
Dudley.  He  began  his  military  career 
under  Frederick,  prince  of  Orange,  and 
afterwards  went  to  France.  He  w" 
then  employed  in  Portugal,  and  was  suc- 
cessful in  estobUshing  the  lndei»ndence 
of  that  kingdom.rfle  cdmmand^  the 
French  army  in  Catalonia  in  1672.  and 
waa  afterwards  employed  In  the  Netner- 


tandsT'where  he  obligeia   the   Prtoce  .of 
Orange  to  raise  the  siege  of 


urange  i"  •^»*«'  ^"-  -"•-  ""  Maestricht. 
For  these  services  he  waa  created  a  mar- 
ahal  of  France  in  1675 ;  but  on  the  rev- 
ocation of  the  Edict  of  Nant«»  Marshal 
Schomberg,  who  was  a  Pfotestont, 
quitted  the  French  service,  and  took 
Mrvice  under  the  Elector  of  ,^den- 
burg.  He  went  to  England  in  1688  with 
William  III,  and  after  the  Revolutiwi 
was  created  a  duke.    He   waa  sent  to 


Ireland  to  the  foUowina  year  to  oppose 
the  partisans  of  Jamw  II.  ■nd  took  Cai^ 
rickfergus,  btat  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne  in  1690. 

Schombnrgk  {S^^^SSJlkS*  5!^ 

commercUl     pursuits,     went     to    ^^rOt 
America,  then  to  theWest  Indies  (1830). 
and  gatoed  the  patronage  of  the  Koyai 
Geographical  Society  of  London  by  a  re- 
port on  the   island  of  Anegada   in   the 
West  Indies.    From  1836  to  IMO  he  waa 
engaged  In  the  exploration  of  Guiana,  a 
commission  undertaken  at  the  instanw  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  Lon- 
don.   It  was  in  tte  course  of  thwe  ex- 
plorations that  he  discovered  (1S31)  tne 
gigantic  water-lily,   Fictono  regta.    R^ 
Umlag  to  Ebglaad  In  183®,  he  received 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Socfety  for  a  worit  entitled  Travel  und 
Rem>anh€i  Dwringtht  Ywn  18S5-S9  to 
the  Colons  of  BHtith  Oatono,  etc.    I« 
mo  he  waa  tent  to  make  a  aurvey  of 


SohSnbnum      ' 

British  Gniana  for  tlie  «ov«rmn«it,  «nd 
in  1814  received  the  honor  of  knighthood 
for  hia  wrvicea.  From  1848  to  IsoS 
be  acted  as  British  representative  to  the 
Republic  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  m  18&T 
was  appointed  to  a  similar  post  at  Bang- 
kok, in  Siam.  He  died  at  Berlin  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1805.  In  addition  to  the  works 
already  alluded  to  he  wrote  a  Detcrtp- 
iion  of  Britith  Guiana  (1840),  a  Hu- 
tory  of  Barbadoet  (1847),  and  other 
works.  .  .       ^       X  1 

Schonbnmn  JifrWe  eVuo'nl 

of  Vienna.    See  Vienna. 
tlt\hnnt>hmfi\e     (shc«'nfe-bek),   a   town 
DCnoneDeCK     Jq    tj,e    government    of 

Magdeburg,  Prussia,  on  the  left  baak 
of  the  Elbe,  9  miles  8.  s.  E.  of  Magdeburg. 
It  is  a  very  ancient  place;  and  an  im- 
portant salt-mining  center.    Fop.  17,786. 

Schoningcn  ,%'S?aSrk 'bS^ 

wick,  20  miles  8.B.  of  Brunswick,  with 
a  salt-works,  chemical  works,  etc.  Fop. 
02d8. 

CiAliAAlnrafl-     Hewbt    Rowe,    ethnol- 
oCnOOiCrail,    ogist  and  geologist,  bom 
at.Watervliet  (now  Guilderland),  in  Al- 
bany county.   New   York,   i?   17^;,  He 
was  educated  at  Union  and  Middlebury 
colleges,  and  in  1816  commenced  an  un- 
finished serial  workmen  glass-making,  en- 
titled   Vitreoloay.    In   1817-18  he  made 
a  journey  to  the  west,  with  the  object  of 
extending  his  knowledge  of  geology  and 
mineralogy,  and  on  his  return  published 
A  View  of  the  Lead  Uinea  of  Mutoun, 
etc.     In  1820  he  was  appointed  geologist 
to  the  expedition  despatched  by  the  gov- 
ernment  to  explore   the  sources  of   tbe 
Mississippi,  and  in  1821  was  appointed 
secretary    to    an    Indian    conference    at 
Chicago.    In    1822  Jie    was    appointed 
agent  for  Indian   affairs  in   the  north- 
western provinces,   and  havhig  n»rnea 
a  woman  of  Indian  descent,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  investigation  of  the  languages, 
ethnology,  and  antiquities  of  the  Indians. 
From  1828  to  1832  he  was  a  member 
of  the  territorial  legislature  of  Michigan. 
In  1832  he  conducted  a  government  ex- 
pedition to  the  Upper  Mississippi,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  explored  the  sources 
of  that  river.    In  1836  he  neKotiated  the 
purcliase  for  the  government  of  16,000,000 
acres  in  this  region,  and  after  this  he 
was  appointed  acting  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  for  the  northern  depart- 
ment.   In  1847  he  was  appointed  by  the 
fovernment  to  pr«pare  hn  extensive  work 
on  the  Indians,  which  appeared  under  the 
title  of  J6r<«*oHcol  and  ataiiBttcal  Infor- 
mation Reepeeting  tkaHiMtorji,  CondiMon, 
and  Protpectt  of  tha  InHam  Tribea  of  tka 


Soliopenliaiier 

United  Statet  (18Bl-«7).  Besides  tlw 
worlu  already  m<tntioned  we  have  fiou 
his  prolific  pen  Algio  Beaearehee,  caokr 
prising  inquiries  respecting  the  mental 
characteristics  of  the  North  Amerkaui 
Indians;  fhirty  Yean  toith  the  Indian 
Tribet  of  the  Uorthvettem  Frontitr/ 
The  Indian  in  Hie  Wigwam;  and  tha 
Myth  of  Hiawatha  and  other  Lvgende; 
besides  poems,  lectures,  reports,  etc. 
For   his   Lecturee   on   the   Indian   La*' 

fuaget  he  received  the  gold  medal  of  tba 
'rench  Institute.  Schoolcraft  married  * 
second  time  in  1847.  He  died  at  Wash- 
ington December  10,  1864. 
Schoolmen,    see  Seholaetioiem. 


fi^11nn1a.     See  Education,  Oymnaaium.- 
BCnOOiS.     jformal   Bohoole,  Beat 
School;  etc,  also  articles  on  the  various 
countries.  ,      ^  „  *  _^     n 

CUIiAAitAv  (skS'ner),  a  small  fast-sail- 
ScnOOner  ^^  BhaiiJ-buUt  vessel  with 
two  masts,  and  the  principal  sails  of  ttie 
fore-and-aft  type.  There  are  two  chief 
kinds  of  schooners,  the  top-sail  schooner 
and  the  .ore-and-aft  schooner,  the  formsr 


Top-Mil  SeltooBsr. 


carrying  a  square  top-sail  and  top-gallaat 
sail  (with  sometimes  a  royal)  (m  tb« 
fore-mast,  and  the  latter  having  fore- 
and-aft  sails  on  both  masts,  with  some- 
times a  square  sail  on  the  fore-mast 
The  first  schooner  is  said  to  have  bem 
launched  at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  1718. 
Square  top-sails  are  not  used  on  schoon- 
ers in  the  United  SUtes,  where  schoopera 
with  more  than  two  masts  have  been 
introduced;  one  with  as  many  as  tevok 
masts. 

Schopcnliaiicr  i^^;^''''^^ 

phllosonher,  bom  at  Dansig  In  178a 
His  father  was  a  bankitr,  and  his  mother, 
Johanna  Schopenhauer,  atuined  consid- 
erable dtotinction  ib  the  literary  world 
as  •  writer  of  books  of  travel  and  noveUL 
In  his  youth  he  traveled  in  Fnuwa  aat. 


SduypmliAiier 


Sn^nd,    and    Mqaind    an    ezteniive 
kaowlfl^   of  tb*  languaKe   and   Utera- 
tan  of  both  thew  countries.    In  1809  be 
•ntend    the    Univetaitjr    of    CWttingeD, 
when  he  itudied  jibilooopby,  and  after- 
waida   went   to   Berlin   and   Jena.    He 
ftadoated  at  Jena  in  1813  with  an  easay 
•Btitlod  Ueber  He  vierfaehe  Wurzel  det 
B*iM$  9om  tmrtkhenden  GrundeVFonr- 
t<M  Aoot  of  the  Principle  of  Sufficient 
Reason '),   in   which  be  lays  down  the 
basis  of  his  future  system.    From  1814 
to   1818  he   lived   at   Dresden,   and   oc< 
copied  himself  prhicipally  with  the  prep- 
aration  of   his   most   Important   work — 
Die    Welt    ale    WiUe    und    VoratcUung 
(•The  World  as  Will  and  Idea'),  1819. 
•  Previous  to  this  he  had  published  a  work 
on  optics  ( Veber  da*  Beken  und  die  Far- 
ken,    1816).    In   1818  he   visited   Rome 
and  Naples,  and  from  1822  to  1825  was 
again  in    Italy,   returning  in   the  latter 
year    to    Berlin.    Here    as    a    private 
lecturer    he    met    with    little    success, 
anid    on    the    outbreak    of    cholera    in 
1881  he  left  the  capital  and  spnt  the 
remainder    of    his    life    in    private    at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.   devoting    himself 
tb  the  efaiboration  of  hia  system.    He  died 
In     1860.     His    later    works    are    Die 
Mden  Grundprolleme  der  Ethik   ('The 
Two  Fundamental  Problems  of  Ethics'; 
Frankfort,  1841)  and  Parerga  and  Para- 
Upomena     (Berlfai,     18S1).    The    philo- 
wn^hical  system  of  Schopenhauer  tias  for 
its  fundamental  doctrine  the  proposition 
that   the   only   essential    reality    in    the 
universe  is  toiU,  in  which  be  includes  not 
only   conscious   desire,   but   also   uncon- 
scious   instinct,    and    the    forces    which 
manifest  themselves  in  inorganic  nature. 
What  an  called  appearances  ^xist  only 
in  our  subjective  representations,  and  are 
merely  forms  under  which  one  universal 
will  manifests  itself.    Between  this  uni- 
Ttisal  will  and  the  individuals  in  which 
it  appean  there  are  a  number  of  ideas, 
whidi  are  stages  in  the  objectivication 
of   the   wilL    Throughout   nature,    from 
the  lower  animals  downwards,  the  will 
works  unconsciously,  and  it  only  attains 
canadonsnesa   in    the   higher    stages    of 
being,   aa   man.    All   intelligence   serves 
orvnaliy  the  will  to  live.    In  genius  it 
b   emancipated   from   this   servile   posi- 
tion, and  gains  the  preponderance.    Upon 
this  foundation  Scbopoihauer  rean  his 
■stbetical    and    ethical    structures;    the 
former  of  which  derives  much  from  the 
]|^tonic  system,  while  the  latter  resem- 
bles in  maintaining  the  necessity  of  en- 
tinly  subduing  the  sensuous  nature  in 
■BB,  without  determining  positively  the 
tma  and  of  spiritual  life,  the  Buddhistic 
dootrlnt  of  Nirvana.    The  final  teaching 


Sohvbert 

of  Schopenhauer  is,  therefore,  that  of  a 
I>hiiosopbic  pessimism,  having  as  its  idaal 
the  negation  of  the  will  to  live. 
fln1iAr*1  (skO'rftl),  or  ScoBEL,  Jah 
BOnorei  ^^^  ^  ^utch  painter,  who 
received  his  name  from  Schoorl,  a  vUlago 
near  Alkmaar,  where  he  was  bom  In 
1496.  He  studied  under  William  Cor- 
nelia, Jakob  Comelis,  and  Mabuse,  came 
under  the  influence  of  DQrer  at  Nurem- 
berg, and  afterwards  visited  Venice, 
Jerusalem,  and  Rhodes,  and  resided  sev- 
eral yeare  in  Rome,  returning  in  1525. 
He  died  at  Utrecht  in  15G2.  Italian  in- 
fluence ia  specially  discernible  in  bis 
works. 
Schorl.    S««  roarmoKne. 

QitYiAffianTiA     (shot-tesh';    a    French 
SOnOlTlSCUe     l^^    ^^    ^^e    German 

word  for  Scottish),  a  fanciful  name  given 
to  a  slow  modem  dance  in  |  time,  some- 
what resembling  a  polka. 
finlir»iTiPr    (shrl'ner),  OuvE,  novelist, 
DCnreiner    ^^g    ^0^    ^t    Capetown, 

South  Africa,  about  1860.  daupchter  of  a 
Lutheran  clergymen.  Her  Life  on  on 
African  Farm  (1883),  won  her  a  wide 
reputation  by  its  graphic  picture  of  Bc;r 
farm  life  and  exposition  of  soul  prob- 
lems. Another  notable  story  v.aa 
Trooper  Peter  Halket  of  Mathonaland, 
and  several  later  works  have  appeared. 
Her  brother,  W.  P.  Shreiner,  became 
premier  of  Cape  Colony  in  1898. 
SpTinh^rf  (shO'bert),  Fbanz,  one  of 
DCUUUert  jjjg  greatest  composera  of 
modern  times,  bora  at  Vienna  Jan.  31, 
1797,  the  son  of  a  teacher.  He  com; 
menced  bis  musical  education  in  bis  sev- 
enth year,  and  in  1808  was  admitted 
among  the  choristere  of  the  court  chapel. 
He  soon  acquired  particular  efficiency  on 
the  piano  and  the  difEerent  stringed  in- 
struments, BO  that  in  a  short  time  he 
was  able  to  take  the  part  of  first  violin 
in  the  orchestra.  After  he  left  the  court 
chapel  he  supported  himself  by  teaching 
music,  devoting  himself  in  obscurity  and 
neglect  to  original  composition.  He 
achieved  success  in  almost  all  kinds  of 
music,  but  his  genius  was  specially  note- 
worthy for  its  opulence  in  melody  and 
lyric  power.  His  songs  and  ballads,  aa 
exemplified  in  his  three  principal  col- 
lections, the  Winterreiae  (1826-27),  the 
Mullerlieder  (1828).  and  the  Schwanen- 
getang  (1828).  may  be  said  to  have 
revolutionized  the  Lied  in  making  the 
accompaniment  not  less  interpretative 
of  the  emotions  of  the  poem  than  the 
vocal  part,  and  in  breaking  through  the 
limitations  of  the  old  stroohic  method. 
Besides  his  six  huidred  songs  he  left 
about  four  hundred  other  oompfl(rijtion%, 


Sdmaitiui 


Sehsykr 


todadiwf  fifteen  operas,  aix  dimim.  and 
icveral  lymithonies.  Two  only  «  tm 
menw,  Koiamond  and  the  SnohanM 
Harp,  were  performed  dorfng  hi*  lifai  and 
they  are  considered  inferior  to  his  onpro- 
dooed  Fierabraa.  Bis  symphoniea  take  a 
hifher  rank,  the  Seventh  (in  O  major) 
bang  ranked  by  Mendelssohn  and  Schu- 
mann with  Beethoven's.  His  entire  won 
justifies  Liszt's  description  of  him  as  the 
most  poetic  of  musicians.  He  died  in 
Vienna  November  19,  1828. 

flAliTima'n'n     (shS'm&n),  BOBKBT,  mu- 
DOnumann    gical  composer  and  critic, 
bom    at   Zwickau    in    the    Kingdom    of 
Saxony  June  8,  1810.     He  studied  law 
at  Leipxig,  but  in  1830  finally  devoted 
hkueu  to   music   under   the  tuition   of 
Friedrich    Wieck    ond    Heinrich    Dorn. 
The  daughter   of   the  former,   the  cele- 
brated pianiste  Clara  Wieck  (bom  1810), 
becamt   his  wife  in  1840.     In  1834  he 
commcr.c'ed     his    Neite    Zeitschrift     fiir 
Mutfk,  a  journal  which  was  to  herald 
an  ideal  music,  and  which,  for  the  ten 
years   of   his   more   intimate   connection 
with  it,  exercised  an  important  influence 
upon    the   development   of   the   art,   not 
incomparable     with     that    of     Lessings 
JIamburg  Dramaturgy  in  drama.     Prior 
to   1840   his    principal    works    were   the 
Fantrtuia,  the  (Scenes  of  Childhood,  the 
Etudes  Symphoniques,   the  Kreialeriana, 
the  Abegg  variations,  the  PapUlotu,  the 
Carnival,   and   two   sonatas  in   P  shnrp 
minor  and  G  minor.     In  the  year  follow- 
ing his  marriage  he  published  nearly  one 
hundred    and    fifty    songs,    many    upon 
Heine's  words,  and  all  marking  an  ad- 
vance  upon   previous   composers   in   the 
fidelity    and    subtlety    with    which    they 
reproduced   the  most  delicate  shades  of 
meaning  in  the  poems  selected  for  musical 
treatment.    He  then  commenced  his  great 
series  of  orchestral  works,  his  svmphony 
in  B  flat  being  first   performed  at  the 
close  of  1841.     It  was  followed  by  his 
Overture  Scherzo  and  Finale,  his  D  minor 
symphony,     three    qunrttts,     the    piano 
quintet  and  quartet,  the  cantata  Faradue 
and   the  Peri,    the   C    major   symphony 
(1846),     GcncCTCte      (1847).     Manfred 
(1848),  the  Fauat  music  (1850),  the  E 
flat  symphony   (1851),  and  many  other 
works.     Under  stretH  of  work,  however, 
his  reason  failed  him,  and  after  an  at- 
tempt to  drown  himself  in  1854  he  was 
confined  in  n  lunatic  asylum,  where  he 
died  July  29,  1856.     In  the  line  of  mu- 
sical descent  Schumann  stands  between 
Beethoven  and  Wagner. 

Solminla.      see  Skumla. 


Solmnnan 


(shur'man),  Jacob 
GtouuD.    educator,   bora 


at  Fnetown,  Prinee  Edwaid*!  Idand,  is 
18B4.  He  became  professor  of  vMlamivv 
in  AcadU  Coliege,  18B0« :  la  Daitaooato 
College,  HaUfaz,  1882-86:  wibMaMiitljr 
at  ComeU  CoUege,  of  which  be  luubeeB 
made  preddoit  since  1882.  In  USO  te 
was  made  president  of  the  fint  PhilippiiM 
Conuniasion.  He  wrote  »  nombw  of 
works  <m  evolutionary  and  phUnKq^ueal 
subjects,  etc. 

flAlmrv  (sb5n).  Caml,  an  American 
°*"'*»"  soldier  and  stateanuu.  WM 
bom  near  Cologne,  Germany,  Hanb.  2, 
1829,  and  educated  at  Bonn  University. 
He  joined  Professor  Kinkel  in  tbe 
revolutionary  movement  of  1848;^,  aa- 
caped  capture  and  effected  Kinkel  a 
escape  from  prison.  He  made  his  way 
to  the  United  Sutes  in  1862,  settling  in 
Wisconsin,  where  he  gained  promineaee 
in  politica,  lectured  and  practiced  law. 
In  1861  he  waa  rent  aa  American  lunl^ 
ter  to  Spain,  but  aoon  returned,  entered 
the  army  in  the  Civil  war,  and  was 
made  brigadier-general  and  finally  majw- 
general  of  volunteers,  taking  part  n 
several  battles.     After  the  war  he  cb- 

faged  in  jouraalism,  starting  the  DsfroK 
'ost  in  1866.  Two  yeara  later  he 
removed  to  St.  Louis,  and  was  electad 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Missouri  in  1868. 
In  1877  he  became  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior under  President  Hayeau  and  in 
1881-84  was  editor  of  the  New  York 
Evening  Post.  Ho  was  an  aUe  oratw 
and  writer,  publishing  a  finc^  writtea 
lAfe  of  Henry  Clay  in  1887  and  « 
Life  of  Uncoln  in  1882.  He  died  May 
11,  1906. 

AAlin'v1i»r  (skller),  Euobnc,  Mato* 
BOnUVier  Vian  anrf  traveler,  waa  bom 
at  Ithae.  Sfew  York,  in  1840:  waa  grad- 
uated from  Yale  and  at  the  law  echoed  of 
Columbia  Collen;  In  1867  waa  made 
United  States  (Jonsul  at  Moacow  and  in 
1860  at  Reval,  and  secretary  of  the  Amer- 
ican legation  in  Russia.  He  travded  in 
Turkestan  in  1873,  was  consul-general 
at  Constantinople  1876-78  (when  he 
traveled  in  Bulgaria  and  made  an  im- 
portant report  on  the  Turkish  atrodtiai 
in  that  country).  He  held  other  conaul- 
shim,  and  was  made  U.  S.  minister  at 
Athens  and  representative  for  Ronmuiln 
and  Servia.  Hia  works  indode  Twrh^ 
tan,  The  Cossacks,  Life  of  Peter  ntf 
Oreai,  etc.  He  died  at  Cairo  Jnly  18^ 
1890. 

OaIhiWIa*  Psnup,  soldier  and  sen- 
BOnnyier,     .tor,  was  bom  at  Albany. 

New  York,  in  1733:  died  ta  1804.  He 
served  in  the  Frcto^  and  Indian  war  fai 
1766,  waa  made  majorjfener^^M  tbj 
Revolutionary  army  in  June,  ITTO,  an« 
waa  nboot  to  lead  an  army  to  CaaMft 


iAnylkitt 

whan  he  wm  taken  tick  and  wu  re- 
placed by  General  Montfomenr.  He  com- 
manded the  army  operat&is  Muoft 
fiS^yne  In  ITH,  but  wa.  removed  by 
Congreie  and  eucceeded  by  <}«B«ral 
Gatea.  who  w<m  the  honor  which  Jiutly 
belonfl«d  to  Schuyler.  A  court  of  in- 
auirr  vindicated  him  o£  the  chargee 
Sat  him.  He  declined  again  to  take 
command  of  an  army,  though  he  rm- 
dered  important  milftary  "erv^-  »« 
wai  a  member  of  Congrees  ITTMl.  waa 
In  1780  elected  to  the  firet  United  Statee 
Senate,  and  waa  again  elected  in  place 
of  Aaron  Burr  in  1797.  One  of  hi. 
daughters   waa   the   wife   of   Alexander 

S^kn^lln'll    (skei'kil),     a     river     of 
SOnUylKlii   Kmisylvania,  which  risea 


in  the  north  aide  of  the  Blue  Mountains, 
runa  southeast,  passes  through  the  cott- 
fines   of   Philadelphia,   and    unit«   with 
tiie  Delaware  near  the  southern  extremity 
of  that  city.     It  is  120  miles  long,  and 
navigable  within  the  city  Umits. 
flitliiinili     (shwAb).   Ohablkb  M. 
MUWaO     ^laaa.    Y     American    tted 
merchant,  bom  at  WHluunsbarg,  1^..  edu- 
cated at  St.  Frauds'  OoDege.     He  was 
anp«rintendent  of  the  Homertead   Sted 
W^s,  1887-89:  prerident  ofAeUnited 
States   Steel   Corporation   1901;<>3,   and 
later  became  chairman  of  the  board  of 
Bethleh>»n  Steel  Corporation.    In  April, 
ins.  he  was  appointed  director  general 
<rf  aUpbuilding  under  the  U.  S.  Shipping 
Board,  and  was  largely  resp<»sible  for 
the  speeding   up  of  work  at  the  Hog 
Island  (q.  tT)  yards. 

Schwabach,  ^^.i^'d'ra^^ 
by  Luther  for  the  princes  and  cities  as- 
sembled in  1B29  at  fichwabach.     ^   .  ^,. 

Schwabisch-liaU  ir'^g^'VKiil 

of  WUrtemburg,  in  the  circle  of  Jaxt, 
beautifully  Bituated  in  the  deep  valley 
of  the  Kocher,  35  miles  northeast  of 
Stuttgart.  It  is  a  picturesque  old  town, 
and  has  extensive  salt-works  and  salt- 
batha.  From  the  thirteenth  century  till 
1802  Hall  was  a  free  imperial  city.  Pop. 
9225. 

fiAlinranfliftl^r  (shvin'ta-lfer),  Lp- 
BOnwanTnaier  ^j^  Michael,  a  Ger- 
man sculptor,  bom  at  Munich  in  1802, 
where  his  father,  the  court  sculptor, 
died  in  1821.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
he  succeeded  him,  and  executed  varioin 
commissions  for  King  Maximilian,  and 
a  great  number  for  his  successor.  King 
Ludwia.  After  a  short  residence  in  Rome 
In  1826  he  returned  to  Munich  and  ex- 
•Ctttcd    important    sculptures    for    the 


SehwtA 

Glyptothek.  a  atatne  of  Slu^meara  for 
the  theater  royal,  etc.    In  1882  re  again 
visited  Bome,  remaining  there  two  years. 
In  1886  he  was  made  prefesspr  in  the 
Academy  of  Arta  in  Munkh.    Among  hia 
more  important  worka  may  be  ■P^dm 
fifteen  colossal  sUtues  for  the  principal 
pediment  of  the  Walhalla,  on  the  Dan- 
iSe,  near  Ballsbon;   the   fifteen  figures 
of  the  Battle  of  Armini*;  for  the  north- 
em  pediment  of  the  Walhalla;  the  great 
bas-relief    friese.    more    than    250    feet 
long,    in    the    Barbarossa    Hall    of    the 
royal    palace,     Munich;     the    .pediment 
group  for  the  Art  Exhibition  buildings, 
Munich;    the  colossal   bronse  statue   of 
Bavaria,  70  feet  high,  to  front  of  the 
Buhmestalle  (Hall  of  1^*).  Munich; 
a  marble  statue  of  the  Emperor  Rudolf 
for   the  cathedral   in   Spirea;   a   statue 
of  Moaart  for  Sabsburg;  a  marble  group 
of  Ceret  and  Proterpine  for  Berlin;  and 
numeroua     designs     for     sculptors     and 
painters.    He    died    in    184&    Schwan- 
thaler  waa  the  chief  representative  of  the 
romantic   school    to   sculpture,   and   hia 
works   are   often   deficient   to   truth   to 
nature  and  reality.  

schwarz  ir'?hf  w^^isrof^ire 

fourteenth  century,  a  Francisgin  friar 
of  Germany,  formerly  regarded  aa  the 
Inventor  of  gunpowder  and  firearms. 
The  Invention  of  gunpowder,  however, 
is  probably  at  least  aspid  aa  the  time 
of  Roger  Bacon  (d.  1292),  but  Schwan 
may  perhaps  be  credited  with  the  toven- 
tion  of  field  artillery.  In  1380  he  waa 
commissioned  by  the  Venetton  govern- 
ment to  cast  some  cannons.  The  price 
agreed  upon  not  being  forthcoming  be 
became  importunate,  and  was  thrown 
into  prison,  where  it  is  believed  he  died 
to  1384. _ 

S/tltnTaiHy     CHBIBTIAIT     FBUDBICH, 

OCnwarZ)  Protestant  missionary,  born 
to  1726  at  Sonnenburg,  in  Brandenburg, 
educated  in  his  native  town  and  at 
Kttstrin  till  1747,  when  he  proceeded  to 
the  University  of  Halle.  In  1760  he 
sailed  from  London  for  TVanquebar,  the 
seat  of  a  Danish  mission,  where  he 
labored  till  1766,  when  hU  services  were 
accepted  by  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge.  He  then  removed 
to  Trichlnopoly,  and  afterwards  to  Tan- 
Jore.  His  influence  in  India  was  shown 
by  the  fact  that  Hyder  All  admitted  him 
as  an  ambassador  for  the  negotiation 
of  peace  after  refnsing  all  other  envoys, 
and  that  his  personal  guarantee  of  pay- 
ment was  sufBcient  to  procure  the  reltef 
of  Tanjore  from  imminent  famine,  tie 
died  in  179& 


Sehwurslmxc^Biidolstadt 


nOkWSflV 


Sohwarzbnrg  -  Budolitadt 

(•hT&rtil>arA>rO-dolHitAt),  a  Qmtmn 
prindiwUty,  conaistiiiff  of  MTetml  faolatad 
portiona,  situated  between  PmHiu 
Bazony,  the  Saxon  duchiea,  and  the  prin- 
cipality of  BeuA.  It  lies  on  tho  north- 
•m  aide  of  the  Tharing ian  Forest,  and 
has  an  area  of  862  square  milea.  The 
surface  is  rugged,  and  the  soil  by  no 
means  fertile.  The  most  important  crop 
is  flax,  the  culture  of  which  is  almost 
universal.  A  great  part  of  the  land  is 
devoted  to  pasture,  and  great  numbers 
of  cattle  are  reared.  The  minerals  in- 
clude brown  coal,  iron,  slate,  and  salt 
The  prhicipal  manufactures  are  glass 
and  porcelain.  The  inhabitants  are 
almost  all  Lutherans.  The  capital  is 
Budolstadt.    Pop.  (1005)  96^36. 

Sohwarzbnrg  -  Sondenhansen, 

a  German  principality  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  between 'the 
territories  of  Prussian  Saxony  and  the 
Saxon  duchies,  and  consisting  of  several 
distinct  portions ;  area,  332  sq.  miles.  It 
is  more  fertile  than  Schwarzburg-Budol- 
stadt,  producing  com  for  export.  One 
of  the  principal  sources  of  revenue  is 
derived  from  the  forests,  which  furnish 
excellent  timber.  Flax  also  is  exten- 
sively cultivated,  and  great  numbers  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  are  reared.  The 
only  manufacture  of  any  importance  is 
porcelain.  The  inhabitants  are  almost 
all  Lutherans.  The  capital  is  Sonders- 
hausen.    Pop.  (1900)  85,152. 

Schwarzenbcrg  ffilfftS^S'^ 

bom  in  1587.  He  was  prime-minister  to 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  all- 
powerful  during  the  Thirty  Years'  war, 
causing  great  calamities  to  the  elector- 
ate of  Brandenburg  by  promoting  an 
alliance  with  Austria  against  the  Swed- 
ish Protestant  League.  When  the  *  great 
elector'  assumed  the  reins  of  government 
he  imprisoned  Schwarzenbcrg  in  the  for- 
tress of  Spandau,  where  he  died  of  apo- 
plexy in  1641. 

Schwarzenbcrg,  J^^^/IS^ 

BICH,  Pbuice  or,  an  Austrian  statesman, 
bom  in  1800,  entered  in  1818,  as  cadet, 
a  regiment  of  hussars,  and  advanced  to 
be  captain;  in  1824  went  to  St.  Peters- 
burg as  an  attache  to  the  embassy,  and 
was  sul)sequently  employed  in  connection 
with  the  embassies  at  London,  Brasil, 
Paris,  Berlin,  Turin,  Parma,  and  Naples. 
Betuming  to  Vienna  from  Naples  in 
1848  be  reSntered  the  army,  but  soon 
after,  on  the  sappresaion  of  the  popular 
fifiof  in  yi«iHM«  be  WM  cim«4  to  be 


the  bead  of  the  new  fovammaBt  Bb 
creat  object  wae  to  goreru  Austria  as  a 
Magle  r  ^jtte  in  a  aiilitary  and  abaolate  Baa> 
aer— still  not  witlwnt  some  iacHnatkn 
to  internal  lefonna;  and  to  ertabUsh  the 
preponderance  of  the  Aortrian  power  in 
Uermany  and  Central  Bnrope;  and  tliis, 
after  the  snppresaion  of  the  Hunnriaa 
revolt,  he  tariely  sncceeded  in  ooins. 
He  died  in  18S2. 

Schwanenberg,  g^^  ^^ 

Anstilan  fldd-manhal,  bom  at  Tienna  in 
1T71,  served  in  the  early  wars  of  the 
French  revolution,  taking  part  in  tlie 
battles  of  WOrsborg,  Ulm,  Ansterliti, 
and  Wagram.  He  negotiated  the  mar- 
riage between  Napoleon  and  Maria 
Looisa.  In  the  campaign  of  1812  be 
commanded  the  Austrian  anziliair  corps 
in  Oalicia,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year 
received  the  staff  of  fieid-marslial'^en' 
eraL  After  Napoleon's  return  frmn 
Elba  he  uommanaed  the  allied  foroea  <» 
the  Upper  Bhine,  and  though  tlie  am* 
test  was  decided  at  Waterloo  without 
his  participation,  he  tooit  part  in  the 
subsequent  movement  upon  Paris.  Ha 
died  in  1820. 
SchwarZWald.    see  Bfac*  Forert. 

SfiTiWAtkii.  (awatlu),  Fbbsuok,  ez- 
DGUWaiKa     jg„,^  ^„  bom  at  Qaiena. 

Ilfinois,  in  18&:  died  in  1802.  He  waa 
graduated  from  West  Point  in  1871,  and 
served  as  a  cavalry  lieutenant  on  the 
frontier  till  1877,  meanwhile  stndying  law 
and  medicine,  and  being  admitted  to  the 
Nebraska  bar.  After  exploring  the  course 
of  the  Yukon,  he  resigned  in  1SB4.  In 
1878-80  he  commanded  the  Franklin 
search  expedition  to  the  Arctic  seas,  and 
discoverea  and  buried  the  skeletons  of 
many  of  Franldin's  lost  party.  He  made 
later  explorations  in  Alaska,  and  pid>- 
lished  works  describing  his  Joomeya. 
SfihTirftflt  (■hvet),  a  town  in  Prussia, 
SCUWCai    ^    thg    jgjt    bank   of    the 

Oder,  24  milea  southwest  of  Stettin. 
The  principal  edifice  is  the  old  castle, 
in  which  a  branch  of  the  margraves  of 
Brandenburg  resided.  Its  manufactures 
are  chiefl^y  tobacco  and  cigars.  Pop. 
(19U6)  9S30. 

Sohwqrler  i'J-JJ'.).  J^SSSi^ 

writer  and  theologian,  bora  in  1810.  He 
was  educated  at  Tttbingen  (183&40), 
where  he  became  a  privat-docent,  and 
subsequently  extra-professor  of  Boman 
literature  and  antiquities,  and  latterly  of 
ancient  history.  He  died  in  1857.  His 
OetokiekU  4er  Ph«o»ophi«  ('History 
of  Philosophy')  is  widely  known  out- 
fida  Qmnor  toroufh  the  translatiooa  w 


BttoiM 


Miweidiiiti 

Srew  off  the  yoke  of  AuetrU,  gnre  tbe 
Sme  to  the  whole  «>n£ederatfon.  Ito 
npMent  Mvernment  U  »n  extreme  democ- 
?IS^  the  whole  power,  legitlatlve  «nd 
SSitlve!  Wn«  ><Sed  in  tie  »a^^ 
ulation  of  legol  age,  ''»»o  hold  a  «en«mi 
aeaembly  every  two  years,  ine  greai 
bSdy  of  the  inhablunt.  are  Roman  Cath- 

taL  is  a  Btrag|ling  and  P**:**"^"*  V^ 
at  the  foot  of  the  Mythen,  »»»«*  1»°9 
w  above  the  sea,  with  a  handsome 
iSsh  dmrch  anHn  interesting  town- 
hall.     Pop.  7398.,, 


ialter  ('The  Post-ApoetoT 

('History  of  Greek  Phiiosopliy.  "*ffjj 
in?  ed?ttons  of  the  ClemtntiM  HcUiM, 

Sohweidnitz     ^t'm^L^S^In'ku^ 

on  a  height  above  the  W«lstriti,a» 
mileT  southwest  of  Brjslan.  It»  »"»- 
nfactnres  include  »»c»»lnery.  woolens, 
linens,  furniture,  earthenware,  cajrtages. 
iloves  beer,  and  spirits.  -J*  7"  "'J* 
i    regular    fortress    by    Predcr -^k    "e 

fortifications     were     removed     in     1884.  SoiaCCa  ^^   the  side  of  a  hill   rising 

|op.  (1M6)  80^M0;h^,,„rt).atownof ""  -""  "  "  "  "'  °*" 

S^hweinfnrt  'fii^rff "n  the  Main, 
which  is  apanned  by  two  teidg«.  24  mjjw 
K.  w.  E.  of  WUrxburg.  It  is  P*"''  ■,°'" 
5uV  byold  wafls.  and  was  >ong  ' 


rounded  by  ora  waiw,  »uu  ''-?_'v-"  - 
See  impe^al  city.  It  has  *  bandsome 
town-house  of_1570.  and  a  gymnasium 


town-bouse  or   ioiu.  «"»".?  ••ttT- — >fh» 
fomided    by    Q^-tavus    Adolpjus.  ^e 

Shwcinfurt  Green.    IVeST^''^ 

a.k«,.^.;«     (shvfl-rftn').  the  capital  of 
SclLWenn    ii^klenburg-Schwerln.    on 

'las?^',  s,.rr„°t  s£Siii.i 

§ucal  museum  and  picture-gallery,  and 
S  ir^nal.  The  manufactures  consist 
Sf  machinery,  carriages,  woolen  and  Imen 
cloS:  lacquer  and  earthenware,  etc.    Pop. 

i^l^^'^lshvets).  a  central  canton  of 
SchwyZ     IswUzeiUnd.  bounded  on  the 

.     .       ..       T  -I .c   r/it_:„h   anil  cnnton 


north  by  the  Lake  of  Zttrich  and  canton 

Sf  GajJ  w^t  by  Z««  "°d  Li^^-'^tirrSs- 
by    Lake   Luzern,   and    east    by   <J>arn»  • 
area    353    square    miles.     It    belongs    to 
the  'silled    mountain    cantons     being 
traversed  in  all  directions  by  lofty  hills, 
Sd"S  the  Mythen,  the  Rigl,  the  Ross- 
Srg.  the  Urusberg,  etc..  The  whole  ow- 
ton   belongs  to  the  ^%^\°  '^l,,^,^* JSj 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  »"*»« J^*"! 
TiHiinafl   hv   the   Slhl    and   the   Liaite   oi 
Zarlch:  a  thW.  by  the  Lake  of  Luzem. 
cWefly  by  means  ot  the  Muotta;  and  the 
?5mK,  forming  only  |°  ™*»^'SSf 
portion,  hf  the  Lak?  91  ?&«|-    Tha  cM« 


from  the  shore.  30  miles  w.  K.  w.  of  Glr- 
geirtL     It  is  surrounded  by  old  fortifica- 
tions has  an  old  cathedral,  and  Interest- 
M  mXval  building;  but  the  trade  ia 

.^all.  PoP/Ji^SSj.^t^nus  of  tele- 
SclSena  iSS^^shU'^belonging  to 
the  Acanthopterl,  and  forming  the  type 
of  a  family  — the  Sclenolds.  allied  to 
?he%rch«..  The  most  important  of  the 
«nu^iB  the  8.  aquila,  the  maiffre  of  the 
French,  whos?  chief  h'abitat  is  the  Medl- 

£n:?W  I'^-aWl)-.  a  term  used  in 
SeiatlCa  i^idne  ti  denote  a  rheu- 
matic affection,  in  vvhich  the  pain 
stretches  along  the  course  of  the  great 
Sciatic  ne^e,  that  is,  from  the  hip  along 
?he  back  part  of  the  thigh  towards  the 
him  of  th^e  leg.^  There  \»tlto«f  '^ 
pain,  increased  by  any  change  of  ten^ 
Miature  and  moisture;  there  is  generally 
S^dHng  of  the  limb  at  the  commencement 

oTthe  iseasc,  but  after  'eP««^  »"»^.S 
?he  limb  seems  to  "b"°»^  owing  to  the 
wasting  of  the  muscles.  In  «>me  casM 
rh"art1culation  of  the  hip  «^>J»- "  J«^[^^ 
and   permanent   immobil'ty   of   the  limb 

takes.Place.^,^^,,   „  »««„  „*  Sicily,  pror- 


Si  (^bekle),  a  town  of  Sicily. 
SClOll  i\jj.g  o(  Syracuse.  Pop.  (com- 
mune) IS-^y- .  X  ^  term  applied  to 
Science  the  geniralised  and  systema- 
tlsed  divisions  of  knowledge.  8c  ence  and 
t,hitoTOPhy  resemble  each  other  in  so  far 
as  th~/^thhave  to  do  with  knowl^ge ; 
hut  whitetfae  latter  deals  with  the  whole 
SSi  of  knowledge,  the  former  tel^  up 

S2^ri^r^'^ac2^o*«prlU*S  l^e 
SwtaSohy  Given  a  sufficient  number 
S*'SS5SuS  ftwts.  tb«y  m*.  he  so 


tflititiflft  Tf fmngf?*tfrt 


Soipio  AMetuiii 


vmag*i  ond  clsMifi^d.  by  refarriac  thtm 
to  the  notnl  truths  and  priodplM  on 
wbieh  tMjr  ar*  founded,  •■  to  constitot* 
ft  wtU-ctrtifled  and  mora  or  I«m  complete 
blanch  of  knowlcdce,  that  ia,  •  acMict. 
The  scicucce  are  broadljr  divided  into  pur* 
or  theoretic  eciencea  and  applied  or  prae- 
tleal  aciencet,  the  latter  being  definable  aa 
tlM  knowledge  of  facta,  events,  or  phe- 
nomena as  explained,  accounted  for,  or 
Broduced  by  means  of  powers,  causes,  or 
iws;  the  former  as  the  knowledge  of 
tliese  powers,  causes,  or  laws,  considered 
apart  or  as  pure  from  all  applications. 
To  the  class  of  pure  or  fundamental  sci- 
ences belong  mathematics,  physics,  chem- 
istrv,  psychology,  and  sociology;  to  the 
applied  or  concrete  belong  geology,  min- 
eralogy, botany,  soology,  meteorology,  ge- 
ography, ethica,  politics,  law,  jarispru- 
dence,  logic,  grammar,  riietoric,  philology, 
and  political  economy;  navigation,  en- 
gineering, and  practical  mechanics;  aar- 
gei7,  materia  medica,  etc. 

Soientifio  Management,  ^•,|^"S 

a  system  of  indnstrial  efficiency  worked 
oat  by  Harrington,  Emeraun  and  others. 
The  fimeraon  definition  of  efficiency  is 
'  the  needless  elimination  of  all  needleas 
waates,  in  material,  in  labor  and  equip- 
ment, so  as  to  reduce  costs,  increaae 
profits  and  raise  wai^s.'  Efficiency  aa 
a  adence  came  into  existence  about  1900. 
It  was  first  called  production  engineer' 
ing;  several  years  later  Emerson  christ- 
ened it  efficiency;  and  still  later  E'red- 
erick  W.  Taylor  named  it  adentific  man- 
apement.  There  are  four  factors  that 
tne  efficiency  engineer  must  take  into  ac- 
count— men,  machinery,  methods  and  ma- 
terials. He  tries  to  introduce  person- 
ality into  the  whole  task  of  production 
and  to  choose  the  riitht  man  for  the  work 
aa  well  as  the  right  tool  and  right  ma- 
tnial.  Mental  and  temperamental  aa 
well  aa  physical  diflferences  are  taken  into 
aeoooBt  Professor  Hugo  Mfinsterbertt 
of  Harvard,  has  made  important  dii> 
coveries  in  the  psychological  prindples 
underlying  efficiency. 

SciUy  Islands  ffi^  fif-,p  ^ 

longing  to  England,  forming  part  of  the 
county  of  Cornwall,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  English  Channel,  abont  30  miles  west 
by  south  of  Land's  End.  The  islands 
have  an  area  of  4000  acres,  mainly  de- 
voted to  flora  cnlture.  Pop.  2002. 
Selxnitar  (slm'i-tar),  a  kind  of  swnrd 
MVAuuM»A  jjj  jj^  among  eastern  na- 
tions, vnie  Uade  ia  nearly  aemidrcnlar 
in  form,  with  the  edge  npon  the  convex 
dde.  Thla  form,  while  Ul  adapted  for 
throating^  ia  well  adapted  for  strikiiig. 


OMti  or  Bkio  (rt'o:  akfO;  aadaf 
^^^*  OMea).  aa  island  ia  tte  JDmm 
gka,  separatad  from  tlia  ooaat  of  Jyria 
Mtaior  fay  a  chaanal  not  mora  than  T 
aiUaa  wmo  whart  narrowaat,  and  abovt 
B8  mUes  waat  of  Bmyma.  It  to  of  a 
■omawhat  qoadrangnlar  form,  82  mllaa 
long  from  north  to  aoath,  with  a  naaa 
breadth  of  about  12  milea;  area,  820 
square  milea.  The  surface  ochibita  a 
number  of  limeatone  rldgM,  aeparatad 
from  each  other  by  verdant  and  fertUo 
vaileya.  There  are  no  perennial  atreama ; 
bat  an  abundant  aapMy  of  water  to  ob- 
tained from  wella.  The  prindpal  prod- 
acta  are  wine,  oU,  cotton,  ailk,  orangea, 
and  other  fraita,  and  mora  eapedaDy 
mastic.  Tha  quantity  of  cereato  Is  Tsr^r 
limited.  Pop.  (induding  a  large  nam* 
bar  of  Turks),  about  00,000.  Before  tba 
war  of  Oreak  independence  Sdo  waa  peo- 

Gled  almost  entirely  by  Greeka,  of  whom 
irge  numbera  were  maasacred  by  tba 
Turka  after  their  sabjngation  in  1822. 
Seio  contenda  for  the  honor  of  liaving 
given  birth  to  Homer.  It  poaaeaaea  tew 
antiouities.  In  April,  1881,  the  idand 
suffered  much  from  repeated  ahocka  of 
earthquake.  The  island  belonged  to  Tnr^ 
key  until  June  18,  1914,  wfien  it  was 
formally  annexed  by  Greece. 
fUvin  or  Kastbo,  the  chief  town  of  the 
^*'*"»  island  Sdo,  situated  near  the 
middle  of  the  eaat  coast  carries  a  eon- 
aiderable  trade.    Pop.  14JS0O. 

Scioppins  te^'fe-'cU'T^ 

man  theological  controverdaliat,  bom  in 
1576.  He  renounced  Protestantism  abont 
1590,  and  the  whole  of  hto  anbaeqnent 
career  waa  marked  by  venomona  attacks 
on  his  former  co-reli|^onists.  Tbe  JMuits 
likewise  came  in  for  a  ahare  of  hto  hate. 
Hia  rancoroua  life  terminated  in  1049. 
Hia  works  include  De  Arte  Oritioa,  BU- 
menta  PhUoeophia,  Stoiea  MoraUa,  Pora- 
ioma  Literaria^  and  Ruiimemto  Oramm*' 
Hea  PhUoaophtote. 

Scioto  (n-^'tO).  a  river  of  Ohio,  with 
"^  a  general  southerly  course,  its 

length  about  225  milea,  and  flowing  into 
the  Ohio  River  at  Portsmouth  by  a  mouth 
150  yarda  wide.  It  to  navigable  for 
boats  about  130  milea.  Its  valley  to  one 
of  the  richeat  and  beat  cultivated  por- 
tiona  of  the  atate. 

SdpioAfricanng  ^H-^)^  '^  ■ 

uuB  CkORXLiua  Some  ArmoAsm  Ma- 
job,  one  of  the  most  illnstrions  of 
B<mian  warrlora,  waa  bom  abont  286 
&C.  At  the  battle  of  the  Tidnna  againat 
the  Carthaginiaas  in  218  B.O.  he  to  aaid 
to  have  saved  the  life  of  hto  father.  Two 
fwn  lator  h»  waa  one  of  the  few  iriM 


Beipio  Afrieanvi 


•diMr-Ull 


Meap«d  tnm  tb»  fatal  battla  of  Ovum, 

tka  NOMiaa  of  tht  dcftatad  army  and 
aavlBffBooM.    la  212  M.  te  waa  naani* 
nouly  atoctad  adUa,  and  a  ftw  jrMia 
•ftar  waa  appoiatad  proeona^  in  Bpain. 
Hla   fliat   aoccMatal   antorpriaa   of    Un- 
portanea    waa    tha    coDqnaat    of    New 
CarUiaga.  tha  ■tfonahold  of  tha  Carthi^ 
liniana  fa  Spain.    Tha  next  yaar   (209 
ESTsclpio  totally  defaatad  fiaadnibal, 
BannOial'a  brother,  and  aabaecmently  a 
f  raah  army,  led  by  Mago  and  Haadrobal 
the  aon  of  Giaco.    The  reaalt  waa  to  drive 
tha  Carthat'"'«"»  wholly  from  Bpain,  and 
Sdpio  waa  empowered  to  Iwd  an  army 
agalnat  Carthaie   hereelf.    The  Cartha- 
Aiana  recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy  to 
Ifrica.  where  the^  areatbattle  of  Zama. 
foo^  October    19,    202   M.,^  reaolted 
in  tha  total  defeat  of  the  CarthaginiaM, 
who.  on  the  advice  of  Hannibal,  wught 
for  peace.    On  hia  return  to  Rome  Scipio 
waa  honored   with  a,  triumph,   and   re- 
ceived the  anmame  of  AfHcanua.    After 
thia   he   diacharged,    in    a   pralaeworthy 
manner,  the  oiBce  of  cenaor ;  but  loat  the 
favor  alike  of  the  old  Roman  party  and 
the  new.    After  the  aoccenfol  cl<ge  of 
the  war  with  Antiochna,  king  of  Bvria, 
in  B.O.  189,  Scipio  retired  into  private 
life.    He  waa  not  long  permitted  to  reet, 
however,   without   experiencing    the   en- 
mity of  a  party  in  the  atate  who  were 
boatile  to  him.    Flret  hla  brother  Luclua 
waa  imprlaoned  and  hia  property  conQB- 
eated,  on  an  alleged  charge  of  mUwonduct 
in  hla  dealinga  with  Antiochua.    Tbla  waa 
followed  up  by  chargea  brought  againat 
Selpio  himaelf.    When  his  trial  came  on 
he  made  no  reoly  to  these  chargea,  but 
merely  narrated  all  that  he  had  done  for 
the   republic,  and   reminding   them  that 
thla  waa   the  anniversary  of  the  battle 
of  Zama,  called  upon  the  people  to  follow 
him  to  the  Capitol,  there  to  return  thanks 
to  the  immortal  gods,  and  pray  that  they 
would  grant  the  Roman  state  other  citi- 
cena  like  himself.    The  people  Immediately 
followed  him,  leaving  the  accusers  alone 
in  the  forum.    Scipio  immediately  quitted 
Rome,  and  retired  to  bis  villa  at  Litei> 
num,  where  he  died,   it   is  believed,  in 
B.C.  IML  the  same  year  as  his  great  op- 
ponent HannibaL  ■ir^„«„« 

Scip'io  Af rica'mis,  JSJuTcSl 

KBLroa  Scipio  iBjtiUANus  Afmcawus 
MiMOB,  son  of  L.  .aJmniua  Paullus.  the 
eoDoneror  of  Macedonia,  and  adopted  son 
of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio.  the  son  of  Scipio 
Africanoa  Malor,  waa  bom  about  187  b.0. 
In  a.c.  182  he  accompanied  the  consul 
Lucina  Liclnius  Lucullus  to  Snain  as  mil- 
Uacy  trtttaaa,  aad  ia  B.0.  149,  on  tha 


ootbtaak  of  tha  third,  Paak  war.  ooat- 
BMBdad  la  Africa  aadar  tha  aaaaol  M. 
liaalioa   Napoa.    Hia  aanriew  wwa  w 
Importaat  that  ia  a.a  147,  opattin  to  , 
tha  vanal  coatoat,  aot  baiaf  of  tha  iatai 
ag^  ha  waa  nnanimonaly  eboaaa  cflttrai 
ai^  leader  of  tha  foreea  againat  tba  Oar- 
thaginiana.    In  B.a  146  ha  took  aad  by 
command  of  tha  aenata  burned  Oartbaga, 
for  which  he  waa  honored  with  a  tri- 
amph  at  Roma  and  with  tha  aumama  of 
AMeanut.    In  b.0.  142  ha  waa  alactod 
cenaor,  and  in  ax.  184  entered  on  hia 
second  conaulship.  in  order  to  put  an  end 
to  the  war  with  NumantU  ta  Spain.    For 
hia  conqueat  of  thia  powerful  dty  a  tri- 
umph  waa   decreed   to    Scipio,   and    ha 
received    the    surname    of  yiumwtlmma. 
In  the  laat  yeara  of  hia  life  he  made  him- 
self many  enemiea  among  the  people  by 
oppoaing   the   measures   of   the   popular 
pam.  and  especially  the  agrarkn  law 
of  llberiua  Gracchus,  of  which  Papirioa 
Carbo,  and  Calus  Gracchua,  the  trlbonea 
of  the  people,  were  the  great  supportara. 
He  waa  found  dead  in  his  bed  to  BA 
129,   Carbo   beinc   auapected   of   haying 
murdered  him.    He  was  a  friend  of  Po- 
lybiua,  tba  hiatorian,  and  a  patron  of 

siSTfaoiai  S^Se  Z^^Ui^y-. 

a  Judicial  writ  to  enforce  the  execatioa 
of  Judgments,  etc.,  directed  againat  a 
penion  who  is  called  upon  to  show  cauae 
why  something  should  not  be  done  mi 
behalf  of  the  party  in  whoae  intereat  tiie 
writ  ia  iasued.    The  writ  ia  now  of  Uttia 


practical  importance. 

Sdrpns.  ■«*•* 


MmkmA. 


a^i'mmltrtm  (akir'us),  or  Habd  Cakobb, 
SOirrniU  ji,  the  m<it  frequent  variety 
of  cancer.  It  baa  ita  seat  sometimes  in 
the  stomach,  rectum,  and  elsewhere;  but 
by  far  most  frequentiy  it  atUcln  the 
fmale  breast  If  detected  In  time  it  can 
be  removed  from  the  breast  with  every 
prospect  of  succesa.  ^ 

Sciswr-biU  ^e^uWlKridi^U'; 

80  named  from  the  posseaaion  of  an  elon- 
gated beak  of  compressed  form,  the  lower 
mandible  exceeding  the  upper  one  in 
length,  and  abutting  into  the  Tatter  «>me- 
what  after  the  fashion  that  the  blade  of 
a  knife  doea  Into  Its  handle.  Thla  cnriooa 
beak  Is  of  an  oranjje  color  at  ita  baafe. 
and  black  at  ita  tip.  The  bird,  which 
inhabits  the  coasto  of  America  and  Afnca. 
Is  a  dark  broam  on  tha  upper  aspect  of 
the  head  and  body;  the  mider  anrteoe 
white,  and  a  band  of  white  acroaa  the 
winga.  The  average  loigth  of  tha  aciaaor 
biU  ia  aboat  li  foot. 


MaifmHtk 


oOOipUNI 


SoUTonia.   «~««««»^ 


ealM  f ran  tlM  pnuitlM  o(  dnwiaf  tlw 
b»r  thtouffa  all  tb«  Mrta.       ^^^^ 

Sokrodermio  and  Solerobtiio  Sooreiby  i^^Vinto^f'bllm  S 

Croptoo.  Yortohlrt.  la,  lji».    U«  oMd* 


Coral, 


tiM  two  gnat  varltUw  of  coral- 
lam,  or  coral  rabaUoc*  (mo 
Coral)  oecratod  by  tho  AetinoMM.  or 
hUhMt  group  of  colentonto  orguUms. 

Sclerotic  Coat.  ^ '^ 


hfaTlrit'TOjriigM  with  hte  fatlitr.  a  dariag 
Mfoi  conunander  io  eoiuMctlOB 


and  attccoaafaj r-;— -  .. fcri  - 

with  the  northern  wbalo-Bahwy.    Darlag 

tho  wlntar  montha  whoa  tha  vmmI  waa  la 

port,  ha  attaodad  daaaea  la  Ediabnnh 

u^t^^A^    riko-l«'al-da).   Hnzley'a  Unlvaraltjr.    Oa^  the   reaigaaUoa  of  ua 


claaa  of  ananloida,  eompriaing  tha  Pta- 
t^lmia,  or  flat-worma:  yematelmi;  or 
ronad-wonna ;  and  Rotitera,  or  wheel- 
animalculea.  The  Platyelmla  indada  tha 
ordera  r««ifaAi  ( Upe-wonna) ,  Tremalodo, 
or  flnkea,  aad  TvrhetlarUi  (noa-paraaitic 
forms  each  aa  Planaria  and  Nemertidaas) ; 
the  Nematelmia  are  repreaeated  by  the 
ordera  AemmthoceptMla  (thora-haaded 
worma),  Gordiaoea,  or  hair-worma,  aad 
Nemotoim,  or  rouad-worms.  The  Roti- 
fera  are  noa-paraaitic,  free  orgaaiama, 
which  differ  in  many  respects  from  the 
rest  of  the  Scoiecida.  The  Bcolecida  are 
characterised  by  the  poasesaion  of  a  wa- 
ter-vaacalar  aystem,  consisting  of  a  re- 
markable set  of  vessels  which  communi- 
cate with  the  exterior  by  one  or  more 
aperturea  situated  upon  the  surface  of 
tbe  body,  and  branch  out,  more  or  less 
extensively,  into  its  substance.  The  aerv- 
ous  system  (whea  present)  consists  of 
(me  or  two  closely  approximated  naglii. 

Scolopaoid»  ffii-;*-^*'b?Ft 

which  tha  aalpa  aad  woodcock  beloac. 
Scolopendra.     8eeCe»«peda  aad  If  ,^ 

Scolopendrinm.    S^  Bart',.tongne. 

Scomber.     ^^  MaehereL 

Saoha  (akSn),  New,  a  viUaae  of  Scot- 
°*'"^'  laad,  2  milea  w.iu  of  Perth,  oa 
the  Tky.  The  village  of  New  Scone  con- 
talna  1686  inhabitants.  Of  Old  Bcone 
the  principal  remains  are  a  market-cross. 
Its  ancient  abbey,  in  which  the  kings  of 
Scotland  were  wont  to  be  crowned  on 
the  stone  of  destiny,  now  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  is  only  represented  by  inconaid- 
eraUa  rolna. 

SAAnoa  (skO'paa),  an  eminent  sculptor 
OOOpa*  j^j  architect  of  ancient  Greece, 
bekmging  to  the  islaad  of  Paros,  flour- 
ished about  880-850  B.O.,  a  coatemponry 
of  Praxiteles.  He  was  reallj  a  coamo- 
poUtaa  artist  in  the  Gredaa  Statea. 


Through  iaformatioa  commuaicated  by 
him  to  Sir  Joseph  Baaka,  tha  govaranMfit 
waa  laduced  la  1817  to  fit  out  aa  axpa«* 
tloa  uader  Sir  Joha  Roaa  to  diacover  tha 
aorthweat  passage.  la  1820  ,Captaia 
Bcoreaby  publiahed  a  work  aatltled  A» 
AoeouHt  of  the  Arctic  JZeyioM,,  witt  a 
Bkiorw  aad  Description  of  the  Northern 
Whote-fieherv,  which  eaubliahad  bia  rapa* 
Ution  aa  oaa  of  tha  moat  orlgiaaJ  <^ 
serven  aad  acieatlfie  aavteaton  of  tba 
day.  It  waa  followed  la  IffiS  by  a  Jowr- 
not  of  a  Votfoae  to  the  Northern  Whtle- 
fitheni,  indudwa  Reeeorchet  end  Ditcov- 
eriee  on  the  Eaetem  Coett  of  Weet 
Greenland.  About  tbe  same  time  ba 
quitted  the  whale-fishing.  In  182*  ba 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  afterwarda  entered  the  ministry.  aM 
filled  aeveral  paatoratea,  dying  Blarch  21, 
1857.  Throughout  bia  life  ha  had  a 
keen  intereat  in  acieatlfie  iaveatigatloo, 
eapecially  la  that  of  aiaiaetism  aad  tta 
relatioa  to  aavigatioa.  Varioua  traatkM 
wera  published  by  him,  afterwarda  col- 
lected under  the  title  of  Jf aone^eol  la* 
veet^tione.  He  alao  publiahed  Th* 
FnHUelin  Etpedition,  aad  other  worka. 

Scorpion  i5£trS?\u^"'SU! 

nida  (which  indudea  alao  the  apidera)  —- 
order  Arthrogaatra  or  Pedipalpi,  tba 
largaat  of  their  class.  Scorpions  have  aa 
elongated  body,  aoddanly  termlaated  by  a 


Seorplons. 
X,  BiOkut  MattcAW.     2,  Seorvio  Cmtat. 

fi/t^M    (akfir),   in   music   tha  origiaal  loag  aleodttr  tall  formed  of  six  jointa,  tha 
^'^^^    dnn^t,  or  its  tranacript,  of  a  laat  of  which  termiaatea  la  aa  arcuated 

■ 'and  vary  acnta  stlag,  which,  effuses  a 

vuKaaooa  liqald.    Thla  ating  gives  rise  to 
•vradatiBg  paia,  bat  la  usually  oaa^ 


muaioal  compodtkui,  with  tbe  puta  for 
ar>  tba  different  voioea  or  iaatromenta 
arranged  aad  plac««  bi  ju^atiuaiaua  t  «n- 


8oorpUm-flih 


tandtd  dthMT  wtth^NteMi  «»  ■w«|tt«g 
•iMpt  in  th«  thuidi.  o<  thj  tm-pit  or 
«e!n.  It  to  vtrjr  mMobb.  If  tw,  total 
to  BUUB.  Tht  aaUui  bM  four  puin  of 
Umlw  boTM  by  th»  thona  of  ^Mt  — 


Bootof 

of  feiCtPO  IWNBbllBf  tbOM  of  tbo  Mr> 
win^Wboa  «t  tm  tbto  tail  to  eprM 
ovM  tbo  bMk.  bat  wb«i  irrlt^tod  tb4 

(Orctpo   »»    OMd    M    WMPOU    of    OftBM 

_       or  dtttBMi 

?S:i.'wJ  tK  mMiitoq,p.ipi  ({wn.  SeorpioB-iheU,  {K.hStaof  «StaK 

giwteropodotM  bwIIoms,  belonciBf  to  tbo 
fMDili  M^uoBbklii,  (ron  tbt  pnimMtf 
■Pisco  witb  wbicb  tbt  tbelto  ore  prorldod. 
Tbcoo  ibolto  or*  also  Ihwwb  by  tbo  naine 
of  •  ipidor^belto  •  for  tbo  iomo  reMoo. 
Tboy  «ro  ebtolly  found  in  tbo  Indiui  and 
CbioMo  teao.  ,    .  _^ 

Soononera  Jf'^'jS-t'.'^^^'tS.rr 

ordor  Ck>mpotlt»,  lubordor  Cblcorocaa, 
witb  yellow  and  occaolonaJIjr  rote-colored 
flovora.  Tbo  tpeciet,  wblch  aro  nvmtr- 
oof,  art  cblefly  Indigenous  to  Boutbem 
Europe  and  the  Bast.  Tbe  common  tcor. 
lonera  (8.  Bitpaniea),  a  native  of  Spain 
and  tbe  toutb  of  Enroptr  baa  Imif  beta 
cultivated  in  EnglUb  kitcben-gardeni  foi 
Ita  edible  roots,  which  are  carrot-^ped. 
but  small  and  dark-colored,  though  pure 
wbitt  within.  Tbty  potsess  cooling  and 
antifebrile  properties,  and  are  said  to  be 
oftra  highly  beneBctol  in  caaes  of  indiges- 
tlmi  or  biliousness.  The  name  vipers 
grass  is  sometimes  given  to  thto  plant, 
either  from  the  shape  of  the  root,  or 
from  its  supposed  properties  of  curug 
■nake-bitea.  S.  4ebcioia  is  a  species 
much  cultivated  as  an  esculent  at 
Palermo. 


of   tooeb  bttonfiag  to  tiM  naxilto  or 
toaatr  Jaws)   art^rply  dmloptd,  and 
eoaatltatt  a  formldabto  pair  of  nipniog 
daws.    With  tbeot  ctows  tb»  stht  Oiolr 
to«*^  ?"»•  S>^^  *•  afterwards  W»f»  by 
tbt  atlnf.    Tbt  eyes,  which  art  of  tbo 
■iBpto  Und,  number  all.  tight,  or  two  v^ 
Tbt  ftmalt  scorpions  art  said  to  tsbibit 
■TMit  cart  for  their  young,  and  cawy 
fbtn  on  their  backa  for  several  dais  after 
btinf    batcbtd,    whito    tbty    tend    tbtm 
eartrally  for  about  a  month,  whtn  tbty 
aro  ablt  to  shift  for  themselves.    Bcoij 
pions  generally  live  In  dark  plawa,  and 
ttsdtr  stones.    They   are   found   In    the 
south  of  Europe,  in  Africa.  In  tbe  East 
Indies,  and   in   South  America,  several 
genera    (Androctoiiae,   etc)    being  com- 
prised   within    tbe    order.    The    Butkut 
9fer,  or  rock  scorpion    (wWch  ttt)    of 
Afrkaris  one  of  the  moot  familtor  spe- 
cies.   The  acorpions  aro  first  repreoented 
In   a  fossil   state   In  the,  carboniferous 
period.    The    bo<*    scorpions    (Chelife- 
rid»),  of  which  a  common  species  Is  the 
Ckeltfer  Wideri,  art  so-named  .from  their 
prettnting  a  close  resemblance  inputward 
tonn  to  tbe  true  scorpions.    The  book 
scorpions  are.  however,  much  nnaller.  and 
art  included  In  another  group  (Tneke- 
oHa)  of  tbe  class  Aracbnida.  while  tbey 
want  the  J9»nted  tail  of  the  true  scor- 
pions.   They  are  generally  found  living 
among  old  books,  and  feed  on  the  mtaute 
instcta  wbicb  also  inhabit  such  situations. 

bCOrpKm-rin,  (Scorpana),  a  gwius 
or  teleostean  (acanthopterooa)  fiaheo.  be- 
longing to  the  TriglidiB  or  gurnard  fam- 
UyT  The  first  dorsal  fin  possessee  eleven 


CUnf      (Aot).    BCOtKALD    or    RKTIfOLD, 

'»*'"*  one  of  the  first  and  boldest 
writers  against  the  belief  in  witehcrmft, 
alchemy,  astrology,  and  other  prevalent 
superstitions  of  We  time,  a  younger  am 
of  Sir  John  Scot  of  ScoUhall.  in  Kent; 
bom  in  tbe  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century.    He    studied    at    Oxford,    and 

rt  his  life  in  the  study  of  old  and 
ure  mystical  authors,  and  the  pleajj- 
ures  of  gardening,  until  bis  death  in  loW. 
Tbe  work  on  wbicb  his  reputation  is 
founded  to  entitled  The  Dtaeovvrie  of 
WUehcnft,  r.nd  '<^«',P«}>»«hed  In  IBM. 
By  order  of  James  I  tht  first  edition  of  tbo 
book  was  burned  by  tbt  common  hangman, 
and  tho  king  replied  to  it  in  hto  Demon- 


spines,  tbe  second  dorsal  possessing  one 
winy  ray  and  nine  or  ten  soft  i«ys. 
The  anal  fin  is  short,  and  has  three 
spines  and  five  soft  rays.  The  red  scor- 
pion-fish (ficorpano  acrofo)  to  a  tamii- 
iar  form.    Tbe  spotted  scorplon-flsb   (S. 

sSorpioii-lly  iSc"srciiir".J5 

order  Neuroptera.  or  that  of  tlie  draaon- 
flits.  Tbe  name  scorpion-fiy  is  denved 
from  the  appendages  seen  attached  to  the 
abdomen  of  some  species.  Tbe  malt  m 
tht  conunon  species,  for  example,  baa  tbo 
■ixtb  and  aeventb  jointa  of  the  abdomen 
■ttmoatad,  and  capable  of  extensive  mo- 
tion; wUIt  tht  last  j^t  forma  a  p«ur 


others. 


Soot  and  lot,  gpiSJ  SfiLa^lTS 

the  payment  of  parish  assessment  accord- 
ing to  ability.  In  certain  Engltoh  bw- 
ooghs  persons  paying  sucb  aiasssmenta 
voted  f(H>  members  of  ParliuatDt. 
Onnt^r  (rtft'tar).  or  StJiir  Doer 
SW*®*  (OMemte),  a  genus  of  s«. 
ducks.    Tbt  moat  tamiUar  vtotoa  to  tbt 


Sootiitt. 
Scotland 


U^Mb ^ 

MftMM  Of  black  "eotw^  (Ol***'^)' 
tbraJTth*  bill  Md  !«•  bdoc^tbt 

WMiUi  on  tti  (IotmI  nirfac*  by  •  Imt 
•Toranm  color.  Tbto  bird  •*•»!«  tbo 
St^'dock  In  •1m:  .nd  tbt  «•«&-"• 
eoiortd  of  ft  d«rk-brown  hoc    It  occOTj 

Amrican  fl^ei  of  coot  to  known  m 
•urf-dnck.      ^  ^^^  ^^  ^  g^^^ 

ttiMtm.  ^. 

(•kotland),  tho  nortbern 
division  of  th*  Wand  of 
OrMt  Britain,  betwjtn  tot.  64*  Sff  and 
68*  40*  8(r  i». ;  and  Ion.  l*  *0  "od  6 
8'  W  w.  It  to  leparated  from  Engtond 
•ubatantially  by  the  Solway,  tba  Cbarlot 
hllto,  and  tha  Tweed,  tba  bordar  totbmna 
being  about  00  miles  acroaa;  tbougb  tba 
Irrcgtttor  boundary,  llna  maaanraa  folly 
100  milaa.  On  all  other  aldaa  it  to 
bounded  by  the  sea.  The.  greateat  length, 
from  M.H.B.  to  a.  a.  w.,  between  I>w«jt 

Head  and  the  Mull  <>«  0«"«''»I  JV.^ 
miles.  The  breadth  varies  from  140  miles 
to  less  than  80,  the  latter  in  the  north, 
between  Dornoch  Firth  and  I^h  Broom. 
Few  points  in  the  mainland  are  mora 
than  40  miles  from  the  sea,  the  country 
being  so  much  penetrated  by  Inlets,  ina 
country  was  formerly  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  dUtricta.  many  of  the  names  or 
which  are  still  familiar,  such  as  Lothian, 
Twe<<ldale.  Galloway,  Breada  bane,  eta, 
but  for  political  purposes  it  is  now 
dividid  into  thirty-three  ■bires  or  coun- 
ties, the  totol  population  in  1911  being 

4.^0445. 

Four  towns,  Edinburgh  (the  capitol), 
Olatgow,  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen,  each 
contain  upwards  of  100,000  Inhabitanta. 
Among  the  more  important  of  the  other 
towns  are  Greenock.,Palsley,  Perth,  In- 
vemeas,    Stirling,   Kilmarnock,    and   Bt. 

Andrewa.  — .      .  .     j       * 

if  land*  and   Coo««f.— The  tolands   of 
Scotland  are  said  to  number  altogether 
nearly   800.    On   the  northeaat   are  the 
two   laree   groups   of    the   Orkneys   and 
Shetlands,   and    on   the   west   coast   the 
islands  are  large  and  numerous,  including 
the  Hebrides,  which  extend  for  200  miles 
from  north  to  south.    The  west  coast  of 
the  mainland  is  generally  a  wild,  deeply- 
indented     mountain-wall,     presenting     a 
series  of  Inleta  or  sea  lochs,  while  towards 
tha  middle  the  coast  is  cleft  by  two  great 
inleta   with   openings   to   the   sonthweat, 
the  Firth  of  Lorn  and  its  cpntinnation 
Loch  linnhe,  and  the  Firth  of  Clyde  and 
ita  ramifieattmia  running  far  inland,    rnta 
•aat  coast  to  smnetimas  low  and  aardy, 
birt  to  often  formed  of  atttif  t*tkj  cUn 


SooibBi 


of  eoMMarabto  atovatloB,^th«  ekM  liUM 
balBff  tha  rirtba  of  Forth  anl  Tajr^jad 
tSrilcray  Firtb   «>oo«ity  Flith.  ate 


ttur/aoaV'  Be 
•f  tba  aarfaea 


•a  tba  caoBcanitloB 
a  taolotfcal  atnw> 


tnra  tba  cooatry  ^...daa  into  tbrea.  divt> 
atona,  tha.  BigbtoMto, 


,  Oantral  Lowtowla. 

uu   BoutbanT  Uptooda.    Tha   Hlgbtond 
divtoloB  to  ranarkabia  for  tba  nnmbar  and 
etovatlon  of  Ito  moontaln-maaaaa,  many 
of  tba  aummita  being  over  4000  feat  high. 
Tba  mouataina  beat  known  by  naoM  art 
tba  Orami^a,  wbkb  form  a  ayatam  or 
series  of  maaaea  covering  a  large  area,  and 
culminating  on   the  weat  coaat  in   »« 
Nevia,  44(»  feet,  high.    Tba  Oramptona 
and  tbair  connactlooa  are  aemiratad  frMi 
the  monntalna  farther  to  the  north  by 
Gtonmora  or  the  Great  Glen  of  Scottond, 
a  remarkable  daprasaion  atretcbing  «aita 
across  tba  country  from  sea  to  ata,  and 
forming,  by  tba  aeriea  of  lakea  occnpytng 
it  anTtha  Caledonton  Canal  conna««nf 
them,  a  waterway  from  »»»•  *««^««J?* 
to  tha  eaat    Tba  Soothem  Uplanda  «• 
also   essenttolly   a   moontainooa   ragUM, 
summits  of  over  2000  feet  being  freqaant. 
though  none  exceed  8000  feet  above  tha 
sea.    The  central   region,   though   muck 
less  elevated  than  the  other  two  divtoiona, 
baa  none  of  the  monotony  usual  In  flat 
countriea.    Though   occupying   not   mora 
than  a  aiith  of  the  whole  surface,  tha 
fertility  of  the  aoil  and  ita  nilneral  tma- 
urea  make  thto  part  by  far  the  waalthieat 
and  moat  popufpus. 

Riven  wi  L«*e«.— Tha  chief  rlTara 
flow  (roughly  apeaking)  to  the  aaat,  and 
enter  the  German  Ocean,  the  torgaat  bj- 
ing  tba  Tweed,  Forth,  Tay,  South  E^ 
North   Eak.   Dee,   Don,   Deveron,   Spey, 
Findhom.  etc. ;   those   entering   tba  aa« 
on  the  weat  are  the  Clyde,  Ayr.  Dow, 
Dee,  Nith,  Annan,  and  Eak.    Tba  Tm 
carriea  to  the  aea  a  torger  qoanUty  of 
water   than   any   river   in   Britain,   bat 
neither  it  nor  moat  of  the  othera,  excei^ 
when  they  form  eatuaries,  are  of  muck 
use  for  navli^tlon.    The  Clyde,  however, 
in  iU  lower  courae  carriea  a  vast  traOc, 
thto  being   rendered   poasible   chiefly   by 
dredging.    Many  of  the  rivers  are  valu- 
able from  the  numbers  of  salmon  they 
produce.    A  atriking  feature  of  the  coun- 
try to  the  great  multitude  of  lakn,  vary- 
ing  in  aize  from  Loch  Lomond  (28  square 
n^ea)    to  the  pool-Uke  mountain  tama. 
In  ♦he  Northern  Highlanda  almoat  every 
glen    -aa  its   lake  and   every   mountain 
Bollo„  to  fllled  by  a  stream  or  •PHng.     . 
Otology.—  Aa  regarda  f  eology  the  older 
cr  paUeosok:   rocks   predon^nag  flntoat 
everywhere  in  Scotland.    The  Highlands 
are  compoaed  almoat  entirely  of  crystalUM 
scbista,  gnetoa,  and  quarttitea;  tba  Omr 


iPimipw 


SooUftiid 


SoofUnd 


a 
ii 

8 

oi 
U 


SI 

Is 


ttt 

tl8 


tnl  Lowlands  of  old  nd  wndttone,  car- 
boniftrona  and  Panaian  atrau:  tba 
Soutbcrn  Uplands  mostly  of  rocks  of 
Silurian  age.  In  cerUin  localities  re- 
mains of  secondary  formations  are  repre- 
sented over  small  spaces,  while  volcanic 
rocks  cover  considerable  areas.  Granite 
exists  in  freat  masses  in  manv  localitiM, 
and  in  some  parts  is  extensively  quarried. 
The  most  valuable  mineral  ret  ion  is  the 
Central  Lowlands,  where  coal  and  iron 
e^rist  in  such  quantity  as  to  make  this 
one  of  the  most  important  mineral  fields 
of  Qreat  Britain.  „    , 

For  Agriculture,  Manufaoturet,  Trade, 
ate.,  see  Britain. 

iariculture   and   Manufaeturee. —  The 
climate  in   the  w.  and   a.   is  mild  but 
humid:  in  the  central  elevated  regions, 
chilly  aikd  humid;  in  the  eastern  plains 
and  Lowlands,  more  genial.    In  the  Low- 
lands the  aummer  ia  not  so   warm  as 
that  of  England,  but  the  winter,  on  the 
whole,  ia  milder  and  the  climate  is  salu- 
brioua.    But  agriculture  does  not  flour- 
ish in  Scotland  generally,  on  account  of 
the  nned  character  of  its  surface,  onlv 
about  one-fourth  of  it  being  under  culti- 
vation.   The  principal  cereals   are  oaU 
and   barley.    little   wheat   being   grown. 
Potatoes,  turnips  and  beans  are  largely 
cultivated,  and  sheep-raishig  is  a  leading 
feature  of  rural  industry.    The  leading 
minerals  are  coal,   iron,  and  oil-shales, 
coal  being  much  the  largest  in  yield.    The 
fisheries  are  a  great   source  of   wealth 
to  the  Scottish  people,  the  surrounding 
seas  teeming  with  herring,  haddock,  cod 
and  other  firii,  while  salmon  freguent  the 
rivers.    Manufacturing    industries    have 
greatly    developed    witliin    recent    times, 
Scotluid  having  become  one  of  the  im- 
portant manu£acturing  countries  of  Eu- 
rope.   The  most  important  of  its  indus- 
tries are  those  of  textiles  and  iron  and 
■teel  producta.    The  Clyde  leads  in  the 
shipbuilding  industry  of  the  world,  there 
are   great    iron-works    in   Glasgow   and 
aome  other  cities,  while  cotton  is  largely 
manufactured  in  Glasgow,  linen  and  jute 
in  Dundee,  and  cotton-thread  in  Paisley. 
Other    laige    faidustries   are    distilleries, 
breweries,     and     chemicals.    Edinburgh, 
the  capital,  ia  one  of  the  leading  publish- 
ing centers  of  the  world.    The  principal 
aeaporta  are  Glasgow  (the  second  city  in 
aise   in    the    British    empire),    Dundee, 
Aberdeen  and  Greenock. 

OiM  Hietorp. — The  country  now 
ealled  Scotland  first  became  known  dar- 
faig  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain, 
tlwogh  for  many  centuries  little  is  known 
of  its  hktory.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
earliaat  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  a 
MWbllag  th«  IbarlaBs.  uul  typified 


now  by  the  Baaques.  A  Celtic  people 
seem  subsequmtly  to  have  entered  the 
country,  and  to  have  gained  predomi- 
nance. The  descendants  of  the  Caledon- 
ians, as  the  people  north  of  the  Forth 
and  Clyde  we^-e  called  by  the  Eomana, 
were  afterwards  called  Picts,  and  were 
the  predominant  people  in  North  Britain 
at  the  beKinninc  of  the  sixth  century, 
when  a  colony  of  Scots  or  Dalriads  from 
Ireland  effected  a  settlement  in  Argyle, 
and  gradually  spread  over  the  adjacmt 
regions.  It  is  from  these  Scots  (a  Celtic 
and  Gelic-speaking  people)  that  the  Mun- 
try  afterwards  received  the  name  of  Scot- 
land, the  original  Scotland  (Scotia)  be- 
ing Ireland.  The  Teutonic  element  wai 
introduced  into  Scotland  as  eariy  as  the 
fourth  century,  when  Iwnds  from  North 
Germany  seem  to  have  formed  settlementi 
on  the  east  coast  south  of  the  Firth  ol 
Forth;  and  this  part  of  the  country  wai 
subsequently  united  to  the  Anglian  king- 
dom of  Northumbria,  which  extended  from 
the  Forth  to  the  Humber.  To  the  west  ol 
this  kingdom,  from  Dumbarton  to  th< 
Solway  and  into  England,  extended  th< 
khigdom  of  Strathclyde  or  Cumbria,  in 
habited  by  Romanised  Britons. 

About  the  middle  of  the  ninth  centur] 
Kenneth  MacAlpin,  a  chief  of  both  Scoi 
and  Pict  descent,  founded  a  kingdon 
comprising  Central  Scotland,  with  Scon< 
as  capital,  the  north  of  43cotland  lieini 
mostly  under  independent  chiefs,  or  ma 
ormors.  The  reigns  of  Kenneth  and  hii 
immediate  successors,  Donald  I,  C!onstan 
tine  I,  Grig,  Donald  II.  Oonstantine  II 
Malcolm  I,  Kenneth  II,  Malcolm  II 
Duncan  and  Macbeth,  were  one  continue< 
acene  of  warfare  with  the  Norsemen  oi 
one  hand  and  with  the  Britons  of  Strath 
Clyde  and  the  English  of  Northumbria  oi 
the  other.  Malcolm  I  (943-864)  ob 
tained  Cumbria  (Strathclyde)  as  a  tei 
ritorial  fief  from  Edmund  I,  and  in  1011 
his  grandson,  Edmund  II,  securer 
Lothian,  hitherto  part  of  Northumbei 
bria,  two  events  which  materially  inflo 
enced  the  after-history  of  Scotland. 

On  the  advent  of  Malcolm  Canmor 
(1068)  to  the  throne  after  the  death  o 
Macbeth,  the  able  usurper  and  murdere 
of  Duncan  (see  Macbeth),  the  purel: 
Celtic  monarchy  came  to  an  end.  Mai 
colm's  mother,  the  wife  of  Duncan,  wa 
an  Anglo-Dane,  sister  of  Earl  Siwar 
of  Northumbria,  and  his  youth  bad  beei 
spent  at  ihe  court  of  Edward  the  Con 
fewor.  The  conquest  of  England  b; 
William  of  Normandy  involved  Malcoli 
in  many  a  serious  strunle.  .  Ednr  Ath« 
ling,  the  heir  of  the  English  line,  am 
many  of  the  English  nobles,  sought  am 
found  rafuge  in  Sootland.    MakoUn  nai 


Qootland 


SooUand 


>l«d  Marnnt,  the  sister  of  the  facitive 
princ^  who  u  Mid  to  bav*  introaoced 
rato  oer  court  a  degree  of  refiDement 
remarluible  for  tliat  time.  Tlie  Scotch 
king  twice  invaded  England  with  euccese, 
but  William,  having  collected  a  large 
army,  in  his  turn  advanced  into  Scotland, 
and  compelled  Malcolm  to  do  homage  for 
those  lands  which  he  held  within  what 
was  accounted  the  English  territory. 
Malcolm  Canmore  and  his  eldest  son  were 
slain  in  attempting  to  take  Alnwick 
Castle  in  1003,  and  Margaret  survived 
only  a  few  days. 

On  the  death  of  Malcolm  the  Celtic 
tribes  placed  his  brother  Donald  Bane 
on  the  throne,  but  he  was  driven  from 
it  before  he  bad  reigned  a  year  by  I>un> 
can,  a  natural  son  of  the  late  king,  who 
now  seized  the  scepter.  In  1008,  how- 
ever, Edgar  Atheling  obtained  a  force 
from  the  English  king,  and  succeeded  in 
gaining  the  kingdom  for  £2dgar,  the  lawful 
son  of  Malcolm.  Edgar  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Alexander  I,  a  prince 
whose  reign  is  chiefly  signalised  by  uis 
severe  amnlnistr  <on  or  justice.  He 
assisted  Henry  t  '  England,  who  had 
married  his  sistei,  in  a  war  with  the 
Welsh,  and  died  in  1121,  leaving  the 
thnme  to  his  younger  brotLer  David. 
On  the  accession  of  the  usurper  Stephen 
to  the  English  throne  in  1135,  to  the 
prejudice  of  Maud  or  Matilda,  wife  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  Y.  only  child  of 
Henry  I  and  niece  of  David,  the  latter 
made  several  expeditions  into  England  in 
support  of  his  niece's  claim  to  the  throne, 
during  which  be  suffered  an  indecisive 
defeat  near  Northallerton  (Battle  of  the 
Standard,  1137).  He  acquired  a  great 
reputation  for  sanctity,  having  founded 
several  new  abbeys,  including  those  of 
Holyrood  and  Melrose,  and  reorganised 
most  of  the  Scotch  bishoprics.  His  serv- 
ices to  the  church  procured  him  canoni- 
sation, but  his  endowments  so  taxed  the 
royal  resources  that  he  was  bitterly  diar- 
acterised  by  James  VI  as  a  'sair  sanct 
for  the  crown.'  His  death  in  1163  was 
preceded  by  that  of  his  only  son,  so  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Malcolm 
the  Maidm,  whose  reign  of  twelve  years 
Is  only  remarkable  for  nis  giving  up  Nor- 
thumberland and  Cumberland  to  the  Eng- 
Ush  kiiur. 

Onthe  death  of  Malcolm  IT  in  1165 
the  crown  fell  to  his  younger  brother 
^lliam,  who  is  known  by  the  title  of 
William  the  Lion.  During  an  exped<- 
Uon  into  England  for  the  purpose  of 
tegaining  Northumberland  he  was  taken- 

Sisoner  (ll'n;),  and  sent  to  Falaise  in 
ormandy,  where  a  treaty  was  concluded 
•cknowkdcittg   the   snpregisiHr  of   Eog- 

45— U-9 


land,  and  declaring  Scotland  a  fief  and 
himself  a  vassal  of  the  English  crown. 
This  treaty  remained  in  force  till  1189, 
when  Richard  I  restored  Scottish  inde- 

rdence  for  the  sum  of  10,000  marks 
order  to  equip  a  force  to  join  the 
third  crusade.  Tho  rest  of  Willhun's 
reign  was  devoted  to  the  consolidati<m 
of  his  kingdom  in  the  north  and  west. 
The  Scotch  alliance  with  France,  and 
many  of  the  Scottish  burgh  charters, 
date  from  this  reign. 

His  son  and  successor,  Alexander  II 
(121449),  a  youth  in  his  seventeenth 

rr,  took  the  side  of  the  English  barons 
their  struggle  with  King  John,  in 
the  hope  of  recovering  the  Northumbrian 
and  Anglo-Cumbrian  provinces.  After 
much  blood  had  been  shied,  and  the  bor> 
der  lands  repeatedly  devastated,  Henry 
III  agreed  in  1237  to  give  the  King  of 
Scots  certain  manors  in  (Cumberland  and 
Northumberland,  not  in  sovereignty,  but 
in  feudal  property.  This  was  accepted, 
and  a  border  line  was  laid  down  which 
has  never  since  been  altered  to  any  con- 
siderable extent. 

Alexander  III  (1249-1286)  succeeded 
in  the  eighth  year'  of  his  age.  One  of 
the  chief  events  of  his  reign  was  the  war 
that  broke  out  with  Haco  of  Norway 
for  the  possession  of  the  Western  Isiancn, 
which  ended  in  the  victory  of  the  Scots 
at  Largs  (1263),  and  the  cwisequent 
cession  of  the  Isles  to  Scotland  (IJWS). 
In  1284  the  king  was  left  childless,  and  a 
meeting  of  the  EsUtes  at  Scone  settled 
the  crown  on  his  granddaughter  Mar- 
garet, who  succeeded  <m  his  death  in 
1286k  She  was  then  only  three  years 
old,  and  a  regency  was  established  con- 
sisting of  four  barons  and  two  bishops. 
Edward  I,  desirous  of  joining  the  twc 
countries  in  one  kingdom,  proposed  tita.. 
a  marriage  should  take  place  between 
the  young  queen  and  his  son  (afterwards 
Edward  II).  This  was  agreed  to  by  a 
treaty  signed  at  Brigham  near  Roxbarrii, 
which  made  strict  provision  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland.  The  scheme,  how* 
ever,  was  frustrated  by  the  death  of  Mar- 
garet in  one  of  the  Orkneys  when  on  her 
way  to  Scotland  (Sept  1290).  Now  a 
host  of  rival  claimants  for  the  thnme 
appeared,  all  of  whom  ultimately  lave 
way  to  three  descendants  of  David,  earl 
of  Huntingdon,  brother  of  William  the 
Lion.  John  Baliol  claimed  at  grandson 
of  David's  eldest  daughter,  Hobert  Bruce 
as  son  of  David's  second  daughter,  and 
David  de  Hastings  ar  gramtoon  of  the 
third  dan^tor.  Edward  I  being  asked 
to  settle  the  dispute  decided  in  uvor  ot 
Baliol,  who  was  crowned  at  Scone  (1202), 
adoMwkdging  Edward  as  his  overkwd 


k 


■u  I .  .  wijm 


Seotknd 

Ob  tlM  outbreak  of  war  between  Bnchuid 
and  Franco  tho  woak  monarch  was  com- 
polkd  hj  hi*  noblea  to  »ter  into  an 
ofhnslvo  and  dofensive  alliance  with 
France,  and  formally  to  renounce  hia 
alleciaBce  to  Edward  (1296).  Edward 
hnmediatelT  invaded  Scotland,  itormed 
and  to<A  Berwick,  and  redoced  the  for- 
ti«MWB  of  Donbar,  Boxbargh,  Edinborch, 
and  Btirlinc.  Baliol  tnrrendered  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Brediin,  and  Edward 
after  marchii«  north,  probably  as  far 
as  Elfin,  returned  to  Berwick  to  receive 
the  homage  of  the  Scotch  bishops,  barons, 
and  knights.  Baliol  himself  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower  of  London. .  Scot- 
land was  now  occupied  by  English  gar- 
rismis  and  placed  under  English  officials ; 
and  Edward  seemed  to  have  entirely 
accomplished  his  cherished  purpc^.  whoi 
a  rcbttUon  against  liis  usurpation  broke 

out.  .     rt, 

William  Wallace,  younger  son  of  Sir 
Makolm  Wallace  of  Elderslie,  first  came 
forward  in  a  private  qnarrd  with  Huel- 
rig,  an  English  governor  of  Lanark,  which 
developed  into  a  mccessfnl  rebellion  in 
the  southwest  and  .center  of  Scotland. 
Assisted  by  some  of  the  barons  and  a  con- 
siderable body  of  men.  he  defeated  the 
English  governor,  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  at 
Stirling  iBridge  (Septembw  11,  1297), 
drove  Bdward%  garrisons  out  of  the  coun- 
try, and  made  a  raid  into  England.  Be 
assumed  the  title  of  Guardian  of  Scot- 
land in  the  name  of  Baliol.  and  directed 
his  ener^es  to  rectify  the  abuses  and  dto- 
orders  5  the  country,  and  to  revive  the 
trade  with  the  free  towns  of  the  C«iti- 
nent  Edward,  who  was  in  FlandenL 
hastened  home,  and  marching  at  the  head 
of  a  large  army,  defeated  Wallace  at 
Falkirk  (July  22.^  1298).  and  before 
1808  had  repossessed  himself  of  the  whole 
country.  In  1306  WalUce  was  betrayed 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  near  Glas- 
gow by  Sir  John  Menteith;  was  carried 
to  London,  and  after  a  mock  trial  was 
condemned  as  a  rebel  and  traitor  toBdr 
ward  and  executed  (August  28.  ISOS). 
Wallaoe  soon  had  a  more  fortunate 
in  Robert  de  Bruce^  earl  of 


C^rrfek,  grandstm  of  that  Bruce,  lord  of 
Aumndale.  who  had  been  Baliol's  riyid 
In  the  dispute  ccmceming  the  Scottish 
crown.  He  had  long  been  an  unwilling 
and  restieas  retainer  of  Edward,  but 
finally  determimd  to  push  his  claims  in 
Scotland,  and  was  crowned  as  king  of 
tlw  country  at  Scone  in  1806.  At  first 
his  career  was  not  snccesstul.  but  the 
death  of  Edward  I  at  Burgh-on-Sands, 
mi  hb  way  to  Scotland,  and  the  inactivity 
of  Us  sen  Edward  II,  were  tumimt  points 
1b  tka  wcBvaqr  of  the  ind^peaMiea  of 


Scotland.  GrandaUy  Bruce  reeovend 
the  whole  country,  till  in  1818  the  oaly 
English  garrison  left  was  Stirling  Castle, 
which  was  closely  besiMed  by  the  Scotch. 
To  relieve  it  Edward  II  led  bito  Scotland 
a  great  army,  which  was  totally  de- 
feated by  Bruce  in  the  decisive  battle  of 
Bannockbum  (June  24,  1814).  After 
tills  victory  Bruce  reigned  witii  «linost 
uninterrupted  success,  and  died  fai  1829. 
On  the  death  of  Robert  Bruce  his  son, 
David  II,  a  boy  six  years  old.  Was  pro- 
claimed king,  and  acknowledged  by  the 
great  part  of  the  nation.  Edward  Baliol, 
however,  the  son  of  John  Baliol  (who 
died  1314)  formed  a  party  for  the  pur^ 
pose  of  supporting  bis  pretensions  to  the 
crown;  he  was  bailed  by  Edward  III 
of  England.  At  first  Baliol  was  sikcsss- 
ful :  and  on  September  24,  1882,  he  was 
crowned  king  at  Scone,  but  eventually 
David  succeeded  in  driving  him  frmn  the 
kingdom.  Still,  however,  the  war  was 
carried  on  with  England  with  increased 
rancor  till  at  loigth  David  was  made 
prisoner  at  the  battie  of  Neville's  Oraas, 
near  Durham  (Oct(rt>er  7,  1846).  After 
being  detained  in  captivity  for  elem 
years  he  was  ranswoed  for  lOCLOOO 
merks,  an  <M  Scottish  coin  worth  about 
27  cents. 

At  his  death  in  1870,  childleM,  the  suc- 
cession fell  to  Robert,  stm  of  Walter,  the 
high  steward,  and  ot  Marjory  Bruce, 
daughter  of  EU4>ert  I  (Bruce),  Robert 
II  being  thua  the  first  of  the  Steward, 
or.  as  it  came  to  be  writtm.  Stewart  or 
Stuart,  dynasty.  He  concluded  a  treaty 
with  France,  in  which  the  nations  mutu- 
ally stipulated  to  assist  and  defend  each 
other.  His  reign  was  on  the  whole  plMe- 
ful.  though  the  usual  border  raids  be- 
tween Scotland  and  England  oontinued; 
the  chief  ending  in  the  celebrated  fight 
of  Otterboume  or  Chevy  Chaae.  Rt^rt 
II  died  in  1390.  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  John,  who  upon  his  accession 
took  the  name  of  Robert  III.  Scotland 
at  this  tisse  was  rent  by  the  dineraiona 
of  its  powerful  barons  and  the  feuds  of 
hostile  clans,  and  Robert  waa  of  too  weak 
and  indolent  a  character  to  cope  with 


the  turbulent  «>irits'of"Vhe'age. "  An Jn- 
vasi<m  of  Henry  IV  in  1400  effected 
nothing,  In  1402  the  Scots  sent  an  wrmy 
underDooglas  to  make  repriaals  on  Bag- 
famd.  but  they  were  met  by  the  aigliah 
under  Percy  at  H<miildon  Hill  and  com- 
pletely routed.  The  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  R<Aert  III  was  disturbed  w  the 
ambition  of  his  brother,  the  Drte  of 
Albany,  who  li  said  to  have  earned  the 
death  of  tie  profligate  ywnng  Dnkt  ^ 
Rothesay,  the  heir  to  the  throne.  Afraid 
for  As  safety  of  hia  sseoad  son.  Jamsa. 


SoaCUni 


Bobnrt  dwdfiMl  to  send  bim  to  Franee; 
but  tih*  aUp  in  which  he  wu  beioc  can« 
TW«d  WM  captured  by  th«  Bngltab,  a 
Btiifortiiae  wbldi  is  thought  to  h«?t  Md 
a  gnat  effect  in  haatening  the  Ung'a 
death  (1406).         ^  .      , 

Janea  I  being  then  only  eleven  yean 
of  ace,  and  a  captive,  the  ncency  de- 
volved on  the  Dnke  of  Albany.  TheUnr 
dom  was  torn  with  internal  strife.  Sev- 
eral ot  the  mon  powerful  nobles  were 
conciliated  by  gnnts  of  land:  bat  DoDald, 
lord  of  the  lales,  the  moot  powerful  High- 
land diief,  marched  into  Aberdeenahire 
with  a  great  boat,  and  threatened  to  over- 
mn  lowland  Scotland.  He  waa  toully 
defeated  at  Harlaw  by  a  much  inferior 
face  (July  24,  1411),  and  the  cmn- 
try  was  saved  from  this  danger.  The 
ezodlent  education  bestowed  on  James 
in  England  in  some  measure  compensated 
for  the  injustice  of  his  captura  and  deten- 
t^i.  In  England  also  he  obtained  a 
wife,  namely  Joanna  Beaufort,  daughter 
(rf  the  Earl  ot  Somerset  and  niece  of 
King  Henry  V.  Their  marriage  fadli- 
tated  the  negotiations  tat  bis  nlease,  and 
aftor  nineteen  yean  of  captivity  1»  «>d 
Ms  bride  werr  crowned  at  Scone  (1423). 
On  bis  retoi  .  the  recent  Murdoch  of 
ARNuy  was  )ut  to  death,  reforms  in 
tt<'  oonstitntit  \  of  parliament  and  in  the 
stittnte-law  vH  ited,  lawleasnras  put  down, 
and  cbe  conne  Ion  between  Scotland  and 
France  streng.jened.  JauMs's  efforts  to 
dfaninish  the  power  of  the  great  nobles 
Movoked  a.ctmspiracy  against  bim,  and 
he  waa  murdered  in  the  Blackfrfsn'  Kto^- 
utery  at  Perth  (February  20,  1487). 
In  thte  reign  the  Univenrity  of  St  An- 
drewa  was  founded  (1411). 

His  son  and  successor,  James  II,  being 
mly  seven  yean  of  age,  the  country  was 
nibiected  to  the  miseries  of  a  long  and 
feeble  rtnncy.  One  <rf  the  diief  events 
of  bis  t3m  was  the  rebellitHt  and  ton- 
ponxy  overthrow  ot  the  powerful  hwHO 
of  uoivlaa.  James  waa  accidentally 
killed  by  the  buntinc  of  a  cannon  at  the 
siege  of  Bozbnndi  Castle  (Angwt  8, 
IMO).  Janes  III  was  not  quite  eight 
yean  of  age  when  he  nicceeded  to  the 
bttgdoai.  which  was  again  subject  to  all 
the  tiwablca  of  a  minority.  In  1467  the 
yoong  Ung  married  Margant,  daughter 
of  the  Nwae  Ung  CSiristK.  and  In  the 
shape  id  a  pledge  of  payment  of  h«r  dowry 
the  <Mney  and  Shetland  lalasAi  wen 
given  np  to  Scotland,  of  whkh  they 
nave  ever  rince  fonMO  a  narC  James 
seena  to  have  bam  a  man  ^cnltnn,'bat 
weak  of  wlO  ud  partial  to  laToritaa.    A. 

tmm  BM  at  llanohkbaxB.  a«ur  Stirling. 


when  the  royal  army  waa  defeated,  aad 
Jamea  was  murdered  in  the  llttbt 

Jamea  IV,  who  bad  been  fiidnced  to 
join  the  nobles  hostile  to  his  father,  waa 
sixteen  yean  old  when  he  ascended  the 
throne.  In  1503  he  married  Margaret 
daughter  of  Henry  VII  of  England,  aad 
thus  pavel  the  way  for  the  futun  union 
of  the  twc  kingdoms.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  nign  of  Henry  VIII  James 
was  induced  to  espouse  the  Fnnch  cause 
and  to  invadt  England.  This  disastrona 
campaign  ended  in  the  total  destruction 
of  his  splendid  army,  his  own  death  and 
that  of  most  of  the  nobles  who  accom- 
panied him,  at  Flodden  Field  (September 
9,  1613). 

The  king's  death  plunged  the  nation 
into  a  state  of  anarchy :  bis  infant  sm- 
cessor.  James  V,  had  not  yet  reached  the 
age  of  two  years.  His  cousin,  the  Duke 
^  Albany,  was  appohited  regmt,  but 
from  an  early  part  of  the  nign  Jamea 
was  almost  entirely  In  the  hands  of  the 
Earl  of  Angua,  who  bad  married  the 
que«i  dowager,  and  had  almost  complete 
control  of  afEain  till  ISZB,  when  James, 
then  in  his  seventeenth  year,  managed  to 
escape  to  Stirling,  take  the  government 
into  bis  own  hanas,  and  drive  Angus  into 
England.  Hij  alliance  was  sought  by 
Engla^J,  France,  and  Spain,  and  in  1587 
James  married  Madeleine,  dadghter  of 
Francis  I.  The  young  queen  died  a  few 
weeks  after  her  arrival  in  Scotland,  and 
in  the  following;  year  James  married 
Mary  of  Lorraine,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Gl:.:^  Bis  refusal  to  throw  off  hto 
allegiance  \:>  Rome  at  the  reauest  of 
Henry  VIII  of  England  led  to  a  declara- 
tion of  war  <m  the  part  of  the  latter 
and  the  defeat  of  the  Scota  at  Solway 
Moss,  in  1642.  A  few  days  afterwarda 
James  died,  having  just  received  tidings 
of  the  birth  of  his  daughter,  the  tnton 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

The  eventful  period  wbfeh  followed  the 
accession  of  Mary  was  dmninated  by  the 
Beformation  movement,  and  the  ques- 
tions affecting  the  Union  of  Scotland  and 
England.  A  achaaa  to  affiance  the  young 
queen  to  Edward,  son  of  Henrv  VIII, 
was  defeated  by  a  party  of  the  ndbles  get- 
ting poasessiMi  of  the  queen,  and  renewing 
the  M  leagaa  with  France.  The  coum* 
qoence  waa  war  with  England,  when  the 
whole  of  the  southeast  of  the  country 
waa  dcvaatated,  and  the  ScotUah  araur 
dcfuaied  at  Pinkie  (1647).  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  Mary  was  sent  to  Vnm^ 
her  BoOier  filliag  the  regency.  In  1608 
she  WM  manried  to  the  dani^,  who 
saccasdid  to  the  throne  the  f(dlowing 
year,  bat  ficd  In  1660.  Mary  then  re- 
twnad  to  SoatiaBd,  when  the  found  tba 


Hi' 


Sootlaad 

BobilitT  divided  into  two  partia,  tlM 
Roman  Catholics,  taeadod  by  HuDtley,  ai^ 
til*  Reformed  party,  hea^d  by  her  half- 
brother,  Lord  Jamea  Stewart,  afterwards 
Earl  of  Maroy  or  Murray.  The  result 
was  a  series  of  distorbances  between  the 
opposing  parties,  but  Mary's  rei«n  was 
pwular  up  till  her  unforinnata  marriage 
R  with  Damley  in  1566.    Moray,  who  op- 

posed the  marriage,  had  to  fly,  and  was 
noiceforward  her  enemy.  The  marr  ^ge 
was  unhappy.  Damley  was  murcered 
by  the  Ean  of  Bothwell  and  his  servanU, 
but  whether  Mary  was  accessory  to  the 
murder  is  yet  a  matter  oZ  controversy. 
Yet  she  married  Bothwell  within  three 
months,  and  alienated  the  greater  number 
of  her  subjects.  A  confederacy  was 
formed  against  her.  and  after  a  vain  show 
of  resistance  at  Carberrjr  Hill  she  sur- 
rendered, and  was  imprisoned  m  Loch- 
leren  Castle,  where  she  was  forced  to  ab- 
dicate hi  favor  of  her  infant  sco,  and 
commit  the  regency  to  Moray  1^507). 
In  May  next  year  she  escaped,  and  raised 
an  army,  which  was  met  by  Moray  and 
the  Protestant  nobles  at  Langside,  near 
Glasgow,  and  was  defeated.  Flying  to 
iBiiffinji  Mai7  put  herself  under  the  pro- 
tecnmi  of  Elisabeth.  Kere  she  drops 
from  Scottish  histonr,  but  her  after-life 
till  her  e^ecntl^n  in  lo87  was  a  continual 
series  of  plots  to  regain  her  lost  throne. 

James  YI.  the  son  of  Mary,  being  a 
mere  child,  Moray  held  the  regency  of 
1  the  kingdom,  conducting  ita  affairs  with 

a   wise   and    firm   hand,    till    February 
26,    1670,    when    he   was   shot   in    *he 
streets   of   Linli^ow   by   Hamilton    of 
li  Bothwellhangh.    Bis  death  was  followed 

irl  by    a    succession    of    regents  —  Lennox, 

Mar,  and  Morton — by  great  disorders  in 
the  kingdom,  and  a  war  betwem  the 
parties  of  the  king  and  oueen.  On  the 
death  of  Elisabeth,  in  1608,  James  suc- 
ceeded as  the  nearest  heir  o  the  English 
throne  through  his  descent  fron'  Mar- 
garet, datightpr  of  Henry  YII  and  wife 
of  James  fv.  He  was  crowned  at  West- 
minster, and  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland. 

Then  wtn  seven  Scottish  Parliaments 
called  by  Jameo  after  his  accession, 
wherein  M  was  represented  by  a  commis- 
Bi<«er  sitting  as  president  His  chief 
energies  were  directed  to  an  attempt  to 
draw  Ekigland  and  Scotland  into  a  closer 
union  by  means  of  harmonising  the  laws 
it  the  two  countries,  and  by  establish- 
ing episa^acy  in  Scotland.  In  further- 
ance of  the  latter  object  he  visited  Scot- 
land in  1617  for  the  only  time  after  the 
uni<m  of  the  crowns.  Hiere  vren  many 
acts  passed  for  promoting  trade  and  com- 
nefc*»  asd  tte  aation  about  this  time 


SooiUad 


rf    •M.MMDta 


to  have  b«a&  <.^\\tA  with  a  mania 

for  colonisation,  as  nmf  flwnsands  of 
the  inhabitanta  left  their  liattva  land  tor 
the  Irish  province  of  Uhiter,  or  the  more 
distant  siraru  of  Nova  Scotia.  James 
VI  died  in  1625,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Charles  I,  thm  hi  the  twenty-fifth 
year  of  his  age. 

Foreini  wars  and  domestic  troubles  pre- 
vented Charles  from  visiting  Scotland  till 
1683,  when  he  was  crowned  at  Edin- 
burgh. The  church  was  now  entirely  gov- 
erned by  the  bishops,  and  civil  affairs 
managed  by  the  privy-counciL  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  England, 
Scotland  took  the  part  of  the  parlia- 
ment against  the  king,  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  being  entered  into  betweea 
the  Scottish  Prertiyterians  and  the  Enr 
lish  parliament  (1643).  A  Scottisk 
army  entered  England  under  Alexander 
Leslif>.  earl  of  Leven,  and  was  of  con* 
siderable  assistance  to  the  parliamentary 
forces  at  Marston  Moor  and  elsewhere. 
Meanwhile  Montrose  overran  the  country 
with  his  wild  Highland  and  Irish  army, 
till  his  career  was  cut  short  by  Omeml 
David  Leslie  at  PhUiphaugh  in  1645. 
The  affairs  of  the  king  becoming  hopeless 
in  England,  Charles  gave  himself  up  to 
the  Scottish  army  posted  before  Newark 
May  6,  1646,  and  was  surraidered  to  tbc 
English  parliament  January  30,  1647, 
on  payment  of  the  arrears  of  pay  of  the 
Scottish  troops. 

After  the  execution  of  Charles  (Jan. 
30,  1649)  the  Scoto  proclaimed  his  sod 
king,  under  the  title  of  Charles  II.  The 
young  king  was  then  in  Holland,  and  cer- 
tain commissioners  were  sent  over  from 
Scotland  to  inform  him  that  the  govern- 
ing body  were  willing  to  espouse  his 
cause  if  he  should  take  the  Covenant  with 
ita  companion  testimonies,  and  engan  to 
do  his  utmost  to  enforce  the  whole  Oove- 
nantingsystem  over  England  and  Ire- 
land. l?lus  Charles  agreed  to  do,  ant! 
he  was  invited  over  to  his  northern  king» 
dom.  He  arrived  in  Scotland,  landing 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Spey,  July  8,  1660, 
and  inarched  southwards  by  Aberdeen, 
Dundee,  and  St  Andrews  to  Falkland 
Palace.  This  roval  progress  alarmed  the 
republican  council  of  state  at  Whitehall, 
and  a  force  under  Cromwell  was  de- 
spatched to  stop  it  Gkneral  IHivid 
LesUe  marched  to  meet  Cromwell,  but 
was  defeated  at  Dunbar  (September  8, 
1660).  Notwithstanding  this  defeat. 
Charles  was  crowned  at  Scow  (Jan- 
uary 1.  1661),  and  immediatdy  nuuehed 
into  iqng'«M-  Ciromwell  followed,  and 
at  Worcester  utterly  scattered  the  royal- 
ist force,  and  compelled  Chv]m  to  be- 
come a  fufitivs    (B^teoAer  8,  1661)* 


Bflfttlftwd 


f^^lfty^ 


Cr9mwell  ntanMd  to  Scotfauid  and  in 
part  NduMd  it  iMvinc  Monli  to  oompltto 
th*  work.  Thia  wm  brooflit  about  by 
tbo  aaelc  of  Dundee  in  l«i8  and  other 
aerere  meaaurea.  Cromwell'a  death  waa 
aoon  followed  by  the  fall  of  hia  aon. 
Monk'a  march  to  London  at  the  head  of 
the  army,  and  the  reatoration  of  Cliarlea 

II  (leeo). 

Toe  Scottiah  parliament  aaaembied 
under  the  Eari  of  Middleton,  the  king'a 
conuniaaioner,  January  1,  1661,  and  it 
aoon  became  apparent  that  Charlea  waa 
determined  lo  carry  out  the  favorite 
acheme  of  liia  father  and  grandfather,  of 
eatabliahinc  Epiacopacv  in  Scotland. 
Thia  endeavor  to  eatabliah  Epiacopacy 
waa  Tiolently  opposed,  and  led  to  a  cruel 
peraecation,  which  laated  with  more  or 
leaa  aeveritv  durinc  the  whole  of  the 
reign  of  Charlea.  Hnndreda  were  exe- 
cuted on  the  acaffold,  othera  were  fined, 
impriaoned,  and  tortured;  and  whole 
tracts  of  the  country  were  placed  under 
a  militaiT  deapotiam  of  the  worat  descrip- 
tion. (See  Voveiuinter$.)  In  1679  a 
body  of  royal  troopa  under  Graham  of 
Clarerhouae  waa  defeated  by  a  forc« 
of  Covenanters  at  Drumclof.  Six  weeka 
later  the  Covenantera  were  defeated  with 
terrible  alaoghter  at  Bothwell  Bridge. 
Charles  died  in  1685,  and  waa  ancceeded 
by  his  brother,  Jamea  VII  of  Scotland 
and  II  of  England.  The  chief  eventa  of 
hia  reign,  ao  far  aa  Scotland  waa  con- 
cerned, were  the  riaing,  defeat,  and  exe- 
cution of  Argyle;  the  declaration  of 
indulgence  by  which  many  of  the  Preaby- 
terian  miniatera  returned  to  their 
charges ;  and  the  continued  persecution  of 
the  atrict  Covenantera,  one  of  whoee  min- 
istera,  Boiwick,  the  laat  of  the  Cove- 
nanting martyra,  waa  executed  at  Edin- 
burgh In  1^3. 

At  the  Revolution  a  convention  of  the 
E3atatea  at  Edinbuig h  proclaimed  William, 
prince  of  Orange,  Jamea'a  aon-in-law  and 
nephew,  and  nla  wife  Mary,  Jamea' 
daughter,  king  and  queen  of  Scotland. 
Claverhouae,  now  Yiacount  of  Dundee, 
raiaed  an  army  of  Jacobitea,  but  hia  death 
at  Killiecrankie  (1689)  put  an  end  to 
the  rising.  Religloua  freedom  waa  again 
restored,  and  in  1690  a  Qeneral  Aaaembly 
of  the  Preabyterian  church  again  met. 
The  reign  of  William  III  waa  marked 
by  two  eventa  which  rendered  him  gen- 
eiraliy  unpopular  fai  Scotland  and 
strengtheoM  the  cause  of  the  JscobiteSi 
aa  the  party  which  atiil  adhered  to  James 
II  waa  called.  Thea»  were  the  maa- 
aacre  of  Olcncoe  (ace  Oteneoe,  Jfaaaacre 
of)  and  the  unfortunate  Danen  expedi- 
tion (aee  Darien  Schemt),  Irat  the 
reign  ctoaad  witlioat  any  aeriooa  rliinf 


fan  Scotland,  a  fact  much  to  tht  latlafBe* 
tion  of  the  nation. 

The  death  of  WUliam  III,  in  1702, 
transferred  the  crowna  of  the  two  nationa 
to  QncMi  Anne,  aiater  of  Mary.  In  170S 
the  parliament  of  Scotland  iaaued  a  dec- 
laration which  intimated  a  purpoae,  in 
caae  of  the  demiae  of  the  crown,  to  ap- 
point a  different  aovereign  from  the 
Bngliah  king,  and  tlw  ill-feeling  between 
the  two  countries  grew  ao  atrong  that 
Engliah  atateamoi  became  convinced  that 
an  incorporating  union  waa  eaaential  for 
the  peace  of  the  two  countriea.  A  Joint- 
commiaaion  waa  appointed  to  draw  up 
artidea  of  union  in  1706.  The  Soottiab 
parliament  met  to  conaider  the  articlaa, 
which  eiMMuntered  a  atrong  oppositi<», 
headed  bv  the  Duke  of  Hamilt(m,  and 
atrongly  backed  up  by  the  bulk  of  tlie 
people.  A  majority  of  the  pariiament, 
however,  carried  the  m.^aanre  (January 
16,  1707) ;  it  received  the  royal  as- 
aent  (March  4) ;  and  the  Union  took 
effect  (May  1).  The  chief  providona  of 
the  Act  of  Union  were:  (1)  That  the  two 
kingdoma  ahould  be  united  under  the 
lame  of  'Great  Britafai';  (2)  that  tha 
auccession  to  ^he  crown  of  the  United 
Kingdom  ahould  be  in  the  Biectreaa 
Sophia  of  Hanover  and  tier  heirs,  being 
Proteatanta;  (3)  that  16  Scottiah  peers 
and  46  Scottiah  membera  of  the  Houao 
of  Commona  ahould  be  elected  to  the 
one  parliament  altting  in  Luidon;  (4) 
that  the  Eatabiiahed  Preabyterian  Church 
of  Scotland . ahould  t>e  maintained;  (6) 
that  Scotland  ahould  keep  unduutged  her 
own  laws  and  cuatoma  relating  to  prc»>- 
erty  and  private  righta,  and  afaw  tM 
Court  of  Seaaion  and  other  Scotch 
courta;  (6)  that  all  the  righta  of  tn^ 
free  intercourae,  and  citianship  shmila 
be  the  same  for  Scotch  and  Efaagtiab 
Bubjecta.  Thenceforth  the  general  liiator> 
of  Scotland  may  be  aaid  to  l>e  entirely 
identified  with  that  of  ^igland.  Bee 
Britain. 

Language  awd  Literaturt. —  Down  to 
the  fifteenth  century  the  term  Scotti<th 
language  meant  the  Gaelic  or  Celtic 
tongue;  the  language  of  Lowland  Scot- 
land being  looked  ap<m  as  English,  which 
indeed  it  was  and  is  —  Northern 
English,  with  certain  peculiarities  of  its 
own.  The  term  Scottish  came  to  be 
applied  to  it  as  possessing  these  peculi- 
arities, and  as  having  a  somewhat  dis- 
tinctive literarr  use.  This  language  Jias 
been  divided  Into  three  periods.  Dur- 
ing the  ««r^  period,  extending  to  near 
the  end  <rf  tlw  fifteoitJi  coiturv,  tliere  was 
little  difference  between  the  language  of 
Scotland  mad  that  of  England  north  of 
the  Hombar.    In  the  middi*  period,  iriildi 


Bootbui^ 


Soott 


utwdad  to  tbt  Unkn,  It  wm  faifliMnced 
in  a  slight  dcfrce  by  tha  0««Ue,  and 
In  a  more  prononnced  manner  by  Frcocb 
and  Latin,  conaeqoent  on  the  French 
alUante  and  the  reyival  of  leaming. 
Dnrii«  the  modern  period  the  languafe, 
as  oaed  in  popular  poetry,  etc.,  baa  been 
to  a  eondderable  extent  affected  oy 
modem  Uterary  Engliab,  thoofb  the  gen- 
nine  Temacalar  may  •till  be  heard  in 
many  diatricta  with  dialectic  peculiarities 
according  to  locality.  .    . 

The  Sir  Trittrem,  a  metrical  romance, 
doubtfully    attributed    to    Thomas    the 
Bhymer,   is   by   some   renrded   as   the 
earliest  piece  of  Scottish  literature,  and 
is  generally  accounted  the  mrUest  speci- 
men of  romance  poetry  in  Britain  (end 
of  the  thirteenth  centuiy).    But  the  first 
undoubted  specimen  of  Scottish  literature 
Is  The  Bruce  of  Barbour  (about  13TO: 
see  Barbour).    Between  1420  and  1424 
was  written  Wyntoun's  Or»fl*iio»«  Croii- 
Ml  of  Seotlani,  and  about  1400  Henry 
the    MinstreL    commonly    called    Blind 
Harry,  did  for  Wallace  what  Barbour 
had   OMM   for   Bruce.    Another   of   the 
poets  of  this  earl*  period  is  no  lew  a 
pmonage   than   James    I    (1894-1437), 
author  of  the   King'a   Quliair.    Vknttu 
Kirk  of  tko  Greno  and  PebUa  to  the  Ptoy. 
long  bdieved  to  have  been  productKms  of 
■  James,   have  to   be   attributid   to  sonae 
other  early  poet    Down  to  the  middle 
ot  the  sixteenth  century  four  names  stand 
out  prominently,  vis.,  Henryson,  Dunbar, 
Gavin  Douglas,  and  Sir  David  Lyndaay 
(which  see).    Minor  poets  of  this  period 
were  Walter  Kennedy,  Sir  John  Rowll, 
Quintan  Shaw,  and   Patrick  Johnstone. 
In  1586  John  Bellenden,  archdeacon  of 
Moray,  published  the  Hittorn  and  Cron- 
(kUt     of     Seotlandf     a     translation     of 
Boece's  Hittoria  aentia  Scotormm,  which 
was  also  versified  bv  William  Stewart, 
a  descendant  of  the  first  earl  of  Buchan. 
The  anonymous  Complaynt  of  Seoflani 
(1548)  is  of  value  as  preserving  the  titles 
of  several  p<qmlar  pieces  of  contemporary 
literature  now  lost,  and  as  a  piece  of  early 
prose.    A  centnnr  and  a  half  now  elapse 
without  any  eminent  Scottish  poet,  the 
names  that  appear  being  of  minor  note. 
In  the  third  period  of  the  language,  when 
it  had  become  a  provincial  patois,  the  first 
notable  name  la  that  of  Allan  Ramsay 
71686-17B8),     author    <^    The    Qtntte 
Sbepkard,     aad     of     numerous    shorts 
pieces  and  songs.    To  this  same  age  be- 
loncb  also  nearly  the  whole  of  that  re- 
markable  body   of  song   known   as   the 
Jacobite   minstrelsy.    The   Scottish   bal- 
lade, «T«  since  the  publicati<m  of  Percy's 
Bmomea,  have  mgaged  much  attention, 
•ad  Mf  ban  cutfoUy  oolleeted  and 


ninstrated  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  aad  oOar 
editwrs.  The  list  of  the  mon  wuBtaMBt 
successors  ot  Bamsay  la  ekasd  tv  O* 


names  of  Fermsson,  Bunu,  Hector 
Macnell.  Scott,  James  Hogg,  aad  Tuma- 
hill;  while  the  vernacular  prcjM  writers 
may  i^e  tutW  t*"  b»  reo«Mmnted  by^John 
Gait.  H'~i#,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  a«or|e 
MboDoua!^  and  others.  For  the  Scotch- 
men wh«  hn  re  won  an  honorable  place  in 
Bhigliah  literature  aee  JBnyfond,  aection 
Literature.  .         ...  ,.  _ 

flAAffc      Davio,  historical  Patetei%.  bo« 
°^^»    at  Edinburgh  in  1806:  died  in 
1840.    Bia  father  waa  a  l«ndaMpe  m- 
graver.    In   1828  be  exhibited  btojlrst 
picture^    Tho   Hope*    of    Barh    fMu 
hinOM    bf    Dtntk.    He    subsequenUy 
Sudiedrabroad.    and  ^while    at    Rome 
painted    one    ^    his    best    works,    Tko 
HouteKoU  Qod$  Dntronoi.    Having  re- 
turned  to  Edinburgh  he  continued  the 
practice  of  his  art,  and  bcMine  a  r«gnter 
contributor    to    the    exbibitkms    of    the 
Scottish   Academy,   produdng  V»m»  4o 
Gmwf  Bncounterimff  tho  BpMt   of  *ke 
Btorm  a#  tho  Cope;  Qnem  Slumheth  ot 
tho  Qlohe  Theotcr;  PorseebiM  Leetw^ 
to  Hit  Btmionto  on  tho  Blialr  of  Mo: 
Dmko  of   OUmeeotor  Ovried  to   Pritom 
(Scott's  finest  work) ;  and  many  others. 
OaaH-      Sn  Gbobob  Giuoest,  architect, 
°^*'^     grandson  of  Thomas  Scott,  the 
biblical     comnMitator,     was     born     at 
Gawcott,    near    Buddngham,    in    1811; 
died    in    1874    His    tastes    drew    him 
mainly  to  the  study  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture,  and   to   him   Is   due   in   a   grrat 
meaaure   its   revival   In    Great   Britata. 
He  was  very   largely  employed  in   Che 
erection  of  new  churches,  colleges,  and 
aecular      public     buildings,      prominrat 
among   them   being   the   churdi   of   St. 
Nicholas  at  Hamburg,  the  first  important 
specimen  of  the  Ctothic  revival  erected 
In  Germany,  and  the  spire  of  which  is 
478  feet  high.    Sir  Gilbert  was  specially 
identified  with  the  proceas  termed  'res- 
toration,' which  be  applied  to  nuuv  im- 
portant   minsters    and    cburehes,    such 
as  the  cathedrahi  of  Ely,  UiMM,  Here- 
ford,   Ripon,    Gloucester,    Ch«|ter,    St. 
David's,   St.  Asaph,  Bangor,  Salisbury, 
and  St  Albana.    In  this  connectMm  he 
wrote  a  Plea  for  tho  FtAthM  Bfg^ 
turn  of  omr  Ancient  0»nr«*es   (IMO) : 
CoMoAntion    0/    Atteiont    AtOitoOii^ 
MonvmenU  (1864),  eta    He  waselected 
A.R.A.  in  1862,  and  RJL  In  1860b  and 
waa  knighted  in  18T2. 
OftftH      Si»  MioHAn,  a  Scottish  phi- 
O^JOVit     losopher  and  repoted  magician 
of  the  thlrte«itb  century,  of  whoae  his- 
tory  nothing  is  certainly  kaosm,  «enrt 
that  afttr  hit  iflCanriNn  ^  Coot»- 


Seolt 


Soott 


>t  h»  netived  tlM  honor  of  knichthood 
froB  Alezaadtr  III,  by  wbmn  bo  wm 
conMoBtklly  tmptoyod,  uid  tbat  be  dM 
at  u  MiTancod  im  la  128L  Ho  mutt 
bavo  boon  a  man  of  ooniidorablo  loarninf 
for  bis  timo,  and  boinr  addicted  to  the 
■tody  of  the  occnit  ociencea  paaeed  anonc 
his  contemporaries  for  a  magician,  aad 
as  such  is  mentioned  by  Boccaccio  and 
Dante.  He  is  mnerally  identified  with 
a  Sir  Michael  Scott,  or  Scot,  of  Bal- 
weary,  in  Fifesliire,  but  tliis  is  at  least 
open  to  doubt. 

CUmff  MiCHAKL,  author  of  Tom»  (7ri»- 
°^**t  gW»  Log  and  The  Cruiae  of  the 
Miig9,  was  bom  at  QIasgow  in  1789,  and 
was  educated  at  the  Ugh  school  and  ani- 
rarsitjr  of  liis  native  city;  resided  in 
Jamaica,  ennged  in  commerce  and  agri- 
enltnre,  1806422;  and  finaUy  settled  in 
Scotland.  He  died  in  1836. 
Qnakk  Bcaebt  Faux>n,  polar  explorer, 
'''^••»  bom  at  Ontlands,  Deronport, 
England,  in  1868:  entered  the  navy  iu 
1^2.  Made  commander  in  1901,  he 
commanded  the  National  Antarctic  Expe- 
dition of  1901-04 ;  was  promoted  captaiu, 
and  in  1010  commanded  the  British  Ant- 
arctie  Expedition,  sent  with  the  hope  of 
comideting  the  work  of  Captain  Shackle- 
tim.  He  reached  the  pole  on  January  18, 
1912.  only  to  find  that  Amundsen  had  pre- 
cedea  him.  He  and  the  four  of  his  men 
who  accompanied  him  to  the  pole  perished 
on  the  return  trip. 

Rnatt  Thomas,  an  English  btUical 
^^  >  commentator,  was  uom  in  1747. 
He  was  ordained  in  1773;  in  1781  he 
became  curate  of  Oiney;  in  178S  he  ob- 
tained the  chaplainship  of  the  Lock 
Chapel,  near  Hydepark  Comer,  London; 
and  in  1801  be  was  appointed  rector 
of  Aston  Sanford,  in  Buckinghamshire, 
where  be  died  in  1821.  He  imbibed  Cal- 
▼inistic  views,  in  the  defoise  of  which, 
both  fnmi  tlie  pnlpit  and  the  press,  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself;  but  he  is 
now  remembered  <Aiefly  by  his  Com- 
meNtorir,  or  FamUp  BMe  noitk  Note$, 
wbfcib  hiu  had  a  very  large  sale  both  hi 
England  and  America. 
^oatt  Thomas  AixzAiron,  railroad 
^^  »  manager,  was  bora  at  London, 
Puinvlvania,  in  1834,  and  became  con- 
nected with  the  Pennsylvania  Bailroad 
in  18B0.  He  was  made  superintendent  in 
1868,  vice-president  in  1^,  and  in  1861 
was  put  in  charge  of  forwarding  volun- 
teers to  tbe  seat  of  war.  He  wcii  isom- 
n^sskmed  cokmel  of  volunteers  In  May, 
1861,  and  jpnt  in  command  of  all  gov- 
ernment raittoads  and  telegraphs,  uid  in' 
Augmt  was  aimoiated  assistant  secre- 
tary oiwtt.  He  reamed  this  post  in 
4\m,  IMS.  b9t  wieNd  tte  fovanqwat 


service  again  in  Beptembo^  1808,  glviac 
exoellMit  service  in  tbe  forwarding  M 
troops.  He  was  preshlent  of  tiie  Pcnn* 
sylvania  Bailroad,  187&80  aad  dlsd  May 
21,  1881. 

fUtntt  Sib  Waueb,  Bast.,  poet  and 
own,  novelist,  was  bora  in  Edin- 
burgh, August  16,  1771.  Be  was  a 
younger  son  of  Walter  Scott,  writer  to 
the  signet,  by  Anne,  daughter  of  Dr. 
John  Rutherford,  professor  of  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  both 
connected  with  old  Bonter  fluniUes. 
Before  he  was  two  years  old  his  right 
leg  was  attacked  with  weakness,  which 
left  him  lame  for  life,  and  generally  as 
a  boy  his  health  was  not  robust  He 
entered  the  high  scho<d  of  Bdinbingh  ia 
1770,  and  in  October,  1783,  he  was 
matriculated  at  the  University  of  Iklin- 
burgh,  where  be  studied  Latin  under 
Professor   Hill,    Qntk   under   Professoi 


Sir  Welter  Scott. 


Dalaell,  and  logic  under  Profcasiw  Bmee: 
Irat  neither  at  school  nor  at  college  did 
he  manifest  any  special  brilliance.  He 
was  not  idle,  however,  being  a  voracious 
reader  from  bis  earliest  years,  especiaUy 
in  the  fields  of  ballad  literature,  rmnance, 
and  history,  and  ho  acouired  a  fair  ac- 
quaintance with  moaera  languages, 
Freai^  IteHaa,  and  Spanish,  and  evm 
with  German,  a  knowledge  which  was 
in  that  day  not  common.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  he  commenced  in  bis  father's 
oflice  an  arorenticeship  to  leeal  business, 
and  in  17S2  b«  was  sdmittM  a  member 
of  tbe  Seottisb  bar  (the  Faculty  of  Ad- 
vocates). In  1797  be  married  a  Miss 
CbarpentiMr,  the  datu^ter  of  a  Fiendi 
refugee;  ia  1790  he  was  ajmi^ted 
sheriff  of  BeUriitehire,  a  situation  to 
wUd)  *n  taoooM  9f  1300  w«s  attgcMi 


ttoott 

■ad  fm  1806  h*  Imcud*  •  prineiMl  citrk 
U  th«  Conrt  of  ScmIoii,  •Itboofb  by  u- 
noctmait  with  hit  vndfetmot  h»  did 
set  TCceiTC  Um  fuU  raraiumenta  of  hit 
olBct.  aboat  £1200,  tUl  tht  dMth  of  tbt 
latter  in  1812.    Hit  firtt  ▼•nturw  taUt- 
mtoM  were  a  trjjBtlation  of  Bttiwji 
Lenof^  and  Der  wtMe  J&§«rC  The  Wild 
Himtnian'),  which  te  poblithed  la  a 
■mall  ooarto  Tolome  in  1706;  then  fol> 
lowed  the  ballade  of  OkajtalM.  T»«  Bve 
9f  8U  John,  and  the,  Oreir  llro«»er;  a 
trantlatioo  of  Ooethe't  Geete  ,«on  Ber- 
Uekinatn  in  1788:  thaMinttreUif  ofjkt 
BeoUUk  Bfder  In   180(^08.  (8  toUu)  ; 
and  an  edition  of  the  old  metrical  romanoo 
of  Bir  TrUtrtm  in  1804.^  In  1800 Jm  b^ 
^1^  prominent  at  an  original  poet  with 
the  L»v  of  tho  iMt  Mlmtrd,  •A^- 
tended    tpecimen    of    the    ballad    ttyle, 
which  fdl  upon  the  pnbiic^aa  emnethins 
MitirelT  new,  and  at  once  became  widely 
popular.    In  1806  he  publiihed  Jf  erMfoa, 
another  poetic  romance  which  fr««tlT  in- 
creased Ut  repnution:  and  tai  1810  the 
Lady  o/  the  LtOte,  In  which  hit  poetical 
ceniui  teemt  to  have  readied  the  acme 
of  itt  powert.^  Hi!  tubtequmt  poetical 
piodnettont  — Tfta  FWoi»  of  Dom  Bod- 
iriok     (1811),     Bokehv^^Om),     Tho 
Bridal  of  Triormoi*  (1818],  Tko  Lord 
of  tho  Ztlet  (1815),  HoroM  <k«  DounP 
!«•   (1817),  Waulm  Hitt  (1822),  TJe 

Doom    of   Devorgoif   (1880) --did    not 
attahi  the  tame  tacceta    On  the  decline 
of  hit  popularity  at  a  poet  he  turned 
hit  attention  to  the  prote  romance,  for 
which  the  greater  part  of  hit  early  life 
had    been    a   conteiout   or   nnconaciont 
preparation.    The   appearance   of    Wov- 
crlewT  in  1814,  formt  an  epoch  bi  modem 
Utenture  at  weU  at  in  the  Ufe  of  Scott. 
Thit  romance  or  novel  wat  rapidly  fol- 
lowed by  nnmerout  othert,  forming,  from 
the  name  of  the  first,  the  leriea  kbown 
at  the  Waverley  Noyete.    The  awrtier  of 
thete  wwe  Gay  ifaMneH»«p  (1815),  Tho 
Jintiquarw,     Tho    IMac*     Dworf,     OU 
Mortatk^  (1816) J    Roh    Boifi^ll), 
Tho  Bwrt  of  Midlothian   (1818).  TAe 
Bride    of    Lammermoor,  /^^.Logond   of 
Momtroae,   and  Ivonhoe   (lf»^»).    Theae 
nlendid    worta   of   ficUon,    yhliA    tur- 
nrited  and  endianted  the  worid,  it  te  heM 
tar  mott,  marlK  the  high  tide  of  hit  gen- 
tni,  thote  whidi  follow  being  placecTon 
a  fS(»a«wbat  lower  level,  althoofh  there 
are    teveral,    awecialiy    »?    the    Mcond 
PHiod,  np  to  las,  fai  which  no^fallinf- 
SC  te  peroq^ble.    Ivanhoo  wat  f ollowad 
IS  ThoMonoitory,  Tho  A5t^(18a0). 
Jomkmrth,   pu^ Pirate    (ipV' JV^ 
(iS8)r9««»*«"'WtMrd,  BU  SoMM't 


Boott 


Me    CaaoMfte,     tho    Fair    lft«    •/ 
Pwrth     {l^    Anne     of     Oeiiretein 

(1828),    Conn/   «o»«l,?/   £?•*«•»•* 
baetle    Dangerone    (1881).    The    War- 
erley  norelt  were  all  publithed  anony* 
moutly,  nor  did  8cott  ,«*«»  to  be  the 
'Great  Unknown'  until  1827,  although 
their  anthonhip  had  long  been  an  open 
secret    to    many.    Meanwhile    he    per- 
formed  an  amount  of  miteellaneogt  lit- 
erary work  which  would  have  been  al- 
most more  than  enough  for  any  ouer 
man,  and  the  mere  enumeration  of  wiucu 
wodd  be  tcdiont;  he  atoo  attanded  to 
the  dutiet  of  bit  oOcet  at  dierlff  of 
Belklrinhir*,  and  a  cleA  of  the  C5ourt 
of  Bestion.    The  detire  of  becmnimK  an 
eztentive    landed    proprietor,     *nd     of 
founding  a  family,  wat  a  paitkm  which 
apparently  glowed  more  warmly  in  hit 
botom  than  even  the  appetite  for  literary 
fame.    Thit  desire  he  b^gan  to  gratify  in 
1811,  when  he  purchased  a  small  term 
of  about  100  acret,  lyhig  on  the  tonth 
bank  of  the  Tweed,  8  mllea  above  Mel- 
rote,  upon  which  wat  a  imall  and  in- 
eonvenient   farm-houte.    Such   wat   the 
nucleut  of  the  mantlon  and  estate  of 
Abbotsford.    By  degrees,  as  his  resourcea 
Incnased,  he  added  farm  after  farm  to 
hit  domain,  and  reared  his  chateau  turret 
after  turret,  till  he  had  completed  what 
a    Frmch    tourist    not    unaptly    terns 
•a  romance  In  stone  and  lime':  dotiiing 
meanwhile  the  hilhi  beUnd,,and  embow- 
ering the  lawns  befor^  with  flonrtehing 
woods  <rf  hit  own  planong.    It  waa  beve 
that   he  ditpented   for   a   few  yMn  « 
tplendid  hoviulity  to  the  numerons  yfa- 
itors  whom  his  lame  drew  from  emr 
part   of   the   civilised   world.    In   1820, 
when  be  was  made  a  baronet  by  Goone 
IV,  who   wat  a  great  admirer  of   Ut 
genlM,  he  reached  the  senith  of  hit  fame 
and      outward      prosperity.    But      this 
prosperity    was    founded  .oo,  no    solid 
ba^  and  the  crash  came  in  1826,  when 
^  Constable   &   Co.,   the   Edinbuivh   pub- 

"a*  Legend' "of  Ushers,  wero  obliged  to  suspend  pannait, 
(IP^ST:  These  hopelessly  involving  Bailantjnw  *  Co^ 
in.    whidi    sur-  with  whom  it  then  appeared  Scott  had 

- been  omneeted  as  «  partner  rince  loOB. 

Um  liabilitiea  whidi  were .  thus  incun^ 
by  him  amounted  to  £180/100.  His 
bnitliatlon  wat  indeaeribable.  but  he  met 

a  I  trial  with  strength  and  diruty. 
«>««t>  •«?•  of  MiftMW  were  "M^^to 
bbi.  Mt  be  refuted  them  alL  'Tfana 
fSS  I  against  any  two,'  he  said:  uid 
ta^Tbbottfonl  and  taUaa  •  lodg- 


fioott 


SoTMUMf 


Wltiria  a  f«w  jrwri  1m  wu  «bl*  to  pay 
Us  enditon  £40,000,  and  to  pot  tUtin 
in  aach  abape  that  aoop  aftar  hte  death 
tha  wbola  debt  waa  llqaldatad.  Symp- 
tona  at  gradual  paraiTsto,  a  disease 
htfadiuiy  in  hie  familjr,  began  to  be 
manifeateiL  and  in  the  aatnmn  of  1881 
hto  phyiiclans  recmnmended  a  reaidenca 
la  Italy  aa  a  meana  of  delaying  tha  ap- 
praachca  of  his  illnesa.  To  this  scheme 
be  felt  the  strongest  repugnance,  as  be 
feared  be  abould  die  on  a  foreign  soil; 
but  by  the  interrention  of  friends  ha  waa 
preralled  np<m  to  comply.  He  sailed  in 
a  government  vessel  from  Portimootb, 
landed  at  Maples,  and  aftorwarda  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome,  Tivoli,  Albanl.  and 
Frascati.  Feeling,  however,  that  hia 
strength  was  rapidly  decaying,  hia  da- 
lire  to  return  to  bis  native  land  became 
irrepressibla,  and  he  hurried  home  with 
a  rapidity  which  in  hia  state  of  health 
was  highly  injur  ions.  He  reached  Ab- 
botsford  in  July.  18^  and  died  there 
September  21,  18d2.  Bfa  was  interred  in 
his  family  burial  aiale  amid  the  ruins  of 
Dryburgh  Abbey.  His  life  was  written 
by  his  son-fai-law,  John  Gibson  Lockhart, 
a  work  which  baa  taken  the  position  of  a 
claasic. 

CLAAf^  WnxiAU  Bell,  brother  of 
"'^"J  David  Scott,  the  painter,  and 
himself  a  painter,  etcher,  engraver, 
archsoIogiBt,  and  poet,  waa  bom  at  Edin- 
bui«h  in  1811.  He  received  his  art  train- 
ing  in  i]dlnburgh  and  removed  to  London 
in  1838.  In  1844.  at  the  request  of  tha 
Board  of  Trade,  he  establiahed  a  acbool 
of  art  at  Newcastto^m-Tyne,  and  was  un- 
til 1886  art  examiner  under  the  Bdnea- 
tion  Board.  His  puUished  poems  in- 
clude: Badea  (1838),  The  Tear  of  the 
World  (1846),  PoeflM  Iw  a  Painter 
(18S4).  BaSodir.  etc.  (1818),  and  Ear- 
veet  Home  OSSZ).  Other  works  are: 
AHtiqtutriait  Oleanmga;  Leetwree  on  Art; 
Albert  DUrer,  Hit  afe  and  WorJu;  The 
Ltttle  Maateri!  lAfe  and  Worha  of  David 
Boott;  etc    He  died  in  1800, 


Q|M)tt  WiifriELD.  eommander-in-cUef 
■**^**'  at  the  United  States  army,  was 
the  son  of  a  Scottish  Jacobite,  and  wac 
bom  near  Petersburg,  Virginia,  June 
18,  1786.  He  was  brought  up  to  the 
law,  and  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  never 
practiced.  Entering  the  army,  he  served 
with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1812-14, 
especially  in  the  capture  of  Fort  George, 
Canada,  and  in  the  battlea  of  CHiippewa 
and  Londy'g  Lane.  For  his  emment 
services  he  waa  made  majoriteneral  and 
received  thanka  and  a  gold  medal  from 
Ckmgreas.  He  afterwards  visited  Europe, 
and  stodiad  military  science  at  Paris. 
Ib  1S2  and  tha  foUowlas  yaaia  Omeral 


Scott  waa  amployad  ia  oparationa  afalaal 
tha  Indian  tribsa,  and  in  IMl  ha  waa 
appoiatsd  commaadar-ia^hiat  Bia  turn 
roata  upon  hia  brilliant  condoct  of  tha 
Mexican  ws  of  184047,  fai  which  ha 
invaded  Mexico,  capturing  Vara  Cma, 
winning  a  aarica  of  victonca  during  hk 
march  inland,  and  finally  cajptnriag  tba 
Mexican  capital  and  ooncladlag  an  adi> 
vantageooa  peaca.  Ha  waa  nomfaiatai 
for  the  Preaidency  by  tha  WhifjMUty 
in  1862,  but  waa  defeated  by  tba  Damo* 
cratic  candidate.  In  1860  the  htmorary 
rank  of  Uautanant-general  waa  confarrsd 
upon  him,  with  tha  provialon  that  tha 
title  should  cease  at  Eia  death.  At  the 
outbreak  of  tha  Civil  war  ha  ramainad 
at  the  head  of  tha  army,  but  ago  and 
infirmitiea  prevented  hfai  taking  any 
actual  command,  and  he  latirad  bi 
Novraiber,  1861,  under  full  pay.  He 
published  his  antobiognphy  m  1864, 
and  died  at  West  Point,  May  ».  1806. 
SAAffflttI*  *■  borou^  in  Weatmore- 
DOOUOUe,  i,^  Co.,  Pannaylvania,  7 
miles  v.  of  Ckmnellsville.  It  haa  irao  and 
tin-plate  works,  and  other  iadoatrlea. 
Pop.  6466. 

Sootiu,  ^^^*    ^•^  ^•"*- 

SCOtnS,  '°™*-    **  Erigena. 

fiUirftntAn  (•kran'tan),  a  dty  of  P«n; 
OOTUlIoa  .yivania,  county  aeat  ei 
Lackawanna  county,  and  the  third  city  is 
aiaa  in  the  State,  is  situated  on  the  Liiefc- 
awanna  River,  at  the  junction  of  tha 
Roaring  Brook ;  134  milea  N.  >.  <tf  Naw 
York,  and  167  mUes  N.  of  PhiUddaUa 
on  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  k  WaR- 
em.  the  Delaware  &  Hudson,  tiie  Central 
Railroad  of  New  Jersey,  the  New  Toak, 
Ontario  &  Western,  and  tha  Erie  rait 
loads.  Ito  puUic  buUdinga  include  a  dty 
hall,  court  bouse,  govemmoit  bulldiiiK 
public  library,  ete.  It  is  the  metropotta 
of  the  anthndte  coal  regiona  and  owaa 
ito  prosperity  in  large  part  to  tha  «x- 
tenttve  operation  in  coal,  and  the  davelop- 
ment  of  the  machine  and  metal-worUag 
trades  inddental  and  contributary  to  tha 
coal-mining  budneaa.  It  has  many  uanta 
making  variad  linea  of  heavy  hardwwk 
and  is  tme  of  the  most  important  aUk 
manufacturing  centers  in  the  Uaitad 
States.  The  population  of  tte  dty  bv  tta 
census  of  1910  was  129,867,  and  with  a 
ten-mile  radius,  814,638. 

Soreamer  <?1?o*'>^5.^'^S 

American  graUatorial  or  wading  Mrdik 
the  Paiatnedea  corn»ta  or  honed 
screamer  (wbidi  see)  and  the  doaely 
allied  Chamno  ehavmria,  or  created 
TKe  latter  haa  no  horn,  bat 


8oNi#>fiit 


to  hMd  Is  foratelMd  wltk  a 

gflfguin     (■k**")*  ^  wekriHtkal  v- 
**»*'*•*    ebHwtor*,     a    p«rtltk«  ^ot 
■taB%  wood,  or  motal  to  Mporat*  dif- 
fifMt  9orti  of  thf  buildbiff,  u  the  itav* 
or  OB  akd*  fioai  tiM  cboir,  or  a  prirate 
dMpri  froa  tbo  tranatpt.    Tte  ttm  Is 
anfitd  to  a  partitiOB  cxteDdiaf  across 
tbo  lowor  Md  of  a  nodimal  haU,  form- 
lif  a  lobby  within  tbo  main  ontnnce 
doocs,  and  Bavine  ofttn  a  pallory  above ; 
also  to  a  dseoratid  wall  inclooint  a  court* 
jard  In  front  of  a  buildinf.    Tbe  word 
has  also  a  CMioral  oae  as  a  promoter  of 
prtracr.  scido  fnm  its  arebitsctnral  one 
OMMur    (shrO).    a    wooden    or    metal 
■"w^"    erlinder  boTlnc  a  spiral  ridgo 
(Oo  tkiMd)  winding  round  it  in  a  oni- 
fonn    manner,    so    that    tbe    saecessive 
tnms  aro  all  enctly  the  same  distuce 
from  each  other,  and   a  corresponding 
spiral   iproove   is   produced.    Tbe   scr^ 
forms  one  of  tbe  six 
meetasnical     p  o  w- 
era,  and  is  simpir 
a    modification    of 
the  inclined  phuw. 
The    onerg/    is 
transmitted  by 
means  of  a  hollow 
cylinder    (tbe    fe- 
inale     screw)     of 
equal  diameter 
with  the  solid  one 
(the  male  wcsevw). 
having     a     spiral 
channel  cat  on  its 
inner    surface    so 
as    to    correspond 
enctly  to  the  spi- 
ral    ridge     raiaed 
upon  tbe  solid  cyl- 
inder.    Hence  the 
one  will  worii  within  the  other,  and  by 
turning  the  convex  cylinder,   while  the 
other  remains  fixed,  the  former  will  pass 
throng  tlM  latter,  and  will  advance  every 
reToluti<m  throogb  a  space  equal  to  the 
distance  between   two  contiguous  turns 
of  tlw  thread.    As  the  screw  is  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  inclined   plane  it  is  not 
diflienit  to  estisMte  the  mechanical  ad- 
vantage obtained  by  it.    If  we  suppooe 
the  power  to  be  applied  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  screw,  and  to  act  in  a 
Srpetion  at  right  angles  to  the  radius 
tna  driinder,  and  parallel  to  tbe  base  of 
the  in^a^d  plane  ey  which  the  screw 
Is    supposed    to    be    formed,    then    the 
power  will  be  to  the  resistance  as  tbe 
ortanee  between  two  contiguous  threads 
to   tbo    drcumference   of    tbe    cylinder. 
Bat  M  la  ^actiee  tbe  screw  is  combined 
Win  OM  MIC  ud  the  power  appUsd  to 


*-^  2:r^,si^i.TbS-Jai5 


Htaater*!  8erow.preee. 


as  the  distaaea  bttwosn  two,  oortignsjn 
threads  to  tht  dremafonneo  dsaeiftod  by 
tbo  power.  Hsoes  tbo  msdwnkal  ofiet 
of  the  screw  Is  Inereassd  by  liMaahit 
tbo  distance  between  the  thrwds  or 
making  them  finer,  or  by  Isagtbsatac  dM 
.  lever  to  which  tbo  power  Is  awML 
I-  Tbe  taw,  however,  is  greatly  BodlScd 
by  tbo  friction,  which  Is  vonr  noat. 
TIm  uses  of  the  screw  aro  varioai.  Tt 
is  an  invaluable  eontrivaaco  tor  flas  av.<< 
justments  such  as  an  rsqnired  la  fiao 
telescopes,  microscopes,  mieMMMtors,  ate. 
It  is  useo  for  the  applkatioQ  of  great 
pressuK,  as  in  the  screw-jack  and  aerew* 
prew;  as  a  borer,  in  tbo  gimlet;  sad  la 
the  ordinary  screw-nail  we  have  It  ess- 
ployed  for  fastening  separate  pieees  M 
material  together.  The  iNf srsnflsl  serow, 
or  Haater^i  eorew,  is  formsd  of  two 
screws,  a  targer  and  a  smaller,  the  nv* 
mer  being  screwed  internally  to  aliair 
the  latter  to  screw  into  it;  the  plt^  of 
the  two  screws  dilfera  alightly,  and  for 
each  turn  of  tbe  diM  or  targer  sersir 
the  progress  ot  the  point  of  the  coa- 
pound  screw  ta  tbe  difFerence  of  piteh. 
Great  power  to  in  thto  way  attained 
without  tbe  weakness  due  to  a  screw 
with  fine  threads.  Bee  also  Bemo-mr*- 
peUer,  Arehime4ett  Screw,  BnHtm 
Screw.  o^  M 

Screw-bean.  8eojr«»gaa«. 

SAr«w.mn«     (Pondaaae) ,  the  typo  oi 

bushes  known  as  the  Pandanacew  or 
Screw-pine  order.  They  are  natives  dt 
tropical  regions,  and  abound  in  insaWr 
situations,  such  as  tbo  Eastern  Ardii- 
pelago.  They  branch  hs  a  dicbotoaaaa 
or  forked  manner,  and  are  reswrfcabta  to* 


.V^ 


g«twfmftn« 


ofllOS 


mrioM  |»rts  of  tbTitcn.  Thtm  rooto 
an  nUM  Mrial  or  wlTnititioiH,  Md 
■mo  to  Npport  tho  plut  Tho  Modo 
•M  odlUo;  and  tht  iowon  of  waw  ip^lM 
■If  tnfnMt«  M  to  tlM  PmtUmui  •dor- 

oolhrtlont  la  Barapo,  oad  comttknom 
If  its  odtwiltloM  root*,  and  Its  Iom 
•  r   l«iw^   NOHBbUac  thofo   of   tbo 
ippio,  wVUk  MO  amuiiiod  la  a  aenw^ 


Moda  aertw,  an 


spiny 


8enw-pTop«U«r,  arfdf&Ji VtSS 

to  aUps  and  drlvm  by  ttcam,  propels 
tbMB  firooffb  tbo  water,  and  which,  in 
•11  its  vartoos  forms,  is  a  modiOeation  of 
tbo  eomaien  se^Tfr.  Orifinaliy^the  tbrwid 
bad  the  form  of  a  broad  ■piral  plate,  mak- 
iaf  one  eenvolntion  round  tho  spindle  or 


Tig.  Ij—  Wvnu  of  8er«w-prop«U«r. 

shaft,  bat  now  it  couists  of  ■erenl  dis- 
tinct blades,  forminc  portions  of  two, 
three,  or  foar  threaAu  as  illostratcd  by 
o,  h,  e,  flf.  1,  which  fives  an  idea  of  the 
Tariow  forms  of  blades  for  dllferent  sises 
of  pn^ilers :  •  has  a  good  shape  for  the 
largor  sises;  h,  having  three  blades.  Is 
snoeessfolly  applied  for  twin  screw  steun- 
eiB,  and  is  also  asefal  with  two  blade; 
for  medlnm  sises ;  0  is  saitable  for  small 
diameters  and  a  moderate  nomber  oi  ror- 


I^  B.—  Seivw-VMpeltor  i»  poettlw. 


<datlons  psr  mlnate.  Either  two  or  three 
blades  of  this  sluve  answer  well  for 
boifos  and  towing  porposes.  The  usual 
eontioia  ter  tbe  serwr-pr^jeller  fa  Imme- 
diately batoo  the  stem-post,  as  shown 
fai  fifrA  Os  dmtt  pasring  paralM  to  tho. 
ksd  into  Um  en^no-toom,  whmt  it  to  set 
te  laptd  motkm  by  the  stsam'«igines. 
1^  Ntaty  BMtkm  in  the  somnadlnf 


ioid,  whkh  may  be  coBsHaffsd  to  balaa 

Ctlally  inwt  eoaditlon,  pfsdaess.  aM«i> 
to  tbo  woU-kaowB  prta^o  of  tka 
screw,  an  *"**^  J^gL^  ttp  qgw 

|S'*orthe  shaft.  ISTSMtaSty  sTlSa 

blads%  and  tbo  wticbt  of  tho  tssssL  Im 

1827  Mr.  WllosD.  ^DoBbw,  prodaggjt 

serow-propoiler  which  proved  satlsiMl<|nr* 

but  tb»  saccessful  latratoctifla  si  Aa 

sertw-propeller  to  doe  to  Mr.  F.  P.  fnitt 

and  to  BrkssoB.  who.  both  iadsesadsat^ 

and  about  tho  ssbm  tlmo.  (UM)  asnwM 

patents.    NosMroiw  iMtdiflcatkas  of  tka 

serow-propeller  have  been  proaoosa  aal 

adopted  sines  It  was  Brst  InlrodaeA  aai 

it  has  now  practically   snperssdsd,  tht 

paddle-wheel  for sca-goIng  vMsato.  aadhaa 

come  very  generslly  Into  aoo  for  RfOff 

trsOc    Twto-ocrews  Irnvs^roesat^  oom 

into  favor  for  ose  oo  tho  Atlaatto  Uasra; 

and  even  tiiplo  screws  In  sobm  lastaaMO. 

Fw  warships  the  snow-propsllHr  tote* 

dispensable,  as  a  protoetkm  to  tho  motlva 

power  of  tho  vssssL  _     ^  ._ 

Srrihm    (•*»*).    ^wi»ni»    Itinte 
BCTIDC    a  French  dramatic  wrttor,  ben 

at  Paris  in   1791;  dtod  in  1881.    Hto 
father   was  a   silk   mercteat.   ajadbo- 
qoeathed  to  hto  son  a  eonsiderstdo  fortima, 
Young  Scribe  was  orMnally  intraded  for 
the  legal  profession.  Jwt  at  the  ace  of 
twenty  he  abaadooed  it  fw  the  m«m 
congenial  oecnpatioB  of  a  writer  tor  taa 
stage.    Hto    first    dteinet  _sacessB_Wl 
achieved  in  1816  with  V—  Jfni*  ds  Oflvi* 
Jfmttondte,  and  tbowef orward  hto  pan  1M* 
never  idto.    Hto  dramatic  ptaMO^ooaimrisa 
an  the  departments  of  the  llghtsr  Uai 
pf  drama,  and  from  .?>•*»  ^.p^T^*?* 
Intercstof  plot,  aa  woU  ••  tho  foB^»M 
maimer  in  which  modern  Frena  ofa  la 
depicted  In  them,  havo^acaaircd  a  aai- 
versal  pcvaiarity  over  the  B«nS«|>«!^ 
tinent,  and  have  alao  bson  bitrodaead  «t 
tho  &gliah  and  Amoicaa  sta.-^  ».^' 
fwm  of  trsMdatioBa  or  adaptatto  -.   Twt 
of  the  best  known  fmong  than,  aftar  tho 
first  saccessful  one.  are  L*  F«ts  ft^ 
i'QUm  of  Water*)   ai^  ^**IS*5^^ 
oomwvar.    As  an  opera  libretttot  Scribe  to 
stoo  dcservefly  famoiu,  taavlnc  rappUed 
several  composers,  especially  A«*er  ud 
Meyerbeer,  with  the  text  of_the  moat 
eelcbratod  of  their  works.    Hto  ««^- 
f  reqoratly  ctdtoboratiens,  nomber  aa^ai 
hmdrecbr   In  1838  he  was  adadttsd  a 
member  oi  the  French  Academy. 
SArilU    (skrlb),  among  the  Jews,  an 
oOriDe   iflfe^'e'f  the  tow.    There  wwa 
oMI  and  osolsito««ieol  scribes.    «o  for- 
m«r  w«re  an^c^ed  aboot  aw  kiadM 
dvn   writlafs    or   records.    The   lattsr 
atodlod,  transcribed,  ai^  ex^ained  tl» 
Hol^  Bcriptniss. 


:r  i 


Bcrip 


i).  •  owtilMm  «C  MSM  or 


Ib  •  MHIt^tOlA  OMBMHUfi  f OIBltaC 

ft  tipiiMiy  aflkaowMcBMit  ol  tU  hM> 
m*»  iBtMMt,  Mi  fmMmtfme  Um  tmomt 
M^jhrtt  «f  «A  tM>illiBiwt  o|  tte  total 

tkf  Hflp  biiif  iMllr  OMJimoJ  for  • 
MbUo  *Mt  cortUtete  or  bqad. 

Hito  bMiMl  Mhobr.  bon  fai  1818.  Ho 
WM  •doeotod  at  Tmity  OeUefe,  Omb- 
hrkhM  wbwo  ho  took  tbo  domo  of  U.A. 
&  loa  FiOB  1M6  tUl  »ie  ho  WM 
ModHBoator  of  Fofaaaoath  Ichool  and  in- 
emdMBt  of  Pvaworrio,  and  ho  rotalncd 
thkt  UTlag  tlU  Id  1861  ho  was  proocnted 
t»  tho  Nctorjr  of  Gorraaoi  OwnwaU.  In 
1870  ho  was  a|>poiBtod  a  BMmbor  of  tbo 
Oonpany  of  BotWoii  of  tho  Now  TMta> 
■NB^  abd  la  1873  ho  was  fiantod  a 
pwwioa  froB  tho  dvU  Uot  in  recognition 
tf  his  aorrloM  in  eonnocttoa  with  ^lical 
erkklna.  In  1875  bo  bacano  vicar  of 
Hondon,  Mtddkoox,  and  prcbondory  of 
■iMor.  Dr.  BcrlTOBor  to^  hirii  ranli 
la  tbo  i^lkdogieal  eritkfaHU  ^  tho  Now 
TiotaMOBt,  OB  whid  ho  peUhihod  a  oeriofl 
«{  vataablo  worfca.    Ho  diod  tai  1881. 

tabordo  in  tbo  glaadvlar  and  bony  tloooaa, 

•Bd  fai  roality  a  form  d  taborcnloate  or 

'  ooBonnstlon.    It  laMralljr  abowa  itself 

hf  hard  tamora  oc  tbo  ailaada  in  \  riona 

rs  of  tbo  body,  but  particnlariy  in 
oo^  bobind  tbo  oars,  and  under  the 
ddB,  which,  aftor  a  tim^  sapinirate,  and 
dcfenorato  into  okors,  from  wbicb,  in> 
■toad  of  poaiji  wbito  curdled  mattor  is 
dlschaiwd.  Tho  first  anpearanco  of  the 
disoase  IS  most  osnally  botween  tho  third 
and  soTonth  toot  of  tlio  patient's  ago ;  but 
'at  any  period  between  this 
of  puberty,  aftor  wbicb  it 


ol  a  band  arrniod  ia  aate 

ooBvotattooa.    Tho  aamo  la  aka  ftvaa  to 
tho  Tolata  9t  tho  loeie  aadOoriat 


it  idOT  arias  at  anr  period  between  this 

and  tbo  an  of  puberty,  aftor  wbicb  it 

makos  ita  first  attack.    It  is  by 


BO  means  a  contagious  disease,  but  is  of 
a  horodltary  natura,  and  is  often  onUiled 
by  parents  upoo  their  children.  It  may, 
howsTor,  remafai  dormant  through  life, 
and  WDt  show  itself  till  tbo  next  genera- 
tion.   The  dissase  generally  goes  on  for 


MVO 


appearing  at  last  to 
oxbanatad  itaslf,  all  tho  nlcors  heal 


up,  without  boing  succeeded  bj 


any  fresh 
an 


wea  by 
•wdliaga,  hot  leaving  behiad  them 
apiy  padkeriiv  of  the  skin,  and  a 
H  ei^ridonble  extest.  This  is  the  most 
mild  form  under  which  scrofula  appeara. 
In  mora  Tiruknt  eaaes  the  ores  and  ^e- 
lids  are  inflamed,  the  Joints  become 
altetod,  and  carica  of  the  bones  super- 
vsMf.  Boetio  foTor  at  last  arises,  under 
i^ica  tk»  patimt  ainks;  w  the  dissase 


aat  order  of  hofbaeooaa  or  durabby  moa- 
oaetalona  oiogws,  faihaUtiag  all  parts  of 
too  world  except  the  coldeot,  contaiaiag 
about  160  geaera  aad  1600  qtecica.  They 
have  oppodte  or  alternate  entire  toothed 
it€  cut  leavea,  aad  naaally  four  or  five 
lobed  irrsguhir  flowora  with  dtdyaaoMua 
atamans,  plaosd  in  axillary  or  tormlaal 
racomao;  with  a  two-eelled  orary  aad 
albomtaooa  seeds.  Maay  of  tbo  gOMra, 
aadi  as  the  foxgloro.  calceolaria,  voroa- 
Ica,  mbaulus,  aatlrrbiaum,  peatatomMi, 
etc.,  are  Talued  by  gardeners  for  their 
boautifttl  flowers.  SoreakNiorio  la  tho 
typical  genua.  A  decoction  (rf  8.  aedosa 
la  aomramea  used  by  farmara  to  cure 
acab  in  awiask 

1-8  part  of  a  dradlB,  1-24  part  of  aa 
ouBosk  and  1488  part  (rf  a  ptmnd. 

Somtin    d'AnondiBseiiiiBt 

(skrd-ta«  dt-rfln  diamia),  in  Franca, 
the  systoa  -  -'  voting  whereby  each  srroa- 
4i9»tm0nt  or  district  of  a  department  re- 
turns its  own  member  for  parliament, 
each  voter  of  the  arreadfawsisa*  bavbig 
only  one  v<^e.  Scmtim  4e  LkUf.  on  tho 
other  hand,  is  the  system  of  votinf 
whereby  all  the  candldatea  for  a  depart- 
ment are  put  upoa  the  aame  liat  aad 
returned  at  the  same  election. 

OTJuuuof  antbor,  was  bom  at  Beaton, 
Massachnaetts,  in  18S8.  He  was  graduated 
frwn  TraUama  CMlege  in  1808.  engaged  in 
literary  puiauits,  and  waa  editor  of  tbo 
Atlmntie  Mentkh,  1800-08.  Ho  wrote  a 
awiea  of  stories  for  diildrsa,  Notk  Web- 
tUr,  Botton  Town,  Hittory  of  the  Vjji^ 
Buim,  etc.  Ho  died  Jaanary  11,  1902. 
fiflnddiir  B^^miBL  Hvnum,  aatanu- 
DOUOOer,  igt,  brother  of  the  precedla^w 
waa  bom  at  Boattm  ia  1887,  and  wm 
mduated  from  ^lliaaM  Gdlege  tai  1857. 
Ho  wrote  a  woA  on  BatisilNM  and 
maay  Bplwitlfry  pi^erB  w»»^  in  lawn  be- 
came editor  of  mmmoo.  He  save  special 
attentiai  to  fossil  insects  ana  wrote  ebx- 
oral  hooka  about  thaas.   Died  in  lOll. 

writer  of  romaftcsa,  beta  at  Hftim  Da 


Icvlytifi 


kwmtoMoCtk* 
■  te  tha  II 


miMuTkBgri^  aloMMt  0>tirtir  forgot- 
tM  Mv.  mo  by  mbo.^  Tho  McMt  o( 
tiMir  iTMt  pepolarity  at  ttat  tin*  eonstot* 
iB  thfi,  thattbty  wti»  fairly  roprmnu- 
Urt  of  hor  tM,  btlnt.  lo  fMt,  tlw  rtflwtioB 
of  tba  wotiMf  In  whlchrtM  movad.    Her 
mnbImU  btroM  and  haroinao  wara  elaaalcal 
w  erlaotal  paraonagaa,  bat  tba  nasMa  r. 
bar  cbaraetara  wara,  in  fact,  only  •  trf  <»• 
pataat  maak  babiad  wbicb  bar  raa<    •• 
aaw  aad  raad  tbamaalTaa.    Tba  iota' »   < 
abia  eoavaraatloDa  and  maanlnglap    ^    ■ 
laatrlaa  wbfcb  maka  bar  worka   ^.U    u 
praaant  wara  praclaaly  wbat  ft  o  >'  '-i 
intaraat   wbaa   all   bar  cbaraeiri-    .    . 
imown;   and  aa  aba  waa  ada»  •«<    /.  .t 
raapactad  by  tbcaa  aba  pwtra'  ',  it  ! 
cTidant  tbay  wara  flattarad  by  »hi  :)o. 
traita.    After  tba  raQnlooa  at  tba  l^<'if 
KambottUlac  bad  bean  broken  ^V }y  ';^^ 
ttoablea  of  tba  Fronde,  MdUe.  de  8cud«ri 
opened  ber  own  booae  to  a  aelect  aocjey 
otaimllar  taatea.    Bba  died  in   1701.-- 
Her  brother,  Oeo«»s  db  Scvvtai,  waa 
a  writer  of  tracedica,  etc.,  and  an  ei»tny 
of   Comeille.    He   waa   bom    in    1001; 
died  in  1067.  ,  .     ,         * 

fUmdo  (akO'da:  It  acado,  L.  aojrtiMB, 
SKniaO  ^  shield),  an  ancient  luliau 
ooIb,  tbe  equivalent  of  a  crown.  It  waa 
BUMd  fron  its  bearing  the  Impreaa  of 
tte  beraldic  abield  of  the  aoverelgn  by 
wbom  it  waa  taaned.  The  aeudo  waa  of 
dWerent  valna  in  different  aUtea  an#  at 
difCeiwit  timea.  The  name  ia  aometimea 
given  to  tbe  piece  of  Uto  lire  or  fnnca, 
nearly  equivalent  to  the  American  dollar. 
ScnlL     SeaJ8o»B<aff. 


■oat  wapirOTm  tnm  PflaUat  by  tba  ^ada  el  l< 
Maof^Ba^i  rioB.  TKulptBia  ■•»?"■«■■« 
■dMMtrad  gn      alaawBt   of  co»orT>it   wbUa 


.  .iMMffdvaitof  j^B«*i 
•t  Paiiii  MM  Boqatrad  gn 


rj? 


'U 


\.a)W,    il  r.    It. 

s*  ..■i'vi.tukii  nn«J' 
■*  •'>r  I.  '  ■^•iu  o."  ^ 
?  h  ."'i  »t:  'id,   A 

p 
r<i. 


Sanlmn     ("bulp*"*;     Co««aa     ootode- 
»<»"?*"    eimtpinomu).   a   BnaU   aear 
fiab  foond  on  tba  Atlantle  aeabpard  and 
on  tba  Padfle  eoaat  of  America.    The 
gemmeoaa  dragonet   (CaUioiiiniMta  lyra) 
Si  ao-cftlled  by  tbe  Comiah  fiaharmen. 
eA«1«4^i>*    (akalp'tOr).  the  art  of  Im- 
ScmptUre   j\,^     Hvlng    forma    in 
aolid  aabatancea.    TBa  word  meana  Btrlc^ 
ly,  a  catting  or  carving  in  amna  bard 
material,    aa    atone,    marble,    ivory,    or 
wood;  bat  It  la  alao  need  to  azpreaa  tba 
molding  of  aoft  aabatancea,  aa  clay  or 
wax,  and  tba  caating  of  metato  or  plaaiar. 
Tba  iaitatiim  of  living  form  te  auka  tba 
eaaanoa  of  aenlptata  aad  of  palBtbig,  aad 
both  tbeaa  arta  are  priaaarUy  for  tie  oaa 
BBd  varpoaea  of  ardiitacta^    Sealptora 
la  i|tfttf«g«i«i««*  fraa  ar^ltaetara  by  ita 
taaitBtloa  of  llviii«  fana.  aad  la  aapanMa 


whlla   :    atlji 

■akaa  Ita  awaal  to  tba  aaaaa  .  aw^ 
cblefly  tbroiu^  color,  aeolptara  eoMaraa 
Itaalf  wbolly  wltb  para  fena,  wbatbar 

of  Una  or  eonpoaltlon.  . 

Frooeaaaa.— In   prododag  a  w*»«_^ 
aculptura    two    proceaaea    are    involvad. 
'modeling'    and    'caaUnfc'    tba    '•SS* 
alone  baTng  truly^the  woA  •' «^  •W 
For  oraameat  and  llgare  tbe  aama  matbed 
,  .  -^ployed,    la  tbe  former  a  giwuid  aC 
] . ,        prepared,  and  uBon  it  t^  Iumo 
'   iha   ow^ment   ara   Qabtly   •katchad, 
tool.    Tbeaa   ara   tbaa 
ratly    wltb    Importattt 
conaactlag  linea,  and, 
laull,  tba  whole  bataii 
to  tba  forma  dealrad. 
i  a  flat  board,  act  wi 
..     .  a  piece  of  wood  «««>d- 
rr  . '  ri  -^    iinriaa  to  it,  la  aaed.    Lead- 
nlu  uir  Is  «Ouie(.mea  further  employed  to 
tl..>  hsigl.c  of  thla  place  of  wood, 
■•i.   ar;  .ut'   t:n  atructura  tba  clay  la 
r„i,ghi}   •      I  up,  a  cylindrlwl  maaa  for 
fi.-k,  aud  in  egg-abaped  form  for  tba 
Uixn   thla  latter  the  poaitlpa  of 
.„.  .oatL.c-  i«  marked,  and  the  work  car- 
ried on  by  reference  to  the  living  model. 
For  a  full-length  figure  an  'armature' 
ia  prepared,  conaiaUng  of  an  iron  paaaing 
through  the  center  and  attached  to  wbieii 
are  other  Irona  In  the  caae  of  atatoaa, 
or  of  lead  piping  for  aUtoettea.    T»-«ia 
a(«  bent  to  tbe  requited  poaitlona,  the 
whole  when  complete  repreaenting  in  line 
the  poae  and  character  of  the  intended 
figure.    Upon  and  around  thla  framework 
the  figure  fai  firat  roughly  built  up  with 
clay,  cara  being  taken   to  add  luat  aa 
much  aa  ia  requisite,  and  to  follow  tbe 
general  form  and  direction  of  the  moaclea. 
The  eaaential  difference  between  modeliU( 
and  carving  la  that  in  the  former  the 
artiat  worka   frwn  within   outwarda  by 
the  addition   of  mat- rial,  while  In  the 
latter  from  without  ii    arda  by  tbe  taking 
•way  of  material.    '     i  aculptor'a  work 
proper  generally  enda  v  ith  tbe  completlmi 
of  tba  clay  model.    The  next  procam  ia 
that  of  caating.    Plaster  of  Paria  of  the 
conaiatency  of  thick  cream  ia  poured  over 
tbe  model  to  the  depth  of  from  2  to  8 
Incbca,    tba   inner   layer   being   colored. 
When  thla  la  aet,  the  clay  Ui  carefully 
ramovad.  and  what  ia  tonned  a  'waato 
m<rfd'     18    formed.    This     te    carefully 
waahad  aad  when  dry  la  tbm  ollad.    lato 
tUa  BMdd  ^aater  of  Paria  fai  poured,  aad 
wbaa  fiUadaad  aet  hard  the  wwte  nrald 
ia  ebtopad  off.    Tbe  plaster  of  Paria  baa 
tdna  tba  nlaca  of  the  clay,  and  forma* 
wbat  !■  ea!Uad  a  'cast.'    A  bead  la  •»-- 


all*  CMt  in  IwlTW,  tad  a  riailu  tnat- 
■tnt  to  adopttd  tn  tht^CM*  of  cmiplet* 
figofM.    Thto  to  Mrmed  'ptoc.-  moUDnf.' 
Parts  iiMdi  project  ywr  modi  •*•  n- 
moT«d  and  cut  Mpantdy,  »»»»«•«•>; 
wards  attadied  by  iMana  otjMtt<a 
Paris.    The  r^rodnetkm  at  tUa  plaster 
east  in  marble  or  attme  to  a  meifuical 
operatiMir  Moally  Intrusted  to  a  Allied 
wmrkmaB.    To   aid   Mm   be  employs   a 
•  p^Btbif  machine/    by    wbiefa    be    first 
flndto  out  the  dtotance  of  any  .point  on 
the  cast  frwn  an  imasinary  Terti^l  plane 
ptoeed  in  fnmt,  and  into  the  bkick  of 
marbte  drilto  a  hole  whose  depth  from 
tlM  same  plane  equato  thto  dtounce.     In- 
■nnstable  holes  are  thus  drilled,  and  the 
soUd  marble  cut  away  until  the  bottoms 
of  all  the  holea  are  reached.    Thto  fivea 
the  form  roushly,  and  the  canrer  pro- 
ceeds to  copy  from  the  plaster  cast,  cat- 
ryiaff  on  the  work  under  the  supervtoion 
««  the  seutotor,  who  rarely  carves  the 
woril  himself  except  in  fintohing  toucho. 
For  casting  in  metal  a  ptarter  Bjold  to 
first  made  as  already  described.    Within 
thto  to  fixed  a  mdelT-formed,  solid,  but 
remoTshto  mass  caltod  a^'core,'  th?  -i»ac« 
between  it  and  the  surface  of  the  mold 
being  filled  with  the  molten  metal.    An- 
other method  for  smaller  work  is  railed 
*  etre  perdue.'    In  thto  the  mold  is  lined 
with  wax  and  the  core  inserted  close  uo 
to   the  wax   Uning.    The   wax   to   then 
melted  out  and  the  molten  metal  poured 
into  the  mold  to  take  its  place,  the  core 
being  afterwards  r«noved.    . 

HiMton:  SculpUre  In  Aew.— The  ear- 
Msst  records  of  sculpture  that  we  possess 


Sonlptim 

exhibit  the  art  in  oooiptots  bondags  to 
religion.  Tb«  artist  hss  sttlvsa  not  t» 
represent  human  or  natural  beauty,  but 
to  iUustrats  a  strange  and  fanta-'lc.aur- 
tbology.  Sculpture  has  hers  no  ind^ 
pendent  existence,  and  no  chance  pC 
gradual  and-  ateady  derelopmoit  Ths 
iriist  to  restricted  to  the'  patient  a«d 
often   exqutoite   imitation   of   inanimate 


XgTPtUn. —  Fnm  Urge  flgore  in  btoaM. 

nature,  or  to  the  invention  of  monstrous 
human  form,  but  he  to  not  able  to  rias 
to  a  conception  of  beauty,  at  once  true 
to  physical  nature  and  chaiged  with 
human  emotion.  Thus  the  sculptures  of 
Indto  and  China  are  semlbarbaric  and 
naturalistic;  and  in  the  colossal  figures 
of  the  rock-cut  temples  of  India  there  to 
a  superadded  symbolism,  which  led  to  us 
most  extravagant  deformities  of  the  hn* 


Jm^Hmb. —  Wnm  Ktaarostf,  9S<>-M9  B4k 


Bevlptiirt        

min  Hcan.  It  k  to  Ji0Pt  that  w«  most 
turn  for  the  firrt  •igm  S  hlAer  ud  n^ 
vital  act  Th*  dMinctive  eharacteriatica 
of  Enrptian  aeaiptaN  an  eohMnl  am, 
•taUUtT,  and  tjmauitrf,  the  ezpreMi<m 
being  tnat  of  ailm  repoM  and  ■oiemnlty, 
with  a  mggeetiott  of  the  ■apernaturaL 
A  IconTentiraal  aniformity  reLma  every- 
where withoat  life  or  acUon.  Everything 
ia  nibjeet  to  aymbolic  meaning  according 
to  focmula  laid  down  by  authority.  The 
work  waa  ezecated  in  syenite  or  basalt. 
and  this  qrmbpllsm,  linked  with  admi- 
rable m(Ql«Hty  of  workmaoshtp.  give  to 
Ecrptian  ■culptore  the  distinction  and 
digaity  of  a  style.  The  best  period  of 
Egyptian  sculpture  was  from  1450  to 
1000  B.O.    The  best  period  of  Assyrian 


floolptoft 


Mnsemn  ta  to  be  found  a  qtlendid  col- 
Icetlon  of  BgyptiaD  aeolptvree,  extMdIpg 
from  B.O.  2000  to  tba  MohaiBmedan  la* 
vaslon,  ▲.!>.  t»40.  ,^  ,       _. 

Greek  ficnljrtur*— These  early  pw*- 
nets  of  art,  valuable  in  themwlves,  art 
nevertheless  diiefly  Interesting  aa  kadipg 
the  way  to  the  full  development  of  aealp> 
ture  under  the  Greeks.  Greek  sntlptcunk 
in  its  infancy,  is  strongly  stamped  with 
oriental  character,  as  mar  be  sen  wa 
careful  examination  of  the  leUefs  fraa 
the  temple  of  Assos  now  in  the  Loavre. 
and  the  metopes  from  Seiinus,  casta  of 
which  are  in  the  British  Moaeam.  Bat 
from  the  end  of  the  sixth  centory  MA 
the  development  of  Greek  art  waa  rapid 
and  continuooa.    In  the  seulptarea  for 


dxseian.—  1.  Faoa  of  Pnxltelei  —  Florenee.     8.  Nlobe  —  Florenoe.    8.  Ammob  —  the  Vstles* 


scnipljre  as  a  style,  is  Inferior  to  that 
of  Egypt.  Its  characteristics  are  an  In- 
tense and  vigorous  spirit  of  representa- 
tion without  the  least  reference  to  Ideal 
beauty  of  any  kind.  As  compared  with 
Egyptian  work  it  is  more  realistic  but 
less  true.  It  Is  powerful  and  energetic, 
but  lacks  grandeur;  overladen  with  detail 
and  ornamentation  it  does  not  attain  to 
the  sublime  in  its  repose,  ncr  to  beauty 
in  its  movement.  Persian  sculpture 
(560-331  B.O.)  differs  but  little  from 
Assyrian,  and  is  asuatly  included  with  it. 
Roughly  hewn  and  badly  modeled,  the 
force  of  the  animal  forms  yet  givec  It 
a  sense  of  the  gicantie.  analoious  to  that 
obtained  by  the  Greeks  in  their  treatment 
of  Haredes,  bat  withal  posstasiM  no 
of  ideal  beaatj.    Ia  tba  Btitiidi 

10-» 


ihe  temple  of  Eglna,  executed  about  475 
B.C.,  and  now  preserved  at  Munlcb,  tna 
figures  of  the  warriors  (see  the  casts  In 
the  British  Museum)  are  no  »<»«««' 
stiff  conventional  type,  with  attltodM 
correct  but  Ufelees;  tliere  is  tatravaA 
movement  in  their  action,  and  a  U^ng 
truth  of  gesture  only  to  be  gaioaa  by 
artists  who  had  studied  the  human  form 
famg  and  attentively.  Upheld  mi  the  one 
hand  by  a  noble  mythology,  that  magni- 
fied without  dlatorting  human  attributes, 
and  aupported  on  the  other  by  an  Increas- 
ing knowtedfe  of  nature,  the  nKlmato 
perfectloa  of  Greek  art  became  only  a 
question  of  time.  It  came  to  perf«c«oo 
in  Phldiaa,  whooe  statues  of  Artene  ta 
the  Parthenon  at  Athens  (»^o- *»>•*»? 
of  Zcas  io  the  tempir  «t  Oiympia,  mark 


Sonlptnn 

tb*  period  of  th«  faich«rt  ■<7to  of  Grj»* 
«rt.  The  ipeciai  chamcter  of  the  art  that 
flottrithed  at  Athena  under  the  mle  of 
Pericles  (fourth  century  bjB.),  «nd  by 
the  all-potent  hand  of  Phidlaa,  coniists  in 
a  perfect  balance  and  combinatimi  of  ele 
nients  lublinw  and  human.  Sculpture 
bad  reached  that  point  when  a  faoltleM 
imitati<m  of  nature  was  within  its  readi, 
but  it  had  not  yet  abandoned  its  spiritual 
connecti<m  with  a  splendid  mythology. 
We  have  therefore,  in  the  aculpture  of 
this  period,  the  highest  type  of  homan 
beauty  joined  to  a  «>d-like  calm  and  reti- 
cence of  emotion.  Examples  of  the  grand 
style  of  this  epoch  are  the  sculpturw  of 
the  Parthenon:  the  colossal  bronse  head 
of  Arttmii  in  the  British  Museum;  the 


Sculpture 


misia  over  the  rMoains  <rf  her  hnstkud 
ManriHos,  prhice  of  Caria,  ba  883. 
These  sculptured  decoiatims,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  present  in  the  deidgns 
for  the  frieae,  depktinff  a  battle  between 
Oredn  and  Amasone,  an  inventlMi  of 
graceful  and  mtergetic  movemeat,  and  a 
reooid  of  rapid  and  violent  gesture  such 
as  deariy  distiiwuish  the  work  from  that 
which  it  succeeded.  The  worln  of  Prax- 
iteles are  especially  valuable  "  ««P"«»- 
ing  a  tenderness  of  feeling  which  this 
new  and  closer  sympathy  with  human 
emotions  had  developed.  He  is  known 
to  us  chiefly  through  copies  of  his  worn, 
or  of  the  works  of  his  school,  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  are  preserved  in  the 
Vatican;  but  the  sweetness  and  delicate 


BawUMBM.—  1.  St  OMige.  DoBstsllcnorwic*.    2,  Mowe.  MIehMl  Aagelo.  «.  »y«ph.  Gosjoa 


Vmuu  of  Milo,  in  the  Louvre;  and  the 
cxQuisite  relief  representing  the  Parting 
0f  Orphemt  and  Enrvdice,  in  the  Museum 
at  Naples.  Greek  art,  .however,  rapidly 
moved  towards  a  still  closer  imitation  of 
actual  human  life.  The  calm  elevation 
of  spirit  characteristic  of  the  sculptura 
of  PUdlas,  and  of  his  pupil  Alcamenes, 
was  exchanged  for  a  more  life-like  render- 
ing of  passion,  and  the  artist  began  to 
be  fascinated  by  the  force  and  variety  of 
human  feeling  as  well  as  by  the  beauty 
of  human  form.  The  representatives  of 
this  later  style  were  Scopas  and  his 
youngsr  eontemporaiy  Praxiteles.  The 
most  fanportant  works  of  Scopes  that 
aorvtva  are  the  decorations  to  the  m&uso- 
llQBI  fit  SMiwnassas,  erected  by  Arte- 


gnce  of  his  style  are  admirably  dispUyed 
in  the  statue  of  Cent  discovered  at 
Cnidus,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
To  this  period  belong  the  celebrated  group 
of  Nioh9  and  Her  CkiWfw;  also  A* 
bronze  figure  of  NarcUnt  in  the  Naples 
Museum.  From  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  B.O.  828,  onwante  to  Uie  eo*' 
quest  by  the  Romans,  b.0.  146,  tiM  pro*' 
ress  of  Greek  sculpture  is  only  a  further, 
and  often  a  weaker,  development  of  the 
same  ideal.    The  celebrated  gnmp  of  the 

lM)eo8n,  the  head  ©J  tJ»*,0»**<Li^*S!; 
aiider.  the  Dying  aUdiator,  and  tte 
Apollo  Belvedere,  aw  some  of  the  warkS 
Jrfthls  epoch  that  are  preserved  tow. 

/tal«.— The   history   of   sculptura   la 
Italy  la  only  a  «ODtisaMce  w  m  «t^ 


Senlptese 


Soulptim 


a. 

M 
It 

HI 
if 

!h 
It 
«- 

8- 

ll 

in 
m 
■f 
■t 
Iw 
M 


Ion. 

•t 

im. 
rap 

tlM 

)lw 


Imt, 
th* 
tiw 

th» 
irka 
I. 

IB 


in  Gt««ce.  It  wu  Qntk  art  prpdocrf 
by  On»k  workmen  that  adorned  the  pal* 
acM  of  the  emperom;  and  the  Roman 
■eo^rtora,  in  so  far  aa  tbejr  bad  any  inde- 


BL  M  iehMl  and  Batas.— 
Flamuui. 


p«Dda.it  eziateoee,  can  only  claim  to  have 
bnpoTuriahcd  the  ideal  tlM7  received  from 
Greece.  Many  of  the  best-known  statoee 
in  exigence  were  produced  in  the  Gneco- 
Roman  oeriod :  as  the  Borghete  Olaitator 
in  the  Louvre,  the  Venus  de  Med%et  at 
Florence,  and  the  Farne$o  Htro%U$  at 
Naplea.  From  the  time  of  Hadrian  (AJi. 
1%)  art  rapidly  declined,  and  this  de- 
based Boiitan  was  the  only  style  employed 
in  Italy  until  the  revival  In  the  twelfth 
century.  This  revival  <rf  sculpture  began 
with  NicoU  Pisano.  who  was  bom  at 
Pisa  about  a.d.  ]S»6,  and  whose  work 
is  prcserve<1  in  the  pulpits  whidi  be 
carveS  at  Pisa  and  Siena.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  taa  Giovanni  Pisano  ^^'-mI 
1820),  whoe»  freat  work  is  the  all.  wr- 
ica!  croup  in  the  Campo  Banto  of  Pisa; 
l>i,t  both  of  ihese  wmlptoci  wqtM  49 


classic     Unas.     Jacopo^  della     Qo«fda 
(1874-1488).     wboas     beautiful     reUeftj 
adorning  the  facade  of  the  Church  of 
San  PetRmia  at  Bologna  show  a  feeling 
for  grace  not  before  expressed,  was  the 
founaer  of  the  modem  school.    Lorenzo 
Ohibertl   (1881-1466)    developed  a  more 
pictorial  style  with  extraordinary  success; 
but    sculpture    awaited    the    advent    of 
DonateUo   (1386-1468)   In  order  to  find 
Its  trae  direction  and  to  reach  its  full 
triumi^    His    marble    statue     of     8t. 
aiorge,  in  the  church  at  Or  San  Michele 
In   Florence,   is  one   of   the  very   finest 
works    of    renaissance    sculpture.    Luca 
'lella  Robbia  (1400*1),  and  Andrea  Ver- 
rocchio   (1432-88),  the  master  of  Leon- 
ardo da  Vinci,  may  also  be  named.    The 
spedal  tendenciea  of  Italian  sculpture  may 
be  said  to  have  reached  their  full  exprea- 
•ion    in    the    work    of    Michael    Angelo 
(1475-1664).    Here  we  see  all  previous 
efforts  to  interpret  passion  and  feeling 
■umsied  up  ana  concluded.    His  figures 
are  charged  with  all  the  possibilities  of 
human  experience  and  emotion.     It  was 
towards  this  complete  understanding  of 
the  resources  of  physical  expression  that 
all  Italian  art  had  been  tending,  and  it 
is   only   more 
fully   exhibited 

in    Michael    An- 
gelo   because    he 

waa  the  greatest 

maater  that  Italy 

produced.      H  i  s 

works  are  the 

statues    in    the 

chapel   of   the 

Medici  at  Flor- 

enos,    the     Cop- 

tivm  in  the  Lou- 
vre,  the  colossal 

Dwid    at    Flor- 

eaea,   the   jtfosea 

in  Borne,  and  the 

M    donn*     in 

Bruges.      For    a 

l<mg  period  after 

Michael    Angelo, 

Italian    sculptors 

were   content    to 

imitate,    and 

sometimes  to  ex- 
aggerate his  man- 
ner.    L  o  r  e  a  s  o 

Benlni      (168fr- 

1680).  tfaa  mas- 
ter of  the  'ba- 

fooo'    style,    ex-   John  Hsavdw.- 

emplifles      a 

straining   after   grace   and   eieonce   D». 

means  M  affectation.     In  the  eighteenth 

cMtury   Italy   b^me   the   headquarters 

^    At    CiiWical    revival    vrhich    spreM 


•IMey. 


i  tlMBM  tbroaghont  Bntope.    Tiie  iMdinf 

1  nirtt    In    tola    movemcDt    waa    Ganova 

S  a787-1822),  who.  altiwafh  ba  (ailed  to 

?!  raatarc  to  hia  art  ita  earlier  maacallne 
i  atreactb,  at  leaat  aought  in  the  atudjr  of 
i  the  aattqiw  (or  greater   aimpUcitjr  and 

elegance  in  repreaentation.  Canova'a 
moat  flnhriMd  prodoetioaa  are  notable  (or 
•a  aSeetiooate  tendemea*  o(  aentiment 
mthcr  than  imagination,  and  hia  figures 
are  never  (ormed  a(ter  the  highest  ideal. 
Bat  within  the  narrower  limits  o(  his 
atjrie  he  produced  much  that  Is  grace(ul, 
and  he  combined  in  a  manner  peculiar  to 
htaaseK  a  reminiscence  o(  antique  grace, 
with  a  (eeling  entirely  modem  and  umost 
domestic  In  ita  tendemesa.  His  most 
characteristic  worlu  are  the  Grace*,  the 
ffeie,  and  the  CnsmI  and  Ptvche  (all  well 
known),  but  hia  finest  work  Is  the  colossal 
croup  o(  Theaent  SlayiHq  a  Centaur  at 
Vienna.  Canova  (ormed  Thonraldsen, 
tlie  great  -Danish  sculptor,  and  his  name 
and  mfloence  dominated  the  art  o(  sculp- 
ture throughout  Europe  (or  many  years. 
Hto  pupils  were  Tenerani  and  Qiacomettl, 
and  among  later  sculptors  occur  the 
nauMs  o(  Bartolini  and  Dupr«.  Italian 
sealptnre  o(  to^ay  has  a  strong  biaa 
towarda  reaUam,  the  cbie(  exponents  be- 
ing Moatererde  and  Gallori,  Magni  and 
Baraaghi.  though  Consani,  Albani,  and 
Fed!  form  exceptions. 

France. —  The  early  art  of  France  was 
influenced  by  the  then  prevailing  styles. 
Thus  the  sculptures  of  her  cathedrals 
show  Bysantlne,  Romanesque,  and  Gothic 
influences,  the  finest  examples  in  this  last 
being  at  Amiens.  Awakening  in  the 
fi(te«ith  century  it  produced  as  pre- 
cursors o(  the  renaissance  Bouteillier  and 
Colombo  (1481-1514),  and  in  the  six- 
teenth century  Jean  Goujon  (1530-72), 
whose  best  work  is  the  Fountain  of  the 
Innocenta  in  Paris,  and  whose  Diana 
shows  all  the  (aults  and  beauties  of  the 
style.  Cousin  (1501-89).  PUon  (1515- 
90),  Pierre  Pnget  (1622-94),  Coysevox 
(1040-1720).  and  Girardon  (1630-1716) 
continued  the  style,  which,  while  aiming 
at  elegance  and  grace,  lost  simplicity 
and  roundness.    The  Danish  school  which 

froduced  Tfaorvaldsen,  owen  its  rise  to 
'rench  influence.  Later  yet  come  Hou- 
don  (1741-1828),  Bosio  (1769-1845), 
Rude  (l'ra6-1855),  Barye  (1795-1875), 
a  sculptor  of  animals,  and  Carpeaux, 
whose  chief  work.  La  Datine,  Is  in  (ront 
o(  the  new  opera  house  (1827-75) ;  and 
among  living  artists  are  St.  Marceaux, 
FrAniet  (animal),  Falguiire,  Merci4, 
Dakm.  Rodin,  and  Dubois  (monument 
of  Gneial  I/amoricitre),  who  (orm  a 
aeboo!  which  la  the  (oremost  and  most 
Titgi  is  Surop*. 


flanlptim 


Oerm^nif. —  TImt*  waa  no  earlr  aAeOl 
of  German  apart  (torn  tht  genera]  Gothic 
style  o(  all  northern  European  countries, 
but  with  the  renaiaaance  o(  the  fifteenth 
century  aroae  Adam  Krafft  (1480>160T) 
and  Peter  Viacber,  two  contemporary 
sculptors  o(  Nuremlierg,  and  Albert  DOrer 
(1471-1528),  painter  and  sealptmr.  Then 
came  a  break  until  the  rise  o(  the  modem 
nchool,  which  owes  its  existence  to  the 
influence  o(  Thorvaldsen.  The  ehle( 
names  are  Dannecker  (1758-1841),  with 
his  Ariadne  and  Sehadow  with  Otrl  Tuintt 
Her  Sandal  (1764-1850).  Ranch  (1777- 
1867)  was  the  real  (ounder  o(  the  modem 
German  school.  His  monument  to  Fred- 
erick the  Great  at  Berlin,  with  its  many 
accessory  figures,  is  his  finest  work,  and 
(rom  his  school  came  Rietschel  (1804- 
60),  Schwantbaler  (1802-48),  August 
Kiss  (1802-65),  Bandel  (1800-76),  and 
Drake  (1805-82).  Schillilig  is  the  most 
noted  among  the  living  scuiptora  o(  Ger- 
many. 

England. —  Of  examples  o(  sculpture 
executed  before  the  eighteenth  century 
England  possesses  very  (ew.  Several 
tombs  exist,  and  some  o(  the  cathednls, 
notably  Wells,  Exeter,  and  Lincoln,  pos- 
sess figures  executed  presumably  bf  Eng- 
lishmen at  an  earlier  date.  It  is  not, 
however,  until  the  reign  o{  Charles  I  that 
names  o(  artists  appear,  notably  jimong 
them  being  Nicholas  Stone  (1586-1647), 
and  Qrinling  Gibbons  (1048-1721).  who 
was  the  first  real  artist  o(  the  English 
school.  Cibber  may  be  mentioned,  but 
Joseph  Wilton  was  the  (orerunner  o(  the 
school  which  produced  Banks  and  Flax- 
man.  Banks  (1735-1806)  Is  the  father 
of  ideal  English  sculpture,  but  died  un- 
appreciated, leaving  John  Flaxman 
( 1755-1826)  to  achieve  the  taak  of  bring- 
ing the  classical  spirit  into  English  art, 
and  founding  the  school  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  His  love  for  severe  simplicity 
and  true  form  was  imbibed  in  Rome,  and 
is  best  seen  in  his  Shield  of  AchiUe$,  in 
his  Michael  Overcoming  Batan,  and  bla 
Cephalut  and  Aurora.  He  greatly  as- 
sisted Wedgwood  in  the  design  and  dec- 
oration of  his  pottery,  and  executed  a 
number  of  beautiful  designs  In  outline 
illustrative  of  Homer  and  o(  Dante.  His 
most  famous  pupil  was  Baily  (1788- 
1867),  whose  Eve  at  the  Fountain  la 
much  admired.  Sir  Francis  Chantry 
(1788-1841)  worked  chiefly  oa  portrait 
figures  and  busts,  and  Sir  Ricbara  West- 
macott  (1790-1856)  on  monuments.  John 
GilMon  (1701-1866).  a  pupil  of  Canova, 
more  properly  belongs  to  the  Italian  than 
the  Englinh  school,  his  whole  artistic  life 
having  been  paned  in  Rome.  His  finest 
works  ftre  Pfgeke  B»me  hf  Mepkfn^  th» 


ilQIllptWt 


SeiTfy 


Jfwvimu,  B9k»  iNMTf'wA  and  a  tem 
nlitvo  of  Chriit  Bhuhuf  OWMreji.  Tb« 
Ji«lM  ia  now  in  tbc  National  QaUarjr. 
Hb  introduction  ot  color  in  atataan 
MiMd  modi  diacuMion.  Foley  (1^ 
75),  whoae  chief  woA  ia  the  eqneatriaa 
iUtoe  of  General  Outram,  now  at  |^- 
cutta,  and  Patrick  Macdowall  (ITw- 
MTO)  with  Love  Trimmphant,  are  the 
laat  namea  of  tiM  daaaic  ecbool.  The 
tendency  of  ecnlptare  in  England  at  the 
preaent  dar  is  towards  a  more  original 
and  nataraliatie  treatment  Alfred  Stev- 
na  (died  1875)  is  the  author  of  the  finest 
decorative  work  in  England,  the  monu- 
mwt  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  St. 
Paul's,  London;  and  among  the  more 
fistinguisbed  of  living  men  are  Woolner, 
Boehm,  ThomjrCToft,  Gilbert,  Brock  and 
Leighton,  whose  works,  with  those  of  some 
Tonttger  men,  co  far  to  give  English  sculp- 
ture a  high  place. 

l7R«(ed  Stalef.— Among  earlier  sculp- 
tors Powers  and  Crawford  hold  command- 
ing positions.  Powers'  Ortek  Slave  no- 
xesents  a  hi|^  type  of  beauty.  Among  bis 
more  important  works  are  /(  Penieroeo, 
Proterpine  and  the  Fuher  Boy.  Craw- 
ford's equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
his  BeeMorei*  and  the  Peri  at  the  Qate 
of  Pandiee  have  attracted  much  atten- 
tion; the  American  Revolution  as  illus- 
trated on  the  bnmse  door  of  the  Capitol 
at  Washington  and  the  Statue  of  Liberty 
on  die  dome  of  the  Capitol  are  also  im- 
portant. The  Indian  Chief  and  Orpheut 
and  Cerherna  have  won  admiration. 
Horatio  Greenough'a  Chanting  Cherubt, 
the  Bunker  Uifl  Monument  and  the 
atatue  of  Washington  at  the  National 
Capitol  are  noble  works  of  art  Clev- 
oiter  (1812-1843)  and  Henry  K.  Brown 
(1814-1886).  were  artists  of  merit 
Akers  (1825-1861)  in  his  Pearl  Dk>er 
•zhibited  bis  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
principieo  of  art  and  a  strong  ioMfinative 
faculty.  Bartholomew  (18Z£-1858)  pro- 
duced several  dawic  and  scriptural  sub- 
jects in  which  he  showed  a  rare  natural 
Uloit  Story  (b.  1810)  holds  a  conspic- 
uous place  among  American  sculptors. 
Versatile,  with  a  delicate  and  noble  sen- 
timent his  work  is  not  strictly  original, 
tmt  is  marked  by  careful  finish.  Jenuo' 
lesi  Lamenting,  Cleopatra,  The  Sihgl,  and 
Medea  exhibit  his  almost  perfect  work. 
Rinehart  (1825-1874)  is  a  truly  ideal- 
istic sculptor.  Rogers,  Mead,  Palmer 
are  favorably  known.  J.  Q.  A.  Ward 
(b.  1880)  has  done  work  most  thoroughly 
national  and  entirely  original.  His 
statue  of  Waahington  is  a  noble  contri- 
bution. Tba  In^an  Hunter  is  a  remark- 
•Us  cauByla  U  AoMticaii  art    Laont 


Thompson,  Palmtr'a  pupil,  aa  a  pertnlt 
sculptor,  haa  hew  moat  sueccaafuL  wa 
can  instance  his  bust  of  Edwin  Booth, 
and  sUtues  of  Napoleon  and  OcoatU 
Sedgwick.  Rogers'  ^groups'  appeal  to 
popular  feeling  and  have  had  an  educat- 
ing influence.  St  Gandena,  O'Doaovan. 
Roberts,  Dengler.  French,  Hartley  aM 
Warner  are  younger  artists  whose  works 
reflect  credit  on  American  senlptnrt. 
Barnard's  admirable  aymb<riical  frooni 
for  the  Pennsylvania  capitol,  at  Bania* 
burg,  rank  amcmg  the  ablest  achievemsBta 
of  modem  aculpture.  Of  wmnen  scnlp- 
tors  in  America  can  be  mentioned  Harrlat 
Hosmer,  whose  Sleeping  Faan  and  2««a- 
hia  bear  marks  of  strong  indinduaUtf. 
Emma  Stebblns,  Anne  Whitnev,  yiBBla 
Ream  Hozie  and  Edmonla  Lewla  deaarri 
permanent  record. 

flAimTMira  (skup'em),  channels  cat 
BOUppen  fhrou",!,  the  sides  of  a  ahlp 
at  the  edges  of  the  deck  to  carry  water 
off  the  deck  into  the  sea. 
Sflnnrv  (■knf'vi),  a  diaease  <«  a 
ovuxvjr  putrid  nature  prevalent  in 
cold  and  damp  climates,  and  which  chiefly 
affects  sailors,  and  such  as  are  deprivad 
of  fresh  provisions  and  a  due  quantity 
of  vegetable  food.  It  seems  to  depoid 
more  oa  a  defect  of  nourishment  than  on 
a  vitiated  state ;  and  not  to  be  of  a  oon* 
tagious  nature.  It  comes  on  gradually, 
with  heaviness,  weariness  and  nnwiUlBt* 
ness  to  move  about,  together  with  dejec- 
tion of  spirits,  comuderable  losa  of 
strength,  and  debility.  As  it  advanoos 
in  its  progress  the  countenance  becomea 
sallow  and  bloated;  respiration  is  hnr> 
ried  on  the  least  motion;  the  teeth  ba- 
come  loose;  the  gums  are  spongy;  tha 
breath  is  very  offensive ;  livid  spots  appear 
on  different  parts  of  the  body;  old 
wounds,  which  have  long  been  healed  ap, 
break  out  afresh ;  severe  wandering  paina 
are  feU,  particularly  by  night;  the  skin 
is  dry;  the  urine  small  in  quantity;  and 
the  pulse  is  small,  frequent,  and  towards 
the  last  intermitting ;  but  the  intellect 
for  the  most  part,  clear  and  distinct 
By  an  aggravation  of  tbe  symptoms  the 
sufferer  in  its  last  stage  exbibiU  a  moot 
wretched  appearance.  Scurvy  as  usually 
met  with  on  shore  is  unattended  by  anjr 
symptoms  other  than  slight  blotdiea,  with 
scaly  eruptions  on  different  parts  of  the 
body,  and  a  sponginess  of  tbe  gums.  In 
the  cure,  aa  well  as  the  prevention  of 
scurvy,  more  is  to  be  done  by  regisMB 
than  by  medicines,  obviating  aa  far  aa 
posaiUe  the  aeverai  remote  causes  of  the 
disease;  but  particularly  providing  the 
patient  with  a  more  wholesome  diet  aad 
a  large  ^roportim  of  freah  vegetablfli. 


Seurvy-griM 


Mjuiropt 


Both  M  t  prflTtntlTt  tad  m  a  contiv* 
■f«Bt  lia*  or  ItBOB  Joiot  is  of  tht  fint 
imporUuM*  la  this  diw— . 


ScnTTy-grtii  tfjf^cn.aBS£ 

plant  growlac  hi  Britain  and  ahMwhwa 


Ht),     a     cradttrotta 

Britain  and  alaawhara 

on  tat  Maahora  and  high  ap  on  tha 
Bomtaina.  It  haa  loac  bean  aataamad 
for  it!  antlacorbntie  prcvartj,  and  hanca 
ita  1  ama.  Tha  learca  ara  aUghtly  j^in- 
flarji.   und  ara  aomctimaa  naad  aa  a  aalad. 

Sentaffe  ("i^a'tU).  or  EacuAOB  (L.  l. 

*^'^^*B^  acalaftoai,  from  L.  aoafaai,  a 
ahicid),  in  feooal  law,  tha  acrvlca  by 
which  a  vaaMl  was  l)oand  to  follow  hia 
lord  to  war  at  hia  own  ehargca.  It  waa 
■ubaequently  commuted  for  a  paconiary 
satiafactlon  and  becama  a  parliamentary 
aaseMment,  tha  coatom  of  commnting 
nerrice  baring  becoma  ganeral  and  tha 
rata  of  commutation  Tanabla. 
SflntAri  (aka'ti-rl),  a  town  of  Aaiatic 
SOUian  ^rktj.  on  the  Boapborda, 
oppoaita  Conatantinopla,  of  which  it  ia 
a  auburb.  It  is  bailt  on  an  amphitheater 
of  hills,  and  contiina  numeroua  moaquea, 
fine  baaaara  and  bttha,  barrackk  and  a 
aaraglio  of  the  •>  tan.  Behind  tha  town 
hi  an  ImuMnae  sBetery.  Scutari  conr 
tains  gnnariv*  4iii  is  a  fruit  market. 
The    manuf«>  are    aaddleir,    ailk, 

muslin  and    -  <        snlb.    Pop.  106,000. 

Scnteri,  «,.  iSi  "orSSSh'^li: 

bania,  at  t  ^r  seutfa  end  of  the  lake  of 
same  nan»>  It  hsa  ^anufactuiea  of  arms 
and  cottou  stuCB,  ad  beiag  aitnated  on 
the  Bejana.  bf  ch  the  lake  (18  mile* 
long  by  6  wide;  ilschars«a  Ita  waters 
into  the  -driatic,  is  favo-ably  situated 
for  comotierce.    Po-     aboot  32,000. 

Scutcheon.   ^  «»«'<o»«»-. 
Scutching  Machine  .<^Ll?fi; 

rough-dressing  fiber,  as  fiaz,  cotton,  or 

ailk. 

flAvlln    (sU'la),  a  rock  in  tha  Strait 

»vyua    of  Mewina,  on  the  Italian  side 

nearly  opposite  the  whirlpool  of  Charyb- 

dis.     Various     legends    were    associated 

with  Scylla  and  Charybdia,  which  were 

esteemed  highly  dangerous  to  navigators. 

See  Charybdia. 

Sfivllid»     (ami-de).  the  dog-fishes,  a 

SCyiUOK    j^^^jjy    ^l    smali-sised    but 

very  abundant  sharks.  They  are  caught 
in  great  numbers  for  the  sake  of  their 
oil.    See  Dog-fith. 

Scynmida  i^^S-^lUfS^  Si 

the  abaence  of  an  anal  fin,  and  by  doraals 
unfurnished  with  spines.  The  lobes  of 
the  caudal  fin  or  tail  are  nearly  equal, 
and  the  head  is  foratehed  with  a  pair  « 


avlradaa.    Tha   Oiaaniaad 

Is  tha  baat-knowB  

Sojm,    BaaWffraa. 

g0Yf1|0  (tfth),  an  laatroBiaat  oaad  in 
wv/  mamm  aM^iag  Qg  rMoing,  rooaiatlng 
of  a  kof  earrhug  blada  with  a  riiarp  edge, 
mada  fait  at  a  proper  angle  to  the  lower 
and  of  a  mors  or  kaa  upright  handle, 
whidi  la  bant  Into  a  coavanlant  form  for 
awinginc  tha  Uada  to  advantage.  Moat 
acytbaa  nava  two  abort  projecting  handica 
fixed  to  tha  principal  Bandl^  by  which 
they  ara  held.  Hie  real  Ihie  of  the  handle 
is  that  which  pasaea  through  both  the 
hands,  and  anda  at  tha  head  of  the  bbide. 
Thia  may  be  a  atralght  line  or  a  crooked 
one,  generally  the  latter,  and  by  moving 
tha  short  handlea  np  or  down  the  nwin 
handle,  each  mower  can  place  them  so  aa 
beat  auita  tha  nafural  use  and  position 
of  his  body.  For  laying  cut  com  evenly, 
a  «rsdi&  as  it  is  called,  may  be  used. 
The  cradle  is  a  contrivance  aomewhat  re- 
aembling  a  rake,  with  three  or  four  long 
teeth  ao  fixed  to  the  acytba  aa  to  stretch 
the  cut  grain  properly  at  each  sween  of 
tha  acytba.  A  species  of  scythe  which 
haa  beien  called  the  cradle-scythe  i9  reg- 
ularly need  with  tha  cradle  for  reaping 
in  aoma  ktcalitiaa.  One  form  of  acythe 
has  a  abort  branching  handle  aomewhat 
in  the  shape  of  the  letter  Y,  haTlag  two 
small  handlea  fixed  at  the  extremitlea  of 
the  two  branchea  at  right  angles  to  the 
plane  in  which  they  lie.  The  Hainanlt 
scytlie  is  a  acythe  used  with  only  one 
hand,  and  ia  employed  when  the  com  is 
much  laid  and  entangled.  The  person  haa 
a  book  in  one  hand  with  which  he  collecto 
a  imall  bundle  of  the  straggling  com, 
and  with  the  scythe  in  the  other  hand 
cuts  it.  The  scythe  haa  largely  gone  out 
of  use  since  the  advent  of  the  mowing 
machine. 

Scythian  i^a^r^^^  jsri^^t 

writera.  It  was  sometimes  applied  to 
all  the  nomadic  tribes  which  wandered 
over  the  regions  to  the  north  of  the 
Black  and  the  Caspian  Seas,  and  to 
the  east  of  the  latter.  In  the  time  of  the 
Roman  Empire  the  name  Scythia  ex- 
tended over  Asia  from  the  Volga  to  the 
frontiers  of  India.  The  people  of  this 
region,  being  little  known,  were  the  sub- 
ject of  numerous  fables. 

scy«irops  ir;ri£i.*jMSf'£: 

longing  to  the  cuckoo  family.  Only  one 
species  is  known,  the  8.  Novm  HomnHm. 
a  very  han^ome  and  elegantly  colored 
bird  Inbabittai|  part  of  Australia  and 
some  of  the  Eastern  Islands,  about  the 
<;{««  {tf  the  e-ommon  crow.    It  has  a  Utifa 


8e»-oat 


and  enrioody  formed  baak,  wlddi  |ivM 
it  M  dofQlar  an  aapaet  that  ea  a  hasty 
glanca  it  migbt  almost  b«  takan  for  a 
toucan  or  liombUL 
gUg      8m  Oomii. 

Sea-aoonu   «*  «•*«"«• 

8A&-An«mon«  (••-a-B«m's-B«),  tho 
oea-anunone  popular  name  given  to 
a  number  of  animals  of  the  salAncdom 
Calenterata  and  class  Actinosoa,  indud- 
iw  the  genus  AeUM*  and  other  genera. 
They  are  among  the  meet  interesting 
ornnisms  met  with  on  the  sea-beach, 
and  in  aquaria  form  a  great  attractimi. 
AH  sea-anonones,  however  varfed  in  col- 
oration  or  form,  present  the  essential 
structure  and  appearance  of  a  fleshy 
cylinder,  attached  oy  its  base  to  a  rock 
or  stone,  and  presenting  at  its  free  ex- 
tremity the  mouth,  surrounded  by  a 
circlet  of  arms  or  tentacles.  With  these 
tentacles,  which  may  be  very  numerous. 


like 


itter. 


a  eonieal  bmh  of  JaUr 
Although  these  forma  an 


Sm-mimmom. 
•,  BMaetit  b«il(«.     »,  CylMa  vidumtm. 

b  some  cases  ezce<«ding  200  in  number, 
they  seise  and  secure  their  food  —  small 
Crustacea,  moUcMcs,  such  as  whelks,  etc. — 
which  they  paralyse  by  means  ac  the 
thread-cells  common  to  th«n  wMk  all 
Coelenterata.  The  mouth  leads  into  a 
stomach-sac,  which,  however,  is  lap«r- 
fectly  specialised,  and  is  such  tl^  a 
generalisied  idea  of  the  stmclure  of  a  sea- 
anemone  may  be  gained  by  suppoateg  that 
the  animal  in  transvMse  sectke  npn- 
sente  a  double  tube,  tka  a«ter  taba  e«»re- 
sp<»idine  to  the  body-waBi,  and  the  inner 
tube  to  the  stonadi-sac.  WImbi  fully 
expended  the  appearance  of  the  ai 
in  all  their  varieties  of  «o!m  is 
Irgly  beautiful.  B«t  upon  Ae  ^rhlast 
touch  the  tentades  can  be  igaiekTj  ■«• 
traeted  witiUn  the  muuthafeiture,  the 
fluida  of  tita  body  are  cipaled  by  the 
aBmoth,  and  the  aniawl,  tnm  pnaeating 
the    appeanuice    of    a    fully    expaad»a 


attadMd  to  rocks  and  fixed  objects,  thmr 
jmpear  able  to  detach  themselves  at  wilL 
TMy  are,  most  of  them,  dlcedous,  that 
is,  having  the  sexes  situated  in  diffeiant 
iodividuau.  The  young  are  devel^ad 
within  tlie  parent  body,  and  appear  lo 
their  embryo  state  as  free  smamiac 
dilated  bodies  of  an  oval  ahape.  Tba 
sea-anemonea  leaembla  the  Aydr*  ia 
their  marvelous  powers  of  resisting  im- 
Juries  and  mutilation.  Thus  if  a  sea* 
anemone  be  divided  longitudinally  a  new 
animal  will  ia  due  time  be  formed  out 
of  each  half.  They  appear  singularly 
inausceptible  also  to  the  action  of  hot 
or  cold  water,  and  seem  to  be  wonderfully 
l<mg-lived.  A  well-known  instance  oC 
iMigevity  on  the  part  of  the  sea-anemoaa 
is  that  afforded  by  one  named  'Granajr,' 
which  was  taksn  by  Sir  John  Dalyili 
in  1828,  and  lived  tiU  1887.  They  are 
eaten  aa  food  in  Italy,  Greece,  Provence, 
and  on  various  other  coasts. 
ajia.oTMi  *  name  smnetimes  given  t« 
o«»'»P«>  the  fox-shark  or  thresher. 
See  Thre$k«r, 

Sea-bathing,  gjf  Xts*^«,  f^^. 

nary  cold  bath  wi<h  the  additional  stim- 
ulus due  to  the  salt,  so  that  it  acts  as 
an  invigorating  tonic.  Persona  who  are 
anemic  —  that  is,  of  deficient  quality  of 
blood  —  and  those  sufferiiw  from  any  in* 
temal  complaint  ought  to  refrain  from 
sea-bathing.  It  has,  nowever,  been  found 
very  salutary  in  several  oMBmlainta,  as 
diseases  of  the  glands  of  all  kinds,  and 
of  the  skin  in  scrofula  and  a  serofulom 
predispodtioo,  exliausting  swsata,  and 
tendency  to  catarrhs,  chrooie  n«rvoya 
diseases,  pMtienlarhr  hysteric  aMaeka,  ^l- 
lepiiv,  St.  Vtta^a  Auiee; 

advise  asa  bathing  for 


Sm   BukUioni,   «  t«ll«w 


»  tresB  wttk 
gray  silky  fali^ie  msl  wtiia 
leaves.  Rere  ki  hat  oae  known  sp>ris» 
sem^iaies  called  the  sea  badrthacn,  m 
large  ftMBy  iriirub  or  low  tree^  a  wUiva  < 
parts  of  the  aandy  sea-coasts  «f  BBftai 
sad  tSm  eeati— t  tt  Boape,  mttUm 


tlMat  tt 

a  rat  fart  at  TSMMI9- 

pmattA  as  Jana  aiaiea 


Aa  '"'^  Jp"^^*^ 
win  succeed, 

ednei  «ad  ava  t . 

■ ^     a  aao*  givaa  to  the  CMaara 

an  oai,    mmttrot*.    leeCMMWa. 


InI 


BM  JfCIMlM. 


Bm  Jl0fo<k«H«. 


8m  llMt. 


■••■^''■»'''"  Mtom  fish  incloded 
UBOof  O*  Lopbobnacbil  (whkh  tec). 
The  bfwat  is  very  wMs,  and^  Um  large 
dM  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  form  whit- 
IttM  atroctues,  together  with  its  geoml 
appearance,  have  proeared  for  this  fish 
ita  popahir  name.  P.  nataiu,  an  allied 
q^edca,  has  soMller  pectoral  fins  and  a 
luger  body.  The  sea-dragon  occnn  in 
Jaraacse  waters.  Tlw  dragonets  {CtU 
Neii«M««),  fishes  of  the  goby  family 
(0MtM«),  are  also  known  as  sea-dragons. 
fMA^AtttflA  *  name  applied  to  one  or 
■•■^■w*'*  two  members  of  the  eagle 
family;  bat  probably  with  most  dis- 
tinctive value  to  the  dnereoos  or  white- 
tailed  eagle  or  erne  iEaliaHtiu  olbtcttta), 
foond  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  gen- 
erally found  inhalriting  the  sea-coasts, 
and  although  living  mainly  upon  fish,  yet 
makes  inland  Journeys  in  search  of  food, 
and  seises  lambs,  haras,  and  other  ani- 
mals. The  head  is  Covered  with  long 
drooping  feathen  of  ashy  brown  color, 
whilf  the  body  is  of  a  dark-brown  hue^ 
streaked  in  some  places  with  lighter  tints, 
and  having  the  primary  feathera  of  the 
wing  muatly  black.  The  tail  is  rounded, 
and  is  of  white  color  in  the  adult,  but 
brown  in  tlw  young  bird.  The  bird 
breeds  in  Shetland  and  in  the  Hebrides. 
Its  avenge  sise  appean  to  be  alwut  8 
feet  in  length,  and  from  6  to  7  feet  in 
expanse  of  wings.  The  American  bald- 
headed  eagle  (Uuliaitut  hucoeephaliu) 
ttma  its  frequenting  the  sea-coasts  is  also 
named  the  sea-eagle.  Bee  Eagle, 
%m^f^aT      '^  Haliotia, 

fJlMj^mmr    the  sea-urchin.    See  EeUnitt. 
Sea-elepliailt.    SeeBtep*o»*-eeal. 

Seaford  i*'W',*  ??■"  ***T°  **f 

"*"**'***    England,    In    the   county    of 
Bosses,  8  miles  8.B.  of  Newbavcn,  now 
a  popular  seaside  resort.    Pop.  4787. 
Sea-fOZ.    Seer»re.Aer. 

w»"T5*«*4»^>  lira,  nat  order  Onetacea, 
closely  allied  to  the  conifers.  Tlie  spe- 
des  cmisist  of  shrubs  with  jointed  stems, 
whence  they  are  also  called  Joint-fiir$. 

8es.gna.  8«.o™~-»™*. 


of  DoiImub.  6  nllea  •.  «[  Biaderiand, 
has  an  esceileat  harbor  for  tb»  sbii^ng 
ofcoaL    Pop.  1S.70B. 

Sea-han  <^^«'**f ^' i^LfH!*  ^» 

HVMraawAv  genim  of  gasteroMdoM  mol- 
Inaea.  These  animate  art  slvrilhe  la 
appearance,  and  derive  their  popolar 
name  from  the  prominent  dMracter  of 
the  front  pair  of  tentaclea,  which  r?me- 
what  resemble  the  ean  of  a  hart.  The 
shell  hi  either  absent  or  to  of  very  nidi- 
mentary  character,  and  to  concealed  by 
the  mantle.  Four  tentacles  exist,  and 
the  eyes  ara  sitoated  at  tha  hast  of  tkt 


Depiistery  8«s-kwe  (l|rfr*te  AayAnw). 

hinder  tentacles.  The  sea-hares  an 
widely  dtotributed  throoghoat  moat  seas, 
and  generally  inhabit  moddy  or  sandy 
tracts.  They  emit  a  flaid  of  a  rich  purple 
hue,  which,  like  the  1^  of  the  cnttle- 


an  acrid  fluid  of  milky  appcaranct,  whkh 
has  an  irritant  elfect  on  the  human  skin, 
and  in  the  case  of  A.  dtfOant  was 
thoufht  to  have  the  property  of  remov- 
ing hair. 

Sea-hedgehog.  8««  *«»*•••• 

Sea-hog.    SeePorpo*.*. 

sea-none.   i^j^ftraiSiMi 

{Ua-ItaIii  (Cramfte  mariltoia) .  a  per- 
OCa-iiaie     gn„jgi  cruciferous  hub,  a 

species  of  colewort,  called  also  seo-osfr- 
fta^e.    It  to  a  native  of  tbt  sea-coasts  of 

Europe,  and  to  much  cultivated  hi  gardens 
as  a  table  vegetable,  the  btondied  young 
shoots  and  leaf-stalks  being  the  parts 
eaten. 

Sea-king.  ^^  ^**^- 

CUol  (sfl),  an  engraved  stamp  bearing 
*'^"*  a  device  or  inscription  pertainfaic 
to  the  owner ;  also,  the  impresd<m  of  such 
a  stamp  on  a  ptostic  suDstanee  as  wax. 
A  seal  upon  a  doeumoit  was  wrlgtoaily 
a  substitute  for  a  aignaton:  a  aeal  upon 
a  ptoce  oi  deposit  answered  the  pnrpost 
of  security  in  a  diffettiit  manner  f rom  ar 
lock.    The  ust  of  seato  to  ol  tht  Utfbert 


Mil 


•Btiquky,  and  «■■  of  tte  Mrttt  tmi 
eoameamt  forms  ki  tto  oiBMt'rlBg. 
In  Egypt  impimmkmm  of  tmh  Dm*  bbmIi 
U  ftM  tin.  Mi  attoclMd  to  docuoMBta 
hr  alhio  ei  pii^rL  no  BraMM  wed 
tks,  booo'-wu,  cad  in  tko  ttaM  of  tbo 
MBpiM  load  for  teldiif  toptwoloiu.  In 
tlM  tloM  of  OoutnntiM  flat  motol  omIs 
Mlkd  HMm  «?rt  aood.  Tho  motob 
oood  wtiv  foid,  mm,  and  toad,  and  tko 
balh»  WOTt  attached  to  docnnwata  bj 
■Ilk  or  wooton  bands.  Tho  toadtn  seal 
was  adoptod  hj  tho  pq^os.     (8«o  BuU.) 


en  oaeh  toot,  a«d  tht  aid^ 
tlM  hlndor  fwt  ja%  IBQ^  lAortOT 
tho  oattr  onoa.    Tho  toos,  whidi 
▼Mod  with  daw-llko  aail^  an 
by  a  w«b  of  skin,  and  so  fom 
■wiioi^nf  paddlML    Tho  foro 

mors  ll^pws.    Tho  dootition   

that   off   eamlYoni   gratraUy.    no 
MMttlly  consists  of  a  dooso  tbkfc  „ 
far  and  of  an  ontor  coat  of  toOMr 
coarser  hairs.    Tho  bones  are  m 
spongy   texture,   and   beneath   tho 
is  a  tUclter  layer  of  Uabbor  or 


Attltsdei  of  the  For  Seal  ia  the  Water. 
Bieathlag.  SlMping.  SerateUag. 


The  western  monsrchs  generally  used 
ball*  np  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
ose  of  oees'-wsz  was  introduced  by  the 
Normans;  sealing-wax  was  inrented  in 
the  serenteenth  century  (See  SeaUMfh 
«M«.)  Documents  in  Eiwisnd  are  still 
sealed  in  compliance  with  veni  formality, 
hut  tlio  true  voucher  to  which  alone  any 
real  importance  attaches  is  the  signature. 
There* are  three  seals  ofBcially  used,  in 
Binglsnd  —  the  great  and  privy  seals,  and 
tho  signet  Tat  United  States  govern- 
ment and  the  several  States  have  seals, 
each  with  a  distinctive  device  or  legend. 
The  attestation  of  deeds  and  other  aocu- 
ments  by  a  nota^r's  seal  stamped  upon 
tbo  paper  is  customary. 
Hoftl  the  name  applied  collectively  to 
^^^**  certain  genera  of  mammals,  order 
Camivora,  section  Pinnipedia  or  Pinni- 
grada,  in  whkh  the  feet  exist  hi  the 
form  of  swimming-paddles.  Two  dis- 
tinct groups  of  sealB  are  defined  by 
soologists,  the  PhocUm,  or  common  or 
true  seatt,  and'  the  Otariite,  or  eared 
seals. 

The  Pkoddm,  the  true  or  hair  seals, 
bsve  a  body  of  fish-like  contour.  They 
have  no  external  ear,  and  the  hind  limbs 
ar.'  pormaaratly  stretched  out  behind 
the  body  and  parailel  with  the  tail,  a 
cmiformation  obviouirty  faiapproprfaate 
and  unsaited  for  aupnorting  the  body  for 
locomotion  on  lalwi.  but  a^iraUy 
adapted  :->r  swimmiaf.    Fivs  toss  szte 


The  eyes  are  large  and  intelligent,  and 
the  sense  of  smell  is  also  well  developed. 
The  sense  of  touch  appears  to  reads 
chieflT  in  the  'whfadnis'  of  the  Um. 
The  brain  is  of  large  sise  in  proportloB 
to  tho  bddy,  and  when  domesticatM  seals 


(HdMalerar^eat. 


Iml 


tMdOM   MMM  iU»  two  JTMI 

OM  btbw  tkf  Bwm  an 


fMaf  a 

BSMMr. 


9t  tatfUl- 
Md  iriiip 


at  Uiti, 


Mcsr  ■Uhm^  la  uS  mm  MCfpt  tkeii  m 
an  laifuy  nntia  for  tawr  ttna,  «i 


Xhm)  ii% 


•l«rM  frpf^M  or  jriHw),  attalao  a 
hkSJ  mm  •  to  f  Cwt,  uid  io  fMHii 

OB  Im  ptaawBtrhtw  aad  uMtaadle  ooaotik 


r,  MMywOt  naaa  la  tao  OMplaa  wa. 
oirSt  Blboflaa  lata  Alfl  Md 


kal,  attal 


BOrtkMfB     OHIO.     Itl 

tgm  8  to  5  fMt..8] 


!oBad  iriiily  ti^ofboat  tS 


rowB,  BMttiwl  wlih  black. 


ivtran   JMngtli 


to 

fToy- 

It  to  very 


Blboftaa  kkM 

■a  a  toBfth  o(  aboot 

tooofftyiiwaj  to  npnanplod 

■^•ral  moetoo  of  tba  ■oathtnifMik 

I  tor  tlit  »oak  omI  IB.  mtmitkmT^ 

IMitomtiaB.  wbkli  attafaM  a  toi^h 

10  to  12  not,  aad  omom  to  bavt 

•tal  b«M  kaowa  to  tao  i 


fMtractivo  to  aKWt  of  tbo  food  flabos. 
It  to  Biodi  attocbad  to  ita  ronng,  and  to 
atroBfljr  attracted  by  moalcal  aoanda. 
It  to  BOTar  BMt  vUb  ia  toifa  Bombara, 


aaatonta 

aa  Cyttofkdra  loelodaa  tiia'lhna 

Boae,  boadcd  or  eraatad  aaal   (c*. 

artoMto)  <4  tba  Graaotond  aaaa,  in  wbicb 


tbo  noaa  of  tba  naaka  baa  a  enriom  dto- 
traaibto  aac,  and  wbkb  attaina  bb  av* 
arac*  leoftb  of  froai  10  to  12  fact.  It 
atoo  iaeladaa  tba  torio  aaa  atopbaat,  ato> 


Common  SmI  CAdnlt  aiid' Yoonc) 


«r  far  away  from  the  land.  Cloaely 
allied  to  tba  cmnmon  aeai  to  the  marbled 
acal  (P.  dtooolor),  met  with  on  aome 
of  tbo  European  coasta.  The  barp  aeal, 
Orecntoad  aeal,  aaddtoback.  or  atak 
(PAooo  ^neenlamUco),  inhabita  almoat 
all  porta  of  tba  Arctic  Ocean.  Tba  malea 
average  5  feet  in  tongth,  are  colored  of 
a  tawny  gray,  and  on  the  back  tbeie  to 
a  darit  maA  reaembling  a  harp  or  aaddle 
in  abape.  In  the  apriog,  at  breeding 
aeaaon,  theae  aeah  reaort  in  immenaa 
hcrda  to  the  floea  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
aroand  Jan  liayen  latond.  where  great 
nombera  of  them  are  killed  annually  by 
erewa  of  the  aealing  veiaels.  The  great 
MBl  (^Apco  barbata),  which  measurea 
8  01*  10  feet  in  length,  occurs  In  Soath- 
ara   4}reaBtoBd.    Tba   gray   seal  {Hali- 


phont-seal,  or  bottlenioaed  aeol  (0.  or 
Morungt  proboaetdeo)  of  the  Anarctie 
Seaa,  which  attaina  a  length  of  from 
20  to  80  feet.    See  ^lepkoiit-aeal. 

The  OtarUw  or  'eared'  aeato  are  dis- 
tinguiabed  by  the  poaaeaaion  of  a  amali 
outer  ear.  which  to  alMWit  tn  the 
Photiim,  xtj  a  longer  neck,  batter  de> 
velopcd  limba,  and  a  atructnral  retotion* 
abip  which  prcaenta  a  much  nearer  affin- 
ity to  that  of  the  beara.  Of  tbaaa  the 
northern  aea-li<m  (BumetopUu  or  Oforte 
BttXltri),  BO-called  from  tbe  anno  ot 
atiff  criira  hairs  on  ita  neck  and  ^oaldera, 
ia  a  native  of  the  PribyloS  Istonda  and 
other  porta  of  Alaaka.  Tbe  aaa-bear 
or  fur  aeai  extenda  aonth  of  the  equator 
from  near  the  tropica  to  tbe  .teiteretlc 
regiona.    It  w.**  Tarr  abondaat  at  tbe 


of  tto  PritoloflioB^  oTW  «w3t3 

km  to  At TwtkwB  fur  •!^(f««}: 

Ttoito  tboM  totoado,  luklaf  Its  aMMr* 
•Bco  ftoa  tlM  watbirard  kto  is  tho 
qniiif,  chioijr  tor  rt^rodtictiTt  jwrpooto, 
ImtIiSv  Mafai  about  tbt  «id  ofOetobtr 
or  basinainff  of  Novombor.  EaA  old 
■alo  ButM  witb  ton  or  fiftMon  or  moro 
femain,  whom  bo  nardo^Joaloaaly,  aod 
in  wbOM  behaU  bo  Bfbta  fnriomljr.  Tbo 
ftmalo  flToa  birtb  to  ono  pop.  Tho  malo 
attain  matarity  about  tbt  tiriitb  ytar. 
when  tta  lengtb  la  from  7  to  8  Jftt,  and 
ita  wtif  bt  f  KMB  800  to  700  Ibo.  Tbt  onUr 
•nd  looftr  bain  of  ita  fur  an  ^  « 
frayish-brown  color,  tbt  thicktr  undtr- 
fur  btiag  darktr  or  rtddiab-brpwa ;  and 
it  ia  tbto  fint  nndw-fnr  wbkb,  wbtn 
atripptd  of  tbo  coartt  oottr  balra  and 
drtiatd  by  tbt  forritr.  affordt  ono  of 
tht  moat  btantiful  and  Talntd  of  tbo 

'  ttalskina '  <rf  commtwt. ^  , 

Tbt  teal  llabtrita  art  diridtd  into  balr- 
■tal  llabtrita  and  fur^tal  fiabtriei.    Tbt 
principal  atata  of  tbt  balr-atal  flabery  art 
Ntwfoundland.  Jan  Hayen  and  tbt  Cat* 
plan  8«a.    Ntarly  balf  tbt  total  numbtr 
of  atait  obtainod  la  taktn  on  tbo  Now* 
foundland  coast.    Tbt  Jan  Ma/tn  fiabtry 
ia  earritd  on  l>y  tbt  Britiab.  Norwtfiana» 
Bwtdta,  Danca  and  Otrmana.  tbt  numbtr 
of  aaafai  taken  by  tbt  Britiab  Ttaatla  bt* 
ins  about  tqual  to  tbat  taken  bj  all  tbt 
othtra  togetbtr.    Tbt  only  Britiab  porta 
now  engaged  in  tbt  induatry  art  Dundtt 
and  Ptterhead.    Stenmera  are  employed, 
and  tbe  veaaela  make  tbt  ice  about  tbt 
middlt  of  Marcb,  and  protecute  tbt  teal 
fiaUng  tUl  about  tbe  middle  of  May,  when 
they  proceed  to  the  whale  fiabing.    Tbt 
aeala  are  taken  either  by  clubbing  than 
or  ahooting  them  when  congregated  on  tbe 
ica.    Tht  apteiea  taken  are  the  aame  aa 
thoat  on   tht   Ntwfoundland   coast,   tht 
harp   or   aaddle-back   and   the   hood   or 
bladder-nooe.    Tht  akina  art  aalted,  and 
tbt  fat  ia  atowed  into  tanka,  and  manu- 
factured into  oil  when  the  reaaela  reach 
home  in  tbe   autumn.    Tht  blubber  of 
about    100   aeah    yields   a    tun   of   oil. 
Owing  to  the  reckleas  way  in  which  the 
flabery   baa   been   conducted   aeahi   have 
greatly   dlminiabed   in   numbera  of   late 
yeaia  in  k)calitita  whtrt  tbey  were  for- 
merly  plentiful;   but   a   'cloat  aeaaon' 
baa  now  batn  eatabUabed  both  in  tho 
NawfoQDdlasd  fli^try  and  tba  Jan  Mayen 


^^^^^^ 

whtoh  wait  iMMd  In  1870  by  ttaAhifca 
OesMidal  CaajPUBZ  «<  ^^»  y»Mdac» 
uid  IB  IMO  by  WRartk  4!>*rkiui  Vw 
8tallnfl5oi>Mny.  It  to  iiaVartltd >a 
at  tba  StralSof  Joan,^,  Fyca,  rttta 
Loboo  latonda,  moath  of  Ble.^  ^^J^*h 
at    tht    8Mtb  .Bbttland    lalaada    aad 


Kfslta  of'iJMitllaorand  at  tba  Otpt 
a  Good  Bopa.  Tbt  IndlaerlntoiAa 
kUUas  of  fur  atato  to  tht  opa«  aaM  bf 
TtaaA  cbltfly  from  Canada,  tod  to  • 
eontrovamr  batwttB  tba  Unlttd  Btattn 
and  tba  Brittob  goftnuatnta.  tba  me« 
tkt  of  octan  flahlac  btooakic  ao  ^- 
Btmetifa  tbat  tbtrt  waa  atiloaa 


of  aanihIlatloB  of  tba  atato.  Forttnat^ 
tbt  diflcnlty  hM.btan  adJtutdL  Oanada 
and  Janan  rtetlTlnfl  part  of  fta  praAta 
of  tba  fibtrita  tortbalr  abwuntioii  tnm 
tbto  dtatrocthra  pioctat.  Tbt  ataUng 
company  to  not  aDowtd  to  take  mora  than 
100,000  akina  aaooaU/,  and  tbto^from 
roung  males,  tbt  old  matoa  and  tbt 
Tta  bttog  prtatrrtd  for  brttding  por- 


frr. 


BUal  QtKAT,  a  atal  natd  for  tho  Unittd 
*'^*h  Kingdom  in  ataling  tbt  write  to 
summon  paruamoit,  trtatita  with  fortlgn 
Butta,  and  othtr  paptrs  of  high  momtnt 
Tbt  lord-ebanctllor  to  kttptr  of  tbt  grtat 
staL  Tbt  United  Btatea  has  a  crMt  asal 
of  dndtor  character  In  chargt  of  tbt  8te> 
rttary  of  Btatt.  Ita  dtrict  to  jtn  Amtr- 
lean  eagte,  witb  tbe  ahield  on  Its  breast, 
in  its  right  talon  an  olive  branch,  in  ita 
Itft  a  bundto  of  18  arrows,  and, In  Ito 
beak  a  scroll  with  the  inserlptkm  S 
PImHbmt  Vnmn,  On  tbt  rtvtrst  to  an 
unfiniabtd  pyramid  and  abovt  it  an  tyt, 
a  Latin  Inacription  surrounding. 

Sea-lemon  iSSS^S^^ 

tion  NndlbrandUata  ('  naktdH^led '), 
family  Doridm.  It  to  deatitute  ofa  ahell. 
and  moTca  by  meana  of  a  broad  Tentral 
foot.  The  gilto  extot  in  the^fprm  of  a 
circle  of  plumea  In  tbe  middle  m  tbt 
back,  at  the  poaterior  extremity  of  tht 
body,  and  can  bt  retracted  at  will  within 
the  body.  The  namt  aea-lemcm  has  beat 
applied  to  these  molluscs  from  OMr 
usually  yellow  color  and  somewhat  lemon- 
like lAape.  Tbey  may  bt  fouirf  at  low- 
water  mark  under  stones  and  in  similar 
situations.  Dorit  faberoateta,  or  tht 
'sta-l«non'  par  «m«U«m««,  to  about  8 
incbta  fai  tongth.  of  a  ydlow  cotor,  and 
having  tht  manUt  warty.       


Miaocory  rboiution  tbt  chart 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 

r"  IS* 

Itt 


l« 


2.0 


1.8 


A    /APPLIED  IN/HGE 


Inc 


1653  Enst  Main  Streat 

Rochester.    New  York        U609       USA 

(716)  482  -  0300  -  Phone 

(716)  288 -5989 -Fox 


Sea^lion 


Searoh-Ui^t 


k 


Kpen  and  emtlmm,  tad  for  recdTiof 
prenkHia  of  Mais  set  to  Inatnunenta. 
Orainarjr  nd  waJing-waz  is  mad*  of 
pan  bleached  lac,  to  which  when  melted 
are  added  Venice  tnrpentine  and  ver- 
milion.  Inferior  qnalitiea  consist  of  a 
prtnwrtiim  of  common  rosin  and  red- 
HKtd,  and  blaclc  and  other  colors  are  pro* 
daced  br  substitutint  appropriate  pig^ 
ments.  Bealing-waz  was  invented  in  the 
sevoiteenth  centary. 

Sea-Uon.  ^^'^ 
Seal  Islands.  seeLo»o«. 

CUalVAf*  or  SiAUCor,  a  town  of  In- 
°***^"**>  dia  In  the  Punjab,  72  mUea 
northeast  of  Lahore,  is  the  scene  of  a 
famous  annaal  fair,  and  a  local  trade 
center  of  rising  Importance.  The  man- 
ufactures are  paper  and  cloth.  Pop.  (in- 
clnding  military  cantonment),  57,900. 
Seal-leather,  f  l«ather  manufactured 
•****  **'"•*"**»  from  sealskms.  It  is 
light,  strong  and  tough,  and  is  finished 
either  in  a  large  coarse  grain  for  boot- 
makers, or  as  an  enameled  or  japanned 
leather.  ^  ,™    ^    v 

Bea-mai,  ^  gen„,  ^^  Molluscolda, 
class  Polraoa  (which  see).  The  sea- 
mat,  which  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
piece  of  pale  brown  sea-weed,  is  a  com- 
pound organism,  produced  by  a  process 
of  continuous  gemmation  or  budding 
from  a  single  primitive  polypide,  which 
latter  was  in  turn  developed  from  a 
true  egg.  Each  little  polypide  or  soOId 
of  the  sea-mat  possesses  a  mouth  sur- 
rounded by  a  crown  or  circle  of  retractile, 
ciliated  t«itacles,  a  stomach,  and  intes- 
tine. Fluttn  foUaeta,  or  the  broad 
homwrack,  Is  a  familiar  species,  as 
also  are  F,  trunoata,  F.  deniieulata,  >  *c. 
CUom«n  Laws  Rixatiko  to.  In 
ociuaca,  ^i,^  American  merchant 
service  shipping  articles  are  agreements 
in  writing  or  print  between  the  master 
and  seamen  or  mariners  on  Iward  of  liis 
vessel  (except  such  as  shall  be  appren< 
ticed  or  servant  to  himself  or  owners), 
declaring  the  voyage  or  voyages,  and  the 
term  of  time  for  which  such  seamen 
or  mariners  shall  be  shipped.  It  is  also 
required  that  at  the  foot  of  every  such 
etmtract  there  sliall  be  a  memorandum, 
in  writing,  of  the  day  and  the  hour  on 
which  each  seaman  or  mariner,  who  shall 
BO  ship  and  subacrilie,  shall  render  him- 
self on  board  to  l)egin  the  voyage  agreed 
np<m.  In  default  of  shipping  articlfla 
the  seaman  is  entitled  to  the  highert 
wages  which  have  been  given  at  the 
port  or  plaeo  where  sacn  seaman  or 
mariiMr  uall  bav*  batn  shipped  for  • 


similar  Ttvage,  wltUn  three  months 
next  before  the  time  of  such  shipping, 
«n  bis  p«fonninf  the  service,  or  during 
the  time  he  mil  continue  to  A>  duty 
on  board  snch  vessel  without  being 
bound  by  the  regulatlMis,  or  subject  to 
the  penalties  or  forfeiturea  amtained  in 
act  of  Ckmgress;  and  the  Buuiter  is 
further  liable  to  a  penalty.  Shipping 
articles  ought  not  to  contain  any  clause 
which  derogates  from  the  general  rights, 
and  privileges  of  seamen:  and  if  umt 
do  the  clause  will  be  declared  void.  A 
seaman  who  signs  shipping  articles  is 
bound  to  perform  the  voyage,  and  iw  lias 
no  right  to  elect  to  pay  damages  for 
non-performance  of  the  contract  In 
the  British  service  laws  closely  similar 
to  these  are  in  use. 

Sea-mouse  io^'iKSlit.'  ^e'uSJ 

or  marine  worms.  The  most  notable 
feature  in  connection  with  the  sea- 
mouse  consists  in  the  beautiful  iridescent 
hues  exhibited  by  the  hairs  or  bristles 
which  fringe  the  sides  of  the  body.  The 
sea-mouse  Inhabits  deep  water,  and  may 
be  obtained  by  dredging,  although  it  is 
frequoitly  cast  up  on  sliores  after  storms. 
SftftnAA  (si-a9s),  in  spiritualism,  a 
^**"**  sitting  with  the  view  of  ob- 
taining 'manifestations,'  or  holding  in- 
tercourse with  the  alleged  spirits  M  the 
departed. 

Sea-Otter.  »*^ouer. 

Sea-vass.  •  P^pof  can^«»  »>y-  ""^ 

www  j|fiMK»)    jjjjj  yeg^els  in  time  of  war 
to  prove  their  nationality,  and  so  secure 
them  from  molestation. 
Sea-pen.    ^<*  Pennatmla. 

Sea-perch,  ^fij.  !«»«»• '•!»«•  ^ 
Sea-pike.  »«•  ««"/«•*• 

fiUft-nifilr  (.Armerio  maritim*),  a 
sea  piuK  gm^„  pi^t  tjjg  typg  ^f  ti^ 

genus  Anneria,  nat.  order  Plnmbagina- 
ce«,  found  on  European  coasts.  The 
thrift  (Armeria  vkfirit)  is  found  in  the 
sea-watCTs  of  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States,  near  the  coast 
fUnrftTi  RiOHT  or,  in  maritime  law, 
oearcu,  ^^  ^^^^  claimed  by  a  nation 
at  war  to  authorise  the  commanders  of 
their  lawfully  commissioned  cruisers  to 
enter  private  merchant  vessels  of  oth«r 
nations  met  with  on  the  high  seas,  to 
examine  their  papers  and  cargo,  and  to 
search  for  eimny's  property,  articles  con- 
traband <rf  war,  etc. 

fUftrnli.livht  an  dectrie  aic-llil>t  of 
SearCA-llgAX,  gnat  canUMOwer,  ar> 

raoccd   with   a   paraboUe   ceMdor   lo 


SMuroh-warrtnt 


SMHDiakt 


that  tiM  njm  u«  Mnt  .aliiKMt  wholly 
in  OM  dlNct  line,  fomlac  ft^  path  of 
licht  whkh  may  be  pioi«eted  for  mllw. 
A  chief  parpoee  1*  for  n*  on  war  t«- 
■eli,  enabllnf  the  oiBcera  to  detect  the 
approach  of  an  enemy  in  the  dark  and 
to  soaid  asainst  torpedo  boati.  They 
are  alao  oaed  for  eignalinK,  and  on  land 
for  exhibition  and  advertiains  purpoaet. 
They  have  been  made  powerful  enooch 
for  the  light  t    be  aeen  nearly  100  milea 

sJSoh-warrant,  JStteSty^SSS 

by  a  maciatrate  to  a  legal  officer  to  aearch 
a  hooae  or  other  place  for  property  al- 
leged to  have  been  atolen  and  aoapected 
to  be  accreted  in  the  place  apedfied  In  the 
warrant.  Similar  warranta  are  granted 
to  aearch  for  property  or  articlea  in  re- 
spect of  which  other  ofCenaea  are  com- 
mitted, such  as  baae  coin,  coinen'  tools, 
exploalvea,  Uqoora,  etc.,  kept  contrary  to 

»ea-iCOrpiOIL    S^  Searptm-fUh. 

Sea-serpent,  fornTof  large  stoB,  or 
sea-monster  of  doubtful  character,  fre- 
quently alleged  to  have  been  aeen.  From 
the  numerous  substantiated  accounts  of 
animals  of  one  kind  or  another,  but 
differing  from  all  described  and  known 
forms,  naving  been  seen,  often  close  at 
hand,  by  the  crews  and  passengen  of 
ships,  and  -by  respectable  obserrers  on 
land,  we  are  restricted  to  the  choice  either 
of  bellevlM  that  in  every  case  the 
senses  of  the  observen  must  have  been 
mistaken,  or  that  some  living  form  must 
have  been  seen  in  the  majority  of  cases. 
Careful  research,  and  the  weighing  of 
the  evidence  presented  in  the  accounts 
of  'sea-serpent'  phenomma,  show  that 
tUe  subject  demands,  at  least,  investiga- 
tieo,  tlKHigh  very  little  credit  is  placed 
in  the  existence  of  any  such  animaL 
Bee  Knken,  Bea-*Mk9.  .      ^_, 

B*o.>1iniw  in  1*^,  aignifies  the  strip 
ses'UiOre,  surrounding  a  coast  be- 
tween high  and  low  water  mark. 
Sas  MAViiAas  the  name  given  to  the 
Sea-nOKlieSB,  nausea  and  other  dis- 
agreeable senaatlons  produced  on  those 
unaccustmned  to  a  aea-faring  life  by  the 
rolling  motion  of  a  vessel  at  sea.  The 
exact  causes  and  etiology  of  this  com< 
phdnt  ara  as  yet  imperfectly  under- 
stood. Some  obaerven  have  referred  the 
oalady  to  causes  entirely  dependent 
won  the  altered  or  aifected  functions  of 
the  neiToas  centers;  othen  to  tiie  re- 
gur^tatim  <tf  bile  into  the  stomach;  and 
others,  again,  to  the  irritation  of  the  liver 
conaeqoent  tm  the  onoaual  movemeata  of 


the  body.    Probably  all  threa  Tlews  em- 
tain   a  certain  amonnt  of  troth,  ^e 
measures  which  have  been  rnggested  for 
sea-sickness  an  preventive  or  curative. 
Praventive  measureo,  so  far  as  the  cwa- 
stroction  of  the  veaeelt  them$elve»  are 
ctmcerned,    have    not    proved    of    much 
practical    utility.    Preventive    measure*, 
regarded    from    the    patient'a    point    of 
view,  ara  practically  limited  to  the  regu- 
lation of  the  diet,  which  for  some  days 
previously    to    undertaking    the    voyage 
should  be  plentiful,  but  of  light  and  nu- 
tritious  character.    The   bowels   should 
not  be  constipated  above  all  tbinga;  Mid 
food  should  not  be  taken  for  at  leart  five 
or  six  boun  before  going  on  board.    A 
cup    of    strong    colfee,    swallowed    Just 
befon   embarung,   proves    beneficial    to 
some  as  a  nerve  atimulant;  while  othen 
derive    benefit    from    a    nerve    aedative, 
such   as  bromide  of  potassium,  chloral, 
or  opium;  but  these,  especially  the  two 
last,  abould   never  be  used   save  under 
strict  medical  direction.    Nitrite  of  amyl 
and  cocaine  have  also  been  used.    Once 
on  board  the  ship,  ^  position  as  near  the 
center  of  the  vessel  as  practicable  is  to 
be  preferred,  and  the  posture  in  lying 
should  be  that  on  the  back,  with  the 
head  and  shouldera  very  slightly  elevated. 
With    reference    to    euraUve    measures, 
during  the  attack  of  nausea  and  vomit- 
ing, some  derive  benefit  from  a  bandage 
applied  moderately  tight  across  the  pit 
of  the  stomach;  some  from  small  doaes 
of   brandy   and   ice;    some   from   saline 
effervescing  drinks;  and  some  from  fre- 
quent draughts  of  lukewarm  or  even  cold 
water. 


Seaidde  Grape,  ; -S'l  ^^^LK 

(O.  mvit«rm),  nat.  order  Polygonace«. 
which  grows  on  the  sea-coasta  of  Florida 
and  the  West  Indies.  It  has  clusters  of 
edible  fruit  somewhat  resranbling  the 
currant  in  appearance,  and  a  l>eautiful 
hard  wood  wliich  produces  a  red  dye,  and 
yields  the  extract  known  aa  Jamaica 
kino. 

fiUo.a1ii(r  *■  i»i°^  applied  generally 
octt  uu|$,  ^^  Sea-lemona  (which  see; 
and  oth«r  gasteropodoua  molluacs  desti- 
tute of  shells,  and  belonging  to  tlic 
section  Nudibrancbiata. 
SAo-maVA  a  name  common  to  a  fam- 
Sea-niaKe,  uy  ^t  make*,  Hydrid*. 
of  several  genera,  aa  Hydnu,  Pelamit, 
Ckenvinu,  etc.  These  animals  frequ^ 
the  SMa  of  warm  latitudes.  They  an 
found  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  ara 
plentiful  in  the  Indian  ArchipelaQ. 
Key  an  all,  so  far  as  Imowiu  ex«ai. 
ingly  venomous.  They  delight  in  cala*, 
anSTan  fond  of  eddies  and  tid*>wii9% 


Seft-niipe 


Seawall 


I 


i 


BM-niak*  {Bi/iftu  BMiuU). 
where  the  ripple  collecta  numerous  fleh 
and  meduate,  on  which  they  feed.    The 
Hp%.nu  StoketH  inhabit!  the  Atutralian 
ecM,  and  ia  as  thicli  as  t  man's  thigh. 

Sea-snipe.    **  iwto««-/u».    The 

*^^'     name    Sea-snipe    is    also 
given  to  the  Dunlin  (which  ?«e). 
Seasons     (■»'!»),  the  four  grand  di- 
^^^  visions  of  the  year  —  spring, 

summer,  autumn,  winter.  These  have 
distinctive  characters,  best  seen  in  the 
temperate  sones.  Within  the  tropics 
they  are  not  so  much  marked  by  differ- 
ences of  temperatures  as  by  wetness  and 
dryness,  and  are  usually  distinguished  as 
the  wet  and  d.'y  seas<»s.  Astronomically 
speaking,  spring  is  from  the  vernal 
equinox,  when  the  sun  enters  Aries,  to 
the  summer  solstice;  summer  is  from  the 
summer  solstice  to  the  autumnal  equinox ; 
autumn  ,  is  from  the  autumnal  equinox 
to  the  winter  solstice ;  winter  Is  from  the 
winter  solstice  to  the  vernal  equinox, 
lu  common  acceptation  winter  consists 
in  the  three  montlis  l>eginning  with 
December,  spring  in  those  beginning 
with  March,  summer  with  June,  and 
autumn  with  September;  but  the  ten- 
dency  now  is  to  replace  this  with  the 
astronomical  reckoning.  The  diaracters 
of  the  seasons  are  reversed  to  inhal>- 
itants  of  the  southern  hemtophere.  See 
Spring,  Bummer,  Autumn,  Winters  also 
Climate,  Earth,  E^ino»,  etc. 

Sea-spider.  *•'  8nD«»<»AB^  *  marine 
t,rvM»  »^Au,w«,   jjy^jj  jj£  jjj^  genus  JfOM 

(If.   aquinado).    Its   body   is  somewhat 

triangular    in    shape,    and    its    legs    are 

slender  and  generally  long.     It  lives  in 

deep  water,  and  is  seldom  seen  on  the 

shore. 

fiAa.aniiirfa    <i    name   sometimes    ap- 

oca  Bqiun.B,   pjjgj    collectively    to   all 

the  Tunicata,  or  more  especially  to  the 
genus  Aacidia  (see  Asddia).  The  name 
'  sea-squirts '  has  been  applied  from  their 
habit  of  emitting  jets  of  water  from  the 
orifices  of  the  body  when  touched  or  ir- 
ritated in  any  way. 

Seft-BiinrftoTi  or  StrBOKOir-FiBH 
D«a-SUrgeon,    (^cantMn..    ohirur- 

fN«),  a  fish  belonging  to  the  teleostean 
section  of  Acanthopteri,  so  named  from 
the  presence  of  a  sharp  spine  on  the 
side  and  near  tba  extremity  of  the  tail. 


baariBf  a  twemblanca  to  a  aargMn's 
lancet  It  occurs  on  the  Atlantic  coaats 
of  South  Amarica  and  Africa,  and  la 
the  Caribbean  seaa.  Its  average  length 
la  from  12  to  19  inches. 

SeaiwaUow,  ^--/e'-Uat 

to  the  storm}  petrel. 

SftA-toftd     '^  iuim9  given  to  the  great 

mranetu),  fonnd  on  British  coasts  at 
low-water  mark. 

SeattlA  (M-afDr  a  city  and  seaport, 
°***"®  oipiUl  ot  King  county.  Wash- 
ington.  It  is  situated  on  the  east  side 
of  Puget  Sound,  28  miles  ir.  it.b.  of 
Tacoma,  and  is  the  largest  city  in  the 
State  and  seat  of  the  State  university. 
The  city  is  beautifully  located,  its 
heights  affording  a  magnificent  view  of 
Mount  Rainier  and  the  Olympic  and 
Cascade  mountains.  The  haroor  affords 
safe  anchorage  for  the  largest  vessels. 
It  has  direct  lines  of  steamships  to  the 
ports  of  China  and  Japan  and  is  the 
outfitting  point  for  the  gold-fields  of 
the  nortL  It  is  a  rapidfy  growing  place, 
with  numerous  industrial  establishments, 
such  as  shipyards,  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  saw-mills,  breweries,  meat-pack- 
ing, fish-canning,  etc.,  ana  has  also 
smelting  and  refining  woiks.  The  ex- 
ports are  coal,  lumber,  meat,  fruits, 
wheat,  hops,  etc.,  and  an  active  trade  in 
coal  and  lumber.  Pop.  in  1880,  3533; 
In  1900,  80,671;  in  1910,  237,194. 

Sea-nnicorn,  ?,?2PtaUT(^te 

see). 

Sea-urchin.   ^**  Bckinu$. 

S*o.-arii.fAr  the  salt-water  of  the  sea 
oe»  wnier,  ^^  ^^^^  Sea-water  con- 
tains chlorides  and  sulphates  of  sodium 
(chloride  of  sodium=common  salt), 
magnesium,  and  potassium,  together  with 
bromides  and  carbonates,  chiefly  of  potas- 
sium and  calcium. 

Sea-weed,  ^7,  p«-„°t  '^^^^^^^  th. 

usually  confined  to  members  of  the  nat. 
order  Alg»  (which  see). 
S»aiir»11  Molly  Eluot,  author,  was 
DCKweu,  ,^^  jjj  oioocester  Co.,  Vir- 
ginia, in  1860;  died  Nov.  16.  1016.  She 
Benin  a  literary  career  in  1886,  and  In 
1mN>  her  Little  Jarvie  won  a  prise  of 
|S00  offered  for  the  best  story  for  bovs. 
Other  prises  won  by  here  were  $9000  for 
her  Spriaktly  Bomattee  of  Mareao  (1890) 
and  $1000  for  John  MainwarinOt  finan- 
cier (1908).  Among  her  novels  are  The 
Tietory  (1906).  The  Secret  of  Toni 
(IWT),  and  La$1  Dnektea  of  BtlgrU$ 
(1908).  ^ 


BM-WOlf 


Bebastopol 


fljM.WAlf    (iMrrMokM      tapM).      •  a  eoniidepible  Htentart  of  poema  and 
ovm^yrvu    j^„,  ^   telaoataan   fiahM,  romancca.         ^  „     ^      «  ,      , 

awition   Aeanthopteri,    family   Blomiida  8«baatiftn   ^^'    Stt  San  8ehatti9». 
or  blenniea   (abo  known  by  the  namea  »^»»»»««»»> 
'aaa-cat'  and  'awine-fiA').    The  month  8*bastiAll     ^x  f  ChriatI 


i^j  Sebaitiaii, 


Chriatian  nOirtyr. 

la  araed  with  aharp,  atrong  teeth  of  •~»'— j^^;^  wu  born  at  Narfoonne, 
lanw  siae,  and  when  captured  it  ia  and  under  Diocletian  waa  captain  o^  th« 
Mid  to  bite  the  neta  and  even  attack  pmtorian  guard  at  Rome.  He  K^s-t  to 
the  flahermen.  It  ia  the  largeat  of  the  hifh  favor  at  court,  but  declaring  hii^<^«lf 
blenniea,  growing  to  a  length  of  over  a  Chriatian,  and  rAfuafaig  to  abjure,  he 
6  feet  The  fleeh  ia  palatable,  and  ia  waa  tied  to  a  tree  and  pierced  with 
largely  eaten  in  Iceland,  while  the  akin  arrowa.  A  Chriatian  woman  named 
ia  durable,  and  ia  manufactured  into  a  Irene,  who  came  by  .night  to  inter  hia 
kind  of  thagreen,  uaed  for  making  body,  finding  aigna  of  life  in  him.  took 
pouchea  and  like  articlea.  See  alao  him  home,  and  nursed  him  till  he  re- 
Bmu,  covered.    He  then  presented  himself  be- 

fiUKoAAAna  fllaiifla  (se-ba'ahua),  fore  Diocletian,  and  remonstrated  with 
oeo»CCUiU  ViHuOB  tmaii rtructurea  him  on  hia  cruelty;  when -.pon  the  em- 
of  glandular  nature  and  aacculated  form  peror  ordered  him  to  be  beaten  to  death 
which  ezUt  in  the  aubatance  of  the  with  ro^  (January  20,  288),  and  hia 
conam.  or  deeper  layer  of  the  dermia  body  to  be  thrown  into  the  cloaca.  Hia 
or  true  skin,  and  secrete  a  fatty  matter,  protection  waa  InvokM  againat  peati- 
They  are  very  generally  distributed  over  lence,  and  hia  martyrdom  haa  been  a 
the  entire  akin  aurface,  but  are  moat  favorite  aubject  with  painters, 
numerous  in  the  face  and  scalp,  paie  SebaStianO  del  PldmDO. 
of  the  noae  are  of  large  siae,  but  the  ^     „,     _ 

htrgeat  in  the  body  are  those  of  the  See PUmho.  ,  .^  ,^.  .,.  „  . 
eyelids— the  ao-called  Meihomian  gUtndt.  SebafltOQOl  («e-ba8't^p«l),  a  Rnasian 
They  appear  to  be  absent  from  the  akin  "''""""^yw*  town  and  naval  atatiim 
of  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  aolea  of  on  the  Black  Sea,  in  the  aouthwest  of 
the  feet.  Each  sebaceous  gland  consists  the  Crimea.  The  town  lies  chiefly  on 
essentially  of  a  lobulated  or  aac-like  the  south  side  of  a  large  and  deep  inlet 
atructure,  with  cells  which  secrete  the  of  the  Black  Sea  running  east  for  a  dia- 
sabaceous  or  glutinoua  humor,  and  with  tance  of  nearly  4  milea,  with  an  average 
a  ainglu  efferent  duct:  and  these  ducts  width  of  %  mile  narrowing  to  930  yard* 
open  into  .the  hair-follicles,  or  sac-like  between  the  promontories  at  its  mouth, 
iavolutiona  of  the  skin  which  surround 
and  inclose  the  roots  of  hairs,  or  simply 
on  the  external  aurface  of  the  skin. 
The  functions  of  the  sebaceous  secretion 
are  chiefly  those  of  keeping  the  skin 
moist. 

fUliacfMi  (se-bas'tea),agenusof  acan- 
QCUIUV6S  thopterygious  fishes,  con- 
taining the  bergylt  or  Norway  haddock. 
See  Bornli'  .»_.„. 

fU1»MHi»i  (aa-basfyan),  Dox,  King 
DCDABUUl  ^i  Portugal,  poathumous 
son  of  the  Infant  John  and  of  Joanna, 
daughter  of  Charlea  Y,  waa  bom  in 
1554.  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1557, 
at  the  death  of  hia  grandfather,  John 
III.  In  1578  he  led  the  flower  of  his 
nobility  into  Africa  on  a  wild  ezpedi- 
timi  against  the  Moors,  and  perished  in 
battle  with  nearly  all  his  followers.  He  and  a  depth  of  from  6  to  10  fatbmna. 
had  no  immediate  heir,  and  Portugal  waa  There  are  alao  smaller  inlets  from  the 
Boon  annexed  by  Philip  II  of  Spain,  but  main  harbor  penetrating  southward  at 
the  maaaea  of  the  people  refuaed  to  be-  the  town  itseif.  Sebastopol  haa  grown 
lieve  in  hia  death,  and  aeveral  pretenders  up  since  1780,  when  it  waa  a  mere 
to  hia  name  and  claims  received  a  meas-  Tartar  village.  0&  the  outbreak  of  the 
nre  of  popular  anpport  The  belief  in. Crimean  war,  when  the  popolatioo 
the  future  return  of  Dom  Sebastian  amounted  to  48,000,  it  became  the  p^t 
lingered  long  In  Portugal  finally  taking  againat  which  the  operationa  d!  the  alUw 
iim  Iwaa  n  a  mydi,  and  ^ving  riae  to  were  mainly  directed,  vaA  ita  aiege  fonM 


I 


dCMbIoo 


B0OOBw  «LSVWmIR[^ 


,^.  aC  At  BOit  NflMrkabl*  cpbodM 
in  modtrn  UaHory,  (8m  gHwww  «Mr.) 
TIm  town,  then  utterly  imtnrtd,  bu 
bera  neoMtnicted,  and  tboog h  tha 
tseatr  of  Paris  atipalatcd  tbat  no  araeiuu 
shonki  asiat  on  tba  Blrck  Sea,  and  tbat 
Oa  tows  shonid  not  again  ba  fortiflc^ 
tbaae  oblltatioaa  bare  been  npudiatca 
bjr  Bnaala,  and  it  bida  fair  t0  exceed  ita 
former  linpMrtance.  Bailway  eonunonl* 
cation    witn    Moaoow    baa    greatly    faft- 

Srovjd  tba  trade.  Tbere  ar«  many  aaw 
nportant  iinblie  baildinfa,  uid  tbe  numa* 
menta  and  r^Uea  of  tbe  nege  are  inter- 
eating.    Pop.  77,000,  buvely  military. 

Sebenico  iSSTSilJlirS  t 

credt  ci  tba  Adriaac,  near  tbe  montb 
<rf  tbe  Kerka,  between  Zara  and  Bpalata 
It  <a  tbe  aent  of  a  bisbop,  and  ita  Italian 
Qotbic  catbedraL.of  tbe  fifteentb  and 
aizteentb  centnnA,  ia  considered  tb^ 
flneat  cbardi  in  Dalmatia.  It  bas  an  ex- 
cellent barbor,  and  ia  tbe  entrepot  of  ft 
coariderable  trade.  Pop.  24,761. 
8»)iMt»ii     (■e-bes'ten),     tbe     OoHUa 

DPoesien  ;^^^  ^^  Uufou*,  Asiatie 

trees  of  tbe  borage  order.  Tbe  fmit  ia 
edible,  and  was  formeriy  onployed  in 
Eoropean  medicine,  bat  now  onlr  by  tbe 
praetltloDera  of  tbe  East  It  is  maci> 
uginoas  and  somewhat  astringent 
Seettle  (se-k&le),  the  gistis .  which 
»v«»A«    contains  rye. 

Secamone  <S;^-S?*o^;i  •  SSSi2 

dacMB,  found  in  tbe  warm  parts  of  India, 
Africa,  and  Australia.  The  species  form 
trect  or  climliing  smooth  shrubs,  and 
some  of  them  secrete  an  acrid  prindpla 
wb<ch  makea  them  useful  in  medicine. 
Tbe  roots  of  8,  emetiat  are  onployed  aa 
a  si^istitute  for  ipecacuanha. 
fiUiAaiif  (sfilcant).  in  trigon<»netry,  a 
°'*"'*  stnOgbt  line  drawn  from  the 
center  of  ft  circle,  which, 
catting  the  circumference, 
proceedi  till  it  meets  with 
ft  tangent  to  the  same  cir- 
cle; as  the  line  ▲  B  a  in 
tbe  figure,  which  is  a  se- 
cant to  the  are  o  d.  In 
tbe  higher  geometry  it  sig- 
\  T  y  nifies  the  straight  line 
\         y       which  cuts  a  curve  in  two 

^-^-^  or  more  pdnts. 
gMMlii  (seklA).  AnoKU),  an  ItaUaa 
w««vwau  mtronome^  was  bom  at  Beg- 
gio  in  Lombardy,  Jane  29,  1818;  en- 
tered tbe  ordw  of  Jeraits  in  1888,  and 
in  1849  was  appointea  director  of  tba 
obaervatory  of  the  Collegio  Romano  at 
Bone,  a  post  which  he  held  till  bis 
death,  February  26,  187&  Father  Secchi 
gained  a  gssat  r^otation  by  bis  aatro- 


BoaBlcal  reaearcbea,  evadally  by  bia  »•• 
taorologicfti  obaarvaticoa  and  ^actreaeopic 
analyses  both  of  stars  and  of  tbe  son. 
Hia  three  moat  pt^olar  wotka  are  rUniU 
ie$  Foreee  Fh^tm  (1MB),  La  AaMi 
(1870),  and  £•  SMh  (18f»). 
aMJtmmmitk-m  (ae^CTh'on).  the  ririit  of  • 
■•»*■■"'"  dtate  ineliiiad  anStr  tba 
(TonstitutloB  of  tbe  United  States  to 
withdraw  from  the  Union  and  aet  up 
an  independent  government  Thia  baa 
been  attempted  twice  in  Americas  hia* 
tory,  once  in  1882,  when  a  conventioa 
in  Booth  (Jarolinft  voted  in  favor  of 
seceding  from  the  Union  if  the  tariff 
waa  enforced  within  tbe  State;  and 
agals  is  18e&«l  when  devas  of  tha 
Sontbers  Statea  sought  to  break  awar 
from  the  Unkm.  Tbe  reault  <^  tbe  Civil 
war  was  ao  dedsive  that  seceasi<m  is 
hardly  likely  to  be  again  attempted. 
Seohuen.     Bet  Sze-ekuen, 

Seckendorf  SSS^rkST^ 

imperial  field-marshal,  bom  in  1678  at 
Ktoigsbcn,  in  Fr»nconia;  died  in  17BB. 
After  atudying  Uw  at  Jena,  Leipsig,  and 
Leycten,  be  ad<q;>ted  tbe  military  pro- 
fessimi,  and  served  against  tbe  TuAs 
under  Prince  Eugene,  and  in  the  war  ei 
tbe  Ekianiab  Socctasion.  On  tbe  death 
of  Pnnce  Eugene,  1786,  be  became  com 
mandep-is-cbief  of  the  Austrian  army 
against  tbe  Turks,  Imt  l>dng  unsnccess 
faL  was  recalled,  tried  by  crart-martial, 
and  impriaooed  in  the  fortreaa  of  Grata, 
from  whidi  he  was  liberated  in  1740. 
He  then  took  aervice  with  tbe  elector  of 
Bavaria,  who  bad  Just  bees  elected  as 
Charlea  VII,  emperor  of  Germany,  and 
as  commander  of  the  Bavarian  forces 
relieved  Munich  and  drove  ba^  tbe 
Austriana  into  Bohemia.  On  tbe  em- 
peror's death  in  1746  he  himaelf  aet 
negotiations  on  foot  for  establiabing  a 
peace;  whereupon  be  waa  reSatabiished 
07  the  new  emperor  Francis  I,  bod>and 
of  Maria  Theresa,  in  all  the  bonora  be 
bad  at  ftn  earlier  period  d>tftlnad. 
(UAATifl  (a^nna),  in  the  meaaure- 
*'*""''*  ment  of  time  and  of  angles, 
the  60th  part  of  a  minute;  tbat  te,  the 
second  division  next  to  the  hour  or 
degree.  In  old  treatises  second  were 
distinguished  aa  minutm  t»o»nim,  fmm 
fltJMUM  primm,  minutea. 

Second Adventiitis,  J5S'to"5S^ 

eral  alightly  differoit  Proteatant  aecta,  all 
of  which  believe  in  the  viaible  reappear- 
ance of  Christ  at  aome  tfane  in  tbe 
future.  They  Indnde  the  BvasgaUcar 
Adventists.  tbe  Advent  Christians,  the 
8evao»t>    Day    Adventiats,    nod    otfwm 


BtoomfliTj  ftemalioiii 


th*  total  BMBbtnhip  fai  tlw  Unittd 
ItatMktiBf  IM  tLui  100^000.  tht 
itvcBth  Dtj  AAfmtiaUM  immbCTiaf  aboat 


Sk 


V* 


SeooBdary  Fomiationfl,  ^^og?^ 

tlM  Umtmie  atntn,  mldwaj,  in  ucend- 
big  order,  between  the  Primary  or  Pate- 
oaoie  bdknr  and  the  Tertlanr  or  Kaino- 
w^  above.  They  range  from  the  top  of 
the  Permian  Formation  to  the.baae  of 
the  Eocene^  and  indode,  therefore,  the 
Trial,  Lia%  OSlitie,  and  Gretaoeooa 
Formationi» 

Seeond  Sight  i%ffl»^.„JSSt^ 

fonwriy  Tory  common,  which  rai>poeed 
certain  persons  endowed  with  the  power 
of  seeing  future  or  distant  erents  as  if 
aetnailr  present  These  visions  were 
hrileved  to  be  not  as  a  rule  Tolnntary, 
bat  were  said  to  be  rather  dreaded  than 
otherwise  by  thoae  who  were  sabjed  to 
tiiem ;  yet  it  was  ahm  beUered  that  woae 
who  possessed  this  gift  might  sometimes 
iadoce  visions  by  the  performance  i  of 
certain  awful  rites.  ^The,  subject  > 
treated  at  length  in  Martin's  j&eecnp- 
Moii  of  ike  Wettem  ItUnif  of  Soothmi 
(1708) ;  Macleod  of  Hamir'a  Tro»iito  on 
th0  aoeomi  Biaht  (1763) :  and  is  die- 
cnsasd  also  in  Dr.  Johnson's  Jommef  to 

flam-f>»  (sslmt),  in  the  Roman  Oath- 
.  ^eorei      oUc  Clhordi,  the  prayer  of  the 

mass  which  follows  Immediately  after  the 

oblation  of  the  bread  and  wine,  and 
}  which  is  recited  by  the  prieet  in  so  low 

a  voice  as  not  to  be  heard  by  the  people. 

Secret  Sertioe,  TTnited  States, 

a  bureau  eimneeted  with  the  Treasury  De- 
partment, designed  originally  to  guard 
against  the  counterfeiting  of  money.  Its 
soope  has  be«i  coDsideraUy  widened  and 
it  has  come  to  be  an  important  agent  of 
government  in  the  detection  of  plots  of 
aKen  govemmenta  in  the  United  States. 
The  arrest  of  numerous  German  spies  in 
this  country  during  the  European  war 
was  dfected  by  the  secret  Service.  Other 
nations  have  similar  organisaticas. 


hmor  bitda  of  prjy.  It  darivea  ib 
popular  name  from  the  peruiiar^^amea 
<rf  feathczs  which  project  frosa  tbe  b^ 
and  sides  of  its  head,  and  give  it  the 

appearance   of   having   bundles  «   

stuck    behind    each    ear.    It    has 


long  legs,  and  stands  nearly  4  feet  la 
heightrbe  wings  are  elongated,  and 
carry  a  blunt  spur  tm  the  shoulder,  the 
thW,  fourth,  and  fifth  quills  being  Ae 
longest  The  tail  is  also  very  long,  and 
wecbs^pcd.  the  two  middle  feathers 
projecting  beyond  the  others.  The  tiUm 
are  feathered  aU  the  way  down.    The 


Secretary  i«lit?-tt^' 


, ;,     the    name 

given  to  the  heads  of  de- 
partments, or  members  of  the  President's 
caMnet,  in  the  United  St&t&s  government 
with  the  exception  of  the  Attomey- 
(jeneral  and  Postmaster-CkneraL  It  is 
also  applied  to  various  members  of  the 
Britiih  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  State  for 
the  Elmae  D^rtment  e|pcretary  for 
VonkPt  ACkfaa,  etc 

Secretary4iird,«|^-^¥?gnS^ 

Sorpmitirimt  (B.  aeeretarfiM,  also  called 


Seeiatery-Mrd  {S^rrntmrtM  ttrHortm). 


skin  around  the  eyes  is  destitute  al 
feathers.  The  general  color  is  a  slaty 
gray,  the  pen-like  feathers  of  the  head 
being  black,  as  also  are  the  feathers  of 
the  tibic  and  the  primaries  of  the  wings. 
The  secretary-bird  can  fly  with  ease  when 
once  it  takes  wing,  but  it  seems  to  pre- 
fer the  ground.  It  is  found  over  the 
greater  part  of  Africa,  especially  in  the 
south.  It  derives  its  generic  name  from 
its  habits  of  destroying  serpents,  striking 
them  with  its  knoUwd  wings  and  kicking 
forward  at  them  with  its  feet  until  they 
are  stunned,  and  th«i  swallowing  them. 
As  a  foe  to  venomon  snakes  it  is  en- 
couraged and  protected  in  South  Africa, 
where  it  is  frequently  brought  up  tame. 
fUkAmtlAfi  (se-kre*shun),  in  animal 
Steorenon  ^hy,ioi,»y,  la  the  separa- 
rion  of  certain  elements  of  the  blood,  and 
their  elaboratinn  to  form  special  nmte 
differing  frmn  the  blood  itself  or  mm 
any  of  its  constituents,  as  bile,  saHva, 
mucus,  urine,  etc.  Secretion  is  performed 
by  organs  of  various  form  and  structure 
but  the  most  general  are  those  called 
glands.  Of  these  glands  the  essontisUy 
active  parts  are  the  cells,  which  e*b» 
orate  from  the  blood  a  peculiar  fluid, 
in  each  instance  predetermined  by  the 
inherent  functkm  of  the  gland  or  organ 
ofwhich  the  celis  are  Intc-Ml  parte. 
The  chief  general  c<»diti<ms  which  wi- 
ouiriy  affect  secretion  are  the  qnantitg 


geertt  WTiting 


oBd  QwOity  of  th*  blood  t^w-jW  j! 

OteMMar  •eore«ow«,  •och  M  milk.  «>"«. 
J:*  LtrttJoMMoreftoM,  tbe  cwnponent 


Section  <rir«u*.r!Sn?^ 

u  it  would  appear  l£  cut  through  byjui 

, ♦„« \JIm  and  the  arc:  a  mixed 

in  the  accompanying  Bg- 
uw.     The   term   denote* 
also  a  mcthematlMl  to- 
strument  ao  marked  witB 
lines  of  sines,   tangents, 
secants,  cbprds,   etc.,  as 
to     fit     all     radii     and 
^j,^         scales,     and     useful     in 
makinK  diagrams,  laying  down  plans,  etc. 
Th^  iectoFisfounde      on    the   fourth 
JroooSSon  of  the  sixth  book  of  EucUd, 
ihw  it  ta  proved  that  equlanguUr  trl- 
^Iw  have  their  homologoursldes  pro- 
portionaL  (aek'tt-lar),  in  th« 

Secular  Cleriry   jto m a n  bathoiic 


Seoular  Qamet,  p^fS^  of  EttSA 

om  orifin,  andwitly  ««»*»J^„,"  "2?!| 

SooM    bo    celebrated    •J*^  ,A«™KS2i 
■uw««.  ^        j^j   jIji,  decree 

;^^AS««tirdta«V''^,v:'ta??aiL'" 

^lebrated  at  v-^  Jj^Jhy  Wt^ho 
BeCnianim,   Z^t  of  which  conslsu  in 

»Mon.  They  do  not  hold  human  reaion 
!^2rinf«uitte  but  they  maintain  that 
if  u*in  the  toter«rt  of  troth  that  r««on 
Should  lJ?wSrt3d«ly  by  reawn.  and 

Sit  ta.  faStible  conviction,  is  nm- 
S5Lb%  wTany   sublect,   they  comj 
ffi^they  shoulS  con/ess  their  igno«j 
^  Iwrd  to  it,  and  *«",«'*«;  °J 
wS^ctTSkt^my  bejbv«.tlgat«l^vi 
more  profiuble  ^prolts.    From  tw 
ture  of  their  leading  tenet  It  follows 
the  only  moral  principles  they  can 
;«  SSch  as  they  believe  must  comml 
?hlnSdves"to  th)  r«j.on  and  wh» J 
of  every  man  of  enlightened  wMciea 
Secularism  does  not  come  into  direct  J 
UriXwith  any  reUgiou.    It  i»  not  a« 
Kc?  iSwmiuch  as  it  is  i»o  tenet  of 
l^^iTeither  to  affirm  or  deny  the  e 
ISce  of  God:    nor  does  it  deny  the  tr, 
^Christianity.  ««'  ^^at  »-  non^^ 
himiness  any  more  than  it  is  10  «™™J 

who  began  to  promulgate  his  vlf^w  aow 
18^  Itls  toliim  that  British  l^l*tk_ 
is    chiefly    indebted    for    the    EvWenC- 

SineSe^t  Act'  rJ^^^^Jf^wleS  B«d- 
m^Mr''  Holmke'.  «u«SSSlri?"ho 

ttshfp  df  th? El^RlLh  •^•iJartetSv'M; 
.rf^athU  Question  a  step  further  by  Ws 
SlsS^o"  td!e  the  parli^entary  oath 
i^by  his  Oaths  BiU  of  1888. 


V    1