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^
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
PRESENTED BY
PROF, CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
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.a^^ssiLo^x.
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PANTOLOGY;
OB,
A SYSTEMATIC SURVEY
HUMAN KNOWLEDGE;
ntopoaiifo
A CLASfllFICATION OF ALL ITS BRANCHES, AND ILLUSTRATING THEIR HISTORY, RELATIONS, USES, AND OBJECTS;
gpopiLi of their leading Facti aid Prineiples;
a SbtUtt mutuloaut o| asoofts on uU Attdff ct8,
.SUITABLE FOB A CABIVBT LIBBABT:
THB WHOLE DBSIOBBO AB k
OUIDB TO 8TUDT FOR ADTANCED VTUDMETBy^XI C0LLB0B8, ACADBMUC8, AKD
SCHOOLS ; AND AS A POPULAR DIRECTORY IN LITERATURE,
SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS.
BY ROSWEIiIi PARK, A. M.,
FBOrawOB or BATOBAL rHILOCOPHT AND CHBHUTBT, IK THB UBITBBIITT OP FBRBSTLTAHIA, AND MBM. AH. rniL. •OCIBTT.
PHILADELPHIA: HOGAN &, THOMPSON.
30 NORTH FOURTH STREET. 184 1.
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Emtubo accordiog to Aet of GongreM, io tba year 1841, by
RotWBLL Pabk,
in tbe Office of the Clerk of the Dietrict Coart of the Eaetem District of
Pennsylvania.
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TO THE
REV. SAMUEL B. WYLIE, D.D.
VICE PROVOST AND PROFESSOR OP LANOUAGSS,
III THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,
WHOSE LIFE HAS BEEN DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNINO AND THE INTERESTS OF HUMANITY,
THIS WORK u
WITH HIS PERMISSION MOST RESPECTFULLY AND AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED.
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PREFACE.
The present work is offered, as a guide book, to those who are seeking to explore the vast expanse of human knowledge. It aspires to be to Fantologyf or knowledge in general, what a map of the world is to Geography : an outline, and nothing more : but such an out- line as may be serviceable to all who are seeking to acquire general views of this wide region ; by showing, however imperfectly, the relations of its parts, and their comparative extent and importance. And as the emigrant, who proposes to settle in a new country, first travels over it, and examines its different regions, before selecting a location ; so, it is believed, may the student, before choosing a pro- fession, derive benefit from a general survey of all the regions of knowledge, such as is here attempted to be presented. Or, as the traveller, in pursuit of health and pleasure, does not rest satisfied with his native state, rich and fruitful though it be ; so may the philosopher derive strength and relaxation from an occasional excursion beyond his own immediate pursuits, or a systematic tour around the whole intellectual world.
The primary object of the following pages, was to present a Natural Claasification of human knowledge, so full as to furnish a place for every topic of thought, and so simple that it might be of general and practical application. It would thus include what Sir James Mackintosh so appropriately terms an **JBxhau8tive Analy- Hs" of Human Knowledge ; in which all the fragments, even of minor importance, would find a distinct and proper place. It would also serve as a Mnemonical System^ to aid in impressing and retaining ideas ; as an Index Serum, or method of arranging topics of study ; and as a Model for Libraries, by bringing those books which relate to the same subjects, into juxtaposition, whether in the catalogues, or on the shelves. Such a classification, it is futher con- ceived, would be the best of all arrangements for Encyclopxdiaa : the whole advantage of their usual form, being still preserved, by means of a copious alphabetical index ; while they would exhibit the information which they contain, in a connected and systematic manner.
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6 PHEFACE.
But while proposing a classification of Human Knowledge, it seemed to the writer that its value would be greatly enhanced, and better appreciated, if connected with a brief Bummary of the know- ledge which it was proposed to classify. The attempt has therefore here been made, to present such leading ideas of each branch, as would give just views of its nature, extent, and relative importance ; thus in some degree gratifying curiosity, while stimulating it to farther inqui- ries. Conscious, however, of the imperfect manner in which this has been done, the writer has appended a bibliographical catalogue, drawn up with great care, and referring to a few of the best authors, as far as he could ascertain, in each branch of knowledge ; whose works, if carefully perused, will amply supply any deficiencies, and correct any occasional faults or errors in this. It is hoped that such a cata- logue, however incomplete, from the very nature of the undertaking, may be of real assistance to those who are seeking the best books, either to read or to purchase, for themselves or for Libraries.
Although this work is especially intended for advanced Stu- dents, who are about leaving our Colleges, Academies, or Schools, it seeks also to be useful, even to those who have entered the full career of life; by recalling elementary facts, and adding such reflections on the various topics glanced over, as will im- press them most strongly upon the mind. In short, to convey ac- curate views of general knowledge, in a methodical and attractive form, and to apply that knowledge philosophically and practically, has been the writer's constant aim : but how far he has succeeded therein, a candid public can alone decide.
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CONTENTS.
For farthar partieuhn^ aee iht AfphabeUeal Index^ at the cloae of the uwrk.
KODVOnOlTy page 15 : — Chap. I. Subjkctts of Human Know- LIDGE9 15 : — Chap. II. Sources of Human Knowledge, 19 ; — ^The Ancient Schools of Philosophy, 19; — ^Modern Learned Societies, 22; — Libraries, 23 ; — Encydopsdias, 26 : — Chap. HI. Classification of Human Knowledge, 28 ; — ^Former Chissifications, 28 ; — ^The Proposed Classification, 32.
FIRST PROVINCE; PSYCHONOMY, page 39. I. Department; OZiCMWOZiOG'Ty page 40: — Chap. I. General Gram- mar, 42 ;— Orthology, 43 ; — Lexicology, 44 ; — Accidence, 45 ; — Syntax, 47; — ^Prosody, 47 : — Chap. II. Oriental Languages, 49 ; — Coptic, and Hiero- glyphics, 49 ;— Semitic, and Hebrew, 50; — Arabic, 51 ;— Sanscrit, 52; — Chinese, 54 :— Chap. lU. European Languages, 55; Pelasgic, and Greek, 55; — ^Latin, 57; — ^Italian, 58; — Spanish, 59; — ^French, 60; — Gothic, and English, 62; — German, 63 ; — Celtic, 64 ; — Sclavonic, 65 : — Chap. lY. Bar- barous Languages, 66 ; — ^American, 66 ;-— African, 67 ;— Oceanic, 68.
n. Department; PflTOBOXiOCITy page 69: — Chap. I. Rhetoric, 70; — Qnalities of Style, 71 j— Figures of Speech, 72 ;— Principles of Taste, 73 ; — Objects of Composition, 74 ; — Management of a Discoarse, 75 ; — Princi- ples of Elocntion, 76 : — Chap. II. Logic, 77 ; — ^Terms, and Conception, 77 ; Propositions, and Judgment, 78 ; — Syllogisms, and Reasoning, 79 ; — Fal- lacies, or Sophisms, 80 ; — Grounds of Judgment, 81 ; — Uses of Reason, 81 : Chap. III. Phrenics, 82 ; — Phrenology, 83 ; — Propensities, 84 ; — Sen- timents, 84 ; — ^Perceptive Powers, 85 ; — ^Reflectiye Powers, 86: — Chap. lY. Ethics, 87 ; — ^Personal Duties, 88 ; — Cognate Duties, 89 ;— Social Duties, 90 ; — ^Religious Duties, 91 : — Chap. Y. Education, 92; — Physical, 93;— In- tellectual, 94 ;— Secular, 95 ; — ^Religious, 96 ; — Public and Private Educa- tion, 96.
in. Department; iroaKObOaT, page 98 :— Chap. I. Political Philo- sophy, 100 ;— Theory of Goremment, 101 ; — Principles of Legislation, 109 ; —Of Adjudication, 103; — Of Administration, or Statesmanship, 104: —
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Chap. n. lNTBRNiLTioKA.L Law, 105; Laws of Nations in Peace, 106; — ^In War, 107;— Maritime Law, 108; — Commercial Law, 109; — Chap. III. Constitutional Law, 110; — Legislative Powers of the United States, 112; — Executive Powers, 113; — Judicial Powers, 113; — State Rights and Re- strictions, 114;— United States Statutes and Treaties, 115: — Chap. lY. Municipal Law, 116;— Laws of Persons, 118; — ^Of Property, 119; — Of Crimes, 120; — Of Procedure, 120: — Chap. V. Political Economy, 121; — Production of Wealth, 122 ;— Distribution of Wealth, 123 ;— Exchanges of Wealth, 124 ;— Consumption of Wealth, 125.
lY. Department; TBBOlMO&Tf P&ge 1^7: — Chap. I. Paganism, 129; — Egyptian Mythology, 130; — ^Aramaean Mythology, 131; — Classic Mytho- logy, 132; — ^Hindoo Mythology, 133; — Scandinavian Mythology, 135; — Ind-American do., 136 : — Chap. II. Mohambdanism, 137 ; — History of Mo- hamedanism, 137 ;-~DoctriDes of Mohamedanism, 138; — Practice of Mo- hamedanism, 139 : — Chap. III. Judaism, 140 ; — ^History of Judaism, 140 ^— Jewish Scriptures, 141 ;^-Jewi8h Doctrines and Ceremonies, 142;-— Jewish Sects, 143: — Chap. lY. Christianitt, 144; — EcckuastiealHiitory, 145; — ^Christ and the Apostles, 145 ;— ^Persecutions and Toleration, 146 ;— Divi- sion of the Church, 147; — ^Early Missions, 148; — Biblical Divinity^ 148;— Biblical Criticism, 148 ; — Patristic Theology, 149 ; — ^Apologetic Theology, and Evidences, 150; — Sectarian Polity, 152; — Catholic Churches, 153;— The RefonnatioD, and Early Protestants, 154 ; — ^Later Protestants, 156.
SECOND PROYINCE; ETHNOLOGY, page 159.
Y. Departnient; OBOOBjaPSnTy page 160; — ^Physical Geography, 162:— -Chap. I. Asiatic Geoorapbt, 165;— Asiatic Turkey, 166 ; — Persia, 168;— Hindoostan, 168;— China, 169;— Tartary and Siberia, 170:— Chap. II. EvRoPBAN GcooRAPHY, 171 ;— Turkey and Greece, 172;— Italy and Spain, 173;— France, 174;— Great Britain and Belgium, 175; — Germany, 176; — ^Austria and Prussia, 177; — Sweden and Russia, 178: — Chap. III. African Gbooraphv, 178 ; — Egypt, 179 ; — Barbary, Sahara, and Nubia, 180; — Nigritia, and Guinea, 181; — Southern and Eastern Africa, 182; — African Islands, 183 : — Chap. lY. North American Geography, 183 ; — Greenland, 184;— British America, 185;— The United States, 186;— Mexico, 188; West Indies, 188:— Chap. Y. South American Geoorapht, 189; — Brazil, 189;— Yenezuela, New Grenada, and Peru, 190;— Bolivia, and La Plata, 191 ;— -Patagonia, 192: — Chap. YI. Oceanic Geography, 192; — Malaysia, 193; — ^Australasia, 194; — Polynesia, 194.
YI.' Department; OHBOlTOaaAPHY, page 196;— Chronology, 198: —Chap. I. EucLASSic Chrdnooraphy, 201 ; — History of the Jews, 202 ;— History of Ancient Egypt, 203 ;— Of Assyria and Persia, 204 ;— Of Syria and Carthage, 205;— History of Ancient Greece, 206;— Of Rome, 207;— By- zantine History, 209: — Chap. II. Oriental Crron^grapuy,210; — ^Arabian
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History, 210; — Moorish History, 211 ;— Turkish, 212; — Modem Persian History, 213; — East Indian, 214; — Chinese, 215; — Abyssinian, 216; — South African, and Oceanic History, 217 : — Chap. HI. European Chrono- OAAPHT, 217;— History of Italy, 218 ;— Of Spain, 221 ;— -Of France, 222, History of Great Britain, 224; — Of Germany, 227 ; — Of Austria and Prussia 229;— Of Denmark, 230;— History of Sweden and Poland, 231;— Of Russia, 232: — Chap. IV. American Cbronographt, 233 ; — ^History of the British Provinces, 233 ;— Of the United States, 234;— Of Mexico, 237 ;^— Of the West Indies, and Brazil, 238 ;— Of New Grenada, and Peru, 239;— Of Chili and La Plata, 240;— Of Paraguay, 241.
VIL Department; BXOOSAPBTS', page 242 ;-*Heraldry, 243:— Chap. L EucLASsic Bioorapht, 248 ;— Jewish, 248 ; — Egyptian, 249 ; — Assyrian, 250 ; — Grecian, 250 ; — ^Roman, 252 ; — ^Byzantine, 254 :— Chap. IL Oriental Biography, 254 ; — Arabian, 255 ; — ^Turkish, and Persian, 256 ;— East Indian, 256 ; — Chinese, 257 : — Chap. III. European Bioorapht, 257 ; — Italian, 258 ;— -Spanish, 260 ; — Portuguese, 261 ; — French, 261 ; — British, 264; — Dutch, 267; — Swiss, 268; — ^German, 269; — ^Danish, and Swedish, 271 ; — ^Polish and Russian, 272 : — Chap. IV. Aikerican Biography, 272 ; — United States Biography, 272; — Mexican, 276; — Brazilian, 277; — Co- lombian and Peruvian, 277 ; — Chilian and Buenos Ayrean, 278.
VIII. Department; OJkXjIiOaBAPfirB*, page 279;— Poetry, 280; — ^Romance, 281 : — Chap. I. Euclassic Callography, 283 ; — Grecian Poetry, 283;— Grecian Oratory, 286 ;— Roman Poetry, 286;— Roman Ora- tory, 288 : — Chap. H. Oriental Callooraphy, 288 ;— Arabian Poetry, and Romance, 289 ;— Turkish and Persian, 290 ;— Hindoo, 291 ;— Chinese, 292 : — Chap. III. European Callography, 293 ;— Italian Poetry, 294 ; —Italian Romance, 295 ;— Spanish Callography, 296 ; — Portuguese, 297 ; —French, 298 ;— British, 301 ;— Dutch, 305;— German, 306;— Danish, and Swedish, 308; — Polish, and Russian, 309: — Chap. IV. American Callography, 310; — United States Poetry, 310; — American Romance, 312 ; — American Eloquence, 312.
THIRD PROVINCE; PHYSICONOMY, page 313.
IX. Department; aSATHaMATIOS^ page 314 :— Chap. I. Arith- metic, 316; — ^Ground Rules, 317; — Denominate Numbers, 318; — ^Frac- tions, 319;-*Proportion, 320 ;— Mercantile Rules, 321; — Powers and Progressions, 321 : — Chap. II. Algebra, 322; — ^Preliminary Rules, 323;— Equations, 324 ; — ^Powers and Roots, 325 ; — ^Theory of Equations, 326 ;— Series, and Logarithms, 326 : — Chap. UI. Geometry, 327; — Elements of Geometry, 328 ;— Plane Figures, 329; — Solid Figures, 330 ;— DescriptiYO Geometry, 331:— Chap. IV. Ancylometry, 332 ;— Trigonometry, 334 ;— Coordinates, 335 ;— Conic Sections, 335 :— Chap. V. Rheombtey, 337;— < Dififezential Calculus, 338 ;-— Integral Calculus, 340.
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X. Department; A.OAOPH78IC8y p&ge 342 :— Chap. I. Mbchahics, 345 ;_Static8, 346 ;— Dynamics, 347 ; — Hydrics, 348 ; — ^Pnenmaties, 349 : — Ckap. II. AsTBONOMT, 350; — Deacriptiye Aatronomy, 352 ;— Siderial, 354 ;_Phy8ical and Practical Astronomy, 355 : — Chap. III. Optics, 366 ; — Catoptrics, 358; — Dioptrics, 358 ;-~Phy8ical Optics, 359; — Practical Optics, 360: — Chap. IV. Ceraunics, 361; — Calorics, 363; — Electricity, 363; — Galyanism, 364; — Magnetism, 365 ;— Electro-Magnetism, 366; — Meteorology, 366: — Chap. V. Chbmistrt, 367; — Non-Metallic, 368; — Metallic, 370 ; — Organic, 371 ; — Analytic Chemistry, 372.
XI. Department ; ZDZOFHTSIOS, page 373 : — ^Chap. I. Zoologt, 375 ; — ^Zoonomy, 377; — Mazology, 378; — Ornithology, 379; — Herpetology, 379; — ^Ichthyology, 380 ;— Malacology, 381; — ^Arthrology, 382;— Acti- Dology, 383 : — Chap. II. Botany, 383 ; — Botanical Terminology, 384 ; — Phytonomy, 385 ; — Systematic Botany, 386 ; — Descriptive Botany, 388 : — Chap. III. MiicERALOGY, 389; — Crystallography, 390; — Idiographic Mine- ralogy, 391 ; Systematic and Descriptive Mineralogy, 393 : — Chap. lY. Geoloov, 396 ; — ^Introductory Geology, 396 ; — Systematic Geology, 397 ; —Physical Geology, 400;— Descriptive Geology, 401.
Xn. Department ; Alf DAOPEfVSZCS, page 402 :— Chap. I. Andro- MOMT, (Anatomy and Physiology), 404 ; — General Anatomy, 406 ;^-Osteo- logy, 406 ;— Myology, 407 ;— Neurology, 408 ;— Angiology, 409 ;•— Splanch- nology, 410: — Chap. II. Pharmacology, 412: ^Therapeutics, 413; —
Materia Medica, 414; — Pharmacy, 416; — ^Toxicology, 417: — Chap. III. Thereolooy, 418 ;-^Hygienics, 420 ;•— Febrile Diseases, 421 ;-~£ruptive Diseases, 422 ; — Nervous Diseases, 423 ;— Secretive Diseases, 424 :-^hap. IV. Chirurgery, 425 ; — Vulnar Surgery, 426 ; — Normal Surgery, 427 ; — Topical Surgery, 428
FOURTH PROVINCE; TECHNOLOGY, page 430.
Xm. Department ; Jk&0HXTB0HXrZ08y page 431 :— Chap. I. Hy- LUROY, 433; — Metallurgy, 434; — Earthy Materials, 436; — Organic Ma- terials, 436 ; — Strength of Materials, 437 : — Chap. II. Machinery, 438 ; — Elements of Machinery, 440; — Water Power, 440; — Wind Power, 441; Steam Power, 442 :— Chap. III. Architecture, 443 ;— Elements of Archi- TECTURE, 444 ; — Oriental, 445 ; — Classic, 445 ; — Gothic, 447 :— Chap. IV. ViATBCTURE, 447 ; — ^Roads, 449 ;— Railroads, 449 ; — Canals, and Water Works, 460; — ^River and Harbor Improvements, 460: — Chap. V. Navi- TECTURE, 461 ; — Ship Building, 452 ;— Rigging, 453 ; — Steamboats, 454 : — Chap. VI. Navigation, 455 ; — Seamanship, 466 ; — ^Dead. Reckoning, 467 ; Astronomical Navigation, 468.
XIV. Department; OHBHOTfiOHXTZOS, pag« 469 :— Chap. I. Agri- culture, 461 ;— Agricultural Implements, 462 ;— Preparing Land, 463 ;—
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Fertilizing the Soil, 463 ; — Cultiyation of Vegetables, 464 ; — ^Rearing of Animals, 465:— •Chap. II. Horticulture, 466; — Landscape Gardening, 467 ; — Kitchen Gardening, 468 ;— Botanical Gardening, 468 :— Chap. III. DoMicuLTURS, 469 ; — Housekeeping, 470 ;— Cookery, 470 ;— Bullery, 472 : — Chap. IV. Vbstiture, 472 ; — Linen Manufacture, 474 ;— Cotton, 474 ; — Woollen, 475 j— Silk Manufacture, 476 :— Chap. V. Furniture, 477 ; Vitrefactures, 478 ; — Metallifactures, 478 ; — Horology, and Musical Instru- ments, 479;— Cabinet and Carriage Work, 480 : — Chap. VI. Commerce, 480; — ^Principles of Commerce, 481 ; — Sources of Commerce, 482 ;— Cam- bistry, 483 ; — ^Book-keeping, 484.
XV. Department; aKA.CBBTBOBm€HI^ page 485:— Chap. I. Ho- PLI6TIC8, 487 ;— Ordnance, 489 ;— Ammunition, 490 ;— Equipments, 491 :^ Chap. II. Fortification, 493 ; — ^Field Fortification, 494 ; — Permanent Forti- fication, 495; — ^Attack and defence of Places, 497 : — Chap.* III. Geotactics, 498 ;— Infantry Tactics, 499 ;— -Artillery, 501;— Cavalry Tactics, 502: — Chap. IV. Strateot, 503 ; — Preliminary Operations, 504 ; — Marches, 506 ; Battles, 507 :—Navitactics, 608 ; — ^Naval Armaments, 510; — Naval En- gagements, 511 ; — ^Manoeuvres of Fleets, 512.
XVI. Department; OAXiXiOTBOHirZOS, page 514:- Chap. L Printing, 516 ; — ^Writing, 517 ; — ^Common Printing, 518 ; — ^Engraving, 519 ; — ^Paper Making, 520 ;— Telegraphs, 521: — Chap. II. Painting, 521; — Drawing, 523 ;— -Shading, 524 ; — ^Colouring, 525 ;— Pinacography, 525 :— Chap. III. Sculpture, 527; — ^Modelling, 528; — Carving, 529; — Casting, 530; — Glyphography, 530: — Chap. IV. Music, 531; — Physical Theory of Music, 533; — ^Musical Notation, 534;— Musical Composition, 535; — Musical Productions, 535: — Chap. V. Aroics, 536;— Field and Water Sports, 538 ; — (Sjrmnastics and Calisthenics, 539 ; — Games of Chance and Skm, 540.
APPENDIX.
Tf page 541 : — Glossology, 542 ; — Psychology, 543; — ^Nomology, 644; — ^Theology, 545; — Geography, 547; — Chronography, 549; — ^Biography, 550; — CaUography, 552; — ^Mathematics, 553;— Acro- physics, 554 ;^-Idiophysics, 555 ;— Androphysics, 557 ;— Architechnics, 558;— -Chreotechnics, 559 ;— Machetechnics, 561 ;— Callotechnics, 562.
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LIST OP PLATES.
PlftteL Frontispiece. Pantohgyg or a synopsis of the Tarious biandiet of Human Knowledge, in the form of a tree. The four principal dlYisions of the trunk represent the four provinces, in the proposed classification.
Plate n. Fronting page 54. QUmohgy, The Egyptian, Arabic, and Sanscrit alphabets; with specimens of Egyptian, Arabic, Sanscrit, and Chinese words, explained in the pages preceding the plate.
Plate in. Fronting page 84. Fkrtnohgy. The Organs of the Brain, according to the doctrines of the Phrenologists, as presented in the latest Boston edition of Combe's Phrenology.
Plate IV. Fronting page 132. Afythology. Six of the principal classic deities, Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Minerva, and Ceres, are here represented, with their appropriate symbols.
Plate y. Fronting page 162. Geography, A Map of the World as known to the Ancients, copied firom the original by Agathodaemon, prepared expressly for Ptolemy's Almagest. It will be seen that the Baltic Sea was confounded with the Arctic Ocean ; and the Island of Ceylon with Southern Hindoostan.
Plate VI. Fronting page 246. Heraldry, The principal elements of Heraldry are exhibited in this plate, and explained m the pages immediately preceding it.
Plate Vn. Fronting page 330. Maihematia, This plate is devoted to the most important figures and diagrams referred to in Geometry and the succeeding branches.
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Plate Vni. Fronting page 356. Jhtronomy. A map of the circum- polar stars, as they appear annaally, on the fifth of Augast, at nine o'clock in the evening; and on other days, at other hours of the day.
Plate IX. Fronting page -400. Geology. Restorations of Ancient Animals, the bones or shells of which axe fonnd imbedded in the earth, bat all of which are now extinct. The drawing of the Mastodon, or mam- moth, was made by Mr. W. G. Armstrong, firom the skeleton found in Ulster County, N. Y., now in Peale's Maseum, Philadelphia.
Plate X. Fronting page 446. Jirchiteeiure, Grecian and Roman mould- ings; and standard Models of the three Grecian Orders; of which the proportions hare been carefully collated from the best ancient speci- mens.
Plate XI. Fronting page 496. fhrlifieattofu Plans and sections of works both of Field and Permanent Fortifications, referred to in the text
Plate XII. Fronting page 534. Mute. The elements of Musical Notation, or the modem method of writing music ; with the most approved names of the notes in Solmization.
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INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I.
SUBJECTS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.
The intelligent Reader, whose eye these pages may reach, has doabtless already been led to reflect on the great variety and vast ex- tent of haman knowledge. In the country, he has probably observed the wondrous works of nature, fresh from the hand of their Divine Author; and in the city, he has viewed those works, modified, in a thousand ways, by the less plastic labors of art. In society, he has probably studied mankind in their diversified aspects ; and in solitude, has endeavoured to know himself, and to trace his origin, and that of all created things, back through the range of time, and upward through the chain of secondary causes, to the first and sole Great Cause of all. To such Readers, a review of these various subjects,—- so classified as to show their mutual relations or dependencies, and accompanied by some distinct views of their facts and principles, his- tory and uses,— cannot fail to be interesting, if not entertaining.
We will commence by reconnoitring the field of knowledge, that we may afterward survey it in a more methodical manner. Alind and matter^ active or passive, separate or combined, form the subjects of all OUT ideas; body and spirit being the only modes of exist- ence with which we are acquainted. The mind is of course concern- ed in the acquisition of all human knowledge ; so that the study of matter is distinct from mind, only as regards the objects which are studied. And as we cannot comprehend the nature or essence of our own minds y neither can we understand the nature of matter^ nor the mode nor the origin of its existence ; but only its phenomena and properties, so far as they are discoverable by the agency of our
In examining the properties of matter, we have frequent occasion to measure distances, bulks, or weights ; and to express the same by nombers, with reference to some standard unit ; as five miles, ten cubic feet, or fifteen pounds. To express and compare these numbers, in various ways, was the object of Arithmetic: and to represent un- known numbers by symbols, and afterwards discover their value from their relations to certain known numbers, was the higher office of Algebra. It was also found desirable sometimes to express quanti- ties by extent or magnitude, having particular reference to figure or shape : and hence the origin of Geometry. The application of num- bers to measure various figures and curves, was a still higher step in these auxiliary sciences ; and the mode of discovering the relations
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16 INTRODUCTION.
of mutually dependent quantities, by supposing them to Tary, and observing their relative changes, was the last and highest step ia Mathematici,
In analyzing the material world, we first observe the great distinc- tion between animate and inanimate bodies : the latter having no in- nate principle of life, nor power to move or act, or cease from action, except when influenced by some external cause, or force. The study of these forces and their laws of action is the object of Natural Phi- losophy; which shows us, that light, heat, and electricity,— even clouds and storms, lightning and thunder, — ^are all subject to the same general laws ; and that the stars of heaven, rolling on through countless ages, with the earth itself, the star which we inhabit, obey, in all their motions, the simple law of gravitation, which causes the uplift stone to fall to the ground. Before leaving inanimate matter, it re- mains to consider its composition : and we find in it an immense variety of compounds, all resulting from a few simple elements. This leads to the study of the means by which those elements may be compounded or disunited, with the nature and uses both of the ele- ments and of their compounds ; in all of which consists the science of Chemistry.
In studying animated nature, we find a principle of life, modifying the laws of inanimate matter. Hence we have a new class of pheno- mena, in tlie origin, growth, and decay of organic bodies, whether plants or animals ; and hence a higher interest attaches to the studies of Botany and Zoology. In the animal races, we find an additional principle of life, inciting them to action, and though far inferior, yet in many respects similar to the human intellect. This principle be- comes more prominent, as we rise to the higher orders of animals ; and as they approach the human race in outward form and physical constitution. The fact that many of these organic forms are found buried in the depths of the earth, here arrests our attention ; and leads us to investigate the structure of our globe; first in its homogeneous elements, and afterwards in their massive aggregations. Hence arose the sciences of J/tnera/o^ and Geology ; which, in connection with those relating to organic liife, complete the range of Natural History,
Man, being essentially compounded of mind and matter, seems to form the great connecting link between the material and the spiritual world. Considering his material nature, we are first led to study the structure of the human body; especially as affording the means of detecting the diseases to which it is liable, and suggesting their appro- priate remedies. If the study of Medicine originally preceded that of Anatomy and Physiology^ it could have made but little progress until these studies were considerably advanced, and some theoretical views adopted concerning the action of remedial agents, by which they might be classified and compared. The Art of Healing was thus improved empirically, until it became a science ; resting on ac- knowledged principles, though of difiUcult application : and the intro- duction of mechanical agency, or the practice of Surgery ^ rendered its functions complete.
The human body, owing to its physical constitution, requires shel- ter, food, and clothing: to supply which, has exercised the ingenuity,
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and incited the labors of the greater portion of our race. Hence have arisen the Arts of Construction and Conveyance^ by which not only man himself, but the objects to which he attaches the greatest value, may be protected from the elements ; or transported from place to place, though mountains rear their crests, or oceans roll between. Hence Agriculture^ Manufactures^ and Commerce^ have sprung from tlie bosom of the earth ; and with linked hands, and united labors, they have increased and developed the productions of nature, or moulded and modified them, to suit the wants of humanity : — ^then sent them forth inta all lands, in exchange for other commodities ; until the world has become as it were a family of nations, each engaged in contri- buting to the general welfare.
Unhappily for the cause of human improvement, this concord is liable to interruptions ; when nations, like individuals, yield to their angry passions, and, deaf to the voice of reason and justice, rush to the battle field ; — ^far oftener, to gratify their unhallowed ambition, or to avenge fancied wrongs, than to defend the sacred cause of freedom. Thus, the Arts of War have become a part of human knowledge, necessary in self-defence ; though for this sacred object alone can we deem their practice justifiable, or allowable. By their potent aid, a feeble nation, though powerless to carry its attacks abroad, and commit aggressions upon others, may yet be strong to resist aggressions, amid its mountain fastnesses, or behind its fortified walls. Thus provided and protected, the human mind gives scope to other wants, more re- fined and intellectual ; and in the assemblage of beautiful forms, rich colors, harmonious sounds, and graceful exercises, it seeks for occupa- tion and amusement. To leisure, inspired by genius, and guided by taste, do the Fine Arts^ the last which relate to material objects, owe their interest, and their being.
Considered intellectually, man was evidently destined for a state of society : and hence the gift of speech was bestowed, which so far exalts him above the brute creation. The cultivation of this faculty, led to the study of Grammar^ and of the various Languages which have arisen among men ; emanations, doubtless, from one primitive tongue. By their aid, history has recorded its facts ; philosophy, its speculations ; science, its principles ; and art, its processes : in short, by their aid, most of the knowledge has been preserved and diffused, which forms the boast and distinction of our race. From the means of communicating our thoughts, we naturally ascend to the source from which they spring : and thus we arrive at the study of the human mind, with its varied faculties and relations ; which collectively form the subject of the Mental Sciences; including Rhetoric, Logic, Mental and Moral Philosophy, and Education.
Regarded as social beings, we owe certain duties to our fellow- men, and claim certain rights from them in return. The enforcement of these duties, and the preservation of these rights, is found to require the exercise of power, lodged in some proper hands. Hence govern- ments have originated, and laws been framed; the study of which has expanded into Sie extensive, and important science of Jurisprudences associated with Politics and Political Economy. Again, viewing man in relation to his Creator, new duties arise, which indeed include all 3 b2
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the others ; and of which a right understanding Lb essential, both to our present and future happiness. Hence the origin of Hieology ; in whose sublime inquiries, the light of nature is aided by the light of Revelation, shining on the straight and narrow path to life eternal. Beyond this light, and up to the higher orders of being, darkness slill surrounds us ; and probably it will continue, until this mortal shall put on immortality, and this dawn give place to perfect day.
The principles involved in these intellectual sciences, find their ap- plication, as well as their illustration, in the study of mankind at large, — nations and individuals. This study naturally commences with Geography^ or a description of the earth and its inhabitants : tracing their locations ; manners and customs ; resources and improve- ments ; as derived from statistical records, and the accounts of Voy- agers and Travellers. From Geography we naturally proceed to History : whose voluminous records display the varied fate of nations, during the lapse of time ; unfolding the causes of their rise and advance- ment, or of their decline and destruction: thus proving that pure religion and virtue are the only safeguards of a state ; while wealth, producing luxury, is a temptation to invasions from abroad and dissen- sions within.
The study of nations is greatly elucidated, by tracing the career of those remarkable individuals, who have guided the current of public events, or opened new fountains of knowledge ; and thereby stamped their character upon their own times, or exerted an influence upon succeeding ages. Thus, Biography supplies those details which are beyond the limits of History ; and each aids the other in exhibiting a full picture of human nature, both in its darker and its brighter aspects. This picture may also be seen by reflected light, in the pages of Poetry and Romance : which represent human character and actions accoroing to the ideas of the poet and the novelist : often imbodying the shadowy forms of fancy, as well as the sober realities of truth ; while showing, as in a mirror, the views which they have entertained of life, in all its vicissitudes. Their writings possess various degrees of merit ; but a selection from the best of them can by no means be omitted, in completing the cycle of human knowledge.
Thus, passing from the material to the intellectual world, we have glanced hastily over the most prominent of those subjects, for the arrangement and examination of which, the present work was under- taken. If this survey has been too brief, to give an adequate idea of the object in view, it should be remembered that the greatest objects appear small, when seen in distant perspective. Could a volume be substituted for every page of the present work, it would still be in- sufficient to contain the sum total of human knowledge ; the most important points of which may yet be comprehended in a single tome ; as the widest landscape may be seen through a single pane of glass.
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CHAPTER 11.
SOURCES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.
Of all the information which we possess, a large, if not the larger portion, is derived, either directly or indirectly, from our fellow-men. Hence arises the distinction between original and communicated know- ledge ; founded on the manner in which it is obtained. The term original knowledge^ sincHy applies to that which was first discovered by its possessor; being previously unknown to any person whatever: while such knowledge as has been derived from others, but afterwards Terified by ourselves, may properly be called personal knowledge^ though it be not original. The knowledge of events, which we ac- quire from others, and which, owing to their transient nature, can be verified or proved only by testimony, may be distinguished as At«/o* rical; in contradistinction from which, the knowledge of general facts may be called experimental; and the knowledge of general princi- ples, obtained by reasoning or calculation, may be termed scientific.
We may acquire a personal knowledge of scientific facts, and principles, at any time, by voluntary application: but a personal knowledge of transient events, must, from its nature, be confined to those who witnessed them ; though others may know them historic cally. Another distinction of knowledge, especially in regard to the arts, is that of speculative and practical. Speculative knowledge may be communicated, or derived, by study ; but j^rac/tco/ knowledge can only be acquired by an actual performance of the process in question ; whatever it may be. Personal knowledge, then, may be acquired by observation or experiment ; by reasoning or by calcula- tion : and that knowledge which has been verified by others, as well as by ourselves, is perhaps the most certain of all.
Communicated knowledge may be derived from monuments, statues, coins, or other antiquities ; from books or manuscripts,, pictures or engravings ; and from conversation, gestures, or signals,, in immediate intercourse with our fellow-men. Of all these sources of knowledge, books and conversation are, at the present day, much the most important. . Conversation may produce the liveliest impres- sions upon the mind ; but those impressions, once efiaced, cannot always be restored : while books have the countervailing advantage, that we can recur to them at pleasure, and revive the ideas which they have furnished, although long lost or forgotten. In developing this subject farther, we shall treat, 1 . Of the Ancient Schools of Philosophy ; 2. Of Modem Learned Societies ; 3. Of Libraries ; and, 4. Of Encyclopaedias.
77ie Ancient Schools of Philosophy. Philosophy was formerly understood to comprehend the principles of all human Knowledge ; or, in the words of Cicero, " the knowledge of things divine and human, and of the causes by which they are
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governed.'* It extended therefore to God and spiritual beings ; man and all animals ; the earth and the starry heavens ; matter and mind, and all their properties or attributes. The name philosopher^ is derived from the Greek, ^ iXac, a friend or lover ; and vofo^ a sage, magus, or wise man. It was introduced by Pythagoras ; — who modestly declined the title of sophist, or wise man, but styled him« self a lover of the wise, or of wisdom. Philosophy has also been defined, *' the science of the fundamental truths of human know- ledge ;" or ** the science of reason ;" and it has been subdivided into Natural, Mental, Moral, and Metaphysical Philosophy ; of which divisions we shall speak hereafter.
In ancient Greece, where knowledge was so much cultivated, it was disseminated, to a great extent, by the oral instructions of the philosophers ; and perpetuated by means of the schools, or sects, which they founded. Those schools, considered as sources of know- ledge, we may here properly mention. The first of them was the Ionic school, or sect, founded by Thales, of Miletus, in Ionia, who died about 548 B. G. He taught that water, or rather fluidity, was the great principle of life and activity, throughout nature ; and hence he called it the divine principle, or the soul of the world. Having travelled in Egypt, he acquired and even extended the science of geometry ; and he is said to have been the first who predicted an eclipse. He taught that the stars were material : but believed in the existence of demons, or spirits, pervading the universe ; and ascribed souls to inanimate objects.
The second important school, or sect, was the Italic, founded by Pythagoras, of Samoa, who died about 506 B. G. He travelled in Chaldea and Egypt, and finally retired from Greece, to Magna Gnecia, in Italy, where he established his school. He taught that the sun is a great central fire, the principle of warmth and life ; that the planets revolving around it must be ten in number, because he regarded ten as a perfect number ; and that by dividing the ether in their course, they produced tones, varying with their size, distance, and velocity, which together composed the harmony of the spheres. He believed that the Deity, or Universal Spirit, is in substance similar to light ; a monad or unit, from whom gods, demons, heroes, and human souls emanated ; and that the human soul consists of two parts, the one residing in the heart, sentient and perishable ; the other residing in the brain, rational and immortal ; which, on leaving the body, assumes an ethereal vehicle, till it enters some other human or animal body, to be farther purified, before admission to the divine presence.
Contemporary with Pythagoras was Xenophanes, who settled about 536 B. C. at Elea, and founded the Eleatic school. He maintained that God is the only being ; in whom all others are com- prehended ; and that the variety of forms and objects in nature is not real, but only imaginary. He believed that all things are produced from fire, air, and water; and contended that the moon was inhabited. The Socratic school was founded by Socrates, of Athens, who died a martyr to virtue and truth, 400 B. C. Rejecting the wild hypotheses and fallacies of the Sophists, or speculative philosophers,
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he reasoned so profoundly, on science, and especially on morals, and politics, that he has jusUy been called the father of philosophy. The mode of conveying instruction by asking questions of pupils, and reasoning with Uiem familiarly, is from him called the Socratic method.
The Academic school^ was founded by Plato ; who was the favor- ite pupil of Socrates, and who died about 348 B. C. He taught in the grove of Academns, in the suburbs of Athens ; maintaining that the human soul is a ray, or emanation, from the Divinity ; to which it must again return, when purified from its earthly dross ; and that the greatest earthly good consists in the companionship of kindred souls, searching after truth. The Cynic school was founded by Antis- ihenes ; who flourished about 306 B. C. ; and who was chiefly noted for his austerity. The Cyrenaic school was founded by Aristippus of Cyrene; who flourished about 392 B. C. ; and who gave himself up to selfish pleasure. The Megaric school was founded by Euclid of Megara, who died 424 B. G. ; and it was also called the Eristic school, from his fondness for disputation. The last three named schools are of minor importance.
The Peripatetic school^ was founded by Aristotle of Stagira ; who was the preceptor of Alexander the Great ; and who died 322 B. C. He had been a pupil of Plato, whose doctrines he for the most part adopted, but developed and extended. He wrote on all the branches of knowledge then known ; and his writings have exerted a strong influence, even down to modem times. His system of philosophy was long regarded as complete ; though now proved to be in some respects erroneous, and in many things deficient. The Sceptic school originated with Pyrrho of Elis, who flourished about 340 B. C. ; and whodoubted of every thing, and therefore placed his supreme good in indifference to all things. The Epicurean sect, was founded by Epicurus of Gar- gettus, who died 270 B. 0. He taught that pleasure was the chief object of life ; but placed his pleasure in habits of temperance and benefi- cence. His doctrines were afterwards grossly corrupted.
The Stoic sect, was founded by Zeno of Citium, who died 264 B. C. His famous dogma was, that we should live in conformity to nature, and be equally resigned to all events. Finally, the Eclectic school of philosophy arose at a much later period ; first under Pota* mon of Alexandria, about the date of the Christian era ; and after- wards under Ammonius of Alexandria, about A. D. 193. Its original object was to select the best parts of all the previous systems, parti- cularly those of Plato and Aristotle ; and to combine them in one har- monious whole : but its tenets were alYerward employed as a means of undermining the Christian Religion.
The doctrines of Aristotle, revived and modified, gave rise in the ninth century to the Scholastic philosophy ; characterized by theo- logical speculations, and metaphysical subtleties ; the teachers of which have received the appellation of scholastics or schoolmen* The elder scholastics maintained that abstract ideas, expressed by general terms, are real existences, or essences of the things themselves. Hence they were called Realists. This dogma was controverted by Roscellinus; who founded the sect of the iVomtna/t^/^; maintaining
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that general terms are mere words, or abstractions. His opinion was condemned at So'issons, in 1092 ; but revivedt about 1340, by Wm. Occam (Ocham or Ockham) ; who maintained the doctrine of the Nominalists, in opposition to his preceptor Dun Scotus : and this doc- trine ultimately prevailed. It was left for Bacon, Copernicus, Galileo, Gassendi, Descartes, Leibnitz, Bayle, Locke, and Newton, to remove the rubbish with which the schoolmen had encumbered philosophy, and to become the great modern pioneers in the discovery of physicd and intellectual truUi.
Modem Learned Societies-
The ancient schools of philosophy, have been superseded, in mo- dem times, by associations designed for the cultivation of knowledge ; under the names of Academies, Institutes, or Societies. The first of this kind, was established by the emperor Charlemagne, at the sug- gestion of Alcuin, his preceptor. It was composed chiefly of the nobles of his court ; the emperor himself presiding : but after his death it soon fell to decay. Numerous Academies were founded in Italy, by the Greek scholars driven from Constantinople, on its cap- ture by the Turks, in 1453. The Jicademia Secretorum Naturae^ instituted at Naples in 1560, for developing the secrets of nature, was suppressed by the papal authority, through jealousy of its influence. The Academia delta Cruacoy or Bran Academy, founded at Florence in 1582, for sifting or purifying the Italian language, is now incorpo- rated in the Royal Florentine Academy. And the Academia degV In- quieth or Academy of the restless, founded by Manfredi, at Bologna, m 1690, is now united with tlie Bononian Institute; which pos- sesses a superior library, and collection of curiosities. There are also Royal Academies at Naples, and Turin.
In France, the French Academy was founded by Cardinal Riche- lieu, in 1635, chiefly for the improvement of the French language: and the Royal Academy of Sciences^ was founded by Colbert, in 1666 ; since which time it nas published 139 volumes of its transac- tions. These, and other institutions, were united, in 1795, at the suggestion of Condorcet, to form the National Institute, It was more completely organized by Napoleon, in 1806; ever since which time, it has been patronised by the French government ; receiving therefrom an annual appropriation. On the restoration of the Bour- bons, in 1816, it was reorganized, with some slight chani^es ; and it now consists of the four following Academies; 1. The French Academy, devoted to the French language and literature ; 2. The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, devoted chiefly to anti- quities ; 3. The Academy of Physical and Mathematical Sciences ; and 4. the Academy of the Fine Arts.
In Germany, the Academia Naturae Curiosorvm, was founded by Bausch, in 1652, and patronized by the Emperor Leopold, in 1687. It is devoted more particularly to the natural and medical sciences ; and is located at Vienna. The Royal Academy of Sciences and Belles Lettres, at Berlin, was founded in 1700, by Frederick I. : Leibnitz being its first president. It is subdivided into classes ; pro- Tided with a full cabinet and library ; and has acquired a high repu-
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tation. There are also Academies of Sciences at Munich, Gottingen, Giessen, and Manheim ; the last founded by Charles Theodore, elec- tor palatine. To these we may add the German Association of Phy- sicians and Naturalists ; founded in 1822. There are Royal Acade- mieSj at St. Petersburg, founded in 1725 ; at Stockholm, founded in 1739; at Copenhagen, 1742; at Brussels, 1772; and at Madrid, founded in 1714: and at Lisbon, there are Royal Academies both of History, and of Sciences; the latter founded in 1779.
In Great Britain, the Royal Society of London, was organized in 1645, and chartered in 1662; Sir Isaac Newton being its first presi- dent Its collections are extensive ; and it has published 130 quarto volumes of transactions. The Royal Society of Edinburgh origi nated as early as 1718; though it was not incorporated till 1783: and the Royal Irish Academy was established at Dublin, about the year 1782, chiefly by members of the University. The Literary and Phi- losophical Society of Manchester, was founded in 1781 ; and the London Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, originated in 1827 : Lord Brougham being one of its chief supporters. This latter society has acquired great celebrity by its publications, entitled the Library of Useful, and the Library of Entertaining Knowledge. The British Association, for the Advancement of Science, held its first annual meeting in 1831 ; and has done much for the promotion of physical science, by its researches and reports.
In the United States, the American Philosophical Society, was organized at Philadelphia, in 1769, by the union of two similar socie- ties, previously existing; Dr. Franklin being its first president. It has directed various important investigations, and has published ten quarto volumes of valuable scientific memoirs. The American Acade- my of Arts and Sciences, was founded at Boston, in 1780; and has published four volumes of its transactions. The Connecticut Acade- my of Arts and Sciences, was founded at New Haven, in 1799; and the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, origi- nated in 1815. The National Institution, organized at Washington, in 1840, is similar to these societies in its constitution and objects ; and derives, from its location, some important advantages for the accumu- lation of knowledge. Besides these institutions, we can here only name the Historical Societies of Massachusetts, New York, Penn- sylvania, and several other states : the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia; the Lyceum of Natural History in New York ; the Society of Natural History in Boston ; the Albany Institute ; the New York Naval Lyceum ; and other similar institutions ; the New York Society for the Promotion of tlie Useful Arts ; the Franklin Insti- tute in Philadelphia ; the Academies of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia and New York ; and the numerous Medical, Agricultural, Educational, and other societfes, scattered over the Union.
Libraries
Among the most important sources of knowledge, are collections of
books and manuscripts, called Libraries. The name is derived from
the Latin, liber, a book ; the same word signifying also the inner bark
of trees, which was used for writing upon, before the invention of
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paper. Without the aids of writing and printing, all history would have heen merged in mere tradition ; and all knowledge would have been limited in its diffusion, garbled by frequent transmission, and confused by the imperfections of memory ; so that a great portion of it would have been lost, or swallowed up in vague conjecture. Hence, manuscripts were the chief vehicles of knowledge, till the invention of printing ; since which time, books have become the great store- houses of information ; collected by the labours of men of all classes, in all civilized nations, and in each succeeding age.
The term Literature j is used in France and Germany, to signify learning, or rather written learning, of every kind : the Literature of a nation being understood to include aU the writings which it has ever produced. As the name is derived from the Latin, Hteroy a let- ter, this definition seems appropriate ; though the terms, literature, and literary, are oflen restricted in our own country, to those branches of knowledge which treat of man in his social, moral, and intellectual relations. In this sense, all human knowledge is frequendy com- prehended under the three heads of Literature, Science, and the Arts.
The term Bibliography , from the Greek, flifixtw, a book, and ypm^vi I describe, was originally applied to a knowledge of ancient manu- scripts ; but is now used to signify the describing of books in gene- ral. When it refers to a knowledge of their contents, it has been termed intellectual bibliography ; wheu it refers to their external form, different editions, kind of paper, printing or binding, it is called material bibliography; and it may be termed an/t^t/arion bibliography, when it refers to their comparative rarity or curiosity, and reputed or real value. So numerous are the books now in existence, on almost every subject, that treatises on Bibliography, furnishing lists of them, and critical notices of their relative merits, are of real value to the student, and even to the popular reader. A reference to some of the best treatises of this kind, will be found in the appendix to the present work.
To give some idea of the multiplicity of books, is one object of the following brief notice of celebrated Libraries. Pisistratus first founded a Library among the Greeks, at Athens, about 550 B. C. ; and the first large Library in Rome, was that of Paulus JSmilius, taken from Perses, king of Macedon, 167 B. G. But the most cele- brated Library of ancient times, was that of Alexandria, in Egypt, founded 283 B. 0. by Ptolemy Philadelphus ; who obtained for it the books which had belonged to Aristotle. It had increased so much as to number 500,000 volumes, when it was mosdy burnt, 47 B. C., during the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar. It was partly re- placed by the Library of Pergamos, which was afterwards transported thither ; but this, with additional collections, was burnt by the Sara- cens under Caliph Omar, A. D. 640. The Saracens themselves afterwards collected large Libraries, particularly at Tripolis, in Syria, and at Cordova, in Spain ; which latter contained at one time 250,000 volumes.
Of modem Libraries, that of the Vatican^ or Papal palace, in Rome, is said to contain 400,000 printed volumes, and 50,000 manuscripts. There are also large Libraries in Naples, Florence, and Milan. The
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Royal Library of Madrid, contains aboot 200,000 printed volumes, kept in the Eacurial palace. The Royal Library of Munich, in Bavaria, the largest in Germany, contains 540,000 printed volumes, and 16,000 manuscripts. The Imperial Library of Vienna, and the Royal Libraries of Berlin, and Dresden, contain each nearly 300,000 volumes. The Universities of Giittingen, Breslau, and Munich, have also large Libraries. The Imperial Library of Si» Petersburg contains 430,000 printed volumes, and 15,000 manuscripts ; and the Royal Library of Copenhagen contains a like number of manu- scripts, and 410,000 printed volumes.
The Bodleian Library, at Oxford, the largest in Great Britain, named from Sir Thomas Bodley, who enlarged it about A. D. 1600, is said to contain 420,000 printed volumes, and 30,000 manuscripts. The British Museum, in London, contains nearly 300,000 volumes, besides 22,000 manuscripts : and there are also large Libraries at Cambridge, Edinburgh, and Dublin. The Royal Library in Paris, {La Bibliothhque du Roi,^ is stated to contain 700,000 printed volumes, 100,000 manuscripts, and as many medals; besides one million of historical documents, and two millions of maps and engrav- ings. Its annual increase is not less than 10,000 volumes. The Public Libraries of Europe are said to be upwards of seven hundred in number, and to contain in all about 20,000,000 volumes.
The largest Libraries in the United States, are those of Harvard University, containing about 45,000 volumes ; the Boston Athenaeum, 32,000; the New York City Library, 35,000; the Philadelphia Library, including the Loganian, 52,000 ; the National Library, or Library of Congress, 25,000 ; and tlie Charleston Library, S. C, about 15,000 volumes. The total number of books in all the Pub- lic Libraries of the United States, has been estimated at 400,000 volumes. The imperfection of our largest libraries may be readil}' seen by a comparison with those of Europe : but it can be fully appreciated only by those who have had occasion to make extensive research, and found their researches vain, for want of the requisite authorities.
D'lsraeli, in his Curiosities of Literature, estimates the whole num- ber of different books printed in the world prior to 1816, at 3,640,000 ; but Mr. Preston, in a recent report to Congress, esti- mates the number at only 600,000. From these and other data, we would estimate the total number of diflferent books printed, down to this date, at 1,000,000 volumes in the German language, 800,000 in the French, 600,000 in the English, including 25,000 American, and 600,000 in all other languages ; making a total of 3,000,000 different volumes, or say two million different works. Allowing only 1200 copies of each work to have been printed, and supposing all the volumes to be of an average size, they would form a solid pile, larger than the largest Egyptian Pyramid, although it is 500 feet high, and 690 feet square at the base, covering 11 acres of ground. The annual number of new publications in Germany, is said to be 7,000; in France it is probably 5,000 ; in Great Britain 3,000; and in the United States about 500 works, or 700 volumes, of which about three-fifths are original American productions. 4 C
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Of the books in our own langua^, after dedacting those which are obsolete I or worthless, there stiU remain probably 50,000 volumes, which would repay a perusal. Supposing then a person to read 100 pages a day, or 100 volumes a year, — which is more than could well be retained and digested, — it would require 500 years to read all the books worth reading, in the English language alone ! This result shows the importance of selection in our reading; or we may misdi- rect our powers, and misemploy our time, by dwelling on inferior works, and neglecting the nobler and more useful.
Eneyelopsedias,
From the great multiplicity of books on all subjects of knowledge, arises the utility of Encyciopsedias ^ which, as sources of general information, deserve here a distinct notice. Their name is derived from the Greek irac^cio, learning, from raif, a youth ; and iyngXtoi, cir- cular, from ff«c>or, a circle ; hence it may be defined, the circle of learning Their object is to give a summary of human knowledge ; extracted and digested, for the most part, from various works; and accompanied by references to the best authors, on every subject. They are valuable works for occasional use ; but most of them are too imperfect to be relied upon ; either as giving all the information sought; or the latest information, on subjects which are liable to change or susceptible of improvement.
The earliest summary of human knowledge, appears to have been the books of Hermes, preserved with great care by the Egyptians, and which may be called the Hermiana, Hermes or Mercurius Trismegistus, is the classic name of the Egyptian Thaut, (Thot, Thoth, Thoyt, Theut, or Taaut,) supposed to have been the son of Misraim, and grandson of Ham. He is said to have invented gram- mar, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, and music ; and to have engraved his knowledge on pillars of stone. But as the same Egyptian word signifies also a pillar or monument, as well as its guardian deity, the name has doubtless been applied generally to the learning of the Egyptian priests, preserved in monumental inscrip- tions. Of the forty-two books ascribed to Hermes, some are preserved, including some which are spurious : while others are lost. They treat of the studies above mentioned, together with religion, government, and natural history, as then known.
Similar to these are the twenty-one books of the Persian Zenda* veata^ or living word, written by Zoroaster, otherwise called Zer- dusht. The Persians comprehended all knowledge under the term Magia ; and the term magus was synonymous with philosopher or wise man. The Chinese also are said to have an ancient work called Tay Tsing^ or San-tsae-too-koey, which treats very fully and systematically of all subjects with whicfi they were acquainted. The only general works left us by the Greeks and Romans, worthy of mention here, are those of Aristotle and Pliny. Aristotle wrote on almost all subjects known to the Greeks, but in various deuched treatises : while the Natural History of Pliny, though not an exact work of science, '.s a valuable compendium of ancient learning.
Some works of a general nature were published in the middle
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ages : particalaxly the Speculum of Vincent, which we shall again have occasion to mention : but the term Encyclopssdiay appears to have been first introduced by Professor Martinius of Bremen, in his Idea methodicw et brevis Encyelopmdim^ published in 1606. Another similar work was published by Alstead, in 1620. Three large Encyclopaedias have been commenced in Germany ; one by Krunitz* which has been extended to 146 volumes; another by Koster, suc- ceeded by J. F. Roos ; and a third by Ersch, succeeded by Gruber : but we are not aware that either of these works has been completed. In France, the celebrated Encyclopedie, or Dictionnaire Raisonnif •ometimes called the Dictionnaire Eneyclopidique^ of Diderot, D'Alembert, Voltaire, Condorcet, and other associates, was pub- lished in Paris, from 1751 to 1772, in 29 volumes folio ; to which 6 volumes were afterwards appended. It promulgated speculative Tiews in philosophy, and liberal opinions in politics; the influence of which had no small share in producing the French Revolution. The Encyclopedie Methodique, commenced in Paris in 1782, is the largest work ever yet published ; having already been extended to 221 quarto volumes, more than 50 of which are of copperplate engrav- ings. It is a collection of dictionaries, each one treating of a distinct branch or department of knowledge ; and these dictionaries are arranged simply in alphabetical order.
The first work of this kind, in our own language, if we except the writings of Lord Bacon, which treat of nearly all the subjects of human knowledge, was the Cyclopmdia^ or universal dictionary of the Arts and Sciences, by Dr. Ephraim Chambers ; first published in 1728, in 2 volumes folio ; and enlarged in successive editions. Being originally a globe-maker*s apprentice. Dr. Chambers wrote some parts of this work, in leisure hours, behind his master's counter. The Encydopmdia Britannica^ was first published in Edinburgh, in 1788, in 10 vols, folio, by a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland; James Tytler being the original editor. The seventh edition is now publishing, edited by Prof. Napier. Dr. Rees' CyclopaediOj an enlargement of that by Chambers, was published in London, from 1802 to 1820, and republished in Philadelphia, in 47 volumes quarto, including 6 volumes of plates. It contains much information, especially concerning the Arts ; but the subjects are too much sub- divided, on account of the alphabetical distribution. Dr. Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopedia^ was commenced in 1810, and repub- lished in New York and Philadelphia, in 18 vols, quarto; the last volume appearing in 1832. It is a highly valuable work ; but the latter volumes are less complete than those of the former part of it. The Encyclopedia Melropolitana^ the original editor of which was the late Kev. Edward Smedley, was commenced in London, in 1815; to comprise 25 volumes quarto, still publishing. It is arranged, for the most part, according to the connection of the subjects: and this alone would in our view give it a preference; aside from its being the latest, on so large a scale.
We have barely room to mention the Encyclopedia Londinensis^ by Wilkes, begun in 1796; the Encyclopaedia Edinensis, by Millar, begun in 1816; 'Nicholson' a British Encyclopedia^ com^
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menced in 1809 ; and Partington's British Cydopsediat printed in 1835-6. The Penny Cyclopxdia, conducted by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, was commenced in 1833, and is to be completed in 24 volumes octavo. It is a work of great value. Dr. Larduer's Cabinet Cyclopmdia^ begun in 1829, in duodecimo, is a valuable series of distinct treatises on the different branches of knowledge; but we have not perceived in it any higher arrange- ment. An Encyclopaedia was printed by Mr. Dobson of Philadel- phia, in 21 volumes quarto, 1793 — 1803. The Eneyclopsedia Ame- ricana, edited by Dr. Lieber, commenced in 1830, and now complete in 13 volumes octavo, is chiefly a translation of the German Conver- sations Lexicon, alphabetically arranged ; and is the most convenient work of reference with which we are acquainted. It has been re- printed in Glasgow.
CHAPTER in.
CLASSIFICATION OF HUNAN KNOWLEDGE.
The importance of classifying human knowledge, according to some regular system, has been often, if not generally, admitted ; and the subject has attracted the attention of many distinguished men, in Tarious ages and countries. As such a classification was the primary object of the present work; the writer is desirous of doing full jus- tice to the labors of his predecessors, in this field of study ; before submitting what he believes to be an improved system ; with its prac- tical application to the knowledge which is to be classified. A brief review of the different classifications, which have been hitherto attempted, will first be given ; for which we are chiefly indebted to a work of much erudition, published in Philadelphia in 1816, by the late judge Woodward, under the title of Encatholepistemia, or a System of Universal Science. This review will be followed by an explanation of the new classification, here proposed ; with a sum- mary of the reasons on which it is founded.
Former Classijications of Knowledge. To the Greeks we must refer, for the earliest classification of human knowledge, of which we possess any information. All their learning was originally comprehended in the term Mathematics ; from nwBavia, I learn ; a term which has since been very much restricted. The introduction of the term Philosopher, by Pythago- ras, we have already mentioned, (p. 20.) Pythagoras subdivided the ancient mathematics, with reference to number and magnitude, rest and motion, into the branches of Arithmetic, Music, Ge- ometry, and Astronomy. Music, he regarded as produced by the motion of numbers; and Astronomy, as produced by the motion of magnitudes. These four branches were afterwards called the Quadrivium, from Latin words, signifying the meeting of four roads. To these branches Plato added Physics, or Natural Philoso- phy ; — and Theology ; under which he probably included both Ethics
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and Politics. Aristotle added three other specific branches, Gram- mar, Rhetoric, and Logic ; which have since been called the Tri- vtum, or meeting of three roads ; and which, with the Qaadrivium of Pythagoras, constituted the seven liberal arts. A course of instruction in these seven arts, was called by the Greeks tyxwrXiot ncdcio, or the circle of learning ; and hence, as before mentioned, the derivation of the modern word Encycloptedia. The poetical distri- bution of the sciences among the Muses, will not bear philosophical criticism ; but probably belongs to an earlier age.
The Romans borrowed the Seven Liberal Arts of the Greeks; as enumerated in the Latin verse, — ** Lingua, Tropus, Ratio ; Numerus, Tonus, Angula, Astra." But Rom^ first warlike, and afterwards luxurious, did little to enlarge the boundaries of knowledge ; except incidentally, in enlarging the boundaries of her empire and language. Porphyry is said to have been the first who arranged the branches of knowledge in the form of a tree ; and the Gnostics, or Platonizing Christians, went so far as to divide all being into material, animal, and spiritual. These are the only Roman classifications of which we can here speak. In the middle or dark ages, little was done for the advancement of science ; and still less for its better arrangement. Tincent de Beauvais, (Vincentius Bellovacensis), about the year 1250, summed up the knowledge of those times, in his Speculum Historiale, Naturale^ Doctrincde^ or historical and philosophical - mirror ; to which was afterwards anonymously added a Speculum Morale^ or view of morals ; the preservation of all which, has thrown some light on that obscure period.
The celebrated Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, usually called Lord Bacon, about the year 1605, made a classification of knowledge* according to the powers of the mind employed in acquiring it ; which Tie considered to be memory, imagination, and reason. To memory lie assigned history, which he subdivided into natural and civil ; to imagination he ascribed poetry ; and to reason he allotted the whole range of philosophy, or the study of the Deity, the human race, and the laws of the material world. He subdivided philosophy, into phy- sics and metaphysics; in the latter of which he comprehended mathematics and other heterogenous sciences. Lord Bacon believed in magic and astrology, and denied the earth*s diurnal motion ; yet, as the author of the Novum Organum^ a work in which he pointed out the right method of discovering and applying truth, he is regarded as the great pioneer of modem science.
The French philosopher Descartes, considered all knowledge as either accessory pr_ultiiaa(e; and hence divided it into mathematics, physics, and metaphysics ; the latter including theology. The Sieur de Lesclache published a classification of knowledge in a series of engravings : and Comenius published another, comprised in one hun- dred chapters of ten sentences each ; the whole containing almost every word in common use. Mr. Ilobbes divided all science into knowledge of facts, depending on sensation and memory, and know* ledge of consequences, based upon reasoq. Mr. Locke has also left us a classification of knowledge in three divisions ; physica, or the laws of the material world ; praciica, or rules of human action ; and
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Btmioticat or the means of expressing ideas. Mr. ChamberMj the first English Cyclopsdist, also prepared a classification of knowledge, in forty-seven distinct branches ; arranged as either natural or artificial, internal or extenial : but in his Cyclopiedia, he finally adopted the alphabetical arrangement.
D*Alembert, in his preliminary dissertation on the origin, pro- gress, and affiliation of the sciences, introductory to the great Z>ic- tionnaire Encyclopedique^ merely revived Lord Bacon's system, with some amendments ; but instead of carrying his system into practice, he even doubted whether any satisfactory system could be made ; and accordingly the Encycloptedia was arranged in alphabetical order. Baron Bielfield of Prussia, in bU Elements of Universal Erudition, also adopted Lord Bacon's system ; but with considerable modifica- tion in the details. More abstruse classifications have been made by Wronski of Russia in his Programme of Transcendental Philoso^ phy : and by the Abbe Mango, of Palermo, in his Acrosojia, or Genealogy of the Sciences.
Returning to England, Sir William Jones made a division of human knowledge into history, arts, and sciences. Dr. Turner of Oxford, divided the same into religion, arts, and sciences. Mr. Home, in his Introduction to Bibliography, distributes knowledge under the four heads of bibliography, history, philosophy, and literature. In Scot- land, Mr. Hume incidentally comprehended all knowledge in the six departments of religion, politics, metaphysics, morals, mathematics, and natural philosophy. Dr. Robertson, the fiiend of Hume, and like him a historian, comprehended the same in four departments ; religion, logic, ethics, and physics. Dr. Beattie, in his Elements of Moral Science, divides knowledge into history, philosophy, mathematics, and poetry ; and Dr. Reid has adopted the more natural division, founded on the distinction between body and mind, or material and intellec- tual objects of thought; but beyond this step, his classification is deemed comparatively imperfect.
In our own country. Dr. Samuel Johnson, the first president of King's, now Columbia College, in New York, prepared a work enti- tled Noetica, or a general scheme for the partition of the sciences ; in which he divided all knowledge into belles-lettres and philosophy : the former including grammar, rhetoric, eloquence, history, poetry, and criticism ; and the latter comprehending mathematics, mechanics, physics, and astronomy, together with metaphysics and ethics, embracing psychology, theology, economics, and politics. In this arrangement, the distinction between sciences and arts was entirely neglected ; the theoretical and practical parts of knowledge being presented, throughout, in combination. This work was published by Dr. Franklin in Philadelphia ; and reprinted in London, — but with- out the tide.
The late President Jefieraon devoted mnch attention to this sub- ject; both in classifying the books of his own Library; and in arranging the professonhips of the Univenity of Virginia. Mr. Jefieraon adopted Lord Bacon's principle of classifying knowledge, according to the mental powere employed; and he assigned to memory, civ'd and natural history ; to reason, moral and natural
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phflosophy ; and to imagination^ the fine arts. These heads, he subdivided into forty-four chapters; most of which are distinct sciences, or branches of knowledge: and this classification, it is believed, still remains in the National Library at Washington ; part of which was purchased of Mr. Jefferson by Congress. The late Mr. Jay, of New York, divided all knowledge into sciences, and arts ; the scienctz relating to things, to events, or to duties ; and the arts relating either to utility or to pleasure.
Judge Woodward, to whose enthusiasm we are so much indebted, for this history of the classifications of knowledge, himself prepared two classifications ; one founded on the distinctions of mind alone, matter alone, and mind and matter connected ; the other founded on the distinction of auxiliary and ultimate branches. The subdivisions are the same in both ; first into six classes ; next into eighteen orders ; and lastly into sixty- three or sixty-four distinct sciences : to all of which, names derived from the Greek language are applied ; many of them so new, and bnrthensome to the memory, as to prevent their ever coming into general use. We might criticise this classification, had we the heart to find fault with a writer who has done us so essential a service, and who labored with such devoted zeal for the cause which we have espoused.
The distinguished philosopher Ampere, in his essay on the Phi" losopky of the Sciences, has given a " natural classification of all human knowledge,*' devised in 1830, and published in 1834. As this classification bears a closer resemblance, than any of the pre- ceding, to that here proposed, it becomes proper to state, that the classification of knowledge adopted in this work, was actually com- pleted, before the writer had seen Ampere's work, or learned its contents. Ampere adopts a binary or dichotomous division of knowledge, into two kingdoms, Cosmology, and Noology ; which are subdivided into four sub-kingdoms, and eight embranchments. These are the sciences. Mathematical, Physical ; Natural, Medical ; Philosophical, Dialegmatical ; Ethnological, and Political ; which are farther subdivided into sixteen sub-embranchments, and these into thirty-two sciences of the first order.
The names of these sciences, as arranged by Ampere, are, 1. Arithmology; 2. Geometry; 3. Mechanics; 4. Uranology; 5. General Physics ; 6. Technology; 7. Geology; 8. Oryctotechny ; 9. Botany; 10. Agriculture; 11. Zoology; 12. Zootechny; 13. Medical Physics; 14. Hygiene; 15. Nosology; 16. Practical Medicine; 17. Psychology; 18. Metaphysics; 19. Ethics; 20. Thelesiology ; 21. Glossology; 22. Literature; 23. Technes- thetics; 24. Pedagogics; 25. Ethnology; 26. Archeology; 27. History; 28. Hierology; 29. Nomology ; 30. Military Arts ; 31. Social Economy ; and 32. Politics. These sciences of the first order, are farther subdivided into 64 sciences of the second, and 128 sciences of the third order ; the names of which are for the most part new or unusual. Ampere considers that each division of knowledge may be regarded under four different points of view ; 1. Absolutely, or irrespectively of others, and externally, or regarding only its prominent features ; 2. Absolutely, and intrinsically, or exa-
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mining its nature and elements, considered by themselves ; 3. Rela- tively, or comparatively, and having regard only to its external rela- tions ; and, 4. Relatively and intrinsically, having regard to its nature and elements, compared with others. On this basis, Ampere founds his classification of the sciences ; which we regard as decidedly superior to any of those which preceded it; though we think it too complex to meet with general favor, as a popular system of knowledge.
The Proposed Classification of Knowledge, The writer's attention was long since attracted to the subject of a classification of all human knowledge; in connection with the project of an American Association for the promotion of Literature, Science, and the Arts. His first essay on the subject, embracing the principles of the present classification, was submitted to the Dialectic Society of the United States Military Academy, at West Point, in the spring of the year 1829; and was printed, with addi- tions and amendments, in April, 1836, in the Boston Scientific Tracts, for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The plan has since been materially improved ; partly by tlie aid of learned and judicious friends: and the result of much careful study has been the following System of Pantology ; which is now submitted to the reader's candid examination.
In this system, all human knowledge is primarily divided into four great provinces : 1. Psychonomy^ including the Laws of Mind, or intellectual sciences ; 2. Ethnology , or the Study of Nations, geo- graphically and historically ; 3. Physiconomy, or the Laws of the Material World ; and 4. Technology^ or the Study of the Arts which relate to material objects. These four provinces are next subdivided, each into four departments : and each department embraces a group of several branches of knowledge, closely related to each other. Of the sixteen departments, several were already more or less distinctly formed, and generally recognised : and one of them, the department of Mathe- matics, served as a model, already finished, by which to fashion the others. In these departments, several branches, which like the un- formed stars in Astronomy, had not yet been systematically arranged, may, it is believed, find their proper place ; thus completing the analy- sis of general knowledge. To the four provinces, and several of the de- partments ,-~and to some few of the branches, the liberty has been taken of applying new names, derived from the Greek language ; which will at once be understood by the classic scholar; and which, avoiding cir- cumlocution, will admit of a more exact application to these divisions of knowledge, than terms which have already been used in various significations.
In arranging the departments and branches among themselves, four leading principles, have, it is believed, been constantly kept in view, as guides to a natural method. They are the Order of dependence ; the Order of time ; the Order of place ; and the Order of resemblance. The difficulty of adjusting these principles, where they conflict with each other ; and of deciding, in such cases, which of them ought to prevail, can only be appreciated by those who have attempted similar applications : — ^but this difficulty would arise equally in any other
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classification ; founded, as it is, upon real anomalies, or irregularities, in the very subjects of knowledge. The different branches of know- ledge are so concatenated, or interwoven; having, as Cicero ex- presses it, a common bond or tie, {vinctdum commune) ; that no classification can perfectly satisfy all the conditions ; though one may approach much nearer to it than another. That classification which satisfies the greatest number of the most important conditions, is the best, therefore, which the subject admits ; and our only resource is to treat of each topic most fully in the place where it most strictly belongs ; with careful references to and from those connections or relations, which the system does not bring explicitly into view. This principle of double refer ence, will be found occasionally necessary in every possible system of human knowledge ; and especially so in alphabetical Encyclopaedias ; which, without it, would be labyrinths without a clue.
If we adopt Ampere's first division of human knowledge, into two great kingdoms. — Noologxi relating to mind, and Cosmology relating to matter, — the first two of our provinces would correspond to the former, and the other two, to the latter. Strictly speaking, however, the second and fourth provinces relate to mind and matter in connection ; that is, to man, and his labors, considered as an im« mortal spirit, transiently inhabiting a mortal body, and thus bound to the material world. Indeed, so closely are mind and matter connected, in all human researches, that we regard this step in the division, as of minor importance ; and have accordingly omitted to give it a dis- tinct place. Should it be objected that the names of our provinces, and minor divisions, are not absolutely precise, but admit of greater or less extension ; we must reply that the same remark holds true of nearly all the general terms of science ; which are in a like degree arbitrary and exceptionable, owing to the inherent defects of human language. But we add, that the names here chosen may be easily adapted, and without confusion, or violation of existing usage, to the ground which they are intended to cover.
With these preliminary remarks, we proceed to resolve the four great provinces of human knowledge into their appropriate depart- ments ; briefly explaining, as we proceed, the reasons for the arrange- ment here adopted.* The acquisition of some one language, is necessarily the first of mental attainments : and this is deemed a suf- ficient reason, in the absence of opposing ones, for placing first in OKder, tlie department of Glossology / or the study of all Languages ; including Grammar and Lexicology. As the study of Grammar leads to that of Rhetoric ; which is introductory to Logic ; and this to Phrenics or Mental Philosophy, and Ethics or Moral Philosophy ; and these to Education ; it seems proper to place next in order the department of Psychology^ in which all these branches are, we think, properly includect. The Mental Sciences form a natural introduction to the subjects of Law and Government, including Political Philoso-
* The derivation of the names of all the provinces, departmeots, and branches, will be fonnd at the commencement of the several parts and chaptcors, in the subse- qcmit divinoDS of this woik. 5
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phy and Political Economy ; which we would therefore comprehend in the next department, Nomology : and from human laws, we pasa, by an easy climax, to the divine laws, and the study of all Religions ; constituting the department of Hieology; which, from its incompa- rable importance, deserves the last and highest place in the department of Psychonomy.
The study of mankind at large,-*nattons, and individuals,— is placed after the studies of Law and Religion ; in order that it may not interrupt the series of intellectual sciences, to which it is indeed auxiliary ; and also, that the principles derived from them, may be employed for its elucidation. The province of Ethnology, naturally commences with the department of Geography^ including Statistics, Voyages, and Travels, which relate chiefly to mankind in society ; but reserving the principles of Physical Geography, as far as may be convenient, for the next province, or the material world. The depart- ment of Chronography, or History and Antiquities, comes next in order ; depending immediately on Geography ; and completing the special study of nations. The department of Biographyy or the study of men individually, might be merged in that of Chronography, to which it is subservient, — were it not so extensive, and important, as to merit a distinct place. There remains the study of Poetry and Romance ; closely allied to the preceding ; and which we therefore comprehend in the next department, that of CaUography ; con- cluding the province of Ethnology.
Proceeding next to the material world, or the province of Physi- conomy, we place in this province, and first in order, the depart- ment of Mathematics^ as a- necessary introduction to the physical sciences and arts; among which it finds its highest applications. Closely connected with this, follows the department of Acrophysic9^ including Natural Philosophy, with Astronomy and Chemistry ; and thus comprehending all the dynamical laws of matter. From Natural Philosophy, we pass, by an easy transition, to the depart- ment of Jdiophysics, or Natural History ; which examines and describes the individual objects of nature ; of which Acrophysica traced the elements, and general laws. The study of Natural His- tory, prepares the way for that of the Medical Sciences, or the department of Androphysic9 ; which completes the province of Physiconomy.
In the last province, that of Technology, or the physical arts, depending on the physical sciences, we commence with the study of the materials and machinery which these arts employ ; as a necessary introduction to the department of Architechnics^ or the Arts of Building and Conveyance. Next to this, we place the remaining arts of most general utility, — Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce ;— closely associated in public estimation; and together forming the department of Chreotechnies. The Arts of War, which involve various mechanical operations, and serve especially for the defence of commerce, come next in order ; consti- tuting the department of Macheteehnics / comprising both military and naval tactics. There remain only the Fine Arts, including paint- hig and music ; which we think should conclude the study of the
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arts, as Callography concluded that of nations ; the amusing or orna- mental portions taking the final place. Thus; the department of CallotechnicSf completes the province of Technology ; and with it our tree of human knowledge, as represented in the frontispiece of the present volume.*
We will not stop here to explain the subdivisions of these sixteen departments into branches ; or of the branches into sections ; but reserve these explanations, for their places, in the body of the work. The divisions already made, we consider as the basis of the whole system : and by remembering the names and order of the sixteen departments, we have a key to the whole distribution of knowledge ; as the alphabetic order is a key to the finding of all the words in a dictionary. It is true that many of our division lines, between the provinces, departments, and branches, are not precisely commen- surate with the terms used to designate them ; but the principal expla- nation of these seeming anomalies, is, that we have endeavored to follow existing arrangements and divisions, as far as they could be- made to harmonize with a general system ; and thus to make that system more acceptable than if the old lines of demarcation were greatly altered.
We have differed from Ampere, in introducing the study of the human mind, before proceeding to that of the material world. We can see no advantage in placing the study of mathematics before that of languages ; or of natural philosophy, before mental and moral ; or of medicine, before theology ; neither do we think it the common order, in the best systems of education. We believe that the best course is that which prosecutes the four great provinces of knowledge simultaneously ; commencing with languages, geography,, mathematics, and the useful arts : and so proceeding to the higher studies of each province : — ^but still the studies of language, and geography, should be in advance of the others. As, however, the provinces cannot well be arranged collaterally, in a single volume ; and as some one of them must be named first ; we have no hesita- tion in commencing with that which possesses the highest dignity ; and arranging the remaining three according to their relations to this,, and to each other.
It would be presumptuous to suppose, that we have in every case* succeeded in arranging the divisions of knowledge according to their strongest, and most important relations. As in the natural systems of Botany, the same plant, having strong affinities to two or more differ- ent families, or genera, is diflferently located by skilful botanists ; so* in Pantology, it cannot be surprising that different opinions should prevail, concerning the arrangement of the branches of knowledge,.
* Amp^ra distribatm the branches which we have oompiehended in the province- of Technology, among the sciences on which they most depend. Thus, he limits Agiicnltare to the caltivation of plants, and connects it with Botany : but the naring of animals, he makes a distinct branch, connected with Zoology. Our objeo- tion to this arrangement, is, that it breaks the chain of the Physical Sciences, which have dose and important relations; and also separates those arts, which are usually and naturally associated, and which often depend on two or more sciences in coni-
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even among those who have studied the subject most carefully. But these discrepancies have not prevented the introduction, nor destroyed the utility, of a natural system in the former case ; nor can we see any greater reason why they should produce these effects in the latter. In either case, the study of these relations cannot fail to suggest new ideas, and to prove a useful exercise for the mind.
It may perhaps be objected, that some terms, applied to large divi- sions of knowledge, and now in general use, have been omitted in the nomenclature here proposed. The answer is, that these terms are so vaguely or variously applied, as to be unsuitable for a more exact division. Of the term Philosophy ^ we have already spoken, (p. 19, 20) ; and will only add that there is no one province, nor department of knowledge, for which it would, in our view, be a definite, and pre- cise appellation. We would rather apply it, in its original sense, to knowledge, or the principles of knowledge in general. Knowledge is often spoken of under the three divisions of Literature, Science, and the arts. But Literature, as already mentioned, (p. 2i), more pro- perly signifies written and printed knowledge of every kind : or if applied in a more limited sense, to designate those studies which relate to man in his social and moral relations, the term is still indefinite. Equally indistinct is the division between Sciences, and Arts. Science is the theory, and ^rt is the application of that theory to some prac- tical purpose. Science explains principles, and Art describes pro- cesses ; but these are oflen so essentially connected, that to separate them would be an unnatural divorce. Thus, the Physical Sciences employ processes which might almost rank them as arts ; and the Physical Arts have their own peculiar principles, which might almost entitle them to be ranked as sciences. Grammar is both a science, and an art ; and the same may be said of Rhetoric, Logic, and other branches ; but still they are single and distinct branches of knowledge.
There are two other terms, which should here be particularly referred to ; — Metaphysics, and Belles Lettres. The name Metaphy- sics, originated in a treatise by Aristotle, which, coming after his writings on Physics, began with the words iitra ra ^9«<«a, that is, after physics; and which speculated vaguely on subjects beyond the reach of exact knowledge. Hence the term Metaphysics was coined by his pupils, or by the schoolmen, to signify ** the science of the ultimate causes of all being." It has been divided into Ontology, relating to the nature and essence of all being or existence, with its qualities and attributes ; Cosmology, or the nature of the material world, including the question of Leibnitz, whether God must necessarily have created it perfect, and whether it is so in fact ; Anthropology, or the nature and essence of man ; Pneumatology, or that of unembodied spirits ; and Theodicy, which attempts to investigate the nature, essence, and attributes of the Deity. To Metaphysics belong such wild specula- tions as those of Pythagoras, already mentioned, (p. 20), and the later hypothesis of Formey, *' that sensation is carried on entirely by means of vibrations, which are communicated through the nerves, from the first point of contact, till they reach the farthest extremities, which are dipped in a spiritual fluids So much of Metaphysics, then, as consists of real knowledge, or rational conjecture, will be
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found distributed among the departments in our arrangement ; but as a distinct division of knowledge, we can recognise it only when used, as it sometimes is, to signify Phrenics, or Mental Philosophy.
The term Belles Leitres, is of French origin ; literally signifying fine or beautiful writings. It includes Poetry and Oratory ; but how much more, it would be difficult to say ; as, in the words of a stand- ard writer, it is " so exceedingly vague and indefinite, that miscella- nies, perhaps, would be equally explicit.*' If restricted to Poetry, Romance, and similar miscellaneous literature, it is superseded in our arrangement by the term Callography ; which we think more euphonic; and which admits of an exact definition. The term Polite Literature^ is occasionally used, synonymously, we believe, with Belles Lettres ; but perhaps including Biography, History, and Voyages, and Travels, with sermons, orations, and addresses. Alike vague, and still more general, is the term Criticism^ derived from the Greek cpiy««, I judge ; or more immediately from KptriK9s, a judge or critic. This term is sometimes limited to the application of the rules of Rhetoric to literary composition : but it properly applies to an examination of works on all subjects whatever ; and an exposi- tion of their merits.
The question whether the best possible classification of knowledge, made at the present time, would always continue so ; or whether it would admit of farther improvement, as knowledge itself advances ;— - is one which time alone can answer. In expressing an opinion on this subject, we would return to the comparison introduced in our preface. As in Geography, the surface of the earth has been mostly explored ; and if any lands remain unknown, they are so situated, in the torrid or frigid zone, as to be almost inaccessible ; so in Pantology, we believe that the great provinces and departments of knowledge have already been travelled over ; and that no very wide regions have escaped the notice of the many voyagers who have set out in search of unknown realms of thought. These provinces and departments, we believe, will remain essentially distinct, as long as the material world, and the human constitution continue the same; though their boundaries may be more or less changed, like those of states and nations. But though the general features of knowledge have been mostly explored, much, doubtless, remains to be done, in the sup- plying of details, the correction of errors, and the combination of all the parts into one harmonious whole. We believe, then, that a classification which will satisfy the present demands of knowledge, will continue to be applicable, in its general outlines, till a new order of things shall supersede the present ; or a new intellectual world shall come within the reach of human ken.
Our plan is now before the reader : and the remainder of this work will be devoted to its practical illustration. On the advantages of such a classification of knowledge, we will not here expatiate. Its conve- nience and utility, in the arrangementof Libraries, will best be shown by the exemplar Catalogue of Select Books, appended to this work. To make the plan complete, however, a place must be assigned for Encyclopedias and other general works ; which, if entirely general, we would place first of all in the catalogue ; but if general only in
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38 rNTK01>UCTI0V.
regard to one province or department of knowledge, we would then place them at the beginning of that division to which they relate. The system is equally applicable to Libraries, or to Collections of Manuscripts; as the writer has tested by his own experience. A Catalogue, thus arranged, should of course conclude with an alpha- betical index of authors' names ; referring back to their different works. By such a classification of knowledge, the mind is disciplined, and aided, in its highest efforts of analysis and comparison. A love of order, and method, is cultivated ; which cannot fail to have a benefi- cial influence, in various mental operations, and in the active pursuits of life. The system forms a kind of Mnemonics, or artificial me- mory ; by which ideas are more readily retained and recalled, than if mingled in confusion : — and if the mind is not better furnished there- by ; at least its furniture is better arranged, and more ready for use. The young reader especially, will, it is hoped, derive benefit from such a system of Pantology. To know how much there is to be known, is, of itself, a stimulus to the inquiring mind , and to compre- hend the relations of the different branches of knowledge, is no small step toward their thorough acquisition. Finally, it must contribute to gratify that curiosity, which was implanted in our breasts ; not only to fit us for secular pursuits, but to raise our thoughts above them ; to bring us into closer communion with the Great Author of Nature, through his works, and his revelations ; and to prepare us, in some degree, for a higher and eternal state of existence, in His imme- diate presence.
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FIRST PROVINCE;
PSYCHONOMY.
In the province of Psychonomy, we include those studies which relate more particularly to the human intellect, and the laws by which it is governed. The name is derived from the Greek, tpincv, the soul ; and witos, law ; literally signifying the Laws of the Mind, in eontradistinction from those of Matter. In this province we compre- hend the departments of Glossology, or Languages ; Pyachology^ or. Mental Sciences ; Nomology, or the Studies of Law and Govern- ment ; and Theology, or the Study of all Religions. The reasons for anranging these departments in this order, and comprehending thera together in the first province of human knowledge, have already been briefly explained, [p. 33. 35].
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I. DEPARTMENT:
GLOSSOLOGY.
In the deparlment of Glossology, we include the study of all Lan- guages; or the means of communicating ideas, by words; whether written or spoken. The name is derived from the Greek, ^Xuovc, the tongue ; this being the principal organ of speech. The name Ztfi-
Sii8lic»9 from the Latin, lingua, the tongue, has also been applied to is department, by the Germans; but we prefer the term above adopted ; sanctioned, as it is, by the authority of Ampere. It has tlie advantage of being symmetrical with the names of the succeeding departments ; and of similar origin ; while it is at least equally euphonic with the German name. The term Philology, was formerly applied to Literature in general ; and has sometimes been restricted to the study of languages, or their philosophical principles and relations ; but it is now more generally applied to critical examinations of Classic Writings ; particularly in regard to their exact meaning, and verbal peculiarities. The present department is placed first in order ; because an acquaintance with some one language, is the first step in the acqui- sition of knowledge, beyond the ideas acquired by mere sensation. Some writers have even doubted whether we could think at all, with- out words to embody our ideas ; but this is probably carrying the point too far ; especially in regard to infants, before they acquire some knowledge of words.
A Language, so called from the French, langue, also signifying the tongue, is a system or collection of sounds, or signs of sounds, called words ; which express ideas, or thoughts ; and by means of which, ideas are communicated, from one intelligent being to another. In a wider sense, all modes of conveying ideas, from mind to mind, are comprehended under the general term Language. Among these modes, we would mention gestural language, in which ideas are conveyed by gestures, or by looks ; as in the ancient pantomime, or the modem language of the deaf and dumb ; and exclanuUive language, expressed by vocal sounds, though not by words ; as cries of pleasure, or pain. These modes of expression have also been termed natural language. To them might be added pictorial language ; in which ideas are conveyed by pictures ; as among the ancient Mexicans ; — and musical language, if such it can be called ; which, unless used arbitrarily, as in the bugle or trumpet war calls, may serve to excite the feelings, but hardly to convey distinct ideas. Pictorial language serves well to indicate sensible objects ; but in regard to abstract or general ideas, it is also vague, and imperfect ; unless used arbitrarily, and understood in the same sense by both the parties using it.
40
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PRELIMINABT BEMABKS. 41
The remaining and principal class, — is that of verbal languages ; in which ideas are expressed by words, or signs of words ; unless written characters are regarded not as signs of words, but as imme- diate signs of ideas. Telegraphic signals, being confessedly signs of words, in some selected language, may be mentioned here, and referred to tlieir place in the department of Callotechnics. The origin of verbal language is doubtless coeval with that of the human race. Adam, it is recorded, gave names to all animals; — ^but whether by immediate inspiration, or by his own suggestion, is a point not ascertained ; nor is it of any practical importance. All man- kind, we may infer, spoke one and the same language, in the primi- tive ages : and of course this would be the language of Noah and his family. Many writers suppose that the primitive language was essentially the same as the Hebrew ; having been preserved un- changed among the patriarchs. The diversity of languages, now prevailing over the earth, is generally attributed to the confusion of tongues at Babel: though some learned men believe this to have been simply a confusion of counsels or purposes; and that the diversity of languages arose from the subsequent dispersion of mankind, as recorded in the Scriptures.
The invention of letters, was attributed, by some of the Greeks, to Cadmus, the Phoenician ; who introduced them into Greece, 1519, B. C: but Plato and Sanchoniathon ascribe this invention to Thaut, the Egyptian ; whom we have already mentioned ; (p. 26) ; and who is said to have carried letters from Phoenicia to Egypt, on removing thither with Mizraim, his father. Some suppose the first letters to have been those written on the tables of stone, on Mount Sinai. Others believe that letters were invented before the flood :^ an opinion corroborated by the statement of Josephus, concerning the pillars of Seth ; though this statement has been doubted. We incline to the latter opinion ; and think that the first letters were sug- gested by hieroglyphics : the picture of a sensible object suggesting the shape of the letter ; and the name of that object containing the sound thus represented. This was certainly the case in some of the Egyptian Hieroglyphics ; which would not have been so, had sim- pler letters been previously known in Eg3rpt.
Hervas, an Italian, published, in 1784, a Catalogue of the Lan- guages then known ; to which he appended 150 different vocabu- laries : but J. C. Adelung and J. S. Vater, in their admirable work, the MlthridateSf (or " Allgemeine Sprachenkunde"), completed in 1817, in Germany, have given the best classification of all known languages ; and (tie Lord's Prayer in nearly 500 of them. They estimate the total number of languages, and dialects, known in the world, at about 8000:— or 1200 in America ; 1000 in Asia ; 500 in Europe ; and 300 in Africa. Most of these are mere dialects, or variations of other tongues : so that they may be reduced to about 80 original languages : and these may be arranged in a few groups or families ; those of each family having doubdess a common origin. The Bible has been translated, wholly or in part, into about 180 languages, including those which are deemed the most important The most valuable languages to our own country, are probably tlie 6 d8
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42 oLossoLoar.
Latb, Greekf and Rebrew> of the ancients; and the English, French, and Germatt) of the moderns; which, together, contain most of the treasures of human learning. Next to these, we would place the Arabic, Malay, and Chinese, in the East ; and the Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish in the West ; all of which are valuable, for purposes of communication and commerce.
If all nations spoke one and the same language, much of the time now spent in the study of Glossology, would be saved. Several attempts have been made to form a Universal iMnguage^ which should super- sede all others ; particularly by Bishop Wilkins, of Chester, in Eng- land, who, in 1668, published an *^ Essay towards a real character and philosophical language.'* He very fancifully observes, '« if Da signi- fies God, then Ida must signify the opposite, or an idol ; if dab be spirit, odab will be body; if dad be heaven, odad will signify hell.*' But in the present state of things, it is manifestly impossible to intro- duce such a language, even were it perfect ; which is not the case with any of those proposed. Our hope is, that the less important languages will gradually sink into disuse ; while the leading tongues approximate more closely to each other, till this evil finds a natural remedy. Meanwhile, the resemblance of languages, serves to trace the origin and affiliation of nations ; and these resemblances have been carefully studied by many learned men, for that purpose.
We shall treat farther of Glossology, under the divisions or branches of General Grammar; Oriental Languages ; European Languages ; and Barbarous Languages ; into which branches, this department may, we think, be naturally divided.
CHAPTER I.
OBNBRAI. GRAMMAR.
General Grammar is that branch of Glossology which explains the structure and principles of language. The name is derived from the French, grammaire, of the same meaning ; and this from the Greek, ypati,ta> a letter or epistle. It is found, by an extended comparison, that most languages agree in their essential structure, and are governed by certain laws or principles, which it is the object of General Gram- mar to investigate and explain. Particular Grammar, as English or French, applies these principles to some particular language, including the art of speaking and writing it with propriety. These principles are first derived from the general practice, or usage, in writing or speak- ing any language ; and this usage, they afterwards serve to regulate. Hence, the importance of studying them will at once be perceived, as a guide to the right use of wonls in composition and conversation.
The origin of Grammar, as a distinct branch of knowledge, is, as we have already mentioned, ascribed to Aristotle, (p. 29). The Greeks and Romans carefully studied their own language, but neglected all others,— calling them barbarous, and regarding them as unworthy of notice. The first important work on General Grammar, was that
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GSKSftAL aAAMMAS. 43
published in 1660, by Arnauld andLauncelot, of the Port Royal School near Paris, (under the title of Grammaire gdnerale et rttisonnde)f oommonly known as the Port Royal Grammar* It was followed, in England, by Harris' Hermesy or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar; published about 1760; and by John Home Tooke*s Spea Ptefoenta%* or Diversions of Purleyy published in 1786 ; in which he endeavours to show that all other parts of speech are derived by abbreviation, or contraction, from the noun and the yerb. In our own country, much has been done for General Gram* mar, by Mr. Duponceau ; particularly in the investigation of the In- dian and Chinese Tongues. He arranges all languages in five classes ; 1. The aayntacticj like the Chinese, in which the words have no inflexions ; 2. The synthetict as the Latin, in which several ideas are expressed by one word, as amatur, he is loved ; 3. The analyliCf as the English, having a separate word for almost every modification of thought; 4. The mixed, intermediate between the two preceding, as the Italian ; and, 5. The polysynthetic^ in which a whole phrase, or sen* tence, is expressed in one long, compound word, as in most of the aboriginal languages of America.
Grammar may be subdivided into Orthology, Lexicology, and Ac- cidence, which relate to words individually ; and Syntax, and Pro- sody, which relate to them as connected in sentences.
$ 1. Orthology 9 so named from the Greek opBot, correct, and Xoyof, a word, is that part of Grammar which treats of letters and sounds, as composing words. Articulate sounds, are those formed by the organs of speech, or human voice, in pronouncing words ; and these sounds are represented graphically by letters ; or by other more com- prehensive characters^ as the Arabic numerals, and algebraic symbols. Since different languages have different letters, and sounds, and oAen express the same sound by different letters ; the subject of articulate sounds in general, has been treated of as a separate study, under the name of Phonology : and that of graphic characters, may be treated in the same manner, under the name of Graphology, In regard to any one language, the study of the letters, and right mode of spelling words, is ca&ed Orthography : and the study of its sounds, and the right pronunciation of words, is called Orthoepy, These, however, are so connected and dependent on each other, that we include them both under the more general term, Orthology,
All the letters used in any one language, arranged in a certain order, constitute its alphabet t but the same letter sometimes represents two or more sounds ; and the same sound may be represented by two or more letters, singly, or united. Letters, and articulate sounds, are generally classed as either vowels or consonants : vowels being sim- ple, independent sounds, aaa, o: wh'de consonants, as 6, d^ cannol be fully sounded without the help of a vowel. Consonants are also subdivided, according to the organs chiefly used in pronouncing them, into IMals, formed by the lips, as 6, p, /, m^v; Hngtia-dentalSf Tormed by the tongue and teeth, as d, ^ /, n; palatals^ formed by the palate, as gaf and k; gutturals f formed in the throat, as our Aa, or hf
* Zw9a nnp^tvraj or wfaigsd woids.
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44 OLOSSOLOOT.
and the German ch; and nasals ^ formed partly by the nose, as our n^, and the French m, or n, at the end of words. The letters s and z are called sibilants ; being pronounced with a hissing sound. Our let- ters are borrowed from the Romans : and as they expressed u and v by the same character, these letters have often been injudiciously min- gled, in the older dictionaries. The same may be said of the letters, t and y. Words are divided into syllables : each of which is pro- Dounced by a single impulse of the voice. In writing, or printing, the letters which belong to the same syllable, should never be separated.
Jiecent is a strong enunciation of one or more syllables in a word, thereby rendering the pronunciation more distinct : and emphasis is a similar stress on some important word or phrase in a sentence. Ca dence is a rise or fall of the voice, at the close of a sentence ; aiding to express its signification. The Orthography and Orthoepy of our language, are very irregular, and can only be learned from Spelling or Reading Books, or from Dictionaries. Where these latter disagree, we would be guided by custom, or the analogy of our own language, or the derivation of the word from other languages ; exercising our own judgment in each case of disagreement among standard authors. Thus, we prefer to spell the words honor ^ favor, and the like, with- out the letter u : because this letter is superfluous ; and they are more naturally derived from the Latin words, ending in or, than from the French, ending in eur. But we would pronounce oblique so as to rhyme with antique, and unique ; on account of its similar orthogra- phy, and derivation.
§ 2. Lexicology, is that part of Grammar which treats of the signi- fication of words ; being so named from the Greek Xt^iKoy, a dictionary ; and this derived from A<ru. I speak. Hence, a writer of dictionaries is called a lexicographer ; and the art of writing them, lexicography. Etymology, from trvi^ott true, and Xoyot, word, treats of the derivation of words, whether from foreign languages, or from other words in the same language : while the mere study of definitions of words, may be termed Orismology, from 9pi9^ou a definition. Both these studies, closely connected as they are, we would include under Lexicology. A complete Dictionary of any language, should, we think, include not only the words in common use, but also obsolete words, and tech- nical terms ; marking them as such ; and giving their derivations, as well as definitions. It ought also to give a full list of proper names, both of persons and places ; with their correct pronunciation, as far as it can be ascertained. Those compound words, and phrases, which, by combination, acquire a peculiar meaning, should also be carefully inserted.
As regards their structure, words are either primitive or derivative. A primitive word is one which cannot be reduced to any simpler word in the same language : but derivative words are formed from primitives, either by the addition of one or more syllables, or by the union of two or more words ; as ink-stand, pen-knife. These latter, are also called compound words. A syllable added at the beginning of a word, is called a prefix, or, less properly, a preposition ; but a syllable added at the end of a word, is called a suffix, or termination. Most lan- guages contain many derivative words, which are formed on regular
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OENERAL OaAMMAR. 45
principles ; the additional syllables being generally significant. Thus, from the verb, to love, comes the name lover : from the adjective* white, comes the noun whiteness : from tlie noun, length, comes the verb to lengthen: from the adjective, slow, comes the adverb slowly: and from the adjective, new, comes the verb to renew.
Many words have more than one signification ; and their meaning must be inferred from the context, that is the other words with which they are associated. An ambiguous word, or phrase, is one which has two or more significations ; as, for example, the phrase, ** And thus the son the sire addressed." Synonyms, or synonymous words, are those which have the same meaning ; as omnipotent and almighty. There is no better method of learning the exact signification of words, than by a careful study of the languages from which they are derived ; — a fact which gives increased importance to the study of the ancient, as well as modern tongues. Recourse should also be had to the best speakers and writers ; and to our standard Dictionaries ; which have themselves been prepared by the means here referred to.
§ 3. Accidence, is that part of Grammar which treats of the func- tions, or uses of words ; and the different parts of speech into which they are consequently divided. The name is from the Latin accidens, happening or belonging to ; in reference to the inflexions, or changes of form, which several of the parts of speech undergo ; and We pre- fer this term, as being more suitable and definite than the terms Ety- mology and Analogy; which have both been used in the same signi- fication. In our language, as in most others, there are nine parts of speech : the noun, article, adjective or adnoun, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The participle is also considered by some grammarians, as deserving to be included in this list. ^
A noun or substantive, is the name of any thing ; as man, happi- ness. Nouns in the singular number express only one object ; but in the plural they express more than one ; as men, faces. In the nominative case they simply name the direct agent, or the passive recipient of an action ; as the boy plays : the man is hurt : in the possessive case they indicate property or connection ; as the boy^s book : and in the objective case, they show the object of an action or relation ; as they hurt the man. Nouns in the masculine gender denote males ; in the feminine, females ; and in the neuter gender, objects to which no sex is attributed. An article is a word used to restrict or to generalize a noun. Our language has but two articles ; a or an, called the indefinite, and the, which is called the definite article. An adjective, or adnoun, is a word used to define, qualify, or modify a noun ; as good, strong, white. Ad nouns in the positive degree, express quality or quantity, absolutely or generally ; in the comparative degree, they express it more strongly, by a reference to other objects; as better, stronger: and in the superlative degree, they express it pre-eminently, with reference to all the objects com- pared; as best, strongest. Numeral adnouns, are those which express numbers, or numerical onler; as one, two, three; first, second, third. The words called adjective pronouns, we think are more properly adnouns ; whether possessive, as my, thy ; or demon-
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46 GLOSSOLOOT.
strative, as thUt that; or distributive, as eaeht every, either; or indefinite, as one, $ome, other, any, all, and tuch, A pronoun^ is a word used instead of a noun, for the sake of brevity or variety. The personal pronouns are /, thou or you, and he, she, or it, with their plurals. / is said to be in the first person, referring to the person who speaks ; thou in the second person ; and he, she, or it in the third. These pronouns are declined like nouns ; being found in all the three cases, nominative, possessive, and objective ; as /, my or mine, me ; thou, thy or thine, thee ; he, his, him ; she, hers, her. The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what ; all referring to some antecedent word or phrase ; except in asking ques- tions, when they are termed interrogative pronouns.
A verb, is a word by means of which some action, or state, is attributed to some agent, or subject ; as I am, he loves. An active verb, expresses a direct action ; and when some object is at the same time acted upon, or affected thereby, the verb is called transitive ; as they love virtue. A neuter verb, simply expresses some state or relation ; and a passive verb expresses the same, with a reference to some agent, as producing or causing that state ; as he t« loved. A verb in the infinitive mood, expresses an action, or state, without immediate re^rence to any particular agent ; as to love : in the indicative mood, it makes a declaration, or asks a question : in the imperative, it commands or requests : in the potential, it expresses power, obligation, or possibility ; as he can go : and in the sub- junctive mood, it implies some condition, or contingency ; as if he come I will see him. A verb in tlie present tense refers to present time : in the imperfect tense, it refers to past time, either indefi- nitely, or specified by the context ; as they spoke or were speaking: in the perfect tense, it refers to past time completed, though it may be very recent ; as he has gone : and in the pluperfect tense, it refers to past time anterior to some other past time alluded to ; as they had gone when he arrived. A verb in the future tense, refers to future time generally ; and in the perfuture or second future, it refers to future time anterior to some other future time alluded to ; as they will have seen him before he arrives. Verbs are also varied in reference to number and person ; as I am, thou art, he is, we are, you are, they are : and the assemblage of all these variations, constitutes the conjugation of a verb. Auxiliary verbs, are those used to assist in conjugating other verbs ; as shaU, will, may, can, must, and especially the verbs to have, and to be. This last auxiliary is used in our own language, in tlie conjugation of all passive verbs ; as he is esteemed, the word was spoken s and all our passive verbs are formed from the perfect participles of active verbs ; but in most of the ancient languages they are single derivative words.
A participle, is a word derived from a verb, and often uniting the properties of a verb and a noun or adnoun ; as loving, loved, having loved. These three forms are distinguished as the present, perfect, and compound. An adverb, is a wonl used to qualify or explain a verb, or adnoun ; as well, wisely, there, then. A preposition, serves to show the relation of some noun, pronoun, or phrase, to the preced- ing part of the sentence ; as by, to, from, in, with, on^ over. A
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OENEBAL ORAMMAR. 47
conjunction, serves to connect words or phrases, and often to qualify their meaning ; as and, if, but, because. Copulative conjunctions indicate connection or resemblance ; as he is good and happy : but disjunctive conjunctions denote opposition or contrast; as he is rich but not liberal. An interjection, is a word expressing emotion, or a call of attention, salutation, or the like : as Oh! alas! behold! hark! welcome !
§ 4. Syntax, is that part of Grammar which treats of the agree- ment and dependence of words in a sentence ; so named from the Greek, 9w, together, and rawta, I arrange. It is usually divided into Concord, or the agreement of one word with another, in gender, number, or person ; and Government, or the power which one word has over others, in directing their mood, tense, or case. The most important rules of concord, are for the agreement of articles and adnouns with their nouns ; of pronouns with their antecedents ; and of a verb with its nominative case. Thus, it would be improper to say an house ; because the indefinite article takes the form a before a consonant which is sounded ; but the form an is used before a vowel, or silent A : as an apple. It would be incorrect to say he are loved; because the pronoun he is in the singular number, and requires that the verb should be of the form appropriated to this number by general usage. The most prominent rules of government, are for one noun governing another in the possessive case ; one verb governing another in the infinitive mood ; and verbs, participles, or prepositions govern- ing nouns or pronouns in the objective case. Thus, we say, he spoke to them ; because the word them is the objective case of the personal pronoun, in the third person plural, and it is governed in this exam- ple by the preposition to, which requires it to take this form.
The study of the Ellipsis, or allowable omission of such words as would be readily supplied in the mind of the reader, or hearer, is also an important part of Syntax ; though in regard to its use, it may also be treated of under Rhetoric. In general we must avoid omitting any words which would impair or obscure the sense ; and hence, instead of saying, James will go and see the books to day, and John to-morrow, it would be better to supply the ellipsis, by saying John will go to-morrow, or John wiU go and see them to-morrow. I'he formal application of Accidential and Syntactic rules to the successive words of a sentence, is called parsing ; and it requires a thorough knowledge of the construction of the sentence ; though not always of the exact meaning of the words. Perhaps the best mode of elicit- ing an exact comprehension of the meaning of sentences, is by asking questions ; the answers to which will show that the sense is understood. Thus, in the sentence, ** perseverance overcomes all difficulties ;" if the question be asked, what it is that perseverance overcomes, the answer is, all difficulties : and if it be asked, what overcomes all difficulties, the reply is, perseverance. Again, to the question, what effect has perseverance^ on difficulties, the answer will be, it overcomes them.
§ 5. Prosody, is that part of Grammar which treats of the laws of versification ; including those of punctuation. It is so named from the Greek »p0(, concerning, and m^i?, an ode or song. Versification is
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48 QLOSSOLOOr.
the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables, accord- ing to certain laws ; to form what is technically called poetry. Ver sified poetry is written either in rhyme, or in blank verse, which has no rhymes; but both are divisible into regular poetic feet; in which they differ from prose. Rhyme is a similarity in sound between the last syllables of each two or more verses. A verse is properly a single line of poetry ; and several lines connected compose a stanza, A poetic foot, is an assemblage of two or more syllables ; having the long and short ones, or in modern languages, the accented and unaccented, in a certain order ; and every verse is composed of such poetic feet. An iambus, has one short syllable, followed by one which is long, or accented ; as betray. Of such feetare the English heroic verse, and the long, common, and short metres, in Psalmody. A trochee, has one long syllable, followed by one; short ; as hateful. The anapest, has two short syllables followed by one long ; as con- travene: and the dactyl, has one long syllable, followed by two short ; as laborer. These are the feet chiefly used in English poetry, and the only kinds that we have room to mention. The spondee, consisting of two long syllables ; and the pyrrhic, of two short, are occasionally used by the ancient poets. Of the four following lines, the first is iambic ; the second, trochaic ; the third, anapeslic ; and the fourth, dactylic, but closing with an additional syllable, which gives it an anapestic cadence.
«« Ye nyropha of Soijma, begin the nng." ** Guide me, Oh thou great Jehovth !*' '* May I govern my paraioni with abooiate sway." ** Sound the load timbrel, o'er Egypt's dark sea."
Punctuation, is the application of points, to mark the pauses, and often the sense of a written composition. The points now in use are the comma, ( , ) ; the semicolon, {;); the colon, ( : ) ; the period, (,); the exclamation point, ( ! ), appended to something remarkable; ana the interrogation point, ( ? ), denoting a question. All of these points mark pauses, increasing in length, from the first, to the two last named. The parenthesis, ( ), and brackets, [ ], are used for subordinate or detached clauses ; the asterisk, *, the obelisk, t, the binobelisk, t, and parallels, h are used for reference ; the apostrophe, (•), for abbreviating words; the hyphen, (-), for connecting words or syllables ; the caret, ( a )i for supplying omissions ; and the ellip- sis, whether dash, dots, or stars, indicates that something is purposely omitted. Quotation marks, (** ") enclose a passage taken verbatim from some other author : an index, B0^, points out some remark- able passage ; and a single or double brace, >, j >,i8 used to
connect several lines, which are intimately related ; as in poetry, when they rhyme together.
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ORIENTAl. LANGUAGES. 49
CHAPTER II.
ORIBNTAL LAN0UA0K8.
We class as Oriental Languages, those of civilized Asia ; including, on account of their close resemblance, those of Egypt and Ethiopia. The name is from the Latin oriena, rising ; but it signifies eastern, in allusion to the rising sun. The Oriental Languages are doubtless the most ancient of all; though their relative antiquity is not pre- cisely known. The Hebrew is probably the oldest ; and it became known to the nations of Europe, as the language of the Bible, and of the dispersed Jew?: but the Arabic was little regarded, till after the downfall of Rome, and the rise of Mohamedanisra ; when it became, for a time, the chief language of science. The British conquest of India, has attracted the attention of scholars to the Sans- crit tongue : and (he labors of religion and commerce have at last introduced us to a partial knowledge of the Chinese : but in these latter tongues, much yet remains to be sought for and investigated.. We shall speak briefly of the Oriental Languages, under the four divisions, or families, of Coptic, Semitic, Sanscrit, and Chinese*
$ 1. The Coptic Langtiage, was the original language of Egypt; and it is one of the most ancient that are known. It was expressed by the characters commonly called Hieroglyphics ; so named from the Greek fcp* yXv^ii, a sacred engraving. The earliest hieroglyphics, appear to have been imitations, or natural symbols, of the objects which they expressed ; and hence they are classed as figurative and symbolical. Thus, an eye, with a sceptre beneath it, signified a king ; a flying hawk, represented the wind; and a crescent, resembling me moon, was the symbol of a month. From these hieroglyphics, were derived the phonetic characters ; so called because they represented sonnds ; and which constituted probably the earliest alphabet known. In tlie phonetic hieroglyphics, each character stood for the sound, or letter, which began the name of the object represented. Thus an eagle stood for the letter A ; this being the initial letter of ahom, the Coptic word for an eagle. On this principle was formed the Egyp- tian Alphabet, (Plate 11. No. 1), explained in the following table.
A. Ahom, an eagle.
B. Btrhe, a eenser. Eor A. ilifca,areed. K. Klafly a cup.
L. Labai, a lion. M. Mw&f water.
N. Nepht an inundation.
O. Ostrisj a dog-headed deity.
P. Pr»A, a mat
R. Ba, the ran.
8. Sion, a alar.
T. To<, a hand.
This list may serve as a specimen of the phonetic characters ; but numerous others were employed in the same manner, and to desig- nate the same letters ; though a small number of them seems to have been selected for common use.* All the characters expressing one
• SomeoftheM are shown in Platen. No. 1; but we haire not room to give the Coptic namea. No. 4, ia the word ahonif in Coptic characters. 7 E
Digitized by
50 OL0S80L0OT.
word, were grouped together; and often, especially in the case of proper names, they were enclosed in an oval line, called, by the French, a cartouche $ to separate them from other characters. The order of the characters, in the cartouche, was denoted by the direc- tion of the animals' heads : but the general order of hieroglyphic writing was in columns ; commencing at the top, and reading the right hand column first, as in the Chinese. (This is exemplified in the names Ptolemy and Cleopatra; Plate II. Nos. 2, and 3). The phonetic characters were sometimes mingled with the figurative or the symbolical hieroglyphics ; but in such cases they were recog- nised by some distinguishing mark.
The hieratic or sacred characters, used for purposes of religion and science, appear to have been partly phonetic, and partly imitative. The demotic^ enchorial, or common characters, were of later origin ; of simpler form, being more abbreviated ; and they were applied to a somewhat different dialect, though essentially of the same language. A still later Coptic alphabet was derived from the Greek letters, and used about A. D. 120, in a translation of the Bible ; from which most of our knowledge of the ancient Coptic or Egyptian language is derived. The knowledge of the hieroglyphic writing was for ages lost to the world : and its modern discovery is ambng the most won- derful achievements of the human intellect. The key to this disco- very was the celebrated Bosetta atone, dug up at Rosetta, by the French troops under Bonaparte ; and now deposited in the British Museum. It contained an inscription, in praise of Ptolemy Epi- phanes ; triply sculptured in Sacred, Common, and Grecian charac- ters. The mutilated Greek, was translated by Porson and Heyne ; De Sacy detected in it the word Alexandria ; Akerblad, of Sweden, deciphered most of the demotic characters ; Quatremer^ identified the language as the Coptic ; and Dr. Young discovered some of the sacred characters : but to Champollion, we owe the full develope- ment of the discover}*, and its application to many of the inscrip- tions still extant, on the ruins, and remains, of Upper Egypt.
§ 2. The Semitic family of Languages includes the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Phoenician, Arabic, and Ethiopic languages ; with others of minor importance. The name is derived from Shem, the eldest son of Noah ; by whose descendants, these languages were spoken. They are all written from the right hand to the left ; but each of them in its own peculiar characters. The term Aremaic^ or Aramean, has also been applied to the Chaldee, Syriac, and some minor tongues; spoken by the descendants of Aram, the fifth son of Shem. The Chaldee^ or Chaldaic, was the language of the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian empires; and is supposed to have been derived from the Hebrew ; which it closely resembles.
The Hebrew Language, possesses great interest ; as being that in which the Old Testament was originally written ; except a few chapters in Ezra, and a few verses in Jeremiah and Daniel, which were in Chaldee. It is supposed, by many, to have been the original language, spoken before the confusion of Babel ; though of this we have no positive proof. The characters of the present Hebrew alphabet, are not the most ancient in which this language was written ;
Digitized by
ORIENTAL LAKGUAGB8. 51
but were introduced at a later period, and probably since tbe Chris- tian Era. The diacritical signs or points, both vowels and accents, now generally received, and employed, by Hebrew scholars, are of still later origin ; dating back only to about the seventh century of our era. The present Hebrew alphabet is as follows :
1. H. Aleph, ft.
2. 3. B«th, bh.
3. J. Gfmel, g^
4. 1. Daleth, dh.
6. n. H^ h.
6. V Vav, ▼.
7. T« Z^yiD, z.
8. n. Hh£th, hh.
9. D. T«t, t.
10. 1. Yodh y.
11. 13. Kupb, kh.
12. ly. Lfimedh, i.
13. OD.M^iii, m.
14. I J. Nun, n.
15. D> Simekh, i.
16. jr. Ayio, o.
17. HD.Pe ph.
18. fs. Taadh^, ts.
19. p. Quph, q.
20. % R«sb, r.
21. r. Shin, eh.
22. n. Ttv, th.
^bawoxbak; 3 hah;
T ~
3 or }hay; a hee$ a ho ; a hoo ; a biSh.
The letters hh^ gh, dh^ kh^ ph^ and M, by the addition of a point on tlie left, called a daghesh, are changed to 6, g, d, k, p, and / ; and ah, with a point placed over the left branch, instead of the right, is pronounced like «. The letters a, hy v, y, and o, are frequently silent, or mere aspirations ; their sound being taken or sustained by the vowel points. When two characters, in the above alphabet, are given for one letter, that on the left is used only at the end of words. The principal vowel points, attached succes- sively to the letter a, for example, vary its pronunciation, as shown in the margin. The names of the Hebrew letters, are signifi- cant Hebrew words ; as alephf (pronounced ah-lef), an ox ; hetky a house ; gimel, (or ghimd), a camel ; and so of the rest.
The following, is the first verse of the first chapter of Genesis, in Hebrew : and it should be read from right to left ; as indicated by the numbers, attached to the words.
* \'rr ": . - r - ~ . ....• rr •• :
The pronunciation of this verse according to Stuart, would be, ^BtWaisheeth *hawraw ^Eloheem ^aith ^ha^shawmayeem ^v^^aith ''haw^awrHs. The signification of the words, is as follows. *In the beginning, (from raisheeth, a beginning) ; "created ; "the Deity, (in the plural number) ; ♦• * the heavens, {aith being a sign of the accusative or objective case, and ha the article Me) ; ^ ^ and the earth : (ve signifying and ; awreta, the earth ; and aiM, and ha, as just before mentioned). The Rabbinic language of the later Jews, is a dialect of the Hebrew; but written in somewhat different characters. The Syriac is also a dialect of the Hebrew, written in a peculiar character, and still used in worship by the Nestorian Christians. The Phoenician language, allied to these, was that of Tyre and Sidon, and of Carthage : and from it, Cadmus derived the Greek alphabet.
The Arabic language^ by means of the Koran, has been pre* served unchanged for ages ; and has spread as widely as the Mohame- dan religion. It has many words in common with the Hebrew ;
Digitized by
52
GLOSSOLOGY.
as the Arabians, through Ishmael, are also descendants from Abra- ham : but it is written in a more difBcult chaiacter, and is so copious as to require great labor in learning it. The characters of the Ara- bic alphabet are give in Plate II. No. 5 ; those on the right being used at the beginning, and those on the left at the end of words ; as they are read from right to left. The names of the letters, are given in the following table :
22. Kef, . . . .ch. 15. Dzad, . . .dz. 8. Pal, d. 1. Elif, ... .a.
23. Lam 1. 16. Ta, . . . . . L 9. Dbsal, . .dh. 2. Be b.
24. Miin,....m. 17. Da d. 10. Re, r. 3. Te, t.
25. Nun,. . . .n. 18. Ain, . . . .'h. 1 1. Ze, t 4. Thee,. . . .th.
26. Wau,...w. 19. Gain,.... gh. 12. Sin a. 5. Jim, j.
27. He, h. SO. Fe, f. 13. Shin ah. 6. Hha, hh.
28. Ya. y. 21. Kaf, ....k. 14. Tsad, ...ta. 7. Kha,....kh.
It will be perceived that several sounds are represented by more than one character, as in the case of our c and k: but some of the gutteral sounds are . such as our letters cannot exactly represent The letters elif and ain, like the corresponding Hebrew letters, are often silent; their sound having apparently been usurped by the accents. As a specimen of the Arabic language, we have only room to give the words Aljabr, the reduction ; Alchimia, the secret ; and Alk6ran\ the Reading ; (Plate II. Nos. 6, 7, and 8) ; together with the first verse of the first chapter of Genesis, (No. 9), pronounced and translated as follows : Awwal, (in the beginning) ; ma, (indeed) ; khalka, (created) ; Allah, (God) ; al-samS, (the heaven) ; w' al-arts, (and the earth). The star, is the character for a period. The Arabic language was written in the characters called Cufic, until the present characters called neski (or copy hand ?) were introduced after the time of Mohamed. The Ethiopic, or Abyssinian language, is written in a peculiar character ; but resem- bles the Arabic, from which it is derived.
The Tartar family of languages, comprehends the Mongolian, spoken throughout the greater part of Chinese Tartary ; the Tungu- sian, in eastern and central Siberia ; the Turcoman, or Tartar proper, in Independent Tartary ; and the Turkish, which is the chief lan- guage of both Asiatic and European Turkey. The Turkish Lan- guage, has borrowed many words from the Persian and Arabic ; and is written in the Arabic characters, from right to lefl. It is said to be full in its construction, but meagre in original words; and so&orous, though somewhat harsh and rough. It is an oriental proverb, that the Arabic language persuades ; the Persian flatters ; and the Turkish reproves. They say that Adam made love to Eve in Persian; the serpent tempted her in Arabic; and that the Angel spoke Turkish, when he drove that first pair out of Paradise. ^ 3. The Sanscrit family of languages, comprehends those of Persia, Hindoostan, Thibet, and Malaya; and perhaps of some other parts of Chin India. For a knowledge of these languages, we are much indebted to the labors of Sir William Jones ; who accepted the office of Chief Justice, at Bengal, in order to have better op- portunities of studying them. The Zend was the language in which Zoroaster wrote his sacred books, called the Zend-avesta, or Living
Digitized by
ORIENTAL XJLNOUAGES. 53
Word : and the Pehlvi (or Pehlevi) was the common language of ancient Persia : both being closely allied, it is said, to the Sanscrit. The Guebres or Fire Worshippers spoke the Farsee ; which also belongs to the Sanscrit family ; — and from these ancient languages, the modern Persian is chiefly derived. It contains, however, many Arabic words, introduced by the Mohamedan conquest ; and it is written in Arabic characters, though slightly altered: but for this reason, unlike the remaining languages of the Sanscrit family, it is written from right to left. It is said to bear much resemblance to the German, both in its structure, and individual words.
The Sanscrit language proper, was doubtless once spoken in Hindoostan ; but has long been a dead language, used only by the Brahmins, in their sacred books and ceremonies. Its name signifies perfect ; and the Brahmins also call it Deva-Nagaree, (or Devu- nagari,) signifying the divine ; as they declare it to be the language of tlie gods. Its alphabet f containing fifty characters, is given in Plate I. No. 10 ; reading as in tlie European languages, from left to right. The first sixteen characters are called vowels, though some of them embrace consonant sounds : and they are arranged in pairs, — a short and a long vowel together ; with a slight distinction in the characters. Thus, the first vowel, u, has the obscure sound of u in but, or a in America : and the names of all the consonants are formed by appending this sound to their own, when in combina- tion ; as ku^ khii, gu, ghu, gn&, and so of the rest.
This alphabet has been said to comprise all the fundamental sounds of all the European languages ; and the language itself has been said to resemble the Greek, so much that Gibbon suspected it to have borrowed therefrom : though we think it more probable that the Greeks borrowed from the Sanscrit. The reading of this language, is extremely difiicult ; owing to the numerous complex characters, formed by uniting two or more letters, in one character, when they occur in the same syllable. The number of these compound letters is not less than five or six hundred ; though they resemble the letters from which they are derived. In the specimen of a Sanscrit phrase, given in Plate I. No. 11, — •jugutung, (of the worlds); kariikuh, (the maker); Krishnuh^ (Krishnoo), — the dot over the third letter, stands for the vowel ung ; the two dots following, for the vowel uh ; and the first two characters in the third word are the compound let- ^ters, kri and shnu ; the straight mark at the end being the mark for a period.
The Fracrit, or common language of Hindoostan, comprehends the Hindostanee, in the north ; the Bengalee^ in the east ; and the Tamul, including the Mahratta, Camara and Telinga, in the south : all of these dialects being derived from the Sanscrit. The mixed languages of Ceylon, and the region around the Indus, are called the Magadhi or Misra. The Bali, which resembles the Sanscrit, is the sacred language of the Boodhists in Ceylon, Birmah, and Thibet ; and is written in peculiar, quadrangular characters. The Malay language, which is derived partly from the Sanscrit, though written in Arabic characters, has been called, from its soft, liquid sounds, the
e2
Digitized by
M OLOSSOLOOT.
Italian of the East The language of the European Gypsiea ia said to differ but little from those of northern India.
$ 4. The Chinese Language^ is by far the most important of the asyntactic, or, as Adelung terms them, monosyllabic languages, of the east; and it is one of the most ancient languages known. The written language, according to De Guignes and Morrison, contains 214 keySf or elementary characters ; from which, all the others, more than 13,000 in number, are derived. These keys are evidently of hieroglyphic origin ; often having more than one meaning, and some- times more than one character : and each of them represents a word, usually of one syllable. Of the specimens given in Plate I., the characters yih, sAtA, khow, keuen^ jih, yooK and jtn, are keys, or elementary characters ; although shih would seem to be naturally de- rived from yih ; — from which we may see how arbitrary are these distinctions. Again, we observe that the characters khow^ the mouth, and keuen, a dog, being combined, express the idea of barking; but the corresponding word, fey, has no such resemblance to these words, as the compound character has to its keys. There are two different characters for the same key. keuen, a dog ; and these two characters combined, express the next word in the plate, Aia, straight or narrow ; showing also how arbitrary are some of the derivations.
While the written language of the Chinese is said to be very rich in combinations, the spoken language appears to be extremely bfirren. Thus, according to De Guignes, there are five different characters, each pronounced ho ; eight, pronounced hd $ seven, pronounced hd$ nine, pronounced h6 ; and seventy characters, each pronounced A$ ; making in all 09 characters, having the same pronunciation, varied only by the accent ; and nearly all of them having widely different significations. To designate proper names, the Chinese select cer- tain characters, called Hing-ching, which they use phonetically^ as representing certain sounds : and the characters belonging to one name, are, it is said, sometimes written in a cartouche^ as in the Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Chinese write their words in columns, from the top to the bottom of the page ; beginning on the right side.*
Many scholars have supposed the Chinese characters to be ideo' graphic^ repc^senting ideas independently of sounds ; but Mr. Du- ponceau has shown, we think conclusively, that they are lexigraphie; each representing a word, by means of its pronunciation ; as much as do the European languages. The other languages of this family, are the Cochin Chinese, Tonquinese, Japanese, and other minor dialects. The Cochin Chinese use many of the Chinese characters ; but often to express different words, both as regards the sense, and the pronunciation. The Japanese language is said to use a select number of the Chinese characters, introduced in the year 733, but applied to the original Japanese words ; which are as different from the Chinese, as English words are from French ; though both written with the same character.
* The lart column of Chinese characters, on the left side of Plate I. (No. 13), is the inscription on the tablets at the door of the Chinese Munetim, in Philadelphia. For the honor of possessing this splendid collection, our city and country are indebted to the liberality of one of their most enterprising and patriotic merchants ; Mr. Dunn.
Digitized by
PLATE II. GL0880LOOT.
EGYPTIAN.
=== 1. Alphabet.
(p=viH.p
4. Coptic
-^^f .E
C^ fl^. EI ^ ^^ . K
ajLj.L
<^^ >< J.N ^J>JJ .8
ARABIC.
CAa^ajo^Ds <J a <J
Jb.^Jb.T
C A fi .'H ^ A C-Gh
o a o J' J J'
(jjjjujjuj .8 (^ Atf jlO .Sh CyOLjCL JO . Ti
6. ILJ.A
C3 A J .T OXJ.Th
^ X .s^.Hh
|
10. |
SANSCRIT. |
||||
|
© .^ |
RH. 5C |
K .cR |
Jh .^ |
Th. Yl |
Y JJC |
|
A gSP |
R16. 5f |
Kh. ^ |
Gae. 31! |
D .^ |
R T |
|
I T |
E .-^ |
G . It |
T . ^■ |
Dh.XT |
L .^ |
|
EE. ^ |
' *^ |
Gh. "g- |
Th. "y |
N .?r |
V .S |
|
65. 3" |
Gn . ^ |
D .3 |
p TT |
8b . W |
|
|
00. ^ |
OU.^ |
Ch. -^ |
Dh. To |
Ph. "IR |
8h . ZC |
|
Rrt. SfC |
Ong. 3^ |
Chh. 1^ |
An. J^ |
B ."^l |
8 H |
|
Brt. ^ |
Ch.ir: |
J . 31 |
T .?r |
Bh.^ |
H .^ |
|
11. HH |
t ^l |
■^t "5^ |
^H |
M .7^ |
^W |
13.
H
t
A
CHINESE.
10.000.
Ttng, Chiruu
Jin,
Wnh, Thmgi.
M\t Wing, ^ Tan,
Jih, TkeSun.
Yoob, The Moon.
p
^14^ Keuea,
A dog.
Light.
Tan, ^ Morning,
Barking, Narrow.
12. Yih. 0«€, 4-c
1. Shib.
^ Tgien, 1000.
3r T'hien, /V Heaven.
EngnTfld by R. S. Oflbcrt PhlU.
Digitized by
Digitized by
SUXOPSAN LAKaVAOSS. 55
CHAPTER III.
BiniOrSAN LANOUAGBS.
Thb European Languages may be classed in the four families of Pelasgicy Gothic, Celtic, and Sclavonic ; the former beloDging to Southern Europe, the three latter to Central and Northern. The Pdasgic famUy^ includes the languages of ancient and modern Greece and Rome ; with those derived from them : while the chief tongues of the Gothic fan^y^ are the English and German : — and these two families, the Pelasgic and Gothic, are much the most im- portant, of all modern languages, to the civilized world. Except the Greek and Latin, they are languages which were formed during the middle ages of history ; that period which produced the nations of modern Europe, partly from the wreck of the Roman Empire.
There is no doubt that all the European languages are of Asiatic origin ; and the comparison of them with the more ancient languages, has been a problem of deep interest to the philologist. Thus, the Greek, may be traced to the Phoenician, and Egyptian ; the Latin, to the Phoenician and Greek; — while the Italian, Spanish, and French, are immediately derived from the Latin ; of course with an intermixture of Gothic words. The languages of Central and Northern Europe probably came from the centrdi and northern parts of Asia ; but doubtless from various sources, so intermingled, that their exact origin cannot now be ascertained. Most of the Euro- pean languages are highly syntactic ; changing the forms of words, to express variations of number, person, relation, intensity, time and mode, in nouns, adjectives and verbs. Our own language is, per^ haps, the least variable, in these respects, among them all.
We proceed to speak briefly of the European languages, in the order of Classification above proposed.
$ 1. The Pelasgic family of languages, includes the Greek ; the Romaic or Modern Greek ; the Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French languages; with the subordinate dialects. The Pelas- gians were the oldest inhabitants of Greece : and received their name from Pelasgus, one of their leaders. With them, the Greek and Latin languages both originated ; and from these, all the others, of this family, have been derived.
The Greek language, is emphatically that of ancient poetry and philosophy. It is remarkable for its copiousness and strength ; and for the ease with which its words may be united, to form compounds. Though derived immediately from the Egyptian and Phoenician, it is said to have much affinity to the Sanscrit, both in individual words, and grammatical forms. Its earliest alphabet, that introduced by Cad- mus, as already mentioned, (p. 41), was the old Phoenician, contain- ing only 15 letters; to which r was soon after added. Four more letters, z, e, «, and x are said to have been invented by Palamedes, during the Trojan war ; and the remaining four, h, a, 9 and a were added by Simonides, about the time of the Persian war, or 490 B. C.
Digitized by
56 OL0880LOOT.
The alphabet, thus completed, was first adopted by the lonians ; hence sometimes called the Ionic alphabet. The lonians first intro- duced the mode of writing from lefl to right, about 450 B. C. : pre- viously to which, the Semitic, or inverse order prevailed ; or else the method called boustrophedon^ alternately from right to left, and left to right. The shape of the letters having been" changed, from the original uncial characters, the following is the Greek Alphabet, with the name and sound of each letter, and its numerical power:
|
1. A,-, Alpht, |
ain/oror/ctf. |
60. N, », |
Nu, |
fi« |
|
». B. A C, Beta, |
b. |
60. S,f, |
Xi, |
a;,*..orgr. |
|
a r, >^ r, Gammm |
S-* |
70. 0,0, |
Omicron, |
, 0 short. |
|
4. A, /, Delta, |
80. n,9,» |
.Pi. |
P- |
|
|
6. E, ., Epdloo, |
t9kort. |
100. P, f, ^, |
Rho, |
r. |
|
7. Z,if.f, Z*tm, |
r. |
200. 2,^,f, |
Sigma, |
«. |
|
8. H, », Eta, |
eaainvem. |
300. T, T, 7, |
Tau. |
/. |
|
». e,^,fl, Th*tm, |
th. |
400. r,y. |
Uprilon, |
uAmg or t&ar/. |
|
10. I, i. Iota, |
On piqueoT pin. |
500. «, f , |
Phi. |
'»*• .. |
|
20. K,«, Kappa, |
k. |
600. X,>. 700. ^X |
Chi, |
cAoriU. |
|
80. ^ X. Lambda, |
I |
P«, |
/»• |
|
|
40. M,/*, Ma, |
m. |
800. Q,., |
Omega, |
oio^. |
The letter h is expressed by the aspirate (•)» as in ^^coy, of us ; iytaoBtira, be hallowed; wc, as; ^iaai, lead. To complete the series of numerals, the Greeks used (r),a character called episemon for 6; (a or q), koppa, for 00 ; and (9) sanpi, for 900. The following is the Lord*s prayer in Greek, as given by St. Matthew. (Ch. vi. 0—13.)
nATHP hit^9 h t¥ roTf 09pa¥ots' AytavOnru ro o^ofta ffov. ^Btru 4 0ttoi\tta «•«. Trrf Oi|rM re 9<Xit/it vov, oi( tv ovpav^^ vai ciri riff I'lyf. Toy aprov ^ftuv rey ciriowioi' Sof iifuv vnittpov, Kai a<^i fintw ra o^tXiinmra hfiaiv^ utf rat hn*tt i^uiup t^is o^tXtraif ^n&p. Kat im sivtweyKiit ^fiSi m irttfiavnov, oAXa ^^vat 4j(<If airo ro9 rovnpai. On red tcriv # fiaciXeiti, Kai 4 Jvva/iid rai 4 ^a(«i «S rovs at^wag. A/tnv.
The signification of some of the words in this specimen of the Greek language, is as follows: icafi^p, father: ff/iCiv^ of us, (from fjfittu we ) : 6, (the definite article used as a relative) : cr, in : tois ovpavoc;, the heavens, (from o oupa^o;, the heaven) : aytaoSfjtiaf let it be hallowed, (from ayu>(, holy ; and oyco^'w, I make holy) : f o wofta^ the name, (f o being the neuter gender of the article) : 9ov, of thee, (from ov, thou). Ex^ctw, let it come, (from <p;t<^at, I come) : ^ fiaatXtMj the kingdom, (17 being the feminine form of the article). rivr^97;tc»^ let it be done, (from ycyofiat, I become) : to SiXfjfiaf the will : uf, as : sat, and, or also : tm, upon : rtji yviu the earth, (c^t requiring the genitive or possessive case of 17 717, the earth). Tor aproi', the bread, (the objective or accusative case of .0 apf 0$, the bread) : •rttoucTtoi', daily, or suitable, (agreeing with opfoi*) : 4oj, give, (from 5fr^u/At, I give) : if/xtv, to us, (the dative case of r^fictf) : 097fiEpov, to* day. We have no room here, interesting though it may be, to pur- sue the subject farther.
Of the dialects of the Greek language, the Doric^ spoken in the Peloponnesus, is the oldest, and most harsh ; the JEolic^ spoken in G^reece north of the Isthmus, and in iEolis of Asia Minor, resembles the Doric, but is smoother, and more like the Latin language ; while the Ionic, spoken chiefly in Ionia, and the neighboring islands, is more soft and flowing ; and the Auic, confined to Athens, and its
Digitized by
EITROPEAN LANGUAGES. 57
neighborhood, was the latest, and most refined of them all. The Modem Greeks sometimes called the Romaic f may be regarded as a dialect of the ancient Greek, in which the terminations are abbre- viated and simplified.
The Latin language, was that of ancient Rome ; and received its name from the Latins, who inhabited that region, before Rome was founded. It was not matured till after the Laws of the Twelve Tables, or 451 B. C. It resembles the Greek, not only from its Pelasgian origin, but from the introduction of Greek words, by the later Greek colonists, and emigrants. The Latin became corrupted among the common people of Italy about the year 581, owing to the northern invasions; but in the Middle Ages, it was the common language of learned men throughout Europe ; being the only one in which they could be understood beyond the limits of their own country ; so little were the present languages known or cultivated. In England, the Latin was exclusively used in the Courts of Jus- tice, until A. D. 1362 ; when Edward III., as a favor to his subjects, permitted them to be heard in their own toi^e, much less refined, of course, than it now is.
The Latin alphabet is the same as our own ; which is borrowed from it, except that the Latin has no letter w. We think it clear, that the Continental pronunciation of the vowels, is mofe likely to be that of the ancient Romans, than the English pronunciation, which is pecu- liar to itself. We would therefore, in reading Latin, pronounce a as ilk far ox fat: e as in vein or met : » as in pique or pin : o as in note or not : u as in tune or tun : y when a vowel like i^ ei and the Greek «^ like our long i, as in pine : au and the Greek a«, like our ow in now : and ou, or the Greek ««, like our ou in tour, or oo in moon. The Latin language is remarkable, among others, for what seems Co us an inversion of the natural order of words ; as in pater noster, father our, instead of our father ; but whether the former is not the real natural order, if such an one there be, we are not impartial judges to decide.
It may perhaps be interesting here to give some specimens of the manner in which Latin words are varied ; particularly in the declen- sion of nouns and adjectives, and the conjugation of verbs. Domi- nti«, signifies, the I^ord, or a lord ; domini, of a lord, or of the lord ; domino, to the lord ; dominum, the lord ; domine. Oh lord ! ; and domino, from or by a lord or the lord : this language having no article. The six cases of Latin nouns, here given in order, are called the nominative ; the genitive or possessive ; the dative ; the accusative or objective; the vocative; and the ablative. In the plural, we have domini, the lords, or Oh lords ! ; dominorum, of the lords ; dominis, to, from, or by the lords ; and dominoa, the lords ; this latter being the accusative case. Magnus dominus, signifies the great lord ; magna terra, the great earth ; magnum regnum, a or the great king^ dom. Ease, is the verb to be ; aum or ego sum, I am ; ea, or tu e«, thou art ; eat or ifle eat, he is : aUmua, we are ; eatia, ye or you are ; aunt, they are. Eram, signifies I was ; fui, I was or I have been ; fuifram, I had been ; ero, I shall be ; aim, I may be ; eaaem, I might be ; fuirim, I may have been ; fuiaaem, I might have been ; fu^rOf 8
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58 OLOssoLOor.
I shall have been ; es or etto, be thou \fut$»e, to have been \futuru$^ about to be. Creare, to create, in like manner forma creo^ I create ; ereavif I have created ; crtabo^ 1 shall or will create ; creem, I may create ; creari, to be created : and numerous other parts. The fol« lowing; is the Lord's Prayer in Latin; by the first two words of which it is often designated.
Pater noster^ qui es in coelis^ sanctijicetur namen tuum : adveniat regnum tuum i fiat voluntas tua^ sicut in ccslo et in terra : panem nostrum quotidxanum da nobis hodie : et remitte nobis dcbita nos- ira^ sicut et nos remittimus debitoribus nostris et ne nos inducas in tentationem, sed libera nos a malo : quia tuum est regnum et potentia et gloria, in secula* Amen.
The signification of these words is as follow?. Pater, father : nos- ter, our : qui, who: es, art; (from the verb esse, to be): in, in : coelis, the heavens; (from coelum, heaven): sanctijicetur, may it be hal- lowed ; (from sanctifico, I make holy, and this from sanctus, holy) : nomen, name : tuum, thy; (neuter gender of /uu«, thy). Adveniat, may it come; (from advenio, I approach): regnum, kingdom: Jiat, let it be done ; (from^o, I become ; Jit, it becomes, or it is done) : vo- luntas, will; (a noun of the feminine gender) : sicut, as : et, and or also. Panem, bread ; (ace. case o(panis): quotidianum, daily : da^ give; (from do, I give): nobis, to us; (dative case of nos, we) : Ao- die, this day. Bemitte, remit', (from remitto, I send back) : debita^ debts ; (from debitum, a debt ) : ne, not : inducas, mayst thou lead ;
Sfrom induco, I lead) : tentatio, temptation : sed, but : libera, liberate ; from libero, I liberate): d, from : malum, evil : quia, because : po- tentia, power : gloria, glory : in secula, for ages, or forever.
The Italian language, is derived immediately from the Latin ; dif- fering from it in the introduction of a few Gothic words, but chiefly in abbreviating the terminations of words, and using short auxiliary words, to supply their place. The Italic or sloping characters, which we occasionally use, are evidently a slight modification of the Roman. This language was for ages a mere corruption of the Latin, and called by the learned, ** the vulgar tongue.'* Sismondi dates its origin at about 1 140 ; under Roger L of Sicily. Spinello's History, commenced in 1247, was the first learned work in Italian prose; and the Divina Comedia of Dante, written about 1300, stamped the language with character and permanency. This work gave a predominance to the Tuscan dialect ; though it is more guttural than the others. It is, however, spoken the most accurately at Rome ; as implied by the pro- verb, ** Lingua Toscana in bocca Romana:^^ or the Tuscan tongue in a Roman mouth, the beau ideal of Italian. This language abounds in vowels and liquids ; is soft and smooth, and admirably suited for music, poetry, and improvisation.
The Italians pronounce the vowels as we have mentioned for the Latin, except u, which they pronounce like our oo in moon. They pronounce c before e, and t, like our ch in charm; cc like t,ch ; and ch, like k. They pronounce g before e; and t, like our J; fcg^ like dj ; gh, like g hard; and A, in Italian, is always silent. They use J, only as a vowel, instead of t or it ; and the letters k, w, x, and y, are not found in their language. They pronounce z like dz or tz.
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EUROPEAK LANOITAOES. 59
and zz also like tz. The letters g>/, and gn, have often a liquid sound in Italian ; like the Hi in our word billion, or the ni in pinion ; as in tgliy he, pronounced ail-yt / and o^nt, every or all, pronounced own-ye. This language is remarkable for the manner in which the prepositions are united with the articles ; and the pronouns with the verbs, when they come together ; forming as it were a single word. Thus the prepositions (/t, of; da, from ; a, to ; and per^ through or by ; united with the article /o, the ; form the compounds dello, ddllOf alio, and pello; as in delP amore, of the love. Again, instead of to ti favello, I speak to thee, the Indians may a^Ly favelioti : and as the word gli signifies to him, they may say dicivaglU instead of ei gli diceva, he said to him.
The following is the Lord's Prayer in Italian ; which will doubt- less be understood from what has already been said ; at least by com- paring it with the Latin.
Padre nostra^ che set nel cielo, sia »anct\ficato U tuo nome : il tuo regTw venga, la tua volonta sia fatta Hccame in cielo cosi ancke in terra; dacci oggi il nostra pane cotidiano: e rimetiici i nostra debiti^ siccome noi ancora rimettiamo a nostri dMtori : e non indudci in ten- tazione, ma liberaci dal male ; percioche tuoeU regno, e la potenza, e la gloria, in sempitemo. ^men.
The Wallachian language is a mere corruption of the Latin : and an impure Latin is still spoken in some parts of Hungary. The Sicilian, Sardinian, and Corsican dialects are very slight modifications of the Italian.
The Spanish language, is called by the Spaniards, La Lengua Castellana; because it was matured, and spoken in its greatest purity, in the kingdom of Castile. It is derived from the PhGenician of the early colonists, and of the Carthaginian conquerors, mingled with the Latin of the Romans ; from which and the language of the Visigoths, a Romance language was formed, in Spain, as early as A. D. 623. This Romance tongue, with some Arabic words from the Moors, forms the basis of the Castilian tongue, which, according to Sismondi, dates back to 1050 ; under Ferdinand the Great. The laws, and documents of Spain, were written in Latin, till 1252 ; when Alphonso X. published Las Partidas, a code of laws, in Spanish. This language abounds in full sounding vowels ; though mingled with Arabic and Gothic palatals and gutturals: and, from its solemnity and dignity, it has been termed ** the language of the gods.'* The Spanish alphabet, is the same as ours ; only wanting the letter w. The Spaniards pronounce the vowels, as we have mentioned for the Latin: but c before e, i, and y, they pronounce like our th; eh, as in English, in charm ; gu, when without a diaresis, like g hard ; g be- fore e, i, and y, like A; and j always like our A; while h itself is always silent. They pronounce // like our ^t in billion ; and n, with a tilde over it, like ni in pinion : these sounds being called liquid ; and also found in the Italian. They pronounce ar, where it comes before a vowel with no circumflex accent, like h ; and z they always sound like our th.
The Lord's Prayer in Spanish, is here annexed, to show the close connexion between this language and the Italian and Latin.
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60 oLossoLOor.
Padre nuestro que e»(ai en el cielo, 8anct\ficado sea el iu nombre; venga e/ tu reino ; hagare tu voluntad, aai en la tierra como en el cielo : el pan nuestro de cada dia danos hoy; yperdonanos nuestras deu- das, asi como nosotros peraonamos a nuestros deudores; yno nos d^'es cacr en la tentadon, mas libranos de mal: porque tuo es el reino, y la potencia, y la gloria, por los sighs, ^men.
The Portuguese language is the GalicLan dialect of the old Spanish Romance language, with slight modifications. It became the language of Portugal from tlie date of its independence, under Alphonso I, A. D. 1139 ;— ^r, according to Sismondi, as early as the jear 1100, under Count Henry. The delicacy and richness of its songs, has given it the name of the flotver language. Its literature is of minor importance ; but it u the language also of Brazil, and of some parts of India and Africa; and hence it is of considerable interest to the commercial world. The Lord's Prayer in Poriu« guese, commences as follows : Padre nosso, que estas nos ceos, sanctificado scio o tu nome; venka tuo regno; sciafeita a tua votade, assi nos ceos, como na terra. From this specimen, its close resem- blance to the preceding languages may easily be traced.
The French language^ is founded on the Celtic, the language of the Gauls ; but consists chiefly of abbreviated Latin words, intro* duced by the Roman Conquest, and by the subsequent use of the Latin language among the learned. By the mixture of the Latin, with the Celtic and Gothic dialects, two distinct Romance languages, 80 called, were formed; — the Southern or Provencal, called the Langue d*Oc, in which the word oc signified yes ; and the Norihcrn or Langue d*Oui, or, d'Oil, in which yes was expressed by the word out. The former, according to Sismondi, originated at the court of Bozon, king of Aries, in 880 ; and the latter, called also the Romance Wallon, at the court of William Longue Epee, of Nor- mandy, in 030. The Provencal was the language of the troubadours ; and is still spoken by the common people in the South of France and east of Spain ; bearing, as it does, a resemblance to the Spanish. But when Paris became the French capital, the northern dialect pre- vailed, and took the national name ; though less poetical than the Provencal, and abounding in obscurely sounded vowels. The French is a language rather for oratory, than poetry ; and, under the French Academy, it has acquired so much precision, with its vivacity, as to have elicited Voltaire's remark that ** whatever is not clear, is not French." It became the language of courts of justice, in place of the Latin, in 1539, under Francis I. : and it is, perhaps, the most common language of European diplomacy ; owing partly to the efibrls made by the French to give it universal currency. Next to our own bnguage, it is perhaps Uie most valuable to us, for all the purposes of information and communication.
The French alphabet, differs from ours, only in wanting the letter w. The simple vowels in it are pronounced as we have mentioned under the Latin, (p. 57), except u, which has a sound compounded of our short i and long u. The vowel e, has often an obscure sound, as in our word father, particularly at the end of monosyllables; which,
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EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 61
in pronunciation, are therefore joined to the following word. The French have a peculiar class of sounds, called nasal ; expressed by one or more vowels prefixed to m or n ; these last letters being, as it were, only half pronounced ; and partly through the nose. Thus, am and an, em and en, have the vowel sound of a in far ; aim, atn, iin, tm, tn, ywi, and yn, have the sound of a in fat ; om, on^ and eon, the sound of o in on ; and urn, tin, and eun, the sound of u in dun ; but all ending with the peculiar nasal sound. The diphthong oi has the sound of waw in English, as in the word hi, law, pronounced Iwaw. The French pronounce, ai and ei like a in fate ; ou like oo in moon ; au, and eau like o in note : and to eu they give a peculiar sound, between that of ew in few, and u in fur. They sometimes pronounce 9, before a, o, and ti, like «, always in these cases writing a cedilla underneath it; cA, they pronounce like eh, except in words from the Greek ; g sof^, and j like zh or s in pleasure ; gn, and some- times / at the end of syllables, liquid, as in the Spanish; qu often like k; r with a strong aspirate sound ; th like t ,* and x sometimes like t or z .* while final consonants are often silent.
The French articles un, a or an, and le, the, become une, and /a, before nouns in the feminine gender ; and the latter becomes f, (/, with an apostrophe), before a vowel ; and lea in the plural. The prepositions de, of, and a, to, coalesce with the articles, in some of their forms ; as in the Italian. The adjectives, change their termina- tions, for the feminine, and the plural ; as un ban homme, a good man ; une bonne femme, a good woman ; les bona gargons, the good boys ; les bonnes fUles, the good girls. As examples of the pro- nouns and verbs, we may present the following. Eire, to be ; 4tant, being : je suis, I am ; tu est, thou art ; il est, he is ; nous sommes, we are ; vous etes, you are ; Us sont, they are. Tetais or je fus, I was ; fai it4, 1 have been ; favais 4ti or feus eti, I had been ; je serat, I shall be ; je serais, I should be ; sois, be thou ; que je sois, that I may be ; quejefusse, that I might be ; quej^ai ete, that I may have been ; and quej^euse 4ti, that I might have been.
The following is the Lord's Prayer in French ; from which it will be seen that this language, like our own, is highly analytic ; express- ing by particles, or separate words, those modifications, which the Greek and Latin express chiefly by terminations.
Notre pire qui ^tes dans les deux, que voire nom soil sanctifii : que voire regne arrive : que voire volontd soil faite en la terre, eomme dans le del: donnez nous aujourd'hui notre pain de chaque jour ; et pardonnez nous nos offenses, comme nous pardonnons i eeux qui nous ont offensis; et ne nous abandonnez pas a la tenia- Hon, mais dilivrez nous du mals parcequ* a toi est le regne, et le pouvoir, et le gloire, d tous les siecles. ^men. Its correspondence with our own version, will easily be perceived, by a comparison of the words. The Basque language, is a peculiar one, spoken by the Gascons, in the S. W. of France ; and supposed to have come from the Gantabri, or Biscayans, who once inhabited the north-eastern part of Spain.
$ 2. The Chthic Family of languages, includes the English, Ger- man, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, and Icelandic languages ; with some
F
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62 oLossoLoaY.
minor dialects. These are also called Teutonic ; from the Teutones, who migrated south from the Danish islands, and claimed descent from Thiiicon or ThuUco^ an ancient god or hero. The term Teu- tonic, is also sometimes applied to a supposed ancient language, from which those of this family are said to have been derived. The JRunic alphabet, containing 16 characters, some vestiges of which are sup- posed to have been found in America, as proofs of its discovery by the Northmen, appears to have been used by the Scandinavians, and Germans, from A. D. 1200, or earlier, to about 1440.
The English language, clearly belongs to the Gothic family ; both from its grammatical construction, and the origin of a large majority of its words. As England was originally inhabited by the Celts or Gaels; then passed for a time under the Roman yoke; was next overrun by the Saxpns from Germany ; subjugated afterwards by the Danes, whose language was like the Saxon ; and finally con- quered by the Normans, from the northern part of France : our language, therefore consists chiefly of Teutonic or German words from the Saxons ; mingled with a few Celtic words from the abori- gines ; with still more of Latin from the Romans ; and of French from the Normans ; — to which have been added occasional words from the Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, German, French, Spanish and Italian ; introduced by travellers, artists, or philosophers. Thus, our terms of war, are chiefly from the French; and of music, from the Italian; many of which still retain their foreign form. Our language, as we have already mentioned, was first permitted to be used instead of the Latin, in courts of justice, under Edward III., in the year 1362.
The English language is irregular, and heterogeneous ; but simple in its construction; and strong, flexible, copious, and expressive in its diction ; — worthy of a free and intelligent race. It contains about 60,000 words ; including technical terms, but excluding proper names. Of these, there are probably 30,000 nouns; 10,000 adnouns; 12,000 verbs; and 5,000 adverbs; not to mention the minor parts of speech. The English alphabet, is like most others, imperfect; containing some superfluous letters; while there are some sounds, particularly of the vowels, for which it presents no separate character. It may be of interest to observe, for example, that in the last syllables of the words cedar, wafer, nadir, honor, sulphur, and zephyr, the vowels a, e, i, o, u, and y are all sounded alike. The preceding chapter on General Grammar, though explain- ing the principles of language in general, has a special reference to English Grammar ; which, as the subject ought to be familiar, will, we trust, excuse any farther notice of our own language in this place.
The Saxon language, though now obsolete, is interesting, as the basis of the modern English. As Saxon words are often quoted in our Etymological Dictionaries ; we have thought it advisable to introduce the Saxon alphabet, with its peculiar characters, in tliis place. It is evidently borrowed in part from the Roman alphabet; and was used, we believe, by King Alfred, in his translation of the Psalms into the Saxon tongue.
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EUBOPEAN LANOVAQES.
63
K a
B b
E D
e
F D
I
a. b. c. d. e. f.
g- h.
K k L 1
N n
O P Q R
o •
P • cp.
k. 1.
m.
D. 0.
P-
q-
r.
s r
T c
U u
V V Wp X X
Y y Z z
8. t
w,
X.
Th D, ft, y That p. And •].
The following is the Lord's Prayer in Saxon, as written about A, D. 900. Uren Fader thic arth in Heofna», sic gehalgud thin noma, to cymeth thin ric, sic thin willasue is in Htofnas and in Eortho. llren hlqf qfer wirthe selus to dseg, andforgef us scylda uma sue we forgtfan scyldgum urum, and no inlead urilh in cus- inungy a/ gefrig urich from ijle. ^men.
The German language, is called^ by the Germans, die Deutsche Sprache ; the name being derived from Tuisco, son of Theut or the earth, from whom the Germans claim descent. It is stated that Ulphilas, bishop of the Moesogoths, invented a Gothic alphabet, as early as A. D. 360; when he translated the New Testament into the Gothic language. With this version, the modern German so nearly agrees, as to show that its changes, since that time, have been com- paratively slight. Charlemagne began a German Grammar ; and made great efforts to improve the language. Luther's translation of the Bible, made in 1530, is still nearly as correct a model of the German, as our own Bible is of the English. The chief dialects of this language, are the Low German, in the North ; the Franconian^ in the centre, particularly along the River Maine ; the Alemannic^ which was the dialect of the Minnesingers of the middle ages, in Suabia and Bavaria; and the Upper German, in the southern or moantainous parts. The High German, which is spoken the purest in some parts of Hanover, is the standard of the language ; according to the best speakers and authors. It is a rich language, and, like the Greek, admits of compounding words with great facility.
Most German books are printed in the character called German text ; the small letters of which closely resemble the old English, or black letter character ; but the capitals are more rounded ; as in the German alphabet here given. |
H a
5 c
6 e
S f
.b. .c. .d.
.6. .f. •J.
io ft. 3 ii- St f . S I . 5Mm. 91 n.
.h. .L .k. .1.
P" q..
«R t..
z t..
|
.0. |
U U....U. |
|
.p. |
© t) . . . .v. |
|
q. |
9B tt)....w |
|
r. |
3F r....x |
|
8. |
9 9....y. |
|
t. |
3 a-.-«- |
The Germans pronounce o nearly as in our word fall ; at or i, (a) nearly like a in fat; c nearly like a in fate, or like our short e; i and p like the French i in pique, or like our short i in pin ; o as in English; ce or 6, (d) like the French eu, between our ew in few, and u in fur ; u like oo in moon, or in soon ; and uc or fi, (ij) like the French u, composed of onr short t and long u. They give
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64 GLOssoLoor
to et or C9, the sound of our long i in pine ; and to at nearly the same sound ; to au the sound of our ou^ in thou; to cu a peculiar sound, compounded of our short u or uA, and short i or tA, the latter heard slighdy ; and aeu or &u, has a sound nearly the same, but rather more like our oi. They pronounce fc^ like our sh ; and to <^ final, they give a peculiar guttural sound, or hard breathing, in which the sound of k is very slightly heard. They pronounce t^ like simple t ; o like/;, and w with a sound between that of our w and v.
A few examples of the construction of the German language must here suffice. Ein marine a man ; eines marines ^ of a man ; einefrau^ a woman, or lady; ein haus^ a house. Der vater^ the father; die mutter^ the mother ; das buck, the book ; der gute knabe, the good boy ; des guten knaben, of the good boy ; dem guten knaben^ to tlie good boy ; den guten knaben^ the good boy, (in the accusative case). Sein^ to be ; seiend, being ; ich 6tn, I am ; (/u bist, thou art ; er isi, he is ; sie isU she is ; es ist, it is ; wir sindj we are ; ihr seidy you are ; sie sind^ they are. Ich war, 1 was ; ich bin
fewesen, I have been ; ich werde sein, I shall be ; ich wurde sein, should be ; ich wtirde gewesen sein, I should have been ; sei or sei duj be, or be thou. Haben, to have ; ich habe, I have ; ich hattCy I had : ich habe gehabt, I have had. Er liebet mich, he loves me ; sie lieben t'An, they love him ; sie lieben sie, she loves her, or she loves them. The following is the Lord's Prayer in German ; from which the resemblance of this language to our own may be clearly perceived :
Unfct ©atcr, Ut bu \>\^ tm iJimmct^ge^ciUgct wcrbe bcln 9?amf. JDctn 9l«t4 fomme ; bcin SBtlle gcfc^c^e auf (Scben, mt tm ^tmmcl. Unfcr t&d(id) 93rebt gteb un6 b^ute. Unb oergUb un« unfcrc @d)u(bcn, mt mt vcrgcbcn unfcm ^({^ulbiciern. tlnb fiibre un5 nid)t in 93erfu(i)ung^ fcnbem txih\t tins vcn bem UcbeU iDcnn bctn ifl iai 9i(t(i), unb bic Jtraft, unb bic ^ccdtc^fcit, in Gwtgs felt. 2(mcn.
The Dutch language, is merely a dialect of the Low German, and is now of minor importance. The Danish language, is a combination of the Low German with the Scandinavian or original Norman ; and was first cultivated by the Scalds, or bards, who sang the praises of their heroes. The Swedish language, resembles the Danish, so closely that the Danes and Swedes can read each other's writing. The Nor- wegian, is nearly the same as the ancient Scandinavian ; but it is of very little importance; having never been reduced to writing. The Icelandic^ is also supposed to be the Scandinavian, or original Nor- man, nearly pure.
$ 3. The Celtic family of languages, comprehends the Gaelic, Welsh, Irish, and Armoric ; all of which come from the Celts, Gaels, or Gauls ; who migrated, in remote times, from Asia ; settled in France ; and thence, spreading northward, were the earliest inhabit- ants of Great Britain. They were called Kexrat by the Greeks, but styled themselves Gaels. Their languages are now of minor import- ance. The Gstlic or Erse, is the language of the Highlanders of Scotland ; but a dialect of Saxon origin is spoken in the Low- lands. In its construction, it is said to resemble the Hebrew. The Welch language, is still spoken in Wales ; the name of which comes
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EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 65
from the French Galles, of the same orig^tn as Gaelic ; which some derive from the German wallen, to wander. The Irish, was a written language, probably as early as the 10th century ; and is said to resem- ble the Gaelic so much, that the Irish and the Scotch Highlanders can converse with each other, and be mutually understood. The Manks, (or Manx) dialect, spoken on the Isle of Man, is similar to the Irish. The Armoric or Cimbric language, is the old Celtic, with a mixture of the German ; and is still spoken in Brittany ; that is, the north-west part of France. The Cornish, or dialect of Cornwall, in England, is a corruption of the Armoric.
As a specimen of the Celtic languages, the following copy of the Lord^s Prayer in Welch, is deemed worthy of insertion. £in Tad, yr hum un/t yh y nefoedd^ scmcteiddier dy enw: deled dy deymas : gwn- eler dy ewyllya, megisyn ynef, felly ar y ddaear hefyd; dyro i m hed- dytv ein bara hevnyddiol; a maddeu i ni ein dyledion, fel y madr deumm nirmau \*n dyledivyr; ac nac arwain ni i brofedigaeth; eithr gwared ni rhag drwg: canys dddot ti yw y deymas, a^r nerth, d^r gogoniant, yn oes oesoedd, Amen,
§ 4. The Sclavonic family of languages, includes the Polish, Rus- sian, Bohemian, Illyrian, and Croatian; all of which may be traced to the ancient Sarmatians, since called Sclavonians ; who migrated from Asia, at a later period than the Germans. Their language is said to have been derived from the Sanscrit : and to have affinities with the Greek and German. The Polish language, has been less cultivated, on account of the former prevalence of the Latin, among the clergy and nobles of Poland ; but it is respectable in regard to literature. It is hard and harsh to pronounce ; and is properly written in a peculiar character. The Poles pronounce c like our ts ; ch guttural like the German ; cz like our ch in charm ; sz like our sh: szcz like shch; rz like zh or s in pleasure ; g always hard ; j like our y : and to like our V,
The Russian language, comprises several dialects ; and is spoken, from Poland, eastward to the Pacific Ocean. It resembles the Polish ; but has a mixture of Greek, Swedish, and Tartar words, with the Sclavonic. Its alphabet was introduced by Cyril, and improved by Kopiewitsch ; and now contains 36 letters. It is pronounced like the Polish. The oldest known writing in Russian, is Cleg's Treaty, dated 912; but Lomonosoff first adapted the language to poetry, by assimilating it to the German ; about A. D. 1742. The old Sclavonic language, has been preserved by the translation of the Bible ; and is still employed in sermons ; though differing considerably from the Russian. The Crotian and Illyrian languages resemble the Russian ; as the Bohemian does the Polish.
As a specimen of the Sclavonic languages, we here insert the Lord's Prayer in Russian ; using the Roman characters.
Otshe nosh, ^e esi na nebesach ; da svyatitsya imya tvoye da prie- det tzdrstvye Ivoe: da boodet volya tvoya, yako na nebese ee na zemle Meb nash nasooshrde dqjd nam dnes : ee ostave nam dolge nasha yakqje ee me ostavlyaem doljneekom nashim: ee ne vovede nas vo iskooshe- me no eezbave nas ot looeavago : yako tvoe est tzarizvo, ee sland vo vAeevehor,
9 f2
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66
oi.ossoi^or.
The following is the Riusian alphabet; with which our nottee of the European languages must be closed.
A a a A ^ 1
C 6 b Mm m
A B ▼ N ■ n
r r ghaid 0 o o
A ^ d n n P
( e fi f P '
SK jorih i c •
S » 1 Tm t
$ 3 z *f y uoroo
H M «ori * ♦ f
I i i ^ ^ ^
M M tdi
LUa di
4Sf ^r fihtdi
•E T) >
III M u
li b i
't-b ye
6 9 A
W , yu
H « y»
e e th
r r ▼
CHAPTER IV.
BARBAROUS LAMOUAGBS.
Under the branch of Barbarous languages, we comprehend the original tongues of America ; of Africa, excepting Egypt and Ethio- pia ; and of Oceanica, or the Islands south and east of Asia. The name is derived from the Greek, nap0apos, a term which was applied to all foreigners, and thence to all who did not pronounce the Greek language accurately ; and ultimately to all ignorant and savage na- tions. The languages of this branch, though more numerous than all the preceding, are of much less importance ; — ^being devoid of litera- ture ; unwritten, except by recent missionaries ; and each spoken only over a small region, by a single tribe. In the little which can here be said of them, we shall divide these languages into three groups ; — the American, African, and Oceanic ; — according to their geographical localities; which also accord with their analogies to each other.
$ 1. The native American^ or Ind-American languages, are mosdy poly synthetic, and polysyllabic : several of our words being expressed by one of theirs ; and this one consisting of several sylla- bles. Humboldt grouped them in two classes ; the Apalachian, in the north ; and the Toltecan, in Mexico and the south. For the knowledge of them now possessed, we are much indebted to the labors of Heckewelder, and the researches of Duponceau. Con- cerning their origin, nothing certain is known : but they may proba- bly be traced back to Asia ; and many of them are said to be copious, precise, and artificial in their structure. They have been gradually supplanted ; by the English, in North America ; the Portuguese, in Brazil ; and the Spanish, in Mexico, and the South American Re- publics ;«*HiO that some of them are already extinct.
The Esquimaux^ or Karalit languagCi is spoken by tire Indians
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BARBAROUS LANOITAOBS. G7
of this name, on the northern, and north-eastern coasts of America ; including Greenland. It is said to resemble that of the eastern Siberians ; but to hare no resemblance to the languages of Europe. The Iroquois language, in several dialects, is, or was spoken by the Six Nations, so called ; as also by the Wyandots, or Hurons. It is said to be wanting in labials ; but very sonorous. The DelawarCj called also Mohegan, Algonkin, or Lenape, was diffused, with slight variations, from Nova Scotia to the Mississippi; north of the Ohio River, and the Potomac. Dialects of it, are still spoken, by the Ghippeways, Shawnees, Ottawas, and Winnebagoes. The Floridian languages, were those spoken in our Southern Stales ; including the Creek, Cherokee, and Choctaw. The original and recent alphabet, mostly syllabic, invented by Guest, or See-quah-yah, a native Che- rokee, is a literary curiosity, which we have no room to transcribe.
As a specimen of the Ind-American languages, the following copy of the Lord's Prayer, in the Massachusetts language ; — taken from the translation of the Bible by Eliot, the devoted and early missionary to the Massachusetts tribe of Indians, near Boston, — is the most interesting that we can offer. Nooshun keaukqut quttianatamunaek koowesuonk, Peyaumooutch kukketassootamdonk, kuttenanta" mdonk nen naeh ohkeit neane kesukqut. Nummeetanongash ase- kesukokish assamainnean ytuyeu kesukok. Kah ahquoantamaiin' nean nummatcheaeongashi neane matchenehukqueagig nutahquon^ tamdunnonog. ^hqtie sagkompagunaiinnean en qutckhuaouganiU webepohquohtffU8$innean wu^ch matchitut. Newutche kutahtaunn ketaasootamdonkt kah menuhkesuonkt kah sohsumdonk micheme Amen. The translation of the above, commences as follows. Nooahuny our father ; (from noo^ our) ; kesukqut^ in heaven : quttia^ natamunachy be hallowed ; kootvesuonk, thy name, (from koo, thy).. Peyaumooutch, may it come ; kukketassootamdonk, thy kingdom ;: kuttenantamoonki thy will ; nen nach ohkeit, on the earth ; neane,. as ; kemkqut, in heaven. Thus much must suffice, to five some idea of the structure of the languages, formerly spoken, in the goodly land which we now inhabit.
The Mexican languages, are numerous ; but the Aztec or ancient Mexican, and the Tarascan, are the most prominent. The Poconehi was spoken in Guatemala ; and the Caribbee was the native language of the West Indies, and the northern parts of S. America. The Quichua, was the language of Peru and her Incas ; and is said to have abounded in vowels and soft sounds. A specimen of the sounds, in some of these languages, will be found in the names of some of the Indian deities, in the subsequent chapter on Paganism. The AraU' caniofij or native language of Chili, is also described as a distinct one, very rich and harmonious.
$ 2. The African languages are very imperfectly known, and important only as the means of introducing civilization and Chris- tianity into that benighted region. Adelung estimates their number at 270 ; and Seetzen at 150 ; but not more than 70 or 80 of them have been studied by learned men. The Coptic, Arabic, and Turkish, spoken in Egypt and the Barbary states, and the Ethiopic, in Abys- sinia, we have already described among the Oriental' languages. 'Fhe-
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68 OLOSSOLOOT.
Berber^ or Breber, and the Shelluh tongues, are spoken along the Atlas Mountains, and on the Great Desert ; being derived probably from the ancient Numidian. The Mandingo is used in the western parts, from the Senegal to the Niger ; and the Guinea dialects, along the coast, are extremely rude and various. The Hottentot^ and Bosjesman languages, of Southern Africa, are said to differ from all others in a sort of clucking noise, like that of a fowl, accompanying every word. The Caffre dialects in the south-east, are said to be distinct and peculiar ; but the ^ongi^e^ar dialects in the east, form a group having a common origin. The THgri or Gheez^ the literary language of Abyssinia, and the Jltnharic or common language, are probably corruptions of the Arabic.
§ 3. In the Oceanic group of languages, we comprehend those which are peculiar to the Islands south and east of Asia. The Malay ^ which is spoken on the coasts of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands, we have already mentioned, among the Oriental languages, (p. 53). The languages of New Zealand^ and of the Society and Sandwich Islands, have a common origin, probably from the Msday ; and they much resemble each other. They have been reduced to writing by the labors of Missionaries ; and the way is thus opened, for the light of truth, among those who sat so long in the darkness of error and ignorance. The Negro languages of New Holland^ New Guinea^ and the contiguous islands, are extremely rude, but as yet are litUe known to the learned world.
With the Lord's Prayer in the language of the Sandwich islanders, we must conclude our illustrations of the department of Glossology. E ko makou Makua iloko o ka Umi, e hoanoia kou inoa : e hiki mm kou axqnjtni: e malamaia kou makemake ma ka honua nei, e like me ia i malamaia ma ka lani la: e haawi mai ia makou i keia la i at na makou no neia la : e kola mai hoi ia makou i ka makou lawehala ana, me makou e kola nei i ka poe i lawehala i ka makou. Mai hookuu oe ia makou i ka hoowalewaleia mai; e hoopakele no not ia makou i ka ino: no ka mea, nou ke aupuni, a me ka mana, a me ka hoonanHa, amauloaaku. Jimene.
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11. DEPARTMENT:
PSYCHOLOGY.
In the department of Psychology, we would include those hranches of knowledge which relate more immediately to the human mind, its powers, and their cultivation. The name is derived from the Greek 4vx*79 signifying the soul, spirit, or mind, in its widest sense ; and we would embrace under it the branches of Rhetoric ; Logic ; Phrenics, or Mental Philosophy ; Ethics, or Moral Philosophy ; and Education. It comprehends, therefore, that important study inculcated by Thales, the ancient sage of Miletus ; .know thyself; (Pyudcr otavtov) ; inscribed on the temple of Apollo, at Delphi. It stops not, however, at the boundaries of ancient or classic wisdom ; but soaring at once to the source of all intellectual truth, the book of Divine Revelation, it there derives sublimer views of the nature and destiny of man.
Although we cannot fully comprehend our own nature ; but, in examin- ing the mind abstractly, find ourselves lost in mystery and uncertainty ; still we can investigate its faculties ; its modes of acting ; its incen- tives to action ; its instruments and objects ; its appetites and its pas- sions ; with the means of governing, directing, and applying all these, to the attainment of man's chief pursuit, the happiness of himself and his fellow-men, and the glory of his Creator. In making such an investigation, we find that we are complicated beings ; immortal spirits tenanting houses of clay ; but destined soon to leave them for another and an eternal state. Thus, in studying our relations both to the material and the spiritual world, we lay the foundations of all other knowledge ; and derive lessons of the greatest practical importance.
The department of Psychology, like the preceding one, may be considered as introductory to all the remaining divisions of human know- ledge ; since the mind is the agent which embraces and pursues them all. Thus, Psychology is the immediate basis of the studies of Law, and Government, and of Religion ; which studies are often included together with it, wholly, or in part. To these high studies, the whole subsequent province of Ethnology, or the study of nations, may be regarded as subsidiary ; while it furnishes rich materials for the illus- tration of Psychology. The Physical Sciences and Arts, are less closely connected with this department : — ^but even to them, a know- ledge of our faculties, and the extent to which they may be relied upon, may be of essential service : for the mind, it is, which has de- veloped these stores of knowledge, and applied them to the preserva- tion and comfort of its own incarnate existence.
It is true that the study of the human mind embraces two great divi- sions ; the one. Intellectual^ relating to the perceptive and reasoning powers ; the other, Morale relating to the affections, passions, and sentiments : but these are so closely and mutually connected, that
69
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70 PSTCHOLOQT.
although constituting distinct branches^ we think that they belong to the same department of human knowledge. Indeed, we regard the latter as the sequel of the former ; and Education, in its widest sense, as the great application of them both. In both these divisions of Psy* chology, various conflicting theories have been proposed ; some of which we have already mentioned, in speaking of the Ancient Schools of Philosophy; (p. 10); and others will be referred to, under the branches of Phrenics and Ethics. The existence of these conflicting opinions, is by no means surprising, when we consider the inherent diflliculty of the subjects : and it should be observed, that they relate only to particular points ; some of which are rather nominal than real; and others of which have already been completely decided.
We proceed to treat successively of the branches of Psychology, in the order already named : Rhetoric ; Logic ; Phrenics, or Mental Philosophy ; Ethics, or Moral Philosophy ; and Education.
CHAPTER I.
RHBTORIO.
Rhetoric, is that branch of knowledge which investigates the prin- ciples and rules of writing and speaking, or the subjects of Compo- sition and Elocution. The name is derived from the Greek, /Si^^up, an orator ; and this from ^iw, I speak. The term, Oratory, derived from the Latin, is properly synonymous with Rhetoric : but tlie term Elocution, from the Latin, eloquor or loquor, I speak, should, we think, be confined to the manner or process of enouncing or delivering a discourse already composed. Rhetoric, also, in its primary sense, might seem to denote merely the art of declaiming : but this is so closely allied to the art of writing, or composing, that the term was extended, even by the ancients, to include them both. The study of Rhetoric, is, of course, especially useful to the public writer, or speaker : and it is one of the studies which are introductory to Criti- cismt an art, of which we have already spoken, (p. 37).
Some persons have supposed, that the study of Rhetorical niles is likely to cramp and injure the mental powers. This may be the case with some of the artificial, or mechanical systems, which have been proposed ; but certainly a knowledge of the general principles on which all good writing and speaking must be founded, cannot fail to be useful, to those who are seeking for eminence in these import tant acquirements. In this, however, as in other arts, a knowledge of principles and rules, can never supply the place of practice ; and that practice should be under the eye of just and intelligent criti- cism. Neither can all the aids of Rhetoric, make a first rate orator ; without knowledge, and good sense, brought to bear on the subjects of discourse; and dignity, sympathy, and integrity to give them force.
The best work of the ancients, on Rhetoric, is that of Aristotle ; which is the earliest extant; and which still forms the basis of this
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&RETOBIC. 71
branch of knowledge. Demosthenes, the greatest of ancient orators, taught much in his dictum, or saying, that action, meaning energy and earnestness, is the essence of Eloquence. Cicero, was a grace- ful, rather than energetic speaker ; but his writings are fine illustra- tions of Rhetoric. Quintilian (or Quinctillian), in his Institutes, {Iiutitutiones Oratorim), gave many excellent precepts'; but he encumbered the subject with treatises on Morals and Education, Law and Politics ; which, however valuable to the Orator, are beyond the legitimate limits of Rhetoric. Longinus, in his Treatise on the Sublime, has well treated a noble topic, which we think belongs to Rhetoric ; and one which has been amplified upon, in modern times. Of modem works on Rhetoric, Dr. Blair's is probably the most popular; but Dr. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, and Abp. Whately's Elements, are considered the most profound. So much of the latter work as treats of Conviction, we think, with great deference, belongs more properly to Logic.
We proceed to give a general view of Rhetoric under the heads of Qualities of Style ; Figures of Speech ; Principles of Taste ; Objects of Composition ; Management of a Discourse ; and Princi- ples of Elocution.
$ 1. Style, in literary compositions, is the manner in which ideas are expressed; and it refers to the writer's modes or habits of thought, as well as to the choice of words, in which his thoughts are embodied or clothed. All the qualities of style, may be included under the three topics of perspicuity, energy, and elegance. A perspicuous style, is one which expresses ideas clearly and distinctly, and without any ambiguity, or uncertainty, concerning the author's meaning. Perspicuity requires that we should conceive of things distinctly in their nature ; completely in their parts ; comprehensively in their relations; and methodically in their order or plnce. In regard to individual words, it requires propriety and precision ; or the selection of those words that convey the sense intended, and nothing more nor less. Purity of language is often classed with propriety and precision ; but it belongs rather to elegance of style than to perspicuity ; for language may he perspicuous, without being pure ; though such language can hardly be termed proper ; and cer- tainly not elegant. In regard to sentences, perspicuity requires that they should not be too long, or involved ; and that they should suc- ceed each other in proper order and relation.
An energetic style, expresses ideas forcibly and vividly, so as to stimulate the attention, impress tlie judgment, excite the imagination, and arouse the feelings, of the reader or hearer. It requires, for the most part, brevity or conciseness, and particularity or specificness of thought and diction. It selects the most prominent points of description or argument, presents them in the strongest light, and with the most striking colors ; using but few words, and those the most distinct and expressive. Energy of style is most forcibly illus- trated, not by a sin^e sentence, but by a train of ideas, rolling on like a mountain torrent, and bearing away with them the judgment and the feelings of those who read or listen. An elegant style, is one that pleases the ear and the taste, by a natural and easy fiow of
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72 srCHOLOGT.
ideas, clearly and classically expressed. It requires euphony and purity of words and phrases ; that is, that they should be neither narsh, quaint, nor vulgar : foreign, nor barbarous ; but such as are used by the best writers and speakers. It requires also unity and congruity of sentences ; in order that the ideas may be clearly and easily conveyed. We may here remark, that an affectation of French, Latin, or other foreign words, renders the style barbarous ; and generally detracts from its elegance: but when appropriate English words can be selected, of which the sound alone would convey an idea of the signification, it adds both force and elegance to the composition.
A diffuse style, is one in which more words are used, than are ne- cessary to convey the intended meaning ; — the ideas being more or less repeated. A diffuse style is generally /eeft/e, or wanting in force, unless occasionally employed with a view to dwell upon some import- ant point ; whereas a concise, or brief style is generally nervous or spirited. A style which is wanting in perspicuity, is said to be ob- scure: and one which is deficient in energy, is said to be tame. A simple style, in opposition to an affected one, is that in which the more common and familiar words, and collocation, are used, to express the ideas intended to be conveyed. A style is termed dry, plain, neatf ' or flowery, in reference to the degpree of ornament; the latter using digressions, illustrations, and figures of speech freely ; while in the former, they are scarcely used at all.
§ 2. Figures of Speech, are peculiar modes of expressing, or im- pressing ideas ; serving to enrich language, to adorn, or dignify style, and to render the subject more attractive or striking. They abound in the most ancient writers ; and are beautiful, when properly intro- duced ; but like other ornaments, they should be used sparingly and with discrimination. These figures which refer only to individual words, are called Tropes, We have only room to describe briefly the principal figures of speech, in a classified order.
A Simile, is a Comparison of one thing with another, to show the resemblance or contrast between them ; and it is usually expressed by the introduction of the words, like, as, or so : as in the sentence, *' an able minister, like a pillar, upholds the state." A Metaphor, is a comparison in a concealed form ; substituting for one idea, another, to which it should have a clear and congruous resemblance : as, '* an able minister is a pillar of the state." An Allegory, is a continued metaphor, or series of metaphors ; such as the fables and enigmas of antiquity ; and the parables of Scripture. A beautiful allegory is found in the comparison of Israel to a vine, in the 80th Psalm.
An Antithesis, expresses, not a resemblance, but a contvast, to make the idea more striking ; and it is often used in epigrams. Irony, is the figure, by which we express the very contrary of what we mean ; in order to convey that meaning more vividly ; as when Elisha said to the priests of Baal, '^ Cry aloud, for he is a god." An Hyperbole, is an exaggeration, or a diminution of our meaning, to express it more strongly ; — a figure which should be sparingly used. The common comparisons, '♦ as white as the snow," *' as bright as the sun," ♦* as swift as the wind," and the like, are often hyperbolical, A Climax,
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RHETORIC. 73
or Amplification, is an arrangement of ideas in an ascending series ; the last step in which should be the most important. The reverse of this, is called an Anticlimax $ and sometimes used to convert the sub- lime into the ridiculous.
A Metonymy, or change of name, is a substitution of cause for effect ; of the container, for the thing contained ; the sign, for the thing signified ; or the reverse of these : as when we say, *' they are reading Milton,*' meaning Milton's works. A Synecdoche, is a substitution of the whole for a part, or a part for the whole : as, <' a fleet of twenty sail," for a fleet of twenty vessels. A Metalepsis, is an indirect mode of expression ; as, in the phrase, ** Troy was," to signify that Troy exists no longer. Interrogation, is that figure by which we put in the form of a question, what we intend most strongly to assert or deny ; as, ^* Hath he said it, and shall he not do it ? or hath he spo- ken, and shall he not make it good ?" Personification, or Prosopo- peia, is an attribution of life and action to inanimate objects ; as when we speak of '* smiling nature :" and an Apostrophe, is an address to a person who is absent or dead, as if he were resdly present. Lastly, Vision, one of the boldest figures, represents something past, or dis- tant, as actually appearing or transpiring, before our eyes ; as when Cicero says, ''I seem to myself to behold this city, the light of the world, and the citadel of all nations, suddenly involved in one general conflagration."
§ 3. Taste, is the power of dtstinguishing, ftbd dppreciating^ that which is excellent, in nature of aft. It ifi allied to Genius, or the power of planning and executing works of art ; but taste merely judges of their merits, after they are planned or executed. We regard taste and genius, as pardy of spontaneous, and partly of cultivated growth ; and their only sure model or standard, is the united sanction of the best judges, in all ages and nations. Individuals, and even nations, may differ in their estimate of qualities and merits ; but that which has obtained the consentaneous approbation of the best judges, in all ages and nations, may safely be deemed conformable to the prin- ciples of our nature, and safely held up to view as a model, or stand- anl, of excellence. Fine taste implies both delicacy and correctness ; and the chief attributes on which it is exercised, are Sublimity, Beauty, Congruity, Imitation, Wit and Novelty ; which were formerly called reflex senses. To the study of the two first-named qualities, sub- limity, and beauty, the Germans have applied the term, JEsthetics ; derived from a Greek word signifying perception.
Sublimity, is that property, either in natural objects, or in works of art, by which they seem to expand, or elevate, and solemnize the mind. Large objects, or lofty, or boundless, or obscure ; as a moun- tain, the ocean, the sky, or darkness, frequently inspire sublime emo- tions. Mighty force, or motion, as the rolling of a torrent ; — ^loud or heavy sounds, as of thunder or battles ; — and whatever is a source of awe or mystery, are also sources of the sublime. Another source, is Moral Sublimity, arising from daring, heroic, or magnanimous actions ; and also from dignity, or elevation of character. Examples of this may be found in the fabled self-immolation of Marcus Curtius, in the yawning gulf at Rome ; and the real devotion of the early and 10 G
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74 FSTCHOLOOT.
the later Christian mait3rTB. The term rrandeur^ literally fligDifies greatness ; bat it often implies the idea of sublimity.
Beauty^ is that proper^, by which olijectB attract and please the mind ; exciting a gentle emotion. It was originally applied to form, texture, and color, or objects of sight: but afterwaids extended to graceful motion ; and also to Moral Beauty 9 arising from benevolent, affectionate, or devoted conduct Some writers consider uniformity, amidst variety, as the essence of beauty ; and Hogarth resolves beauty of form, or motion, into the nndulatiug or waving line, which he termed the curve of beauty. The eurimg of smoke, the bending of tall grass in the breexe, and the mazy figures of the dance, are instances of beautiful motion ; and the friendship of Damon and Py- thias is a striking example of the beautiful in morals. Chacefulness^ we consider alli^ to beauty, as dignity is to sublimity ; the highest degree of both belonging only to £e pure and the noble, in heart and in conduct
Congruity^ or suitableness of parts, and conformity of design, is also a source of beauty ; but so far distinct, we think, as to deserve a separate consideration. The same may be said of Imitaiion^ or the forming of resemblances to some object or production ; an exercise which is a fertile source of pleasure. Novelty ^ as a source of intel- lectual enjoyment, comes also within the precincto of taste ; and if it violate no principle, while enlarging the boundaries of art, it is doubt- less a positive merit Wit belongs chiefly to isolated ideas, when they surprise or amuse us, by some unanticipated resemblance or con- trast : and humor^ is the same quality, more gently and equably de- veloped. Ridieide^ is the application of wit, to objects of censure and satire; — an application which is sometimes useful, but often abused.
$ 4. The Objects of Componlion^ are to amuse, inform, instruct, convince, or persuade the reader or hearer. All the peculiarities of poetical, romantic, epistolary, historical, philosophical, or oratorical composition, respectively, may therefore be discussed under this topic.
AmuBementt is the lightest object of composition ; though the chief one of many poete and novelists ; who aim to select attractive, or diverting subjecte, and to treat them in an easy and elegant style. It is not unworthy of the attention of the wise and the good, in order to render their works more popular ; but they will avoid recourse to any themes, or thoughts, which might corrupt, or mislead their readers or hearers. Information^ is a somewhat graver object, and one which belongs especially to the historian ; though often applied also in works of fiction. The narrative form of composition employed for this purpose, requires a perspicuous style; which is still farther improved by energy and elegance. The didactic form differs from narration, in being addressed to the reasoning, as well as to the perceptive powers ; and combining arguments, with facts. Didactic composition, while it is equally perspicuous, should be more energetic, than that which is merely descriptive.
Conviction^ is a still higher and more difficult object ; as it aims to
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BHETOBIC. 75
influence the opinions of those who are either indifferent, or preju- diced against us. It is most frequently attempted in the legislative hall; on the political rostrum; at the judicial bar; or in the sacred desk. It requires all the good qualities of style ; and especially, skill in inventing and arranging arguments ; which Dr. Whately re- gards as the chief province of Rhetoric. This last, was the object of the Locif or Topics, of the ancients ; which often degenerated into mere formalities. Arguments should be arranged distincdy, and somewhat in the order of a climax : beginning with strong ones, but reserving the strongest for the last. Persuasion^ the last and high- est object of composition, aims to excite the feelings ; and to rouse the hearer to immediate action. Such was the eloquence of Demos- thenes, and Cicero ; of Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry. It ad- mits of the boldest figurative language, and of appeals to every allowable passion ; which the orator must feel himself, or he will in vain endeavour to excite the feelings of others. Exhortation^ in- tended for a permanent, rather than transient effect, should generally proceed in climatic form ; not too much prolonged, nor closed too abruptly.
$ 5. The Management of a Discourse, presupposes that a suit- able subject is chosen, and that the writer is supplied with ideas or materials for composition ; to the arrangement of which this topic principally relates. The great rule here concerned, is, that every Composition should have the requisite degree of Unity, to give it interest; and accordingly the Critics have treated of "the three Unities,** that is, of time, place, and action, as necessary to every great work of genius. If some works of genius have succeeded, though wanting in Unity, it has not been in consequence of this deficiency, but in despite of it ; because it was more than counter- balanced, by other merits. The parts of a regular discourse, are, the Introduction; the Statement; the Explication; the Argument; the Excitation ; and the Conclusion : — not all of which, however, are always required, to make the discourse complete.
In the Introduction, Exordium, or Proem, the writer aims to interest his readers in the subject, and to secure their favourable atten- tion. It should therefore be easy and natural ; modest withal ; and generally dispassionate. It may contain some preliminary informa- tion, or allusions to the subject ; but without too far anticipating the main parts, which are to follow. In the Statetnent, Proposition, or Division of the subject, the writer should state more fully the object in view ; what he proposes to do, to prove, or to disprove. It should be perspicuous and methodical; and so divided as to exhaust the subject without repetition. In the Explication, or Evidence, should be introduced the facts, or data, from which the conclusions are to be drawn ; whether resting on narration, quotation, or direct testimony.
In the Argument, whether Confirmation or Refutation, should be given the conclusions deduced, and the reasons for them ; the object being to convince the hearer that these conclusions are correct ; an object already referred to, under the topic of Conviction. In the Excitation, Exhortation, or Pathetic part, if such be introduced, the speaker aims to rouse his audience to action ; often by exciting their
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76 PSYCHOLOGY.
feelings or passions. This part should be introduced opportunely, when it is required ; and treated as already mentioned, under the topic of Persuasion. In the Conclusion, or Peroration, the speaker should take leave of his subject, and of his audience ; implicitly at least, if not in a formal manner. He may here sum up his results, if addressing their reason, or make tlie appeal personal, if his object is to induce immediate action. Such are the general rules for the management of a discourse ; but they are subject to various modifica- tions, as time, place, and circumstances may require.
§ 6. The Principles of Elocution, or Delivery, may be compre- hended under two heads. Enunciation, and Gesticulation. Public speaking generally requires them both ; but in mere reading, gestures are for the most part superfluous, at least among our own country- men ; though the enunciation should, we think, be essentially the same in both cases.
JSnunciationj is the pronouncing of a discourse : and it requires not only that the words should be correctly spoken, but with the appropriate modulations, or pauses and tones, of the voice. Pauses we may here add, are of two kinds ; punctuaiive, serving to fix the sense ; and emphatic, giving time to comprehend and impress the ideas. Of accent, emphasis, and cadence, we have already spoken, in treating of Orthoepy ; (p. 44) ; but there are other modulations and tones which are essential to good reading or speaking. In general, when the sense of a phrase, or clause, depends immediately on tlie following one, this fact should be indicated by a rising in- flexion, or tone, of the voice ; but when the sense is complete, al- though some other idea is to be added, it should be marked by a fall- ing inflexion or cadence. The enunciation should always be distinct, and forcible ; with a due inhalation of breath at the pauses, and a constant regard to the sense.
Gesticulation, includes all postures and motions, of the body or limbs, designed to give eflfect to the enunciation. The posture should be firm and steady ; the head elevated ; and the eyes directed, generally, to the farther part of the audience ; that the voice may reach them also; for the voice will naturally be adjusted to the hearing of those whom the speaker is particularly regarding. The expression of the eye, beaming with intelligence and kindness, may exert a powerful influence, which the best speakers well know how to appreciate. The gestures of the hands and arms should be free and graceful, animated and energetic ; corresponding to the sense ; and rather preceding, than following, the expression of the idea which they enforce. Finally, the great rule of Oratory, is to follow and cultivate nature ; recollecting that the greatest art is displayed, when all appearance of art is concealed.
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CHAPTER II.
LOOIC.
Logic, is that branch of knowledge which investigates the pro- cess of Reasoning, and deduces rules for its guidance. The name is from the Greek xoycxi?, of the same meaning ; and this from xoyo^, which may signify recuon^ as well as discourse. Logic is often defined '' the Art of Reasoning ;*' but in analyzing the process by which correct conclusions are obtained, it equally merits the title of a Science. The term Logic, in former times, was used in a much wider sense, to include various subjects on which the reasoning powers were employed : but this, as in the case of Rhetoric, is con- founding the process with the materials on which it operates. The study of Logic, aids us in forming correct conclusions ; in detecting sophistry, fallacies, or false reasoning; and in rectifying our own errors, as well as those of others.
Zeno, of Elea, hence called the Eleattc, is the reputed inventor of Logic, or rather of the art of disputation and sophistry ; and Euclid, of Megara, a pupil of Socrates, and the founder of the Eristic school, is said to hare invented many fallacies, or specimens of false reason- ing. To Archytas, of Tarentum, are attributed the ten Categories of the ancients; (topics under which all ideas may be classed); ▼iz. Bubstanee^ quantity^ quality^ relation, ac/tan, passion, time^ placet situation, and habit. But the true inventor of Logic, was Aristotle; who first investigated the process of correct reasoning, in a satisfactory and scientific manner. His writings, after being lost for a time, were afterwards found ; and in the fifth century they were translated into Latin, by Boethius. His system was widely perverted by the schoolmen of later times ; who, among other things, pretended to investigate the laws of the material world, by mere logical, or rather metaphysical speculations.
These errors were broadly exposed and counteracted by Lord Bacon ; who unfolded more fully the method of induction, or of deriving conclusions from facts and experiments, instead of specula- tions. As the schoolmen had styled Aristotle's treatise on Logic, Organon, or the great instrument of reasoning ; Bacon styled his work Novum Organum, or the new instrument: and this work is believed by many learned men, though not by all, to have contributed greatly towards Uie unprecedented advancement of the exact sciences, in modem times. Dr. Watts has since written a valuable work, on 77u Right Use of Reason ; but the best treatise on this subject, is doubtless that of Archbishop Whately, originally published with his Rhetoric, in the Encyclopeedia Metropolitana.
We proceed to give some farther ideas of Logic, under the heads of Terms and Conception; Propositions and Judgment; Syllo- gisms and Reasoning ; Fallacies or Sophisms ; Grounds of Judg- ment ; and Uses of Reason.
$ 1. A Terms in Logic, is a word or phrase, serving to express a
q2
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single idea, whether simple or complex ; as a man, a good library. An idea, we can only define as an object or subject of Uiought. The act of the mind, by which the idea is present, or presented, is called Conception; or, by Dr. Whately, Simple-apprehension. Terms, being words, are arbitrary signs of ideas, and hence liable to be indistinct. The first great step in reasoning, therefore, is to have distinct and exact ideas, corresponding to the terms which we employ ourselyes, or receive from others.
A iimple temij as understood by logicians, consists of one or more words conveying a simple idea ; as, the book : but a complex term, is one which expresses a complex idea; as, that good, old man. An absolute term, is one which has no necessary relation, or reference, to any other : but a relative term, implies some relation, or has some reference ; as father, and son ; which may be called correlative terms. An abstract term, expresses merely a quality or contingent ; as roundness, whiteness : but a concrete term, also expresses substance ; as, a man ; a book. A singular, or monental term, expresses but one object ; as George Washington : but a com- mon, or universal term, expresses a whole class, genus, or species of objects ; as man, tree. A term expressing a class of objects, may comprehend several genera; and one expressing a genus, may include many species ; each of which may include several varieties ; and each of these may comprehend numerous individuals.
Privative, or negative terms, are such as express the want of a quality, or absence of an object: as dumbness, nonentity. Com' patible terms, are such as express qualities, contingents, or relations, that are consistent, or may exist together. Univocal terms, are those which have always one and the same meaning ; while equivo- cal, or ambiguous terms, have more significations than one. Afudo- gous terms are such as have similar meanings ; and synonymous terms are such as have the same meaning; as omnipotent and almighty ; omniscient, and all-knowing. Definitions of terms, are real, when they describe the object, or its properties ; but nominal, when they explain the term merely by using its synonyms: as when a billow is defined to be a wave. A universal term is said to be distributed, when applied in its widest sense, to include every individual which it comprehends.
$ 2. A Proposition, is an expression in which something is predi- cated, that is affirmed or denied ; as, John is good ; horses can run. It is the result of a Comparison, or Judgment, expressed in words ; and it necessarily consists of two terms, expressed or implied, one of which is called the subject and the other the predicate; these being united by a copula, which is often some form of the verb to be. In the first example above given, John is the subject ; good^ the predicate ; and is, is the coptila. The second example above, is irregular, but signifies, horses are capable of running; in which form, capable of running is the predicate. In a simple proposition, the subject and predicate are both simple terms ; but in a complex proposition they are one or both complex. Categorical propositions express the result absolutely ; but hypothetical propositions express it conditionally, or with restrictions ; as, Jolm is good, if he is tern-
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perate. In modal proposidons, the copula or verb is qualified ; aB» Brutus killed Caesar justly. A compound proposition has two or more subjects, or predicates ; and may be resolved into two or more simple propositions.
As regards quantity j propositions are either universal or particu- lar ; and as regards their qusdity, or nature, they are either affirmative or negative. Hence arise four kinds of Propositions, which are de- signated, in Books of Logic, by the first four vowels ; and named, as in the following examples.
A. Every war is just. Universal Affirmative. E. Every war is unjust. Universal Negative. I. Some wars are just. Particular Affirmative. O. Some wars are unjust. Particular Negative.
Referring to these forms, when compared together, A and E are termed Contraries: I and O, Subeontraries : A and O, or I and E, Contra- dictories ; and A and I, or E and O, are termed SubaUems. From this, it will be seen, that two Contraries cannot both be true, though they may both be false ; two Subeontraries may both be true, but not both false ; two Contradictories cannot both be true, nor yet both false; and of two Subalterns, the particular is true if the universal is, but the particular may be true, and the universal false. In the Conversion of a proposition, or making the subject and predicate change places, care must be taken to restrict the terms to their first or original meaning.
$ 3. A Syllogism J is an argument, stated, as every argument may be, in a regular Logical form ; as. All tyrants deserve death : Caesar was a tyrant ; therefore he deserved death. An argument, technically defined, is a process of Reasoning, or of inference, in which something is concluded or proved, by the comparison of certain conditions or data. The use of a syllogism, is to test the correctness of an argument, in difficult or doubtful cases ; in which, though often contemned, it is an instrument of real importance. It should be ob- served, however, that not only must the process of reasoning be legi- timate, but the data, to which it is applied, must also be correct, in order to insure a correct conclusion. Every syllogism consists of three propositions, expressed or implied ; two of which are given, and called the premises, or data ; while the third, which, before being proved, was called the question, becomes, when proved, the conclu* sion or inference. A syllogism necessarily contains only three terms ; each being twice employed. In the example,
C Every plant is combustible : ? » I Every tree is a plant ; 5 rremues.
Therefore, every tree is combusUble.
Plant is the middle term, because found in both the premises ; tree is the minor term, found in the second or minor premiss ; and com- bustible is the major term, which is always the predicate of the con- dusion. If one of the premises be negative, the conclusion, if there be any, must be negative also.
The figure of a syllogism, has reference to the place of the middle term; and the mood depends upon the kinds of propositions, among
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the four kinds above tabulated, which are employed. lu the follow- ing verses, all the allowable moods are indicated by means of mnenuh nical words / tlie kind of propositions used, being designated by the vowels in the name ; as explained in the preceding section.
Fig. 1. Barbara, Ceterep/, Z)or«, />rto-quc prioris ;
Fig. 2. Cesarcj Camestrest FestinOf Baroko, secundae:
Fig. 3. Tertia DaraptU Di$amisj Dati$i^ Felapton^ Bokardo, Feriso, habet: quarta insuper addit.
Pig. 4. Bramantip, CamEnes, Dimari9y FeaapOf FrestBOn
The example last given, concerning trees and plants, is in the mood Barbara ; all three of its propositions being universal and affirmative ; universal as regards their quantitv, and affirmative in regard to quality. An Enlhymeme, is a syllogism, abridged by suppressing one of the premises ; as, every tree is a plant, and therefore combus- tible. An Epichirema, is a compound argument, in which the pre- mises are separately proved by syllogisms, before drawing from them the Enal conclusion. A Dilemma^ is a complex or conditional syllo- gism ; in which something is proved, either as still true under vary- ing conditions ; or as conditionally true, under one of two or more alternatives. The reductio ad impoaaible, and reductio ad absur- dum, consist in proving something, by showing that the contrary would involve either an impossibility or an absurdity. A Sorites, is a series of abridged syllogisms, from which a final conclusion is derived.
§ 4. A Fallacy, or Sophism, is a false argument ; or else an argu- ment leading to a false conclusion. The use of such arguments is sometimes called sophistry ; and in complex cases, it may be very difficult to detect. When the premises are false, or unsupported, or irrelevant, the fallacy is called material; but when the error is in the process of employing them, the fallacy is called logical.
Of material fallacies, the petitio principii, or begging of the ques- tion, consists in assuming that what is to be proved, is true, merely by stating it in another form : as when it is said lliat miracles are impossible ; for nothing contrary to the course of nature can possibly take place. Here is assertion, and assumption ; but no proof. The elenchus in orbe, or arguing in a circle, is where one thing is proved by assuming a second to be true ; and this second is then seemingly proved by the aid of the first. The ignorantia elenchi, or ignorance of the question, is where the arguments, whether true or false, do not strictly apply to it. All irrelevant matter, such as a personal allusion^ or an argumentum ad hominem, comes under this class. The fallacy of equivocation, consists in using the same term in two different senses : as if we should say, light is opposed to dark- ness : but feathers are light ; therefore feathers are opposed to dark- ness. Here the fallacy is evident, and the conclusion absurd ; but there are other cases, where the conclusion may be plausible, and the fallacy very difficult of detection ; especially in the midst of a sorites or protracted argumentation.
The fallacy of composition, assumes that to be true generally, which is only so in a restricted sense. The reverse of this, or fallacy of division, assumes that to be true, in a particular case, which is not so in that case, though it may be in similar ones. The fallacy of
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LOGIC. 81
aceidentSf or fallacia aceidentiSf consists in deriving general con- clusions from data which are only accidentally or temporarily true. Lord Bacon, in his Novum Org^num, arranged the various sources of error in opinion, under four heads ; which he fancifully called, idoia tribuSf or general, errors of parties and sects ; idola specus, or peculiar errors of individuals ; idola forij or errors of language and conception ; and idola the€Urij or errors of perception and specu- lation.
$ 5. Under the head of Grounds of Judgment^ we would treat of the evidence, or proof, on which our premises rest ; and the de- gree of weight, or credence, to be given to them. Premises, we have said, are results of judgment; and vl judgment we would define to be an act of the mind, by which it perceives the correspondence, or the disagreement of two ideas. The ground, or basis, on which a judgment rests, is called Evidence ; which may be either personal or historical, factive or deductive. Personal evidence, is that afforded by our own senses or reasoning powers ; being the result of con- sciousness, or perception ; or at least founded thereon ; as in experi- ments, observations, and axioms, which we perceive, feel, or recog- nise to be true. Historical evidence, is that which we have on the authority of others, as the testimony of witnesses, and the statements of writers. Factive evidence is that which rests immediately on perception or consciousness, or on the memory of past perception or consciousness ; while deductive evidence is that which is deduced from factive, by some process of reasoning ; and which is used for premises in deriving farther conclusions.
As regards its degree of certainty, evidence is either indubitable or probable. Demonstrative evidence, such as is employed in the exact sciences, resting on definitions or axioms, is usually considered indubitable ; and distinguished as mathematical certainty. Percep- tive evidence, derived from experiments or observations, ranks nearly as high, and is termed physical certainty. Historical evidenoe,. strongly corroborated, is next to indubitable, and is characterized as moral certainty. Analogical, or inductive evidence, founded on the presumption of similar effects from similar causes, or of like condi- tions from like circumstances, has various degrees of probability, in different cases, and requires to be carefully weighed. Such evidence, admits, in some cases, of mathematical valuation ; and some estimate of its value we are often compelled to make, in the ordinary con- cerns of life. The Calculus of probabilities , in which such valua- tion is most accurately made, belongs to the department of Mathe- matics ; and is the basis of life insurance, and other important operations.
$ 6. The Uses of Beason are not confined to the deriving of con- clusions, nor even to the verification of premises : but they extend also to the invention of new premises^ or the discovery of new truths ; and to Uie methods of prosecuting such discoveries. New truths are most frequently suggested to the mind, by analogy, or by induction. Thus, when it became known that lead was fusible, it was suggested by analogy that other metals might also be melted ; and when this was found to be the case with all the metals then 11
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known, it was concluded, by induction, that all metals have the pro- perty of being fusible ; as later discoveries have farther indicated. We can only add, that analogy and induction should not be trusted too far, without experimental verifications.
There are two opposite methods of employing our reasoning pow- ers ; the analytic and synthetic. In the analytic method, we resolve a complex subject into its simple elements ; or trace efiects back to their causes; while in the synthetic method, we recombine the elements to reproduce the complex result ; or follow out the causes, to discover the efiects which they may produce. Each method has its advantages; and each serves to corroborate the conclusions obtained from the other. The analytic method is the most useful in discovering new truths ; but is generally more abstract and intricate. Hence the synthetic method is frequently used for instruction, or demonstration ; and it serves to explain the relations of cause and effect, in a more natural order. In all arguments, or controversies, care should be taken to fix and define the exact meaning of the terms employed ; for many disputes are verbal^ and not real; arising solely from dififerent ideas being attached to the same word or term. Another important rule of controversy, is, that we should avoid all personal reflections upon an adversary ; particulariy where abstract truth is the object of the argument.
CHAPTER III.
PHRENICS.
We would apply the term Phrenics, to Mental Philosophy ; or to that branch of knowledge, which treats of the faculties of the human mind, and their laws of action ; with a general reference to their use and cultivation. The early improvement of the mind depends upon the laws of Phrenics ; but is made a special study under the branch of Education. The name Phrenics, is from the Greek tp*^, the mind ; from which is also derived the term PhretW' logy^ a term now appropriated to a particular scheme, or system, of Mental Philosophy. The terms Metaphysics^ and Pneumatology, have also been applied to this branch ; but of their impropriety we have already spoken, (p. 36). Much as this study has been obscured by conflicting systems, it is one of practical utility ; especially as introductory to Ethics, and Education.
Although the nature, or essence of the mind is unknown to us ; we know that its actions, or manifestations, consist of either thought m feeling; and that all thought is composed of ideas; which may be defined objects or simple elements of thought. We know the exist- ence of the mind, as distinct from matter, by our own consciousness; by analogical reasoning ; and by the evidence of the Scriptures. We have like strong reasons for believing the mind, or soul, to be immor- tal, and imperishable ; although the mortal body, which connected it with the material world, after having performed its task, shall be laid
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FHBENICS. 83
aside. " Although the scaffolding of the senses should be thrown down :" the edifice will be complete ; the object for which the senses were given will have been attained ; '* and no argument against the soul's immortality can be deduced from their decay."
Aristotle supposed ideas to be images, or phantasms ; resembling their original objects, but conveyed to, and existing in, the mind. Hence the doctrine of the Schoolmen, that <* nothing exists in the mind, which was not first perceived by the senses." Descartes, on the contrary, maintained the doctrine of innate ideas : that is, of certain impressions or principles, coexistent with the mind, or at least independent of the senses. Locke rejected this doctrine also ; but he admitted that the mind may derive ideas, by reflecting on its own operations, as well as by means of the senses. Hobbes, prior to Locke, had proposed a material theory of the mind ; attributing all thought to certain sensations, or motions, of the body. This probably led Berkeley to promulge his ideal theory ; maintaining that what are called sensible, material objects, are not external, but exist only in the mind. Thus, while Hobbes denied the existence of the mind, Berkeley went to the opposite extreme of denying the existence of matter.
Hume was so sceptical as to deny that we can know any thing certainly, or even that there is any necessary connection between cause and effect ; while Kant, on the other hand, maintained not only the existence of this connection, but that our knowledge of it is sponta- neous or intuitive. Dr. Reid also maintained the existence of cer- tain ideas, which cannot be derived from the senses ; as the percep- tion of right and wrong, or the moral sense. Stewart modified this theory, by admitting that sensible objects first occasion the use of our faculties ; though he maintained that the mind can afterwards operate upoif the ideas or materials derived from perception : and this view of the subject we are inclined to adopt. Dr. Brown and others have endeavored to show how we may trace the connection of ideas, by the laws of suggestion or association : laws which are well wor- thy of attention, so far as they can be proved to exist.
The doctrine of Phrenology, proposed by Dr. Gall, as early as 1708, and improved by Dr. Spurzheim, considers the mind as pos- sessed of certain faculties, or influenced by certain afifections ; each of which is connected with a certain portion of the brain, as its seat, or organ ; on the developement of which, its strength and activity depend. This theory does not controvert the unity of the mind, as a spiritual and responsible agent ; but attempts to explain its phenomena more fully than the older systems. We are not prepared to adopt it in full ; still less to disprove it ; — ^but we think that its introduction has been of benefit to this branch of knowledge ; particularly in im- proving the classification of the mental powers.*
We proceed to treat of Phrenics, under the four heads of Propen- sities ; Sentiments ; Perceptive Powers ; and Reflective Powers ; — the two former comprising the affections ; the two latter, the intel- lect^ or reason.
* The positiona and namea of the cerebral organs, are given in Plate 10. ; ac- ooiding to the lateat Boston edition of Combe's Phrenology.
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84 FSTCHOLOOT.
§ 1. Under the head of PropmBitieSy we here include those appetites, and instincts, by which man is influenced, in common with the lower animals ; most of them having the preservation of the in- dividual, or that of the species, for Uieir object, or final cause. Though capable of suggesting thoughts, they more commonly excite desires, irrespective of the reasoning powers. Among them the Phrenologists include AlimtntiventsSy or the desire of food and drink ; and AmativenesSj or the attachment of the sexes ; these being termed the animal appetites : also Fhiloprogenitivene88t or fondness for children ; ConcentrativenesSf or an instinct to perseverance, and concentration of thought; Adhesiveness, or attachment to persons and places ; Combativeness, or an impulse to repel aggressions, and when excessive, an impulse to attack others ; Desiructiveness, or an impulse to kill or destroy, belonging chiefly to carnivorous animals ; Secretiveness, or an impulse to conceal ; Acquisitiveness , or an im- pulse to acquire and possess ; and ConstructivenesSj or an impalse to build and fabricate.
All these propensities, it may be observed, belong to other orders of animals, as well as to the human race. Granting their existence, as elementary principles, by which the mind is more or less influenced, — whether connected with particular organs of the brain, or not, — we think that Imitativeness, or an impulse to imitate persons and things ; and perhaps Cautiousness^ if it be a distinct afiection, should be placed in the same class. Each of these propensities, may produce a desire^ which, when violent, is termed z passion: and these passions, it is the province of reason to direct and control ; lest they should prove impulses to destruction, rather than to preservation. Emotions, which difler from passions, in being unaccompanied by desire, may also result from these propensities ; but they more commonly belong to'the next class of mental aflfections. '
$ 2. The Sentiments, so called, are a higher class of feelings ; generally excited or called forth by the perceptive powers, though afterwards capable of acting reflectively. We call them feelings ; conceiving that they are to the mind, what sensation is to the body. Their use, like that of the propensities, seems to consist in prompting men to action, where reason might fail ; and rewarding right conduct with mental enjoyment ; through the wise provision of our beneflcent Creator. These sentiments are so similar to some of the propensities before mentioned, that we think the line of distinction between them somewhat doubtful and arbitrary. They may be classed as either moral or intellectual. Of Moral Sentiments, Phrenologists enumerate Self-esteem, or a sense of personal merit and importance; Appro- bativeness, or a desire for the esteem of others ; Cautiousness, wnich we have already mentioned ; Benevolence, or the desire of good to others; Veneration, or the sense of dependence, and feeling of reverence ; Firmness, or the sense of power and free agency, when excessive, leading to obstinacy ; Conscientiousness, sense of duty, or the Moral Sense ; and Hope, or inclination to expect some future good. Of Intellectual Sentiments, the Phrenologists enumerate Wonder, or rather Curiosity, by which the mind is impressed with things new or remarkable ; Ideality, or a sense of the beautiful, and
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PLATE III. IMIRKNOLOOY.
1.
9.
3.
4.
S.
6w
7.
&
9. 10. II. ». 13. 14. 15. 1ft. 17. 18. 19. 80. 91. S9.
^. % 87. »<. 2». 30. 31. 31 34; 3S.
M. Alimentivenera.
^m. Amativencm.
PkU. PbiloproirenitiveneM.
Came. ConceatrMliveDeM.
Jid. AdliepiTeiiess.
Onik CombativeneM.
Dn. Defltruetivenen.
Am. Secretireneat.
A. Aequisitiveneti.
09. Constructiveoen.
& E. Self EBteem.
J^. Love of Approbation.
Os«t Cautiouaneas.
Bm. Benevolence.
F««. Veneration.
fir. Firmncaa.
Om. Oonacientioaaneaa.
iSb. Hope.
Wo. Wonder.
Id. Ideality.
Wi. Wit.
Aa. Imiution.
i». Individuality.
F. Form. — 34. 8. Size.
W. Weight.
CL Coloring.
/«. Locality.
A*. Number.
O Onktr.
Bo. Eventuality.
T. Time — 38. TV Tunc.
L. Lanauafe.
Oomp. Compariaon.
Giw. Cauaaiity.
EnrravH In R, 8. Gilb«rt, Fblla.
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PHRENICS. 85
perhaps also of the sublime ; fPiij or a sense of the ludicrous ; and Imitation^ of which we have already spoken.
To these simple or primitive sentiments^ in connection with the propensities and reasoning powers, and with the influence of external causes, we think all other sentiments, so called, may be traced. Thus, Energy and Cheerfulness arise from good health, uprightness, and prosperity; but Languor, and Melancholy, from ill health, and ad- versity, or sometimes from vicious conduct. Joy and Sorrow, Gratification and Regret, Pleasure and Pain, are produced by various causes, physical, intellectual, or moral; their nature and intensity varying with the cause. Sympathy, Friendship, and Love, arise irom benevolence, adhesiveness, or personal congruities ; but Anti- pathy, or Dislike, and Hatred, from personal incongruities, with ex- cessive combativeness, or want of benevolence. Anger, results from personal injuries ; and Gratitude, from personal favours. Pride is an excess, and Humility, a deficiency, of self-esteem ; the latter con- joined perhaps with veneration. Vanity is an excessive manifestation of approbativeness ; Misanthropy, a want of benevolence ; Remorse, a reflective action of conscientiousness ; and Despair, is the absence or inactivity of hope, in depressing circumstances. It may be doubted whether Moral Jipprobcttion, or the " sympathetic emotion of virtue" should be reckoned as a primitive sentiment, or as one derived from conscientiousness. The distinction, given by Lord Kames, between emotions, and passions, is, that the latter excite desire ; while the former do not : but both these results, we think, may belong to the same sentiment, at diflferent times or stages.
§ 3. The Perceptive Powers, are those which enable us to form ideas of external objects, through the medium of the senses; that is, by means of sensation. Sensation is an effect produced by mate- rial objects upon the organs of sense, and by them, through the ner- vous system and the brain, upon the mind ; causing that mental operation which is called Perception. The diflferent modes of sen- sation, are the Jive senses ; Seeing, Hearing, Smelling, Tasting, and Feeling. By these we derive the simple ideas of Color, Form, Size, Tone or Sound, Smell, Taste, Weight or Resistance, Tempe- rature, and Physical Pleasure or Pain. Dr. Darwin regarded the sensations of heat and of pain as primitive ; ranking them with the five senses above named. The ideas of Number, Order, Time, Motion, Action or Eventuality, and Position or Locality, we regard as complex, and dependent in part on the reasoning powers. Ideas of shape, and size, may be acquired either by seeing, or feeling ; but ideas of color, sound, smell, taste, and resistance, can only be acquired each by a single mode of sensation.
The enumeration of simple and of complex ideas above given, differs somewhat from the assignment of organs by the Phrenolo- gists, and is offered with diffidence, though derived from high autho- rities. (Plate III). We may here add, that the senses cannot always be implicitly depended upon ; even when the most acute. The eye is often deceived, in the distance of objects, and the ear, in the direction of sounds. We may sometimes imagine that we see or hear, when influenced only by mental excitement ; or on the other hand, our
H
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organs of sense may receive impressions, and the mind remain insen- sible to them, from inactivity or pre-engagement. Hence the import- ance of Attention, to insure correct perceptions. The eye and the ear, or the senses of seeing and hearing, are the sources of nearly all those ideas which are connected with the Fine Art» ; and from which the Intellectual sentiments are chiefly derived. Hence, thev are the senses chiefly concerned in the cultivation of taste ; though subordinate to the intellectual powers. Wonderful is the adaptation of our senses to the world in which we live. Were the whole body as sensible to light as the eye, or to sound as the ear, we should be in continual torture ; and were the eye and ear less sensible to these agents, they would no longer serve their purpose, to put the mind in communication with the external world. This admirable harmony of our being, is one among many proofs of the existence and benevo- lence of the Deity.
$ 4. The Reflective Powers, of which w^ are lastly to treat, are the highest class of intellectual powers; by the action of which, all the others are, or should be regulated. They are developed later than most of the preceding powers ; on which they are primarily dependent for ideas and motives. Ideas being once acquired by Perception, may be recalled by Memory, prompted by their previous relations ; and may be variously modified or combined by the Ima- gination or Fancy. Memory, and Imagination, have been termed reflex perception ; and though not reasoning powers, they are men- tal exercises auxiliary to them, as furnishing the materials on which these are employed. That cognisance which the mind takes of its own operations may be called internal perception, or reflection ; and this likewise, furnishes materials for reasoning. Habit, or the forma- tion of habits, we regard as depending on Memory, and the Will, influenced by the Asso(*iation of ideas. The writers on Phrenology, rank Language with the perceptive powers ; but it seems to us to belong rather to the reflective powers, and is be intimately connected with the Association of ideas ; which we regard as the basis of all reasoning.
The process of reasoning, including Conception, Comparison, and Inference or Causality, has already been alluded to, under the branch of Logic. By Conception, we recall ideas, not necessarily as matters of feeling or fact, but simply as objects of thought : by the faculty of Individuality, we consider several ideas belonging to a complex object, as a whole, or generalize them : and by Mstrac- tioti, we consider the simple or component ideas separately, or ana- lyze them. By Comparison, we examine two ideas in connection, and form a Judgment ; and by Inference or Causality, we combine two or more judgments or propositions, to deduce a Conclusion ; or we seek a cause of some effect, or an effect of some cause. Analogy, and Induction, or rather analogical and inductive reasoning, which we have referred to, under Logic, may, we think, be considered as distinct processes, if not distinct mental powers.
In describing the mental powers, we must carefully guard against the idea that these powers collectively constitute the mind ; as an assemblage of Senators may compose a Senate. They are to be
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regarded only as alTeciions or faculties, with which the soul is endowed ; and for the right use of which, it will he held responsible* by its Creator. It remains to speak of the Will, or Volition / which we conceive to be the final decision of the mind ; or if regarded as a mental power, it is the power to act, sometimes called the power of agency » Our actions depend on our thoughts ; and these are influenced not only by passing events, but by their own asapcia* tionsj — previously existing, — from resemblance, proximity, contrast, or other causes ; whereby one idea suggests another, often involun- tarily. Hence the great importance of correct associations of ideas, to prompt the memory, and aid the reason. That the Will is so often opposed to reason; and reason itself ehfeebled by the affec- tions ; clearly evinces a faU, or deterioration, from the primeval per- fection of our nature.
CHAPTER IV.
ETHICS.
Ethics, or Moral Philosophy, is that branch of knowledge which treats of our duties, to ourselves, to our fellow-men, and to our Maker; and the reasons by which those duties are enforced. Its name is from the Greek ijSof, morals : and it is also termed Morality^ Casuistry, or the study of Natural or Moral Law : but we think that Morality refers rather to the performance of duty, than to the study of it ; and that the term Casuistry is the least appropriate of them all. The great object of Ethics, is to promote the cause of virtue ; by showing its reasonableness, its excellence, and beauty ; and the melancholy consequences of neglecting or forsaking it. Virtue, consists in the performance of our duty, from a sense of obligation ; and Vice, is the neglect or violation of our duty, where it should reasonably be known : for to learn what is our duty, is one part of that duty itself.
Socrates comprehended all virtue under two heads ; temperance^ or the duty which man owes to himself: and justice, or that which he owes to his fellow-menr The obligation to virtue he derived from the will of the Supreme Being. Zeno the stoic, and Seneca, of the stoic school in philosophy, adopted the same views. Plato, copying Pythagoras, enumerated four cardinal virtues, temperance, prudence, fortitude, and justice, which have since been csiXied philosophical vir- tues ; while faith, hope, and charity, have been termed Christian virtues ; though Christianity includes them all. Modem writers have differed much concerning the obligation, or foundation, of virtue. Hobbes places it in political enactment ; Mandeville, in the love of praise ; Dr. Clarke, in the fitness of things ; Adam Smith, in sympa- thy for our race ; Grotius, and Puffendorf, in the duty of improvement ; Hume and Paley, in personal utility ; while Hutcheson, Cudworth, Butler, Reid, Stewart, and others, derive it from a Moral Sense, or natural impulse to do right, implanted by our Creator.
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Of course, the obligation of virtue rests ultimately on the will of God ; and is a consequence of the Divine Perfection : but we fully believe in a Moral Sense, or sentiment of Conscientiousness, im- planted by our Creator, to incline us to do what we know to be our duty. Conscience, we believe to be this principle, guided by reason, and acting retrospectively, by the aid of memory. Both conscien« iiousness, and reason, are, however, liable to be enfeebled and per- verted ; and hence the necesy ty for a higher incentive to duty, in the sanction of religion, enforced by Divine Revelation. Dr. Paley, con- ^sidering private happiness as our motive to virtue, and rejecting the /doctrine of a Moral Sense, founds our inducement to virtue on selfish principles, of mere reason, and personal benefit. While we admit that such principles often govern the actions of men, we think that the gratification of the Moral Sense, in the consciousness of virtuous conduct, is a high and peculiar inducement to virtue, independent of all reasoning : and that a feeling of this kind was necessary, in order to counterbalance other feelings; which without this, would more frequendy lead us astray. Thus, by a wise Providence, the duties enjoined upon us, in our present state, are made to contribute to our happiness : while the crimes forbidden by virtue and religion, are such as, if generally allowed, would soon spread misery and destruc- tion among mankind.
We proceed to treat of Ethics, under the four heads of Personal, Cognate, Social, and Religious Duties ; the last, strictly speaking, including, and sanctioning all the others.
§ 1. Personal duties, are those which relate especially to, or which we owe immediately to ourselves. They all refer to Self-pre- servation, the first law of nature : or to Self-improvement, which is of no less importance. The first three of the cardinal virtues, tempe- rance, prudence, and fortitude, are a part, but only a part, of the vir- tues which come under this head. Temperance, includes the control and regulation of all our propensities and sentiments. It comprehends therefore sobriety, and all its kindred virtues. The opposite vices are gluttony, drunkenness, impurity, covetousness, anger, and the like ; the indulgence of which is a voluntary sacrifice pf life, health, and happiness, for a false and momentary enjoyment. Prudence, in avoiding useless risk or danger; and Fortitude, in opposing or con- fronting danger, when unavoidable, are also duties which we owe chiefly to our own happiness. Patience in enduring pain or dis- appointment, is often confounded with fortitude ; but is more pro- perly its eflfect. Industry and Economy, are doubdess moral duties ; necessary to our future comfort and support, especially in sickness and age. Sloth, and prodigality, or extravagance, are criminal there- fore, even towards ourselves ; however countenanced by the luxurious and the vain.
The duties of Mental, Moral, and Religious Cultivation, result, like the preceding, from the will of God, that we should promote our own happiness, and his honor and glory. The acquisition of know- ledge, promotes our happiness, by enlarging our sphere of usefulness, and giving us more elevated views of the Creator and his works; Moral improvement, subserves the same object, besides the gratifica-
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tion of the moral sense ; and if sought with the right motive, it is the sure avenue to higher views of our duty and our destiny. It will lead us to realize how imperfect is that Code of Honor which the world has formed for its own convenience ; which permits the game* ster, the adulterer, the drunkard, the plunderer, the swindler, the calumniator, and the duellist, though a murderer, to mingle with honorable men, unpunished and unreproached. It will also bring us to realize how far the Civil law falls short of defining and prescrib- ing our moral and religious duties ; for which use indeed it was never intended ; having reference to our political duties only.
$ 2. By Cognate or Domestic duties^ we mean those which grow out of the difierent family relations ; and which may be classed as conjugal, parental, filial, and fraternal. Conjugal duties, are those which pertain to the husband, and wife, in the married state. Most of these are reciprocal ; as affection, constancy, sympathy, comfort, and assistance ; which the parties pledge to each other at the altar. As the wife is necessarily more or less dependent upon the husband ; he is in duty bound not only to support and protect her for the present time, but also to provide for her future support, in case of his disability or death. The wife, on the other hand, is pledged to obe- dience ; because there should be but one head to a family : but the husband who can abuse his power, tyranicaUy, is unworthy of the name.
Parental duties^ are among the most important, and responsi- ble, which can be assumed : as, on their faithful performance, the wel- fare of society, and the fate of individuals gready depends. The pa- rent is bound not only to maintain his child, in sickness and in health, but to prepare him to become a useful member of society ; to form his character, and to imbue his mind with right principles, and useful knowledge. This subject will be treated of more fully, in the branch of Education ; but we may here remark that the parent who with- holds the time and attention required for these objects, is answerable to God and to his conscience, for the consequences, however serious. The father should also provide for his child^s comfortable establish- ment in life ; and still advise and sympathize with him, when sepa- rated from the paternal home. Filial duties^ are those which child- ren owe to their parents; including affection, respect, sympathy, obedience ; and assistadbe, as far as they have the power to render it. We might add probity, and candour ; but these are alike necessary in all the domestic and social relations : for confidence, which is the soul of affection, and the key to respect and esteem, cannot exist without them. Obedience to parents, in all reasonable commands, we deem one of the cardinal duties ; which should be enforced from early infancy ; and which, if rightly understood, will be less a task than a pleasure. In the same class with filial duties, we would place those towards all elder Relations.
Among Fraternal Duties, or those relating to brothers and sisters, are afifection, respect, sympathy, and assistance ; the latter particular- ly from brothers to sisters, and from the elder to the younger. It includes watchfulness over manners and morals ; and instruction as far as possible in useful and entertaining knowledge. In early age, 12 n2
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these duties extend to the sharing of each other's labors ; the preser- vation of each other's character ; the prevention of errors ; and the redress of wrongs : and in maturity, they extend to the assistance of each other, as means and opportunities are afforded, in obtaining B comfortable settlement and support
$ 3. Social Duties^ are those which we owe to our fellow-men, in the relations of society ; or as members of the great human fami* ly. These duties may be classed as either active or passive : that is, we are to avoid doing harm, and to strive to do good, to those around us, with a view to promote both their happiness and our own. Among the active^ or positive social duties, are those of friendship, benevolence, and patriotism ; while the patBivt^ or nega- tive, may all be comprehended under the single head of justice,— as regards the persons, property, reputation, peace, and virtue of our feUow-men.
The duties of Friendship^ are reciprocal; and closely resemble those of fraternity; including fidelity, kindness, defence against slander or wrong, and such advice or assistance as the relative situa- tion of the parties may enable them to give. As these duties are voluntarily assumed, they should not be exacted by either party, longer than may be agreeable to the other ; but neither should past favors be forgotten, nor old friends neglected ; nor can a cessation of friendship justify subsequent injury, or betrayal of confidence. One of the most disagreeable traits of character, is a disposition to with- draw friendships once formed, on slight or insufficient cause. Great care should be exercised in the choice of friends ; but still greater in preserving this relation, and performing its duties, when once assumed, either expressly, or by implication. The duties of Benevo- knee are not optional, but imperative on every human being. As- sistance to the needy, and comfort to the distressed, whenever they can be afforded, belong to the very essence of humanity. Besides these more active duties, we owe courtesy and kindness to all per- sons whom we meet : as feeling the need of a like civility towards ourselves. Gratitude^ prompting to make a due return for favors received, is a sacred duty ; allied to benevolence, if it be not a sim- ple act of justice.
Patriotism^ comprehends the duties which we owe to our conn- try ; that is to our fellow-citizens collectively. Among these duties are obedience to the laws, and constituted authorities, so long as they accord with justice and virtue ; support of them, and of all useful public institutions, by our quota of time and money ; and influence^ in favor of public virtue, of the best measures and the worthiest men, — through the ballot-box, or the press; by precept and by exam- ple. It is no excuse to say that we can do but little towards the election of public officers, or the founding and support of benevolent institutions, or the preservation of public morals. If we neglect our share, we not only cause a deficiency ; but encourage others to do the same, and make the deficiency greater : and so far as these effects may extend, we are answerable Ibr the consequences.
Justice to our fellow-men, in regard to their persons, requires that we should avoid inflictihg pain, whether by wounding, maiming,
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contagion, contamination, or death. In regard to property, it re« quires that we should neither interfere with its lawful acquisition, nor take it from others when acquired, without just reason therefor. Hence it forbids theft, robbery, extortion, fraud, circumvention, or the withholding of just dues. It regard to reputation, justice for- bids that we should injure it by slander, falsehood, prevarication, or even by divulging the truth, except for their own good or that of others. We should not disparage their capacity, skill, principles, or motives, without just cause ; nor injure them in the affections or esteem of our fellow-meif. As regards peace, or tranquillity, we should not disturb, or alarm them, or excite their passions, without just reason ; and as regards virtue, we should not only avoid impair- ing it, where found ; but even justice requires that we should mani- fest our displeasure at every vicious word, action, or example, that we are compelled to witness.
$ 4. Religioua Duties, are those which we owe to the Supreme Being, the Great Author of our existence ; whose will we are im- • pelled to obey, both from a sense of obligation, and a desire of future happiness, implanted in our minds through His beneficence. These duties, we repeat, comprehend all others ; for to God we owe them all : but we here include, more particularly. Adoration of the Deity for his perfections ; Thanksgiving for his past goodness, both to our- selves and to our fellow-men ; Prayer for its continuance ; Submis- sion to his will ; and Obedience to his laws, whether recognised in nature or in revelation.
Among the Perfections of the Deity, which demand our highest veneration, we may name his Eternity and Ubiquity, or existence in all time and space ; his Omniscience, or infinite knowledge and wisdom ; his Omnipotence, or infinite power ; his Excellence, or infinite purity and glory ; his Benevolence, or unspeakable kindness ; his Justice, which time may impeach, but eternity will vindicate ; and his Mercy, in providing a way of salvation, by an eternal and infinite sacrifice, by which he may be just, and yet a Saviour of sin- ners,—of every one who will" accept the profiTered grace. In reve- rencing the Deity for these perfections, we are necessarily inspired with those emotions which conduce to a virtuous life ; and hence, such reverence becomes a part of our moral duty, aside from its higher or religious bearing.
No system of Morals can be complete, which does not lay its foundation firmly on our unchangeable relation to the Deity, and our obligation to worship him in spirit and in truth. By Prayer and Thanksgiving, we draw near to Him ; and, in this communion, our worldly passions are purified, or brought back to their healthy state. Submission to His will, has a like effect upon the mind ; especially in affliction ; which often serves to wake the drowsy soul from dreams of earthly bliss, and wing its flight for heaven. As we are bound to obey the divine law, it is also our duty to study this law ; both in the book of nature, and in that of Revelation. The more we study the Bible, the more we shall realize that it is indeed the inspired book of Eternal Wisdom. The peculiar duties which it inculcates ; — Repentance and Faith in the Saviour, and the obser-
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vance of the Christian Sabbath and Ordinances ; are those which nature must sanction, though she could never teach : and they alone can prepare us for that spiritual world to which we are rapidly ad- vancing. Of these duties, we are to treat farther, in a subsequent department; and we therefore conclude the branch of Ethics by repeating the expressive terms of Scripture ; Love to God, and Good Will toward men ; as the sum and substance of morality ; the fruits of Christian piety ; and among the essential conditions of happiness ; both in this life, and in that which is to come.
CHAPTER V.
EDUCATION.
Education, is that branch of knowledge which relates to the training and guardianship of young persons, from infancy to mature age. The name is from the Latin, educo, I bring up, or educate ; and it has also been termed Pedagogics, and Pedeutics, from Greek words of similar meaning. We would lay great stress on its import- ance ; as relating to the preparation of youth for subsequent life, and influencing the character, and prospects, not only of individuals, but of nations, — through ages yet to come. The highest powers, and noblest sentiments of our nature, might remain fore verdormant, were they not developed by the instruction of the wise and good ; who have themselves received like instruction from their predecessors. But we may use the term Education in a still wider and higher sense, to include the whole training of the soul, by inward reflection and outward events, by intercourse with men, and instruction from above, — the whole training of the human soul, for the enjoyment of immor- tality.
That the ancients were not inattentive to this branch of knowledge, is shown by the Cyropadia of Xenophon ; in which he developes his ideas of a perfect education ; — as also by the institutions of Ly- curgus and Solon ; the former of whom made education a business of Sie state ; and the latter besides prescribing public instruction at the Gymnasia, excused the son from supporting his parents, if they had taught him no trade. In modem times we may point to the exam- ple of Oberlirii who, in 1767, became the pastor of the Ban de la Roche ; and instructed the poor peasantry, in religion and science, agriculture and the arts, till that sterile region became the happy abode of plenty, peace, and piety. Another noble example was that of Fdlmherg; who, about the year 1800, devoted his fortune to the establishment of the farm school of Hofwyls and has there perfected the manual labor system; by which the pupils labor for their own support, and thus practise the useful arts, while they are devoting a portion of the time to letters and science. He liberally adopted Pes- talozzVs modes of instruction, by diagrams and experiments, in aid of verbal description ; and many farm, or manual labor schools, have since been formed, on this improved model.
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Another kindred improvement, is the system of mutual instruc- tion; introduced, in 1797, by Rev. Dr. Bell, who borrowed it from the natives of Madras, in Hindoostan ; and in the promulgation of which he was greatly aided by Mr. Lancaster. By employing the advanced pupils to instruct the younger, under the careful inspection of the Superintendent, it imparts the greatest possible amount of knowledge, where there is a deficiency of teachers. We have no room to de- scribe the national systems of education, in Prussia, France, Scotland, and other European countries ; or even in the different states of our own republic ; but would refer, for information concerning the former, to the recent and able report of Prof. Bache, on Education in Europe ; a like report to which, on American Education, is still a desideratum.
We proceed to consider the branch of Education, under the heads of Physical, Intellectual, Secular, and Religious ; concluding with some brief views of Public Education, as compared with Private, and the provisions required for its support.
$ 1. Physical Education, includes the instruction and supervi- sion which are required for the health, strength, and developement of the body ; depending on the principles of Anatomy, Physiology and Hygienics ; tlie study of which in full belongs to the department of Androphysics. We can here only allude to the effects of air, tempe- rature, clothing, cleanliness, diet, exercise, rest, and regular and pro- per habits, on our physical wellbeing. The air which we breathe, yields oxygen to the blood ; without which, life would soon become extinct ; as in cases of drowning, or suffocation. The oxygen of the air, is partly exhausted by the first breathing, and still more by a second and third : hence the absolute necessity of pure and fresh air, to preserve health and life. Confinement in a close room, espe- cially in a crowd, or with a close fire, is a frequent cause of debility and disease ; and its effect soon becomes visible upon the countenance, as well as the feelings, of the person thus confined. If the weather be not too damp and cold, it is doubtless better that children should pass much of their time in the open air.
The temperature which children require, varies with their constitu- tion ; but, generally, we think it best that they should be frequently exposed to as great extremes as they can safely bear : the effect being to make them more hardy and vigorous. The limits of safety will vary much with their constitution and habits ; for the same exposure which would be beneficial to one, might be injurious or fatal to an- other. Their clothing should of course be adapted to the tempera- ture ; and not too tight. Neither should it be too warm ; but yet warm enough to guaid them against being chilled, by sudden changes of the weather; especially when they are fatigued, or perspiring freely. On this account, flannel is preferable for the underdress ; while it is less dangerous in case of its taking fire. Personal clean- liness, and frequent bathing, are also important ; in promoting the insensible perspiration, so necessary to health.
The diet, should be such as is easily digestible ; neither too coarse, nor too dainty. On this subject more will be said, in treating of Hy- gienics : but whatever be the diet, it should be taken at regular inter- vals, and never in excess. Exercise, is no less essential to the
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health than are food and rest. It etimulates digestion, circulation, and all the vital functions ; preventing disease, languor, and enervation. It should be taken before, rather than after eating ; and should be such as to call into action both the chest and the limbs. Beat should also be taken regularly, both as regards retiring, and rising early. Many other things belong to the formation and preservation of regu- lar and proper habits, which we have no room here to mention.
§ 2. Under the head of Intellectual Education, we include the ac* quisition of useful and ornamental, scientific and literary knowledge ; such as may be attained in seminaries of learning. How far this acqui- sition may be carried, in individual cases, will depend on many con- ditions : but there are some branches of knowledge, so practically useful, and so essential to good citizenship, that we think the study of them should be required of every youth, by legislative enforce- ment, and, where it is necessary, by pecuniary aid from the state. Among these essential branches, we would mention Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Geography, and Grammar ; as the lowest permissible degree of attainment. If these studies be tolerably acquired, they will enable any individual, however humble be his station, with the facilities which our age and country afford, to make farther advances in knowledge ; each step of which will render still farther attainments more easy. The studies next in importance, in the common walks of life, are, we think, the first principles of Morals, Government, History, Geometry, and Natural Philosophy, including Astronomy and Chemistry ; the theory of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts ; and especially the study of the Bible, its evidences, doctrines, and precepts. Those who aspire to intellectual eminence, of course will climb far higher than this, up the hill of science ; but the studies here named should, we think, be taught in our Common Schools, and should occupy the attention of young persons generally, during a part of each year, until the age of maturity.
The time, we trust, has gone by, when more general knowledge;, and higher studies, were deemed superfluous, to all except profes- sional men,— -the lawyer, the physician, or the divine. It is now admitted by many of the best judges, that a more liberal education, either Academical or Collegiate, may be alike beneficial to the Farmer, the Mechanic, and the Merchant ; as serving to expand and quicken the mind, and to prepare the aspiring youth, not only for engaging in the labors of his profession, but for adorning a higher station, and becoming more extensively useful, should prosperity attend his career. At least, the study of languages and calculative processes, of mental and physical philosophy, of historical and political truths, of the works of nature and of art, will lay a wide basis for intellectual cultivation ; and it will be the student's own fault if it is not improved, for his secular and eternal benefit.
The value of the Greek and Latin languages, is, we apprehend, often underrated. As sources of our own tongue, and of all the modem languages of Southern Europe, they deserve the attention of all thorough scholars ; aside from the rich treasures of history, poetry, and philosophy which they embody. With regard to the best order of the higher branches of study, we have high authority
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for advising that the Languages should be studied before Mathe- matics and Physics ; and that these subjects should be studied be- fore Mental, Moral, and Political Philosophy. Geography, and History, and the Physical Arts, may be regarded as subordinate sub- jects, and pursued at intervals, by way of relaxation. The number of studies pursued together should, we think, be very limited ; one subject being predominant, and one or two others serving to relieve the attention from too close confinement.
The great object of the teacher, should be to give interest to the subjects of study ; — by clearing up difficulties, where insurmounta- ble ; though still leaving full exercise for the faculties of the student ; by explaining the reasons, if they can be assigned, for every princi- ple and process ; and by tracing the various relations and applica- tions of each subject, so as to show its connective importance : in all which, amusement may often be combined with instruction.
$ 3. Under the head of Secular Education^ we place the acqui- sition of a Trade or Profession ; and the study of Economy, Method, Manners, and Morals, as preparatory to the duties of this present life. Even the young heir of countless thousands, would be uneasy and exposed to every temptation, without some regular employment; and hence far happier for having learned some regular and worthy pursuit. His wesdth will be squandered less thoughtlessly, if he has experienced the toil of acquiring it. But let no young man regret the want of wealth, who is blessed with health and strength, and the means of acquiring a trade or profession : for this will ena- ble him, by perseverance in well doing, and with the favor of Provi- dence, to buUd up a name and a fortune of his own, no less honora- ble than that which is obtained by inheritance. He may at least acquire competence, if not wealth ; respect, if not distinction ; influ- ence, if not power ; and happiness, which princes might sigh for, though it be in the common walks of life.
When circumstances permit, the choice of a profession should not be made, till the mind is sufficiently mature, and cultivated, to appre- ciate the various pursuits of life ; and to judge what one is best adapted to its powers, or suited to its taste. Hence, those who can study, or survey the wide range of arts and sciences, during a thorough education, before commencing their career, will have the vantage ground in the race, if they do not wait too long in choosing their goal. It is a great error, though often committed, for young men of feeble frame, or delicate health, to engage closely in sedenta- ry, and especially literary pursuits ; which sedulously followed, are perhaps the severest of all to the physical constitution. Men of vigorous frames, are often worn out prematurely, by too close mental application ; which the wisdom of antiquity pronounces to be '* wea- risome to the flesh." In every profession there is room for Method and Order ; ** a time for every thing, and every thing in its time ; a place for every thing, and every thing in its place." We must con- clude this topic by observing that Punctuality, Fidelity, Industry, Skill, and Honesty, combined with Economy, Good Manners, and Morals, and a desire for Self-improvement, have raised many men of humble station to the illustrious distinction of being benefactors to
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their race. On the selection of Friends, forming of Alliances, man- agement of Property, and on the details of Manners and Etiquette, we have no room here to dilate.
§ 4. Religious Education^ includes all that instruction which en- forces the duties of young persons to their Creator, and the reasons therefor. Of these duties, we have already briefly spoken, under the branch of Ethics ; alluding to the importance of Piety, as including the whole of Morality, and as the only source of true happiness. We think that Parents sometimes err, in attempting to give formal instruction, on this as on other subjects, before the mind is mature enough to comprehend it. It is not by teaching catechisms mecha- nically, nor by a system of rigid, unnatural austerity, that religion is best instilled into the young mind ; but by training its affections ; by exciting religious meditations ; and by connecting the duties of Chris- tian worship, and practice, with all the endearments of home, and social intercourse.
I'he most pleasing instruction, for the young mind, is doubtless that conveyed in the narrative form. Hence, the descriptive, and pathetic passages of the Bible, will be read with interest, and their lessons of truth imbibed, by the youngest pupils ; — those to whom the more abstruse and doctrinal parts would be unintelligible. Reli- gion, like many other things, is best taught by example ; and the Christian Parent should hence derive new motives to watchfulness and piety. Family worship, in the still evening hour, has an influence that few hearts can resist ; — an influence that comes over the feelings like the dews of heaven on the thirsty earth, pure and refreshing. The Sabbath School is a valuable auxiliary to Christian education ; but it should not usurp the place of parental instruction, and example. As reason advances to maturity, the young mind is prepared to receive and comprehend the sublime doctrines of Christianity, and the basis on which they rest. Then it is tiiat systematic instruction comes in plabe ; and the Catechism and Articles of Faith may be studied with interest and advantage. But while some Parents err in bringing these subjects forward too early, the solemn truth must be told, that the far greater number go to the opposite extreme of neglect- ing such instruction, and leaving their children to the influence of every chance associate, unguarded and unarmed against the approach of evil. The sad eflects of such neglect, those Parents often live to witness ; though generally too late to remedy them, even did they perceive the cause, and make the attempt.
$ 5. On the relative advantages, and different Systems of Public and Private Education, we must speak with extreme brevity. Could every Parent qualify himself, and devote the requisite time, he would • be the best of all teachers : and no aid from others can entirely ex- onerate him from taking a part in the great work. Could private teachers always be procured and compensated, home would still be the best school, morally, if not intellectually. But as these condi- tions are generally unattainable, our resource is found in public schools, academies, and colleges ; the support of which we regard as a sacred duty of every statesman, moralist, and Christian. The support of schools, we may add, is incomplete, without provisions
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for educating competent teachers ; and for securing those who will guard the morals, as well as train the understanding.
We believe that Infant Schools may be made useful, if properly managed ; so that they do not injure the health of children, by too long sitting, and close confinement. This may be obviated, by allowing them to stand, or march, or sing ; with frequent intermis- sions for more active exercise, under the eye of the teacher. Their attention should first be turned to sensible objects ; next to pictures and diagrams ; and, lastly, to books : but systematic instruction, we think, should be delayed, till they have acquired a stock of ideas, and made some progress in the exercise of their reasoning powers. After all, such schools are chiefly useful, in those classes of society where children would otherwise be physically, mentally, or morally neglected. For those who have willing and competent parents to take charge of them, there is no place like home.
We think that the system of Mutual Instruction might be exten- sively and usefully applied, were school-houses properly arranged, for several classes to recite at the same time, — and were a certain por- tion of time devoted by the teacher to a thorough examination of the classes instructed by monitors, in presence perhaps of the whole school. Most of our common schools are already conducted more or less on the Manual Labor System ; the scholars laboring a part of the day, or a part of the year, in assisting their parents at home. This is a principle, which, if not carried so far as to intemipt their course of study, we cannot hesitate to approve. We have no doubt that a por- tion of the time devoted to manual labor, would be beneficial, rather than injurious, to the studies and health of Collegiate aod Academi- cal Students ; — ^but how large a portion it should be, we will not here attempt to decide.
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NOMOLOGY.
In the Department of Nomology, we include those branches of knowledge which treat of Law, Legislation, and Government The name is derived from the Greek vo/io;, law ; and it is used by Am- pere, in his Classification of the Sciences, though in a more limited sense. We include under Nomology, both Slatennanship and Jurisprudence: the former comprehending the subjects of Govern- ment and Legislation ; while the latter comprehends the study and application of the Laws which result from the former. The term PoliticSt properly signifying the science or principles of government, is now, we think, too widely perverted, and too vaguely used, to be an appropriate name for this department of knowledge. The studies here included, aflbsd a wide range for reason and research ; and rank high in relative importance, as greatly contributing to the protection of individuals, and the advancement of society.
The term Law, from the Saxon la^a, signifies in general a rule of action, whether relating to animate or inanimate objects : but in a technical sense, it may be defined, a rule of conduct ; prescribed by the common consent of nations, to regulate their intercourse ; or by the supreme power in a state, to define the civil rights and duties of its ofiicers and citizens, and of foreigners, when under its control. The necessity for such laws arises chiefly from the tendency, both of nations and individuals, to selfishness and injustice, when not restrained by some efficient power or motive. They have therefore adopted these rules as a standard of civil conduct ; the violation of which is punished, in the case of individuals, by the judicial and executive powers ; and amonff nations, by non-intercourse, by retalia- tion, or too often by an appesiJ to arms, the last arguments of kings.
As regards their immediate sources. Laws may be distinguished as either Divine, or Human: the former emanating directly from the will of God : the latter framed by men ; though they are wise and safe only when they conform to the divine law. If History can cile examples where human laws have conflicted with those of the Deity, it can also prove that such laws have uniformly resulted in misery, or destruction, to those who framed or adopted them. Natural Law, depends on the principles of justice and expediency, already alluded to in the branch of Ethics : and, next to the Divine Law, it should form the basis of Legislation. Conventional Law, is that which is mutually established by the parties concerned ; as in true Republics : while Arbitrary Law, is that imposed on the weaker party by the stronger ; as m Monarchies, and especially in Despo* tisms.
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As regards their form, Laws may be divided into Mrritten, and pre- scriptive. Written Laws, are those which are established by positive enactment : and they consist of Constitutions, Treaties, and Statutes. By a Constitution, we here mean a solemn, written declaration of the sovereign will of the people, defining the form, mechanism, and powers of the government. In Great Britain, however, and in other countries, the term is applied to the system of government which has grown up, under various influences ; and which has been acqui- esced in, rather than ratified by the people. A Treaty, is a solemn, written compact, between independent nations ; or sometimes between nations, and subordinate or tributary states. A Statute, is a law duly enacted by a competent legislative power : and it may be either a public statute, relating to the whole community ; or a private one, relating only to certain individuals or associations.
Prescriptive or Unwritten Laws, are those established by pre- scription, or ancient usage : as the Common Law, and Chancery. Common Law is an extensive system of rules and principles, the growth of ages, resulting from natural justice, and judicial decisions, and applied in cases not otherwise provided for. It is called un- written, simply because it is not found in the Statute Books ; though it is mosdy embodied in the Reports o^ causes decided, and princi- ples setded in the various Courts of Justice. Chancery Law or Equity, embraces those general principles by which Courts of Chancery or Equity are governed, in deciding on appeals made to them, as the last arbiters, from Courts of other grades. Though founded on natural law, these principles are now for the most part settled, like those of the common law, by prescription and judicial decisions.
The term Civil Law, was originally applied, and is often re- stricted to the old system of Roman Law : but we may also use it, as in the French Civil Code, to include the Relations of Persons and Property ; or the Rights of Persons and the Rights of Things ; in contradistinction from Criminal or Penal Law, which relates to Crimes and Punishments ; or Private Wrongs, and Public Wrongs, and the means of redress. Mercantile or Commercial Law, called also Law Merchant, prescribes the rights and duties of merchants, in their relations to each other, and to their respective countries. Martial Law, comprehending both Military and Naval, is that sys- tem which prescribes the rights and duties of military and naval men ; or which is enforced in places that are the seat of war. Ec" clesiastical or Canon Law, is that system which relates to the affairs of the Church ; and which is the rule of Ecclesiastical Courts, whether under secular or sacerdotal authority. A system, or body of laws relating to any one of these divisions, or belonging to and one nation or state, is called a Code,
With these introductory remarks, we proceed to the individual branches ; — ^Political Philosophy ; International Law ; Constitutional Law ; Municipal Law ; and Political Economy ; — ^under which we think that all the topics of Nomology may be comprised.
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CHAPTER I.
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY.
Tbb branch of Political Philosophy, may properly include all the- ories and general views of Government; with a description of its different forms, the principles on which they are founded, and the modes in which they are administered. The name is derived from the Greek, ftfOni^ a city or state; whence also the term Politics, already referred to. This study rests upon the basis of Natural Law, or justice ; and therefore presupposes a knowledge of Ethics ; the principles of which have already been explained. It requires also enlarged and elevated views of human nature, and the constitution of society ; with the means by which virtue may be diffused, justice enforced, and order preserved, throughout the community. It is alike important to the Statesman, who administers the affairs of a na- tion; and to the Legislator, who is concerned in making or amending the laws, though not directly engaged in their execution.
The earliest works of value on this subject, were Plato's Republic^ and Aristotle's Treatise on Politics. Aristotle, and other ancient writers, reduced all governments to one of the three forms. Democracy, Aristocracy, and Despotism; the only forms with which they were acquainted. Cicero, in his work Dt Republican endeavored to show by what policy, morals, and resources, Rome had obtained the domi- nion of the world ; — and later writers have shown by what vices and weaknesses she lost it. In modern times, Macchiavelli's work, enti- tled Hit FrincCj developes the various means of acquiring absolute power : and whatever may have been its object, it affords much poli- tical instruction. Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws^ published in 1748, is a work of much value on this branch of knowledge ; in which he regards all governments as either Republican, Monarchical, or Despotic, and discusses very fully their principles and mechanism. To this branch, in part, belong the great works of Grotius, Puffen- dorf and Wolf, which treat largely of Natural Law ; though in con- nection with the laws of nations.
In England, Sir Robert Filmer's Patriarcha^ published in 1680, maintaining the divine right of kings, was the occasion of Sydney's and Locke's masterly treatises, in defence of the rights of the people ; rights which had previously found a champion in Milton. Locke's doctrine of an implied social compact^ or consent of the people, as the only legitimate source of power, though opposed by Mr. Hume, has been gradually prevailing ; and in our own government has found its full application. Waiving further reference to Rutherford, Fergu- son, Bentham, and other later writers on this subject ; we have only room to add that the principle of representation^ by which the peo- ple select legislators, as well as executive and judicial officers, to act in their behalf, may we think be regarded as the greatest of modern improvements in government, and the avenue to any further improve-
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ments, of which, limited as our faculties now are, this science is susceptible.
We proceed to treat of Political Philosophy under the heads •£ Theory of Government ; Principles of Legislation ; Principles of Adjudication ; and Principles of Administration, or Statesmanship and Diplomacy.
1 1. The TTieory of Oovernmentt investigates the principles of the different forms of government ; and the mechanism by which they are made to fulfil their great objects, the security and improvement of individuals and of society. The principal forms of government are Monarchies, Aristocracies, and Democracies, separate or combined. A Monarchy^ is that form, in which the will of one man, styled mo- narch, emperor, king, or otherwise, is the supreme law of'the nation. If his will is restricted by charters, constitutions, or other means, the monarchy is said to be constitutional or limited f but if not, it is called an absolute monarchy or a despotism. A Mixed Monarchy, is one in which the supreme power is shared with the nobles, or people, or both. An Aristocracy ^ is that form, in which the govern- ment is controlled by a privileged class of men ; whether their power be hereditary, or derived from their own body, by intro-election. An Oligarchy or government of a few men, as of the former Council of Ten. in Venice, is perhaps the most despotic form of an aristo- cracy. A Democracy^ is that form, in which the supreme power is shared by the whole people ; either immediately, as in the Pantocra- ties or Republics of Greece and Rome ; or by agents of their own selecting, as in our Representative Democracies ; to which the term Republic is now most frequently applied.
The first governments were doubtless either patriarchal or military ; and the origin of political society may be traced back, first to the pri- mitive establishment of families; next, to the union of families in tribes, under one or more chiefs or leaders; and lastly to the union of several tribes, either voluntarily or by conquest, in one great na- tion. The origin of aristocratic and democratic forms of government, may we think be traced to the abuse of supreme power, in the hands of individual chiefs or monarchs ; which led the people to take the reins into their own hands. Such was the origin of Uie Roman Re- public, called into existence by the enormities of the Tarquins ; and of the French Republic, evoked by the follies of the Bourbons. At the present day governments rest on the voluntary consent of the governed ; or on implied consent, with long acquiescence ; or on the coercion of superior force.
The object of civil government being the welfare of the whole community, it is necessary that each individual should surrender a portion of his natural liberty, by obeying the laws, in return for the protection which they afford to his person and property. The high- est practicable degree of civil liberty, is that which remains after Uils necessary surrender. It is important that the legislators and magis- trates should themselves be subject to the same laws as their fellow- citizens ; and responsible to the latter for the due execution of their trusts. The two great safeguards, against the abuse of power, are its distribution in different hands, and their liability to impeachment
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or removal from office, for neglect of duties, or abuse of delegated powers. Hence arose the division of authority which now prevails, in the best governments, between the legislative, judicial, and execu- tive departments : each having a check on the power of the others. Of these departments, we proceed briefly to speak.
§ 2. The Frirtcipha of Legialalionf include the organization of legislatures ; legislative forms, or parliamentary usages ; and the prin- ciples of natural and divine law, on which all laws should be founded. Legislative power, or the power of making laws, even when en- trusted to the immediate representatives of the people, is found to be most safely vested in two co-ordinate bodies, whose separate consent should be necessary to the enactment of a law. The more popular branch should of course be so numerous, as to secure a full represent- ation of the interests and wishes of the whole people ; beyond which an increase of numbers obstructs the efficiency and weakens the responsibility. The other branch of the legislature should be so limited as to embrace only the highest order of political talent, expe- rience, and wisdom. Each house of the legislature is usually organ- ized by the appointment, or election of a presiding officer and one or more clerks, or recorders of its proceedings ; and each house is the proper judge of the qualifications of its own members.
In the proceedings of legislative, as of other deliberative bodies, certain rules are necessary to be observed, for the preservation of order, and expediting of business. Such rules, having been introduced into the British Parliament, at an early period, have been very gene- rally styled Parliamentary Joules or Usages. Those of our Con- gress and State Legislatures, though founded on the English rules, have been modified, as the spirit of our institutions, and the change of circumstances required ; and they are still liable to farther modifica- tions. They relate to the duties of the presiding officer ; the mode of qualifying members ; the general order of business ; the reference of subjects to committees, or to a committee of the whole house; the mode of receiving and acting upon bills or amendments ; the courtesy due to co-ordinate houses, or to the executive ; the recording and verification of the journal ; and similar topics, of which we have no farther room to speak. These rules are the more important, from their being used in regulating the proceedings of public meetings generally ; even those for religious or scientific purposes.
The style of laws should be as precise as possible; and they should be changed as seldom as a due regard to the public welfare will allow ; lest they should lose in dignity, and fail in the requisite publicity. They should of course be founded in justice, and should be as few and as simple as the condition of society will admit; leav- ing things to regulate themselves, wherever they are not likely to pro- duce public injury ; unless much good will clearly result from posi- tive legislation. The object of good laws should be, not only to punish crimes when committed, but as far as possible to prevent the commission of them. Montesquieu very properly enumerates four species of crimes ; those against religion ; against morals ; against private security ; and against public safety ; all of which come within
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the cognisance of legislative authority ; and require active measures for their prevention of punishment.
As regards pwiishmentt, they should be commensurate with offences ; and so framed as if possible both to redress the injured party, and vindicate the violated laws ; having reference also to the prevention of future crimes, and the moral reformation of the offender. Among the various reasons theoretically assigned to justify the inflic- tion of punishments, those to which we have just referred, incluSing the preservation of public safety, seem to be the strongest. The pub- lic exhibition of capital punishments, we are fully persuaded, has a very demoralizing and injurious effect ; but such punishment may, we think, be justified in extreme cases, by reason as well as by Scrip* tural authority. Still it remains a question, with some minds, whe* ther, even in these cases, solitary confinement would not be prefera- ble. Imprisonment for debt, we conceive to be justifiable, only where the debtor is chargeable with fraud, or culpable negligence, in con- tracting obligations without providing the means of discharging them.
§ 3. The Principles of ^judication, or judicial action, relate to the organization of courts, with the right construction or interpreta- tion of laws, and their due enforcement. Were the power of exe- cuting the laws intrusted to the same persons who make them ; it would be much more likely to be abused than when placed in different hands. Hence the propriety of distinct Courts of Justice, and these of dif- ferent grades ; that there may be room for appealing from the lower- to the higher, in cases of supposed injustice. The Judges or jus- tices are properly nominated by the Chief Magistrate of me Nation, or State ; but to prevent corruption, they should be approved by some responsible body, and should afterwards be independent of the ap- pointing power, at least for a long term of years, except when im- peached for misconduct. A Judge should not only be impartial, but he should pay implicit obedience to the law, without regard to its merits ; except in chancery or constitutional questions ; his office be- ing not to make the law, but to declare and enforce it* In general, more confidence may be placed in the decision of three or more judges, than in that of a single individual, though of equal capacity.
To secure more effectually the rights of citizens, the law allows them, in many cases, the privilege of trial by a Jury, composed of their fellow-citizens, who are supposed to have an immediate interest in doing them full justice. The origin of this institution is lost in> antiquity ; but it was confirmed in England, by Henry H. in the Con- stitutions of Clarendon, in 1164. The number of jurors, and mode- of selecting them, vary in different places and courts. A Grand Jury, consists of at least twelve, and usually, when full, of twenty-three persons ; who are charged with a general supervision of the public safety, interest, and morals. Petit Juries, on the other handjare summoned and sworn for the trial of special causes. The other officers of a court of justice, are the Clerk or Prothonotary, who records its proceedings and decisions; and the Marshall, Sheriff, or Con- stable, who executes its processes and orders. The Attorneys, Solicitors, and Counsellors, or Advocates, are lawyers, commis- sioned by the court, to manage causes before it. An Attorney or
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Solicitor General^ is a lawyer specially appointed by the executive, to manage causes in which the government is a party directly con- cerned.
The jurisdiction of a court, signifies the extent of its powers, in regard to tlie causes which may be tried before it. It has original jurisdiction in cases which may come primarily before it; and appellate jurisdiction, in those cases which can only be brought be- fore it by an appeal from some other court. Jurisdiction is also termed civilf when it extends only to the rights of persons and property ; and crimiruUt when it extends to the trial of imputed crimes. Of legal hermeneutics^ or the just interpretation of laws, we have only room here to remark that it depends upon the same principles as biblical hermeneutics ; that is, the just principles of grammar, logic, ethics, and sound criticism in general.
§ 4. The Principles of Administration of governments, compre- hend the greater part of what is usually termed Statesmanship^ in- cluding Diplomacy. They relate to the duties of the chief Magis- trate, and his immediate assistants and advisers, whether called Sc' cretarieSf Ministers^ or by otlier names. The propriety of having a single and responsible chief, at the head of every government or society of men, is too evident to need any argument. Whether that chief be called President, or Consul, or King, or Emperor, is far less important, than that he should feel himself responsible to the people, for the manner in which he exercises the power confided to him ; and that he should be competent to direct the government beneficially and wisely, with the aid of competent assistants and advisers.
The necessity of a cabinet, or ministry, to assist the chief magis- trate, will at once appear, from the manifold duties of the executive branch. These duties are, for the most part, supervisory ; to see that the laws are faithfully executed, and to advise for their alteration or improvement; to manage the fiscal and financial afiairs of the nation; to superintend public improvements; to preserve friendly intercourse with foreign nations ; and to provide ior the public de- fence, with the aid of the military and naval forces. Accordingly, in most governments, there are distinct departments, of State, for cor- respondence and intercourse with foreign powers ; of the Treasury, or of Finance, for the collection and disbursement of the public moneys ; of JVar, for the management of military afiairs ; of the Navy or Marine, for naval afiairs : besides others for various express purposes, as Posts, and Mails ; Internal Improvements ; Education ; Patents ; and the like.
Diplomacy, is that portion of Statesmanship, which relates to the intercourse of a government with foreign powers, by means of its ac- credited agents. It treats of the qualifications, and the duties of these agents ; and the rules and precedents by which they are governed in their ofiicial acts. Diplomatic agents of the highest rank, are called Ambassadors, or Ministers ; of whom ministers plenipotentiary, and envoys extraordinary, usually take precedence. Resident minis- ters rank next ; and inferior to these in official grade, are Charges d'affaires, and finally Secretaries of legation, and Attaches, As the interests and honor of a nation are confided, in a great degree, to
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an ambassador, he should of course be a person of great dignity ; of extensive knowledge ; well versed in the forms and courtesies due to his station ; familiar with the affairs both of his own state, and of that to which he is accredited ; and of uncompromising integrity. When affairs of the highest importance are to be transacted, it is per« haps the safest, to intrust them to a Commission^ or Ennbaasy of several persons, of the highest capacity, and with joint powers.
ConstdSy as they are now styled, are regarded by some as diplo- matic officers ; but more generally, as commercial agents, stationed in foreign parts, to afford protection to their fellow-citizens, and per- form certain magisterial and legal duties ; being themselves subject to the civil authorities of the places where they reside, at least, in criminal cases. It is usually a part of their duty, to watch over the fulfilment of commercial treaties, in their respective vicinities ; and to transmit to their own government any information which they may deem of service. A Consul General, is one appointed for several places, or over several other consuls.
CHAPTER II.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The branch of International Law, frequently, though less properly, called the Law of Nations, comprises that system of rules, which defines the rights, and prescribes the duties of nations, in their inter- course with each other. It does not properly include what have been termed the internal laws of ncUions, or the rights and obligations which subsist between the government and the citizens of the same state ; and hence those laws are here referred to the subsequent branches of Nomology. But it does properly include the subjects of Commercial, Maritime, and Admiralty Law ; in so far as they are instituted not by any one nation singly, but by the common con- sent of two or more sovereign states. International Law is based upon the principles of justice; and it consists of the natural or necessary laws ; the prescriptive, or customary laws ; and the positive, or express laws ; by which the intercourse of nations is regulated.
A nation, or state, is a community, or body of men, united under one government, for mutual safety and benefit. It consists of officers, who are its agents ; and of citizens, from among whom those officers are selected, or to whom they should be responsible. Nations are here considered as moral persons, possessing certain rights, and hav- ing certain duties to perform, in that capacity. And what is incum- bent upon a nation, is morally incumbent on all its citizens, according to their respective stations and circumstances. The rules which pre- scribe the rights and duties of governments towards each other, are sometimes termed public laws, and those relating to the citizens of a nation, in regard to foreign powers, are then termed private laws, of nations. It is an admirable remark of Montesquieu, that nations 14
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ought to do each other as much good in peace, and as little harm in war, as possible, consistently with the attainment of their just and reasonable objects.
Perhaps the earliest example of International Law, was afforded by the Grecian States, in the establishment of the Amphictyonic Court' cil ; which was designed to settle all disputes between them ; though it failed of success. Rome, in its infancy, made some approach to an international code ; particularly in the institution of a college of heralds, and of the fecial law : and this subject found an able advocate in Cicero ; but still llie principles of just intercourse with other na- tions were often violated. At a later period, when the Roman Law became most highly cultivated, the law of nations was incorporated therein, to a considerable extent, though not in a separate or syste- matic form. Since that period, the Christian religion, the crusades, the institution of chivalry, the feudal system, and tlie family alliances of European sovereigns, have successively favored the development of International Law, as now generally recognised and understood.
The great work of Grotius, On the Rights of TVar and of Peace^ TDe Jure Belli et Pacis), published in 1G25, was the first which re- (luced International Law to a regular system ; procuring for its author the title of father of this science. PufTendorf, in his work On the Law of Nature and of Nations, (De Jure Naturae et Gentium), pub- lished in 1672, treated the subject in a highly philosophical manner: but the treatise of Vattel on the Law of Nations, (Droits des Gens), first published in 1758, has contributed, perhaps, more than any other work, to give influence and popularity to this important study. The influence of these and similar works, in modem times, is shown, we think, in the frequency of treaty stipulations ; setding points of inter- national law, at least between the parties' concerned, which, in former times, might have caused long and bloody wars, and finally have been decided by force, rather than by justice.
We proceed to treat farther of International Law, under the heads of Laws of Nations in Peace ; Laws of Nations in War ; Maritime Law ; and Commercial Law.
§ 1. The Tmws of Nations in Peace, depend upon the principle that nations, like moral persons, are responsible for their actions, and equal in respect to their rights and duties ; whatever diflerence may exist in their strength, extent, forms of government, or systems of re- ligion. Every nation therefore has a right to choose its own form of government ; to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over its own territory, and the adjacent waters, so far as may be necessary for its defence ; and to regulate its commerce and intercourse with other nations; provided always that it observe the principles of justice, including of course, conformity to its treaties and other obligations. Foreigners, residing in any nation, are amenable to its laws, unless they be public ministers ; and in return they are entitled to protection for their per- sons and property. Criminals, fleeing from justice out of their own country, should be surrendered, on due proof, to the government of the injured party ; since they cannot be seized by the same in another nation's territory. The granting, by one nation, of a free passage across its territory, to the citizens or troops of another, is a matter of
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coartesy and good will ; always subject to the restrictions necessary for its own safety.
Every nation is bound to respect the ambassador or public minis' ter of another nation, so long as the laws of nations are respected by him. As the representative of his nation, his person is inviolate ; nor is he subject to the laws of the nation receiving him. He may be ordered away, or, if necessary, expelled ; but if practicable, com- plaint should first be made to his own government, that he may be recalled. A government may, at its discretion, refuse to receive an ambassador; but then it should speedily explain to the government sending him, the reason for this refusal. Treaties made by minis- ters, are not understood to be binding, until ratified by their respective governments; unless made by ministers plenipotentiary, clothed with full and irrevocable powers. If there be a dispute concerning the rightful government of a foreign nation, the government defactot or actual government, is the one usually recognised.
As every nation is bound to protect its own citizens, in the enjoy- ment of their rights, an injury to a single one of them, if reparation be refused, may be deemed a cause for war ; though war may not, even then, be advisable. In such cases, the injured citizen is doubt- less entitled to reparation from his own government. Disputes between nations, may be settled by mediation, by conference, or by arbitration : and not until all attempts to obtain justice by these means have failed, can there be just cause for war.
5 2. The Laws of Nations in fFiar, presuppose thai war is undertaken only in order to obtain justice, when all other means have failed. War is the ultima ratio, or last resort, of nations who acknowledge no earthly superior, but appeal to the God of battles in defence of their existence, liberty, or other dearest rights. Some- times recourse is had to a limited warfare ; as by retaliation, reprisals, blockades, or embargoes, to extort or compel redress. A blockade, is an interception of all communication with a place, by the fleets or armies of a hostile power: and an embargo, is an order of the government detaining the vessels of another nation, or interdicting all trade therewith, as a contingent means of redress or coercion. War is sometimes commenced, as it was among the Greeks and Romans, by a formal declaration of hostilities ; but the failure of negotiations, and the withdrawal of ministers, is generally deemed a sufficient warning to the opposite party.
The effect of War is to put all the citizens of each nation, politi- cally speaking, in a hostile position towards those of the other ; sus- pending, but not cancelling their respective claims and obligations. It is just that foreigners in each country should have time to with- draw themselves and their property therefrom ; but the law of reci- procity generally prevails ; and if imprisonment or confiscation follow, they have a just claim on their own country for the damage. It is just, also, that actual hostilities should be restricted to those per- sons who are commissioned in the public service of the belligerent states ; and that they should be permitted to act offensively only against armed forces and public property ; but not against peaceable 'itizens. Captured goods are oilen bestowed on the captors ; but
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captured territory becomes subject to the victorious power. A cap- tured vessel may be ransomed ; and the ransom billf or note of promise given to the captor, is one of the few contracts allowable between hostile parties. A vessel recaptured, returns to its original owners, by the jus postliminii, which supposes that it had never ceased to belong to them. The poisoning of wells, or food ; the injury of private citizens; the maltreatment of prisoners; and the violation of passports, cartels, flags of truce, conventions, or capitula- tions, are universally forbidden, among civilized nations.
Those powers, or states, which are not parties to the war, are called neutral: and they have important relations to the belligerents. They are expected to aid neither party ; and their trade with both parties is restricted, but how far is not exactly decided. The neutral mer- chant may carry his own goods, if not contraband of war, to any ports of either hostile party, not actually blockaded : but a block- aded port he is not permitted to enter. All articles useful solely in war, are contraband $ and other articles may become so, if car- ried to a besieged place, or designed to aid directly in carrying on the war. The punishment for carrying contraband articles, is generally the confiscation of the whole cargo. The right of search^ usually conceded to belligerents, to see that neutral vessels have no contraband goods, extends only to neutral merchant vessels, and not to national ships. Neutral property, on board ships captured from the enemy, must be restored ; but an enemy's property, on board of a neutral ship, may be seized by the searching vessel. Neutral territory is inviolable ; protecting even the enemy's property ; but the neutral nation may either grant or withhold free passage across its territory, so that it treat both the hostile parties alike. The character of individuals is either neutral or belligerent, according as they reside in neutral or hostile territory ; or if they have no actual residence, it depends upon their previous intention, if clearly proved.
§ 3. Maritime LaWf is that division of Jurisprudence which re- lates to crimes and transactions on the high seas; including the laws of maritime captures, and privateering; with those relating to piracy, the slave trade, and other offences ; which in England are tried by the Admiralty Courts, but in our own country, by the Courts of the General Government. Contracts made upon the high seas may also be included under Maritime Law ; and the distinction between this and Commercial Law is perhaps not very clearly defined. Many principles of Maritime Law, particularly those relating to maritime captures, belong to the preceding section of International Law ; but as this division is separately treated of in other works, we have thought it proper to assign it here a distinct place. The English Admiralty Court was instituted by Edward IIL, in 1357; but re- ceived a more popular form, under Henry VIIL, in 1517. Its juris- diction extends to some cases of Commercial as well as Maritime Law ; and to all such cases, the term Admiralty Law has been applied. Azuni, in his work on the Maritime Lato of Europe^ has the merit of being the first writer who reduced this subject to a regular system.
The necessity of requiring a judicial decision to legalize captures
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of merchant vessels, in war, will appear from the abuse to which this practice would otherwise be exposed. Hence privateers, com- missioned by govemment to make such captures, are forbidden to dispose of them, till they are legally condemned, by some court of the captor's own country. Even those merchant vessels which are captured by national ships, must, we believe, undergo this legal con- demnation, at least before they can be safely purchased by any indi- vidual citizen. Such prizes become the property of the state; though their proceeds are usually distributed among the captors, as a reward for bravery, and a stimulus to exertion. All seizures, under the laws of impost, navigation or trade, when those seizutres are made on waters navigable from the sea, by vessels of a certain size, may also be considered as under the cognisance of Maritime Law. Piracy, including the seizure of vessels, or robbery and murder on the high seas, is punishable with death by the law of nations ; and pirates, on becoming such, cease to have any national rights ; but are held amenable to any nation, into whose hands they may fall. Several nations, including the United States and Great Britain, have already agreed to rank the slave trade in the same heinous class of crimes. Most others have forbidden it ; and it is to be hoped that all will soon effectually unite in putting a stop to this horrid traffic.
§ 4. Commercial Law, otherwise called Law Merchant or Lex Mercatoria, '' is that which relates to trade, navigation, and maritime contracts ; such as those of insurance, bottomry, bills of lading, charter-parties, general average, seamen's wages ; and also to bills of exchange, bills of credit, factors and agents." Cases of these kinds between citizens of different nations, evidently rest on prin- ciples of International Law, which no one nation can greatly alter ; and in our own country, they are mostly tried before the Courts of the Genera] Government. The earliest laws of this kind were pro- bably the Rhodian Laws, of which some fragments only remain. The ^matfitan Table, prepared at Amalfi, in Italy, about 1096 ; the Zmws of Oleron, prepared at Oleron, in France, in 1266; and the Consolato del Mare, probably digested at Barcelona, in Spain, in 1494 ; were the basis of Commercial Law ; which has since been improved by the French Ordinances framed by Colbert; by the labors of Lord Mansfield, who first methodized the system in Eng- land ; and in our own country, by the able decisions of Marshall, Story, and other jurists.
Marine Insurance, rests on a contract, by which the underwriters, for a certain premium, guarantee a ship against loss ; or if lost, en- gage to make good the damage. Bottomry, is the borrowing of money, by pledging the ship's bottom, that is the ship itself, in pay- ment. A bill of lading, is a written statement of goods shipped ; and it is usually directed to the person to whom they are sent. A charter party, is a written agreement, concerning the shipment and freight of a cargo. Primage and average, are certain contingent charges, as for towage and pilotage ; and general average signifies extraordinary expenses and sacrifices, made to save the cargo, when in danger; as throwing articles overboard, paying ransom, and the like. On all these points, certain general rules and principles are
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understood, or agreed upon, by merchants, even of different nations : and hence these subjects become a part of International Law.
Cambial Law$f are those relating to Exchange ; or the transfer and payment of moneys in distant places. A bill of exchange^ is a written direction of one person, for another person named, to pay a sum of money therein mentioned, to a third person ; and this bill may be sold to a fourth person, or by him to others, before it is regularly paid. The parties to a bill of exchange are called the drawer^ who makes it ; the drawee, or the person to whom it is ad- dressed ; the payee, in whose favor the bill is nominally drawn ; and the presenter, who finally presents it for payment. When the drawee has acknowledged the bill to be payable by him, he becomes the acceptor ; and any person guaranteeing the payment, by writing his name on the back of it, is called its endorser. Numerous and complicated cases may arise, under bills of exchange ; but such we have no room here to consider. •
CHAPTER III.
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.
In the branch of Constitutional Law, using the term in its more general sense, we would include the study of the Constitutions, or fundamental laws of the various nations ; that is, the structure and mechanism of their government, and the appointments, powers, and duties of their officers. In our own country, this branch is often limited to the Constitution of the United States, and the Statutes and Treaties framed under its authority ; but even here, we think it should include the Constitutions of the several states, and the mechanism of their governments. The Constitutions, so called, of the Roman Law, were merely the edicts of the successive emperors. The famous Golden Bull, of Charles IV., issued in 1356, so named from its golden seal, was the Constitution of the German Empire ; on which the present constitutions of Austria and Prussia have been partly modelled. It contained many chapters on the public law ; together with the rules for the election and crowning of the emperors ; the order and rank of the imperial court ; and the functions of the arch- officers of the empire. In France, notwithstanding the existence of the ancient States General, of nobles and clergy, to which the Third Estate, or representatives of cities were added about the year 1300, the Constitution was chiefly monarchical and hierarchal, till the revo- lution of 1789 ; since which time France has had nine different con- stitutions, including the present one.
The English Constitution has been successively modified, by the Wxttenagemote, or Council of Wise Men, of King Alfred ; the Feudal System of William the Conqueror ; the Constitutions of Clarendon, enacted in 1164, under Henry II., to check the pr.pal power ; the Magna Charta, or Great Charter of Rights, extorted by the barons from King John, in 1215; the Establishment of the
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HouBtof Cammona, under Henry III., in 1258 ; and the recognition of the JBill of Rights, by William III. and Mary, in 1689. Except- ing in the hereditary power of the king and house of lords, and the unequal representation of the people in parliament, it closely resem- bles our own Constitution, of which it was the principal model. The British Constitution is the result of the successive struggles of the people for liberty ; and it exists, in part, by mere prescription ; having never been digested or sanctioned, as a whole, by any posi- tive act of the people.
The United States of America, having been originally British Colonies, brought with them the rights, laws, and institutions of their mother country : and most of them had local Legislatures, subordinate to the British Parliament. Their right to the soil, rested on purchases from the Indians, or conquests made in wars with them ; and in regard to foreign nations, they held it by the right of discovery, in virtue of Cabot's first expedition, under the authority of King Henry VII. Having, for the most part, common interests, they several times formed a partial union ; as in 1643, when the New England colonies united against the Indians ; in 1754, when delegates met at Albany, to take measures against the French and Indians, but Dr. Franklin's plan of union failed ; and in 1765, when a Congress of delegates from nine of the colonies met at New York, to oppose the stamp act, and to maintain their rights against the mother country. When at length the acts of Parliament, and the regal power became intolerable, they united in 1774, in a virtual league, or offensive and defensive alliance ; and elected representatives to the Continental Congress, which, two years thereafter, declared ** that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." Formal Articles of Confederation were proposed in Congress, in 1778 ; but they were not adopted until 1781.
The Revolutionary War left the states independent, but languishing under a feeble league, and inefficient form of government. With a view to the settlement of some local difficulties, resulting from this state of things, delegates from five states met at Annapolis, in 1786 ; and at their instance, a General Convention met at Philadelphia, in 1787, and framed our present Constitution ; which went into opera- tion March 4, 1789. Its preamble is as follows. " We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves, and our posterity, do ordain, and establish this constitution for the United States of America." The first article treats of the national legislature ; the second, of the executive ; and the third of the judiciary : the fourth defines certain relations of the states, and their citizens, to each other and to the Union ; the fifth prescribes the mode of amending the Constitution ; the sixth article recognizes the previous government, but declares that this Constitution shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the seventh and last article, relates to its ratification.
We proceed to treat briefly of United States Constitutional Law, under the heads of Legislative powers ; Executive powers ; Judicial
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powers ; State rights and restrictions ; and United States Statutes and Treaties.
§ 1. The Legislative powers of the United States, are vested in a CongresSj consisting of a Senate, and House of Representatives. The Representatives, are chosen every second year, by the people of the several states; among whom they are apportioned. They must be at least 25 years of age ; must have been seven years citizens of the United States ; and must be inhabitants of the state from which they are chosen. The House of Representatives chooses its own Speaker, Clerk, and other officers. The Senate, is composed of two members from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; provision having been made that about one-third of the num- ber shall be elected every two years, in place of those whose terms expire. A Senator must be at least 30 years of age ; must have been nine years a citizen of the United States ; and must, when elected, be an inhabitant of the state for which he is chosen. The Vice Presi- dent of the United States is President of the Senate ; but has only a casting vote, in cases where the Senators are equally divided. The Senate chooses its other officers, and a President pro tempore, when necessary. It has judicial power only in cases of impeachment : but the power of impeaching officers of the general government, or arraigning them before the Senate, belongs solely to the House of Representatives.
Congress must assemble annually on the first Monday in Decem- ber, unless it shall by law appoint some other day. Each house judges of the election and qualifications of its own members ; and makes rules for its own proceedings, of which it is required to keep a journal. Neither house can adjourn for more than three days, nor change its place of session, without the consent of the other. Both senators and representatives are paid by law ; and privileged from arrest in civil cases ; but they are inhibited from appointment to any office which may have been created, or enhanced in value, during their term of service ; nor can they hold any office from the executive, while they retain their seats. All bills for raising revenue, must ori- ginate in the House of Representatives ; and every bill or resolution passed in Congress, except for adjournment, must be approved and signed by the President, before it can become a law, unless it be again passed by two-thirds of both houses, respectively.
The chief powers of Congress, are, to lay and collect taxes, duties, &c. for revenue ; to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; to regulate commerce ; to coin money, and punish counterfeiters ; to establish post offices and post roads ; to grant copyrights and patents ; to constitute tribunals, inferior to the Supreme Court ; to declare war ; to raise and support armies ; to provide and maintain a navy ; to give efficiency to the militia ; to exercise exclusive legislation over a district not more than ten miles square, as the seat of government, and over sites for forts and other public works, purchased with the consent of the states ; to sell the public lands, and admit new states into the union ; and to make any laws necessary for accomplishing these objects; subject to some restrictions, which we have no room here to mention.
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$ 2. The ExectUive power ia vested in a President of the United States of America^ He holds his office daring the term of four years ; and together with the Vice President ^ chosen for the same term, is elected hy electors, who are appointed by the states, in such manner as the respective legislatures may direct. The electors meet in their several states, and vote by ballot for a president and vice president ; and their votes are transmitted to the president of the senate, who opens the certificates before both houses of Congress, and declares the result. If no person has a majority of the electoral votes for president, then one of the three highest candidates for that office is chosen to it, by the representatives, voting by states ; each state having one vote. In the like case with regard to a vice president, he is chosen by the Senate ; being one of the two highest candidates. The president and vice president, must have been natural born citizens, or else citizens of the United States at the time of the adoption of the Constitution : they must be at least 35 years of age ; and must have resided 14 years within the United States. In case of the death, inability, or removal of the former, his office devolves on the latter.
The President is commander in chief of the army and navy, and of the militia, when called into the actual service of the United States. He has pardoning powers, except in cases of impeachment; and has power to make treaties, by and with the consent of two-thirds of the senators present in session. He appoints ambassadors,, judges, and various other officers, subject to the senate's approval ; and he may fill vacancies, which occur during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of the next senatorial session. He gives information and proposes measures to Congress ; which body he may convene by proclamation ; but he can adjourn it only when the houses disagree in regard to the time of adjournment. He receives foreign ministers ; takes care that the laws be faithfully executed; and commissions all the officers of the United States, with whose appointment he is concerned. The president^ vice president, and all civil officers of the United States, are remova- ble from office, on impeachment by the house of representatives, and conviction by the senate, of high crimes or misdemeanors.
The distribution of the higher executive duties, not having been prescribed by the Constitution, has since been made by Acts of Con- gress. 'r\\e Secretaries of State, of the Treasury, of War, and of the Navy, with the Attorney General, and the Postmaster Gene-- ral, are the immediate advisers of the President ; corresponding to the ministry, in foreign governments ; and together they constitute the Cabinet. The Department of Slate, the Treasury and War depart- ments, and the office of Attorney General, were established in 1789 r but the Navy department was not established, as a distinct one, until 1798 ; nor the Post Office department, until 1810.
$ 3. The Judicial power of the United States, is vested in a Su- preme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, of all the courts, hold their office during good behaviour ; and their salary cannot be dimi- nished during their continuance in office. The Judicial power ex- tends to all cases, in law and equity, arising under the Constitution^ 16 k2
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Laws, or Treaties of the United States; to all cases affecting^ amlMis- sadors, other public ministers, and consuls : to all cases of admindtj and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies, in which the United Stales are a party : to controversies between two or more states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens of different states ; between citizens of the same state, claiming lands under grants of different states ; and between a state or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.
At present, the Supreme Court consists of one Chief Juttictf and eight Jiaiodate Justices : and it holds one session annually at the seat of government ; commencing on the second Monday in January. It has original jurisdiction in all cases affecting ambassa- dors, other public ministers, or consuls ; and in all cases to which a state is a party. In all other cases, its jurisdiction is only appellate ; that is, it may revise the decisions of the inferior courts, in cases legally brought before it, by writ of error, or appeal. Congress has created two inferior grades of courts, called Circuit and District Courts ; besides Territorial Courts^ for the territories belonging to the Union, but not yet raised to the rank of states. The United States are divided, for judicial purposes, into nine circuits, to each of which one of the Judges of the Supreme Court is assigned, as a Circuit Judge ; and they are subdivided into 34 districts, to each of which a District Judge is appointed by the national executive. Each of these latter judges is required to hold a District Court, at least twice in each year : and in each district there is also held a Cir- cuit Court, twice a year ; in which the Circuit Judge for that circuit is associated with the District Judge for that district.
The Circuit Courts have original jurisdiction, in various civil causes, where the sum in controversy exceeds five hundred dollars ; and they have also criminal jurisdiction, either exclusive, or concur- rent with the district courts, over all crimes cognizable by the laws of the Union, except official misconduct. The District Courts have cognizance only of the less important cases ; and when an appeal is made from them to the Circuit Court, the opinion of the Circuit Judge prevails ; subject to a farther appeal to the Supreme Court. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, must be by jury ; and if they were committed within the limits of any state, the trisd must take place therein. Treason is limited to levying war against the United States, or adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort.
( 4. On State Bights and Restrictions, we must here be very brief. The powers not delegated by the Constitution to the United States, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. No state can enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque or reprisal ; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but specie a leg^ tender ; pass any bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, or law im- pairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. No state can, without the consent of Congress, lay imposts, or duties on imports or exports, for the sake of revenue ; nor can any ^tate keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace ; nor enter into
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any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power; nor engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such immi- nent danger as will not admit of delay.
Fall faith and credit must be given, in each state, to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings, of every other state ; and the citizens of each state, are entitled to all the privileges and im- munities of citizens in the several states. A person charged with crime, and fleeing from justice, to another state, must, on demand of the executive au&ority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up for trial therein. Persons held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, and escaping into another, must be delivered up, on claim of the party to whom such service or labor is proved to be due. No new state can be formed, or erected, within the juris- diction of any other state ; nor can any state be formed by the junc- tion of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned, as well as of the congress. The United States gruaranty, to every state in the union, a republican form of government ; and must protect each of them against inva- sion, and, on due application, against domestic violence.
§ 5. The Statutes and Treaties of the United States, are so numerous, that we cannot here attempt even a summary of the most important. Among the Statutes, are laws establishing the executive departments, the judiciary system, the post-office system, the mint, the army and navy, and military academy ; laws for collecting a reve- nue, and paying the national debt ; for selling the public lands, and admitting new states into the Union ; for establishing a protecting tariff and national bank ; for granting patents to inventors, and copy- rights to authors ; for laying an embargo, and declaring war ; for building government edifices, fortifications, and light-houses ; and for improving harbors, and internal communications.* Among the TVea- tiest are those of Peace and Commerce with foreign states ; some- times defining boundaries, and international rights, and settling points of international law ; and those for the purchase of territory, in- cluding Louisiana and Florida, and especially the lands of the In- dians ; often stipulating for their removal to more western regions. Notwithstanding all the Statutes and Treaties which have been made by the proper authorities, many minor points of law have been left to be settled by the national courts ; and are only to be found embo- died in the Reports of their decisions.
The Martial Law of the United States, to which the army and navy are subject, having been established by the national authorities, is connected, we think, more closely with Constitutional Law, than with the branch which succeeds it; but this is a subject which entirely transcends our limits. Of the Constitutions of the different states ; which are very similar to that of the United States ; we have no room here to speak. The Governors and Legislatures of the states correspond to the President and Congress of the United States ; and the distribution of functions is in most of the states essentially uniform ; differing only in the minor details.
* Some of these acta, and particalarly those relating to a nattonal bank, an em- bargo^ and war, it will readily be nndentood, are no longer in force.
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CHAPTER IV.
MITNICIPAL LAW.
The branch of Municipal Law, includes the rules of civil conduct, prescribed by the competent authorities of the various nations, for protecting the ordinary rights, and defining the duties, of their citi* zens. The name is from the Latin, municipiaj or corporate towns ; which, in ancient Rome, had their own peculiar codes of laws, dis- tinct from those of the empire. It applies, therefore, with great propriety, to the laws of the different states, and of their corporate cities, in our own country ; as distinguished from those of the United States. The Laws which govern the ordinary courts of justice in Great Britain, France, and other nations, must, in the present classi- fication of knowledge, be placed under this head. Municipal Law, it will be seen, is that branch of Nomology which relates most im- mediately to the rights and obligations of individuals, in their private capacity. Hence, a knowledge of its provisions is more or less important to every citizen, as a guide to the discharge of his civil duties.
The earliest municipal code of laws on record, is that of the Jews, promulgated by Moses, under divine authority; 1491 to 1461, B. C. Its morals are still obligatory ; though its ceremonials have passed away. The Laws of Lycurgus, established in Sparta, 884 B. C. were adapted to a nation of warriors, supported by their slaves. Those of Draco, imposed on Athens, 623 B. C, famous only for their severity, were succeeded by the milder code of Solon, 694 B. C, which favored an aristocratic and commercial system of administra- tion. Under these laws, public offences were tried before the w^reo- pagftty and higher courts ; but private suits were prosecuted before new tribunals, the members of which were chosen by lot from among the whole people. The Areopagus was also empowered to punish vagabonds, and to watch over the public morals, and the rigorous observance of the laws.
The first Roman Laws which we can here notice, were those of the Twelve Tables^ compiled by the Decemviri, 460 B. C. They were amended, and extended, by the successive Pr»tors, acting as judges; whose edicts, collected by Julianus, under Adrian, A. D. 131, were pronounced perpetual. The imperial constitutions, or ordi- nances, were first digested and codified under TTteodosius II., A. D. 438 ; and finally at Byzantium, by Tribonian and others, under «/t/«- /iman, A. D. 533. Tribonian prepared the Institutes j or element- ary laws ; the Pandects^ or digests of the opinions of eminent law- yers ; and the Codex^ or new code, of revised imperial constitutions ; to which were afterwards added the Novels^ or new constitutions, partly subsequent to the time of Justinian : the whole constituting the corpus juris civilis, or Roman Civil Law. This system of laws was for a time lost, in the confusion of the dark ages ; but a copy of the pandects, found at Amalfi, in Italy, in 1137, 1^ to the codification
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of the Papal Canon Law, commencing with the labors of Gratian, about 1161 ; and to the introduction of the Roman law in the various catholic states of Europe.
The French laws, were first generally reduced to writing, under Charles VII., in 1453 ; and they were systematized by Louis XIV.; who promulgated ordinances, on the Civil process, in 1667 ; on the Criminal process, in 1670; on Commercial law, in 1673 ; on Forest law, in 1669 ; on the Marine, in 1681 ; and on Ecclesiastical law, in 1695. These laws were greatly simplified, in the Codes prepared under the Emperor Napoleon, which are still occasionally called by his name. The Civil CodCt or general law of the country, was ela- borated in 1805 ; and is emphatically styled the *' Code Napoleon;^* as he assisted personally in preparing it. The Code of Civil Pro- cedure, was published in 1806; that of Criminal Procedure, in 1808 ; and the Penal Code in 1810. These codes, with that of Commerce^ published in 1807, are often termed the Five Codes ; and are still the basis of French Municipal Law. The Constitutio Carolina, was the basis of the Criminal Law of Germany. It was first sketched by the emperor Maximilian, and proposed to the Diet at Worms, in 1521 ; but revised and augmented at the Diet of Spire, in 1529 ; and published in the form of a law, in 1532, under Charles V. ; from whom it took its name.
In England, an excellent municipal code was established by Alfred the Great, A. D. 886 : which was the basis of the English Common Law. This was greatly modified by the Feudal Laws, introduced by William the Conqueror, in 1070 ; by which the nobles held their land as the gift of the king, and dealt it out to their serfs or vassals^ who were the disfranchised Saxons, or the Norman soldiers. Fealty, and service, were the conditions by which the fiefs or feudal lands were thus held. This system was gradually superseded by the changes which we have referred to, in speaking of the English Con- stitution ; (p. 110); by which popular liberty has been partially restored. The English Municipal Law is derived, then, firom the ancient common law, the feudal law, the Roman civil law, and the ecclesiastical law, partly blended together, and more or less modified by acts of Parliament ; the whole forming a complicated and hetero- geneous system. The character of the English law has been gradu- ally becoming milder ; and many offences which were formerly capital, are now punished by transportation or imprisonment.
The Municipal Law of our own country, is based on that of Eng- land ; but variously modified by the statutes of the different states ; in some of which, systematic codes have been prepared ; and in all of which, we think such codes would be beneficial. Cases not provided for by statutes, are generally decided by reference to the common law, or to the principles of natural law and justice. The Judicial power of the states, is vested in various courts ; one of which is usually styled Supreme ; and the others are called Circuit Courts, District Courts, Courts of Appeals, Courts of Common Pleas, County Courts, Probate Courts, Justices' Courts, and in cities, Municipal, Mayor's, or Police Courts; according as the respective states have provided. Each state has also made provision for proceedings in Equity ; by
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vesting Chancery powers in a Chancellor, in the Senate, or other high authorities. The Civil Code of Louisiana, which was di- gested from all the heterogeneous pre-existing laws, chiefly, we be- lieve, by the labors of Mr. Livingston, and promulgated in 1824, has been highly praised as a model of its kind, and a specimen of the benefits of a judicious codification.
We proceed to treat of Municipal Law, on points which are com- mon to most of the states, under the heads of Laws of Persons ; Laws of Property ; Laws of Crimes ; and Laws of Procedure.
$ 1. The Laios of Persons, or, as they are termed by Blackstone, the Rights of Persons, arise from their relations to the government, or to each other ; and hence are either official or private. Of official rights and duties, we have already spoken, as far as we had room, under the branch of Constitutional Law. - In their private rights, per- sons are regarded as either citizens, or aliens ; males or females ; adults or minors ; sane or insane ; masters or servants ; principals or agents ; and as either natural or artificial persons ; the latter mean- ing corporations or partnerships. We shall first speak of the laws concerning domestic relations; or those of husband and wife; parent and child ; guardian and ward ; and master and servant : and afterwards treat o( business relations, which are more public in their character.
Females, in this country, have no political rights, as of voting, or holding public offices ; but, while single, they have the same legal rights as males. By marriage, their legal rishts pass mostly to Uie husband ; who, with his wife, is considered as one legal person. He can dispose of her personal, but not of her real property, or land, without her voluntary consent; and he becomes liable for her support, and for her debts, whether contracted before or after mar- riage. Marriage is considered, in law, only as a civil contract ; but as one of the highest importance and obligation. The marriage of idiots, or lunatics, or of persons nearly related, is generally forbidden by the civil law. Parents are the legal guardians of their children, whom the law regards as their servants. Guardians of idiots or insane persons are usually appointed over them ; but guardians of orphan minors are more frequently chosen by themselves, to manage their affairs, under proper restrictions. Apprentices are temporary servants, bound to their masters for a certain term, by an indenture, or form of law ; and held to faithful service, in return for the art which they acquire.
Artificial persons, are either corporations, or partnerships. A corporation, is a body of men incorporated by statute or charter, for certain express purposes; as banking or manufacturing. It may hold property, and be subject to obligations, like individuals. Cor- porations are usually managed by responsible trustees or directors ; and they are public or private, perpetual or temporary, according to their objects and charters ; their seal, and the signatures of their officers, being the evidence of their obligations. Partnerships, are associations of two or more persons, by contract, for business or other specified purposes. Each partner is a legal agent for the whole firm, within its proper scope, and is liable for its debts and
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obligations. Executors^ and adminiatraiorsj are persons appointed or chosen to settle the estates of persons deceased.
$ 2. The Laws of Property, are included by Blackstone under the title. Rights of Things ; a term borrowed from the Roman law. Property, is any thing deemed valuable, which can be exclusively owned by one person ; whether in actual possession, or in expect- ancy, as when secured by contracts, or expected by inheritance. Perional property, or personalty, includes moveable articles, called goods and chattels ; but Feal property, or realty, includes things fixed and immoveable, and hence said to be tangible ; as lands, tene- ments, and hereditaments. The word terument, comprehends not only land itself, but the fixtures upon it, and privileges connected with it. Lands are termed corporeal hereditaments; while easements, or privileges, which may be held distinct from the land itself, as right of way, right of rivers, commons, and the like, are termed ineorpO' real hereditaments. The right of real property, in our own country, rests originally on first possession, or purchase from the aborigines ; and it is generally held aUodiaUy, that is, by independent right ; and not, as it is often held in Europe, by feudal tenure*
An Estate, is an interest in any read property. An estate in poS" session, is one actually held : but an estate in reversion, is one which by law will revert to the person claiming it, after the temporary right of some other person to it has expired. An estate in remainder, is one expressly granted to the expectant, after the termination of some previous grant or particular estate in the same. A freehold estate, is one held in fee simple, subject to no conditions or contingencies ; and an estate in fee, is one which, at the death of its owner, if not otherwise disposed of by him, descends to his heirs. An estate for life, is one terminating with the life of the tenant, or of some other person ; the tenant holding it either for life, or for, that is, during another^s life. An estate for years, is one secured to the tenant, by lease, for a certain period. An estate tail or entailed, is one which must revert to the grantor, in case the grantee should not, at his decease, leave heirs as prescribed : and an estate in trust, is one con- veyed to a trustee or trustees, for the benefit or use of a third party, called the beneficiary, or cestui que trust. An estate in severalty, is one entirely owned by a single person ; but an estate in joint tenancy, in coparcenary, or in common, has two or more owners ; with certain differences implied by these several terms.
A title, which is the evidence of right to an estate, may be acquired by occupancy for a sufficient time ; by marriage ; by descent or in- heritance ; by devise or bequest, that is, by the unit of another ; and by deed of purchase, or by mortgage, with failure of redemption. A mortgage is the grant or conveyance of an estate in fee, as security for the payment of money ; with the condition that if the money be duly paid, the grant shall thereby become void. A cart- traet, is an agreement between two or more legal persons, respec- tively to do, or not to do a certain thing or things, for a consideration therein specified. Such are indentures, deeds, bonds, mortgages, policies of insurance, and promissory notes. A promise, differs from a contract, in having no specified consideration or inducement. A will.
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or testament, is a voluntaiy instroment, disposing of the testator's property, after his decease.
$ 3. The Law$ of Crimea^ are included in the first parts of Black- stone's Books on rrivate, and Public Wrongs. Crimes may be elassed either as directly against the public welfare ; or against private persons ; or against private property. In the first class may be men- tioned treason, piracy ; insurrection, riots, or affrays ; resisting the execution of the law ; obstructing or injuring public works, as high- ways ; creating public nuisances, by contaminating the air, or water, and the like; gambling, profanity, and other violations of public morals; and all similar offences. Perjury ^ or false swearing; and bribery t which is hiring or being hired to pervert justice ; including embracery^ or an attempt to corrupt or unjustly influence a jury ; axe usually both public and private wrongs. Crimes against private per- sons, are such as murder^ or inflicting death unlawfully and inten- tionally ; manslaughter n or doing the same criminally, though with- out direct intention ; injury io personal safety^ as assaulting, maim- inff, stabbing, shooting, or poisoning ; injury to personal liberty, as seizing or kidnapping ; injury to personal character, as slander, or libelling ; and injury to personal purity, as bigamy, adultery, and the like. Crimes against private property, are arson, or setting fire in- tentionally to dwellings or buildings contiguous to them ; and, of like character, setting fire to, or destroying other property ; also burglary, or house-breaking by night ; and, analogous to it, other house-break- ing ; also robbery, or forcibly taking away property ; and larceny, or stealing ; together with forgery, counterfeiting, fraudulent convey- ances, swindling, and the like.
Of the particular punishments, which, for these and other ofiences, vary in the difierent states, we have not suflicient room to speak par- ticularly. The punishments generally in use, are capital punish^ ment, or the infliction of death, usually by hanging ; next imprison- ment, either in penitentiaries, which are state prisons, or in jails, which are county prisons ; and lastly, ^ne5 or amercements, exact- ing the payment of money to the state, the informer, or prosecutor; or damages, awarded to the injured party. Corporal punishments, such as whipping, branding, and cropping, are now seldom inflicted ; solitary confinement being generally regarded as the punishment best calculated to reform the offender. On the theory of punishments we have already briefly spoken, under the head of Political Philo- sophy, (p. 103.)
§ 4. The Laws of Procedure, include the latter parts of Black- stone's Books on Private and Public Wrongs ; relating to the mode of redressing injuries, or of punishing crimes. Proceedings in Courts of Justice, are styled either civil or criminal, according as they relate to the former or the latter objects. The violation of any legal right, produces an injury or wrong. If it be a dangerous one to society, the public authorities take cognizance of it, as a public crime ; otherwise it is regarded as a private wrong, for which the injured party has a civil remedy ; whether it relates to his lands, goods, person, or reputation. The redress usually sought, is the recovery, either of some specific article of property, or of damages.
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to compenBate for some injury sustained. An action or auity is the whole course of legal proceedings, to obtain redress for a private wrong. The party who commences it, or sues, is called the pUnn- tiff; the other, the defendant. An action of debt^ is one for the recovery of a debt ; an action of covenant^ is for breach of a sealed contract; and one of assumpsit , is for breach of a contract not sealed ; these being all termed actions of contract. Among actions of tort^ are those of trespass, for violent or forcible injury to person or pro- perty ; of trover, for the recovery of goods stolen or wrongfully taken ; of detinue, or of rq>levin, for obtaining goods wrongfully withheld ; and of ejectment, ior recovering possession of real property. An action on the case, or of trespass on the case, is for any injury to the person, property, health, reputation, or comfort of the com- plaining party, inflicted without actual or constructive force.
The term process, includes all writs and orders, issued by courts to their executive officers, in the course of judicial proceedings. A summons, is a writ, commanding the sheriff or constable to summon the defendant ; and a capias, requires him to take the defendant, and bring him into court. In some cases, the defendant is permitted to give bail, or security, in a certain sum of money, for his appearance. A writ of attachment, is one for the seizure of property. The declaration or count, is the plaiutiff^s statement of the cause of ac- tion ; to which the defendant may either demur ; maintaining that there is no sufficient cause of action, or that it is not brought in legal form ; or he mvy plead in abatement, against the jurisdiction of 3ie court, the identity of the parties, or the like ; or finally, he may plead in bar, that is in traverse, denying the allegations of the plamtifT entirely. After this may come the evidence of witnesses ; the argu* ments of counsel ; the charge of the judge to the jury ; the verdict of the jury ; and the judgment of the court ; enforced by a writ of execution, unless the cause be removed to a higher court.
CHAPTER V.
POLITICAL BOONOMT.
Political Economy, is that branch of knowledge which investi- gates the nature, sources, and proper uses of national wealth. The name is from the Greek, ftou^, a state ; and oixovofiia, housekeeping: this latter term being derived from the words otxo;, a house; and vofMi, law% In many respects, Political Economy may be said to bear the same relation to a state, which Domestic Economy does to a single family : for, although professedly relating to the wealth of nations, it indirectly examines many points of comfort and well-being, which are connected with the acquisition, and expenditure of wealth. Its^ connection with legislation and government, and its subserviency thereto, will at once be perceived from its definition ; while the merchant, and even the moralist may derive important lessons from a knowledge of its facts and principles. 16 L
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The first regnlar system of Political Economy, appears to hare been that adopted by Colbert, under Louis XIV., and promulgated in the French Tariff of 1664. It has since been called the Mercantile Syitem ; as it maintained that the chief source of wealth is foreign trade; Uie value of which it supposed to be measured by the balance of trade^ or excess of exports over imports : this balance being usually made up in specie. The doctrine thus. promulgated has also been termed Colherlism ; from the name of its author. This theory was followed by the Agricultural (or Physiocratic) System of Quesnay ; who published, in 1758, his *' Tableau Econatnxque^^^ maintaining that the earth is the only source of wealth ; and that all taxes should be levied on land, or its produce. Adam Smith, in his celebrated treatise on the «* Wealth of NationB^*^ published in 1776, maintained that all wealth consists of material products, deriving their value solely from the labor bestowed upon them ; while mentsd labor and acquisition he overlooked, as unproductive. His system was introduced into France by J. B. Say ; the first edition of whose work, printed in 1802, was suppressed by the order of Bonaparte. Say was the first writer who recognised the existence of mental wealth, consisting of acquired skill, or learning; but of this, his system made no practical application. That such wealth really con- stitutes capital, as much so as land or buildings, and like them, is productive of more wealth, was first proved and incorporated in this science, we believe, by our countryman, Prof. Vethakc.
In 1817, Ricardo published his '* Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,^^ in which he difiiered from Adam Smith, in main- taining that a rise of wages occasions a fall of profits, and hence may take place without causing a rise in prices ; as also, that prices of products do not depend upon rent ; and that as population increases, profits decrease, because inferior land must then be cultivated. Rev. T. R. Malthus has written exclusively on Population ; the increase of which he considers as limited by the means of subsistence^ refer- ring particularly to food. Prof. Vethake, in his recent, able treatise on this science, has shown, we think conclusively, that this increase is limited, not by the means of subsistence only, but by the means of support, or the amount of necessaries and luxuries actually pos- sessed, in comparison with the amount desired. We proceed to treat of Political Economy under the heads of Production, Distribution, Exchanges, and Consumption, of Wealth.
§ 1. The Production of Wealth, is generally the result of labor; that is of eifort or exertion, physical or mental, directed to this object. Wealth or property, is that which can be appropriated by an individual or society, and made to have an exchangeable value. Wealth always possesses utility, technically speaking ; but there are objects which possess utility, without constituting wealth ; as air and light. The term utility, it will be seen, is here applied to many things, which being in demand among men, have an exchangeable value ; although they may, like ardent spirits, be really injurious to the best interests of society. This principle is distinctly recognised by the political economist ; who terms such articles useful, only be- cause they will command useful articles in exchange. By national
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wealthf is meant the whole wealth of a nation, whether in the hands of individuals or of the government ; and hence a genera] increase of private wealth Lb an increase of national.
The objects, or purposes, of labor, are either agricultural^ to obtain the raw materials or produce ; or manufacturings to prepare these materials for use ; or commtrdaU to transport them to the places where they are wanted. Thus, the farmer, miner and fisher- man ; the manufacturer and mechanic ; and the merchant and navi- gator reciprocally aid each other. Capital^ is wealth saved, and applied to produce more wealth, hence said to be reproductive. Fixed capital, is that which is comparatively durable ; as houses, mills and the like ; while circulating capital^ is relatively transient or perishable, as wages, provisions, and materials. Writers have seen fit to distinguish between capital, which is the produce of labor, and what may be termed rental^ which is the produce of nature, simply appropriated by individuals; as land or mill seats. Thus labor produces wages; capital produces interest ^ and rental pro- duces true rentf meaning that which is received for the use of land, independently of its improvements. The excess of produce over the wages, interest, and true rent, is the reward of the skill, which is intellectual capital, and of the mental labor of the producer.
The production of wealth is generally increased by the stdf division of labor } assigning to each individual that work which from skill or habit he can best perform, and to each region or country its most avail- able produce. The amount of production is also increased by means of inventions and improvements in the arts ; which the subdivision of labor tends greatly to multiply. Monopolies or exclusive privi- leges, should be granted only as a reward for such improvements ; as in the case of patents, and copyrights, which serve as stimulants to mental labor and ingenuity. Regulating and prohibitory duties, or Tarijff^f tend to restrain commercial enterprise, and to elevate the prices of the protected articles. Hence they are justifiable only on a limited scale, and for some great national object. In general, the production of wealth will be the greatest, where each person Is left free to choose any lawful pursuit ; and permitted to enjoy the full fruit of his labors.
$ 2. The Distribution of Wealthy is necessarily regulated by the relations of the demand and supply of commodities ; which are always tending to a standard or medium, for each article and place. This principle alone decides how much the rentalist, who rented the land, the capitalist f who loaned the requisite money, and the laborer^ who aided in their application, shall respectively receive from the pro- ducer. Capital and rental, being absolutely necessary, for many productions, in order to render labor available, become marketable objects, which are to be returned good, and with a price paid for their use. And as the relative quantities of labor, capital, and rental, in any country, or in the world, can vary but slowly, their real value is comparatively constant ; though their nominal value fluctuates with that of money. Rent is said to have no influence upon the price of commodities ; it being the effect of a rise of prices, but not the cause. The natural price of raw produce, is the cost of its production from
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land which pays no rent Ab the demand increases, and new land is cultivated, the increased cost of produce therefrom, causes a rise of the rent. on lands previously cultivated. Capital loaned to indi- viduals, sometimes commands a high rate of interest, including a premium paid for the risk of its loss. It is generally first applied to produce such objects as are in permanent demand ; and more cau- tiously to objects of fluctuating value ; especiaUy if in such cases it would be transferred with difficulty.
As countries advance in wealth and technical skill, the value of rent generally increases ; while that of interest and wages comparatively declines. Wages must vary, not only with the amount of labor, and the demand for it, but with its nature, as being more or less produc- tive, pleasant, or honorable. It is clear that the physician, who cures the farmer's illness ; the clergyman, who labors for his eternal wel- fare ; the lawyer, who pleads his cause ; the judge, who sustains his rights ; and the soldier, who defends them ; should all share in his earnings, as well as his landlord and merchant ; each in proportion to his services, as custom and agreement may decide : nor should tlie government interfere, unless appealed to by some aggrieved party. Usury laws, or those restricting the rate of interest, are of doubtful policy, and, we think, should apply only in cases where no special agreement was made between the parties. No government has a right to take, by taxation or otherwise, any more for itself, than is necessary for its adequate support, and for its legitimate objects. Among diese, we would include such public improvements as cannot be efiected by individual efforts ; or by corporations duly restricted in their powers and profits, and under reasonable legislative control.
§ 3. Exchanges of Wealth, including its transportation to places where it is wanted, may increase its actual value, though not its quan- tity. The exchangeable value of any commodity depends not only on its intrinsic value, including durability, but on the supply and de- mand for it, in comparison with other articles. The natural price^ or real value, is the actual cost of producing and transporting it ; but the market price, or nominal value, depends also upon the relative value of money. When the relative value of money varies, the mar- ket prices of all other articles, so far as they are afiected thereby, rise or fall alike, unless it be that articles of luxury fluctuate the most.
Money, is that commodity which is most frequently exchanged for every otner ; that is, the medium of exchanges. Gold and silver, from their durability, rarity, and convenience, have become the stand- ard money of the world. They are coined, to save the necessity of frequently weighing and assaying them ; the government stamp at- testing their quantity and purity ; and hence slightly increasing their value. Bank notes derive their value from their convertibility into coin ; and hence they are at par, only so long as they are payable in specie, on demand, at the counter of the bank which owes them ; otherwise they are depreciated, however solvent the bank may eventu- ally be found. The value of money fluctuates with its quantity. Were half the money in the world to be annihilated, the remainder would be nearly doubled in value ; and the nominal prices of all other commodities would rise in nearly the same proportion. It will be
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readily seen that all fluctuations in the value of money are injurious either to debtors or creditors.
Banks are of three kinds ; though in our own country the three are generally united. Banks of deposUe^ receive money for safe keeping, and repay it to the order of the creditor ; receiving compen- sation therefor, by the use of the money. Banks of discqunt, lend money, on security ; but discount the notes which they receive ; that is deduct so much from the money which they lend, as will be equi- valent to interest thereon. Banks of circulation, issue notes of their own, usually payable on demand ; and these bank notes circulate as money, on governmental authority. But the more abundant they be- come, the less is their real value ; and when a sudden demand for specie arises, the banks greatly diminishing their discounts and circu- lation, greatly increase the fluctuations in the quantity and value of money. We think that banks are useful, under proper restrictions, when their number and circulation are sufficiently limited : and that, even when they are too numerous, their number should not be dimi- nished too rapidly or suddenly, lest injurious fluctuations should ensue. It is an important question whether stockholders, and espe- cially directors, should not be placed under heavier liabilities ; to guard against abuses and failure of these institutions.
$ 4. Consumption of WedUh, is said to be productive, or unpro- ductive, according as it generates more wealth, or not. Strictly speaking, the former is not a consumption of wealth, but only of certain commodities, for the sake of producing others, or a greater quantity of the same : and wealth in general is the surplus of pro- duction over consumption. The distinction between necessary and luxurious consumption, is quite indefinite and arbitrary; as what some individuals might deem necessary, to themselves, others, of different habits, might deem luxurious. Though it is desirable that the private consumption of wealth should be less than the production, yet this is a point in which the government has no right to interfere, unless public prosperity and virtue are at stake. Sumptuary laws, regulating private expenditure, are not only odious, but they dis- courage production.
A portion of the national wealth is necessarily consumed by the government, in accomplishing its important objects ; and this portion it derives by some mode of taxation. A poll tax, or tax on persons, if it be general, exacts as much from the poor as from the rich ; though the latter need protection for their property, as well as their persons, and should therefore pay more in proportion to their numbers. A land tax, or tax on lands, might have been just originally ; as it would in time be felt alike by tdl men, in the general rise of prices ; bnt its present introduction, would at first burthen the landholders unjustly, unless the change were very gradual. An excise, or internal tax on commodities, is difficult to collect ; and a tax on exports is felt severely by merchants, who wait a long time before receiving returns therefrom. A general tax on both persons and property would pro- bably be the most just ; but a tax on imports, under the name of duties or customs, is the most convenient to collect, and hence re- sorted to by most nations.
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A tax for the support of religion, we believe to be unnecessary ; as the voluntary contributions of piety and philanthropy axe its meet support : but a tax for the support of Uie disabled poor, is dictated by humanity itself; though to discourage pauperism, those who are aUe to work should be supplied with work and kept employed. A tax in behalf of elementary education, is, we think, of fundamental im- portance; as tending to promote good order; to prevent poverty, vice, and crime ; and to increase the amount of human happiness, by raising the scale of intellectual refinement and enjoyment. This is the best, and, perhaps, the only remedy that can be recommended, to prevent the excessive increase of population, which takes place chiefly among the poorer and less enlightened classes of society.
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IV. DEPARllklENT:
THEOLOGY.
In the Department of Theology, we include the study of all Reli-
S'ons, whether of heathen or Christian nations. The name is tiired from the Greek, eco$, God ; and xoyo;, a discourse ; as it comprehends the study of the Deity, his laws and revelations, and our duty towards him ; all of which is sometimes designated as the study of Divinity. It may he properly subdivided into the branches of Paganism, AJohamedanism, Judaism and Christianity : to each of which, the term Theology has been applied, by believers therein. We place this department last, in the province of Psychonomy ; be- cause we regard it as the highest and noblest of human studies. But it should not be forgotten that a theoretical knowledge even of The- ology, may, like the sunbeam on the mountain glacier, only dazzle to blind ; while, unless the heart is warmed with vital piety, the cold- ness and barrenness of eternal death may reign within.
The term Religion^ is from the Latin religion a sacred obligation ; and it is nearly synonymous with piety ^ signi^ing love to God, obedi- ence to his laws, and submission to his w^. By Natural Religion^ is meant that knowledge and veneration of the Deity, which was attainable by the heathen nations, or by human reason, unassisted by revelation. The fact that every nation, however barbarouis, has some object of worship, shows that piety is natural to man, although it is so often corrupted by debasing passions ; and that some religion is necessary to satisfy our better nature. The necessity of a First CausBi to create and govern the world ; the existence of moral good and evil ; and the doctrine of future rewards and punishments ; these are perhaps the chief truths which were discoverable by human reason ; and which have accordingly been more or less known to' heathen nations.
Revealed Religion^ comprehends, besides the doctrines of Natural Religion, many truths which were beyond the reach of human rea- son, though not contradictory thereto ; and for a knowledge of which we are indebted directly to divine Revelation. The unity and spirituality of the Deity, may have been discoverable by the light of reason ; though more probably made known by traditions, handed down from die early patriarchs, to the migrating families of their descendants. But the peculiar doctrines of the Gospel ; such as the fall and condemnation of mankind ; the incarnation, and atonement of our Saviour; and the mission of the Holy Spirit; in short, the whole gospel scheme of salvation ; these are truths which revelation alone could unfold, to cheer the saddening human heart. While, therefore, we deplore the weakness of our nature, as manifested by
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our own personal errors, we may rejoice in the goodness and mercy of our Creator ; both in providing a way for our salvation, and in revealing that way to our knowledge, so clearly, that all who truly seek it may find it, and attain to light and life eternal.
The Revelation of which we speak, and the only one which we recognize to be such, is the Bible^ comprising the Old and New Testaments. True it is that human reason has been exercised in proving the truth of this Revelation, and ascertaining its meaning: but this detracts nothing from the excellence or importance of the Holy Scriptures. It has been beautifully said, that *' reason is the compass by which we steer our course ; and revelation is the polar star, by which we correct its variations.** The value of reve- lation appears from this, that by its aid, the yonih of the present day, may know more of religion and morality, than the wisest of the heathen philosophers ; although many of them employed a long life in studying the mysteries of their origin and their destiny. In illustra- tion of this point, we may here add that Socrates, the worthiest of them all, deemed it necessary ** that an instructor should be sent from heaven, with special authority to reveal and enforce the duty of man."
Engrossed as we are by the cares, the pursuits, and the pleasures of this life, who can realize the wondrous realities that await us in a future state of being ! Or who can prepare for that state, as he would wish to have done, when the lamp of life shall flicker in its socket, the world recede like a dreamy shadow, and the soul wing its flight to eternity ! Shall we rise, upborne on angels' wings, to the mansions of a Saviour's love, there to serve Him who shed his precious blood to save us, and enjoy His blissful presence forever ? Or will our own conscious guilt, in sinning against such mercy, and neglecting so great salvation, drag us down, self-condemned, to the gulf of eternal perdition, of darkness and despair ? It is well to think of these things, and well to choose our course ; lest, drifting aimless on life's uncertain sea, the storm overtake us, and bury our frail bark beneath the unfathomable waters. How inexpressibly awful, and aflecting, is that saddest of all shipwrecks, the shipwreck of the soul !
There are many questions relating to the Divine government, and to the different orders of being, which the Bible leaves, and doubt- less wisely leaves, enveloped in mystery. Such are the origrin of physical and moral evil ; the relation of man's free will to God's foreknowledge ; the nature of the soul, and of spiritual existence ; the particular duties and enjo3rments of angelic beings ; the inhabit- ants, if such there are, of the starry worlds around us ; and other similar themes, which will readily occur to the reflecting mind. In reference to these subjects, we can only offer the suggestion, that the world 'which we inhabit, and the races which inhabit it, constitute but an infinitely small portion of the works and creatures of Provi- dence ; and that our apostacy may serve as a warning to other orders of being, by which they are kept from rebellion and from woe. It must have been so permitted, by the Creator, or it could not so have been ; but the Divine purposes therein, it were impious for us to
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impugn, as it is superfluous for us to know. Suffice it, that the Bible can impart all the knowledge which is necessary for our salva- tion ; and more than we are capable of acquiring in our present probationary state. Its excellence, however, can only be realized by comparing it with the systems of false religion, which have enslaved or still enslave a large portion of our race.
We proceed, therefore, to treat first of Paganism and Mohame- danism ; and, after these, of Judaism, considering it as introductory to Christianity ; which last we shall then be prepared to examine from a higher point of view.
CH^TER I.
PAGANISM.
In the branch of Paganism, we include all the fabulous and poly- theistic systems of Religion which have prevailed in pagan or heathen nations ; whether they worship the heavenly bodies, or men, beasts, or idols. The name is derived from the Latin, pagantM, a peasant or villager; and was first applied in the time of Constantino the Great ; because, when he forbade the heathen worship in the cities of the Roman empire, those who still adhered to it, retired to the vil» lages and fields to practise it. Paganism comprehends the greater part of Mythology, properly so called, that is, the study of the fables of ancient times ; the name Mythology being derived from the Greek fivOoi^ a fable. Some of these fables were purely historical, philoso- phiciJ or allegorical ; but the greater part, even of these, were more or less closely connected with systems of religion.
The term Mythology, was first applied to the Greek and Roman: systems of fables, or Classic Mythology ; but it has since been ex- tended to those of heathen nations generally. The Romans borrowed their system from the Greeks ; and it is now well ascertained that the Greeks derived theirs from the Egyptians and Phcenicians. All these systems, as also those of the Persians, Hindoos, Boodhists, Scandi- navians, and American Indians, alike bear traces of the Scripture His- tory, and the ancient religion of the patriarchs ; from which, doubtless, they have all been derived, with various degrees of corruption. This,, we think, has been conclusively shown by various writers, particu- larly Bryant and Faber; the former of whom traces the ancient My- thology back to the Deluge, and the deification of Noah and his three sons, under the names of Chronos or Saturn and his offspring : while the latter, moreover, detects in it various traditions concerning Adam, and the antediluvian ages.
Faber supposes the first stage of idolatry to have been the worship of some representative of the Supreme Being, in his stead ; as the sun, the elements, or some favored mortal. From this, the transition would be easy to the worship of idols and beasts, considered as personifica- tions of some divine principle, and as sources of good or evil to man- kind. The human passions even, and moral virtues were ranked as 17
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deities ; and temples erected for their worship. In process of time, heroes, and benefactors, or even destroyers of mankind, their deeds being magnified by the dim light of tradition, came to be deified, as gods, or demigods, and objects of adoration. The doctrine of Poly- iheisTHf or the belief of many gods, being thus disseminated, their number increased surprizingly ; the gods of one nation being adopted by another, and frequently their history and attributes mingled in interminable confusion. Hence, Mythology is a labyrinth, now dilapidated by the hand of time, and which probably can never be perfectly explored.
We proceed to treat of Paganism, under the heads of Eg}^ptian, Aramaean, Classic, Hindoo, Scandinavian, and Ind-American Mytho- logy.
§ 1. The Egyptian Mythology ^ is partly illustrated by ancient classic writers, and partly by the recent discoveries concerning Hiero- glyphics; to which we have already alluded, (p. 49). The ancient Egyptians believed the world to have been hatched from an immense egg of matter, by the animating and genial power of the demiurgos, or Supreme Deity. They divided the world into three zones ; the first being the earth ; the second the air, in which the souls of the dead were subjected to transient probation or punishment, before entering the third zone, that of eternal rest. They believed in the transmigration of souls ; and this probably led to their worship of various animals, as incarnations of men or gods. The regions of the dead they called Amenti; and Elisout was the name of a cemetery, beyond the lake Acherusia (or Acharejish) ; whence came the Grecian fable of the Elysian Fields ; iot Elisout ^ in Coptic, signifies rest ; and Charon^ a ferryman.
The earliest gods of Egypt, appear to have been Chnoub, Neith, and Phtha ; different personifications of the Supreme Being. Chnoub^ Chnouph, or Cneph, (Noub, Nouf, Nouv, or Nef), was the personi- fication of goodness ; and tlie emblem of paternity ; represented by a ram's head or horns. He was regarded as the demiurgos or creator, and afterwards confounded with Amoun, and Jupiter. Neith ^ cor- responding nearly to Minerva, was the personification of wisdom; and was once represented by a vulture, as the emblem of maternity ; which symbol was afterwards applied to Isis. Phtha or Phta, cor- responding nearly to Vulcan, was regarded by some as the first crea- tor, but by others as the son of Chnoub. He was rather a personifi- cation of solar light and heat ; being represented by the sun, or by a hawk, or having a hawk's head on a human body. Sate^ correspond- ing nearly to Juno, was styled daughter of Phtha, and queen of the three regions ; and was represented by the sacred pshent, or head dress with two horns. Sme, answering to Themis, was represented as wearing a feather on her head, or symbolically by a serpent ; her province being to lead souls to judgment.
In later tiroes, the sun was worshipped under the names of Phri ori?e, (or Ri), corresponding to Apollo; and still later, as Osiris, corresponding to Pluto, the ruler of the infernal regions, or the sun after its setting, hi like manner, the moon was worshipped, first nnder the name of loh ,• and afterwards as 7m, the wife of Osiris,
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corresponding to Proserpina, the wife of Pluto. ^ Osiris has been considered by some writers as representing the river Nile ; an honor which belongs rather to Serapia ; while Isis they have regarded as the earth, corresponding to Ceres : and the marriage of Osiris and Isis, they supposed to typify the inundations of the Nile, by which Egypt was fertilized. The evil deity of the Egyptians was Typhon^ the brother of Osiris, who murdered him, for the sake of his king- dom ; and this fable is supposed to typify the South Wind, drying up the Nile. Nephthys was the twin sister of Typhon, and became his wife.
Typhon was slain by HoruSj (or Arueri), the son of Osiris and Isis, and one of the infernal judges. Isis, in seeking her husband's mangled remains, was aided by Anubis ; who was a son of Osiris and Nephthys, and another of the infernal judges, usually represented with a dog's head. Apia, represented by a bull, was the third judge ; and the Egyptians worshipped two other sacred bulls, Mnevis, and Onuphis. Pooh they worshipped as ruler of the regions of the air ; and Thoth as his assistant, who drove unworthy souls back to de- graded bodies ; the Mercurius Psychopompus, as well as Trismegis- tus, of the Romans. As Horua, though the son of Osiris and Isis also represented the sun ; so Buhastisy although their daughter, also typified the moon, corresponding to Luna, or rather to Lucina.
$ 2. Under the head of Aramaean Mythology, we comprehend that of the Chaldeans, Assyrians, Persians, Syrians, Phoenicians and Canaanites; the name being derived from Aram, from whom the Chaldeans and Syrians were descended. Their Mythology was doubtless as ancient as the Egyptian ; similarly introduced ; and, though less complicated, it was still extensive. But as little is known of it, and that little is of minor interest, we shall here speak of it very briefly. Its origin is attributed to Cush, the eldest son of Ham ; but it must have soon spread among the nations ; and its natural result was the impious attempt to build the tower of Babel. That tower afterwards became the unholy temple of the idol god Bel or Baal, (or Paal, or PulJ, who is regarded as a deification of Belus, and a personification ot the sun. The other chief deity of the Babylonians was the infamous Mylitta, the goddess of licentiousness. The ancient Persians worshipped several gods, particularly Mithras, (Mithros, or Mitras), the sun, which was afterwards worshipped by the Gauls. They adored Oromastes, or Oromazus, as the spirit of light, and of goodness ; and Arimanes, as the spirit of darkness and evil. The sect of the Guehres, or Gaurs, who were called Parsees in India, and who were worshippers of fire, originated with Zoroaster, the author of the Zend-avesta, about 500 B. C.
The idol Bimmon of the Syrians, is supposed to have been the same either as Bel or Mylitta ; and among their other gods were Asimah and Adad or Hadad ; Elagabolus or Aglibolus and Malachbe- lus ; the two latter of which were introduced afterwards into Rome. The principal gods of the Phcenicians were Adonis and Astarte, or the sun and moon; the Adonis and Venus of the Classics. The Cabiri or Samothracian gods, that is, Ceres, Proserpina, Pluto and Mercury, and indeed most of the Classic deities were borrowed from
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the Phcenicians. They also worshipped Beelzebub, or the fly-god ; Baalpeor or Belphegor, the stone-god : and Moloch, represented as a cal^ and typifying the sun or fire. The Philistines worshipped Dagon, half man and half fish ; and Derceio or Atergatis, haying the form attributed to mermaids.
§ 3. Under the head of Classic Mythology, we include the Greek and Rofnan ; which are so nearly identical, that, for brevity's sake, they may be treated as one system. The Romans adopted the deities of Greece, merely changing their names, and adding some fables of their own tradition or invention. Accordingly, we shall here give the Greek names first, and append the Roman in parentheses, to save repetition. The Grecian Mythology was based on the Doric and Orphic hymns, from which Homer and Hesiod borrowed their theo- gony and cosmogony, or origin of the gods, and the world. Orpheus, being a Thracian, introduced the gods of the Phcenicians ; and these were mingled with the Egyptian deities, introduced by Danaus and Cecrops. The gods of Greece were very numerous, and said to in- habit the various parts of the universe. They were classed as the major and minor gods ; and as celestial, terrestrial, and infernal. The twelve greater deities, were Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mercury, Mars, and Vulcan ; with Juno, Ceres, Vesta, Minerva, Diana, and Venus. These, the Romans termed consentes $ and they added eight other select deities; viz. Saturn, Janus, Pluto, Bacchus, and 1^1; with Rhea, Luna, and Latona. (See Plate IV.)
Uramts, (Ccelus^, or heaven, was represented as the oldest of the gods ; and Grata, (Terra or Tellus), that is the earth, as his wife. Their children were Kronos, (Saturn), and Rhea, for Cybele), his wife ; with Janus, Oceanus, and many others, including the Titans, and the Cyclops. Saturn was the god of time ; and obtained from his brothers the kingdom of the universe, on the condition of destroy- ing all his sons, at their birth ; but Cybele secreted Zeus, (or Jupi- ter) ; Poseidon, (or Neptune) ; and Hades, (or Pluto) ; and their sisters were Hera, (Juno); Demeter, (Ceres); and Hestia, (or Vesta). Jupiter, it is said, dethroned his father Saturn, and became ruler of heaven and earth ; allowing to Neptune the dominion of the sea; and to Pluto, that of the infernal regions, or regions of the dead, hence called Hades; including Tartarus, or the abode of the damned, and Elysium, or the abodes of the blest. Of the sisters, Juno is said to have become the wife of Jupiter, and queen of heaven; Ceres, became the goddess of corn and harvests ; and Vesta became the goddess of fire and of purity.
The offspring of Jupiter, it is said, were Apollo, (or Phoebus) ; Hermes, (or Mercury) ; Ares, (or Mars) ; Hephsestus, (or Vulcan) ; Pallas, (or Minerva) ; and Artemis, (or Diana) ; besides Dionysus, (or Bacchus) ; Hebe, (or Juventas) ; Persephone, (or Proserpina) ; and the Muses, the Graces, the Infernal Judges, and the demigodfs, Perseus, Amphion, Zethus, Castor, and Pollux. The first six of this long list are in the number of the greater deities. Apollo was the god of music and poetry ; Mercury, the god of eloquence, and of commerce; Mars, the god of war, BeUona being his wife; and Vulcan was the god of fire. Minerva, sprung from Jupiter's brain,
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PLATE IV. MYTHOLOGY.
PLUTO.
F.ncnved bj R. R. Gilliert, Phila.
J!ll!#
CERES.
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was the goddess of wisdom ; Diana was the goddess of hunting, and of chastity ; and Aphrodite, (or Venus), sprung from the foam of the sea, was the goadess of love and beauty.
Of the select deities, Saturn, already mentioned, was the god of time ; and Janus, his brother, presided over the year. Pluto, we have already mentioned as the brother of Jupiter; and Bacchus, the god of wine, as Jupiter's son. Sol, is but another name, or form, of Apollo, or the sun ; as Luna is of Diana, or the moon. Rhea or Cybele, has been mentioned as the wife of Saturn, who reigned with him in the golden age ; and Latona, the mother of Apollo and Diana, is reckoned by some as one of the select deities, though others men- tion Genius in her stead.
Hebe was the goddess of youth, and originally Jupiter's cup- bearer; and Proserpina, who was carried away by Pluto, became the queen of Hades. Of the MuaeSt Clio, Calliope, Erato, Thalia, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Euterpe, Polyhymnia, and Urania, who collectively presided over the liberal arts ; of the Graces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne ; of the Infernal Judges 9 Minos, Rbada- manthos, and ^acus ; of the Gorgons, Medusa, Stheno, and Eury- ale ; the Furies, Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megsra ; the Fates, Ciotho, Lachesis, and Atropos; of the Rural Deities, Pan, Silenus, the Fauns, and Satyrs, Flora, Pomona, the Naiads, Limnads, Oreads, and Dryads ; of the Marine Deities, Nereus, Proteus, Triton, and the Nereids and Sirens; of the Winds, iEolus, Boreas, Eurus, Notus, and Zephyrus ; and of various other deities, demigods, and heroes, we have no farther room here to speak. The Naiads, we can barely remark, were nymphs of the rivers, brooks, and foun- tains ; the Limnads, of lakes, and pools ; the Oreads were nymphs of the mountains ; and the Dryads were nymphs inhabiting forests and trees.
$ 4. The Hindoo Mythology, is a kind of Pantheism, regarding the Universe as God, or rather as the animate body of which God is the soul. The doctrine of transmigration probably originated in India, and is the continual key to its complicated system of deities and incarnations. The sacred books of the Hindoos, are the four Vedas or Vedus, containing prayers and precepts; six Angas, which are commentaries on the Vedas ; four Upavedas, relating to sciences and arts ; and lastly the Upangas, consisting of the Puranas, the Derma-Shastras, and the Dersanas, partly mythical and partly philosophical. To the Derma-Shastras belong the ordinances of Menou, containing a code of laws and customs, with a poetical ac- count of the gods and of the creation. All these sacred books collectively are called the Shastra or Shasters. The original God, called Brahm, or Brahmatma, according to Menou, first created the waters ; from which sprang a golden egg, blazing like a thousand suns ; and from this egg was born Brahma, self-existing, floating on a lotus leaf. Others say that Brahma sprang from Narayana, or the spirit moving on the waters. Brahma is generally regarded as the creator, of the visible world, and another of the Vedas ; but as now in a state of retirement or rest. His wife Seraswatee, Saras- wati, or Brahmini, is regarded as the patroness of learning.
M
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The three principal gods of the Hindoofi, are Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer ; though the two latter may he regarded as incarnations of the former. Of Brahma, we may add to what is said above, that he is the parent of the i?t»/i£« orMenus^ seven or ten in number, including Adimi or Swayambhuva, and others ; probably corresponding to Adam and the patriarchs : and the Brahmins (or Bramins^ claim to have proceeded from Brahma's mouth. Vishnu, (or Veeshnoo), the preserver, is represented with several heads, and regarded as omnipotent and omniscient. He is said to have passed through nine avatars, or incarnations, to save or benefit the world ; and the tenth is yet to come. As the Matsyava- tara, or fish avatar, half man and half fish, he preserved the ark, and rescued the Vedas from a demon ; and as the Kurmavatara, or tor- toise avatar, he sustained the world when shaken by demons, and churned the sea, to enrich mankind. In the boar, and lion avatars, he rescued the earth from daily as or wicked demigods ; and as the dwarf avatar he humbled the impious Mahabeli. His last four avatars were in human shape ; as Rama Parasu ; as Rama Chandra (or Ramatshandra); as Krishna, (Creeshna) or Juggernaut; and as JBoodhu, (or Budha), the founder of a new religion. Laksmi^ Laksbmi, Sita, or Sree, the goddess of fortune and plenty, was the wife of Vishnu.
Siva, (Shiva, or Shivu), the destroyer, called also Mahadeo, Mahadeva, Iswara, and Rudra, is a personification of time, or of fire; and Parvati, (or Parvadi), called also Durga, Doorga, Devi Kali, or Bhavani, the goddess of marriage, and punisher of evil doers, was his wife. Their sons, were Ganesa, (or Guneshu), the god of policy and cunning ; and Kartihya, (or Kartikeya), the god of war. Indra was regarded as lord of the elements, and Aindri as his wife ; Pa- vana or Vayu, as god of the winds; Agni, (or Aghni), as the god of fire ; Prithivi, as goddess of the earth ; Varuna, as ruler of the ocean ; Surya or Sooryu, of the sun ; Chandra, of the moon ; and Yama or Beli, as ruler of all the dead. Nareda was the god of music ; Cuvera or Cubera, of riches ; and Nirit, of purification. The Suras or Soors are good angels ; the Asuras, or Asoors, evil ones ; of whom Mahasoor is chief. The J^psaras are beautiful maids of heaven ; the Dewtas or Devitas, are genii ; some good, as the Ginarers, Ganduwers, or Gandharvas ; some evil, as the Danava or devils.
The Swerga or Swega-Surgs, is the paradise of Indra, on the top of Mount Meru ; and Padalon, or Patala, is the infernal region ; of which Nirurdi is king, and Padurhati, judge. The Hindoos believe Hhat three great periods called Calpas have elapsed ; and the present one they call Kali-Yug; at the end of which, Vishnu, as the tenth or horse avatar, will destroy the world ; and all spirite will be reabsorbed into Brahm, the Eternal. The principal Hindoo sects, are the Vaishnavas, or Voisnuvus, who worship Vishnu, chiefly on the eastern coast ; the Saivas, or Soiviis, who worship Siva, chiefly on the western coast ; the Sactas, or Shaktus, who worship the Sacti or goddesses, particularly Doorga ; the Sourus who worship Surya or the sun, and the Ganuputyus who worship Ganesa. Their wor-
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ship consists of visits to the Pagfodas ; and of abhitions, sacrifices, and tortures ; with cruel and horrid ceremonies, such as immolation under the car of Juggernaut.
Boodhism, or Budhuism, comprehends the worship of Budhu, in Hindoostan, and the countries east and north of it. Budhu, we have already mentioned, as the ninth avatar, or incarnation of Vish- nu; whose era was about 544 B. C. He came, it is stated in the Jataa, as an ascetic philosopher^ to reform a corrupted religion. The Boodhists say that four deities have already appeared, and Budhu is the fifth ; and that he is yet to reach a higher state of perfection. Some of the sect, as in Ceylon, worship other Hindoo gods, as sub- ordinate to Budhu ; but most of the Boodhists regard him as the only god now claiming their worship. A sect called Jainas, have a god Reshaba, who they say became incarnate nearly in the same manner as Budhu. The Lamaism of Thibet, is but another form of Budhism ; the Delai iMtna, or grand priest, being considered as an incarnation of Budhu, and worshipped also in Tartary. His idol is called Muha-Moonee, in Thibet ; Oodumu or Gotumu, in Ava ; ShummunUi in Siam ; and Fo, in China
' The Chinese, as taught by Confucius, or Kung-foo-tse, about 551 B. C, worshipped the elements, as agents of the Supreme Deity. About the same time Lao-Kung, (or Laou-Kiung), founded the sect of the TaO'Tzeet (or Faose), who lived luxuriously; worshipped their own ancestors ; and pretended by means of a certain drink to become immortal. Boodhism was introduced into China, about A. D. 65. The idol Fo, (Foe or Fuh), is the same deity as Budhu ; and his priests are called by the Chinese, Ho- Chan ff ; by the Siam- ese, Talapoins ; and by the Japanese, Bonzes. Some of the Chi- nese worship other gods ; as Lui'Shin, the thunderer ; and Hcn^ Vang, the god of the sea.
§ 5. Under the head of Scandinavian Mythology, we include that of the Normans and Saxons, forming an extensive and romantic system. It was introduced from Asia, not long before the Christian Era ; systematized by the scalds or bards, in their sacred poems, which are included in the Edda; but supplanted by Christianity, before the end of the tenth century. It traces the origin of things to a world of mist and snow, in the north, called Nxffleheim, and a world of light and fire in the south, called Mispelheim or Muspel- heim ; the heat of which, melting the frost, produced the giant Ymir and the cow Audumbla or CBdumla, on whose milk the giant fed. From Ymir sprang the evil race of ice-giants ; but from the cow pro- ceeded Sure, the father of Bore or Boer, who married Belsta, and had three sons, Oden or Woden, Vile or WUe, and Ve.
These brothers slew the giant Ymir, and out of his body created the world ; after which, they formed the first man and woman, Asker, and Emla. Then appeared Nott or night, riding on her horse Hrimfaxi, or blackmane ; and her son Dagur or day, on his horse Skinfaxi, or shiningmane. Odin, the chief deity, was supposed to dwell, with Frigga his wife, in the palace Valhalla, or war-hall, in the city Asgard, the metropolis of heaven, approached only by the bridge Bifrost, or the rainbow. There, heroes slain in battle, were
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136 THSOXX>OT.
feasted, and attended by the beaatifal maidens, the Valkyrias. 7%or» or Thunre, was the mighty god of thunder ; UlUrj his son, was the god of skating and duelling ; Balder, was the god of justice and good- ness ; Foraette^ his son, the god of concord ; Niordj was god of the sea and navigation ; Frey, his son, was the god of sunshine and rain; Tyr or Tuisco, the god of battles ; Brage or Braga, the god of wis- dom and poetry ; Hodtr, was the blind god; Vxdar^ the powerful god of silence ; Vali, the god of archery ; and HeimdaU, was the sentinel of heaven. The worship of Stator or Saturn was introduced by the Saxons, and was of Roman origin.
Other goddesses, besides Frigga, were Saga or Laga, the myste- rious ; Syra or Eica, the goddess of medicine ; Qeaiont, of chastity; Snotra, of modesty ; and 7\jlla or Jylla, of secrecy. Freya, daugh- ter of Niord and wife of Hoder, was the goddess of love ; Siona, or Soona, of first love ; Wara, of marriage ; Vara, of truth; Lobna, of reconciliation ; Lyna, of preservation ; Wora or Vora, of wisdom ; and Synia, of law and justice. Iduna, wife of Brage, kept the mystic apples of youth. The FairieSf were mostly ffood spirits, the offspring of the gods; and the three Norna8, Urda, Varanda or Yenlanai, and Skulda, were the mighty spirits of the past, pre- sent, and future.
Lohe, one of the ice-giants, was usually an evil spirit, though sometimes reckoned with the gods. Angerbode was his wife, and their offspring were the serpent Midgard, the wolf Fenris, and Hela, the dread goddess of death. Siguna or Signa was his second wife, and Vali and Nari, their sons. The Dwarfs, were produced from the corpse of Ymir; and the Genii were good or evil, according as they sprang from the gods, or the giants. The Edda teaches that the tunlight of the gods is yet to come, when Surtur the black will destroy Valhalla and Niffleheim, with most of the gods ; aAer wbich the great Alfabkr will create a new heaven, Ginde ; and a new hell, Naatrond, where even warriors, if vicious, will be doomed to punish- ment.
The Celtic tribes, in Wales and Brittany, worshipped several gods, corresponding nearly to those of the Romans. The Druids were their priests, and had great influence in the direction of their affairs. They believed in transmigration, and worshipped in gloomy groves, or under the oak, their sacred tree.
§ 5. Of Ind-American Mythology, we have room for but a few words. The Mexicans believed in one Supreme Deity, Teotl or Ipalnemoani ; but they worshipped several gods or idols ; as Tlaloe, god of the waters; Quetzalcohuatl, god of the winds ; Huitzulupuctli, Vitzilipuztli, or Mexitli, the god of war ; NahucUzin, or tlie sun ; and Tezcatlipoca, or Telpuctli, the youngest of the gods, who re- stored the earth after the flood. The Peruvians also worshipped the sun ; in whose temple were Virgins of the Sun, like the Roman Vestals. They called the first man Manco-Capac, and his wife Mama Oella, or OcoUa. The Northern Indians generally worship but one God, and have no idols; believing in a future life of war and hunting, in the land of the great Spirit.
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CHAPTER 11.
MOHAJfEDANlSM.
In the branch of Mohamedanism, we shall treat briefly of the spu- rious religion established by Mohamed^ or MalMmett the self-styled prophet of the Arabians. His name is often written Mahomet^ and his religion styled MahometanUm ; but the former orthography now generally prevails, as the most correct. This religion is also called Idamism; the world Islam signifying devotion or piety; and its followers style themselves Moslems, oY Mussulmans f that is, the de- voted or obedient. This religion, which superseded the SaManism or star worship, as well as the idol worship, of the ancient Arabians, is but a corrupt mixture of Judaism and Christianity, with doctrines more indulgent to the human passions : and its rapid diffusion is due in part to Uiis feature ; but still more to the force and violence with which it was propagated. We shall first speak of its History ; next, of its Doctrines ; and, finally, of its Practice ; referring, therein, to the different Sects, into which its followers are divided.
$ 1. The most important part of the History of Mohamedanism^ la that of its founder. Mohamed, (or Mahomet), was born at Mecca, in Arabia, about A. D. 569 ; and belonged to the tribe of Koreish, or the Koraishites ; his ancestors having been the guardians of the idol temple, called the Kaaba. He is said to have twice visited Syria, as a merchant ; and probably learned, from the Nestorian monks, some of the doctrines of Christianity. His marriage with the rich widow Khadijah, (or Kadijah), placed him in easy circumstances, and en- abled him to indulge in almsgiving and speculative retirement.
In 609, Mohamed first announced to his wife that God had sent the angel Gabriel, to commission him as a prophet, to restore the true religion, and overthrow the prevailing idolatry. His first converts were his wife Khadijah^ and her cousin Warakah, who was a Christian and Hebrew scholar; to whom were soon added Zeid^ Mohamed's servant; and Mi, who was Mohamed's cousin, and who styled himself the first of believers. Mohamed soon began to announce the pretended revelations which compose the Koran; in composing which he was probably assisted by Warakah ; by Sergius, a Nestorian monk ; and by Salon or Salem, a Persian Jew. After the conversion of Mu'htker and six others, Mohamed, in 612, announced his mission to his relatives, at a special banquet ; when AH declared himself the champion of the new faith. But the converts, being per- secuted by the Koreishites, dispersed ; and July 16, 622, Mohamed himself, after the death of Abu-Taleb his protector, and Khadijah his wife, was obliged to fly to Medina, where he was triumphantly received by converts who had previously been nominal Christians. This event, called the Hegira, or Flight, is the Mohamedan Era.
Mohamed now assumed the sacerdotal and regal dignity ; married three wives, of distinguished family, one of whom was a daughter of Abn-beker ; and aAer this, it was, Uiat he proclaimed his authority, by 18 m2
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a new revelation, to propagate his religion by the sword. He stima- lated his followers, by the doctrine of predestination, by the hope of booty and revelry, and by the promise of a paradise of delights to all who should fall in batde. His first success in arms, was tlie capture of a rich caravan, in the valley of Beder ; but at Mount Ohud, in 625, Mohamed was defeated, and wounded, and pursued into Medina, by Abu-Sophian. In 628, he made a truce with the Koreishites, and the next year he sent embassies to summon the neighboring princes to receive his religion. In 630, his army, inspired by the valor of Khaled, (or Galed), defeated that of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, near Muta, to the east of Jerusalem ; and Mohamed entered Mecca in triumph; proclaiming it the holy city, and its kaaba^ (caaba), or temple, the sanctuary of Mohanledanism. In 631, called the year of embassies^ several of the Arabian chiefs announced to Mohamed tneir conversion to his religion. In 632, he made his last pompons pilgrimage to Mecca; and he died, probably of slow poison, at Medina, in the same year. His religion spread rapidly over Egypt, Persia, Turkey, and Barbary ; westward into Spain ; and eastward into Ilindoostan ; as will be farther illustrated in the department of Chronography.
§ 2. Tlie Doctrines of the Mohamedana, are embodied in the Koran : for although they admit our Scriptures, or at least the Penta- teuch, Psalms, and Gospels, to have been divinely inspired, they maintain that the copies which we now possess are corrupted, and unworthy of trust. They believe that Adam,> Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, were the five great prophets who preceded Mohamed, the sixth and last. The Koran, improperly called the Alcoran, is fabled to have been delivered to Mohamed, by the angel Gabriel, in successive small portions, at various intervals, during a period ^of twenty-three years. Al-korany in Arabic, signifies The Reading ; and it is also called al Kxtah^ the book ; al Moshaf the volume ; iU Dhikfj the recollection ; and al Forkan^ because it is divided into one hundred and fourteen chapters. The parts were collected into a volume by Abu-beker, the father-in-law, and successor of Mohamed ; but the numerous manuscripts, it is said, dififered so much, that 0th- man, the third caliph, burnt them all, after compiling the whole anew.
The Mohamedans believe that there is but one God^ who created all things, and predestined all events ; Mohamed being his prophet* They believe in Angeh, of whom Gabriel, and Michael ; and Asrace, the angel of death ; and Israfil, who will sound the trump of judg- meiU ; are the chief. They also believe in Devils^ of whom Eblis is the chief; and in Genii, the connecting link between men and angels. They believe also in a Heaven and Hell; each consisting of seven divisions ; and that Mohamed ascended through the seven heavens, to the throne of God, in a single night ; this ascent being called the Mesra, or night journey. In the first heaven, made of silver, he found Adam ; in the second, of gold, he found Noah ; in the third, of precious stones, Abraham ; in the fourth, of emerald, Joseph; in the fifth, of diamond, Moses ; in the sixth, of carbuncle, John the Baptist ; and in the seventh, composed of divine light, he found Jesus Christ. Above this is, they believe, the Mohamedan Paradise, called
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al Jannatj or the garden, abounding in waters, sunshine, fruits, flow- ers, and perfumes, where the beautiful Houria will be the companions of the faithful.
They say that the first hell, Gehenna^ will be for wicked Mussul- mans ; the second, Ladha^ for the Jews ; the third, Hofama, for the Christians ; the fourth, Sair, for the Sabians ; the fifth, Sakir, for the Magians; the sixth, al Jahim^ for idolaters; and the seventh, Hawiyat^ the lowest and most dreadful, for hypocrites. Finally they believe in a general Resurrection, and final Judgment ; to be pre- ceded by seventeen wonderful signs ; though the time is known to God alone. Then, redress will be had for all injuries received ; and they alone, whose good deeds overbalance their evil ones, will be saved. The just will pass safely over the narrow bridge, Al Sirat, while the wicked, and heretics, will fall therefrom into the dismal regions beneath.
§ 3. The Practice of Mbhamedanism, consists in ablution, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and making pilgrimages to Mecca, the holy city. Mohamedans are required to pray Jive times in the day, turning towards Mecca, which is called their kebla, signifying the point towards which they should turn when praying. Those who are near the Mosques, or houses of worship, are summoned to this duty by the voice of the Muezzin, or crier. Frequent purifications, or ablutions, are also required, as a preparation for prayer ; and these united duties are the key to Paradise. Fasting, Mohamed called the gate of religion; the lowest degree of it being restraint of the animal appetites ; the next, restraint from worldly pursuits ; and the highest degree of it, being entire devotion to the Deity. Almsgiving, was enjoined by Mohamed, as laying up a store of good works, against the day of judgment. But especially, an annual pilgrimage to Mecca, is required of all who can perform it ; without which, they might as well be Jews or Christians. The Mohamedans are pro- hibited from drinking wine ; and their moral code, in many points, conforms to the Mosaic Law ; but they are allowed four wives ; and many other things are permitted, which are contrary to reason and the Scriptures.
There are several different Sects, among the Mohamedans, of which little can here be said. The Turks, and some others, believe in the Sunna, or second book of life ; and hence are called Sunnifes ; or sometimes the sect of Omar. The Mufti, in Turkey, is the chief, or primate of their religion; whom even the Sultan advances to meet. Most of the Persians, however, reject the Sunna, and hence are called by the Turks, Shiites, TSheeahs,) or heretics. They believe that Alt is the vicar of God, ana true successor of Mohamed ; therein denying the authority of the first three Caliphs. The Motazalites, and other sects, deny that Paradise is yet created, and say that it will be different from that one from which Adam and Eve were expelled.
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CHAPTER m.
JUDAim.
In the branch of Jadaism, we shall treat briefly of the Religion of the Jews, both ancient and modern. Their religion, compared with the systems of Paganism, is as peculiar, as their history is remarkable : and their preserration, even to this day, as a distinct, though scattered people, is among the most wonderful events which the world has yet witnessed. But a still higher importance attaches to the Jewish religion, considered as typical of the Christian dispensation, and pre- paratory thereto: its priesthood and sacrifices, foreshadowing the Saviour, whom the prophets foretold, and the nation so anxiously expected ; though they received him not, when he came. We shall first treat briefly of Jewish History, as introductory to this religion ; next of the Jewish Scriptures ; then of the Doctrines and Ceremo- nies of the Jews ; and lastly of their diflerent Sects and the Rab- binical Writings.
$ 1. The History of the Jewa^ is chiefly contained in the Jewish Scriptures; and continued in the writings of Josephus, and other later historians. The Jews are so named from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob ; but they were called Hebrews, from Eber, their ancestor, until after the Babylonian Captivity ; when this name was first applied to them. They are descendants of Jacobs the son of Isaac^ and grandson of Ahrdham s who was descended, through Eber^ from Shem, the eldest son of Noah. Abraham, while dwelling in Ur, in Chaldea, was called of God to sojourn in Canaan, which land was promised to him and his posterity. Accordingly he removed to Haran, or Charran, and thence to Canaan, 1921, B. C.;* and although he visited Egypt, on account of a famine, he returned and died in Canaan, 1821 B. C.t Two of Abraham's sons are particularly referred to, in tlie Scriptures ; hkmael, from whom sprang the Arabians ; and IsaaCt the child of promise; whose sons were Esau, father of the Edomites, and Jacob t also named Israel, the last of the elder patriarchs, so called from Greek words, signifying heads of families. From the twelve sons of Jacob, viz.: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah; Dan, Naphtali; Gad, Asher; Issachar, Zebulon; Joseph, and Benjamin; the twelve tribes of Israel, including the whole Jewish nation, are descended.
The sale of Joseph, by his envious brethren, and his providential elevation to be prime minister of Egypt, led to the migration of Jacob and his other sons into that land, to escape the famine in Canaan, 1706 B. C4 In the midst of a corrupt idolatry, they preserved the patriarchal religion in its purity; and their descendants resided in Egypt, in the land of Goshen, till the measure of their oppression by the Egyptian kings was filled ; when Moses was raised up to deliver them, and to lead them back to Canaan, the land of promise. They left Egypt in the year 1401, B. C.$; and received the Decalogue, or Ten Commandments, at Mount Sinai, in the same year. Forty
* 2078 B. G^ according to Hales. t 1 863 B. C, according to Halea.
1 1976 B. C, according to Halat. § 164^ B. C, according to Halea.
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years they were detained in the wilderness, in order that a new and more pious generation might enter Canaan ; and, during this period, it was, that Moses wrote most of the Pentateuch, and established, by diyine command, their ceremonial and civil laws. Moses died, before they entered the promised land; but its conquest and division among the tribes were effected by Joshua^ 1446, B. C. ;* when the Jewish religion and polity may be said to have been completely established. The farther pursuit of this topic must be deferred, until we come to the department of Chronography.
§ 2. The Jewish Scriptures^ or sacred writings, are called by us the Old Testament; in contradistinction from the New Testament, of which we are to speak in treating of Christianity. The first five books of the Old Testament, written chiefly by Moses, and sometimes called the Pentateuch, are the oldest writings known to exist : with the exception, perhaps, of some of the Egyptian hieroglyphics ; and to them alone we are indebted for the earliest history of our race. These books were deposited, by the Jews, in the holy tabernacle, near the ark ; and with them were placed the other sacred books, as fast as they were written, till the first temple was completed ; when they were all removed by Solomon to that sacred edifice, 1004 B. C.f Numerous copies were made, with great care ; and after the return of a part of the Jews from the Babylonian Captivity, and the rebuilding of the temple, Ezra the scribe, assisted by the Great Synagogue, collated and arranged the sacred canon, 458 B. C. To the books thus col- lated, Simon the Just, about 295 B. C, added those of Chronicles Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther and Malachi ; which made the Old Testa- ment complete. It was translated into the Greek language, it is said, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. C. ; and this version, from its having been made by about seventy translators, is known as the Septuagini. Of other translations we have no room here to speak ; bat remark that most of them have been made by Christians, and in connection with the New Testament.
Ezra divided the Jewish Scriptures into 1. The Law, comprising the Pentateuch ; 2. The Prophets, including the prophetical and his- torical books ; and 3. The Cetubim, or poetical books, viz. the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, or the Song of Solomon. But modem biblical critics divide the Old Testament into the Penta- teuch, or five books of Moses ; the Historical Books, from Joshua to Esther, inclusive ; the Hagiographa or poetical books, including the Cetubim of Ezra, together with the book of Job ; and the Pro- phetical Books, including those of the (onr greater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, with the Lamentations ; and those of the twelve lesser prophets, whose writings follow the preceding. To insure the accuracy of these Scriptures, the Jewish Rabins have prepared, chiefly since the Christian Era, a work called the Mdsora, in which they state the number of chapters, verses, words, and letters, in each of the sacred books; fixing the pronunciation by peculiar points ; and where diflerent readings had crept in, they introduced marginal notes, called Keri, and Chetih, from Hebrew words signi- fying read, and write, affixed to the supposed corrections.
* 1602 B. G^ according to Halet. f 1030 B. C, acooiding to Halet.
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$ 3. The Doctrines and Ceremonies of the Jews, are founded on their Scriptures, but especially on the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers ; and that of Deuteronomy, which repeats or sums up the Divine Law, as given by Moses, with frequent exhoitaiions and admonitions. This Law is regarded by Christians as consisting of three distinct parts: the Moral Zair, enjoining moral duties, which are binding on all men, in all ages ; the Political Law^ relating to the civil affairs of the Jews ; and the Ceremonial Law^ regulating their ceremonies and forms of worship; the two latter divisions being intended for the Jews alone. The Decalogue^ or Ttn Com* mandments^ (Exodus xx. 3 — 17,) containing the essence of the Moral Law, we need not here repeat. The first table, including the first four Commandments, relates to our immediate duties to God ; the second table, to our duties, divinely required, towards our fellow- men. The Political Laws of the Jews also required that idolatry, blasphemy, sabbath-breaking, and all palpable injustice or immoralit)', should be punisihed by the magistrates, priests, or people at large ; and their Criminal Law was strictly retributive, demanding ^^ an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth."
The Jewish Ceremonial Law, seems to have been designed to impress their minds continually with the great truths of religion ; to separate them from the surrounding nations, and thus to guard them against idolatry. For this reason, perhaps, their national worship was confined to one place, and their select priesthood rendered hereditary. They were required to construct a Tabernacle^ or large tent, of boards and curtains richly ornamented ; and this was divided into- two apartments, the holy^ and the most holy place, and sur- rounded by an enclosed area or court; it being designed as a sanctuary, for the Lord to dwell in, until the building of Uie temple in Jerusalem, which contained a similar arrangement. In the most holy place, or within the veil, was the ark of the covenant, a beautiful chest, containing the two tables of stone inscribed with the decalogue : and the golden covering of the ark, with golden cherubs at the ends, was called the mercy-seat or propitiatory ; above which was seen the Shechinaht or visible glory, symbolical of the divine presence. In the holy place, were the golden altar of incense, on which incense was daily burned ; the golden candlestick, with a central lamp, and three others on each side, kept always burning ; and the table of show-bread, on which bread was always kept, but renewed every Sabbath, and eaten by the priests. In the court, in front of the tabernacle, was the large brazen altar of burnt offerings, with horns rising from the comers; and the brazen laver, tor the use of the priests, in washing themselves and the sacrifices, stood near the door of the tabernacle.
The priesthood was restricted to Aaron and his sons, under pe- nalty of death to any others who should assume it; and the Levites, divinely selected, from the tribe of Levi, were the priest's assistants. The priests wore a linen underdress, coat, girdle, and bonnet; but the garments of the high-priest were, besides the underdress and embroidered coat, a blue robe, hung around with golden bells ; an ephod, or outer short coat, without sleeves, and with a curious girdle.
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both being wrought with gold ; a mitre ^ or cap, with a gplden plate, inscribed with holiness to the lord ; and the breastplate of judg- ment, bearing the Urim and Thummim, (or lights and perfections), and set with twelve gems, inscribed widi the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. The priests were originally consecrated by anoint- ing with oil, and sprinkling with blood ; a burnt offering and a sin offering being burnt at the same time ; and a heave and a wave offering eaten, by the priests ; so called, because they were 6rst heaved up, or waved in the air.
A bullock was sacrificed every day by the high-priest, as a sin offerings for atonement ; and two lambs were offered daily, as a meat offering, with wine for a drink offering, fVom the people to tlie Lord. Various offerings were required or made by individuals, at various times ; as burnt offerings of choice animals ; meat offer- ings, partly burnt and pardy eaten by the priests ; peace offerings, partly burnt, and partly eaten, in which the person offering them participated ; and sin or trespass offerings, made to expiate uninten- tional offences. The high-priest alone could enter the most holy place, or holy of holies ; and this only on one day in the year, the day of atonement, the tenth day of the seventh month ; with self-purifications and offerings; and a ram and two goats for the people : the ram for their burnt offering ; one goat for their sin offering ; and the other to be let loose, as a scape-goat, to bear away their sins.
The annual Passover of the Jews, when they ate the paschal lamb, and sprinkled their door posts with its blood, in commemoration of their first bom sons being preserved thereby in Egypt, was kept on the fourteenth day of the first month, corresponding to our Easter, Hence also, the first bom males, both of man and beast, were sanc- tified to the Lord ; and offerings were directed to be made by parents, for the redemption of their first born sons. The feast of Unleavened bread, commemorating their hasty departure from Egypt, commenced the day afler the passover, and continued one week ; on the first and seventh days of which, there were holy convocations of the people ; and on the second day was offered a sheaf of the first fruits of the barley harvest. There were holy convocations, also, at the feast of Pentecost, or of harvest, 50 days after the passover, to offer the first fruits of the wheat harvest ; and at the feast of Trumpets, on the first day of the seventh month, the beginning of the civil year, announced by the blowing of trumpets. This last, was followed by the feast of Tabernacles, fifteen days afler it, completing the feast of ingathering; on the first and eighth days of which were also holy convocations. The Jews were moreover required to observe every seventh year, as a Sabbatical year, when there was no harvest; and every fiftieth year was proclaimed by trumpets as a Jubilee; when they rested two years in succession, living on their previous stores : when servants were set free, and lands on lease, returned to their proper owners. Of the laws concerning clean and unclean animals, for food or sacrifice ; concerning leprosy, and other un- cleanness ; purifications and circumcision, we have no room here to speak.
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$ 4. The principal Sects among the later Jews, were the Pharisees^ who attached great importance to the ceremonies of religion, neglect- ing its weightier matters ; and the SaddueeeSt who were generally incredulous, denying the resurrection, and the immortality of the soul. The Scribes, mentioned in the gospels, were professed doc- tors of the law, which they expounded to the people. The Essenesj were a small and ancient sect, noted for their austerity. The Kara- itest (or Caraites), are a modem sect, chiefly in the east, who attach no authority to the Talmud ; while the Rabhinists, chiefly in Europe, regard it as nearly of equal weight with their Scriptures.
The Talmud consists of two parts, the Miskna, (or Mischna), explaining their laws and customs ; and the Oemara, which is a commentary on the Mishna. The Mishna was collected by the Rabbi Jehudah, or Juda Hakkadosh, A. D. 200 ; and is attributed by the Jews to Moses, as its principal author. The Mishna with a Gemara, compiled by Rabbi Eliezer, about the sixth century, forms the Jerusalem Talmud} and with another Gemara, compiled by Chaldean Jews, it forms the Babylonian Talmud, most frequently referred to. The Targums, are Jewish paraphrases of their Scrip- tures, written in the Chaldee tongue. That of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, on the Prophets, was made about 30 B. C. ; and that of Onkelos, on the Law, was made at the time, nearly, of the Christian Era. The Targum of Jerusalem, is on the Pentateuch ; and that of Joseph the Blind, is on the Hagiographa. The Cabala, (or Cabbala), embracing the cabalistic writings of the Jews, consists of mystical interpretations of the Scriptures, and metaphysical speculations, handed down by tra- dition, and regarded by them as the sublimest of sciences. The modem Jewish creed, drawn up by the Rabbi Maimonides, in the eleventh century, contains nothing very peculiar, and need not here be repeated.
CHAPTER IV.
CHRISTIANITY.
In the branch of Christianity, we include the whole study of the Christian JRelieion; its Origin and History ; its Scriptures and Evidences ; and the History and Doctrines of the different Sects which profess to adopt it. The name is derived from that of its divine author and founder : the word Christ, from the Greek, ;rp»<yf of« like the Hebrew word Messiah, signifying one who has been anointed ; as were the Jewish prophets, priests, and kings ; whose functions were all united in the incarnate Son of God. We regard the pure Jewish religion as a part of the Christian ; which properly embraces the whole Scheme of Salvation, shadowed forth by the sacrifices, foretold by the prophets, and realized by the advent and ministry of Jesus Christ, our Lord and Saviour. To this scheme alone we apply what has already been said, of the incomparable importance of practical religion, (p. 127.) The term Theology, is frequently restricted to
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Christian Theohgy, or the study of Chriatianity ; otherwise called the study of Divinity. Various subdivisions of this study have been proposed ; but we proceed here to treat of it in three parts, under the titles of Ecclesiastical History; Biblical Divinity; and Sectarian Polity,
Part I. Ecclesiastical History.
Under the head of Eedesiastical History ^ we shall here treat of the origin and early progress of Christianity ; considered, so far as it may be, independently of the particular sects, into which the Christian world is now divided. The name is derived from the Greek, exxxi^aia, church; this name properly signifying the whole body of Christians of all ages and nations ; though it is also applied to any particular Christian sect, or society. The present topic presupposes a general knowledge of Civil History and Archaeology, both ancient and modem; with which it is so closely connected, that the study of each, throws light upon that of the other. After thus glancing over the eariy History of Christianity, we shall be the better prepared to appreciate the evidences on which it rests. The later Eccle* siastical History, referring chiefly to the various Christian sects which have arisen in modern times, will be reserved for the third part of the present chapter, that entitled Sectarian Polity.
$ 1. Our Saviour was bom, four years before the Christian Era, a» generally received, (or 4 B. C), in Bethlehem of Judea, which was Uien under the Roman power. At twelve years of age, (A. D. 8), he disputed with the Jewish Doctors, in the temple ; and at the age of nearly thirty -one, (A. D. 27), he was baptized by John the Baptist; soon after which he chose the twelve apostles, and commenced hi» public ministry. Three and a half years after this, A. D. 31, he was crucified, rose again from the dead, and reascended into heaven, in the presence of many. disciples. The first Christian Church f was formed, immediately after this event, at Jerusalem ; and James the LesSf or the Just, who was the son of Alpheus, (that is Cleophas), and who was called the brother, though really the cousin of our Lord, was placed over it, as its presbyter or bishop. He was the writer of the epistle which bears his name. He suffered martyrdom, A. D. 62 ; when his brother Simeon succeeded him. The second church appears to have been formed at Antioch^ in Syria, by those who fled thither after Stephen's martyrdom ; and there, about A. D. 40, the disciples were first called Christians. On the approach of Titus, to besiege Jerusalem, the Christians, with Peter and John, warned by our Sa- viour's prophecy, withdrew in safety, A. D. 70, to Pella, beyond the river Jordan.
Of the Twelve Apostles, Simon Peter preached the gospel in Asia Minor, and, according to Eusebius, at Rome also ; where he was crucified, A. D. 67. He was regarded as the first bishop of Rome ; Linus being his successor. Andrew, his brother, is said to have preached in Greece, and been cracified at Patras in Achaia, A. D. 83. James, called the Greater, the son of Zebedee, was put 19 N
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to death by Herod, at Jerusalem, A. D. 44 ; and John^ his brother, the Evangelist and Divine, preached in Asia Minor, until he was banished to Patmos; but returned, and died at Ephesus, A. D. 100. PAtVipof Bethsaida.died at Hierapolis, in Phrygia; and BartholometOf it is said, after preaching in Arabia, Armenia, and India, died in Persia. Thomas^ called Didymus, preached, it is stated, in Parthia, and probably died in India ; and Matthew^ called Levi, the publican or tax-gatherer, and the Evangelist, is said to have preached and suffered martyrdom in Persia. Of James the Less^ we have already spoken, in the preceding paragraph ; and Lebbetis, his brother, sur- named Thaddeus, called also Judas or Jude, preached and died, it is said, in Syria ; after writing the epistle which bears his name. Simon the Canaanite, (or Canaite), called Zelotes, preached and probably died in Africa ; and Judas Iscariott the betrayer, committed suicide, A. D. 31.
Paul, originally named Saul, and likewise called an apostle, preached the gospel in all the civilized world of that age ; then suffered martyrdom at Rome, A. D. 67. Mark^ the Evangelist, preached, at Alexandria, in Egypt, and, it is said, died there, A. D. 62. He is regarded as the first bishop of Alexandria ; Annianus being his sue* cessor. J^ke^ the remaining Evangelist, probably the same person as Lucius of Gyrene, was long the companion of Paul, but died in Achaia. THmothVj is said to have suffered martyrdom at Ephesus, some years after the death of Paul ; and Titus, it is believed, died in Crete, at an advanced age. Thus, we perceive that the labors of the apostles and evangelists, were the means of introducing Christianity, throughout the then civilized world, within the first century after the Christian era. The Gauls also received the gospel, eitlier from the aposdes themselves, or from their immediate successors ; and it was
S reached, during the second century, to the Spaniards, Germans, and ritons. To Eusebius we are indebted for much information con- cerning the early churches, and their bishops^ down to the Council of Nice ; but the mention of the Christian Fathers, must here be post- poned to the head of Patristic Theology.
$ 2. Historians enumerate ten Persecutions, which the Church underwent, before Christianity became the established religion of the Roman Empire. They were, 1. Under the emperor Nero, A. D. 64, who after setting fire to Rome, charged the same upon the Christians; 2. Under Domitian, A. D. 95, who suspected the Christians of aim- ing at a hew monarchy; 3. Under Trajan, A. D. 100-105, in be- hdf of the Pagan religion ; 4. Under Aurelius Antoninus, about 177, most violently waged in Gaul (or France) ; 5. Under Septimius Se* verus, 192-202 ; 6. Under Maximinius, 235 ; 7. Under Dedus, 249-50, which was general and extremely violent ; 8. Under Vor lerian, in 257 ; 9. Under Aurelian, in 274 ; and 10. Under Diode- sian, A. D. 303. Of the heresies of the Gnostics, Ebionites, Nico- laitans, and numerous other sects of the early times, we have no room here to speak.
Christianity was first completely tolerated by the emperor Con- stantino, A. D. 313 ; and thenceforward became the favored religion of the Roman Empire. No sooner was the Church thus freed from
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pagan persecution, than it was agitated by the doctrines of Arius of Alexandria ; who maintained that Christ was a created being, entirely distinct from the Father, who alone was truly God. On this account, Constantine assembled the General Council of Nice^ which met in 325 at Nice, (east of Constantinople), and almost unanimously de- clared that Christ, the Son, was coeternal and consubstantial with the Father, and with Him and the Holy Ghost to be worshipped as the one and only true God. To enforce this doctrine, the creed was adopted, which, in a modified form, is still used as the Nicene Creed. Arius was banished, but afterwards recalled ; and notwithstanding this decision, Arianism afterwards prevailed for some time in the East.
To oppose the heresies of AriuSf Sabellius, and others, a second General Council was held at Constantinople, A. D. 381. The sect of the Pelagians next arose, founded by Pelagiusj a Welch monk, who went to Rome, and in 410 to Africa ; maintaining that Adam's descendants are not affected by his sin, and that salvation may be merited by our own good works. His tenets were refuted by Au- gustin, bishop of Hippo, and condemned by the General Council of Ephesus, in 431. At this Council, Nestorius was also condemned, for refusing to call Mary the mother of God, and for maintaining the existence not only of two natures, but also of two persons in Jesus Christ. From him are named the Neatorian or Syrian Christians, in the East, called also Christians of St. Thomas. There were other Councils held in the East, at Chalcedon, in 451 ; at Constantinople, in 553 ; at Constantinople, in 680 ; at Nice, in 787 ; and at Constanti- nople, in 869 ; making in all eight (Ecumenical or general councils, called by the Byzantine or Greek emperors.
§ 3. The bishops of Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Constanti- nople and Rome, had at an early period taken precedence over the others ; and they received, about A. D. 400, the title of patriarchs $ which the Eastern metropolitan bishops still retain. The name of popcy (or papas), from the Greek, fCartTtai, father, was common, in the third century, to all the bishops ; and is still given to the Greek priests in Russia. Though applied to the bishop of Rome, it was not monopolized by him, till the time of Gregory VH., in 1073. The bishop or pope of Rome, at length claimed, as the successor of St. Peter, the primacy over all the others ; which was confirmed by the provincial synod at Sardica, in 344 ; as also by the Council of Constantinople, in 381, which made the bishop of Constantinople second in rank ; and again, by the western emperor Valentinian III., in 445. The General Council of Chalcedon, in 451, conceded to the Roman bishop a precedence in rank, but refused to admit that he was vested with any superior authority. At length, disagreements arose, which led Pope Felix H., A. D. 484, to excommunicate the patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria; and thus the Eastern or Greek Church was separated from the TFestem or Roman : though both assumed the title of Catholic or universal. They were afterwards united, at inter^-als, till the downfall of the Byzantine empire; but never in a cordial, intimate manner.
The farther progress of the Roman papal power, we must reserve,
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to sketch in the department of Chronoffraphy. The monastic syUem^ under which monks and nuns secluded themselves, for professed lives of devotion, was introduced into the Church hy Antony, in Egypt, about 305 ; and extended by Pachomius, his disciple. It soon spread through all the Christian world ; and, in connection with papal celi- bacy, has been a fertile source of crime and degradation. The wot- ship of images^ commenced in the sixth century, in the East; and, thougn condemned at Constantinople in 754, it afterwards prevailed, both in the Greek and Roman churches. Meanwhile, the gospel was further preached, in France by St, Denis or Dionysius, about A. D. 290 ; in Ireland, by St. Patrick, who died tliere about 493; in Eng- land by St. jlugustin,* the monk, who died about 608 ; in Germany, by St. Boniface, or Winfrid, who died in 755 ; in Denmark, by Ansgarius, who died in 865; in Sweden, by Sigfrid; in Prussia, by Adalbert of Prague ; and in Northern Sclavonia, by Otlio, in 1 124. The Roman church was also extended into Spain in 586 ; and into Poland, about 964. Russia was united to the Greek church, in 988. Of modern Missions, and their vast importance, we have no room here to speak ; and the history of the Reformation, we must defer to the third part of the present branch ; that on Sectarian Polity.
Part II. Biblical Divinity.
Under the head of Biblical Divinity, we include the immediate study of the Bible, and of those works which are most serviceable in defending and explaining it. These studies we regard as pre- eminently important, in the whole wide range of human knowledge ; and hence we recognize the necessity, that men duly qualified, by talents, learning, and piety, should be relieved from secular pursuits, and devoted to the especial investigation, and illustration of the numerous topics herein comprehended. Amons the works which are deemed most valuable, as aiding to defend and explain the Scrip- tures, we may mention the writings of the early Fathers, in connec- tion with the more recent treatises on Natural Theolog>% and the Evidences of Christianity. These studies, together with Biblical Criticism, and Hermeneutics, will form the subjects of the present division of Christianity.
§ 1. Biblical Criticism, comprehends an investigation of the origin, and continued preservation of the sacred books ; and of their exact signification or interpretation. These sacred books, collectively, we call the Bible ; from the Greek, ^t^r^i, a book ; it being so called by way of eminence. The Bible is generally recognized, by all Christian sects, as a Revelation from the Deity, and therefore of Divine authority. It consists of the Old and the New Testament; the former of which foretels, and the latter fully describes the Advent or coming of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, to provide the means of salvation for fallen and sinful man. With this great object, it treats of the creation of the world, and of mankind ; the apostacy, or fall,
* Attgustin was not the first propagmtor of Ghristiaiiity in England : and than is soDio ground for the opinion, that St Paul himself preached there and in Germany.
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and its consequences ; the deluge, and repopulation of the world ; the Jewish nation, God's chosen people ; their laws and their pro- phets ; their disobedience, and their punishment: and especially, the life and doctrines of our Saviour, and of his inspired apostles ; — the whole concluding with a Revelation of events, then, or yet to come.
Of the Old Testament, we have already spoken, as far as we had room, in treating of Judaism. The New Testament was written originally in Greek ; excepting perhaps the Gospel of St. Matthew, which some suppose to have been first written in Hebrew, about A. D. 38. This Gospel was the earliest portion of the New Testament ; all the books of which were written as early as A. D. 100 ; and a complete catalogue of which was given by Origen, about the year 200 ; the same which we now recognize. They were then classed in two divisions, the Evangelicon, and the Apoatolicon: but a more convenient subdivision of them, is into, 1. The four Gospels; 2. The AeUoi the Apostles; 3. The twenty-one Epistles $ and 4. The Reve- lation of St. John the Divine. The Bible was first divided into chapters by Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, about A. D. 1240 ; and into verses, by Rabbi Mordecai Nathan, about 1445. The Alex- andrian manuscript of the New Testament, now in the British Museum, is believed to have been written in the fourth century. The Bible was first printed in Hebrew, in 1488 ; and the New Testament was first printed in Greek, in 1514.
Biblical Hermeneutics^ so named from the Greek Jp^^/vcvio, I inter- pret, is the study of the exact interpretation, or meaning of the Bible. It may be considered as grammatical, when it relates to the discovery of the true signification, by means of the grammatical con- struction, or by the context, comparing the same words as used in dififerent places ; and it is termed historical, when the meaning is ascertained from historical data, such as a reference to the circum- stances, objects, and information of the writer. Indeed, a general knowledge of ancient science and art, may be extensively servicea- ble in this important study ; including an acquaintance with those lan- guages which have the closest afilinity to the Greek and the Hebrew, The same principles of interpretation which are applicable to other ancient, or even to modem writings, are, for the most part, applicable also to the Scriptures. The subject of Biblical Exegetics, or the practical exposition of the Scriptures, is also connected with Bibli- cal Divinity ; but as it is differently treated by different denomina- tions, we may be excused from enlarging upon it, in the present work.
§ 2. Patristic Tlieology, comprehends the study of the writings of the early Christian Fathers ; those who succeeded the apostolic age. Their writings are valuable, as the earliest commentaries on the New Testament ; and as furnishing abundant evidence of its divine author- ity. We have room here to mention only a few of the most promi- nent among them ; remarking that, while their writings belong to Biblical Divinity, an account of their lives belongs also to the division of Eccbsiasiical History, (p. 146). Clemens Romanus, bishop of Rome, wrote two epistles to the Corinthians, and died probably A. D. 100. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was martyred at Rome,
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A. D. 107 ; and Justin Martyr, of Grecian birth, waa put to death in Egypt, 164. Poly carp, bishop of Smyrna, a disciple of St. John, and author of an epistle to the Philippians, suffered martyrdom, 167; and Irenasus, a disciple of Polycarp, and bishop of Lyons, in France, was martyred, in 202. TertuUian, of Carthage, author of an Apology for (that is a defence of) the Christian Keligion, flourished about the year 200 ; and Clemens Alexandrinus, (Clement of Alex- andria), flourished about 206. Origen, a Greek, author of the Hexapla, or Bible in six versions, died at Tyre, in 254 ; and Cy- prian, of Carthage, was martyred in 258. Gregory, surnamed Thaumaturgus, a pupil of Origen, and bishop of Neocaesarea, died about 270 ; and Lactantius, author of Institutiones Divinse, died in 325.
Eusehius Famphilus, (of Pamphilia), bishop of Caesarea, who attended the Council of Nice, and wrote an Ecclesiastical History, died about 340. Athanaaius, the Trinitarian opponent and succes- sor of Arius, (p. 147), died in 373 ; Jlmhrose, bishop of Milan, died in 397 ; and Chrysoslom, bishop of Constantinople, died in 407. Jerome, (Hieronymus), who translated the Vulgate or Latin Bible, died at Bethlehem, in Palestine, in 420 ; and Theodoret, of Greece, who continued the Ecclesiastical History, by Eusebius, down to 420, died soon after that dale. Arius, founder of the Arian sect, died in 336 ; and Pelagius, founder of the Pelagians, died at Jeru- salem, A. D. 420. Among the leading doctrines of Christianity, taught by the Fathers, and adopted by modern Evangelical Chris- tians, we may mention, the fall of man from a state of primeval innocence ; the vicarious atonement of our Saviour, by taking our nature upon him and suflering in our stead ; the necessity of repent- ance, and of faith in him, evidenced by a pure and pious life ; and the sanctifying influence of the Holy Spirit, granted to all who seek it; as the only means of salvation. The two Sacraments; Bap- tism in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost ; and the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper, in which bread and wine are received as symbols of the Saviour, are also common to nearly all Christian denominations.
§ 3. Apologetic Theology, so called from the Greek anoKoyta, a plea or reply, includes the defence of the whole Christian scheme of Religion ; with the proofs of its divine origin, and incomparable excellence. This subject may be subdivided into Natural Theology, and Evidences of Christianity. The province of Natural TTieology, is to prove, from the works of nature, that there is a God, all-wise and powerful, the creator and preserver of the universe ; a God of justice and goodness, the re warder of well-doing, and the punisher of iniquity. This may be proved from the marks of design and contrivance visible in the material world ; as is amply shown by Dr. Paley in his excellent work on this division of Theology ; and espe- cially by the analogy between temporal and spiritual things, or the ** Analogy of Religion, natural and revealed, to the constitution and course of Nature," so admirably developed by the learned and pious Bishop Butler.
The Evidences of Christianity, comprehend the various facts
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and argraments which prove the authenticity, credibility, and divine authority of the Holy Scriptures. They constitute a subject of the highest interest ; and one which has been fully treated, by the ablest writers, in reply to the cavils of infidelity. These evidences may be arranged as either external or internal ; and the former, as either col- lateral or direct. Among the collateral evidences, we may adduce, the imperfect state of man ; and the necessity of some religion, to guide him in his search after truth and happiness ; and to satisfy his moral faculties and nobler aspirations. The view which we have already taken of other religions, will show that this one, alone, is at the same time rational, pnre, and adapted to the highest wants, and greatest improvement of both our sentient and our intellectual nature. It is farther so proved, by the fact that those nations, whose religion is the purest Christianity, are the most enlightened and happy ; and that oUier nations approach this state, in proportion as their religion approaches to that of the Gospel.
The direct external proofs of Christianity, include the historical proofs of the authenticity of the New Testament. We know that its books were received by the early Church, as genuine and authorita- tive ; from the testimony of the Christian Fathers, already mentioned ; and from the great events with which it was connected ; including the conversion of the Roman empire. We know it, in short, by a complete chain of the highest evidence, from the apostolic age to the present The genuineness of these books was admitted, even by the early opposers of Christianity: as by Celsus, in the second century; Porphyry, in the third ; and the apostate Julian, in the fourth ; nor do Josephus, and the other Jewish writers, deny either the currency of these works, or the truth of their historical statements. These statements are directly corroborated by the evidence of Tacitus, the Roman historian ; and the sufferings of the early Christian martyrs are mentioned by the younger Pliny, by Suetonius, Martial, Juvenal, and other Heathen writers. These sufferings are, in themselves, a strong proof of the credibility of those truths which thousands died to substantiate. Not only had the apostles, and other Christian mar- tyrs, no interest in sustaining their doctrines, if false, but they had the strongest temporal interest in abandoning them, even if true: and yet they persevered. The institution of the Christian Sabbath, and Sacraments, continuously kept, ever since the events occurred which they commemorate, may also be adduced as tangible proof, relevant to this subject.
To the Miracles of our Saviour, recorded in these well authenti- cated books, we may next appeal, in support of the divine authority of the New Testament. They were beyond the reach of human art: acts of godlike beneficence, performed in the presence of multitudes, and in plain day ; miracles which not even the irritated Jews could either conceal or deny. They were performed for a purpose worthy of such acts, to evince the promised Saviour ; and similar acts were permitted to be performed by the apostles, so long as was necessary for this purpose ; but no longer. Next to the incarnation, temptation, resurrection, and ascension of our Saviour, we would adduce the conversion and ministry of Saul of Tarsus, the apostle Paul, as the
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strongest evidence of the divine character of Christianitj. The credibility of the Jewish Scriptures, will probably at once be admitted ; or at least, no one will attribute them to Christian authors, though they were sanctioned by our Saviour's authority. From them, we have the miraculous voice of Prophecy^ in support of the Christian religion. All the great events of our Saviour's life and ministry, were foretold by the Jewish prophets, as plainly as possible without defeating their accomplishment; so plainly, indeed, that the Jewish nation were anxiously expecting their Messiah, at the time of our Saviour's advent. Nor were the prophecies less remarkable, which were made by our Saviour; and which have since been fulfilled.
We might dwell on the disinterestedness, purity, and benevolence of our Lord and his followers ; on the perseverance of his aposdes, in labors and sufferings ; and on the rapid spread of the gospel, by peaceful means, as evidences of its divinity ; but we must pass on, and glance at the internal evidences of Christianity, derived from its surpassing beauty and excellence. We repeat, that it is the only religion which can elevate and restore man to his lost place in the cre- ation ; or satisfy his longings aAer immortality. While it strengthens our good propensities, by divine assistance ; it represses and quells those evil passions which no other power can subdue. It teaches a pure and perfect morality, where other creeds have wandered, and science has failed. It has suppressed human sacrifices, and gladiato- rial massacres ; mitigated the horrors of war ; raised the standard of patriotism ; provided the means of charity and instruction for the poor : and especially it has raised the female sex to be the compa- nions, instead of the slaves of man. It has established the Sabbath and Sanctuary, to give rest to the body, and spiritual food to the mind ; and it has comforted the afflicted, consoled the bereaved, and cheered the departing spirit, with a celestial light, beaming from the world beyond the grave. When sickness and trial come upon us, when nature fails and worldly hopes forsake us, when death approach- es, as it must approach to all, then only can we adequately realize the divine character and infinite importance of the Christian Religion.
Part III.
Sectarian Polity.
Under the head of Sectarian Polity, we would comprehend the re- maining portion of Christianity ; relating to the different Christian denominations ; and treating of their History, Doctrines, and Modes of worship. Here, therefore, we would place SystematiCf or Dogma- tic Theology ; that is the systematic arrangement of the dogmas or doctrines of religion; of which each sect has some that are peculiar; as also Elenchtict improperly called Polemic Theology ; by which each sect attempts to defend its own doctrines, and to refute those which are contrary thereto ; and finally Pastoral Theology ; which comprehends the care of a church, and the duties of a Christian minis- ter. This last, has been subdivided into Homiletics, or preaching : Catechetics, or catechising, that is, instructing the young ; Parsnetics, or advising, admonishing, and consoling ; Prudentials, or self-govern*
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ment ; and Consistorials, or church government, and the ordering of forms of worship. And here we remark, that the disagreement of Christian sects, on minor points, instead of discrediting, tends rather to prove the truth of those wherein they agree ; as those who have seceded from others, would naturally diverge from them, as widely as their consciences would permit.
§ 1. The Ch-eek Catholic Church, at the head of which is the Pa- triarch of Constantinople, recognizes tradition, as a source of doctrine, besides the Scriptures. It believes in the seven Roman sacraments, and in trans abstantiation ; admits prayers to the saints, and allows their pictures, but not their images, to be worshipped ; and sanctions the monastic system. It also believes that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only : bat most of its other doctrines are those of Evangelical protestants ; and its corruptions, may, we think, be traced to its connection with the Roman Church, at periods subse- quent to their separation, A. D. 484. (p. 147). Its Liturgy, or form of worship, consists of the mass, or service of prayer ; together with the reading of passages of Scripture, and legends of the saints ; the rehearsal of the creed; the singiog of psalms ; and the performance of various ceremonies. The Russian Church coincides with the Greek, in its doctrines; but since 1701, it has acknowledged the Emperor as its head or Patriarch. Of the Nestorian Church, whose tenets are mostly evangelical, and whose patriarch resides at Mosul on the Tigris, we have no farther room to speak. The Coptic Church, in Egypt, agrees, for the most part, with the preceding; and has a patriarch of its own at Alexandria.
The Roman Catholic Church, which also assumes the tide of catholic, or universal, and at the head of which is the Pope of Rome, originally professed the simple Evangelical doctrines of the Nicene Creed, which it still retains ; but it, moreover, recognizes the author- ity of Tradition, and of the Ecclesiastical Councils, as coordinate with that of the Scriptures ; and, on this ground, it has superadded from time to time new doctrines, which the Scriptures neither contain nor allow. Among these doctrines, sanctioned by the Council of Trent, 1545-63, and still maintained, are that of Seven Sacraments, viz. Baptism, the Eucharist, (or Lord's Supper), Confirmation, Pe- nance, Extreme Unction, Ordination, and Matrimony, which, are maintained to confer grace on those receiving them ; also the doctrine of Transuhstantiation, or the actual conversion of the sacramental bread and wine into the body and blood of our Lord ; which, with the accompanying mass, or forms of prayer and ceremonials, is deemed a true propitiatory sacrifice for both the living and the dead ; also the doctrine of Purgatory, or a middle state between Heaven and Hell, for those souls which, though not accepted of God, are still within the reach of salvation, by the prayers of the faithful ; and espe- cially the doctrine of the Supremacy of the Pope, as Christ's Vicar, and the Infallibility of the Church, by which some understand the Pope, but others, solely the Council. By penance is meant acts of supposed expiation for sins committed ; ana by extreme unction, the anointing of those dangerously ill, with consecrated oil.
The Feneration of images, and Worship of saints, or those ca- 20
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nonized as such, is not only tolerated, but required by the Roman Catholic or more properly the Roman Church. This Church also requires auricular or private confession of all sins, to the priests, who claim power to pardon the same ; and it maintains that we may save ourselves by our own good works, and have a surplus for the benefit of others, called works of supererogation ; on the strength of which it grants, or has granted not only pardons, but indulgences to commit any future sin with impunity, for a certain price. It also sanctions the monastic system, and prohibits the marriage of priests. In enforcing conformity to these doctrines and requisitions, the In- quisition, established in 1204, by the agency of Dominic de Guzman, founder also of the Dominican order of monks ; and the Society of Jesuits, or order of Jesus, founded in 1536, by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish soldier and devotee, were engines of tremendous and most cruel power.
After the modem discoveries in the East Indies, and America, the Roman church made great efforts to convert those regions to its own faith ; in India, by Francis Xavier, the Jesuit, who preached in Hin- doostan, Ceylon, and Japan, and died in the year 1552 ; in Mexico, by Zummaraga, its first bishop ; in Peru, by Hernandez Lucque, who was associated with Pizarro, in its conquest ; and in Brazil, by Vieyra, and other Jesuits. The first Roman Catholic establishment in the United States was in Maryland, under Calvert, son of Lord Baltimore, in 1634.
§ 2. We come next to speak of the Reformation ; by which a large portion of the Church was restored to a purer form of Chris- tianity ; although the reformers themselves afterwards became divided, on various abstract or minor points of Christian doctrine. The In- quisition was first directed against the Waldenses and Alhigenses, who had long opposed the corruptions of the Roman Church ; and had been condemned therefor, by the great Latcran Council, at Rome, in 1139. But the pioneer of the Reformation is usually considered to have been John Iftckliffe, of Yorkshire, England, who died in 1387. He attacked the jurisdiction of the pope and bishops, and ex- posed their absurdities and impositions. His followers were called Wichliffites, or improperly Lollards ; (this last being a sect of Ger- man dissenters) ; but they were few in number and unsupported ; and their doctrines made but feeble progress. The same was the case with the Hussites in Bohemia, the followers of John Huss, who suf- fered martyrdom in 1415. It was reserved for Martin Luther to brave the thunders of the Vatican, (the papal palace), and to effect, on a large scale, the Reform so much needed.
Luther was an Augustinian Monk, and a professor of Theology at Wittemberg, when he first ventured to preach against the abuse of indulgences, then offered for sale there, by Tetzel, a Dominican friar or monk, A. D. 1517. This was followed by long and widening disputations ; and in 1519, Luther, sustained by the elector Frederick of Saxony, began to deny the title of the pope to supremacy or infal- libility. He was excommunicated by the pope, Leo X., in 1520; and outlawed by Charles V., by the Edict of fForms, in 1521 ; but he lived to translate the Bible into the German language, and to see
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the J^eformation widely spread, before his death, in 1546. Luther rejected the spurious sacraments, retaining only baptism and the eucharist ; but he believed that the body and blood of our Saviour are actually present in the sacramental bread and wine ; which doctrine is called consubttantiation or impancUion. He exploded the doctrine of purgatory, auricular confession, monastic vows, priesdy celibacy, salvation by merit, works of supererogation, indulgences, prayers to saints, worship of images, and also the adoration of the hosty or image of our Saviour, held up during the Roman mass.
The early Lutherans believed in the predestination of mankind to happiness or misery, according to God's foreknowledge of their character ; but this, and other doctrines of his, are more or less modi- fied at the present day. The term Protestanis, was first applied to those Lutheran princes who protested against the unfavorable mea- sures of the diet at Spire^ in 1529 ; and it has since been extended to all the seceders from the Roman Church. The Protestant cause was much aided by the League of Smalcalderit in 1530, and its harmony promoted by the Confession of Augsburg, or articles of faith drawn up by Melancthon, in the same year. In Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, the Lutheran Church is Episcopate or presided over by bishops ; but in Germany its affairs are directed by a Consistory ^ having a president, and different grades of Clergy. The Lutheran church was introduced into the United States by the German setders, as early as 1725.
Calvinism^ embraces the doctrines of John Calvin, professor of Theology at Geneva, who died in 1564. Its leading articles, as adopted by the Genevan Church, and settled by the Synod of Dort in 1618, are called the Five Points $ viz. Totsd depravity ; Uncon- ditional predestination ; Particular redemption ; Effectual calling ; and the Final perseverance of those who are once converted. These doctrines of Calvin have been modified by later theologians ; who are hence called moderate Calvinists ; while those who adopt tliem in full, are termed strict Calvinists. Thtf" Huguenots in France, were mostly Calvinists, tolerated by the Edict of Nantes, in 1598, but expelled by its revocation in 1685. Calvinism still prevails in Swit- zerland, Holland, and Scotland, and to a considerable extent in Eng- land and the United States ; among the Presbyterians, Congregation- alists, and Baptists.
^rminianismt comprehends the doctrines of James Arminius, who was a professor of Theology at Leyden. He promulgated his pecu- liar doctrines in 1591, and died in 1609. He maintained, in opposi- tion to Calvinism, that God's election, or predestination, is only conditional, or the result of his foreseeing what would be men's vo- luntary conduct ; that atonement was made for all men, and offered to them, though not by all accepted ; and he doubted whether con- verts may not fall from a state of grace, and die in their sins. His doctrines were carried much farther by his followers, the Remon- strants, who denied the doctrine of original sin ; and maintained that true believers may fall from grace, not only grossly, but finally. These, and other doctrines, contrary to the settled creed of the Belgic Churches, gave occasion for the General Synod of Dort, (or Dord-
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recht), which met in 1618, and condemned the peculiar tenets of the Arminians ; whose imprudence led to their cruel persecution, till the death of Prince Maurice in 1625. Their doctrines have found most favor among the Wesleyan Methodists.
§ 3. The term Epiicopalians, from the Greek tftiaxonos, a bishop, though applicable to all who acknowledge the office of bishops, is usually confined to the Protestant Episcopal Church, in England and the United States ; called also the English Church, or Church of England. This Church first abjured the papal authority under Henry YIII., in 1533; and again under Queen Elizabeth, after the Catholic reign of Mary. The Episcopalians recognize the office of bishops as of divine institution ; and of course regard it as the only sanctioned form of church government. The Episcopal Church professes to conform to apostolic doctrine and usage ; and traces its fine of bishops back to the primitive ages, before the Roman usurpa- tions and corruptions ; between which, and the extremes of secession and dissension, it seeks to pursue the narrow path of truth. Its Liturgy, or Book of Common Prayer, was compiled by the early Reformers ; its materials being drawn from the Bible, or transmitted from the primitive ages of the Christian church ; and its doctrines are strictly evangelical, adopting neither the views of Calvin, nor those of Arminius exclusively, but conforming to the Bible alone. The first settlers of the United States, at Jamestown, Va., with their clergyman, Mr. Hunt, were Episcopalians.
The Presbyterians, are Protestants, who reject the office of bishops ; and contend that the words cytttrxoKof, or bishop, and ftpta- jSvrepo;, or elder, signify one and the same grade of ministers. Their pastors, accordingly, are ordained by the laying on of hands of other ministers of equal grade ; and their church government is vested in an assembly of delegates from the churches. The General Assem- bly, is recognized as having ecclesiastical authority over all the churches which it represents, or which are represented by it. The Church of Geneva, founded in 1533, was Presbyterian; and most of the Presbyterians are Calvinists. This form of government was introduced into Scotland by John Knox, the reformer, after his visit to Geneva in 1555 ; and retained by the Covenanters both of 1581, and 1643. The first Presbyterian church in the United States, appears to have been erected in Philadelphia, in 1703 ; and the first Presbytery was organized in the following year. Each presbytery consists of several churches ; and several Presbyteries, associated, compose a synod.
The CongregationalistSt are so called because they believe each church or parish to be entirely independent of all others ; its mem- bers having a right to select and ordain their own minister. They admit however of a fellowship and association of the churches, on purely republican principles ; the name Independents, though some- times given to all this denomination, being properly applicable only to those who decline such association. Their tenets are generally Calvinistic ; though some Unitarians claim the name of Congrega- tionalists. The first church of this sect, founded in England in 1602, by John Robinson, was driven by persecution to Holland, and some
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of its members were the first settlers of Plymouth, New England. Another church was formed in England, in 1616, under Mr. Jacobs ; and the name Puritann^ previously applied to various dissenters, was afterwards applied to this denomination.
The name Baptists^ is applied to those Christians who require that baptism should be performed by immersion, as an essential requisite to church communion. Like the ancient Anabaptists, they object to the baptizing of infants. Their peculiar doctrines have been maintained by individuals, from the earliest ages ; but they first became prominent, at the Reformation, among the Mennonites, or followers of Menno, a reformer, who began to preach in Germany, in 1537. In England, the sect of General Baptists arose as early as 1611, under Mr. Smith; but the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists appear to have separated from the Independents, in 1638, under their leader, Mr. Jesse. The first Baptist Church in the United States was founded by Roger Williams, at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1639; and the Baptists are now the most numerous denomination in the United States.
The Methodisti^ are the foUowers of Mr. John Wesliey, who first organized a class of this sect in 1730, aided by Mr. Whitefield. Their doctrines are mostly those of the Church of England ; but leaning rather to Arminianism ; though Mr. Whitefield favored the doctrines of Calvin. They acknowledge the authority of bishops, and style themselves the Methodist Episcopal Church. The name Methodist was first applied to Mr. Charles Wesley, from the sedate- ness and regularity of his life ; and the Methodists aspire to moral perfection or freedom from sin. The first Methodist class in the United States, was formed in the city of New York, by Mr. Philip Embury, in 1766; and the Methodists now rank second in numbers, among the religious denominations of our country.
The Unitarians^ in opposition to the Trinitarians, maintain that Christ was a created being, dependent on the Father; that the Holy Ghost is not a distinct person or essence ; and that the Father alone is truly and properly God. The Socinians, or followers of Laelius Socinns, who died in 1562, and of Faustus Socinus, his nephew, who died in 1604, maintain farther that Christ was a mere man, who had no existence before he appeared on earth ; and they acknowledge him only as a moral teacher, though divinely ap- pointed. Many of the Unitarians are also Socinians. They all reject the doctrine of Christ's atonement for the sins of men ; making our own good works the sole ground of divine acceptance ; and many of them believe that all men will be saved. These prin- ciples date back to the time of Arius and Pelagius ; but the Unita- rians first appeared as a modem sect, in Poland, about 1565 ; in England, under Mr. Biddle, as early as 1660 ; and in the United States, under Dr. Mayhew, as early as 1756. The Universalists generally believe in the Trinity; but maintain that all mankind will be saved, however sinful their lives may have been. Those who believe that the. wicked will be punished for a certain time, before they are beatified, are called Bestorationists ; and their doc- trine has been attributed to Origen, one of the Christian Fathers.
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The fint professedly Universalist Church in the United States, was organized at Gloucester, Mass., under Mr. Murray, in 1779.
The Moravians^ or United Brethren, are a branch of the persecuted Waldenses; but their present organization was effected by Count Zinzendorf in 1727, when they had settled the village of Hemhut on his estate in the east of Saxony. Hence they are sometimes called Hernhuters, They are a smsJl but devoted and evangelical denomi- nation. The SwedenborgianSf or New Jerusalem Church, are followers of Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish baron, who died in 1772. He professed to have received a new revelation, of the true meaning of the Scriptures, which he interpreted in a mystical sense ; and he held to a spiritual communion with angels and departed friends, as a source of consolation and improvement The Quakers, or Friends, are the associates and followers of George Fox, who first began to preach their doctrines, about 1648. They believe in the Trinity, but reject the Sacraments, and allow any of their members to preach, who think themselves moved by the Holy Spirit. The Hickaitest who have seceded from the Orthodox Quakers, incline to the doctrines of the Socinians. The first society of Quakers in the United States was founded by William Penn. The sect called Chrintians, or the Christian Connexion, originated about the year 1800, among seceders from various other denominations ; their lead- ing tenet being entire freedom of opinion in all religious matters. They have no established creed : but profess to make the Bible their sole guide ; leaving every individual to interpret it according to his own judgment.
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SECOND PROVINCE;
ETHNOLOGY.
In the province of Ethnology, we include the study of Nations, geographically and historically ; having regard to their location and strength; their institutions and customs; their origin and history; their distinguished men ; and their imaginative literature ; these last topics being very closely connected with the preceding. The name is derived from the Greek, tevoi^ a nation ; and xoyo;, a discourse. In this province, we comprehend the departments of Geography^ including Statistics, and Voyages and Travels ; Chronography^ or Civil History and Antiquities ; Biography, relating to the lives of Eminent men : and Callography, or the study of Poetry, Romance, and similar miscellaneous literature. The reasons for placing these departments in this order, and in this province, we have ahready briefly explained, [p. 34]]-
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V. DEPARTMENT:
GEOGRAPHY.
In the department of Geography, we would comprise a general description of the earth ; and especially of the nations by which it is inhabited ; in reference to their position and extent ; their productions and resources ; their institutions and improvements ; their manners and customs ; and including the subjects of Statistics, and Voyages and Travels. The name is from the Greek, yi^, the earth ; and ypofco, I describe ; or ypo^, a description : and it is a term which admits of indefinite extension ; since in describing a nation, allusion must be made to its language, laws, and religion, arts and literature ; and in treating of the earth and its productions, we might include the whole range of the physical sciences. The propriety, however, of restricting the term to a single department of human knowledge, as above defined, instead of extending it to comprehend the whole, will, we think, be self-evident : and for this department, we have adopted the present name, in compliance with popular usage, and to avoid the necessity of coining another ; even though one more definite might be found.
Geography is properly subdivided into MathematicaU which describes the form, imaginary circles, and difi^erent modes of repre- senting the earth ; Fh^gicalj which relates to its structure, and ele- mental changes, and to its natural productions ; Topographical^ which relates to places, and their situation, as shown by maps and gazet- teers ; Statistical, which relates to the extent, strength, and resources of nations ; Civil, which relates to nations, in regard to their man- ners and customs, forms of religion and government, and progress in improvements; and Historical, or Progressive Geography, which treats of discovery and colonization ; and changes of names or of boundaries, of places and states. Strictly speaking. Mathematical, and Physical Geography, belong to the studies of Natural PhQosophy, and Natural History ; but as some knowledge of them is necessary for the understanding of the other divisions, we shall here treat briefly of them, as an Introduction to the main subject ; presupposing the slight mathematical knowledge required for their comprehension.
The propriety of considering Statistics as subordinate to, and a part of. Geography, will, we Aink, be sufliciently evident ; though some German writers have so enlarged its boundaries, as to leave little to Geography besides the name. Statistics first received its name and systematic form, from Prof. Achenwall, at Gottingen, in 1749 ; and the term has been but recently introduced into English works. It relates especially to the strength and resources of nations : and collects from Geography, all the data which bear upon this point. The classification of Voyages and Travels, as a part of Geography, and as the sources from which systematic works on this department, 160
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have been chiefly compiled, we think all general scholars must ap- prove. We might, in this course, treat separately, the subjects of Ancient Geography, Modem Geography, Statistics, and Voyages and Travels ; but we prefer, for the sake of unity, the Ethnographical method^ of comprehending every thing which relates to one country or division of the world, under one head.
The General History of Geography, is itself a subject of much interest. The earliest Geographical records which have been pre- served, are the Pentateuch, and other Hebrew Scriptures. They contain much information concerning Judea, and the neighboring regions ; and the division of Canaan among the tribes of Israel. Next to these, are the poems of Homer and Hesiod ; and the historical books of Herodotus, compiled in part from liis own travels. The world, as known in his time, 445 B. C., comprehended only the regions bordering on the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian, and Red -Seas ; extending to Ethiopia in the south, and to India in the east. The Fhomicianst from Tyre and Sidon, had explored the whole Mediterranean, as early as 1000 B. C. ; and we have still an account of the Periplus or voyage of Hanno, the Carthaginian, as far south as Guinea, about 500 B. C. ; and of that of Pytheas of Marseilles^ who ventured by sea, 300 B. C, from the Mediterranean to Britain, and thence to Ultima Thule, which was probably the southern ex- tremity of Norway.* More will be said of Voyages and Travels^ in treating of the Grand Divisions of the earth.
The earliest regular Geographies, now extant, are those of StrabOr who wrote in Greek, and died A. D. 25 ; and of Pomponius Mela, who wrote in Latin, about A. D. 50. They both describe the world as then known, including Britain, and Germany. Much Geographi- cal information is also found in the writings of Aristotle, and in the Natural History of the elder Pliny ; but the best ancient Geography was that of Ptolemy , (Ptolemaeus), who died A. D. 150. It is in eight books, forming part of his Great System, (Mcyoxs/ Svi^toSc;), called by the Arabians, the Almagest ; and it is the first work in which places were defined by their latitude and longitude, as proposed by Hipparchus, who died 125 B. C. The best Arabian Geographies are those of Edrisi, and Abulfeda ; and the first modern European geographer, was Guide of Ravenna, who flourished about A. D. 1500.. The first General Map, which we can mention, was that of EraioS" thenesy 270 B. C. ; and the best ancient Atlas, was that of Agatho- daemon, prepared for the great work of Ptolemy. The famous Peutinger Table, was a map of the military roads of the Visigoths^ compiled as early as A. D. 1190. Tlie invention of the Terrestricd Globe, is attributed to Anaximander, about 580 B. C; and the first modem one is said to have been constructed by Martin Behaim, (Behera, Behin, or Boehme), of Nuremberg, as early as 1492.
A few words on Mathematical Geography, are all which we have room here to offer. The earth is a large globe, or rather an oblaie spheroid; revolving on an imaginary axis, which passes through its centre, and terminates at the north and south poles. That great cir- cle on the earth's surface, which runs east and west, at an equal * The Thule of Agricola, was one of the Shetland Uands. 21 o2
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distance from both the poles* is called the equator. The earth's polar diameter is 7899 miles ; its equatorial diameter 7925 miles ; and its mean circumference 24,856 miles. Its mean distance from the sun is about 95,000,000 miles ; and it revolves around the sun in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds ; that is, from the vernal equinox to this same point again. The tropics, are two small circles, each 23^ 28' from the equator ; that of Cancer being on the north, and that of Capricorn on the south. The polar cir- cleSf are two other imaginary circles, at the same distance, or 23® 28' from the poles ; the Arctic lying around the north, and the Antarctic around the south pole. The distance of these circles from the poles, and from the equator, is determined by the inclina- tion of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, that is, the path which it describes annually around the sun.
These and other small circles, running due east and west, each one of them being everywhere equidistant from the equator, are called parallels of latitude $ while great circles passing through the poles, and crossing the equator at right angles, are called meridians. Lati- tude, is distance measured nortli or south from the equator; and longitude, is distance east or west, from some selected first meridian ; both being measured in degrees and minutes. The ancients sup- posed the earth to have a greater extent eastward and westward, than to the north and south. Hence, distance eastward or westward, they called longitude, or length ; while distance towards the north or south, they termed latitude or breadth.* The ecliptic, is a great circle, fixed in the heavens, but movable on the earth's surface; and always crossing the equator at an angle of 23° 28'; it being the intersection of the plane of the earth's orbit with the earth's surface ; or with the celestial sphere, supposed to be at an infinite distance from the earth, on every side. A map, is a representation of either the whole, or a part, of the earth's surface on a plane ; and a chart, is either a nautical map, or a map on a cylindrical projection, which represents the meridiatis as parallel straight lines, and thus magnifies the parts towards the poles. The data for maps are obtained from Surveying and Practical Astronomy ; but the principles of their con- struction, belong to Descriptive Geometry.
On Physical Geography, we must here be extremely brief; but more will be said on this subject, in the province of Physiconomy. Tlie earth rotates, or turns on its axis, once in 24 hours ; thereby causing the alternation of day and night : and it revolves around the sun once in a year, which period of time it measures by this motion. Its annual path or orbit, is a plane curve, nearly circular, but slighdy elliptical ; and its axis is oblique to its orbit, but continues nearly parallel to itself; always pointing towards the north star in the hea- vens, and thus causing the obliquity of the equator to the ecliptic. Hence, in our summer, the north pole inclines towards the sun, causing long and warm days ; although the earth is then farthest from the sun ; but in our winter the case is the reverse. Thus, the
• Thus idea is illustrated by Ptolemy's Map of the World, (Plate V.), the copy of which here inserted is taken from the one in Cemotis' translation of Ptole- my's Geography, pohlished at Venice, in 1598.
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:^' .^'/f-^-^ ^^'^""-
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obliquity of the earth's axis causes the changes of the seasons, and the inequality of the days and nights. At the equator, the days and nights are ot equal length throughout the year ; but in all other parts of the earth there is an inequality, which continually increases as we approach the poles. In latitude 41° 21' the longest day is 15 hours; in latitude 58° 25% it is 18 hours; at the polar circles it is 24 hours ; and at each pole the sun continues above the horizon six months at a time, appearing to describe a horizontal circle, every day, and never rising higher than 23° 28'.
The inequality of the sun's heat, in different parts of the earth, causes the difference of Climates ; as approximately indicated by the different zones. The torrid zone lies between the tropics ; the temperate zones extend from the tropics to the polar circles, being designated as the northern and southern ; and the frigid zones extend from the polar circles to the poles. The climate of the Torrid zone is generally hot ; that of the Temperate zones, warm or variable ; and that of the Frigid zones, intensely cold. Mountainous regions are always colder than low ones ; and even at the equator, at the height of three miles above the level of the sea, there is perpetucU snow. The animal and vegetable productions of the earth, vary with the climate ; having reference, of course, to the altitude of each locality. The smaller and more hardy animals and plants are gene- rally found in the colder regions ; and the larger animals and plants, including the more venomous and poisonous, are found chiefly in the torrid zone. Of these, however, and of the mineral productions, and internal structure of the earth, we must defer further notice, to the department of Idiophysics.
The tides in the ocean, are chiefly caused by the moon's attrac- tion, as it revolves around the earth ; but partly by the attraction of the sun. Similar tides doubtless exist in the atmosphere, or vestment of mr, which surrounds the earth, extending to the height of 40 or 45 miles on every side. The tides follow the moon's apparent diurnal motion from east to west ; and are generally highest at any place, about two hours after the moon has crossed the meridian ; there being a high tide directly on the opposite side of the earth at the same time : but, by the obstructions which the land presents, they are subjected to great irregularities. When the tide is rising at any place, it is said to he flood-tide; but when it is falling, it is called ebb-tides there being two flood tides, and two ebbs in about 25 hours ; and the extremes of flood and ebb being called high and low water. The highest tide in the world, is at Cumberland Head, in the Bay of Fundy, where the greatest difference between high and low water, at spring tides, when the attractions of the sun and moon are united, is 71 feet.
The air, when heated, expands and rises ; while colder air rushes in below, to supply its place ; thus producing winds, or currents of air. The trade-vnnds extend about 30° on each side of the equator, and blow towards it, because it is in the warmest region ; but they also incline westward, and, along the equator, blow almost directly from the east, because they come from those parts of the earth that are not moving eastward so fast as the equator is, by the earth's diurnal
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rotation. The tnonsoonSf between the Himmaleh Mountains and Mountains of the Moon, blow from the north-east in summer, and from the south-west in winter ; always from the colder to the warmer region. The hurricanes of the West Indies, and the typhoons of the East Indies, are also produced chiefly by the action of heat ; and the simoom or samiel of the eastern deserts, owes its deleterious effects to its hotness, and dryness, and the sand which it bears along. When this blast is felt in Italy, it is called the sirocco; but on the western coast of Africa, it is named harmattan. The farther causes of clouds, rains, and storms, must be reserved for the study of Me- teorology ; and the action of the elements upon the land, will be alluded to in the branch of Geologj'.
To Physical Geography belongs a description of the different races of men ; of which there are five principal : the European^ or white ; the Asiatic J or yellow ; the American, or red ; the Malay, or brown ; and the African, or black ; all of which are here arranged according to their oegree of civilization. By the degree of civilization, is meant the progress of any race or people in arts and refinement. Of these degrees, we may reckon five ; the enlightened, civilized, half civilized, barbarous, and savage ; of which we have no room here to speak farther. The European or Caucasian race is characterised by a lighter complexion ; a more oval face ; and generally by a greater degree of intelligence and refinement, than the other races possess. The Asiatic or Tartar race, has a more yellow complexion ; a face nearly square, with dark and straight hair, full cheeks, and small eyes ; and this race ranks second in intellectual power and improve- ment. The Malay race, much resembles the Asiatic ; but has a brown or tawny complexion ; and is generally inferior to the Asiatic race, in the mental scale. The American or Indian race, is charac- terised by a copper-colored complexion; straight, black hair; low forehead, and very prominent cheek bones ; and this race is gene- rally found in a half civilized or barbarous state. The African, or Negro race, is distinguished by a black or dark complexion, short curly hair, receding A)rehead, and prominent cheeks ; and it holds the lowest place in the scale of improvement.
We shall close this introduction with a glance over General Topo- graphical Geography, or the natural features of the earth. More than two-thirds of the earth's surface is covered with water ; the largest bodies of which are called oceans; five in number. The Arctic Ocean surrounds the north pole ; and the Austral or Antarctic Ocean, surrounds the south pole ; this name being usually applied to that portion of the continuous waters, which lies beyond the 50th degree of south latitude. The Pacific Ocean is about 11,000 miles wide ; and the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are each about 3000 miles wide, at their widest part. A sea is a large body of water, next in size to an ocean ; and a gulf or hay, is usually a smaller body of water, also partly enclosed by land : but the terms sea, gxdf, and bay, have been applied in many cases without discrimination. A strait, is a narrow passage, and a channel, a wider passage of water, between two larger portions : and a shallow passage is called a sound, A harbor, is a small bay, where ships are sheltered by
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sarrounding land ; and a road, is an outer harbor, or place of anchor- age. A lake, is a body of water quite surrounded by land, and usually fresh ; salt lakes being mostly called seas. A river, is a large stream of water, formed by the union of smaller streams or brooks, and flowing from the higher lands into some ocean, sea, or lake.
The land consists principally of two Continents or vast regions, not completely divided by water. The Eastern Continent comprises three grand divisions, Asia, Europe, and Africa ; and the Western Continent or America, comprises two. North and South America. If to these we add Oceanica, a name applied by Malte-Brun to the islands south and east of Asia, we shall have six grand divisions of the land ; each including the adjacent islands. An island, is a smaller body of land, surrounded by water. Islands may be regarded as mountains or highlands, projecting above water ; as lakes are val- leys or lowlands, overflowed. A mountain, is a lofty portion of land, forming either an insulated peak, or a continuous range, or chain. A volcano, is a mountain which, either continually or at intervals, emits fire, smoke, and lava ; serving as a chimney to the subterranean fires. Its conical aperture, is called a crater. Of more than 200 known volcanoes, about one-half are found in America.
A basin or valley, is an extent of country bounded by mountains or highlands, and watered by a single river, with its branches. A phnn, is a level region ; whether low, as the prairies, savannas, or pampas of America ; or elevated, as the steppes of Asia. A desert, is a region which, whether sandy, dry, or cold, is destitute of vege- tation. An isthmus, is a narrow neck of land, connecting two larger portions. A peninsula, is a portion of land almost surrounded by water, but connected with some larger portion ; as Africa, and South America. A cape, is a point of land projecting into the sea ; and a high precipitous cape is called a promontory. The land is subdi- vided by mankind into countries, occupied by different nations ; these, again, into states, provinces, cantons, or departments ; and these are often subdivided into smaller portions, under various names ; containing cities, totons, and villages ; the fruits of civilization. Of edifices, roads, canals, and other works of art we shall speak farther in the province of Technology.
We proceed to treat more particularly of Geography, under the six Grand Divisions, of Asia ; Europe ; Africa ; North America ; South America ; and Oceanica.
CHAPTER I.
ASIATIC GEOGRAPHY.
Asia, the largest grand division of the earth, was the cradle of mankind, and the seat of some of the earliest empires mentioned in history. Central Asia became known to the Greeks, by the expedi- tions of Alexander ; and Thibet and Hindoostan were known to the Romans ; the latter by means of the navigation from the Red Sea to
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OEOGRAPHT.
India, which commenced nearly at the Christian Era. China be- came slig^htiy known to the Romans, at a later period ; and to the Arabians, as early as A. D. 850. Western Asia became better known to Europe by means of the Crusades ; and Eastern Asia, by the Travels of Marco Polo, {or Paulo), the Venetian, 1271-97; of Schildberger, a German soldier, in 1396 and after ; and of Mandt" ville, an Englishman, 1327-66, whose statements, however, are doubtful. The discovery of the southern passage to India by Vaaco De Gama, in 1498, led to a farther knowledge of the East, and the establishment of Portuguese settlements in Hindoostan. Sequeira sailed to Chin-India in 1610: China was first visited by sea, by Andrade, in 1517 ; and Japan was discovered by the Portuguese in 1542. The English, under Willoughby, in 1544; and the Dutch navigators, in 1596, attempted a passage through the Arctic Ocean to India; but both failed. The Cossack Deshnew, is said to have sailed from the north, through Behring's Straits, in 1648 ; but this passage was named from the Russian Capt. Behring, (or Beering), who visited it in 1726. Of later Asiatic voyages and travels, we have no room here to speak ; but some of them will be referred to, in the Bibliographical Catalogue, appended to this work.
The following is a table of the extent in square miles, and number of inhabitants of the different countries of Asia, as nearly as we can ascertain.
Countrut. S^ Miles. InkaHtants.
Corea 80,000. 6,000,000
Thibet 450,000. 10,000,000
ChinMeTartaiy 3,000,000. 16,000,000
Indpt Tartary . . 700,000. 7,000,000
Asiatic Russia. .5,300,000. 10,000,000
Japanf 280,000 . 20,000,000
ToTAt 15,770,000.520,000,000
TnkahitaiUs. 11,000,000 9,000,000 10,000,000 11,000,000
Countries. Sq. Miles. Asiatic Turkey.. 460,000.
Arabia 1,000,000.
Persia 480,000.
East Persia 470,000 .
Hindoostan 1,200,000. 130,000,000
Chin-India 850,000. 30,000,000
China' 1,500,000.250,000,000
We proceed to treat of the different countries in Asia, in the order above named.
§ 1. The south-western portion of Asia, extending to Hindoostan, was probably the first inhabited portion of the earth. Its productions are wheat, rice, figs, olives, and grapes ; oil, wine, and silk. The travelling is generally performed in caravans, on camels, especially over the deserts, though the finest horses are found in Arabia. In all this region the Mohamedan religion still prevails ; and females are held in a state of seclusion, almost amounting to slavery. Asiatic Turkey, in the extreme west of Asia, comprehends the ancient Asia Minor, in the west; Armenia, in the north-east; Mesopotamia, be- tween the rivers Euphrates and Tigris ; Assyria, east of the Tigris; and Babylonia and Chaldea, around the mouths of the Euphrates ; the latter being farthest south ; though these names are sometimes confounded. The ancient city of Bt&ylon jvas on the Euphrates, at some distance from its mouth ; and Nineveh or Ninus was far up the
* llie population of China is variously stated, at from 150 to 350 millions of in- habitants. We think a medium statement the safest.
f The other Islands lying near Asia, on the south and east, are included in Oceanica.
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Tigris. Mount Ararat, on which the ark rested after the flood, is supposed to be in Armenia, ^sia Minora between the Mediterra- nean and the Pontus Eux%nu$^ now called the Black Sea, contained the states of Pontus^ in the north-east ; Paphlagonia, and Bithynia in the north ; Musia^ Lydia and Caria in the west ; Lycia, Pan^ phylia and Cilicia in the soath; Cappadocia in the east; and Phrygia and Galatia in the interior. The ancient city of TVoy, or Ilium, was in Mysia; and the cities of the seven churches, were in or near the western part of Asia Minor. Smyrna, is still the largest city in Asiatic Turkey ; Erzerum, the next; and Bagdad, on the Tigris, was long the capital of the Caliphs. The region between the Caucasus Mountains and the Black Sea, inhabited by the tribe of Kurds, (or Curds), is sometimes called Kurdistan. The islands of Cyprus, and Rhodes, (Rhodus), south of Asia Minor, retain their an- cient names ; and still belong to the Turkish Empire, of which more will be said in treating of Europe.
Syria, lies along the east end of the Mediterranean Sea, which portion, with the adjacent region, is often called the Levant. Syria now comprehends the ancient Phcenicia, or land of the cities Ture and Sidon; and south of it, Palestine or the Holy Land, extending to Arabia Petrsa in the south-west. It contains the ancient Palmyra, or Tadmor, in the east; Balbec, (Baalbec), or Heliopolis, toward the west ; Damascus, south-south-east of Balbec ; and Antiock in the north-west. Palestine, the ancient Canaan, comprehended Persia, and farther north Batanssa, both east of the river Jordan ; Galilee in the north-west ; Samaria south of it, and Judsea in the south- west, between the Mediterranean and the Lake Asphaltites, or Dead Sea. Jerusalem or Hierosolyma, the capital of Palestine, was in the northern part of Judaea ; and Samaria, was in the northern part of the province to which it gave name. The Twelve Tribes of Is- rael, and their location in Pdestine, we have no room here to men- tion, (p. 161). Damascus, is still the largest city in Syria, but Aleppo, not far from ancient Antioch, is the capital. Syria belongs at present to the Turkish Empire; having been recently recovered from the Pacha of Egypt, by the aid of other European Powers. Bagdad constitutes a distinct sultanry : but is tributary to Turkey.
Arabia, like S3nria, retains its ancient name, and extent ; reaching from the Mediterranean, on the north-west, to the ErytkrsRum Mare, or Sea of Arabia, in the south-east ; and from the Sinus Arabicus, or Red Sea, in the south-west, to the Sinus Persicus, or Persian Gulf. It is usually divided into Arabia Petrsea, or the stony, including the ancient land of Edom, or Idumea, in the north-west; Arabia Felix, or the happy, in the south ; and Arabia Deserta, or the desert, ex- tending from the centre towards the east and north. In the first of these divisions are the mountains Sinai, and Horeb, near the Red Sea. The chief cities of Arabia, are Mecca, the capital, in the west ; Medina, north of it ; Sana and Mocha, in the south ; and Muscat, which has its own sultan, in the east. Arabia is the land of the ancient Ishmaelites ; and the cradle of the Mohamedan religion. It is governed by independent chiefs ; but much of the western coast is subject to the Pacha of Egypt.
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Persia^ lies east of Turkey, between the Persian Gulf, and Mare Caspiumf or Caspian Sea. It contains the ancient Persia proper, in the centre and south ; part of Susiana^ in the west-south-west, ex* tending to the mouth of the Euphrates; Media, in the north-west; Hyrcania and Partkia, in the north ; and Carmania, in the south- east. The ancient Persepolis, was in the southern part of Persia proper. Ispahan, the ancient Aspadana, is the largest city ; but Teheran, farther north, is now the capital. Eastward of these two cities lies the Great Salt Desert, extending to East Persia. Shiraz is a large city in the south ; Tabreez in the north-west ; Meshid in the north-east; and Yezd lies eastward of Ispahan. The religion of Persia is M ohamedan ; learning and the arts are in a low state ; and the government is monarchical; the Shah having despotic power. East Persia, comprehends the ancient Aria, since called Khoras- san, in the north and north-west ; and Gedrosia in the south. On the north, it has the ancient Paropamisan mountains, now called Hindoo Koosh; and it extends eastward to the river Indus. It is usually divided into Afghanistan, in the north ; and Beloochistan, in the south ; so named from the Afghan, and Beloochee tribes ; both of which are subdivided, under independent chiefs. The chief cities are Cabul, between Candahar and Peshawur, in the north-east; Herat, in the north-west, and Kelat, in the south. The sovereigns are tyrannical ; but the whole country is in a very unsettled state ; the fortress of Qhiznee, which was the ancient capital, called Ghazna, not far south of Cabul, having been taken, in 1839, by an English and native army from Hindoostan.
§ 2. The Indies, or East Indies, so called for ages past, com- preliend Hindoostan, and the peninsula east of it, now named Chin India. They are the land of sugar and rice, cotton and silk, coffee and spices, which have long been objects of commerce to more western nations. The elephant is there a beast of burthen ; and the tiger and anaconda prowl in the luxuriant groves of the bamboo, banyan, or palm. The religion is Paganism, and the people are degraded by gross superstition ; but numerous missionaries are there, striving to diffuse the light of science and of Christianity.
Hindoostan, was called from remote times, India within the Ganges; extending on the east to the Sinus-Gangeticus, or Bay of Bengal, Its chief rivers are the Ganges in the east ; and the Indus, or Sind, on the western frontier. The Himmaleh or Himalaya mountains, on the north, are the highest known; Choumalarie, the loftiest peak, being nearly five and a half miles high. Ceylon, south of Hindoostan, is its principal island. The eastern and southern parts of Hindoostan are subject to the British ; and the other parts are under separate chiefs, roost of whom are tributary to Great Bri- tain ; so that nearly all Hindoostan is under British control ; acquired tlirough the agency of the East India Company, which has an army of 200,000 men, and a revenue of about $100,000,000. Among the cities subject to it, are Calcutta, the capital ; Patna, and Benares, on the Ganges; Madras, in the south-east; and Sural, and Bombay, in the west. Delhi, towards the north, is the capital of the Great Mogul, who is now a petty prince : Lucknow, farther east, belongs
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to the nabob of Oude ; Lahore^ in the nortli, is the capital of the Seiks ; and Poonah^ near Bombay, belongs to the Mahrattas. Gwoh Kor, south of Delhi and Agra, is said to be the capital of Scindiah, the most independent of the Mahratta chiefs ; and Hyderabad is the capital of Sinde, bordering on the Indus. Goa belongs to the Portu- guese ; Pondicherry, to the French ; and Tranquebar^ to the Danes. British Hindoostan has a governor general, appointed by the sovereign of Great Britain. The Hindoos, or natives, are divided into heredi- tary castes; of which the Brahmins rank the highest ; while the lower castes are in a very degraded state.
Chin-India, is a name recently given to the region previously called India beyond the Ganges ; extending from the Bay of Ben- gal, on the west, to the Sea of China, on the east. It comprehends the Birman Empire, including Ava and Pegu, in the west ; Siam^ including part of Laos, in the centre ; the empire of Anam, or Annan, in the east ; and Malacca, in the south. The British pos- sess Arracan, in the north-west ; and some parts of Malacca. The empire of Anam comprehends Tonquin, and part of Laos, in the north; Cochin China, in the south-east; and Cambodia, in the south. The largest rivers of Chin-India, are the Irrawaddy, in the west ; and the Cambodia ; between which is the Meinam, flowing into the Gulf of Siam. The chief cities are Ava, Ummerapoora, and Ran' goon, in Birmah ; the latter being farthest south ; Bankok, in Siam ; and in Anam, are Hue, the central capital, Kesho, in the north, and Saigon, in the south. The Birmans are said to be intelligent ; the Siamese deceitful ; and the Malays piratical. The religion is Boodh- ism, and the governments are despotic.
§ 3. The Chinese Empire, includes China, Corea, Thibet, and Chinese Tartary. It is the most populous, and one of the richest empires known ; but embraces a great variety of people, climate, and productions. The southern parts of this empire are warm and fertile ; but the northern, are cold and barren. China proper, called Sinse by the later Romans, extends from the China Sea, northward to the Chinese Wall ; which is 1500 miles long, and was built 2000 years ago, as a defence against the Tartars. Its chief rivers are the Hoang'Ho, in the north; and the Kiang-Ku or Yang-Tse-Kiang, which runs eastward through the centre, and is nearly 2,800 miles long, being the longest in Asia. The Imperial Canal, in the north- east, crossing both these rivers, is 500 miles long, and the longest in the world. Hainan, on the south, Formosa, on the south-east, and the Loo-Koo (Leoo Keoo, or Liu Chiu) Islands, on the east, belong to China. The chief cities are Pekin, the capital, in the north-east, containing 1,500,000 inhabitants; Canton, in the south ; and Nankin^ Soot chow, Hangtchow, (or Hangtcheou), and Kingteching, in the east. China produces rice, cotton, and silk; supplies the world with tea; and excels in the manufacture of porcelain. The religion is chiefly Boodhism ; the government is despotic ; and the learning of the Chinese mostly superficial.
Corea, east of the Yellow Sea, is a small peninsula, tributary to China. Kingkifao is its capital, and chief city. Thibet, the ancient Serica, including Boo tan, which is tributary to it, lies west of 22 P
Digitized by
170 GEOOBAPHT.
China, and extends southward to the Himmaleh mountains. The chief rivers of China and Chin-India rise in Thibet ; and the Bur* rampooter runs through it, and through British India, to the Bay of Bengal. Lassa is the capital, and residence of the Grand Lama ; but Jigagungaft east of it, is said to be the largest city.
Chinese Tartary, to which alone the name of Tartary properly belongs, lies north of Thibet, China, and Corea ; extending north- ward to the Altaian (or Altay) mountains ; and eastward to Sie SeoB of Japan and Okotsk. It is divided into Mantchooria^ (or Mand- shuria), in the east ; including the island of Seghalien (or Saghalien); Mongolia, in the central part ; and Soongaria, Little Bucharia, and Little Thibet, in the west. The western part was anciently called Scythia extra Imaum ; being beyond the mountains of Jmaus, in regard to the Romans. The largest river of this region is the Amoor, (or Saghalien), in the east ; and the great desert of Cobi (or Shamo) occupies much of the interior ; being 2,000 miles long. Its chief cities are Seghalien and Chin^Vang, in the east; Caahgar, and Yarkand, in the west. The Tartar tribes are mostly rovers ; living in tents, subsisting chiefly on the produce of their flocks, and held in slight subjection to China.
The Empire of Japan, consists of several islands east of the Sea of Japan ; the largest of which are Niphon, the principal ; Jeuot north of it; and Kiusiu, to the south-west The chief cities are Jeddo, the capital, said to contain 1,300,000 inhabitants, Miaco, (or Meaco), and Osaca; all on the island of Niphon. The religion is Paganism, in various forms ; and the government is despotic. The people resemble the Chinese, in their bigotry, their manners, and their devotion to agricultural pursuits.
§ 4. The Northern Part of Asia, is generally very cold and bar- ren ; and hence thinly inhabited, and imperfectly known. Independ' ent Tartary, more properly called TYirkistan, (or Turkestan), as being the original country of the Turks, comprehends the ancient Bactriana, in the south ; Sogdiana, in the centre ; and Scythia intra Imaum, in the north and east; extending eastward to the mountains of Imaus, now called Beloor, or Belur Tag. It includes the Aral Sea, and the rivers which flow into it ; the Cihon, in the east ; and the Amoo, (formerly Gihon or Jihon), the ancient Oxu8, This country is now held by the Turcomans, in the west ; the Kirghees, (or Kirguis), in the north; and the Ushecks in Khokan, Khiva, Great Bucharia, and Koondooz, The chief cities are Bucharia, Samarcand, and Balk, (the ancient Bactra), all lying towards the south; Khokan, and Tashkent, in the east; and Khiva, south of the Sea of Aral. Khooloom, in the south-east, is the ca'pital of Koondooz. The Usbecks are more civilized ; but the other tribes still live a nomadic or pastoral and wandering life. They are governed solely by their khans, or chiefs ; and the prevailing religion is the Mohamedan.
Russian Asia, including Siberia, extends from the Ural Mountains and river Volga, (or Wolga), on the west, to the sea of Kamtschatka, and Bhering*s Straits, on the east ; and is inhabited by numerous tribes, among which are the Samoieds, and Ostiaks, in the west ;
Digitized by
EUROPEAN.
171
the ThsngouseSi in the centre; and the Yakoutes^ KoricAa, and KamtschaikanSj in the east. The province of Georgia^ between the Black and Caspian seas, including the ancient Colchis, Iberia, and Albania; and the province of Circassia farther north, including part of the ancient Carmalia, are nominally a part of the Russian empire ; but are at present struggling for independence. The chief rivers of Siberia are the Obi, which unites with the Irtish in the west ; and the Yenisei, and Lena, more central, all running north- ward into the Arctic Ocean. On the north are the islands Kotelnoi and New Siberia; and on the east the Aleutian or Fox Islands, which belong rather to Russian America. Among the cities, are Tobolsk, the capital, with Orenburg and Astracan, in the west, the latter being farthest south ; Tomsk on the Obi ; Irkutsk, on Lake Baikal ; Yakutsk, on the Lena ; and Okotsk (or Ochotsk) on the sea of that name, in the extreme east. Siberia produces furs and minerals ; but adds little to the strength of the Russian empire, to which it belongs. It serves as a place of banishment for criminals, particularly those condemned for political crimes ; whose lives are often shortened by this severe punishment.
CHAPTER II.
EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY.
Europe, though the smallest grand division of the earth, has ex- celled all the others in civiliz«.tion ; and has made far the greater number of discoveries and improvements, in literature, sciences and arts. The southern and central parts of Europe, we have already said, were known to the ancient civilized world ; of which Italy and Greece formed important portions. The papal missionaries in northern and north-eastern Europe, acquired much information of those parts ; (p. 148) ; but the earliest authentic account of northern Europe was written by Alfred the Great of England ; who, in 901, sent Other to sail around the North Cape, to the White Sea, and Wulstan to explore the Gulf of Finland ; both of which objects were attained. Iceland was discovered in 861, by Naddodr, a Nor- wegian pirate ; Spitzbergen or East Greenland, in 1553, by ^tV Hugh tfilloughby, and Nova Zembla is said to have been dis- covered by English navigators, in 1556. Of the numerous modem travels in Europe, we have no room here to speak.
The following statement is the most correct that we can offer of some important statistics of the leading powers of Europe.
|
Nation. |
Debt. |
RsTenue. |
Army. |
Navy. |
|
Dollarg. |
DolUrt. |
Jin. |
SAi>*. |
|
|
Great Britain. |
3,700,000,000 |
300,000,000 |
110.000 |
600 |
|
France |
820,000,000 |
140,000,000 |
330,000 |
300 |
|
RaMia |
200,000,000 |
80,000,000 |
700,000 |
160 |
|
Austria |
225,000,000 |
52,000,000 |
280,000 |
30 |
|
Prussia |
115,000,000 |
35,000.000 |
150,000 |
6 |
|
Turkey |
35,000,000 |
40.000,000 |
200,000 |
100 |
|
Spain |
400,000,000 |
26,000,000 |
50,000 |
26 |
Digitized by
172 OXOORAPHT.
The following is the most accurate table which we can form of the extent and population of the different countries of Europe.
CMialricf. S§. MiU». TnUhiUmU.
Baden 5,700.. 1,200,000
Wartembarg 7,600.. 1,600,000
Bavaria 30,000.. 4,200,000
Saxony 6,600.. 1,600,000
Hanover 14,600.. 1,600,000
Smaller Ger. St.. . 28,000.. 4,300,000
Austria 256,000. .34,000,000
Proffia 106,000. . 14,000,000
Denmark & Iceland 5 1,300 . . 2, 100,000 Sweden &. Norway 290,000 . . 4, 1 00,000 Raoiia and Raa. Poland 1,850,000.. 60,000,000
European Turkey. 200,000. . 10,000,000 Greece &. Ion. Is. . 20,000. . 1,000,000
TwoSicUiea 42,000.. 7,500,000
Papal Sutea 17,500.. 2,600,000
Lombardo-VenetU 18,500.. 4,500,000 Italian Dutcbies.. 13,200.. 2,300,000
TwoSazdinias 29,000.. 4,500,000
Spain 180.000. . 12.000,000
Portugal 45,000.. 3,500.000
France 202,000. .33,600,000
Great Britain 120,000. .25,300,000
Belgium 12,800.. 4,200,000
Holland 11,000.. 2,600,000
Switzerland 16,000.. 2,100,000
Total 8,672,700 244,400,000
We proceed to treat of the countries and states of Europe, in the order above named.
$ 1. The Southern Countries of Europe have a mild climate, and are fertile in the olive and grape, in corn, oil and wine. The present inhabitants are generally less active and enterprising than those farther north ; but they still excel in the fine arts ; and the spirit of ancient liberty, though fettered there, is not yet annihilated.
Turkey in Europe, extends from the Fontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, and the sea of Marmora, the ancient Fropontis, on the east ; to the Gulf of Venice, the ancient Mare Hadriaticum, on the west ; and the Archipelago, the ancient JEgasum Mare, on the south. It includes the ancient Thracia, in the south-east; Mceaia, in the cen- tral part, stretching eastward and westward; Dacia, north of the Danube; Ulyricumt bordering on the Gulf of Venice, in the west; Macedonia, south of the Hxmus, now Balkan Mountains ; with part of Theaaalia and Epirua ; the latter in the south-we&t, and both belonging to ancient Greece. The more modern state of Servia is in the north-western ; and M^allachia and part of Moldavia are in the north-eastern part of Turkey. The ancient cities of Philippi and ThesBalonica were in Macedonia ; the latter being the modern Salo' nica. The chief cities of Turkey, are Constantinople, the capital, formerly called Byzantium, and Adrianople, in the east ; Bucharest, in the north, and Salonica, in the south. The island of Candia, the ancient Creta, with many smaller ones, in the Archipelago, belongs to Turkey. The religion of this country is the Mohamedan ; the government has but recently become a limited monarchy, the Sultan being at its head ; aUd education, learning and the arts are still in a backward state.
Greece, now an independent monarchy, retains its classic name, and nearly its ancient limits ; comprehending the Morea, or ancient Peloponnesus, south of the Sinus Corinthiacus, now Gulf of Lepanto ; and the province of Livadia, or the ancient Grsccia pro- pria, with part of Thessaly Siiid Epirus, north of that Gulf: besides the island of Negropont, the ancient Eubcea, and other smaller islands in the Archipelago. The ancient Peloponnesus contained the states of Argolis and Laconia^ in the east ; Messmia and Elis
Digitized by
EUROPEAN. 173
in the west ; Achaia and Corinthia, in the north ; and Arcadia, in the interior. Lacedsemon, or Sparta, was the capital of Laconia ; Olympia, of Elis ; and Corinth, of Corinthia. In Graecia Propria, were the states of Attica, east of the isthmus of Corinth; and farther north, proceeding towards the west, were Boeotia, Phocia, the Locri, Doris, JEtolia, and Acarnania ; this latter bordering on ihe Gulf of Venice. Athens was the ancient capital of Attica ; Thebss or Thebes, of Bceotia ; and Delphi, of Phocis. The more northern states were Thessaly, in the east, and Epirus, in the west ; which belong only in part to modem Greece. Athens, the present capital, and Corinth, retain their classic names ; and among the other cities are Napoli, in the south-east, near the ancient Argos, in Argolis ; and Navarino and Missolonghi, in the west. The Republic of the Ionian Islatids, Cephalonia, Zante, Corfu and others, on the west- em coast of Greece, is under the protection of Great Britain.
lialy, retains its ancient name ; including the ancient Magna Grsecia, in the south ; and Gallia Cisalpina, or Cisalpine Gaul, in the north. Magna Grsecia contained the provinces of Messapia, in the east; Bruttii, in the south; and farther north, Lucania and Apulia, Paestum, in the south-west, was a city of Lucania, and Cfannse, in the east, a village of Apulia. Italia Propria, contained the states of Etruria or Tuscia, north-west of Rome ; Latium south-east of it, Campania, farther south ; Samnium, east of Latium ; and numerous tribes or states in the east and north-east. Gallia Cisalpina included Venetia, in the north-east ; Liguria, in the west, and numerous tribes between. Italy is now divided into the King- dom of the Two Sicilies, in the south ; the States of the Church, or Papal States, next north; and the several Duchies of Tuscany, Lucca, Modena and Parma, in the central part: the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, including Lombardy, and subject to Austria, in the north-east and north ; and the Kingdom of Sardinia, including Savoy, or as it might be called, the Two Sardinias, in the north- west ; the two latter states extending to the Alps, or Alpes Monies of the ancients. The largest river in Italy, is the Po, the ancient Padus ; south-eastward from which runs the Appenine range of Mountains ; and Italy contains two of the most celebrated volcanoes in the world ; Vesuvius, near Naples ; and Etna, on the island of Sicily. The chief cities of Italy are, in the Two Sicilies, Naples, anciently Neapolis, the capital, on the main land ; and Syracuse, and Palermo, the ancient Panormus, on the island of Sicily: in the States of the Church, Pome, Ancona, and Bologna : in Tusca- ny, Florence and Leghorn: in the other duchies, capitals bearing their names ; in the Lomhardo-Venetian Kingdom, Venice, and Milan; and in the Sardinias, 7\irin, and Genoa, Italy has a com- mon language, literature, and religion, and excels in the fine arts; but its divided states suffer from their unhappy political condition.
Spain, called by the ancient Romans, IRspania, and by the Greeks, Iberia, formerly included Portugal t and extended, as it now does, from the Fretum Herculeum, or Straits of Gibraltar, on the south, to the Oeeanus GaUicus or Aquitanicus, the Bay of Bis- cay, on the north. IRspania was divided, under Augustus, into
r2
Digitized by
174 OEOORAPHT.
Lusitania, now Portugal, in the south-west; Bsetica, in the south; and TarraconenaU, previously called Hispania Citerior^ in the north and east ; each inhabited by various tribes. The largest rivers of Spain, are the Ebro^ or ancient Iberus, in the east; and the Douroy Tagus, and Guadiana, this last anciently called ^nas, in the west. The Pyrenees, or Pyrenaci Monies^ separate Spain from France ; and to Spain belong the Balearic Isles, Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, in the Mediterranean ; as also the Canaries, and some of the fFest Indies. Madrid is the capital, centrally located ; and among the other cities of Spain, are Saragossa, Barcelona, Valen- cia, and Carthagena, (anciently Carthago Nova), in the east; and Granada, Malaga, Cadiz, Seville, and Cordova, in the south. Spain has many shepherds, and grows excellent wool ; but agri- culture and the arts are nearly prostrate, from long civil wars, and the efTects of luxury and superstition. Portugal, the ancient Lusi- tania, is in a similar state to that of Spain. Its chief cities are Lisbon, the capital, anciently Olisipo ; and in the north, Oporto, The Azores, Madeiras, and Cape Verde Islands, belong to Portugal ; and, like it, furnish large supplies of wine for exportation. Here, as in Spain, the Roman religion, supported by its Convents and In- quisition, long held absolute sway.
§ 2. We proceed next to the Geography of France, and Great Britain ; wliich are strongly associated by historical, political, com- mercial, and scientific relations. Both are constitutional monarchies ; but in France, the Roman Catholic religion prevails ; while in Great Britain t!ie Protestant is the established religion ; though in both countries other denominations are tolerated.
France, the ancient Gallia, or Gallia Transalpina, extends from the Fretum Gallicum, or English Channel, on the north, to the Gallicus Sinus, a part of the Mediterranean, on the south. It was the land of the Gauls ; and comprehended Narbonensis, in the south- east ; Aquitania, in the south-west ; Lugdunensis, in the centre and north-west ; and Belgica, in the north-east. At a later period, it com- prehended, among others, the provinces of Provence, with Dau- phiny north of it, and Languedoc west of it, all in the south-east ; Gascony, and, north-east of it, Guienne, both in the south-west ; Poitou and Jinjou, in the west : Brittany and Normandy, in the north-west; Artois, ^nd Pir.ardy, south of it, both in the north; Lor- raine, Alsace, south-east of it, and Franche Compte, south of it, all in the east ; and Champagne, Burgundy, and Auvergne in the inte- rior, proceeding towards the south. The chief rivers of France, are the Phone, the ancient Rhodanus, in the south-east ; the Garonne and the Loire, once called Liger, in the west ; and the Seine, the ancient Sequana, in the north. Its mountains are the Cevennes or Auvergne mountains, in the interior; the Pyrenees, on the south- western frontier ; and the Alps, Jura, and Vosges, which skirt it on the east. The chief cities of France, are Paris, the capital, contain- ing 900,000 inhabitants ; with Rouen, below it on the Seine, and Lisle (or Lille), in the extreme north; Lyons, in the east, and Mar- seilles and Toulon, in the south-east ; Bordeaux and Toulouse, in the south-west ; Nantes and Orleans, on the Loire, the latter, being
Digitized by
SUROP£AN. 175
nearly central in France ; and Brest and Cherburg, in the north-west. The island of Corsica belongs to France. The Canal of Languedoc^ in the south-west, is one hundred and eighty miles long; and there are other important canals, connecting the principal rivers ; but these we have no room to mention. France excels in agriculture, manu- factures, science and literature; and is now enjoying great national prosperity.
Great Britain, includes England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland $ with the adjacent smaller islands, west of the North or German Sea. The island of Britain or Brit land, was anciendy called Britannia ; and comprehended Britannia Prima, in the south ; Britannia Secunda, since called Wales ; Flavia Cassariensis, in the centre and east ; Maxima Csesariensis, now the north of Eng- land; with Valentia in the south, and Caledonia in the north of Scotland. The Orkney and Shedand Islands, north of Scotland, and the Hebrides or Western Islands, on the west of it, belong to Great Britain. The Wall of Hadrian ran eastward from Solway Frith ; and that of Antonine extended from the Frith of Clyde to that of Forth. Ireland was anciendy called leme or Hibernia ; and the Irish Sea, Mare Hibernicum. The capital of Great Britain, is London, anciently called Londinium, on the river Thames ; now containing 1,600,000 inhabitants, and probably the largest city in the world. The other chief cities of England, are Bristol, Bir- mingham, Liverpool, Manchester, and Leeds, in the west, all ex- celling in manufactures and commerce ; York, the ancient Eboracum, in the north-east ; Portsmouth, and Plymouth, in the south ; and Oxford, on the Thames, and Cambridge, in the east, famed for their Universities. In ScoUand, are Edinburgh and Glasgow, Paisley, and Aberdeen; and in Ireland, Dublin, Cork, and Limerick, Great Britain has extensive resources in her exhaustless mines of iron and coal ; and her vast manufactories ; in which and in extent of com- merce, she stands unrivalled. She excels all other nations, except perhaps the United States, in the extent of her canals and railroads ; by which all the parts, of England especially, are closely connected. Her progress in science and literature has not been inferior ; and she has done perhaps more than any other nation, to civilize and Chris- tianize the world.
5 3. We come next to Central Europe, including Germany and the nations with which it is, or has been, associated. This is a rich and fertile portion of the old world, producing grain, wine, wool, and cattle, in abundance ; and the mines of Germany are among the most extensive and celebrated known. In education, arts, literature, and science, Germany shares with France and Great Britain, the foremost place among the nations, notwithstanding her divided politi- cal state.
Belgium, is a part of the ancient Belgica ,• and recendy formed, in connection with Holland, the kingdom of Netherlands : but it now constitutes a distinct and flourishing monarchy, though of small extent. It includes the old provinces of Luxemberg, and Liege, in the south-east, Brabant, in the east, and the greater part of Flanders, in the west. Luxemberg, is a part of Germany ; and hence the
Digitized by
176 OEOOBAPBT.
king of Belgium is a member of the Germanic Diet The largest river in this country is the Maese, the ancient Mosa. The chief cities, are Brussels, the capital ; and Ghent, Antwerp, and Liege. Hol- land, was included by the ancients as a part of Germany ; and is the country of the ancient Frisii, and the modern Dutch, It was re- cently separated from Belgium ; and the name Netherlands was then superseded by its older one, now restored. The chief river of Hol- land is the Rhine, the ancient Bhenus. Much of this country is below the level of the sea, from which it is protected by dykes of earth, flagged with wood, and stone. The chief cities of Holland, are Hague, the capital ; Amsterdam, the largest city ; Rotterdam, and Ley den. The Dutch are an industrious people, and still excel in commerce. Switzerland, is the country of the ancient Helvetii ; including the Lake of Geneva, the ancient Lemanus or Leman, in the west ; and extending to the Lake of Constance, in the north-east It is bounded on the south by the Alps $ of which the peak called Mont Blanc, is the highest mountain in Europe ; being three miles high. The chief cities of Switzerland, are Berne, the nominal capi- tal ; Basle and Zurich, in the north-east ; and Geneva, in the south- west. Switzerland is a confederated republic, composed of inde- pendent cantons, united for national security, in a general diet The Swiss are a hardy and virtuous people ; and though no longer in political connection with Germany, they mostly speak the German language.
Germany, the ancient Germania, extends from Switzerland, to the German Sea, or Oceanus Germanicus, and to the Baltic Sea, the ancient Sinus Codanus. The Rhine and the Danube were anciently regarded as its boundaries ; and it was inhabited by the Istevoncs, in the west, including the Cherusci, Frisii and Alemanni; the Hermiones, in the south, including the Marcomanni, Hermunduri, and Boiohemi ; the Vendili, in the north-east, including the Longa* bardi, Burgundiones, and Gothones ; and the Chauci, in the north, bordering on the German Sea. The chief rivers, were, besides the Rhine and Danube, the Albis or Elbe ; the Viadrus or Oder ; and the Vistula, The Erz Mountains are a part of the ancient Herey- nian^ this name now designating the more south-eastern range. The Harz Mountains, in the north, are a detached group, famous for their mines. Germany now forms a part of Belgium, Austria, Prussia, and Denmark ; and contains, besides, thirty-one independent states, and four free cities ; all united in the Germanic Confedera- tion ; the affairs of which are regulated by a Diet of representatives, for mutual safety and defence.
The five principal states of Germany, next to those above men- tioned, are the grand duchy of Baden, in the south-west; and the kingdoms of Wxrtemberg and Bavaria, east of it ; the kingdom of Saxony, in the east; and that of Hanover, in the north. The chief cities in these and the smaller states are Munich and Nuremberg, in Bavaria ; Dresden and Leipzic, in Saxony ; Hanover, in Hanover ; Stuttgard, in Wirtemberg ; Manheim, in Baden ; and Cassel in the electorate of Hesse Cassel, between East and West Prussia. The smaller states next in size to those already named, are Hesse
Digitized by
SVBOFEAN. 177
Darmstadt, and north of it Heaae CaaseU hoth north of Baden ; Nassau, west of Hesse Darmstadt; Brunswick, hetween Hesse Cassel and Hanover; Oldenburg nearly surrounded by Hanover; Mecklenburg Schwerin, north-east of Hanover ; and Saxe Weimar , north of Bavaria. The free cities of Germany are- Hamburg, Lubec, and Bremen in the north-east ; and Frankfort on the Maine.
The empire of Austria comprehends the ancient Vindelicia and RhfBtia, in the west ; Noricum, in the centre ; Pannonia and part of Dacia, in the east ; and Illyricum, including Dalmatia, in the south ; besides its possessions in Italy and Germany. Its German possessions, constituting the south-eastern part of Germany, ^jeBohe* mia, Moravia, and the duchy of Austria, which gave name to the empire. Its other divisions, at the present day, besides Lombard^ and Venice, are Tyrol, in the west ; lUyria, and Dalmatia, in the south ; Styria and Carinthia, in the centre ; and the kingdoms of Galicia, and Hungary, in the east ; Hungary, including Transylvania in the extreme east, and Sclavonia and Croatia, in the south. The Danube is its chief river, and it has the Carpathian mountains in the east. Its chief cities are Vienna, the capital, anciently called Vindo- bona; Prague, in Bohemia; Presburg, Pest and Buda, in Hungary ; Trieste, in Illyria ; and Lemberg, in Galicia. The Austrian empire, comprising so many different states, has a great variety of people, and character. The government is one of the most despotic in Europe ; but there is religious toleration ; though the established religion is the Roman Catholic.
The kingdom of Prussia consists of the divisions formerly called East and fVest Prussia, and Pomerania, bordering on the Baltic Sea ; Posen, taken from Poland ; Brandenburg and Silesia, in the eastern part of Germany ; and Westphalia with the Lower Rhiner in the heart of Germany, separated from the preceding divisions by Brunswick and other states. It comprehends, therefore, a part of ancient Germany and a part of Sarmatia. The Rhine, Elbe, Oder and Vistula rivers, flow through Prussia ; and the latter three are connected by canals. The chief cities are Berlin, the capital, with Potsdam, Magdeburg and Halle in Brandenburg ; Breslau in Sile- sia ; Dantzic, in West, and Kbnigsberg, in East Prussia ; Posen, in Posen ; and Cologne, in Cleves, connected with Westphalia. Prussia has been a very warlike nation ; but has recently made great progress in education and refinement. The Protestant religion prevails ; but there is general religious toleration.
The kingdom of Denmark, comprehends the German duchy of Holstein; and the peninsula of Jutland, which was the ancient Cimbrica Chersonesus, or country of the Cimbri, Angli, Saxones, and Teutones. The Faroe or Ferroe Islands, and Iceland belong also to Denmark. The chief cities are Copenhagen, the capital, and Elsinore ; both on the island of Zealand, at the entrance of the Baltic Sea ; with Altona and Kiel, in Holstein. The Danes are a brave, hardy, and enterprizing people.
§ 4. Northern Europe, of which we are lastly to speak, has a cold climate, a more barren soil, and a less dense population, than the preceding divisions. The people are hardy, and brave ; but com- 23
Digitized by
178 OEOOBAPHT.
paratively ignorant : and the lower classes, for the most part, lire in a comparatively degraded state. Travelling, during the long winters, is performed on sledges, drawn by the reindeer ; and this useful animal also supplies the inhabitants partially with food and clothing.
Norway and Sweden, together constituted the ancient ScandinO' via ; and Norway was also called Nerigonia. Norway is separated from Denmark by the Skager Back strait ; Sweden from Denmark by the Cattegat; and they are separated from each other by the Dofrafield or Dovrefeld mountains. On the north-west coast are the Loffoden islands ; south of which is the Maelstrom, a vast whirlpool, the roaring of which is sometimes heard at a distance of several miles ; and a near approach to which would be dangerous to vessels. Sweden contains the lakes Wener, Wetter, and Malar ; but its rivers are small, and of little note. The chief cities of Sweden, are Stockholm, the capital ; and in the south, Gottenburg and Carhcrona : those of Nor- way, are Christiania, and Bergen, in the south ; and Drontheim, farther north. Norway is subject to Sweden : but governed by a viceroy and local legislature.
Bussia comprehends the greater part of the ancient Sarmatla; including Finland, between the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia; Lap- land, in the extreme north, with the islands of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla ; and in the south-west or west, the greater part of Poland, which forms a nominal kingdom, but is subject to the emperor of Russia as its king. The litSe Bepublic of Cracow, having Cracow for its capital, is the only part of Poland which remains nominally independent. Russia has the large lakes Ladoga and Onega ; and the river Dwina with the White Sea, in the north ; and the rivers Volga^ Don, Dnieper and Dniester, in the south. The Volga, or Wolga, flows into the Caspian ; and the Don into the Sea of Azoph ; but the two last named rivers flow directly into the Black Sea. The Canal of Vishnei Volotchoc establishes a navigable communication between the Baltic and Caspian Seas. The chief cities of Russia, are St. Peters- burg, the capital, Cronstadt being its outport ; Moscow, the former capital ; Warsaw, in Poland ; Wilna, in Lithuania; Biga, in Livonia; Odessa and Kiev, in the south ; Kazan, in the east ; Archangel, in the north ; and Abo, in Finland. The Russians generally are still infe- rior to central and western Europe in all the elements of civilization.
CHAPTER IIL
AFRICAN OEOORAPHY.
Africa, united to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, is the least en- lightened and the least known of all the grand divisions of the earth. Egypt was inhabited and cultivated at a very early period : Ethiopia, south of it, was well known to the ancients ; and Carthage was settled by Phoenician colonists as early as 869 B. C. : but of central and southern Africa nothing was known until modem times. Hero- dotus indeed states that Pharaoh Necho sent a Phcenician fleet, which sailed around Africa, 604 B. C. ; but the statement has been justly
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AFRICAN. 179
doubted. The more southern coasts of Africa were first explored by the Portuguese, led on by the Infante, Prince Henry, after their successes in Barbary. Zarco discovered Madeira in I4I9 ; Gilanez doubled cape Bojador in 1433 ; Noel discovered the Cape Verde islands in 1446; ^^covar coasted Guinea, and discovered Prince's Island in 1471 ; Diego Cam reached the river Zaire or Congo in 1484 : and Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern cape of Africa, which he called the Cape of Storms, in 1486; but his sovereign, John II., changed its name to Good Hope. Vasco de Gama first sailed around that cape, coasted as far as Melinda, and thence obtain- ing Arabian pilots, proceeded to Calicut, in Hindoostan, in 1498 ; thus opening a southern passage to India. Madagascar was afterwards discovered by the Portuguese in 1506 or 7. Central Africa has been partially explored by the travels oi Bruce in Abyssinia, in 1768; of Mungo Park, in Bambara and Timbuctoo, in 1796 ; of Oudney and Denham to Bornou, and Clapper ton to Houssa, in 1823 ; and of Richard and John Lander, who in 1830 traced the river Niger or Quorra, to its mouth , in the Gulf of Guinea. There have been nume- rous other travellers in Africa, whom we have no room here to mention. The following table presents the nearest approximation which we can make to an estimate of the extent and population of Africa.
ConntrUs. 8q. ARles. TnhabUcntt.
Egypt 180,000.. 2,500,000
Barbary 700,000 . . 14,000,000
Countries. 8g. MUea. JnkabitanU.
Lower Guinea. 700,000.. 6,000,000
Ethiopia 2,000,000. . 10,000,000
South Africa... 600,000.. 1,000,000
Mozambique... 400,000.. 2,000,000
Zanguebar .... 500,000.. 3,000,000
African Islands 200,000.. 3,000,000
Sahara 2,500,000.. 300,000
Nubia 350,000.. 1,700,000
Abyssinia 300,000.. 3,500,000
Nigritia 1,600,000. . 18,000,000
Senegambia . . . 350,000. . 8,000,000
Ui^r Guinea. 500,000.. 7,000,000 Total 10,880,000 80,000,000
We proceed to treat of the divisions of Africa, in the order above named.
$ 1. Northern Africa, including Sahara, is the only part which is yet generally elevated above a savage state. It is a land of historic fame, including the ancient states of Egypt, Carthage, and Numidia ; but it is now inhabited chiefly by Arabs, mingled with Negroes ; among most of whom the Mohamedan religion prevails. It is a very hot region, owing partly to the deserts which it contains ; but the northern parts are fertile in date palm trees, and other tropical pro* ductions.
Egypt retains its ancient name, and the ruins of its former greats ness. It was anciently divided into Xgyptus Inferior, in the north, including the Delta between the mouths of the "Nile ; Heptanomia, or the middle part ; and Thehais or ^gyptus Superior, in the south. Among its cities were Alexandria, the new capital, in the north-west ; Pelusium, in the north-east ; Memphis, the old capital, near the Pyramids ; and Ptolemais, and Thebx or Thehea, the most ancient capital, in Upper Egypt. The chief modem cities are Cairo or Grand Cairo^ the present capital, near the ancient Memphis ; and Alexan- dria and Damietta. Egypt is fertilized by the inundations of the river Nile, beyond the borders of which it is mostly a desert. It is ruled by a Pacha, with absolute power. The most interesting
Digitized by
180 GEOGRAPHT.
objects in this country, are the Pyramids, near Grand Cairo, and the remains of the ancient temples and tombs, at Thebes, and elsewhere in Upper Egypt.
Barbary^ occupies the northern border of Africa, from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean ; and comprehends the states of Tripoli^ in the east ; 7Vnt« and Algiers^ central ; and Morocco^ in the west ; be- sides the region called Biledulgerid, or Beled-el-Jerid, south of the Atlas Mountains. The name of Moors^ derived from the ancient Mauritania, belongs properly to the people of Morocco ; but is often applied to the people of Barbary generally. 7V(po/i, is the Tripo- lit ana of the Romans ; and includes Barea, the ancient Libya, on the east ; and Fezzan, the great oasiS) to the south ; both of which are tributary to Tripoli proper. Libya comprehended Cyrenaicat along the coast, so named from its chief city, Cyrene. The present cities of Tripoli, are, besides Cyrene, Tripoli^ the capital ; Demt, in Barca ; and Mourzouk in Fezzan. The Pacha of Tripoli, is still tributary to Turkey. TVnts, is the country of ancient Car- thage $ to which the name Africa was originally confined. Its chief city and capital is Tunis , near the site of Carthage, and east of ancient Utica. The Bey of Tunis is also tributary to the Turkish Sultan.
Algiers comprehends the ancient Numidia, and part of Mauri* tania. Its chief cities are Algiers, the capital ; Const ant ine and Bona, in the east ; and Oran, in the west. Algiers was recently conquered by France, and is now a French colony, held by military force. Morocco, the ancient Mauritania, includes Fez, in the north ; Tajilet, in the east ; and Suse, in the south-west ; all of which were formerly independent, but are now tributary to the Moorish emperor. The chief cities of this small empire, are, Morocco, the capital ; Fez and Mequinez, in the north ; and Mogadore, on the western coast. The emperor is a despotic and independent sovereign ; whose political strength is said to be declining. Biledulgerid or Bled-el-Jereed, so named from its being the land of the date palm tree, lies south of Algiers and Tunis ; extending to the great desert. Tkiggurt, is one of its chief towns ; but the inhabitants are principally roving Arabs.
Sahara, or Zaara, often called the Great Desert, extends from the Atlantic Ocean, to the borders of Egypt and Nubia, including Fezzan, and other oases, or fertile spots, like islands, in an ocean of sand. The part of it east of Fezzan, is called the Libyan Desert, and the whole was anciently called Deserta Libyse Interioris, It is nearly 3000 miles long, and 1,000 wide ; and is inhabited only by tribes of wandering Arabs, who travel over it in caravans, on camels ; living partly by merchandize, and partly by plunder.
Nubia, is a part of the ancient Ethiopia, like Egypt, partly watered by the Nile, and partly a sandy desert. It comprehends the petty kingdoms of Dongola, in the north, and Sennaar, in the south ; each deriving its name from its capital city. The northern part of Nubia is said to be subject to Egypt. Abyssinia, is also a part of ancient Ethiopia ; the southern and western boundaries of which were undefined. Abyssinia contains the eastern S9urces of the Nile ; and the Bahr^el-Abiad or main source may be regarded as its western
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AFRICAN. 181
boandaiy. This country was formerly united under one govern- ment ; but now comprises three independent states ; Amharay in the north-west ; Tigre^ in the north-east ; and Shoa Efat, in the south. GondaTj the former capital, is now the capital of Amhara ; and Adowa^ is that of Tigre ; but Shoa Efat, has no large town, and has been partly subdued, by the savage Gcdlas, from the south. The religion of Abyssinia, is nominally the Christian ; but very much corrupted.
§ 2. We now come to that part of Africa, which is inhabited almost exclusively by the Negro race ; and shall commence with the portion next south of Sahara, a part of which has been penetrated, by the Arabs, and exhibits some traces of their language and religion. Nigritia or Negroland, extends from Senegambia on the west, to Nubia and Abyssinia on the east ; the central and western portions being also known by the name of Soudan, It comprises a large number of petty kingdoms or states ; some of which are JBergoo, Darfur^ Kor- dofarii and Fertit^ in the east ; DarkuUa, BornoUt Sfandara, Houssa, and Varriba, central ; Umbuctoo, (or Tombuctoo), Bambarra^ and Kaarta, in the west. Among the cities, are Kemmoo, in Kaarta ; Sego, in Bambarra ; Timbuctoo, in Timbuctoo ; Soccatoo, or Sacka- too, in Houssa; Bornou, in Bornou ; Wara, in Bergoo ; and Cobbe, in Darfur. The Niger is the chief river, running first eastward, then southward into the Gulf of Guinea. The more eastern tribes are professed Mohamedans, and slightly civilized ; but the Fellataha, in the central part, are barbarous and warlike.
Under the name of Western Aftita^ we comprehend all the coun- tries on the western coast, from Sahara to the tropic of Capricorn. This is the region in which the Slavt Trade has mosdy prevailed ; a horrid traffic, which philanthropy has not yet been able fully to suppress : though much has already been done by the establishment of enlightened and well governed colonies, on this benighted coast. Senegambia% so named from its two principal rivers, the Senegal and Gambia, is the land of the Jalqffs, or Yoloffs, in the north ; the Fouiahs, (or Foolahs), in the south ; and the Mandingoes, in the interior ; which races are intermediate between the Moors and Ne- groes. Sierra Leone, in the south, is a British colony, and an asylum fbr Negroes liberated from slave-ships. Freetown, is its capital. The French have settlements at St. Louis, near the mouth of the Senegal ; and the Portuguese, at the mouth of Rio Grande, a small river in the central part.
Upper Guinea, called also Guinea, or the coast of Guinea, extends along the coast, eastward, to the mouths of the Niger ^ and includes the colony of Liberia, in the west ; with the negro states of Ashan- tee, and Dahomey, in the centre; and Benin, in the east. The Grain Coast, belongs to Liberia ; the Ivory and Gold Coasts, to Ashantee ; and the Slave Coast, to the more eastern states. Liberia is settled by emancipated slaves, under the direction of the American Colonization Society, and now contains 5000 colonists, besides 30,000 natives, whose situation is rapidly improving, under its repub- lican government, and Christian institutions. Its capital is Monro- via. The chief town of Ashantee, is Coomassie ; that of Dahomey,
Q
Digitized by
182 OEOGRAPHT.
is Ahomey; and Benin has a capital bearing its own name. The British have some settlements on this coast.
Lower Guinea, may be considered as extending from the eastern mouth of the Niger, to the tropic of Capricorn, along the western coast of Africa. It includes the negro states of Biafra and Calhon- gaSf in the north ; Loango, Congo, Angola, and Benguela, more cen- tral ; and Cimbeba$, which is partly a desert, in the south. It has the Crystal mountains in the east ; and the Congo, or Zaire, is its largest river. Loango and Benguela, have capitals of their own name ; that of Congo, is St. Salvador, or Banza Congo ; and the Portuguese occupy Loando, in Angola, for the purchase of slaves. The religion of both Upper and Lower Guinea, is paganism, the governments are despotic ; and the people very degraded. The cli- mate of the preceding parts of Africa is intensely hot, and in many places unhealthy to Europeans ; but the productions are numerous ; including the baobab, a kind of bread-tree ; and among the animals of this region are, the lion, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giralTe, zebra, and ostrich.
$ 3. We proceed next to the more southern and eastern parts of Africa; commencing with Ethiopia; of which we can only say, that it is a vast region, extendmg from the Jibbel-el-Kumri, or Mountains of the Moon, on the north, to the tropic of Capricorn on the south ; but it is, as yet, almost entirely unknown to the civilized world. Cazembe, is said to be a considerable state in its southern part. The name South Africa, is applied to that part of Africa which lies south of the tropic of Capricorn : including the British Colony of the Cape, in the south ; the country of the Hottentots, in the middle and west ; and Caffraria and Bushuana, in the east Its chief river is the Orange, running westward, through the Hot- tentot region. The chief towns are. Cape Town, in the Cape Colony; and Lattakoo,^vi^ Kurreethane, in Boshuana. The Cape Colony was first settled by the Dutch, but taken by the English in 1795, and again in 1806. The Hottentots, including the Damaras, Namaquas, and Bushmen, are an extremely barbarous and degraded people. South Africa is the coolest, and perhaps the most healthy portion, which has yet been explored, of this quarter of the globe.
Eastern Africa, may be considered as extending from the tropic of Capricorn, or Delagoa Bay, northward to the strait of Babel- mandel ; and it may be divided into the coast oi Mozambique ; and that of Zanguebar ; the latter including Ajan. The inhabitants are mostly of the African race ; governed by petty chiefs ; and many of them profess the Mohamedan religion. The Coast of Mozam- bique, extending north to Cape Delgado, includes the small states of Inhambane, Sofala, Mocaranga, and Mosambique, on the coast; and Monomotapa, in the interior. The Cuama, or Zambeze, is its principal river ; and its chief towns are, Inhambane, Sofala, ^t/»- mane, and Mosambique, all of which are subject to the Portuguese. The Maravis, and the Bo-'roras, are the principal tribes, scattered through the interior.
The Coast of Zanguebar, extends northward from Mozam- bique ; and includes the states of Quiloa and Mombas, in the south ;
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NOBTH AMSRICAN. 183
and Melinda and Magadoxa^ in the north. All of these states are named from their chief towns ; but Magadoxa, is the chief place of trade, supplying ivory, myrrh, and frankincense. The name Somau- Uof may be applied to the remaining eastern coast of Africa, extend- ing from Magadoxa to Cape Guardafui, and thence to Abyssinia. It comprises Ajan^ in the south-east : and Berbora^ and Adel^ in the north and north-west Berbora, is so named from its chief town ; and Zeyla, in Adel, on the straits of Babelmandel, is also a place of trade. The Somauliesy on the coast, and the GallaSf in the inte- rior, are the leading native tribes ; in a very savage state.
§ 6. The African hlandSf are numerous, but subject mosdy to European powers. Madagaacarf the largest, is inhabited by Arabs, Malays, and Negroes ; and divided into several small states. TVino- narivout the capital of Imerina^ in the central part, is probably the largest town. Of the adjacent islands, Mauritius^ on the east, and the Almiranlty and SeychdU Islands^ to the north-east, belong to Great Britain ; but Bourbon^ near Mauritius, belongs to France. That part of the Indian Ocean, which surrounds these islands, is known as the Ethiopian Archipelago. Of the islands west of Africa, the Canaries belong to Spain; Santa Cruzy on Teneriffe^ being their chief town. The Azores or Western Islands, the Madeiras^ the Ccme VerdeSt St. Matthews^ and Ascension^ belong to Portugal ; ana St. Helena^ to the British.
CHAPTER IV.
NORTH AMERICAN OEOORAPHT.
North America, colonized chiefly by the English, and Spaniards, now ranks next to Europe, in civilization, science, and improve- ments. It was unknown to the civilized world, until comparatively recent times. Greenland, was discovered by the Icelanders, as early as A. D. 982 ; and either Newfoundland or New England, appears to have been discovered by Biom^ (or Bjorn), a Norwegian, in 1002, under the name of Vinland^ or wine-land. It is also supposed that the brothers ZenOy (the Zeni), of Venice, discovered the same region, which they called Estotiland, in 1390 ; but still, the ex- istence of a western continent was not believed in, by the civilized world, until Christopher Columbus ^ of Genoa, under Spanish patronage, discovered Guanahani, since called St. Salvador, or Cat Island, one of the Bahamas, in 1492. In the same year, he disco- vered Cuba and St. Domingo : in his second voyage, Jamaica ; and in his third voyage, in H97, he discovered Trinidad, and the con- tiguous coast of South America ; of which we are again to speak.
In the year last mentioned, 1497, John Cabot, and his son Sebas- tian, sent by Henry VII. of England, in search of a north-west passage to India, discovered Nova Scotia and Newfoundland ; and the latter, in a second voyage, in 1498, coasted southward as far as
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184
OEOGBAPHT.
Florida. In 1513, Balboa or Balbao, ciOMing the iBthmus of Darien, discovered the Pacific Ocean, and thus aaceruined that America was separated from Asia. Florida was explored by Ponce de Leon^ in 1512 ; and Mexico by Cortex, in 1519. The attempt to discover a north-west passage to India, was repeated, in 1576, by Frobisher, who discovered Frobisher*s Straits ; in 1585, by Capt. John Davis , who discovered Davis' Straits ; in 1610, by Capt, Henry Hudson, who discovered Hudson's Straits and Bay ; in 1616, by Capt. Baffin, who discovered Baffin's Bay, and Cumberland Island, now Prince William's Land ; and more recendy, in 1818, by Capt, Boss, who penetrated Lancaster's Sound ; and again in 1810, by Lietit, Parry, who wintered at Melville Island, and whose progress in that direction has not since been surpassed. The expedition of Parry and Lyon to the northern part of Hudson's Bay, in 1821-3, was unsuccessful.
Meanwhile, the Spaniards under Gortez discovered California, in 1536 ; and the North West coast, which is said to have been visited by Mendana, in 1505, was explored by Carteret, in 1767 ; by Cook, in 1778; and by Vancouver, about 1704. In 1771, Mr, Hearne discovered the Arctic Ocean at a point south of Melville Island ; and in 1780, Mackenzie, who first crossed the Rocky Mountains and reached the Pacific by land, discovered Mackenzie's River, and the sea at its moutli. Sir John Franklin and Dr, Bichardson, in 1826, explored the northern coast of America, from Bathurst Inlet, and Heame's discoveries, westward to those of Mackenzie ; and thence westward to Point Beechey. Messrs. JJease and Simpson, in 1837, completed the exploration from Point Beechey to Behring's Straits ; and in 1830, they explored the coast eastward, from Bathurst Inlet, to Cape Britannia, (Lat. 68° 4' N. ; Lon. 04° 35' W.), near which their progress was interrupted by the lateness of the season. It is now rendered nearly certain that Greenland, and the North Georgian Islands, are separated from the continent of America, though closely contiguous to it. Of numerous expeditions to the central parts of North America, we have no farther room to speak.
The following is the nearest estimate which we can make of the extent and population of the countries of North America.
C^wUrUi. Sf . JmU». InkmHtauU.
GhreenUnd 600,000 . . 20,000
Ruwian America 500,000.. 60,000
New Britain 2,660,000 . . 800,000
British Provinces 486,000.. 1,380,000 United Slates. . .2,300,000. . 17,600,000 Texas 200,000 . . 150,000
C»uwlrU§, Sf . MiUa. InUUU9t».
Mexico 1,650,000.. 8,000,000
Central America 200,000.. 2,000,000 West Indies.... 90,000.. 3,000,000
ToTAi 8,586,000 82,400,000
Of these divisions we proceed to treat, commencing at the north.
5 1. The Northern Division of North America, is mostly cold, barren, and thinly inhabited. It is valuable to the civilized world chiefly on account of the Fur trade, carried on by the whites with the Indians. In this division we include Greenland $ though it is now almost certain that the region, so named, does not belong to the continent of America, but is only to be regarded as a large contiguous island. Greenland belongs to Denmark ; but it is of very little value.
Digitized by
NORTH AMERICAN. 185
It is inhabited by a few Esquimaux Indians, and Danish colonists, who have settlements on the western coast. There are Moravian missions at Lichtenfeh^ New Hernhut and other places ; but Pagan- ism still prevails. The coasts of Greenland are occasionally visited, in the summer, by ships, in pursuit of whales and seals, and the oil of the former, and skins of the latter, supply the natives, in part, with food and clothing.
Russian America includes that portion which lies west of the 14l8t degree of west longitude ; and the Russians lay claim to the coast as far south as 54^ 40' of north latitude. This territory includes the peninsula of Alaska^ and the Aleutian or Fox Islands^ sometimes called the Northern Archipelago. The principal settlement is said to be Sitka (Sitcha) or New Archangel, on one of the islands of the Georgian Archipelago, south of Mounts St. Elias and Fairweather. A few of the inhabitants are Russians ; and the rest, Esquimaux Indians, in a barbarous state, subsisting chiefly by hunting and fishing. These possessions are valuable to Russia chiefly on account of the fur trade, which is carried on there, to a great extent, with the Indians.
British America, comprehends New Britain, and the five Pro- vinces of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and Newfoundland. Each of these provinces has a Lieute- nant Governor, Executive Council, and Legislative Assembly ; and the whole is under a Governor General, appointed by the British Crown. New Britain comprises the whole country extending from Russian America, eastward, around Hudson's Bay, to Baffin's Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean. The eastern coast, bordering on the Atlantic, is called Labrador ; and the region between this and Hudson's Bay is called East Main^ while the region west of Hudson's Bay is termed New South, and New North Wales. New Britain is tra- versed by the Rocky Mountains ; and contains Mackenzie's River, which flows northward from Slave Lake, receiving the waters of Lake Athapescow (or Athabasca) ; and Nelson River, which flows from Lake Winnipeg, north-eastward into Hudson's Bay. Prince William^ s Land, north of Hudson's Strait, as also Boothia Felix, farther west, and the North Georgian Islands, including Melville Island, may be considered as a part of New Britain. Among the places of trade, are Forts Albany, Severn, York, and Churchill, on Hudson's Bay. Among the Indian tribes which inhabit this region, are the Esquimaux, in the north and east; the Chippewayans towards the west ; and the Knisteneaux in the more southern and central parts. New Britain is attached to the government of Lower Canada ; and it is the seat of an extensive fur trade, carried on by the Hudson's Bay Company, with which the old North West Company is now united.
Of the Five Provinces, above named, constituting the more im- portant part of British America, the St. Lawrence is the chief river ; and the lakes Superior, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario, form a part of their southern boundary ; lying between Canada and the United States. The extent and population of these provinces, is nearly as follows :
'24 q2
Digitized by
186 GEOGRAPHY.
Frovinen. Sq.MUet. Inkab. I Provinen. Sf.JIfUet. htMak
Upper Canada* 100,000. .400,000 'Nova Scotia 18,800. . 160,000
Lower Canada* 850,000 . . 600,000 i Prince Ed ward'i Is. 3,200 . . . 40,000
New Brimawick 28,000. . 140,000 |Newfoandland 86,000. . .80,000
Prince Edward^ a hland^ was formerly called St, Johns ; but the name was changed, when it became a distinct province. The island of Cape Breton^ is attached to Nova Scotia; and Anticoati, to Lower Canada. The chief towns in these provinces, are, of Upper Canada, Kingston, and TorontOf formerly called York ; of Lower Canada, Qtiebec, and Montreal $ of New Brunswick, Frederickton, the capital, and St. Johns; of Nova Scotia, Halifax; of Prince Edward's Island, Charlotte Town; and of Newfoundland, St. Johns. The inhabitants of Lower Canada, are chiefly of French descent, and Catliolics ; but the other parts were mostly settled by the British. The chief trade is in timber and furs.
§ 2. The United States of America, comprise, at present, twenty-six states, and three organized territories; besides the dis- trict of Columbia, and the extensive western region, still inhabited by the aborigines or Indians. The principal mountains are, the Rocky, or Chippewayan, in the west ; and the Alleghany range in the east ; besides the White Mountains, Green Mountains, Catskill Mountains, Blue Ridge, Laurel and Chesnut Hills, and the Cum- berland Mountains. The largest rivers are, the Mississippi, with its tributaries, \h% Missouri, Ohio, Arkansas, 2ind Bed River ; which together discharge the waters of the great central basin into the Gulf of Mexico; and the Columbia River, in the extreme west, flowing into the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern coast, are the Penob- scot, Kennebec, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Po- tomac, James, Roanoke, Pedee, Santee, Savannah, and Alatamaha, or Altamaha ; and into the Gulf of Mexico, flow the Apalachicola, Alabama, Pascagoula, and Pearl rivers. The Tennessee, Cumber- land, and Wabash, flow into the Ohio ; and the Kaskaskia, Illinois, and Wisconsin, into the upper Mississippi. The St. Lawrence, is the outlet of the large lakes, mentioned under the British Provinces ; as also of laRes Michigan, and Champlain, which lie wholly within the United States. Long Island, the largest belonging to the United States, is a part of New York.
The largest cities, in the United States, are New York, Philadel- phia, Baltimore, Boston, and New Orleans; and next to these in size, are Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Charleston, and Albany. New York, containing 300,000 inhabitants, is the largest city in America. The Canals and Railroads of the United States, are too numerous to be here mentioned ; but the total length of the former now completed, is not less than 2,500 ; and of the latter, 3,500 miles ; besides about 135,000 miles of common post roads. The annual revenue is 20 or 25 million dollars; the exports about 110 millions; and the imports about 120 millions of dollars. There are in the United States about 880 banks, including branches, with an authorized capital of 440
* These two provinces, the boundary between which was the Utawas l^ver, were united in one, on the 10th of February, 1841 ; Kingston being now the seat of Government
Digitized by
NORTH AMERICAN.
18t
minion dollars ; and the total wealth of the nation may be estimated at not less than seven times that amount. The army now consists of nearly 12,000 men : and the navy of 62 vessels. The government is representative and republican, as already described, (p. Ill ]; and the religion is chiefly protestant, of various denominations. There are now about 95 Colleges in operation in the United States ; besides Acade- mies, and Common Schools. The number of Indians in the U. S., chiefly in the Western Territory, cannot be less than 500,000 ; and they are divided into almost innumerable tribes ; of which the Cherokeesy Creeks, and Choctaws, are perhaps the most civilized and best known. The following is a table of the extent of the several stales, with their population, in 1830, and in 1840 ; and their capitals.
|
States. |
Sg.MiUM. |
Pop. in 1830. |
Pop. in 1840. |
Capital. |
|
Maine, |
33,000 |
399,955 |
501,793 |
Augusta. |
|
N. Hampshire, |
9,400 |
289,328 |
284,574 |
Concord. |
|
Vermont, |
10,210 |
280,653 |
291,948 |
Montpelier. |
|
Massachasetta, |
7.600 |
610,408 |
737,699 |
Boston. |
|
Rhode Island, |
1,350 |
97,199 |
108,830 |
Providence &, Newport |
|
Connecticut, |
4,700 |
297,665 |
310,015 |
Hartford dcN. Haven. |
|
New York, |
46,000 |
1,918,608 |
2,428,921 |
Albany. |
|
New Jersey, |
7,500 |
320,823 |
373,306 |
Trenton. |
|
Pennsylvania, |
44,000 |
1,348,233 |
1,724,022 |
Harrisbnrg. |
|
Delaware, |
2,100 |
76,748 |
78,085 |
Dover. |
|
Maryland, |
13,000 |
447,040 |
469,232 |
Annapolis. |
|
64,000 |
1,211,405 |
1,239,797 |
Richmond. |
|
|
N. CaroUna, |
50,000 |
737,987 |
753,110 |
Raleigh. |
|
S. Carolina, |
29,000 |
581,185 |
594,398 |
Columbia. |
|
Georgia, |
60,000 |
516,823 |
750,000* |
MilledgeviUe. |
|
Alabama, |
60,000 |
309,527 |
660,000* |
Tuscaloosa. |
|
Mississippi, |
46,000 |
136,621 |
375,651 |
Jackson. |
|
liouisiana. |
48,500 |
215,739 |
351,176 |
New Orleans. |
|
Arkansas, |
65,000 |
30,388 |
95,642 |
LiUle Rock. |
|
40,000 |
681,904 |
829,210 |
Nashville. |
|
|
Kentucky, |
40,000 |
687,917 |
800,000* |
Frankfort |
|
Ohio, |
39,000 |
937,903 |
1,519,467 |
Columbus. |
|
Michigan, |
44,000 |
31,639 |
211,705 |
Detroit |
|
Indiana, |
36,000 |
343,031 |
683,314 |
Indianapolis. |
|
Dlinois, |
54,000 |
157,455 |
474,404 |
VandaUa. |
|
Missouri, |
62,000 |
140,445 |
381,102 |
Jenenon Citj |
|
D. of Columbia, |
100 |
39,834 |
43,712 |
WASHiireTOX. |
|
Florida T., |
60,000 |
84,730 |
64,207 |
|
|
Wisconsin T., |
90,000 |
. |
30,752 |
Madison City. |
|
Iowa T„ |
180,000 |
- |
43,068 |
Burlington. |
|
1,216,460 |
12,861,192 |
17,199,140 |
Missouri, Oregon, and the Indian Territory, have no organized territorial governments.
Texas, formerly belonging to Mexico, has been mostly settled by emigrants from the United States. Its chief river, is the Brazos ; and its principal towns, are Houston, the late capital ; Austin, the new capital ; both centrally situated ; and Nacogdoches, and Mat a- gorda, in the east. The government is republican ; and the popula- tion rapidly increasing.
§ 3. The Southern Division of North America, including Mexi- co, and Central America, was colonized by the Spaniards ; and • Returns incomplete.
Digitized by
188 OEOOBAPHT.
vetainfl their langua^, with the Roman Catholic religion. The
SovemmeniB are now republican ; but these countries are in an unset- ed state; and education is not generally diffused, though much needed, for their improvement.
Mexico, formerly called New Spain, includes the peninsulas of Yucatan^ in the south-east, and California, in the west. It is tra- versed by the great American chain of mountains, here called the Cordilleras ; and its chief rivers, are the Del Norte, and Western Colorado $ the latter flowing into the Gulf of California. The Great American Desert, lies east of the Rocky Mountains, partly in Mexi- co, and partly in the United States ; and the Great .Sandy Desert, is in the north-western part of Mexico. The chief cities of this country, are Mexico, the capital ; Puebla, south-east of it ; Gtia- naxuato, and Guadalaxara, north-west of it; San Luis Pofosi, and Oaxaca, south of Puebla : and the principal sea-ports, are Vera Cruz, and Tampico. Mexico is celebrated for its gold and silver mines ; many of which are now neglected. The antiquities of this country, and particularly the pyramid of Cholula, and the ruins of the ancient city Calhuacan, near Palenque, attest the power and civilization of its former inhabitants. The government of Mexico, is nominally republican ; but controlled for the most part by mi- litary force. Yucatan has recently become a separate and inde- pendent republic, of which Merida is the capital. The settlement of Balize, on the Bay of Honduras, belongs to the British.
Guatimeda, now called Central America, extends southward to the isthmus of Darien; and contains the Lake Nicaragua; with some volcanoes, in the Cordillerian range of mountains. Its chief cities, are St. Salvador, the capital ; Guatimala, and Leon. The climate is hot, and less healthy than on the table lands of Mexico. Its most valued productions are logwood, mahogany, indigo, and cochineal ; but here, as in Mexico, the country is not highly cultivated.
§ 4. The West Indies, are a numerous group of islands, so named from the supposition of Columbus, that they were a part of tlie Indies known in preceding times. They are all, excepting Hay- ti, subject to different European powers ; and their commerce is of much value. The four largest islands, Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, are known as the Great Antilles. The names Lesser Antilles, and Caribbee Islands, are variously applied to the islands south and east of these ; but we prefer to call them all Carih* bee Islands, including the Windward, or more eastern, and the Leeward, or more western.
Hayti, Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, is now occupied by Africans, having a distinct and independent government, under a president, chosen for life. Its chief towns, are Port au Prince, and Cape Haytien; the latter being the capital. Cuba, and Porto Rico, are still subject to Spain. Their chief towns, are, in Cuba, Havana, and Puerto Principe ; and in Porto Rico, St. Johns. The interior of Cuba, being mountainous, has a cool and healthy climate, though within the torrid zone.
The British possessions in the West Indies, we Jamaica; and Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada, Barbadoes, St. Lucia, Dominica, An- tigua, the Bahamas, and Bermudas, with several smaller islands.
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SOUTH AMEBICAN. 189
The capital of Jamaica is Kingston: but the other towns of these islands, are too small to find mention in this place. Slavery has recently been abolished in the British West Indies ; but in Cuba, and Porto Rico, it still continues to exist. Guadaloupe^ and Martinico^ belong to the French ; St. Eustatia^ Curacoa^ and St. Marlines, to the Dutch ; Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. Johns, to the Danes, and St. Bartholomew, Mariegalante, and Deseada, to the Swedes.
CHAPTER V.
SOUTH AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY.
South America, colonized by the Spaniards and Portuguese, was, like the preceding grand division, made known to the civilized world by the genius and labors of Columbus. He was its first European discoverer, and first visited it, as before mentioned, in 1497. In the year 1500, Alvarez Cabral, when on his way to the East Indies, under tlie onlers of tlie Portuguese government, discovered the coast of Brazil. The river La Plata, is said to have been discovered in 1512 ; but the more soutliern part of South America, was first ex- plored by Magellan, in 1520, under Spanish authority, and on his voyage around the world, the first which was ever made. In 1524, Peru became known to the Spaniards, which led to its conquest by Pizarro, begun in the following year. Buenos Ayres, was visited by De Soils, in 1517; and by Sebastian Cabot, in 1526. Chili, was invaded by Mnagro, in the year 1535. We have only room to add, that Orellaml, or Ovellana, a Spaniard, is regarded as the dis- coverer of the river Amazon, and the region of Amazonia, about the year 1541.
The following is offered as an approximate statement of the extent and population of the countries of South America.
Countriu. 8q. JUUes. Inhabitanu,
Chili 170,000.. 1,500,000
La Plata 750,000 . . 2,000,000
Paraguay 100,000 . . 300,000
Uruguay 1 10,000 . . 150,000
Patagonia 380,000 . . 40,000
C0uiUri$$. Sq, MUf. InkabitanU.
Brazil 3,200,000.. 5,200,000
Guiana 160,000. . 180,000
Venezaela 420,000 . . 900,000
New Grenada.. 450,000.. 1,700,000
Equador 300,000 . . 600,000
Peru 440,000.. 1,700,000
Bolivm 450,000.. 1,600,000 Total 6,930,000 15,870,000
We proceed to speak of tliese divisions, in the order above named.
§ 1. The Eastern Division of South America comprises Brazil and Guiana, colonized by other nations than the Spaniards. The climate of this region is hot, and in some parts unhealthy ; but it has generally a fertile soil, and produces cotton, coffee, sugar, rice, maize, Brazil wood, and various tropical trees and plants. Among the animals of this region, are the jaguar, or American tiger, the tapir, resembling the African hippopotamus; and the large aboma snake, almost vieing with the East India anaconda.
Brazil, is an extensive, though thinly peopled empire ; and nomi- nally includes the central region of South America, called Amazonia,
Digitized by
190 6SOORAPHT.
Still chiefly inhabited by the Indians. Indeed, various Indian tribes are scattered over all its wide territory : but these we have no room to name. It is watered by the Amazon in the north, with its branches, the Negro, Madeira^ Topayos or Tapajos, and Xingu or Chingu : in the central part is tlie Araguay or Toeantins ; and, in the east, the river St. Francisco, The Brazilian mountains extend along the south-eastern coast. The chief cities of this empire are Rio JaneirOf the capiul ; Bahia, or St. Salvador, and Pemambuco, farther north ; and between the two latter Sergippe del Bey, all in the eastern part ; Cuyaba, in the centre ; Para and Maranham, in the north ; and St. Paul, in the south. Brazil has rich mines, especially of gold and diamonds. It was formerly a Portuguese colony, but is now an independent monarchy ; and the religion is the Roman Catholic.
Guiana, north of Brazil, is now limited to the French, Butch, and British possessions of that name ; the part which formerly belonged to Portugal, being now merged in Brazil. Cayenne is the capital of Cayenne, or French Guiana ; Paramaribo, of Surinam or Dutch Guiana ; and Georgetoum is the capital of Berbicc, Demerara, and Essequibo, or British Guiana. The commerce of this region is of some value ; but owing perhaps to the climate the people are said to be indolent ; and the greater part of the population are slaves.
§ 2. The countries in the North Western Division of South America, were all colonized by Spain ; and though now independent, retain the Spanish language and manners, with the Roman Catholic religion. Their governments are all nominally republican ; but imperfectly administered, from the want of general education and knowledge among the people.
Venezuela, is a part of the recent republic of Colombia, which included also New Grenada and Equador. Its chief river is the Orinoco ; the island of Margarita belongs to this state ; and Lake Maracaybo is near its western border. Its chief cities, are Carac- cos, the capital ; Maracaybo, Coro, and Valencia, west of it, and Cumana, farther east. Venezuela produces domestic animals, sugar, and cocoa, in great abundance ; and the inhabitants are said to be making considerable progress in education and the arts. New Grenada, recently a part of Colombia, and now an independent republic, is rich in the productions of all climates, and has mines of gold and silver. It is traversed by the Andes mountains, on which its climate is cool, though in the torrid zone. The Magdalena is its principal river ; and its chief towns are Bogota, (Santa F^ de Bogota), the capital; Popayan, south of it; and Carthagena, ^nd Panama, in the north ancl west. Coffee, cotton, indigo, and tobacco are among its productions; but agriculture and the arts are in a backward state.
Equador, (Ecuador or Equator), the remaining part of Colombia, and now independent, borders on the Pacific Ocean, and lies chiefly south of the equator, from which it derives its name. It contains Chimborazo and numerous other lofty peaks of the Andes, some of which, including Cotopaxi, are volcanoes. In its eastern part, the rivers Ucayale and Tunguragua unite to form the Amazon ; and the Vupura or Caqueta forms a part of its northern boundary. Its chief
Digitized by
SOUTH AMERICAN. 191
cities, are Quito, the capital ; and south of it, GuayaqxdU Biobambay and Cuenca. Its productions and characteristics are nearly the same as those of New Grenada. Peru^ south of Equador, is also tra- versed by the Andes, and contains the river Ucayale, the chief source of the Amazon. Lake Titieaca lies in its southern part, among the mountains. Its chief cities are Lima, the capital ; and south-east of it Cusco, and Arequipa; but the principal seaports are CcUlao near Lima, and TruxiUo, Peru produces the Peruvian bark, and various tropical fruits; and it is the native country of the llama, which is used as a beast of burthen. This country is rich in mines of gold and silver ; and abounds in interesting antiquities. It has been divided into two states, North Peru and South Peru ; but the government is at present in an unsettled state.
§ 3. The Centred Division of South America, colonized also by the Spaniards, has a cooler climate than the preceding, but still abounds in tropical productions. Its state in regard to religion, government and civilization, is quite similar to that of the preceding division.
Bolivia, sometimes called Upper Peru, contains Mount Sorata, said to be the highest peak of the Andes, or nearly four miles and three-fifths, in height. The Madeira river runs from it northward to the Amazon; and the Pilcomayo and Vermejo run south-eastward into the Paraguay. Its chief cities are Chuquisaca, the capital ; and north of it Cochabamba, and La Paz, It raises grain for exporta- tion to Peru, and contains the rich silver mines of Potosi ; but here as in the contiguous countries, the arts are in a backward state. Chili lies south of Peru, or the Desert of .^/acama ; and between the Pacific ocean and the Andes. The islands of Chiloe, on the south, and Juan Fernandez, on the west, belong to Chili. Its chief towns are Santiago, the capital, in the interior; and Valparaiso, near it, on the coast. The climate is temperate, and Chili produces various grains, with cotton, sugar, oil, and wine. It has some mines of the precious metals ; and is more advanced in the arts than the preceding states. The southern part is still inhabited by the Araucanian Indians ; a brave and hardy race.
La Plata, or the Argentine Republic, called also Buenos Ayres, lies east of Chili, and is named from the river La Plata, which runs through its eastern part. It contains also the Salado, which is a branch of the La Plata ; and, in its southern part, the rivers Colorado and Negro, lis chief cities are Buenos Ayres, the capital, in the east ; and Cordova and San Juan^ more central. Among the animals of La Plata are the rhea, or American ostrich ; and wild horses and cattle ; which are hunted by horsemen, on its extensive Pampas or plains. Paraguay, north-east of La Plata, and formerly a part of it, lies between the rivers Paraguay and Parana, Assumption is its capital, and though small, its largest city. Most of its inhabitants are Indians. Its government is an absolute monarchy, under a self- constituted Dictator ; and its religion is the Roman Catholic. Uru- guay, or Monte Video, formerly called the Banda Oriental, lies east of La Plata, and borders on the river Uruguay, from which it is named. Montevideo is its capital and chief city. In productions and characteristics, it resembles La Plata, of which it was formerly a part.
Digitized by
192 OEOORAPHY.
§ 4. Patagonia^ the southern division of South America, is a cold and rather barren region, sparsely inhabited by Indians, of whom the Puelchest in the north, and Moluehest in the south, are said to be the principal tribes. The islands of Terra del Fuego are included with Patagonia ; but the Falkland Islands on the east are claimed by Buenos Ayres, and by Great Britain. The islands of South Shet- land^ South Orkney, and Sandwich Land, farther south, discovered since 1810, are chiefly visiled for the purpose of procuring the skins of the seals in which they abound.
CHAPTER VI.
OCEANIC OEOORAPHY.
The name Oceanica^ was introduced by Malte-Brun, to compre- hend New Holland, and the numerous islands of the Pacific Ocean, which together form the sixth grand division of the earth. It is usually subdivided into Malaysia, including the islands north-west of New Holland and New Guinea ; Australasia, including tliese two islands, and the range eastward of them ; and Polynesia ; including the numerous other groups farther eastward and northward ; excepting those on the immediate coast of America, or Asia. Most of these islands are inhabited by savage tribes, imperfectly known. Java, and Sumatra, were discovered by the Portuguese, in 1510 ; Celebes, in 1512; and Borneo, they visited in 1626. The discovery of New Holland, has been attributed to Gonneville, in 1503 ; and more pro- bably to MeneziSf a Portuguese, in 1527 ; but if so, it was redisco- vered by Quiro8, a Spaniard, in 1606, or by Dirk Hartag, or Har- tigh, a Dutchman, in 1616. Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand, were discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Lemaire and Schouten were also sent out by the Dutch government; but their discoveries were of minor importance.
Most of the other discoveries in Oceanica, have been made by circumnavigators, while on their Voyages around the World; of which this seems the proper place to speak. The first of these voyages was that of Fernando Magellan, (or Magalhaens), who sailed from Spain, in 1519 ; discovered the straits bearing his name, in 1520; and, passing through them, into the Pacific ocean, disco- vered the Ladrones, and Philippine Islands, in 1521. He was killed on one of the latter islands, in the same year; but one of his ships, after discovering Borneo, returned to Spain, in 1522. Next to this, we would mention the voyage of Scuivedra, though it was only across the Pacific Ocean. He sailed from Mexico around South America, in 1527; and is said to have discovered New Guinea, and Gilolo, in 1528. The second voyage around the world, was that of Sir Francis Drake, who sailed from England, in 1577 ; discovered Cape Horn, and visited California, in 1578; and returned to England, in 1580. The third circumnavigator, was Sir lyiomas Cavendish,
Digitized by
OCEAKIC. 193
in 1586-8 ; and the fourth, was Oliver Fan Noorty who performed the first Dutch circumnavigation, in 1598-1601. Mendana disco- vered the Solomon isles, in 1595; and Quiros discovered the Mar- quesas, in the same year. Quiros also discovered the New Hebrides, in 1606; and named them Tierra Australia del Espiritu Santo; but Bougainville called them the Great Cyclades ; and Capt. Cook gave them their present name, in 1774. The Caroline Isles, were disco- vered by the Spaniards, in 1686.
Among other voyages around the world, are those of Dampier, who sailed in 1683, and visited Juan Fernandez ; of Anson^ in 1740, chiefly for warlike purposes ; of Byron, in 1764, who discovered King George's, Prince of Wales', and other islands; that of BoU' gainville, who visited the New Hebrides, in 1768 ; and of Capt. Cook^ who made three voyages around the world, beginning in 1768, on the third of which he was killed at Owyhee, in 1779. He dis- covered the Society Islands, in 1769, the Friendly Islands, in 1773, and the Sandwich Islands, in 1778 ; and first surveyed the eastern coast of New Holland, in 1770. Furneaux, in 1773, completed the exploration of the coast of New Holland, by connecting Tas- man's discoveries, with those of Cook. The unhappy voyage of Lap^rouse ; both of whose vessels were lost, in 1788 ; and the later voyages around the world, by Krusenstem, Kotzebuoi and others, we have no room here to describe.
The following table gives the extent and population of Oceanica, as nearly as we can ascertain them.
UUvit. Sq. MUa, JMiMUtits.
rLTm*"** ? . . . .70,000. . . . 800,000 West Polynesia . . . .25,000. . . . 150,000 Central Polynesia,. .40,000. . . . 800,000 East Polynesia .... 65,000 .... 250,000
lOamdt. Sq. MiU». InhaUUnU.
Sanda Islands . . . .245,000. . 10,000,000
^MoStt^** I . . . .90,000. . .2.000,000
Borneo 360,000 . . . 3,000,000
PhUippine Islands . 105,000. . .2,300,000
^ t2IJ!I»^^ \ ' 3'<>00»000 • • • 2,000,000
New Zealand 90,000. . . . 300,000
Total 4,365,000. .21,100,000
We proceed to treat of these islands, in the order above named.
$ 1. The name Malay sia^ is applied to the group of the Sunda Islands, Celebes, and the Moluccas, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands ; from their being inhabited chiefly by the Malay race, and lying near Asia. They are sometimes called the Indian Archipelago ; being regarded as a part of the East Indies. They abound in the richest tropical productions ; and have an extensive commerce ; but the inhabitants are generally pagans, living in tribes, and in a half civilized or barbarous state.
The Sunda Islands, include Sumatra, and, south-east of it, Java, and Sumbawa ; to which we would add Floris, and Timor, more eastward, in the same range. These islands contain several volca- noes, some of which are almost continually in action. Their chief cities, are, in Sumatra, Palembang; and in Java, Batavia, the Dutch capital, and Samarang. The small island of Banca, east of Sumatra, has valuable mines of tin, wrought by the Chinese. These islands, however, belong principally to the Dutch ; and trade in rice, 25 R
Digitized by
194 OEOGRAPHT.
sugar, coffee, pepper, and other tropical productions. The Moluccas^ or Spict Islands, are the sma]! islands east of Celebes, which island we would include in the same group, from its contiguity, and the simi- larity of its productions. Gilolo, Bouro, and Ceram, are the largest of the Spice Islands ; and the smaller islands west of Gilolo, are the only places where the clove tree is indigenous. These islands belong mostly to the Dutch ; who possess the town of Macassar, on the Island of Celebes.
Borneo, is, next to Australia, the largest island in the world ; and like the preceding islands, belongs chiefly to the Dutch. Its capital is the town of Borneo, in the northern part. The inhabitants are partly savage native tribes, and partly Malays, professing the Moha- medan religion. Borneo is the home of the ourang-outang, and is rich in gold and diamonds. The Philippine Islands, more than 1000 in number, belong to the Spaniards. The largest islands, are Luzon, or Luconia ; and Mindanao, or Magindanao ; next to which, in size, are Palawan, and Samar. The chief city and capital, is Manilla, on the island of Luzon.
$ 2. Australasia comprehends Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Guinea, and what may be termed the New British Range, or the Solomon Islands and New Hebrides. The inhabitants of these islands, excepting New Zealand, are chiefly a peculiar black race, called Papuan Negroes, in a very savage state.
Australia was formerly called New Holland; but the latter name is now restricted to the western part of this wide region ; the eastern being called New South IVales* The British have colonized the south-eastern portion, called Botany Bay ; and still send criminals thither as temporary slaves. Sidney is its capital and chief town. Tasmania, or Van Diemen^s Land, an island south of Australia, is also colonized by the British ; Hobart Town being its capital ; and more recently a colony has been established in the south-western part of Australia, on the Swan River. New Zealand, comprises two large islands, Eahei and Tavai, south-east of Australia, inhabited by native tribes of the Malay race, of a very ferocious character. These islands have also been colonized by the British ; and there is here a confederation of native chiefs, under British protection. The Bay of Islands, in Eahei, the more northern island of this group, is a favorite resort for whale ships.
New Guinea or Papua, north of Australia, is said to be a fertile island, of which little is known. We would designate as the New British Range, the islands of Louisiade, New Britain, New Ireland, New Georgia, and the other Solomon Islands east of Papua ; and the New Hebrides, and New Caledonia, farther south ; all of which islands are very imperfectly known. Their names, it will be ob- served, mostly commence with the word new, and several of them allude to the British Islands ; which analogy has suggested the appel- lation above proposed.
$ 3. The name of Polynesia, is applied to the numerous islands of the Pacific, east of the preceding divisions, inhabited chiefly by native tribes of the Indian or Malay races, and abounding in tropical productions.
Digitized by
OCEANIC. 195
We would apply the name Western Polynesia to the Caroline Islands ; the LadroneSj north of them ; Magellan's Archipelago, still farther north; and Anson's Archipelago, east of Magellan's. The first two of these groups are subject to the Spaniards; who have treated the natives with great cruelty. In Central Polynesia, we would comprehend the Central Archipelago, including Mulgrave's, Gilbert's, Tas well's, Byron's, and other islands; together with the Friendly Islands, and the neighboring groups, the Navigator's, on the north-east, the Feejee, on the west, and the Tonga islands, on the south, which together might be termed the Friendly Archipelago, Many of the Friendly islanders are already converted to Christianity.
Finally, in Eastern Polynesia, we would comprehend the Sandwich Islands; Christmas Island and the contiguous group; Mendana's Archipelago, including the Marquesas and Washington islands ; and the Society Archipelago, including the Society Islands ; King George's and Prince of Wales' Islands, north-east of them ; Palliser and Pearl Islands, on the east ; Gambier Islands, and Pitcairn's Island, farther south and east ; Austral Islands, on the south ; and Cook's or Hervey's Islands, on the south-west. The Sandwich islands, including OivV' hee, and the Society islands, including Otaheite, have been recently converted to Christianity, by the labors of protestant missionaries : but a wide field of labor yet remains, in this part of the globe, for the friends of religion and humanity.
Digitized by
VL DEPABTBIENT:
CHRONOORAPHT.
In the department of Chronography, we indade the Civil or Political History of all nations, from the moat ancient times ; and their Archeology, or the study of their antiquities, so far as this subject is properly treated in connection with history, or in an histori- cal manner. The name is derived from the Greek, rtpo^'Of, time ; and ypati7« a description ; literally signifying a description of times, or events. We prefer this name for the present department, both from its symmetry, and because the term History, from the Greek, iotofua^ originally signified, and was used by Loid Bacon to include, all knowledge of facts, depending on memory or records. Hence the term Natural History was applied to the study of animated and inanimate nature ; which has but slight relations to the studies here embraced. Or, if History be restricted to a narration of past events, every branch of knowledge has its own history ; and the term would still be too comprehensive for the present department of Human Knowledge.
By Civil or Political History, is meant the study or record of such past events, as had a national character or influence ; with philo- sophical views of their causes and consequences. Sacred History , is that which is contained in the Bible ; all other being called Profane, or more properly Secular History. Of Ecclesiastical History, or that of the Christian Church, we have already spoken, as far as our present limits would allow, (p. 1 45). Particular History ^ is confined to some one state or division of the earth ; or to some limited period ; but General or Universal History, treats of all nations, in all ages, with due reference to their connections and relations. General History is usually subdivided into Chronological Periods, more or less numerous; but most frequently into Ancient, Mediseval or Middle, and Modem History: the first extending to the fall of the Roman Empire in Italy, A. D. 476 ; the second to the discovery of America, in 1492 ; and the third, to the present time. Most works on General History are arranged in Chronological order ; giving the History of several nations in connection, at least for brief periods : but we shall here adopt the Ethnographical order; and trace the History of each nation from its origin to its downfall; except in making a distinct branch of Ancient History, in conformity to general usage.
Of the uses of History, as a discipline of memory, and reason ; as auxiliary to the studies of Government and Religion ; as a magazine of valuable information ; and as a fruitful source of practical philoso- phy, we have no room farther to speak ; but would add, that even as
196
Digitized by
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 197
an object of amasement, History may vie with poetry and romance ; since facta are often more wonderful, than the fictions which tliey ■og^est. But in order to develope its full utility. Civil History should contain something more than a record of wars and battles, the intrigues of courts, and the crimes or exploits of princes and heroes. It should imbody the form and spirit of each succeeding age ; portraying its moral and social features, in the walks of com- mon life ; and exhibiting its progress in those arts and sciences which have so much improved the condition of the human race. This study cannot be fully appreciated, and enjoyed, without an adequate knowledge of Geography ; nor unless accompanied by the study of Chronology and Antiquities; by the aid of which the reader is transported in imagination to the very time and place of the scenes or events described.
The progress of Historical knowledge, has naturally been coex- tensive with that of the means of recording and transmitting informa- tion. Next to the books of Moses, sind the Egyptian Hieroglyphics, the oldest historical work, of which some fragments are still pre- served, is that attributed to Sanehoniathan, of Phoenicia, who is sup* posed to have lived some time before the Trojan war. For a long period after this date, the chief sources of History, were poetical or oral traditions ; monuments and brief inscriptions ; and festivals or ceremonies, in commemoration of great events. The poems of Homer, are an example of the first class ; the chronicle of Paros, or Amndelian marbles, of the second ; and the Grecian games, may be cited as an example of the third. Phereeydts, of Leros, and the three Milesians, Dionysius, Cadmus^ and necataeusy all of whom lived between 550 and 500 B. C, are mentioned as the earliest writers of History in prose ; but their works are mostly lost. From this period History began to assume a more accurate form, in the hands of the classic writers, who will be mentioned in their due- place.
Arehseology, is that branch of knowledge which treats of anlt- qttities, or the memorials and relics of ancient times. The name is radically derived from the Greek oparato;, ancient; corresponding to the Latin antiquus, of the same signification. Antiquities were termed, by Lord Bacon, *' the wrecks of history ;" and certainly they are so interwoven with it, that their study may to a certain extent be regarded as a part of it, and comprehended in the same department of knowledge. Archaeology relates not only to the re- mains of ancient art, such as buildings, monuments, statues, coins, inscriptions, books, manuscripts, vessels, weapons, and utensils ; but also to the manners and customs, politics and religion, sciences and arts, of past ages. Thus, each country has its own antiquities; which serve to illustrate and enliven its history. Each of the arts has also its own antiquities, to which we shall refer in their place. An- tiquities have been subdivided into theological, political, literary; technical, domestic, and military ; but we think that those of each nation, and especially those of each departmen^of knowledge, merit a separate consideration. Instead, therefore, of devoting a distinct
r2
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chapter to antiquities, we shall, in this work, distribute then^, on the principle just explained.
Numismatics t or Numismatology, is that portion of Archaeology which relates to coins and medals, with their devices, dates and in- scriptions ; which often serve to verify facts of History, Chronology, or Biography. Coins, are usually pieces of metal, stamped by pub- lic authority, and designed to circulate as a medium of exchange. Medals, are pieces stamped in honor of some person, or in com- memoration of some event, but not designed to circulate as money. Coins are usually made of gold, silver, copper, or brass ; but wooden money is mentioned among the Romans ; iron was coined by the Spartans ; and shells are still used as money by various savage tribes. The number of different ancient coins and medals, is estimated, by Millin, at 70,000. The earliest extant, having the stamp of any in- dividual, are those of Alexander I., of Macedon, about 500 B. C; but there are coins of particular cities or towns, still more ancient.* The term Epigraphies, has been applied to the study of inscriptions, whether on coins, gems, monuments, buildings, or elsewhere ; which study is merely a subdivision of Archaeology. Sphragisties, or the study of seals, and Autographies, or that of signatures, belong more properly to the next department, that of Biography.
Chronology, is that division of Historical science, which treats of the dates of events, and the modes of ascertaining them. The name is from the Greek ^tpo^o;* time ; and it is sometimes subdivided into Mathematical Chronology, or the ascertainment and comparison of epochs and eras ; Astronomical, or the fixing of particular dates, by their relation to celestial phenomena ; and Historical, or the fixing of dates by inscriptions, and other means. An era, is a point of time fixed upon by some nation or body of men, from which to reckon dates ; and an epoch, is a like point of time agreed upon by historians and chronologists. The Greeks reckoned time by Olym- piads, or periods of four years each ; commencing T76 years before the Christian Era : this being the date of the triumph of Choraebus, at the Olympic games ; which were celebrated once in four years. The Romans reckoned lime from the founding of Borne, 753 years before the Christian Era, or 754 B. C. Dates reckoned from this era, are designated by the initials A. U. C, signifying ab urbe condita, that is, from the building of the city. The era of Nabonassar, 747 B. C, and that of the Seleucidss, 312 B. C, were somewhat used in the east. The Mohamedans reckon time from the Hegira, or flight of Mohamed from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622 : but they use the lunar year of 354 days ; making a difference of one year in 33 of ours. The Persian era of Yezdegird HI., commenced 10 years later, or A. D. 632.
The Christian Era, now in use among all Christian nations, was introduced by Dionysius the Little, a Scythian Monk, A. D. 526. Following the statement of St. Luke, that John the Baptist com- menced preaching in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius, and reckoning this reigs from the death of Augustus, A. U. C. 767,
* The yahie of some of the principal modem coins, will be stated under the branch of Commerce.
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Dionysius sapposcd John's preaching to have commenced A. U. C. 783 ; and as Jesus, when baptized, in the following year, was about thirty years of age, his birth was supposed to have taken place,
A. U. C. 764, which is the common or vulgar Christian Era. But this disagrees with the well ascertained fact that Herod, the infanticide, died A. U. C. 750; and that our Saviour was born a year or two before his death. Hence it is now generally agreed that the Nativity, or birth of our Saviour, took place four years before the Christian Era, or in the year 4 B. C. ; and that St. Luke reckoned the reign of Tiberius as commencing A. U. C. 764, when he was admitted to share the imperial dignity with Augustus. This reconciles the difference, without doing violence to either Sacred history, or secular. Dates reckoned backward from the Christian Era, are usually marked
B. C, or before Christ ; but those reckoned forward, are usually dis- tinguished by the prefix A, 2)., signifying Anno Domini, or in the year of our Lord. The initials A. C, sometimes used for after Christ, are ambiguous ; as they may also stand for ante Christum, that is before Christ.
The Jews profess to reckon time from the creation of the world : which they date 3760 B. C. But this date rests solely on the authority of the Bible ; of which the Hebrew, Samaritan, and Septuagint ver- sions materially differ on this point. Archbishop Usher, following the Hebrew text, dates the Creation 4004 B. C, and the Deluge 2348 B. C; which are the dates usually given. But Dr. Hales believes that the Jews falsified their chronology, to prevent the application of their traditions to our Saviour ; and, on the authority of Josephus, he dates the Creation 5411 B. C. ; and the Deluge 3155 B. C. : this latter date agreeing very nearly with that of the Kali- Vug, (Cali-Yug), or last deluge of the Hindoos, which tliey date 3102 B. C. MuUer, following more closely the Septuagint, dates the Creation 5722 B. C. ; but we incline to the opinion that the truth lies between the Chronology of Hales and that of Usher.
It may be here remarked that the modem discoveries in Geology by no means disprove either of these dates, as the period when man was created ; though the earth itself is doubtless much older. Some learned men believe that the six days of creation were so many long periods of the earth's progressive changes, before the creation of mankind : an opinion which we think highly probable. The ancient oriental writers also used the word which we translate year, to signify a day, or a lunar month, or a half year. Thus Epigenes states that astronomical observations were made at Babylon, 720,000 years before its conquest by Alexander ; but calling these so many days, they make the time nearly as stated by Callisthenes, or about 1900 years. In like manner the Egyptian period of 30,000 years, called the reign of the sun, may be reduced to the 82 years of Joseph's administration, according to the Scripture.
Time is naturally divided into days, months, and years ; but its division into weeks, is arbitrary, and must be traced back to a divine ordinance. Our names of the days are derived from the mythology of our Saxon ancestors ; Sunday, from the Sun ; Monday, from the Moon; Tuesday, from T\iisco, an ancient hero; Wednesday, from
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Woden, their god of battle : Thursday, from Tlior, god of winds and weather; Friday, from Friga, goddess of peace and plenty; and Saturday, from Seator, their god of freedom. The term months was originally applied to the time from one new or full moon, to the next. The lunar month, thus defined, has an average length of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds ; but the calendar months vary in length, as shown by the Almanac. The names of the calendar months, are derived from the Latin ; as follows : January, from Janus, the god who rules the year ; February, from Februa, the goddess of purification ; March, from Mars, the god of war ; April, from Aphrodite, the goddess of love, (or from aperire, to open or blossom) ; May, from Maia, the mother of Mercury ; June, from Juno, the queen of heaven ; July, from Julius Csesar ; August, from Augustus ; September from septem, seven ; October, from octo, eight ; November, from novem, nine ; and December, from decem, ten ; these latter being the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth months of the old Roman year ; which previous to the time of Numa, consisted of only ten months, beginning with March.
The year is naturally regulated by the seasons, as these are, by the return of the sun to the tropics or equator. The solar, tropical or equinocticUyear, thus defined, contains 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds ; though the ordinary civil year consists of 365 days. The Julian Calendar, so called because reformed by Julius Caesar, with the aid of Sosigenes of Alexandria, allowed one additional day in every fourth year, which hence was called Bissextile or Leap year, making the average length of the year 365 days and 6 hours. The error thus committed of making the year II minutes and 11 seconds too long, was rectified under Pope Gregory XIII., in 1582 ; by drop- ping ten days from the month of October in that year, and omitting one day in every 400 years thereafter. The Calendar thus reformed, is hence called tlie Gregorian Calendar $ the same which we now use. It was not introduced into England until 1752 ; when, by an act of Parliament, 1 1 days were dropped from that year, by calling the third of September; the fourteenth. This change constitutes the difference between Old and New Style.
The Solar Cycle, is a period of 28 years, at the end of which, according to the Julian Calendar, the days of the week return to the same days of the month on which they were at its commencement. The Lunar Cycle, invented by Meton, and hence sometimes called the Metonic Cycle, is a period of 19 years; at the end of which the new and full moon return on the same days of the year as at its beginning ; at least for a long period. As the Grecian festivals were regulated by this cycle, the current year of it was incribed on a mar- ble pillar, in letters of gold ; and hence called the golden number. The Cycle of the Indiction, was a period of fifteen years, arbitrarily established by the Roman emperors, in reference to certain judicial acts. And the Julian Period, designed to fix an epoch from which to reckon time, was formed by multiplying together the numbers for the three preceding cycles, 28, 19, and 15 ; making a product of 7980 years ; which were made to commence 4714 B. C, or neaily at the Samaritan date of the Creation.
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We proceed to treat of Civil History and Antiquities, under the branches of Euclassic, Oriental, European, and American Chrono- graphy ; extending the term Oriental to the History of the Moham- edan parts of Africa ; the only parts whose history is much known ; and restricting the term European, to the History of Europe in the middle ages, and in modem times.
CHAPTER I.
BUCLASSIC CHRONOGRAPHY.
In the branch of Enclassic Chronography, we would treat of the History and Antiquities of those nations which were known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. It comprehends therefore the greater part of Ancient History ; excluding only that of India and China, which have «o little connection with the rest, that they are reserved for the branch of Oriental Chronography. The name classic, is de- rived from the Latin, classis, a form, or bench in a school : and it was applied to those studies which were taught in the schools of Rome, in the Greek and Latin languages. But as it is now extended to the best writings in the modern languages, we have here adopted the term Euclassic ; adding the Greek cv, an emphatic prefix, to distinguish the ancient classics from the modern.
Ancient History^ commences of course, with the Creation of the World; according to Hales, 5411 B. C; but according to Usher, 4004. Of this, and of the succeeding events, down to the found- ing of the ancient empires, our only record is that found in the Bible ; the first books of which we may consider as introductory to Secular History. The book of Genesis, written by Moses, according to Hales, about 1610, or as usually stated, about 1452 B. C, (p. 141), is referred to as authentic, by the earliest writers who had access to it, both sacred and secular. Its statements concerning the Creation, and the Deluge, are consistent with, and even corroborated by, the discoveries of modem Geology ; as we shall endeavor to explain, when treating of that science. The Noachian Deluge, or Noah's Flood, took place, according to Hales, 3155 B. C. ; but according to Usher, 2348 ; when the race of men, grown impious through longevity and luxury, were all destroyed, except Noah and his family, by whom the earth was repeopled. It is believed that the Jews and eastern Asiatics, and probably the American Indians, are descended from Shem; the Canaanites and Africans from Ham; and the Europeans, with the north-western Asiatics, from Japhet. The building of the Tower of Babel, interrupted, according to Hales, 2614; but according to Usher, 2247 B. C, probably gave rise to the fable of the wars of the giants against the gods : and the niins of that tower are believed still to exist, in the Birs Nimrood, a vast heap or pile, on the supposed site of ancient Babylon.
From this period we may commence the History of Nations : as the earliest empires originated then, or soon after ; and possibly even 26
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before the last named event. Greece and Rome emerged from bar- barism, at a much later period ; but to them more than to any other nations, belongs the proud boast of having attained to universal empire. We shall here treat first of Jewish history, on account of its authen- ticity and sacred character; and next take that of its neighbors, Egypt and Babylon. The history of Persia will follow that of Babylon ; and lead to those of Greece and Rome. The minor na- tions will be referred to in connection with those here named ; and we shall, in this chapter, continue the history of Rome to the downfall of the Western Empire, A. D. 476 ; and that of Greece to the fall of the Byzantine or Greek empire, A. D. 1453.
§ 1 . The History of the Jews, a nation professedly devoted to the worship of the true God, while the surrounding nations were merged in idolatry, and who still, after their dispersion and persecu- tions, remain a distinct people, is perhaps the most remarkable which the world has ever witnessed. Of their ancestry and early history, down to the Conquest of Canaan, by Joshua^ 1446, or according to Hales, 1602, B. C.> we have already spoken, under the History of Judaism, (p. 140). From this period, the Jews, governed by the Divine Law, had no other temporal rulers than the Judges, so called, or leaders in their wars against the surrounding tribes ; until, at their urgent desire, Saul wbb anointed king of Israel, 1095, (or 1110), B. C. He was succeeded by David, the shepherd king and psalmist ; whose son Solomon built tlie splendid Temple at Jerusalem, and dedicated it to the one true God, 1004, (or 1020), B. C.
In the reign of Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, ten of the tribes revolted, and selected Jeroboam as their king, 975, (or 990), B. C. ; thus establishing the kingdom of Israel, with Samaria for its capital; in opposition to the two tribes under Rehoboam, or the kingdom of Judah, Jerusalem was soon after plundered by Shishak, king of Egypt, about 980, B. C. ; and Samaria was besieged, but in vain, by Benhadad, king of Syria, 892, (or 900), B. C. After these events, both kingdoms, on account of their disobedience and idolatry, were abandoned by the divine favor. Pul, king of Assyria, tributized Menahem, king of Israel, 770 B. G.; and the Assyrian Shalmaneser conquered Israel, carried away the ten Tribes, and dispersed them in central Asia, 720 B. C.; since which event, their fate is unknown. The kingdom of Judah was assailed in vain by Sennacherib, in the reign of the good Hezekiah, 713, (or 715), B. 0.; but Esarhaddon rendered it tributary, and carried its king, Manasseh, a captive to Babylon, 676 B. C. Nebuchadnezzar, at length carried all the remaining Jews into Babylonian Captivity, 588, (or 586), B. C., destroying Jerusalem, and Solomon's Temple. The captives were at length partially restored, by the favor of Cyrus, the Persian conqueror; and permitted to rebuild the temple, which was dedicated 515 B. C. With the succeeding administration of Ezra and Nehe' miah, the Old Testament history closes, about 420 B. C.
Judea continued to be a Persian province, till the triumphs of Alexander the Great ; who visited Jerusalem courteously, 332 B.C. After his deatli, Judea was connected with Egypt, under the Ptole- mies, till it revolted and submitted to Antiochus the Great, of Syria,
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about 200 B. C. Under the Maccabees, sons of the priest Matthias, it became independent about 163 B. C, and so continued till it was subdued by the Romans, 63 B. C, under Pompey the Great. After the persecution and crucifixion of our Saviour, and in the midst of civil dissension and bloodshed, Jerusalem was taken and utterly destroyed by the Romans, under Titus, A. D. 70. During the siege, 1,100,000 Jews perished, and the rest were subdued or dispersed ; 80 that after some struggles for independence, down to A. D. 135, they ceased to have any longer a national existence.
5 2. The Ancient History of Egypt, like that of all the remaining ancient nations, is involved in obscurity and uncertainty. The frag- ments of it, preserved by Herodotus, Manetho, and others, often disa- gree with each other and with the monumental inscriptions ; though they are still deserving of some consideration. The results deduced from all these sources by Ghampollion, Rossellini, Wilkinson, and Hales, are those on which we would mostly rely. Egypt was probably first settled by Mizraim, the son of Ham, who built No-Ammon, or Thebes, according to Hales, 2600 B. C; though others suppose him to be the same as Menes, (Menai or Minaeus), who built Mem- phis, about 2400, (or according to Usher, 2188), B. C. Tanis, (Zan or Zoan), in the Delta, is supposed to have been built 2146 B. C. The earliest period of Egyptian History, including the times of Busiris, Suphis, Phiops or Apappus, and Nitocris, down to the 18th dynasty of Manetho, is utterly confused and uncertain. It includes the invasion and rule of the Hyc-sos, or Shepherd Kings^ who probably reigned in the time of Abraham, but were expelled before the time of Joseph : though some suppose these shepherds to have been the Israelites themselves.
Among the oldest monuments of Egypt, are the .Pyramids, near Memphis, begun, according to Manetho and Wilkinson, by Suphis, (or Saophis), about 2100 B. 0. Herodotus attributes them to Cheops, Cephren, and Mycerinus, about 1000 B. C. ; but it seems more pro- bable that they merely received names from these kings, and were built at an earlier period. Commencing with Manetho's 18th dynasty, 1822, or according to Wilkinson, 1575 B. C, we have a consistent series of reigns, down to the Persian and Grecian conquests : and on this series we would place some reliance. It was probably near the beginning or middle of the 18(h dynasty, that the Israelites departed from Egypt : and among its kings, were Thoutmosis, or Miphres, probably the Moeris of Herodotus ; Amenophis, probably the Mem- nan of the vocal statue; and Ramses Meiamoun, probably the renowned Osymandias ; or, as some suppose, the Sesostris of the Greeks, whose conquests extended to India ; though it seems more probable that Sesostris was the Sethos of Manetho's next dynasty, about 1400 B. C.
From this period, in which many of the temples and tombs appear to have been built, little occurs of interest till the age of the Trojan war ; when Thuoris, or, according to others, Proteus or Cetes, niled in Egypt, 1184 B. C. Here a chasm of 150 years occurs in Mane- tho's list, which we think may be filled by the names of Proteus. Cheops^ and others of Herodotus, down to about 1100 B. C. Shi-
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•hak, who invaded Judea, was doubtless the Sesonchii of Manetho. Egypt was afterwards conquered by the Ethiopians or Gushites, and divided into 12 'nomes or provinces, till it was again united under FsammetichuSy about 664 B. C. Necho II. began the Canal from the Red sea to the Nile, about 610 B. G. ; but was defeated by Nebu- chadnezzar ; and Psammenitust was subjugated by Cambyaesj of Persia, 525 B. G. Egypt recovered its freedom again* under Amyt' ieu8 of Sais, about 414 B. G.; but was reconquered by the Persian Ochus, (Artaxerxes III.), and fell with Persia under the power of Alexander the Great, 332 B. G. After his death it was ruled by the Ptolemies^ till the battle of Actium, and death of Cleopatra^ 31 B. G. ; when Egypt became a Roman province.
$ 3. The History ofAssyriaf and of the adjacent regions, includ- ing Babylon, is also very confused and uncertain, down to the times of the Jewish monarchy. It commences with the founding of Baby- lorij by Nimrod ; according to Hales 2547, but, as usually stated, 2234 B. G. Nimrod is supposed to have been the Belu9 of the Greek historians; the name Bel, or Baal, in Ghaldee, signifying lord, or ruler. The city of Nineveh was built soon after Babylon ; but whether by Ashur, who was the son of Shem, and gave name to Assyria^ or by Nimrod himself, is uncertain ; for translators differ concerning the meaning of the original Scripture, on this point. It seems that Nineveh and Babylon were both united, under the sway of Nimrod, forming what is called the first Assyrian Umpire. Gallisthenes states Siat Alexander the Great found, in Babylon, a record of astronomical observations, extending back to 2234 B. G. ; from which it is probable that the city was built at an earlier date.
The subsequent reigns of Ninus, Queen Semiramis, and Ninias, are involved in. fable ; nor is it certain whether they immediately succeeded Nimrod, or lived at a much later period. A long chasm occurs in this history, filled only by the names of kings recorded by Gtesias, and by the invasion of Sesostris, till the time of the effemi- nate Sardanapalus ; when Arbaees, governor of Media, and Belesis^ governor of Babylon, revolted, and founded the kingdoms of Media and Babylon, about 820 B. G. The latter of these is known as the second Assyrian empire : but after the reign of Pu/, Babylon and Nineveh were again separated, 747 B. G. ; the former under Nabo- nassar, and the latter under Tiglath'Pileser. The successors of the latter, at Nineveh, were Shalmaneser ; Sennacherib ; Esarhaddon, who regained Babylon about 680 B. G. ; Saosduchinus ; Nabucho- donosor ; Ghiniladon ; and Sarac or Sardanapalus II. ; in whose reign Nabopolassar, of Babylon, forming a league with Gyaxares, king of Media, made himself master of Assyria, 612 B. G. Thus ended the second Assyrian, and commenced the Babylonian Empire, distinctively so called. The next king was Nabucnadonosor 11., or Nebuchadnezzar, who destroyed Jerusalem : and this dynasty closed with Belshazzar ; when Babylon was taken by Cyrus, the Persian, 538 B. G.
On the death of his uncle, Gyaxares II., (called in Scripture Darius the Mede), Gyrus united Media and Babylon with Persia,
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and Aaa foanded the great Peraian (or Medo-Peiaian) empire, 686 B. C* The immediate auccessora of Cyrus were CambyseSf who conquered Egypt; Darius Hystaspes, who invaded Scythia, India, and Greece, but was defeated at Marathon, 490 B. C; and Xerxes I., or the Great, who also invaded Greece, but was checked at Thermopylae, 480 B. C, and his forces defeated at Salamis, Pla- taea, and Mycale. The reign of Artaxerxes II., was marked by the ineffectual revolt of hia brother Cyrus, and the retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, sent to assist him, 401 B. C. The last of these kings, Darius Codomawus^ was defeated by Alexander the Great, at Issus and Arbela, and was slain 330 B. C. ; when Persia became a part of the Grecian empire. After the death of Alexander, Persia, with Syria, fell to the lot of SeleucuSj who commenced the dynasty of the Seleucidae, 312 B. C. That dynasty lost possession of Per- sia, by the revolt of Jirsacts^ who founded the Parthian empire, or dynasty of the Arsacids, 250 B. C. : and this empire continued till
A. D. 220; when Ardshir (Artaxerxes) obtained the sovereignty, and left it to his descendants, the Sassanides, including Sapor, the warrior, Nourshivan or Nousheerwan, the Just, Chosroes or Khoos- roo, and others ; with whom we close the ancient history of Assyria and Persia^
§ 4. Of the ancient history of Western Asia, and Carthage, we must speak very briefly. Syria, the ancient Aram, became a pro- vince of the Assyrian empire, about 750 B. C, and shared its fate, till after the death of Alexander the Great, when it fell to the lot of Seleucus Nicator, and became the seat of empire of the Seleucidae, 312 B. C. The last king of this dynasty, Antiochus Asiaticus, was dethroned by Pompey, 65 B. C, when Syria became a Roman pro- vince. The land of Canaan was inhabited by small tribes, at a very early period : Hebron or Kirjath Arba having been built, according to Hales, about 2153 B. C; and Sodom destroyed, 2054, or accord- ing to Usher, 1897 B. C. Among the tribes extirpated by the Jews, (p. 141), were the Ammonites, Moabites, Jebusites, Hivites, and Philistines. Phosnicia was very anciently a distinct state; 7)/re having been built, according to Hales, 2267 B. C. The Tyrians were generally friendly to the Jews ; but little is known of them, until the cruelty of their king, Pygmalion, caused his sister Dido to flee and found a new state, 878 B. C. Tyre was first taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B. C, when Ithohal was its king; and finally by Alexander the Great, 332 B. C, who totally destroyed the city ; after which Phoenicia became a part of Syria.
Carthage, was founded by Dido, with a Phcenician colony, 878
B. C. It gained possession of most of northern Africa; and then extended its conquests to Sicily. The Carthaginians, in league with Xerxes, were defeated by Gelon, king of Syracuse, at Himera, 480 B. C. ; but from Hiero, the successor of Gelon, they took several cities. They were expelled from these, by the Romans, in the first
* Persia, under the Kajanidesy had been a distinct kingdom, long before the time of Cyruii ; and Jenuheed (Dachemschid or Giamachid) is said to have reigned there, and foanded IsUkhar or Persepolis, about 800 B. G. Kaiumaraih is mentioned as the first king of Persia or £lam, according to Hales, 2190 B. C.
S
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Punie war: but in return, their leader, Hamilear, commenced the conquest of Spain, 237 B. C. This led to the second Punic war, and the fatal battle of Zama, lost by Hannibal, 202 B. C; after which, Spain was ceded to the Romans. The third Punic war termi- nated in the final destruction of Carthage by the Romans, 146 B. C.
Among the kingdoms of Jlsia Minor, were Troy, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Pontus. Troy, was built by Dardanus, the grandson of Seamander, about 1480 B. C, and named from Tros, one (vf his successors ; from another of whom, Ilus, it was also called Ilion. Little is known of its history, except the account which Homer gives of its destruction, after a ten years* siege, by the allied Greeks, 1184 B. C. Priam was its last king. Lydia became a distinct kingdom under the Atyads, about 1400 B. C. These were succeeded by the Heraclidae, about the time of the Trojan war, ending with Candaules, 718 B. C. : and Crcesua, the last of the Mermnads, was conquered by Cyrus, 548 B. C. ; when Lydia became a Persian province. Of Carta, we can only mention Mausolus and his queen Artemisia, 353 B. C, (some say 554) ; and of Phrygia, we would mention Gorgius, about 1370 B. C., and Midas s both belonging to the fabulous age. Asia Minor was suc- cessively conquered by the Persians under Cyrus ; the Greeks, under Alexander: and the Romans, under Pompey and other generals. Mithridates VL, the last king of Pontus, long resisted the Roman power ; but at length yielded his kingdom and his life, 66 B. C.
5 5. The early History of Greece, is involved in fable and obscu- rity ; but of the later times we have full accounts by Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and other historians. The first setdement in Greece, was probably Sicyon; which was founded by iGgialus, about 2089 B. C; and which long remained a distinct kingdom. Inachus next founded the kingdom of Argoa, 1856 B. C. ; and from Pelasgus, one of his successors, the ancient Greeks are said to have received the name of Pelasgians.* Ogyges is mentioned as the most ancient ruler of Attica, about 1775 B. C; in whose time a deluge is said to have occurred, which desolated that region, till the arrival of Cecrops from Egypt, who founded the city of Jithena, 1556 B. C. Sparta was founded by Lelex, about 1516 B. C. ; and the deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly, is said to have happened in 1504; caused probably by an earthquake, like several others recorded by the Greeks. Amphictyon, of Athens, first united the Grecian states in the Amphictyonic coun* cil, 1497 B. C. Cadmus, the Phoenician, is said to have intro- duced letters into Greece, about 1490 B. C; and Minos, king of Crete, celebrated for his wise laws, reigned about 1406. Co" rinth, though founded previously, became a distinct monarchy under Sisyphus, about 1380 B. C. The Argonautic expedition, by Jason, in the ship Argo, to Colchis, after Uie fabulous golden fleece, is usually dated 1263 B. C.
The Trojan IVar, in which Troy was taken and destroyed by the united Greeks, led by Achilles, 1184 B. C, was referred to in the preceding section. The wars of the Heraclidse, or descendants of * Perseus removed bis capital from Argos to My cam, about 1300 B. G.
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Hercules, who became sovereigns of Uie Peloponnesian states, 1104 B. C; and the self-sacrifice of Codrus, the last king of Athens, to secure his country the victory, 1070 B. C, we can only thus briefly mention. The Laws of Lycurgus^ were promulgated in Sparta, 884 B. C; and those of Solon, in Athens, 594 B. C; the era of the Olympic games intervening. The M^ars with Persia, com- menced with the burning of Sardis, a Greek city, by Darius Hys- taspes ; whose forces were defeated by Miltiades, at Marathon, 490 B. C. The renewal of the war by Xerxes, and his invasion of Greece, led to the self-immolation of Leonidas, at Thermopylse, 480 B. C; the naval victory of Aristides and Themistocles, at Salamis^ the same year; and the battles of Platsca, gained by Aristides and Pausanias, and My cole, gained by Cimon, in the year following. The Peloponneaian War, between Athens and Sparta, began 431 B. C, and continued 27 years, when, after the death of Pericles, by the great Plague, Athens was completely humbled, and subjected to the thirty tyrants, appointed over it by Lysander of Sparta. The retreat of Xenophon, and the 10,000 Greeks, who were subsidized by Cynis of Persia, took place 401 B. C.
The kingdom of Macedonia^ was founded by Caranus, 814 B. 0. Under Philip, it aspired to universal empire ; and his designs were completed by Alexander the Great, his son and successor. Alexan- der became master of all Greece, 336 B. C. ; gained his first victory over the Persians, at the river Granicus, two years after ; and having extended his conquests from Egypt to India, died in Babylon, 323 B. C. He was succeeded in Macedonia by Antipater, and soon afler by Cassander ; but the Peloponnesian states resumed their independence, and formed the Achaean League, 284 B. C. Greece first became obnoxious to Rome, when Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, led an army to aid the Tarentines against the Romans, 280 B. C. Greece was invaded in its turn ; Philip of Macedon was defeated by the Romans, at Cynocephalx, 197 B. G., and subjugated by them at the battle of Pydna, 168 B. C. The Achaean League, was next defeated by Metellus, 147 B. C. ; and in the following year, Mum- mius destroyed Corinth $ when Greece became entirely subject to the Romans, 146 B. C.
$ 6. The History of Rome, naturally succeeds the more ancient history of Italy. The earliest settlers in Italy appear to have been the Pelasgi, probably from Asia, 1700 B. C. ; and the Sabines and Etrusci, or Etrurians, next in antiquity, were perhaps of the same race. Evander is said to have led a colony from Arcadia to Italy, 1243 B. C. ; and the Ausones, and (Enotri, probably migrated thither from Greece, after the escape of iEneas from Troy, and his arrival in Latium, 1182 B. G., as immortalized in the iEneid of Virgil. Rome is said to have been founded by Romulus, a reputed descend- ant of iEneas, 754 B. G. ; it being at first a small castle on mount Palatine. The seizure of the Serine women, involved Romulus in a war; which ended in a temporary alliance of most of the Sabines with the Romans, 750 B. G. Numa Pompilius, the second king, founded the religious system of the Romans ; and Tullus Hostilius conquered the Albans, by the victory of the Horatii over the Guriatii,
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667 B. C. JlneuM Martiui prevailed against the Latins and Sabines; and Tarquiniiu FriscuM^ successful in war, employed the spo'ds in improving the city. Servius TttUiits, who began to reign 576 B. C, divided the people into thirty tribes, and enlarged the city ; but 7\zr- quiniu9 Superbus^ the seventh and last king, was expelled from Kome« with his family, on account of the outrage against Lucretia, by his son Sextus, 509 B. C*
From this period, Rome was governed by CofuuU; commencing with Junius Brutus and Collatinus ; until it became an empire. The Tarquins engaged the Etruscans, under Porsenna, in a war with Rome ; and also enlisted the Latins in their behalf: on which occasion, Lar- tius was made the first dictator, 498 B. C. The oppression of tlie plebeians by the nobles, and their witlidrawal to Ml. Sacer, led to the appointment of Tribunt» of the people, 493 B. C. The war with the Volsci, and banishment of Coriolantts soon followed ; and in another war with the Yolsci and^Equi, CineinruUua was made dic- tator, 456 B. C. The laws of the Twelve Tables^ were prepared by the decemvirs^ who were deposed in consequence of the abuse of Virginia, by Appius Claudius, 450 B. C. Rome was first taken by the Gauls, under Brennus, 390 B. C. ; but they were expelled by Camillus^ as dictator ; who also took Veii soon afler. The Latins, long allied to the Romans, were at length subdued by them, 338 B. C, when the consul Decius fell ; and the subjugation of the Tarentines and Samnites, made Rome the mistress of Itdy, 272 B. C.
The first Funic war, commenced in Sicily, 264 B. C, and lasted 23 years ; in which Regulus was taken prisoner by the Carthagi- nians ; but the latter were expelled from Sicily. The second Funic war, began 218 B. C, and lasted 17 years: memorable for the victories of Hannibal over the Romans; till he was recalled, and defeated at Zama, by Scipio Africanus, Rome next carried its arms into the east; defeating Philip of Macedon, at Cynocephalae, 197 B. C, and Antiochus the Great, at Magnesia, 190 B. C. The third Funic war, lasted only three years ; at the end of which Car- thage was totally destroyed by Scipio Africanug the younger, 146 B. C. In the same year the subjugation of Greece was completed, and Rome ruled from Spain to Thrace, inclusive.
The victories of Marius over the Teutones and Cimbri, occurred 101 B. C. ; but the civil wars between him and Sylla, ended only in his death, and the dictatorship of Sylla, 86 B. C. A war with Mithridates, king of Pontus, resulted in the conquest of Asia Minor and Syria, by Fompey, 64 B. C. ; the year before Cat aline' s con- spiracy. The first Triumvirate, was formed by Crassus, Pompey, and Csesar, 60 B. C. : but Crassus fell in Parthia ; and Fompey, venturing to war with Csesar, was defeated at Fharsalia, 48 B. C. Four years after this, Csesar was slain by the Roman senator^, and a second TriumvircUe was formed by Anthony, Lepidus, and Octavius, 43 B. C. By them Brutus and Cassius were defeated at Fhilippi, 42 B. C. ; ai\er which, Anthony, joining Cleopatra, was defeated at Actium, 31 B. C. ; and Lepidus having been exiled, Octavius became
* It should be mentioned that all this part of the Roman tuatory has been called ta quMtioD, by Niebuhr, and other historians.
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sole emperor of Rome, under the title of Augustus Caesar, His reign extended to the advent, but not to the crucifixion, of our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ; with whose birth, erroneously dated, commences the Christian Era*
Among the events which succeeded this great era, were the de- struction of Jerusalem by Titus, A, D. 70 ; the overwhelming of Herculaneum and Pompeii by an eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79 ; the expedition of Trajan against Parfhia, A. D. 106 ; the building of the defensive walls in Britain, by Adrian, Antonine, and Septi- mins Severus ; the defeat of the Persians by Alexander Severu»^ A. D. 234 ; the seizure of the emperor Valerian, by Sapor, king of Persia, A. D. 260 ; the defeat of the Goths, by Claudius, 269 ; and the conversion of Constantine the Great, a short time before the general Council of Nice, A. D. 325. Constantinople was made the- Roman capital, A. D. 330 ; and on the death of Theodosius, the empire was finally divided, A. D. 395, between his two sons, Arco' dius. In the East, and Honorius, in the West After the sacking of Rome, by Alaric, the Visigoth, A. D. 410 ; the ravaging of Italy^by^ Attila, the Hun, in 450 ; and the taking of Rome, by Genseric, the Vandal, in 455; the Western Empire was finally overthrown b/ Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who assumed the title of king of Italy» A. D. 476.
$ 7. On the History of the Byzantine or Greek Empire, the East^ em Empire of the Romans, we must here be very brief. The Jirst division of the Roman Empire was made A. D. 364 ; Valens ruling the Eastern, and Valentinian, the Western; but the permanent division commenced A. D. 395, as above mentioned. The most celebrated of the Byzantine emperors was Justinian, whose code of Laws, published A. D. 533, is still studied ; and whose general, Belisarius, reconquered Italy, Spain, and AfVica ; then died of neglect and want. Constantinople was besieged by the Persians* and Arabs, A. D. 626 ; and afterwards by the Saracens ; whose fleet was destroyed by tlie Greek fire, A. D. 673 ; and who were again repulsed in 717. Alexius Commenus was on the throne, at the time of the first Crusade, A. D. 1096. In the fourth Crusade the Latins took Constantinople, and placed Baldwin, count of Flanders, on the throne, A. D. 1204; but it was regained by Michael Paleologusi. emperor of Nice, in 1261. In the reign of John Cantacuzene, the Turks first obtained a firm footing in Europe, and took Gallipolis, in 1357. The empire thenceforward rapidly declined, till Constanti- nople was taken by Mohamed II., who slew Constantine, the last emperor, and founded the Turkish empire, on the ruins of the Byzantine, A. D. 1453.
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CHAPTER II.
bmXNTAL CBRONOORAPHY.
Under the head of Oriental Chronography, we would include the remaining History and Antiquities of the Eastern World ; that is of those countries which were unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans ; and of all the eastern nations down to the present time. It comprehends of course the whole of Mohamedan History, includ- ing that of northern Africa; the only part of Africa whose history has been preserved. We thus draw a dividing line around a large portion of Histor}*^ partly ancient and partly modern ; but which we think so distinct, and united, as to deserve a separate position in the arrangement of this wide department of knowledge.
The most prominent feature in this branch, is doubtless the rise and spread of the Mohamedan power, in connection with the Mo- hamedan religion. Its inroads were marked with devastation and bloodshed ; till it grasped the wide region from Spain and Morocco to Turkestan and India ; and then, like the preceding empires of the ancient world, fell in pieces by its own unwieldiness. In order to treat successively of the diflerent Mohamedan nations, we shall com- mence with Arabia, as the source of their doctrines and power ; next glance over Northern Africa ; and then proceed with the nations of Asia, in geographical order, commencing with Turkey, and proceed- ing to the more detached states of India and China. We shall con- clude this branch with a glance at Oceanica, and central and southern Africa ; whose history will henceforward increase in importance to the civilized world.
$ I. The History of the Arabians^ before the time of Mohamed, is obscure, and of mmor interest. They are called Saracens, by the western Mohamedans, from the circumstance of their living in the east. They have never been completely subdued ; and though partially conquered by Alexander the Great, they became inde- pendent soon aAer his death. In the times of the Roman emperors, Arabia became a refuge for the Jews and Christians. Yusof Dhu Nowasj the last king of the Hamyarate or Homerite d3niasty, was a Jew, and persecuted the Christians ; for which he was dethroned by Elesbaan, the Christian king of Abyssinia or Ethiopia, A. D. 524. The war of the Elephant, between the Yemenites, and the Koreish, took place A. D. 579, ten years after the birth of Mohamed.
Of MohamecTs romantic career ; his flight from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622 ; and his subsequent success till his death in 632 ; we have already spoken, in treating of Mohamedanism. (p. 137). His successors were called caliphs, or vicegerents ; of whom Abubekir (Aboo-Beker; was the first. Omar completed the conquest of Syria, A. D. 637 ; of Asia Minor in the following year ; and that of Egypt in 639. Othman (or Osman) saw the conquest of Persia completed in 651. He was succeeded by AH, whom the Sheeahs or Shiites,
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including the Persians, regard as the first caliph, A. D. 656. (Page 139). All was assassinated ; and Moawiyah, soon after, founded tlie dynasty of the Ommiades ; transferring the capital from Cnfa to Damascus, A. D. 673. Under Walid, the son of Abdalmeiek, the rest of northern Africa, and the greater part of Spain, were subdued by the Saracen arms. At length, Mervan 11. (or Merwan) was op- posed, defeated, and slain, by the family of Abbas ; and the dynasty of the Maasides commenced with Sqffah, A. D. 750. Abderrah- man fled to Spain, and there perpetuated the dynasty of the Ommi- ades^ as an independent sovereignty. The caliph Al-mansor (or Abu-Giafar) founded Bagdad, A. D. 762, making it his capital ; and from this period, the history of Arabia, merged in that of Persia, becomes of minor importance.
§ 2. The History of Northern Africa, may properly be completed here, in connection with that of Arabia. Egypt, when the Roman power was divided, became a part of the Eastern, or Byzantine Em- pire, and remained so, nntil it was conquered by the Saracens, (or Arabs), under Amru, (Amroo^, the general of the caliph Omar, A. D. 640; when the Alexandrian Library was finally destroyed. Its history thenceforward is merged in that of Arabia, till Achmet Ben Tulun, (or Tooloon), governor of Egypt, threw off the Saracen yoke, and founded the dynasty of the Tulunides^ A. D. 877. Egypt was regained by the Saracens, under Moktador Biilah, A. D. 909 ; but was again independent, under Akschid, till 969 ; when Morz Ledinillah, (or Moez Ladinallah), then caliph of Tunis, conquered Cairo, and established the Fatimite dynasty. This was overthrown by SaladiUt (or Salaheddin) ; who, being sent by the sultan of Bag- dad, against Egypt, usurped the government, A. D. 1 170 ; and be- coming master of Syria, fought against the Christians, in the early Crusades. His successors, the Ayoubites, were dethroned by the Mamelukes, or Turkish slaves in Egypt, A. D. 1250. These were conquered in their turn by Selim I., sultan of the Turks; who stormed Cairo, in 1517; when Egypt became a Turkish province, under governors styled Beys. Such it continued, excepting the revolt of Mi Bey, in 1756-66 ; and the French invasion, in 1798 ; till Mehemet Ali succeeded the beys,i>y a stratagem, in 1811, and, soon after, threw off the Turkish yoke, in fact, if not in name. Egypt was recognized in 1839, by the young sultan of Turkey, as an inde- pendent state.
The remainder of Northern Africa, including the present Bar- hary States, belonged to Rome, until it was invaded by the Saracens, A. D. 647; and its conquest completed by them, in 709. Fez became independent, in 789, under Edris, a descendant of Fatema. T\inis next became independent, under Aglah, the first of the Agla- bites, or Agladides, in 805. Zeiri built Algiers, in 944 ; and ruled over Tunis and Fez, which were ceded to him by Morz Ledinillah : and his successors, the Zeirides, ruled this coast until Roger, king of Sicily, deprived them of Tripoli, and of most of their territory, in 1148. Morocco was founded by Yoossef (Yussef or Joseph), in 1069; and became powerful under his successors, the Moravides, (or Almoravitcs) : but in 1269 their empire was divided; and
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Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, became independent soon after. These states were subdued by Ferdinand^ of Spain, in 1509 ; but threw off his yoke, by calling in the aid of the Turkish pirates. Home (or Aruch) Barbarossot and his brother Hayradin, (or Khayr Eddin) ; the latter of whom surviving, yielded allegiance to the sultan of Tur- key, in 1519.
Charles V. of Spain took TYinia in 1535, and was prevented from taking Algiers only by the loss of his fleet in a severe storm. Tunis was regained by the Turks, and united with Algiers, till 1586; when a bashaw of Tunis was appointed by the Grand Seignor : but it is at present governed by a Bey, tributary to Turkey. Algiers, under ils Deys, always piratical, and cruel to Christian prisoners, was humbled by the French, in 1682; again by the British and Dutch, in 1810; and finally subjugated by the French, in 1830. Morocco, in 1557, became subject to Mehemed, a sherif oi descendant of the prophet; and his family still occupy the Moorish throne.
§ 3, The History of the Turks or Turcomans, commences about the middle of the sixth century ; when they revolted from the Geougen Tartars, and soon formed a powerful nation, of which Turkestan was the seat ; but they were divided under rival princes, before they con- quered Persia. Togrul Beg, who founded their second Persian dynasty, was the grandson of Seljook; and hence his tribe were called Seljooks by way of distinction. Malek Shah, of this dynasty, wrested Asia Minor from the Byzantine empire, about A. D. 1074; but after his death it became a distinct kingdom, under Solyman, his general ; and it then took the name of Roum, Natolia, or Anatolia. This region was again overrun by Genghis Khan, the Mongul Tartar, A. D. 1220 ; but after his death, it was divided among several Emirs; one of whom, Othman L, (or Osmanj, of the Turcoman race, commenced the Ottoman or modern Turkish Empire, in 1299.
Orchan, his son and successor, took part in the civil wars of the Byzantine empire; and became son-in-law to John Cantacuzene. Soliman, the eldest son of Orchan, first invaded Europe, in 1355; and Amuraih, his second son, and successor, conquered Adrianople and Macedonia. Bajazet, (or Bayazeed), was vanquished by Tamer- lane the Tartar, in the battle of Ancyra, (or Angora), in 1402; but Tamerlane divided the Turkish possessions among the sons of Bajazet. A civil war was the consequence, till Mohamed, (or Mahomed), the younger brother, became sole monarch, A. D. 1413. His son«^mu- rath 11., warred against the Byzantines or Greeks, but was resisted by George Castriot, whom the Turks called Scanderbeg; and the conquest of Constantinople was left for the next sultan, Mohamed II., in 1453. Since that time, Constantinople, called by the Turks Stamhoul or Istamboul, has been the capital of the Ottoman empire.
Mohamed II., extended his conquests from Trebizond in the east, to Otranto in Italy. His grandson, Selim I., conquered Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, in 1517; and assumed the religious dignity of Caliph, or head of the Mohamedan church. Soliman II., the Mag- nificent, called also the lawgiver, took Belgrade and Rhodes, in 1522, and Bagdad soon after ; but from this period, the power of the Ottoman Porte began to decline. Selim II., conquered Cyprus, in
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1571 ; but his fleet was defeated by John of Austria, at Lepanto, in the same year. Mohamed IV. took Candia, in 1669; but lost the greater part of Hungary soon after. Achmet III. gave refuge to Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1709 ; and Mustapha III. engaged in a war with Catharine II. of Russia, which terminated unfavorably to him, in 1774. Selim III. declared war against France, in conse- quence of its invasion of Egypt, in 1798 ; but he and his successor were deposed by the Janizaries, originally Christian slaves; and Mahmoud II. was raised to the throne, in 1808. In his reign the Greek Revolution took place, and Greece again became free, in 1828 ; by the aid and intervention of the European powers.
§ 4. The modern History of Per sia, we shall commence with the Mohamedan conquest of it, begun by Omar, A. D. 636, and com- pleted by Osman, in 651 ; when Fezdegerd III., (or Jesdijird), the last of the Sassanides, lost his throne. The caliph Al Mansor, or Abu Giafar, of the house of the Abassides, after founding Bagdad, A. D. 762, made it the capital of the Saracen empire. Among his successors, Haroon al Rascheed, and Al Mamon, are celebrated as patrons of learning. Khorasan, (Chorassan), or northern Persia, became independent in 820 ; but was subdued by the Tartars, under Ismail Samanee, (or Ishmael), in 902. Persia was thenceforward divided between his family, called Samanides, in the north-east, and the Dilemides, in the south-west, till the former were subdued by Mahmoody the Turcoman governor of Gazna or Ghizni, who subju- gated Khorasan, in 999 ; and extended his conquests to India. His successors, called Gaznavides, were subdued by Togrtd Beg, the grandson of Seljook, (or Seljuk), in 1037 ; and by him the Dilemide caliphs of Bagdad were also subjugated, in 1055. The Seljookians, Alp Arselan and Malek Shah, called Sultans of Bagdad, waged war with the Byzantines ; and Malek Shah conquered Hindoostan ; but left the kingdom in confusion, till it was subjugated by the Monguls, or Tartars, under Genghis Khan, (Jengis, Zengis, or Chenghiz Khan), in 1220.
Hulakoo Khan, the grandson of Genghis, encouraged learning; but Persia soon degenerated, till it was again overrun, by another horde of Monguls, under Timxir, (Timour-lenk), or Tamerlane, in 1387. This leader vanquished the Turks, and conquered Hindoostan, before his death, in 1405. Persia remained subject to his descend- ants, only till 1468, when it was subdued by Usong Hassan, (or Uzun Hussun), another chief of the Turcoman race : but he was dethroned, in 1504, by Ismail Sophi, (or Ishmael), who, claiming descent from Ali, assumed the title of Shah, or king, and founded the SufTavean dynasty. His successors lost several provinces, in wars with the Turks and Usbecks ; but these were regained by Shah Abbas the Great; who made Ispahan his capital, in 1589. The Afghans, under Mir Mahmoud, conquered Persia, in 1722 ; but held it only seven years : and, in 1736, the throne was usurped by Kooli Nadir, who took the title of Nadir Shah, and after conquering Delhi, styled himself Emperor of the Indies. After his death, Georgia revolted from Persia; and the kingdom of Afghanistan was founded, in the east of Persia, by Ahmed Abdallah, who made Cabul (or Kabul) his
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capital. After a long war, Kerrtem Khan^ (Kerim or Kurrim), who had served under Nadir, acquired the sovereignty of Persia; and fixed his residence at Shiraz, in 1755 ; but the Shah Futtth jUi, (or Feth Aly), whose reign began in 1796, removed the capital to Tehe- ran, probably in order to watch more closely the Russian frontier.
§ 5. The early Hiniory of Bindoostan is very imperfectly known. The war of the Pandus and Kurus, described in the Mahabharai^ carried on by Krishna and his brother Bali Rama, against Jam Sandha, is usually dated 1301 B. C. The invasions by Sesostris, Darius Hystaspes, and Alexander the Great, have been referred to in the preceding sections. The latter was followed by the wars of Sandracottus, (or Chandra Gupta), who usurped the throne of Ma- gadha, and whose daughter was married to Seleucus, Alexander's successor in Persia, about 300 B. G. Antiochus the Great visited India, and made peace with Sophagasemus^ (or Shivaca Sena), about 120 B. C. The reign of Vicramaditya^ 56 B. C., is the era from which the Hindoos reckon time. From this era, the race of Bali Rama, or Putras, declined, till it was superseded by Sipaeat who founded the dynasty of the Andhara$y A. D. 151. They ruled over Magadha, comprehending the greater part of Hindoostan, till the death of Puloman^ A. D. 648 ; when Uie country was divided into several small states.
Next came the Mohamedan invasion, by Mahmoud, son of Sebec- taghin, and king of Gazna, (Ghazna or Ghizni), who took Delhi, A. D. 1011 ; and thence extended his conquests southward. His dynasty was overthrown, in 1158, by Kassim Gauriy king of Gaur, (Ghaour), whose successor, Jya Chandra, was in turn deUironed by ShahabodieHf in 1194. The empire of Gazna was divided in 1212; when the Persian part became subject to Eldoze, and the Hindoo part to Cuttuby (Kutub), who founded the Patan or Afghan dynasty, with Delhi for its capital. This state was partially subdued by Genghis Khan^ in 1222 ; and was overrun by Tamerlane^ (Timur the Tartar), who sealed his conquests in blood, in 1397. Delhi was next taken by Baber, (Babur^, who founded the Mongul or Mogul dynasty, in 1525. His grandson, Akbar^ also reduced Cabul and Cashmere, in 1601 ; and appointed nabobs to govern his numerous provinces. Under Aureng Zebe, who began to reign in 1657, not- withstanding the wars with Sevajee, (Savajee), chief of the Mahrattas, in the south, the empire rose to its greatest glory. Delhi was again taken by Nadir Shahy in 1739; and after his death it became a part of Afghanistan, or East Persia, wnder Ahmed Abdallah ; who van- quished the Mahrattas and Ghauts of the south, in 1761. From this period, the Great Mogul of Delhi held only nominal power, till the last who bore this title became a pensioner of the British, in 1803.
The Portuguese settlements in Hindoostan, commenced with the first voyage thither, by Vasco de Gama, in 1498. Ten years after this, Albuquerque took Goa from the natives ; and the colonics grew rapidly, till the union of Portugal with Spain, in 1580. The Dutch soon found their way to India; and, in 1619, fixed their capital at Batavia, in Java, which they still hold. By them, most of the Portuguese setdements were taken, about 1660: but they, in turn,
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were mostly dispossessed by the British. In 1665, a French East India company was chartered ; and it ultimately secured a permanent establishment at Pondicherry.
The first Britith East India company, was chartered by Queen Elizabeth, in 1600; and twelve years after, it obtained a foothold at Suraty by permission of the great Mogul. In 1634, the English also obtained from him a station on the Ganges ; and, in 1700, they built Fort William, at Calcutta. In 1708, the company was rechar- tered, and rival claims and pretensions united. Three Preaideneieg were formed, at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay ; with separate coun- cils. Their political power began with the Camatie war, in 1748 ; in which the English and French took sides with opposite parties of the natives. In 17B6, Surajah Dowlah, nabob of Bengal, took Calcutta ; but Col. Clive soon regained it, and, by the battle of Plas- sey, made Meer Jaffitr nabob ; obtaining from him large concessions. By the Peace of 1763, France resigned most of her Hindoo posses- sions to the British ; whose most formidable foe, thenceforward, was Hyder AH, chief of Mysore : but he was defeated in 1780 ; and Txppoo Saibj his son, made peace soon after. Tippoo afterwards renewed the war ; but was again brought to terms by Lord Corn- wallis, in 1792; and in a third war, the sultan Tippoo was slain, and Seringapaiam taken by Gen. Harris, in 1799. The Rajah of Nepaul invaded the British possessions, in 1815; but he was defeated by Lord Hastings, and lost a large portion of his territory. Thus has risen the British power in India, which, we hope, may aid in regenerating the east
The history of Chinrlndia, is so obscure that we shall pass it with the utmost brevity. The religion of Boodha was introduced there in the seventh century ; and this region was first visited by the Portu- guese, in 1511. Birmah became a distinct state soon after; and in 1757, its king, Alompra, conquered Pegu. His successors conquered Siam ; but it regained its independence. In 1825, the Birmans made war against the British ; but they were defeated by Gen. Campbell, with the loss of Arracan, and other provinces.
$ 6. The authentic Hiitory of China, extends back only to 722 B. C. ; Confucius, (or Confu-tsee), being their oldest historian ; but their traditionary history begins with Fohi, (Foo-hee), whom some suppose to have been the patriarch Noah. The seventh monarch af^r him was Yao, (Yau), in whose reign the Chinese say that the sun did not set for a space of ten days. The first dynasty, that of Kia, (or Hia), is said to have commenced with Yu, about 1900 B. C. Potn-keng, of the second dynasty, that of Shang, (Chang, or Yn), is said to have removed, with all his subjects, to a new setUenient, 1401 B. C. VoO'Vang, (Wu-wang), founded the third dynasty, that of Chew, (Tcheoo), 1122 B. C. ; and the fourth, or Tain dynasty, commencing 256 B. C, included the famous Shee-hoang-tee, (Chi- hoang-ti), called also Ching, (Tching), who united the scattered provinces, founded many cities, and commenced the great wall, to defend the northern frontier. He is said to have burned the ancient historical books, 213 B. C, except those of Confucius, which were accidentally saved.
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The fifth, or Han (Hang) dynasty, was founded 202 B. C, by LieoO'pang, captain or a band of robbers, who was afterwards called Kao-tee. The Roman emperor, Marcus Aurelius, is said to have sent an embassy to China, A. D. 166, when the Chinese first became known to him. China was divided, A. D. 220, between the families of Oej/j (Goei), and Ou, (Oo) : and, though united under Voo-tte^ (Wu-li), founder of the seventh or Tsin (Tsin-ou-ti) dynasty, in 265, it was again divided, in 386; the northern empire being founded and governed by the Goli Tartars; and the southern by the Oo-iaf/t (U-tai), or Five Families, which reigned there in succession. China was again united under Fang-kien / who assumed the name of Ven- tee, and founded the twelfth or Soay (Soui) dynasty, A. D. 581. Under Tay-tsong, of the next or Tang dynasty, literature flourished, and China grew powerful. The usurper Shoo-ven^ (Shu- wen), or Tay-tsoOy founded the fourteenth or Heoo-Leane (Hehu-Lang) dy- nasty, A. D. 907 ; which, with the four following dynasties, all feeble, were called the Heoo-oo-tayf (Hehu-u-tai), or the five later families. The nineteenth imperial dynasty, that of Song or Sing, founded by Shao-quang yu, (or Tchao), under the name of Tay-t$00i in 960, continued till the Tartar conquest, in 1278.
The eastern Tartars had founded an empire of their own, in north- ern China, as early as A. D. 907 ; and the Ntutcht (or Niu-cheng) Tartars, coming into power in 11 18, forced the Chinese to pay tribute. This induced the latter to invite in the Mosul (Mongol or Mong-koo) Tartars, under Genghis Khan ; who subdued the Niutches in 1209, and then turned his arms against the Chinese themselves. His descendant, Kublay Khan^ called by the Chinese Ho-pie-lity (Hou- pilay), completed the conquest of China, and taking the name of Shee-tsoOf (Shi-tsu), founded the twentieth or Yuen dynasty in 1278, the eighteenth year of his reign. The Tartars were again expelled from China, by SIioo, (Chu), who took the name of Tay-tsoo^ (Tai- tsoo IV.), and founded the twenty-first or Ming dynasty, in 1368. But China was again subdued by the Man-tehoo Tartars, a remnant of the Niutches, (Niudshees), under Sunshee, (Shun-chi), who took the name of Shee-tsong, and founded the twenty-second imperial dynasty, that of Ta-tsin, (Tsing, Tsim, or Tatim), in 1644 ; which still occupies the throne. Kien-Lung was emperor at the time of Lord Macartney's embassy, in 1792.
§ 7. The History of Central and Southern Africa^ is brief and obscure ; consisting chiefly of an account of the modern discoveries made, and colonies founded, by the Europeans. Abyssinia, the ancient Eihiopia, was imperfecUy known during the middle ages, although it had been converted to Christianity in the third century ; but we must pass over its history till the Portuguese mission of Covillan, about 1490; whose reports hastened the discovery of the southern passage to India. In 1516, the Portuguese aided the native king, David, in recovering his throne from the Turks ; and, in 1543, they extended like aid to Claudius, the next negus or king. The Roman Catholic religion was established there in 1604 ; but over- thrown in 1632, by the negus Basilides or Facilidas. The country has since been involved in civil war, and is now divided, into the
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States of Amhara, Tigris and Shoa Efat. Melinda^ in eastern Africa, was taken by the Portuguese, about 1500; but recaptured by the Arabs in 1698. MosambiquCf taken by the Portuguese in 1508, still remains in their possession ; and the Portuguese settlements in Lower Guinea were formed at about the same time.
The Cape of Good Hope, was colonized by the Dutch, in 1615. It was taken by ihe British in 1795; and again in 1806 ; since which time it has remained in their possession. In 1787, the African Association was formed, in England, by Sir Joseph BanKs and others, for the purpose of exploring the interior of Africa, (p. 179). In the same year. Sierra Leone was colonized by negroes from England ; and being surrendered to the British crown in 1807, it has since been made the home of negroes rescued from slave ships. In 1807, the African Institution was formed in England, by Sharpe, Clarkson, Wilberforce and others, for the abolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of the Africans. Slaves were carried by the Portuguese, from Africa to the Spanish American colonies, as early as 1503. The traffic was legalized by Spain, in 1517; and sanc- tioned, soon after, by France and England. The United States and England abolished this trade in 1808 ; France, finally in 1815 ; Spain, in 1820 ; and Portugal, nominally in 1823. The American Colonization Society ^ was formed in 1816; to colonize in Africa the free colored people of the United States. Liberia was purchased by it in 1821; and settled by the first emigrants in 1822; under Governor Ashmun.
A few words on Oceanic History, must here suffice ; as the pro- gress of discovery in Oceanica has already been traced, (p. 192). Java, was first colonized by the Portuguese, soon af\er its discovery ; but taken from them by the Dutch ; who, in 1610, made it the capital of their Indian possessions. Sumatra, was settled by the Dutch, in 1666 ; and the English also formed there the settlement of Bencoolen^ in 1685 ; which in 1825 they ceded to the Dutch', in exchange for Malacca. Celebes, was taken from the Portuguese, by the Dutch, in 1667 ; and, with it, the monopoly of the Spice Islands. The colony of Botany Bay, was founded in 1788, by the British ; who took formal possession of the eastern part of New Holland, in 1824 ; and commenced a western Australian colony, in 1829. Van Diemen^s Land was colonized by them, at Hobart's town, in 1804. The Philippine Islands were settled by the Spaniards, in 1570.
CHAPTER m.
EUROPEAN CHRONOGRAPHY.
In the branch of European Chronography, we include the History and Antiquities of Europe ; excepting those of ancient Greece and Rome, included in Euclassic ; and of Turkey, included in Oriental Chronography. Here, therefore, we are to speak of all the Christian nations of modern Europe ; tracing them back individually to the 28 T
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earliest accounts of their origin and growth ; and thence, through the middle and modem ages, to the present time. The History of Europe, is that of our own ancestors, and that of modem civilizatioii and improvement It is a chapter often stained by scenes of crime and bloodshed, and by the struggles of arbitrary power, against the rights and interests of humanity. But though darkened thus at intervals, it has its brighter hues ; its redeeming features ; and the retrospect affords us strong grounds for hoping that, under the influ- ence of Christian philanthropy, the cause of truth and justice will yet prevail throughout the world.
The present nations of central and western Europe, arose from the fragments of the Roman Empire : and, sharing in its religion and laws, they constitute together a family of nations. Most of them were united under Charlemagne; and notwithstanding their divisions, wars, and quarrels, their intercourse was maintained by the spread of the Papal power, the fellowship of the Crasades, and the spirit of Chivalry. The age of Charles V., again saw the wielding of colossal power in the west ; but it witnessed a far mightier change in the prospects of the civilized world. The introduction of the compass; the application of gunpowder; the invention of printing; the open- ing of the marine route to India ; the discovery of America ; and the protestant Reformation ; all conspired to give that impetus to the human mind which neither tyranny nor superstition have yet been able to arrest.
We proceed to the history of the European nations ; commencing with that of Italy, and thence following the geographical order, adopted in the preceding department. The Greek revolution, which resulted in the establishment of OthOf of Bavaria, on the throne of Greece, has already been alluded to, under Turkish history, (p. 213).
$ 1. The History of Italy, properly commences with that of the Papal power ; which extended, in the middle ages, not only to Italy, but to all the westem and central parts of Europe ; overshadowing the power of kings, by an influence mightier than that of the sceptre. Of its origin, we have already spoken under Ecclesiastical History ; (p. 147). Its growth was vigorous under Leo I., the Great, in the fifth century, and Gregory I., the Great, in the sixth. In 606, Boniface III., was dedaied Universal Bishop, by the tyrant Phocas ; but Theodore I., who died A. D. 649, first received the title of sovereign pontiff. Although the popes exercised secular autho- rity, they had no territorial dominion till 755 ; when Pepin the Short, king of Francfe, made over to Pope Stephen III., twenty-two cities in Italy, which he had taken from the Exarch of Ravenna. From this period, the papal power extended rapidly in tlie west ; aided much by the forged decretals^ ascribed to Isidore, and which greatly exag- gerated the power of the early Roman bishops. In the year 800, Pope Leo III., conferred on Charlemagne the ancient crown of the CsBsars, saluting him emperor of the West ; and in 875, Pope John VIII., elevated Charles the Bald to the throne of France.* In 1080, Matilda, countess of Tuscany, bequeathed a large territory to Pope
* In 1039, three poftet, chosen by bribety, were living together at Kome; all of them obnoxious, from their immoral character
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Gregory VII. ; which became the cause of much subsequent conten- tion with the German emperors. Gregory VII. first decreed the celibacy of the clergy ; in order to bind them more closely to the hierarchal service.
The papal power was greatly increased by the Cruiades, or wars of the Cross, against the Mohamedans, for the recovery of Jerusa- lem. The first was commenced in 1096, under Peter the Hermit, a monk patronized by pope Urban II. ; and three years after, Jerusa- lem was taken by Godfrey of Bouillon, and his associates. In 1147, a second Crusade was got up by St. Barnard, and Pope Eu- gene III., to sustain the Christians in the East ; in which Louis VII. of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, failed of success. The third Crusade was begun in 1188, by Richard 1. of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, stimu- lated by Pope Clement III., to recover Jerusalem, which the Turks had retaken, ten years before. Richard defeated Saladin and the Turks at Ascalon, in 1192; but ended this crusade by a truce with them soon after. The fourth Crusade ^ began in 1202, under Baldwin, count of Flanders, who went no farther than Constantino- ple: and the fifth and last Crusade^ made in 1248, by St. Louis (Lewis IX.) of France, ended with his capture, and ransom, in Egypt, soon after.
In 1177, Pope ^lexwider III., compelled the emperor Frederick of Germany to hold his stirrup, and kiss his foot : and in 1198, Pope Innocent III., subjected Rome itself to the temporal power of the papal chair. Under him, the Inquisition was founded, in 1204, by the agency of Dominic de Guzman ; being first aimed against the Reformers in France ; and next against the Jews in Spain. Pope Boniface VIII., was imprisoned, in 1303, by Philip the Fair of France ; and from 1308 to 1377, the popes resided at Avignon. In 1378, two popes were chosen at the same time ; Clement VII., by the French ; and Urban VI., by the Italians. Tliis division is called the great schism of the west. The council of Constance, convoked in 1414, by the German emperor, Sigismund, deposed John XXII., and proclaimed itself superior to the pope.
The Reformation^ begun by Luther in 1517, (page 164), and which neither the power nor the policy of Leo X. could suppress, has liberated the half of Christendom from ecclesiastical usurpation. To counteract this, the order of Jesuits was founded, in 1536, by Loyola, under Pope Pau/ III. ; (p. 154) ; its members promising impli- cit obedience to the papal power; and their professed object being the conversion of heretics and the heathen. Tlieir machinations led to their suppression, in the last century, by most of the European sovereigns : but not to their extinction. Pope Sixius V., who died in 1590, has been called the last Roman pontiff that kings had reason to fear. Pope Pius VII., was forced, in 1801, to buy his personal freedom of Bonaparte ; and owed his restoration, in 1814, at least in part, to the protestant states of England and Prussia. In restoring the Jesuits, and opposing the dissemination of the Bible, he only followed the maxim of his predecessors, ** never to give up the slightest claims, but to wait for opportunities."
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Italy presents a sad example of the eflfects of division, and discord, among the members of a great nation. We shall first glance over its connected history ; and then refer to its separate divisions. Odoacer^ king of the Heruli, having overthrown the western, or Roman empire, A. D. 476, assumed the title of king of Italy. He was defeated and slain, in 493, by TheodoriCy king of the Ostrogoths, (Eastern Goths), assisted by the Visigoths, (or Western Goths) : and the Gothic king- dom in Italy continued till it was overrun by Narses, the Byzantine general, in 552; by whose agency Alboin, king of the Lombards, became king of Italy in 568. The last Lombard king, Didier^ was dethroned by Charlemagne of France, who united Italy to his own domains, in 774. Under his descendants, Italy was alternately separated from and united with France, till Otho I., the Great, of Germany, became its master, and was crowned emperor of the Romans, in 962.
Otho and his successors allowed many of the Italian cities to have separate republican governments : the chief officers of each being two consuls, elected annually. These cities, with their dependent territories, were styled the It(dian Republics ; among which were Milan, Pavia, Lodi, Florence, and Pisa. Venice and Genoa were also called republics; their chief officer being styled the doge. These states were frequently engaged in contests with each other, and involved in broils with the popes and German emperors. In the war between Milan and Pavia, in 1129, arose the distinction of the Gtielfs, (Guelphs), and Ghibelines, (Gibelins). The Guelfs, so called from the family of Welfs in Germany, including the duke of Bavaria, favored the pope, and Lothaire of Saxony ; while the Glii- belines, named from Wibelung or Waiblinga, a German casde in Franconia, espoused the cause of Conrad of Hohenstaufen, of the house of Swabia. In general, the Guelfs, and the house o£ Esle were the partizans of the popes ; and the Ghibelines, headed by the family Da Romano^ favored the German emperors. But we have no room to pursue this complicated subject farther.
Venice became a distinct state as early as A. D. 697, when its first doge was elected ; but the present city was built in 809. It grew rapidly in the time of the Crusades ; and enjoyed the chief commerce of the east, till the discovery of the southern passage to India ; after which it began to decline. Cyprus was ceded to Venice in 1486 ; but taken by the Turks in 1571; who also took Candia in 1699. Venice continued free till the French Revolution ; which resulted in its final subjection to Austria, in 1814. Milan became a duchy under Visconti, in 1395 ; subject to Spain, in 1535 ; and it has be- longed to Austria since 1706, except during the French Revolution. In 1815 it was united with Venice, to form the Lombar do- Venetian kingdom, which is now a part of the Austrian empire.
Genoa, became a republic in 953, and was for a long time second only to Venice, in commerce and wealth. It was engaged in long wars with Pisa ; and contended with Venice, for the dominion of the Mediterranean. The former wars ended in 1284, in the defeat of the Pisans; and the latter in 1381, in the peace of Turin, with Venice. Genoa continued independent till the French Revolution ; but was
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incorporated with France in 1805; and finally assigned to the king- dom of Sardinia in 1815. Savoy became a distinct county in 1016; a duchy in 1416 ; and a kingdom, from the peace of Utrecht in 1713; the island of Sardinia being annexed to it in 1720, under Amadeus II. It was invaded by the French in 1798 ; but reinstated as a kingdom, under the name of Sardinia, in 1815, by the Congress of Vienna.
The kingdom of the Tivo Sicilies^ (Naples and Sicily), was found- ed by Norman adventurers ; and became a duchy under Robert Guiscard, in 1060 ; and a kingdom under Hoger II., in 1 130. When his family became extinct, in 1189, the kingdom fell to' Henry VI. of Germany, and to his descendants, till it was granted, in 1254, by the pope, to Charles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX. of France. Sicily revofted from his reign, and by the massacre of the Sicilian vespers, in 1282, the French were extirpated from Palermo. The French were expelled from Naples in 1458, hyAlphonso V. (Alfonso) of Arragon ; after which Naples was connected successively with Spain and Austria, till it was conferred on Ferdinand of Spain, in 1759. Since that time, it has remained a distinct kingdom.
Tuscany, became a grand-duchy in 1569, under Cosmo de' Medici. On the failure of his line, in 1737, it passed to Francis, duke of Lorraine ; and from him to the house of Austria, to which it still remains subject ; though entirely distinct from the Austrian empire. Of the other Italian duchies we have no room here to speak.
§ 2. The History of Spain, commences with its settlement by the Phoenicians; who built Cadiz, it is said, 900 B. C. It was invaded by the Carthaginians, about 500 B. C. ; and partially held by them till the end of the second Punic war, 201 B. C. ; when it was ceded to the Eomans ; though not completely subdued by the latter, till the time of Augustus. On the decline of the Roman power, Spain was invaded, and mostly subdued, by the Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, A. D. 406; but about 419, the Visigoths, under Wallia, became its masters, and drove the Vandals into Africa. The Catholic religion was introduced into Spain, in 586, under Reccared I. In 712, this country was invaded by the Moors ; and Don Roderick, who had usurped the throne, was defeated at Xeres, by Tarik, sent from Barbary ; who thus subjected Spain to the caliphate of Bagdad. In 756, Abdalrahman rendered Spain independent ; and established the caliphate of Cordova, the seat of Moorish learning. This caliphate became divided, about 1038, among several Moorish princes.
Meanwhile, as early as 718, Pelagius the Goth, retiring to the mountains of Asturias, founded the kingdom of Leon ^ which became united with Castile, in 1037, under Ferdinand I. Barcelona became a distinct county in 801; and was united with Arragon, in 1162, under Raymond, surnamed Alphonso 11. By these Christian pow- ers the Moors were gradually driven back; and by the battle of Tolosa, in 1220, they lost all Spain except Granada in the south. After the marriage of Ferdinand V. of Arragon, styled the Catholic, with Isabella of Castile, in 1479, their forces were united against the Moors ; and the conquest of Granada was completed in 1492. This success induced Isabella to patronize Columbus ; while Ferdinand's fame was tarnished by tl e introduction of the Inquisition. Charles I.
t2
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of Spain, the grandson of Isabella, came to the throne in 1516, and soon after became emperor of Germany, under the title of Charles V. ; as heir to his father, Philip, archduke of Austria. The rivalry of Francis I. of France, led to a war, in which Francis was taken prisoner, and confined till the peace of Madrid, in 1526; which left Charles the most powerful monarch of Europe, with the wealth of America at his command.
Charles resigned the Spanish crown, in 1556, to his aon Philip II. ; whose intolerance and religious wars, and especially the armada sent against England, but destroyed in 1588, exhausted his resources, and weakened the nation. The expulsion of the Moors, by Philip III., in 1609, and the loss of Portugal during the reign of Philip IV., accelerated this decline. Charles II. appointed Philip of Anjou to be his successor : and this led to the war of the Spanish Succession^ in which France and Spain supported Philip ; but England and Hol- land aided Germany, in favor of the emperor Leopold. This war began in 1701, and ended with the peace of Utrecht y in 1713 ; by which Philip retained the crown, under the title of Philip V. ; but lost many of its foreign possessions. Under Charles III., Spain united with France, in aiding the United States of America to secure, their independence; and in 1782, those powers attempted, but in vain, to take Gibraltar from the English. The difficulties between Charles IV. and his son Ferdinand VII., invited the interposition of Napoleon ; who in 1808, placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne. In the wars which followed, the French were expelled, and Ferdinand restored, in 1814 ; by the aid of the English. Isabella II., the daughter of Ferdinand, is now the queen and sole monarch of Spain.
The history of Portugal, belongs to that of Spain, till Henry of Burgundy, having assisted Alphonso VI. of Castile and Leon against the Moors, was appointed by him, A. D. 1094, to be governor of the provinces around Oporto ; and Alphonso I., the son of Henry, having defeated the Moors at Ourique, was at once saluted king of Portugal, in 1139. In 1383, the direct line of Burgundy having become extinct, the crown was conferred on John I. of the same family. His son, Henry, the Infante, sumamed the Navigator, set on foot those enterprizes which opened the way to the Indies, in the reign of John II. In 1580, the crown becoming vacant, was seized by Philip II. of Spain ; and held by that power till 1640, when the Portuguese placed John of Braganza, of the old royal family, upon the throne. In the reign of Joseph I. the Jesuits were banished from Portugal, in 1759; and reforms were made in the government. After the French Revolution of 1789, Portugal became involved in the wars with France; and in 1807, the regent John VI. sailed to Brazil, leaving the country in the hands of the French ; but it was restored to him by the peace of Paris, in 1814. In 1821, John returned to Portugal, leaving his son Don Pedro, to govern Brazil, which became independent in 1825. Maria II. (Donna Maria), the daughter of Pedro, now occupies the throne of Portugal.
§ 3. The History of France, commences with that of the Gauls, its ancient inhabitants ; whose subjugation to the Roman empire was
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completed by Julius Caesar, in the year 50 B. C. The ancient Cherusci, afterwards styled Franks^ or freemen, began to migrate from Germany to France as early as A. D. 264; and at length, having defeated the Romans, at Soissons, in 486, they founded the Frankish empire^ including France and Germany, under CloviSy grandson of Merovaeus, and head of the Merovingian dynasty. His successors were mostly weak monarchs ; and after the death of Dagobtrt II., in 638, the mayors of the palace became possessed of the principal power. Their office became hereditary, in the family of Pepin Heristel : whose son Charles defeated the Saracens from Spain, near Tours, in 732, and hence was surnamed Martel^ or the Hammer. His son, Fepin the Short, (1e Bref ), was proclaimed king of France in 751 ; with whom commenced the second or Carlovingian dynasty. Charles^ the son of Pepin, having subdued the Lombards, and become monarch of Italy, Germany, and France, was crowned Emperor of the West, by Pope Leo III., in 800 ; taking thencefor- ward the name of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great.
The grandsons of Charlemagne, sons of Louis Debonnaire, con- tended for the crown before Uieir father's death ; and fought with each other tlie battle of ForUenoy $ after which, by the treaty of Verdun, in 843, Italy was assigned to Lothaire ; Germany, to Louis ; and France, to Charles the Bald. This dynasty continued till the death of Louis V., in 987 ; when Hugh Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, founded the third, or Capetian dynasty. From this time, the royal power, favored by the clergy and the common people, began to predominate over that of the nobles ; thus undermining the Feudal system. In 1087, France, under Philip I., was invaded by William the Conqueror, of England ; but without success. Louis VII. took part in the second Crusade, in 1147 ; Philip II. (Augustus), joined in the third, in 1188; and Louis IX. (St. Lewis), led the fifth and last Crusade, in 1248, but without success. (See p. 219). The kingdom of France was, for a long time, extremely limited ; Flanders, Champagne, Burgundy, and several other states being inde- pendent ; while a Urge part of northern and western France belonged to England.
In 1328, Philip VI., of the house of Valois, a branch of the Cape- tian race, ascended the throne. The pretensions of Edward III. of England, to the French crown, led to a war, in which the English were victorious at Cressy, in 1347 ; and they took Calais soon after. John II., the successor of Philip, was defeated at Poictiers, in 1356; and carried a prisoner to London. Charles V., the Wise, was more successful ; but in the next reign, the French were again defeated at Jlgincourt, (or Azincourt), in 1415. Charles VII., aided by Joan of Arc, raised the siege of Orleans in 1429 ; and regained all of France, which had been held by the English, except Calais. Louis XII., of Orleans, was succeeded in 1515, by Francis I., of Angou- leme ; who contested the crown of Germany, in a war with Charles V. (See p. 222). This war, after the release of Francis, was renewed, till the peace of Crespi, in 1544. The reign of Charles IX., was stained by internal religious wars, and by the massacre of
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St. Bartholomew's eve» ia which 30,000 Huguenots (ProtestaditB) were assassinated.
The wars which followed this event, placed Henry IV., the Great, upon the throne ; and thus was founded the Bourbon dynasty, in 1589. Louis XIII. took part in the Tltirty years' war^ against the emperor of Germany; which was begun in 1618; and con* tinned during the minority of Louis XIV., styled the Great, till the favorable peace of Westphalia, in 1648. This latter king was a party in the war of the Spanish succession^ ending with the peace of Utrecht in 1713 ; which gained the crown of Spain for his grandson, but weakened the power of France, irretrievably. Louis XV. took part in the war of the Austrian suceessiont against the claims of Maria Theresa to the Austrian crown ; which, however, she retained by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. He also took part in the Seven years' war, against Frederick II. of Prussia ; and thereby lost Canada, by the peace of Paris in 1763.
Louis XVI. aided the United States in gaining their independence ; but fell a victim to i\iQ French Revolution^ which was provoked by the despotism and corruption of the government. It broke out in 1780 ; and he was guillotined four years afterward. Napoleon Bonaparte was appointed first consul of France in 1799 ; and crowned emperor in 1804. After a long career of victory, he was defeated at Ltipsicy in 1813; and soon after abdicated the crown, and retired to Elba. Returning to France, in 1814, after the brief triumph of the Hun- dred days, so called, he was again defeated at Waterloo ; and Louis XVIII. received the crown of France, from the victorious allied powers. In 1830, his successor, CharlesX.j was expelled for usurp- ation ; and the TTiree days Revolution resulted in proclaiming Louis Philippe of Orleans, king of the French, by the will of the people.
§ 4. The History of Great Britain, extends back to its discovery by the Phoenicians, probably soon after the founding of Carthage, or 878 B. C. It was unknown to the Romans, until the time of Julius Caesar; who invaded and conquered the southern part of it, 54 B. C. : but the conquest of England was completed by Agricola^ about A. D. 70. On the decline of Rome, Valentinian III. with- drew his legions, in 426, and left the Britons to their fate. Being harassed by the Scots and Picts, they called to their aid the Saxons, from Germany ; who, under Hengist and Horsa^ came in 449, and at first protected, but afterwards subjugated the inhabitants. The Saxons soon formed seven small kingdoms in Britain, known as the Heptarchy $ which were at length united, in 828, by Egbert, king of Wessex ; and they then received the name of England, from the Angles, who had united with the Saxons. From this time, England was exposed to the ravages of the Danes. They were defeated and brought to terms by Alfred the Great, in 893 ; who made London his capital, and greatly improved the kingdom. After the cruel massacre of the Danes in 1002, their countrymen, under Sweyn, Tor Sueno), again assailed England ; and E their ed II. fled to Normanay, till the death of Sweyn in 1014 ; when he returned. His son Edmund II. (Ironside) was also defeated by the Danes ; whose leader Canute the Great, became sole king of England, vsk 1017 ;
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bat the Danes were finally expelled, in 1041, by Edward the Con- fessor, of the Anglo-Saxon line.
On the death of Edward, William I., the Conqueror, invaded England ; and defeating Harold of Wessex, at Hastings^ in 1066, he seized the crown, and established the Norman dynasty, in the same year. On the death of William II. (Rufus), his brother Henry I. (Beaaclerc) usurped the throne in 1 100 : but having no sons, he was succeeded by his nephew, Stephen of Blois, in 1135. Henry Ih^ son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, and grandson of Henry L, next obtained the throne, in 1154; and with him began the line of the Plantagenets. Richard I., (Ccaur de Lion), engaging in the third Crusade, was detained prisoner in Austria, till ransomed in 1194; and his weak brother John^ succeeding him, was compelled by the Barons to grant the Magna Chartaf or great charter against royal oppression, in 1215, at Runnymede. Under Henry III. the House of Commons was first constituted, in 1265. Edward I. (Long- shanks) subdued Wales, in 1283, and gained a foothold in Scotland : but Edward II. was defeated by Robert Bruce, at Bannockbum, in 1314. Edward III., claiming the crown of France, in right of his mother, engaged, with his son, Edward the Black Prince, in a sue* cessful war with France, already referred to. (p. 223).
In the reign o{ Richard II., commenced the rivalry between hi» uncles, the dukes of Lancaster and York. Henry IV. (Bolingbroke), son of the former, seized the crown in 1399, and thus the house of Lancaster occupied the throne. This led to the wars of the Roses; the white rose beinff the badge of York, and the red, that of Lancaster. Henry V. invaded France, and was victorious at Agin- court, in 1415; but his conquests were lost by Henry VI.; from whom the crown abo was wrested by Edward IV. of York, who thus superseded the house of Lancaster, in 1461. Richard III., the Cruel, was slain in the battle of Bos worth, in 1485, and succeeded ^y Henry VII., son of Edmund Tudor, who by his marriage united the rival interests, in the house of Tudor. The quarrels of Henry VIII. with the pope, led to the abolition of papacy, in 1533, and the Reformation^ or introduction of the Protestant religion. The short reigns of Edward VI. and the bigoted Mary^ were followed, in 1558, by that o( Elizabeth; who supported the Protestants, and triumphed over the Armada, or fleet, sent against her by Spain, in 1588. On her death, James VI. of Scotland, (James I. of England), son of Queen Mary Stuart, inherited the crown, and thus permanently united Scodand with England and Ireland, under the house of Stuart, in 1603.
His son, Charhs I., usurping extreme powers, was beheaded in 1649, in a Revolution ; by which Oliver Cromwell became Protector of the Commonwealth. Charles II., son of Charles I., regained the royal power in 1661 ; but his brother and successor, James H., aiming to reestablish papacy, was driven from the kingdom by the Revolution of 1689, (1688 o. s.), which placed WiUiam IH. of Orange, and Mary^ the daughter of James, upon the throne. France thereupon made war against Great Britain ; but concluded the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. Queen nSnne, took part in the war of the Spanish succession, against France and the Bourbons ; and her gene* 29
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thU the duke of Marlborough, aided by the Germans under Prince Eugene, gained the battles of Blenheim in 1704, Ramilies in 1706, Oudenard in 1708, and Malplaquet in 1709; thus inducing the peace of Utrecht, in 1713.
Anne waa succeeded in 1714, by George I. of Hanover, great- grandson of James I. ; and with him commenced the dynasty of Brunswick. George II. took part in the war of the Austrian succes- sion, in aid of Maria Theresa ; till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. By the seven years* war, against France and Germany, end- ing in the peace of Paris, in 1763, George III. gained Canada ; but by unjust exactions and uncompromising measures, he lost the United States, in a war ending with the peace of Paris, in 1783. In his time occurred the French Revolution, and the rise of Bonaparte; against whom Great Britain, fearing his exorbitant power, took a decisive part. Her armies and her wealth at length procured his downfall, doubly sealed by the last great battle of Waterloo, in 1814. George IV. began to reign in 1820; ffVliam IV. in 1830; and Victoria in 1837.
Scotland, was probably first settled by the Celts,'and afterwards by the Picts, who resisted the Roman power ; and fFalls were built by the Romans to prevent their inroads. The Scots or Dalriads from Ireland, migrated thither under their leader, Fergus, A. D. 503 ; and Kenneth Mac Alpine first united the Scots and Picts under one reign, in 843. Malcolm I., who gained the crown in 943, received Cumberland from the English, on condition of guarding their northern frontier; and Malcolm II., in 1004, defeated the Danish invaders, and finally made peace with Sweyn, their king. Malcolm III., who began to reign in 1057, was the son of Duncan, who was murdered by Lady Macbeth. On the death of Jllexander III., in 1284, Edward I. of Englarid, as umpire between Bruce and Baliol, gained a nominal sovereignty, b^ favoring the latter ; but Bruce, {Robert I.), defeated the English at Bannockburn, in 1314, and became king of Scotland.
On the extinction of his line, Robert II., of the house of Stuart, (or Stewart), ascended the throne in 1371. James I. was murdered by his nobles, in 1437; and Jame« III. slain during a rebellion, in 1488. James IV. married Margaret, daughter of Henry Vll. of England, thus giving to his heirs a claim to the English crown ; but he fell at the battle of Flodden, in 1513. James V., in alliance with France, opposed the Reformation ; but in vain. His daughter and successor, the beautiful Mary Stuart, was cruelly beheaded, by order of Queen Elizabeth, in 1587 : but her son, James VI. of Scotland, inherited the crown of Elizabeth, and became sole king of Great Britain, in 1603, as already mentioned ; though Scotland continued to be a distinct kingdom, till the act of Union, in 1707.
Ireland was peopled by the Celts, and known to the Phoenicians, at an early age ; but its history has not been well preserved. It was divided among several rival clans, till Brian Boroihm united them mostly under his sceptre, about the year 1000, of our era. In 1 172, Henry II. of England, taking advantage of a quarrel between Dermod of I^inster and Roderick O'Connor, landed with an army in Ireland, and subdued all of it except the province of Ulster ; which fell to the
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English, by intermarriage, in 1361. The fate of Ireland has been peculiarly unfortunate ; but we have no room to trace it farther.
§ 5. We come next to the Hiitory of Central Europe ; including that of all the Germanic nations. The early inhabitants of Holland, the Batavi and Frisii, were subdued successively by the Romans, and the Franks ; and formed a part of the Prankish empire, till the partition at Verdun, A. D. 843 ; when Holland was attached to Ger- many. On the abdication of Charles the V., in 1556, Holland, with the adjacent provinces, constituting the Netherlands, (or Lowlands), was united with Spain, under Philip H. His severe treatment caused Holland and Zealand to rebel against him in 1572; and five other provinces joined them, at Ghent, in 1576. The seven United Pro- vinces under William of Orange as Stadtholder, declared themselves independent, in 1579; though not recognized so by Spain, till the close of the Thirty years' war, and peace of Westphalia, in 1648. At this period, they were the first commercial nation in the world; the Dutch East India Company, formed in 1602, having engrossed the commerce of the East.
The other ten provinces, called Flanders , or Spanish Netherlands j now Belgium, were ceded by Spain, at the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, to the house of Austria, which held them till the French Revolution; when they were taken by France, in 1794. The French also took Holland in 1795; forming of it the Batavian Republic $ which Bonaparte, in 1806, converted into the kingdom of Holland, under his brother Louis Napoleon, On the fall of Bonaparte, in 1814, the whole seventeen provinces were erected into the kingdom of the United Netherlands, under William I. of Orange. But in 1830, the ten Belgic provinces revolted from his rule, and the kingdom of Belgium was organized in 1831, under Leopold of Saxe Coburg.
Switzerland was also conquered successively by the Romans, ancl the Franks ; by the latter A. D. 534. Its western part, was included in the kingdom of Burgundy, in the south-east of France, founded by Rodolph, in 888 ; which kingdom, on the death o( Bodolph III., in 1032, was reunited to Germany. Switzerland was again inde- pendent, under the dukes of Zahringen, till 1218 ; when it reverted to Germany. The tyranny of the emperor Albert, led the Swiss to unite, in 1307, and throw off the German yoke ; in which they suc- ceeded, after a series of bloody wars, terminating with the peace of Basle, in 1499. By the French Revolution, Switzerland was, in 1798, converted into the Helvetic Republic^ but in 1814, the former state was restored ; and the Cantons of Switzerland remain an inde- pendent confederation.
Germany, was first invaded by the Romans, under Julius Caesar, 55 B. C. ; but he only succeeded in checking the German irruptions into Gaul. During the decline of Rome, the leading tribes of Ger- many were the Cherusci or Franks, in the north, and the Allem^anni^ in the south : but the latter were subdued by Clovis, king of the Franks, A. D. 496 ; after he had defeated the Romans in France. Germany thus became a part of the Frankish empire, down to the time of Charlemagne, (p. 223). By the peace of Verdun, which settled the quarreh of Charlemagne's grandsons, Louis ^ (the Ger-
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man), became the first emperor of Germany, as a distinct state. His son, Charles, (the Fat), reacquired France and Italy, by inherit- ance ; but, being a weak prince, resigned the crown in favor of Arnold, (or Arnulph), in 888. With I^wUt the son of Arnold, the Carlo viugian race became extinct ; and the empire then became elective. Conrad of Franconia was chosen emperor, in 912 ; and Henry I., (the Fowler), of the house of Saxony, was raised to the throne, in 919. He and his successors, the first three Othoi, enlarged and improved the empire.
On the death of Henry H., in 1024, the crown was conferred on Conrad II., of the Salic tribe, and house of Franconia. His grand- son, Henry IV., was deposed by Pope Gregory YIL, and compelled to do penance, barefoot, at Rome, in 1076 ; but he, in return, deposed Gregory, and appointed another pope. On the death ol Lothaire II., in 1 139, the crown was given to Conrad III., of the house of Swabia, or Hohenstaufen, who was supported by the Ghibelines. Frede- rick I., Barbarossa, engaging in the third Crusade, was drowned in the river Cydnus, in Cilicia, in 1190. Otho lY., of Brunswick, received the crown in 1208 : but after the death of Conrad IV., and a confused interregnum, the choice fell on Sodolph I., count of Haps- burg, in 1273 ; and from him sprang the house of Austria. The quarrels of Louis IV. of Bavaria, with Pope John XXII., led to the first Pragmatic Sanction, in 1338 ; by which the electors declared Germany independent of the pope. Charles IV., of Luxembourg, issued in 1356, the Golden Bull, (from bulla, a seal), fixing the laws of the empire, (p. 110).
On the death of Sigistnund, of Hungary, in 1438, his son-in-law, Albert II., duke of Austria, was elected emperor; and from this time the house of Austria became predominant in Germany. Maximi- lian I. united in the League of Cambray, in 1508, against Venice ; but without success. His grandson, Charles V., inherited Spain from his mother; and was elected emperor, in 1519; in opposition to Francis I. of France, with whom he was engaged in five successive wars. Charles abdicated the throne in 1556, in favor of his brother Ferdinand L , leaving Spain and the Netherlands to his son Philip. In the reign of Mattnias, commenced the Thirty years' war, in 1618, between the Imperialists, or Catholic League, and the Protestants, or Evangelical Union : the latter ultimately aided by Sweden and France. This war continued under the reigns of Ferdinofid II., whose army was defeated by Gustavus Adolphus, at Lutzen, in 1632; and of Ferdinand III., who was opposed by Torstenson, Conde, and Turenne, till the peace of Westphalia, in 1648.
The claim of Leopold I. to the crown of Spain, for his son, led to the war of the Spanish succession, in 1702, in which England and Holland aided Leopold, against France: (p. 222) : but at die peace of Utrecht, in 1713, Spain fell to the Bourbons. The Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI., securing his crown to his daughter, Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, led, on his decease, in 1740, to the war of tlie Austrian succession ; in which that queen, aided by England, was opposed to Charles of Bavaria, aided by France and Prussia. By the peace of Aix-la-Chapclle, in 1748, Francis I. of Lorraine, the
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husband of Maria Theresa, was recognized emperor of Germany. The Seven years' war, was brought on by Maria Theresa, aided by France, with a view to regain Silesia from Frederick II. of Prussia, who was assisted by England ; but her efforts were in vain, and ter- minated in the peace of Hubertsburg, in 1763.
On the breaking out of the French Revohition, Leopold II. formed a league with Prussia, at Pilnitz, in 1791, to sustain the Bourbons in France. This led to the invasion of Germany by the French, and their victories at Jemappe, 1792; Marengo, 1800; and Auster- litz, 1805 ; over the Germans and their allies. Francis II. assumed, in 1804, the title of Emperor of Austria: and in 1806, after six- teen German princes, protected by France, had formed the Confede' raiion of the Rhine, he resigned the title of Emperor of Germany, which tnen became extinct. After the fall of Bonaparte, and by the peace of Vienna in 1815, confirmed by the Congress of Vienna in 1820, the states of Germany were united in the Germanic Confede' ration, consisting of four free cities, and thirty-four monarchical states, including Austria, Prussia, ajid Denmark, in right of their Germanic possessions ; of which we have already spoken, in treat- ing of Geography, (p. 176). The history of the exclusively Ger- man states, as Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wnrtemburg, and Bruns- wick, we have no room to pursue any farther.
The History of Austria, commences with the conquest of the country around Vienna, by the Romans, A. D. 33 ; and their sub- sequent expulsion by the Vandals, Goths, Huns, Lombards, and Avars. These last were expelled, in 791, by Charlemagne; who united this country to Germany, as a part of his empire. In a docu- ment of Otho III., dated 996, it is called Ostirrichi (Oest-reich) or the eastern kingdom; and in 1156 Austria was created a duchy, under Henry, its first duke. In 1282, after the extinction of the house of Bamberg, this duchy was conferred on Albert, of the house of Hapshurg ; who was afterwards elected emperor of Germany ; but it was not until 1438, commencing with Albert II. (the Magnani- mous), that the dukes of Austria became hereditary emperors of Germany. In 1453, Austria became an arch-duchy, and on the acquisition of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526, it attained to the rank of a European monarchy. The marriage of Maria Tlieresa, who was queen of Hungary, arch-duchess of Austria, and empress of Ger- many, placed Francis!,, of the house o{ Lorraine, on the throne of the empire ; as already mentioned under the history of Germany ; in which the subsequent history of Austria is included. By the peace of Vienna, in 1815, Austria was recognized as an independent and powerful empire ; and such, under the present emperor, Ferdi- nand, it still remains.
Prussia, was conquered from the Sarmatians, Vandals, and Suevi, by the Teutonic Knights, under Herrman of Salza, their grand master ; who was invited thither by Conrad of Masovia, A. D. 1227. Their conquest was complete in 1283 ; but not satisfied with this, their invasions of the neighboring country led to a bloody war with Poland, in 1454. In 1511, the Knights elected Albert of Branden- burg, to be their grand master; who, in 1525, aided by the Poles,
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abolished their order, and converted Prussia into a hereditary duciiy, as a fief of Poland. Albert belonged to the ancient house of Hohen ZoUem^ which still occupies the Prussian throne. In the reign of Duke Frederick fiWiam, grandson of John Sigismund, Prussia again became independent of Poland, by the treaty of Welau, in 1657 : and the next duke, Frederick III., in 1701, raised Prussia to the rank of a kingdom, assuming the regal title of Frederick I.
The next king, Frederick ff'illiam I., greatly improved his coun- try; and Frederick II., the Great, conquered Silesia, from Maria Theresa, in the war of the Austrian succession ; (p. 228) ; retaining it by the separate peace of Breslau, in 1742. In tlie Seven years' war, which followed this, he was assailed by Germany, France, and Russia ; but defended himself with wonderful skill and valor, and reuined Silesia by the Peace of Hubertsburg, in 1763. Frederick the Great, and his successor, Frederick ffVliam II., both shared in the unjust partitions of Poland ; the latter in 1795. The late king, Frederick iyHliam III., declared war, unaided, against Bonaparte, in 1806 ; but the battle of Jena led him to seek the unfavorable peace of Tilsit, in 1807. He again took part against the French, in 1813-14; and thus preserved his throne, and the integrity of his dominions. He was succeeded, in 1840, by his son, the present king, Frederick TfVliam IV.
The first ruler of Denmark, is said to have been Skiold, (or Schiold), about 60 B. C. : but the history of those times is involved in fable. After the Roman decline, the inhabitants became formida- ble to their neighbors ; being known in France as Normans, or Northmen, and in England, as Danes, Ragner Lodbrog, who began to reign A. D. 750, invaded England, but was captured, and put to death. The more certain history of Denmark, commences with the reign of Gormo, the old, (Sormo, or Surm), in 863. His son, Harold, was converted to Christianity ; and his grandson, Sweyn, (Swane, or Sueno), commenced the conquest of England, which was completed by Canute II., the Great, in 1016. Denmark flourished under JValdemar I., who came to the throne in 1157; and still more under the celebrated Margaret, who, in 1388, united Sweden with Norway, under her sceptre. Christian I., was elected king of Denmark, as a separate state, in 1448 ; and its final separa- tion from Sweden took place in 1523; when the Danish Revo- lution placed Frederick I. on the throne.
Christian IV. took part in the Thirty years' war; at first against the Imperialists ; but afterwards against Sweden ; till the peace of Brdmsebro, in 1645. Frederick IV, waged war against Charles XII. of Sweden ; but was soon coerced into the peace of Travendahl, in 1700. Under Christian VI., Denmark, uniting in the Northern Confederacy, was involved in a dispute with Great Britain ; and its fleet was defeated at Copenhagen in 1800. In 1807, the British seized the Danish fleet, to prevent its being employed in aid of tlie French. Denmark was thus provoked to unite with Bonaparte; in consequence of which she was obliged to give up Norway, to Sweden, by the peace of Kiel, in 1814. Christian VIII. succeeded to the throne of Denmark in 1839.
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5 6. We shall commence the History of Northern Europe with that of Norway and Sweden; concluding it with that of Poland and Russia. Suoeden had its kings of Upsal, as early as the fifth century ; and they claimed descent from Odin, (or Woden) ; who appears to have flourished before the Christian era. Sweden is said to have been united with Denmark, under Gormo I., in 714, and until the death o( Eagner Lodbrog; but no longer. A more settled govern- ment was established in 994, by Olaf, (Olof or Olaus), its first Christian monarch. In 1250, Eric XL, first of the house of Fol- kung, subdued the interior of Finland. In 1363, the Swedes rebelled against Magnus III., (Smek), and gave the crown to Jilbert of Mecklenburg: but he fell in the battle of Falkoping, in 1388 ; and Sweden became subject to Queen Margaret of Denmark. In 1448, the Swedes and Norwegians seceded, and elected Charles VIII. , (Karl Knutsen), to be their king. Christian II. of Denmark, again united the three countries, in 1520; but his tyranny produced the Swedish Revolution, in 1523, which placed Gustavus Vasa (Wasa) on the throne of Sweden, thenceforward a prominent state.
Gustavus Adolphus engaged in the Thirty years' war, in support of Protestantism ; but fell in the battle of Lutzen, in 1632, in the midst of his success against the Imperialists. His daughter, Christi' na, resigned the crown, in 1654, to Charles X., (Gustavus), of Deux Fonts. Charles XII., the rash and brave, being called to defend his territories, humbled Denmark in 1700, and Poland in 1703 ; but he was at length defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, at Pultowa, in 1709; which event decided the result of the Northern War, so called. Adolphus Frederick, of Holstein, succeeded the house of Vasa, in 1751 ; and took a slight part in the Seven years' war. In 1810, Charles XIII. accepted the nomination of the French marshal, John Bernadotte, (Prince of Ponte Corvo), to be crown prince ; and this officer succeeded, in 1818, to the Swedish throne, under the tide of Charles XIV. ; with the consent of the allied powers, whom Sweden had ultimately aided against Bonaparte.
Norway, appears to have been united with Sweden, till its con- quest was begun by Sweyn, and completed by Canute of Denmark, in 1028. It became independent again, soon after; and had its separate line of kinffs, till Hacon, (Hakon, Haquin, or Hager), king of Norway, married Margaret, daughter of Waldemar III. of Den- mark, in 1363. Hacon died in 1380 ; when Margaret became queen of Norway, and on the death of her son, OlaflY., (Olave or Olaus), in 1387, she became also queen of Denmark; as in the following year, of Sweden. Norway, with Sweden, seceded from Denmark, in 1448 : but these countries were again united, in 1520, under Christian II. of Denmark ; and from this time Norway continued in union with Denmark, till 1814, when by the peace of Kiel, it was again united to Sweden.
Poland, became a duchy, A. D. 842, under Piast; and was con- verted to Christianity about 964, under Duke Mieczyslas, of the Piast family. Its first king was Boleslas I., (Chrobry), called the Terrible; who crowned himself, in 1024, the last year of his reign. Boleslas III., in 1138, divided the kingdom among his sons; and
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thus subjected it to a civil war. Cmindr III., the Great, formed a written code of laws ; and founded the Academy at Cracow. He was succeeded, in 1370, by his son-in-law, JageUon, grand-duke of Lithuania ; who took the name of Ladulaus V., (or Uladislas), the first' of the house of JageUon. In the reigns of SigUtnund I., com- mencing in 1506, and Sigismund II., (Augustus), commencing in 1548, Poland acquired large territories, and became the leading Northern power. On the death of the latter, in 1572, the house of JageUon became extinct; and Poland, thenceforward an elective monarchy, fell, at length, a prey to internal factions.
The most illustrious of the remaining monarchs, was John StM" tikit who aided Austria in defeating the Turks at Vienna, in 1683. His successor, Frederick Jiugudtus^ of Saxony, involved Poland in the wars against Charles XII. of Sweden ; but was defeated by Charles, whose influence deprived him of his throne, in 1704. The last king, Stanislaus Poniatowskit was elected by the influence of Catliarine II. of Russia ; who took advantage of Poland*s dissatisfac- tion and dissensions, to deprive it of a national existence. The first partition was made, in 1772, by Catharine II. of Russia ; Frederick II. the Great, of Prussia ; and Joseph II., of Austria. The final parti- tion, was begun, in 1792, by Catharine II., Frederick William II., and Francis 11. ; and, in despite of the efforts of Kosciuszko and his compatriots, Poland was completely dismembered, in 1795, and her name blotted from the list of nations.
The first civilized inhabitants of RussiOf appear to have been the Sclavonians : who, in the fifth and sixth centuries, built Kiev and Novgorod. The Varangians^ (Warangians), a piratic tribe from the Baltic, entered Russia, and made Buric, their leader, its first duke, A. D. 862. His great-grandson, Vladimir I., (or Wladimir], the Great, embraced Christianity, in 987 ; and George I., (or Jurge), built Moscow, in 1147. Russia was invaded by Tamerlane, in 1395 ; and became subject to the Tartars, tiU they were subdued, in 1477, by John Basil, (Ivan Vasilovitz, or I wan Wasiiiewitsch), who united the country under one government, and assumed the title of Czar, or king. John Basil II., conquered the kingdom of Astra- chan, in 1554 ; and Theodore, (Feodor), his successor, conquered Siberia, in 1587. In 1613, the house of Ruric being extinct, Mi' chael Theodore Romanoff {RomKnow) was elected czar, with abso- lute and hereditary power.
In \6S0, Peter the Great became sole ruler of Russia; with whom commenced its rapid progress in power and civilization. He defeated Charles XII. of Sweden, at Pultowa, in 1709 ; and buUt St. Petersburg. In 1757, his daughter, Elizidfeth, assisted Austria against Prussia, in the Seven years' war ; and her successor, Cat ha- rine II., took part in the unhallowed partition of Poland. The emperor Alexander took an active part in the French Revolutionary wars ; and though he concluded the peace of Tilsit with Bonaparte, in 1807, his opposition to French measures commenced the war of 1812. The destruction of Moscow, in that year, saved Russia from the French invasion : and it is now a first-rate European power, under the government of the emperor Nicholas I.
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CHAPTER IV.
AMERICAN CHRONOGRAPHY.
The History of America, is invoWed in the deepest obscurity, prior to its discovery and colonization by the western nations of Europe. America is called, by them, the Western World, as they reach it most easily by sailing westward ; and the New World, from its having been known to them only in comparatively recent times. Of its discovery by Columbus, who first visited the mainland of this Continent in 1497, we have already spoken, under North American Geography. (See p. 183). Columbus supposed these lands to be a part of the Indies, known to the ancients ; and hence called them by the same name. But after Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespu- cius) of Florence, had visited the new world in 1499, and described it in glowing colors, and after Balboa had discovered the Pacific Ocean, in 1513, the name of tlie Florentine was ungenerously applied to the continent, and the name of West Indies, was confined to the group of islands first discovered by Columbus.
The origin of the American Indians, or aborigines, is not fully ascertained. There are strong reasons for believing that the Esqui- nnaux, in the North East, came from Greenland ; and their ancestors from Northern Europe. The other tribes probably came from Asia, the great cradle of the human race ; but at two or more different periods. The earlier race appear to have occupied a part of the United States, and to have left those mounds and antiquities, here discovered; but afterwards to have been driven southward, by new and more barbarous hordes, till they finally setded in the more con- genial regions of Mexico and Peru. The resemblance of tlieir pyramids, and other antiquities, to those of India and Egypt, strongly indicates their common origin ; but whether they came by the way of Behring's Straits, in an age when Siberia enjoyed a milder climate; or whether across the Pacific Ocean, from island to island ; or whether there was formerly a communication between the continents, by land since submerged, we are unable to decide. The resemblance of our Northern Indians to the Tartars of Northern Asia, we think, strongly indicates that they are of the same stock ; with less differ- ence between the two races, than there is, in either race, between dififerent tribes.
In treating of American History, we shall adopt the geographical order, of the preceding department ; commencing at the north.
5 1. The British Provinces, in North America, were originally possessed and settled by the French ; the first considerable settle- ment being that of Quebec, founded in 1608, by Champlain, a French naval officer. In 1628, a company of French merchants obtained, by the favor of Cardinal Richelieu, the exclusive privilege of trading with Canada ; which however they resigned in 1664. From this time, the colony became more flourishing ; so much so as to attempt 80 v2
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the capture of New York in 1680 ; and to repulse the expedition against it, from New England, under Sir William Phipps, in 1690. In the Seven years' war, Canada was again invaded, by three British armies, in 1759. That under Gen. ^o//e, took Quebec; though Wolfe was slain: Gen. Amherst took Ticonderoga ; and Gen. Pri- deaux took Niagara, from the French : and the three armies met at Montreal; which capitulated, in 1760. By the peace of Paris, in 1763, Canada and Michigan were finally ceded to Great Britain. In 1775, the American Revolution having commenced, Canada was invaded by an army from the United States, under Gen. Montgomery ; but without success. In 1791, Canada was divided into the two provinces of Upper, and Lower Canada; with separate colonial governments. In 1812, it was again invaded by the Americans, but without success ; and notwithstanding the attempted Revolution in 1837, Canada is still subject to the British government; the two provinces having been again united in 1811.
Nova Scotia, was first settled by the French, probably about 1600; and named by them Acadia. In 1621, it was granted by James I. to Sir William Alexander ; and received its present name : but in 1632 it was restored to France. Louinburg^ on Cape Breton, was captured by the English, aided by the New England colonies, in 1745 ; but restored to France by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. The second capture of Louisburg, in 1758, secured to Great Britain the permanent possession of Nova Scotia. By the peace of Paris, in 1763, its boundaries were so defined as to include New Brunswick; which, however, was made a separate province in 1785. Prince Edward's Island, was chartered as a distinct pro- vince, in 1770 ; and Newfoundland, in 1832. The Hudson^ s Bay fur company, was chartered by Charles II., in 1670; the iVor/A W?s/ fur company, was formed at Montreal, in 1783 ; and they were united some time after, retaining the former name. The fur trade to the North West coast of America, was commenced as early as 1784, and prosecuted at first chiefiy by traders from the United States. In 1821, an attempt was made by Russia to monopolize this trade; but it was abandoned in 1824.
§ 2. The History of the United States, is of peculiar interest ; and rich in political instruction. We have no room here to speak farther of the aborigines, or of geographical discoveries in our coun^ try ; already briefly referred to. The first permanent settlement made in the United Slates, was that of Jamestown, Va., in 1607, by Capt, Christopher Newport, under the patronage of the London Company. In 1613, the Dutch settled Albany; and in the follow- ing year, they settled New York ; naming the country New Nether- lands. In 1620, the Puritans, a pious congregation, originally from England, came from Holland to Plymouth, Mass., and commenced the settlement of New England. The Dutch probably commenced settlements in New Jersey, prior to 1623, when it was settled by Swedes and Danes. Delaware, was settled by the Swedes, in 1627. New Hampshire, was settled by the English, in 1623; and Afaine,hy the Plymouth company, in 1630. Boston was founded in 1630, by Gov. Winthrop ; and Maryland was first settled, at Baltimore, in
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1634, by Mr. Calvert. Connecticut was settled, at Windsor, in 1633; and Rhode Island^ at Providence, by Roger Williams, in 1636. North Carolina was settled from Virginia, in 1650; and South Carolina^ at Port Royal, by William Sayle, in 1670 : but the present city of Charleston was founded in 1680. Pennsylvania was probably settled by the Swedes, in 1627; but Philadelphia was founded by William Penn, in 1682. Vermont was not settled till 1725 ; nor Georgia, till 1733.
Meanwhile, notwithstanding the hardships endured, and wars en- gaged in with the Indians, the colonies increased rapidly in numbers and in strength. Among the earlier Indian TVars, were those in Vir- ginia, in 1618, 1622, and 164i: in Maryland, in 1642; the Pequot war, in Connecticut, in 1 636-7 ; and the Narragansett war, in Rhode Island, in 1675-6. There was a war between the Dutch and Indians in New York, in 1646 ; and in 1664, New York and the other Dutch colonies were subjugated by the English, who thus con- solidated their territory. Still, the colonies were hemmed in by the French ; and they suffered severely in the French and Indian Wars, consequent to the wars between France and England. In the first of these wars, ending with the peace of Ryswick, the French and Indians burnt Schenectady, in 1690. In the war of the Spanish succession, the Indians burnt Deerfield, Mass., in 1704, and ravaged the Carol inas : but the French were repulsed from Charleston, in 1706 ; and Port Royal, Nova Scotia, was taken by the colonists, in 1710. In the war of the Austrian succession, the colonies aided in taking Louisburg from the French, in 1745 ; and D'Anville's fleet, sent against the colonies, was disabled by a storm, in the following year. The French encroachments on the Ohio, the subject of Wash- ington's mission, in 1753, led England to take part in the Seven years' war; in which Braddock was defeated, in 1755; and the French took Oswego in 1756; and Fort William Henry, N. Y., in 1757; but afterwards, by a series of defeats, they were deprived of Canada, and all their northern possessions, by the English, in 1760.
In 1761, Great Britain, by the Stamp act, commenced that op- pressive system of taxation, which led to the assembling of a Colo- nial Congress, in 1765; and the organization of a Continental Con- gress, from all the colonies, except Georgia, in 1774; which appointed General Washington to be Commander-in-Chief of the American forces, in 1775; and issued the Declaration of Inde- pendence, July .4th, 1776. The first blood was shed at Lexington, in 1775; and followed by the battle of Bunker^ s Hill, and the expe- dition to Canada, in the same year. In 1776, the British evacuated Boston ; but they were successful at Brooklyn, and White Plains. Washington retreated to New Jersey ; and there turned the tide of success, by the victory at Trenton, near the close of the year. In 1777, the British were defeated at Princeton, N. J. ; and at Bennington, Vt.; and after the battles of Stillwater and Saratoga, the British army, under Burgoyne, surrendered to General Gates. Meanwhile, the Bri- tish were successful at Brandywine, and Germantown ; and took possession of Philadelphia, until the following summer. They were, however, defeated at Fed Bank ; and in 1778, at Monmouth, N. J. ;
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as also by General Sullivan, on Rhode Island: though, in return, they took Savannah. In 1779, Sioney Point was taken from them by General Wayne: but in 1780, they took Charleston; and defeated General Gates, at Camden^ South Carolina. They were partially defeated at Eing*s Mountain; and in 1781, at Cowpens, by General Morgan ; but were more successful at Guilford, and in the second batde at Camden. They were again defeated by General Greene, at Eutaw Springs, South Carolina; and finally, being besieged at Yorkiown, their army under Lord Comwallis, surrendered to Wash- ington, aided by La Fayette, and our French allies, under Count Rochambeau, in 1781. The British evacuated New York, soon after the peace of Paris, in 1783, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States.
Of the framing of the Constitution, and its adoption in 1788, we have already spoken, (p. 111). General Washington was chosen the first president of the United States ; and the first Constitutional Congress met in New York city, in 1780. From this period, the country flourished ; and the settlements extended rapidly, west of the Alleghany mountains ; notwithstanding the Indian Wars, in that quarter. The bloodiest of these wars, was that with the Miamis : who defeated General Harmer, in 1700 ; and General St. Clair, in 1701 ; but were subdued by General Wayne, in 1794. Michigan, had been settled by the French, at Detroit, in 1670 ; Illinois, in 1683 ; and Indiana, in 1600. Tennessee, was settled, at Fort Lou- don, in 1757 ; Kentucky, by Daniel Boon, in 1775 ; and Ohio, by New England emigrants, in 1788. Jllabama, was first settled by the French, in 1702; and Mississippi, by them, in 1716; but both states were afterwards held by the English, as a part of Georgia. In 1800, under the presidency of John Adams, the city of Washington was made the capital of the United States. In 1803, under the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, the region called Louisiana was purchased of France, for $15,000,000. The state of Louisiana, was first setded by the French, in 1690; and New Orleans founded in 1717. Arkansas, was setded by them, in 1685; and Missouri, in 1763.
Under the presidency of James Madison, the British aggressions on our commerce, caused the declaration of War against Great Britain, in 1812. That year saw the surrender of Detroit, and the repulse of our troops at Queenstown ; but it saw also the capture of the British frigates Guerriere, by Capt. Hull ; Macedonian, by Decatur ; and Java, by Bainbridge. In 1813, the Americans were defeated at the River Raisin, but they took Fort York, and Fort George, U. C. They lost the frigate Chesapeake ; but Commodore Perry captured the British fleet on Lake Erie. The northern Indians, taking part with the British, were defeated by General Harrison ; and the Creek Indians by General Jackson, and others. In 1814, the British were defeated by General Brown, at Chippewa, and Bridgewater; re- pulsed, at North Point, where they landed to attack Baltimore ; and defeated at Plattshurg, by General Macomb. They took the frigate Essex ; but lost their fleet on Lake Champlain, which was captured by Macdonough. In 1815, General Jackson defeated the British at
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New Orleans ; and the war was terminated by the peace of Ghent. In the same year, a brief war with Algiers was concluded ; and the United States thenceforward released from paying tribute.
Under the presidency of James Monroe, Florida was ceded by Spain to the United States, in 1821 ; on the payment of 83,000,000 : but it had been settled by the Spaniards, at least as early as 1565 ; and held by the British from 1763 to 1781. Vermont was admitted into the Union, in 1791 ; Kentucky, in 1702 ; Tennessee, in 1796; Ohio, in 1802; Louisiana, in 1812; Indiana, in 1816; Mississippi, in 1817; Illinois, in 1818 ; Alabama, in 1819; Maine,.and Missouri, in 1820 ; Arkansas, in 1836 ; and Michigan, in 1837. Of subsequent events under the presidencies of J. Q. Adams, Jackson, and Van Buren, down to the recent death of the lamented Harrison, we have no farther room here to speak.
Texas, was a part of Mexico, till it formed a separate constitution, in 1832, and declared itself independent, in 1835. This declaration has been sustained, not only by the victory of General Houston over the Mexicans, at San Jacinto, in 1836; when General Santa Anna was taken prisoner; but by various other and more recent successes. Texas is now substantially independent, under the presidency of General Lamar.
§ 3. Mexico, appears to have been inhabited by a race called ToU tccSy (Toltecas, or Toultecs), who emigrated from the north, as early as A. D. 544, or 648. They were displaced, in 1178, or 1196, by the Aztecs, who founded the city of Tenochtitlan, now Mexico, in 1325. This country was invaded by Fernando Cortez, in 1519; who, with a single regiment of Spaniards, marched to the capital, and was received by the emperor, MorUezuma, as a god, and child of the sun. Having ruined Montezuma, and captured his successor, Ouatimozin, Gortez, in 1521, completely subjugated Mexico to the Spanish crown, under the name of New Spain. By the year 1596, the Spanish settlements were extended from Yucatan to the Rio Del Norte, and Galifornia. The last insurrection of the natives was in 1692 ; when the viceroy's palace was burnt ; but the Indians were subdued.
Mexico remained in general tranquillity, till 1810; when the par- tiality exhibited by the administration, towards the Spaniards, led to an insurrection of the Creoles or natives. In 1813, a national Congress was assembled at Ghilpanzingo, which declared Mexico independent. Augustin Iturbide, (Yturbide), being sent by the Spanish government, against the revolutionists, united with them in efiecting their independence ; and in 1822, he was proclaimed emperor of Mexico : but he was banished in the following year ; and returning thither, was arrested and shot, in 1824. Since that time, Mexico has been nominally a representative republic ; though often the scene of tumult and civil war. In 1831, General Bustamente succeeded Guerrero as president ; which office, with some brief inter- vals, he has held till the present time. In 1835, by a decree of the Mexican Congress, the state legislatures were suppressed ; and the government became a central republic : but since that time, in many of the provinces, it has possessed only nominal power.
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The present republic of Central America, comprises the old king- dom of Guatemala, which was subdued by the Spaniards, under Pedro de Alvarado. He set out from Mexico, for this purpose, in 1523, under the orders of Cortez ; and, after several battles, and the death of Tecum Umam, the native king, the invaders founded the city of Guatemala, in 1524. From that time the country remained under a Captain general, subordinate to Mexico, till, in 1821, it declared itself independent; and in 1824, adopted a federal constitu- tion, similar to that of the United States. The first president was Don Manuel Jose Aree; but that office is now held by General Morazan, This country has suffered from insurrections ; and in 1838, the city of Guatemala was taken by the insurgent General Carrero, when Salazar, the vice president, w«ns slain.
Of the ff'est Indies, Hayti, or St. Domingo, called by Columbus, Hispaniola, (or Little Spam), was colonized by him, immediately after its discovery, in 1492 ; this being the first European setdement, at least in modern times, in America. The French obtained a foot- hold in the western part of this island, about 1650; and that part was ceded to France by the treaty of Ryswick, in 1691. The French Revolution led to an insurrection in this colony, in 1791, and to the enfranchisement of the negroes, by the French National Assembly, in 1792. In 1801, Hayti was proclaimed independent, by the African population ; the whites having been mosUy massacred, or expelled. In 1804, Dessalines assumed the title of James I., (Jacques I.), emperor of Hayti: but he was slain in 1806; and succeeded by Christophe ; who defeated Petion, and, in 1811, styled himself Henry I., king of Hayti. Boyer succeeded him, in 1820 ; and in 1821, the Spanish part of the island voluntarily submitted to his government ; under which the whole island still remains. Cuba, was subdued in 1511, by the Spaniards, under Velasquez, sent from Hayti. It was taken by the English, in 1762 ; but exchanged by them for Florida, in 1763; since which time it has continued under Spanish dominion, /atnatca was colonized in 1509, by the Spaniards: but the English took its capital, in 1596; and completely subdued the island, in 1655.
§ 4. We proceed next to the history of South America; still pur- suing the geographical order of countries.
Brazil was settled by the Portuguese, soon after its discovery; and in 1549, Thomas de Souza, (or Sousa), was appointed its governor. St. Salvador was founded by him in the same year. In 1624, Brazil was invaded by the Dutch ; and in 1630, their admiral, Henry Lonk, or Conk, with a large fleet, attempted its entire conquest. They succeeded in taking seven provinces of the fifteen ; but afterwards sold them back to Portugal. The gold mines of Brazil, were dis- covered in 1698 ; and the diamond mines, in 1782. Brazil was still farther favored, by the arrival thither of the royal family of Portugal, in 1808; as the grant was then maide to it of free trade with foreign nations. In 1815, Brazil was erected into a distinct kinsrdom ; and in 1 820, it obtained a constitution, from the crown prince, Don Pedro. In 1821, the king, John VI., returned to Portugal; and in 1822, his son, the regent, Don Pedro, was declared constitutional emperor of
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Brazil. In 1831, the latter, on returning to Portugal, abdicated the throne, in favor of his son, Pedro II. ; who is now the reigning emperor.
Guiana was settled, about 1634, by a party of Englishmen and Frenchmen; and the British took formal possession of it, in 1650. It was taken by the Dutch, in 1667 ; and ceded to them, in exchange for New York. Other settlements were afterwards formed, by the Spaniards, English, French, and Portuguese ; of which our limits allow no farther mention.
§ 5. New Grenada^ was first visited by Columbus, in 1502 ; on his fourth voyage. In 1508, it was mostly granted to Ojeda and Nicuessa : but in 1514, it was granted anew to Avila, under the name of Terra Firma. In 1536, Benalcazar, one of Pizarro's officers, invaded the southern part of it; and, in 1547, it was completely subdued, and made a captain generalship, dependent on the Spanish crown. In 1718, it was erected into the viceroy alty of New Grenada ; and such it continued most of the time, until the Revolution ; by which, in 181 1, it declared itself independent. It was again subjected to Spain, in 1816, by the victories of Morillo ; but again emancipated, in 1819, by Bolivar, who effected its union with Venezuela, to form the republic of Colombia. In 1830, dissatisfaction having arisen, this republic was divided ; when New Grenada again became a separate and independent republic ; of which Marquez is now president.
Venezuela, after being colonized by the Spaniards, was sold, by Charles V., to the Weltzers, a German mercantile company : but, in 1550, it was erected into the captain generalship of Caraccas, From this time, it remained under the Spanish government, until 1806 ; when General Miranda attempted to effect a revolution ; but failed. In '1810, a Junta Suprema, or Congress, was convened in Caraccas; which, in 1811, declared the country independent, under the title of the Confederation of Venezuela. In the war which followed, Venezuela was defended by Bolivar; and, in 1819, he effected its union with New Grenada ; as has just been mentioned. In 1829, Venezuela again declared itself independent; and General Paez was chosen its president. He was succeeded, in 1835, by Dr. Vargas ; but has since been reappointed to this office.
Equador, was a part of the empire of the Peruvian Indians ; and after the Spaniards took the city of Quito, in 1534, it still remained attached to Peru; till in 1564, it was erected into the Presidency of Quito, dependent only on the Spanish crown. From 1717 to 1722, it was united with New Grenada ; after which, it continued distinct, till the Revolution; which began in 1809, and ended in 1822, in the union of Quito with the republic of Colombia. In 1831, Quito was made a separate and independent republic, called Equador, (or Equa- tor), of which Rocafuerte is now president.
Peru, was a distmct kingdom, long before the Spanish invasion. The Peruvian Indians attributed their civilization to Manco Capac, who is supposed to have lived in the early part of the twelfth century. His successors were the Jncas or kings of Peru; till in 1525, Fran- cisco Pizarro and Diego Almagro sailed from Panama, with a small force ; and taking advantage of a civil war, soon subdued the country ;
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seizing the Inca, Atahualpa or Atabalipa, and putting him to death. In 1535, the Spaniards founded the city of Lima; and in 1543, the president of the audieneia, or court of Lima, was appointed governor of Peru. Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, was vanquished, and put to death, in 1562. There were several revolts of the natives; the most important of which was that headed by another Tupac Amara, in 1780: but they were all suppressed. When Spain was subdued by the French power, in 1808, Peru began to meditate her independence: but this was not effected till 1821; when General San Martin, at the head of a Chilian army, expelled the Spaniards from Lima, and was declared protector of the Peruvian reptUflic, The. Spaniards again took Lima, in 1823, but were expelled by Bolivar, acting as dictator; and the battle of Ayacucho, in 1824, gained by General Sucre, sealed the independence of Peru. The suspected ambition of Bolivar, tlien president of Colombia, led to a war between that republic and Peru, which terminated in 1829. Peru was divided, in 1836, into North, and South Peru; and from 1837 to 1839, it was united with Bolivia; but it is now a distinct government, under the presidency of General Gamarra.
Bolivia, was a part of Peru, until 1778 ; when it was united to Buenos Ay res. It shared in the revolution which commenced in 1809 ; but, in 1825, it declared itself a distinct republic, under the above name. General Santa Cruz was elected its president in 1829; and, in 1837, Peru was placed under his protection; thus forming the Peru-Bolivian Confederation : but this was dissolved by a revolution in Peru, in 1839 ; and Bolivia then becanje once more a distinct government, under General Velasco.
$ 6. Of the more southern Spanish possessions. Chili was invaded by Almagro, in 1535, without success; but Valdivia, sent by Pizarro, founded Santiago, in 1541, and Conception, in 1550. He was afterwards defeated by the Araucanians ; a warlike native tribe, who have never been subdued by the Spaniards. Their chief wars were those of 1598, and 1665, the latter of which ended 10 years afterward, in a formal treaty of peace. In 1770, an attempt of Gonzago to collect the Araucanians in towns, led to another war; by which it was conceded that the natives should have a resident minister or representative, at Santiago. The Revolution in Chili, commenced in 1810, but was repressed by the Spanish forces from Peru, till 1817 ; when, by the aid of General San Martin, with troops from Buenos Ayres, the victories of Chacabuco and Maypu, secured the independence of Chili. Don Bernardo O'Higgins, was elected its first president ; but was compelled to resign, in 1823. General Prieto is now the president of Chili.
La Plata, or the Argentine Republic, was first colonized by Mendoza, in 1535; and the city of^^ Buenos Ayres was founded by him in the same year. It was dependent on Peru, till 1778 ; when it was erected into the viceroy ally of Buenos Avres, or La Plata ; and allowed to trade directly with several ports of Spain. In 1806, it was attacked, and the city taken by the British; but they were soon expelled, by the aid of Linier$, a French officer. In 1810, the first insurrection against the mother country broke out in Buenos
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Ayres ; and Liniers was declared viceroy ; but deposed soon after- ^vard. In 1811, a Congress was assembled, which, in 1814, ap- pointed Fozadas Supreme Director of the republic, with an execu- tive council. In 1816, a Congress met at Tucuman, appointed I^ueyrredon director, and declared the independence of the United Provinces; which was recognized by the United States, in 1822. The name was changed, in 1826, to the Argentine Fepublics and Hivadavia was chosen president. A war with Brazil, on account of the Banda Oriental, led to a civil war, which resulted, in 1830, in the elevation of General Quito ga as dictator or governor; though bis power was chiefly confined to the province of Buenos A3nres. General de Rosas is now governor of that province, and charged with the foreign relations of the Argentine Republic : but the other provinces are in fact independent.
Paraguay^ was granted to the Jesuits, in the beginning of the 17th century ; and was entirely under their control, till they were defeated by the united Spanish and Portuguese armies, in 1756. Paraguay was included, in 1778, in the viceroyalty of La Plata ; and so continued, till the Revolution. In 1813, Paraguay was pro- claimed an independent republic, under two consuls, Yegros and Dr. Francia. At the end of the year. Dr. Francia caused himself to be named dictator for three years, and at the end of that term, for life. In 1826, he made a formal declaration of the independence of Paraguay ; of which he continued the dictator, or sovereign, until his death in 1840.
Uruguay^ formerly called the Banda Oriental^ was originally settled by a Spanish colony from Buenos Ayres ; but soon became a subject of contention between Spain and Portugal ; though retained by the former. This province took part with Buenos Ayres, in effecting the Revolution : but separating itself from that state, in 1815, under General Artigas, it was invaded and held in subjection by Brazil, until 1826; when General Rivera^ aided by Buenos Ayres, raised the standard of independence. By the peace of Rio Janeiro, in 1828, the Banda Oriental became a separate republic, under the name of Monte Videoy which it afterwards changed to the Oriental Republic of Uraguay ; of which General Rivera (or Ri- beira) is now president.
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VH. DEPARTMENT:
BIOGRAPHY.
In the department of Biography, we comprehend that portion of human knowledge which relates to the lives of distinguished persons ; their character and actions ; their descent and their insignia; including the kindred and subordinate subjects of Genealogy, Heraldry, Auto- graphics, and Sphragistics. The name is derived from the Greek, fiiofy life, and ypa^M, I write or describe: and we may add, that Biography is to individuals, what Chronography is to communities, or nations ; the record of tlieir existence. These departments are, therefore, closely connected, and the present one is often regarded as subordinate to the preceding ; but we think it so extensive, and important, as to deserve a distinct place. Judging from the Cata- logues of some of our largest Libraries, about one-fifth part of all the books in the world, relates to History and Biography : from which fact the propriety of separating these subjects will perhaps be still more apparent.
Biography, may, we think, be considered as supplementary to Civil History, rather than subordinate, to it. Where the historian gives only a crowded sketch, the biographer selects a single promi- nent object, and presents us with a finished picture. This depart- ment presents advantages over every other, for mingling instruction with amusement, in a simple and natural style : the gravest facts and principles being often enlivened by sprightly anecdotes ; and the cur- rent of action readily bearing the reader idonff to the close, without any severe mental efibrt. It is doubtless the duty, as it is generally the aim of the Biographer, to exhibit the faults of his subject as a warning, and the virtues as an example, for the reader's benefit ; but this is often better done indirectly, than in a formal manner. While a proper freedom of description is allowable, there are also domestic privacies, especially in regard to persons recently deceased, which we think no biographer has a right to invade. If wrong conduct, or erroneous principles are already known to the world, they must per- haps be mentioned ; but it is the writer's fault if they are allowed either to gratify or to mislead the mind of the reader.
The earliest Biographers, in most countries, were the bardSf or minstrehf who sang the exploits of their chiefs, exalted them as demigods, and ascribed to them actions surpassing human ability. Thus, the remains of the most ancient biography, even in Greece and Rome, are mixed with their Mythology ; or, in other words, involved in fable. It is remarkable that in this department of Litera- ture, the Greeks were surpassed by the Romans : the earliest oreneral work on Biography being that of Varro^ written about 50 B. C,
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and said to have contained notices of seven hundred distinguished men ; though unfortunately it is now lost. Cornelius Nepos, in his liives of Excellent Commanders, about 30 B. C, has given, in a classical style, the biography of twenty-two celebrated generals, mostly Grecian. Suetonius , about A. D. 100, wrote the Lives of the Twelve Csesars ; and notices of Illustrious Grammarians, Rhetori- cians, and Poets ; which works are yet extant. Plutarch^ who died about A. D. 130, was the first and only Greek writer of note, on general Biography ; and his Parallel Lives of celebrated Greeks and Romans, gave to this study a more philosophical form, and raised it to a higher estimation, than it had previously attained.
The name Autobiography y is applied to those works in which the writer gives an account of his own life. If written with fidelity, they are often of great value ; being usually more full and explana- tory than more formal works. The name of Memoirs^ is applied to mixed works of history and biography, written at the time of the events described, or soon after ; usually by persons who witnessed the events, or took part therein. Such works are generally minute and sprighdy ; often valuable, but not always worthy of entire con- fidence. The term Necrology ^ has been applied to a brief biogra- phy, or obituary notice of persons recently deceased. • Such produc- tions are oAen partial, and almost necessarily incomplete ; but as rapid sketches, demanded by the public curiosity, they often possess the deepest interest. The term Eulogy ^ is often applied to a funeral discourse, in honor of some distinguished person.
The subject of Genealogy^ is a constituent part of Biography ; tracing, as it does, the ancestry or the progeny of individuals, and the relationship of families. It is a subject of legal importance, in regard to the descent or disposition of property ; as already alluded to in a previous department, (p. 119). It is also frequently import- ant in history, as regulating the descent of crowns, fiefs, and titles of nobility ; and occasionally furnishing the cause of wars, quarrels, alliances, and other events. A series of persons descended from a common ancestor, is called a genealogical line; and tables are often constructed, in the form of a tree^ or otherwise, for the purpose of exhibiting family genealogies. These were most highly prized in the middle ages ; when noble descent was most highly regarded ; and when the wealth and power of the nobles gave the greatest value to their titles and claims. In many cases also, important offices, not hereditary, were accessible only to those who coulu prove a sufficient line of noble ancestors. Happy is it for our own country, that we have abrogated the aristocratical system of Europe ; though family influence, and the influence of wealth and fashion, are still strongly, and often too strongly felt. The use of family names, or surnames^ though occasional in remote times, was not generally introduced in Europe, till about A. D. 1200 : and the earliest reconled instance in Germany, is that of Henry de Sinna, in 1062.
Heraldry^ is that study, or science, which relates to badges of honor, or personal insignia, called coats of arms. In a wider sense, it relates also to the management of public ceremonials ; as proces- sions, cavalcades, touraaments, coronations, and the like. The name
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is derived from the French h^raut, a herald^ or marshal, whose business it is to establish armorial bearings, settle disputes for prece- dence, and regulate public ceremoniab. The objects of this study, are, to explain the distinctive insignia of persons of rank ; to assist in tracing genealogies; and to stimulate those of noble birth to deeds of patriotism, and virtue. Though of little use, therefore, in our own country, still we think it proper here to give some general ideas of a subject which has absorbed so much time, and excited so much interest, in the eastern world.
A coiU of arms, armory ^ or achievement, is a badge of honor, usually painted, or engraved, on carriages, weapons, seals, plate and the like, to identify or dignify its possessor. Thus, in the days of chivalry, when the warrior covered his face with his visor, the device on his shield, and the crest on his helmet, served to distinguish him from his companions. These devices were afterwards transmitted to bis descendants; varied only by family alliances, and governed by rules so exact as to have dignified Heraldry with the name of a science, alike distinct and complicated. Arms may belong to individuals, to families, or to nations ; and they are sometimes distinguished by different names, to denote the cause of their being borne ; as arms of dominion, of pretension, of concession, of community, of patronage, of family, of alliance, of succession, of assumption, and the like. European money is ofVen stamped with the arms of the sovereign under whom it was coined.
Something like these insignia, was used in very remote times, to distinguish individuals or nations. Thus the Israelites chose the Hebrew letter Tau ; the Scythians, a thunderbolt ; the Egyptians, an oo? ; the Phrygians, a hog ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Medians and Romans, an eagle ; the Persians, a how and arrow ; and the Goths, a bear. But Heraldry appears to have been first made a regular study, by the Germans, in the days of the Crusades, and of Chivalry : and its French name, Blason, comes from the German, blasen, to blow the horn ; as was done when the herald announced a new knight, and his coat of arms. To blazon a coat of arms, is to explain or describe its emblems; and to marshal the same, is to compose a new coat of arms, or to unite two or more in one, as in the union of families or nations. The French had cultivated this study, before it was introduced into England, by the Norman conquerors ; and hence most of its technical terms are in the French language.
The principal part of a coat of arms is the escutcheon, or shield, with its tinctures, ordinaries, and charges. The shield has varied in shape, with different ages and nations ; but is generally widest at the top, and pointed at the bottom ; though among the Italians it is oval ; and, for women, the escutcheon is lozenge or diamond shaped. There are nine points on the escutcheon or shield, which have received distinctive names. They are the dexter chief, middle chief, and sinister chief, near the top ; the honor point, fess or heart point, and nombril point, down the middle ; and the dexter base, middle base, and sinister base, near the bottom. The dexter chief and dexter base, are on the right side of the shield ; that is, on the left
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of an observer looking toward it ; but the sinister chief and base are on the left side of the shield. (Plate VI. Fig. 5.)
The tinctures^ or armorial colors, are represented in engravings as follows ; or^ (golden or yellow), by a dotted surface ; argent, (silver or white), by a white surface, unshaded ; (Fig. 7) ; azure, (blue), by shading with horizontal lines ; (Fig. 8) ; gules, (red), by shading with vertical lines ; (Fig. 9) ; sable, (black), by two sets of lines, horizontal and vertical : (Fig. 10) ; vert, (green), by lines inclining downwards to the right; (Fig. 12); purpure, (purple), by lines in- clining downwards to the left ; (Fig. 16) ; tenne, (orange), by lines crossing obliquely ; (Fig. 15) ; and sanguine, (dusky red), by oblique lines inclining downwards to the left, crossed by horizontal ones. (Fig. 14). Of furs, ermine, is represented by black sprigs on a white field, each sprig having three dots over it ; (Fig. 6) ; and contre- ermine, (or counter-ermine) is the same, only with white sprigs, on a black ground. Vair, is represented by a surface covered with small escutcheons, alternately white and blue, with the white inverted, and placed opposite to the blue ; (Fig. 11) ; while in contre-vair, two of the same color, blue or white, are placed head to head.*
The ordinaries, are certain divisions or portions of the escutcheon, whicli have received distinctive names. Thus, a broad horizontal space, constituting the upper third part of the shield, is called the chief; (Plate VI. Fig. 6) ; and a broad horizontal belt across the middle, is called a fess ; (Fig. 7) ; or if narrower, a bar. A broad space down the midfdle of the shield, is termed the pale ; (Fig. 8) ; a similar belt from the left upper corner, downward to the right, is called the bend; (Fig. 0) ; and if inclined the contrary way, the bend sinister. Tne bar sinister, (Fig. 10), is the most common badge of illegitimacy. A smaller shield within the escutcheon, is called an inescutcheon ; and a broad space around the edge, is termed a border. (Fig. 11). A horizontal and vertical band, together, form a cross ; but two oblique bands, united, form a saltier. (Fig. 12). A band across the shield, forming a right angle, with the vertex upwards, is called a chevrons (Fig. 13); a vertical triangle, with the point upwards, is named a pile ; (Fig. 14) ; and a vertical band, narrowest in the middle, and with concave sides, is termed ^flasque. (Fig. 15). A cross in the form of the letter T, that is, wanting the upper arm, is called SL potence. (Fig. 16). If the shield is divided by a line across the middle, it is said to be parted per fess, (part^ per fesse) ; if by a line down the middle, parted per pale ; and so of other directions. The dividing line may be either straight ; or indented, (Fig. 6) ; or invected, (Fig. 7) ; or engrailed, (Fig. 8) ; or waved, (Fig. 9) ; or nebuledi (Fig. 12) ; or it may be embattled, raguled, urded, dove- tailed, or in still other forms, which we have no room here to explain.
Heraldic charges, are those figures which are painted within the field of the escutcheon ; and which may represent almost any objects, whether natural or artificial. If simple round spots, or roundlefs, are used, they are called bezants, when yellow ; plates, when white ; torteaux, when red ; and by other names for other
* The block shading in Fig. 13, is technically called potent-counter-potent s but it might be more simply designated counter-potent.
X2
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246 BIOGRAPHT.
colors ; or, if very small, they are called guttes, that is, drops. If diamond shaped, they are called lozenges j fusils^ ox m<ueles ; and if oblong, they are named billeta. Angels, men, beasts, birds, fishes, insects, stars, and ships, are frequently used as heraldric charges ; having in the first instance probably a symbolical reference to the acts or character of their bearer. In case of animals, their position is carefully designated ; as couchant, lying down ; dormant^ sleep- ing ; guardanl^ looking towards the spectator ; regvardant, looking backward ; passant, walking by ; combattant, fighting ; rampant^ rearing up to fight ; salient, leaping ; seiant, sitting ; and various other postures.
Some charges are deemed more honorable than others : as the lion is deemed the most honorable of beasts ; and beasts generally are deemed more honorable than fishes : but these very artificial dis- tinctions, now but litde regarded, it is not our province to explain. Marks of cadency, are those symbols used to designate the order of birth or primogeniture. Thus, the eldest son may bear the addi- tion of a label, or alahel ; that is a horizontal bar, with three drops beneath : the second son may be distinguished by a crescent ; the third, by a nmllet, or five pointed star ; the fourth, by a martlet, a certain small bird; the fifth, by an annulet, or ring; the sixth, by a Jleur de lis ; and so on. Sometimes, however, this distinction is made by repeating the characteristic charge, or varying its position.
The ornaments, of an escutcheon, are the external objects con- nected with it ; as crests, helmets, scrolls, and the like. The crest, was originally the plume attached to the helmet ; and in coats of arms it was a badge of the highest honor : but the term is now applied to any object placed above the shield, for ornament. Of the helmet, there were four kinds ; for the king ; (Fig. 1 ) ; for the nobili- ty; (Fig. 2); for a knight; (Fig. 3); and for an esquire. (Fig. 4). Croivns, are appropriated to sovereigns ; (Fig. 17) ; and coronets, to the nobility, with distinctions to mark the grade. The coronets of dukes, marquises, and earls, (Figs. 18, 19, 20), are set with both strawberry leaves and pearls ; but those of viscounts and barons, are set with pearls alone. Mitres are peculiar to the coats of arms of the higher clergy ; (Fig. 21); but the tiara, or triple crown, (Fig. 22), is worn only by the pope of Rome. The mantling, is the drapery thrown around the escutcheon : the wreath, resembling leaves, is an appendage to the helmet ; the scroll, is usually attached below the escutcheon, containing some motto selected by the individual owner; and the supporters, are figures, usually of animals, standing on the scroll, and on each side of the escutcheon.
The marshalling of arms, or uniting of two or more coats in one, is most frequently performed by impaling ; that is, bisecting the shield by a vertical line, and appropriating one-half to each coaL This method is usually adopted for the escutcheons of a husband and wife. Another mode, is by quartering j that is, dividing the shield, by cross lines, into quarters, in which the separate arms are placed. These may be farther subdivided ; so that one coat of arms may unite many others, from which it is derived. Funeral escutcheons or achievements, also called hatchments, are of a lozenge shape, and
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PLATE VI. nSRALDRT.
AWNA/WN
EBfcnved br R. S. Gilbert, Fhila.
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PRSLIMIHiJtT RJBMABKS. 847
are affixed to the fronts of honses, on the death of their proprietor, to denote his rank and condition. On the death of a husband, for example, that side of the lozenge which is appropriated to his dis- tinctive arms, is painted black, while the wife's side remains white. The above, we trust, will suffice to give a general idea of the princi- ples of Heraldry.
The term Autograpkici, may be applied to the study of the hand- writing of individuals, with a view to its recognition. The signa- ture of any person is commonly called his autograph; but this name is also applied to manuscripts of w:hatever length, when they are in the handwriting of their author. Extensive collections of autographs have been made; which, in identifying manuscripts, or signatures, are of historical, as well as biographical importance. Of similar use is the study of Sphragiatics^ or the examination of seals, with their devices and inscriptions. This study has been termed a branch of Diplomatics ; as serving to authenticate treaties, and other documents : but we think it also especially subsidiary to Biography. Seals i are of various shapes, though usually in that of a shield, whether cardiform or oval ; and they were formerly impressed on gold, silver, lead, or common wax, until the introduction of Mealing waxt in the sixteenth century. Originally, none but persons of rank, or churches, or corporations, and states, had a right to use seals ; and the color of the wax indicated their relative dignity. The eariiest regular work on Sphragistics, was that of Heineccius^ on seals, published in 1709.
In comparing distinguished individuals with each other, it seems most natural and proper to institute the comparison between those of similar characters, or pursuits. Thus, we may naturally compare Caesar and Bonaparte ; or Des Cartes and La Place : but a compari- son between Alexander and Aristotle, or between Newton and Shakspeare, would be fiitile, if not absurd. In such cases, it is enough to know that each was preeminent, in his own sphere. This principle will be our guide, in the subordinate arrangement of this department ; in which the only philosophical method that occurs to us, is to group together individuals of the same country, and of simi- lar pursuits ; as statesmen, warriors, divines, and other classes of men. The subject of Biography is of course inexhaustible ; so that even the largest works are found to commemorate but an extremely small portion of our race ; and this in reference only to their most promi- nent actions and traits of character. We have thought that the small space here allotted, would be best devoted to a systematic arrange- ment of the most prominent names ; preparatory to the perusal of extensive and miscellaneous Biographical works.
We proceed therefore to treat of the present department, in geo- graphical, and ethnographical order, under the four branches of Euclassic, Oriental, European, and American Biography.
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CHAPTER L
BUCLAflSIC BIOORAPHT.
In the branch of Euclassic Biography, we include the liyes of all the distinguished persons of antiquity, who were known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. It extends therefore to the Jews, Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians, who flourished before or during the Roman conquest and dominion ; as well as to the Greeks and Romans them- selves. Of the name Euclataic^ we have already spoken, in the preceding department, (p. 201). Euclassic Biography is necessarily very imperfectly known to us ; owing to the remoteness of the period, and the scantiness of the records, which have been preserved, in any form, to the present day Enough however remains to prove that human nature was essentially the same, in ancient times, as in our own ; though influenced then by a less perfect system of society, laws, and religion. The want of greater personal security, and the comparative instability of states and governments in those times, tended perhaps to produce more self-dependence, and more originality of character, than is common at the present day ; though to this remark we have frequent exceptions, especially in cases of great emergencies. The spirit of the ancient heroes is now unemployed, or otherwise occupied ; but by no means extinct
$ 1. OtJewi$h Biography^ our principal records are the Bible, and the writings of Joseph us. The following is the series of jSnte^ dUuvian Patriarch$, with the dates of their birth and death, according to the common chronology. Mam^ 4004 — 3074 B. C. ; Seth^ (or Sheth), 3874—2962 ; Enoa, (or Enoch), 3760—2864 ; Cainan, (or Kenan). 3679—2769; Mahaialeel, (or Malaleel), 3609—2714; Jared, (or Jered), 3544 — ^2582 ; Enoch, (or Henoch), bom 3382, translated to heaven 3017; Methutelah, (or Mathusela), 3317 — 2348; Lamech, 3130—2353; and Noah, (or Noe), 2948—1998 B. C. Of Noah*s three sons we have already spoken; (p. 201); and we have farther room to continue the genealogy only down to Jacob, as follows : Shem, (or Sem), 2446—1846 B. C.; Arphaxad, 2346—1908 ;* Salah, (or Shelah), 2311—1878 ; Eber, (or Heber), 2281—1817; Pdeg, (or Phalec), 2247—2008 ; Jffew, (or Ragau), 2217—1978 ; Serug, (or Saruch), 2185—1956; Nahor, (or Nachor), 2155—2007; Terah, (or Tharah), 2126—1922 ; Abraham, 1996— 1821 ; Isaac, 1896—1716; and Jacob, 1836—1689 B. C.
The twelve sons of Jacob, heads of the twelve tribes of Israel, we have already named ; (p. 140) : and will only add that Joseph died 1635 B. C, aged 110 years. From Levi, through Kohath and Amram, was descended Moses, the leader of the Israelites, and their divinely appointed lawgiver and historian. Moses died 1452 B. C, or, according to Hales, 1609 B. C. ; and his brother Aaron, the first Jewish high-priest, died in the same year. Joshua, the successor of
* The Septuagint mentions Ccdnan as next after Arphaxad ; but in the Hebrew text hia name ia omitted.
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Moses, died 1426 B. C. ; and was succeeded by the Judges, OthnieU lihud^ and Shamgar, to 1312 B. C. ; Deborah, the prophetess, and Barak, who defeated the Canaanites, about 1290 B. C.; Gideon, (surnamed Jerubbaal), who defeated the Midianites, 1245 B. C, and whose son, Abimelech, made himself a king; Tola and Jair; Jeph* thah, who defeated the Ammonites, 1188 B. C; Jbzan, Elon, and Abdon; Samson, who died amid the Philistines, 1117 B. C. ; Eli; and lastly, Samuel, the prophet, by whom Saul was anointed king, 1095 B. C. Saul was slain 1055 ; David died 1015; and Solomon died 975 B. C. (See p. 202).
After the division of the kingdom, the kings of Israel, with the dates of their accession, were Jeroboam I., 975 B. C. ; Nadab, 954 ; Baasha, (or Baasa), 953; Elah, (or Ela), 930 ; Zimri, 929 ; Akab, 918; w^AajziaA, 897 ; /oraw, (or Jehoram), 896 ; /cAw, 884; Jeho- ahaz, 856; Joash, 839; Jeroboam 11., 825; Zechariah, 771; Menahem, 770 ; Pekahiah, (or Pekaiah), 760 ; Pekah, 758 ; and Hosea, (or Hoshea), 729 B. C. ; with whom the kingdom of Israel became extinct. The contemporary kings o( Judah and the dates of their accession, were, Rehoboam, 975 B. C. ; Abijah, (or Abia), 958 : Asa^ the pious, 955 ; Jehosaphat, the wise, 914 ; Jehoram, (or Joram), 889 ; Ahaziah, 885 ; Aihaliah, the usurper, 884 ; Joash, (or Jehoash), 878 ; Amaziah, 838 ; Uzziah, (or Azariah), the vir- tuous, 809; Jotham, 757; Ahaz, the idolater, 741 ; Hezekidh, the pious, 726; Manasseh, the cruel, 697; Amon, 642; Josiah, the good, 640 ; Jelioahaz, (or Shallum), and Jehoiakim, both 608 ; and Zedekiah, 597 B. C, the last of whom was carried a captive to Babylon.
Of the Jewish prophets; besides Samuel, and Nathan, 1055 B. C. ; and Elijah and Elisha, 896 B. C. ; the four greater, so called, were Isaiah, the evangelical, who flourished 750 ; Jeremiah, the warning and weeping, about 629 ; Ezekiel, the speculative and mysterious, 595 ; and Daniel, the historical, who flourished 569 B. C. The twelve lesser prophets, with the dates at which they flourished, were Jonah, 830 B. C. ; Amos, 820 ; Hosea, 750 ; ilftcoA, 740; Nahum, probably 735; Joel, probably 680; Zepha- niah, 630; Habakkuk, 610; Obadiah, probably 600; Haggai, 520 ; Zechariah, 520 ; and Malachi, about 420 B. C. The leaders in rebuilding the Temple, were Zerubbabel, the governor, and Joshua, the priest, 535 B. C. Ezra, the priest, 467 B. C, restored the temple worship ; and Nehemiah, 455 B. C, rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem. The succession of high-priests, thenceforward till the destruction of Jerusalem, we have no room to present.
Sadoc, founder of the sect of Sadducees, flourished about 250 B. C. ; and Hillel, founder of the sect of Pharisees, about 200 B. C. The Targum writers, JoncUhan and Onkelos, we have already mentioned, (p. 144). Philo of Alexandria, called the Platonist, or follower of Plato, flourished A. D. 40; ^ud Josephus, the Jewish historian, died at Rome, about A. D. 80. The biography of distin- guished modern Jews, as Spinoza, Menasseh, Mendelssohn, and others, belongs, we think, to the countries in which they resided.
§ 2. Of early Egyptian Biography, very little is known ; for 32
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reasons already explained in the preceding department The &ba- lous personage, Thaut, to whom so many inventions have been attributed^ (p. 26), is said to have gone from Babylon to Egypt, in the earliest times of the latter, and to have been contemporary with Osiris and /m. The earliest Egyptian legislator, appears to have been Ments; the founder of Memphis. Tntphaetus^ BoeehoriSf and Asyehis^ also named as law-givers, probably flourished about 800 B. C. The Egyptian kings of the Ptolemaean dynasty, with the dates of their accession, were Ptolemy I., (Lagus or Soter), 323 B.C.; P/o/emyII.,(Philadelphus),284; P/o/emy IIL, (Euergetes), 246 ; Ptolemy IV., (Philopater), 221 ; Ptolemy V., (Epiphanes), 204; Ptolemy VL, (Philometor), 180; Ptolemv VII., (Physcon or Euergetes 11.), 145 ; Ptolemy VIII., (Lathyrus), and his mother Cleopatra I., 116, including the reign of his brother, Ptolemy Alex- ander ; Ptolemy Alexander II., 8 1 , with Cleopatra II., and Berenice ; Ptolemy Alexander III., 80 ; Ptolemy IHonysius, (Auletes), 65 ; and Ptolemy Dionysius II., 51, with Cleopatra III., who destroyed herself, 31 B. C. The Greek philosophers at Alexandria, during this and a later period, will be mentioned under Grecian Biography. ManethOf the Egyptian historian, flourished about 280 B. C.
Of Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Biography, very little information has been preserved, (p. 204). The kings of the last Babylonian empire, with the dates of their accession, were, Nabwao- lassar, who revolted from the Assyrian government, 626 B. C. ; Nebuchadnezzar, the Great, (Nabuchodonosor II.), 606 ; JEvil Me- rodach, 562 ; Neriglissar, (or Belshazzar), 558 ; and Nahonadius, (or Labynitus), the Belshazzar of the Scriptures ; who came to the throne 553, but was slain 538 B. C. The kings of Persia, after Xerxes, (p. 205), were Artaxerxes, (Longimanus), 464 B. C ; Xerxes II., 425 ; Darius Nothus, (or Ochus), 423; Artaxerxes 11., (Mnemon), 404 ; Artaxerxes III., (or Ochus), 358 ; Arses, or Aro- gus, 357; and Darius Codamanus, 335 B. C; who fell in the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great We have farther room to mention only Berosus, the Babylonian historian, who flourished about 250 B. C. ; and Zoroaster, (or Zerdusht), the Persian philoso- pher, who lived about 500 B. C.
Among ttie Syrian kings, (p. 205), with the dates of their accession, were Seleucus Nicator, 312 B. C. ; Antiochus I., (Soter), 280 B. C. ; Anliochus II., (Theos), 261 ; Seleucus II., (Callinicus), 246; Se- leucus III., (Ceraunus), 226 ; Antiochus III. the Great, 223 ; Seleu- cus IV., (Philopater), 187 ; Antiochus IV., 175 ; Antiochus V., 164 ; Demetrius I., (Soter), 162 ; Alexander Balas, 150; Demetrius II., (Nicator), 146; Antiochus VI., 144; Diodotus, 143; Antiochus VII., 139; Demetrius II., restored, 130; Alexander Zebina, 127; Antiochus VIIL, 123 ; Philip and Demetrius, 93 ; Tigranes of Ar- menia, 83 ; and Antiochus Asiaticus, 69 B. C, who was dethroned by Pompey the Great Sanchoniathon, the Phoenician historian, probably flourished about 1200 B. C. ; and Cadmus, the PhGenician, who carried letters into Greece, flourished 1490 B. C.
§ 3. MTe come next to the interesting subject of Grecian Biogra- phy; in which we shall first speak of statesmen, warriors, and orators ;
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next of historians and poets ; and lasdy of philosophers and men of science. The heroes of the Trojan war, Achilles, Ulysses, Agamemnon, and others, are chiefly celebrated by Homer, and belong to the age of tradition. Of Grecian lawgivers, Lycurgus, 884, and Solon, 594 B. C, have been already mentioned. The as- piring Pisislratus, died about 527 B. C. ; and his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, were expelled from the government of Athens. The principal generals of Greece in the Persian wars, were Miltiades, who died about 489 B. C. ; Ltonidas, of Sparta, who fell 480 B. C. ; m^ristides, called the Just, who died about 467 ; TkemistocUs, who died 449 ; Pausanias, who died 471 ; and Cimon, the son of 3filtiades, who died 449 B. C. Pericles, the Athenian leader, died of the plague, 429 B. C. ; Alcibiades, of Athens, was slain 404 ; Conon, of Athens, died 393 ; and Lysander, of Sparta, the victor in 1 he Peloponnesian war, fell in the Theban war, 394 B. C. Pelopidas, of Thebes, fell in battle, 364 ; and Epaminondas, who defended Thebes against Sparta, also fell gloriously, 363 B. C. Agesilaus, of Sparta, died 306 B.C. ; and Phocion, the virtuous statesman of Athens, was put to death, 318 B. G. We have further room to men- tion only Philopoemen, general of the Achaean league, who was put to death, 183 B. C., and has been styled the last of the Greeks. Of the Grecian orators, Lysias died 379 ; and Isocrates, 338 B. C. : Demosthenes, the Athenian statesman and orator, died 322; and JEschines, his rival, 323 B. C.
Of the Greek historians, Herodotus, of Halicamassus, flourished 445 ; Thucydides, died at Athens, 391 ; Xenophon, celebrated also as a general, died 359 ; Polybius, also a statesman and general, died about 124 ; Diodorus Siculus, (or the Sicilian), flourished 44 ; and Dio- nysius of Halicamassus, flonrished 30 years B. C. Of Plutarch, the biographer, we have already spoken, (p. 243). Charon of Lamp- sacus, who flourished 460, and Ctesias of Cnidos, 400 B. C, are
among the historians of minor note Of the Greek poets. Homer
flourished about 907 B. C. ; and Hesiod, probably at the same time. Sappho, of Lesbos, flourished 600 ; and Anacreon, of Teos, about 530 B. C. Mschylus, of Athens, died 456; Pindar, of Thebes, 435 ; Euripides, of Salamis, 407 ; and Sophocles, of Athens, died 406 B. C. Bion, of Smyrna, died about 300 ; Theocritus, of Syra- cuse, in Sicily, flourished 285 ; and Moschus, of Syracuse, probably flourished 160 B. C. ^sop, the fabulist, bom in Phrygia, died 501 B.C. Archilochus, Tyrlaeus, Theognis, Empedocles, Aristophanes, Menander, and others, we have only room to name.
The Seven Wise Men of Greece, were Solon, of Athens, (p. 207) ; T*hales, of Miletus, (p. 20) ; Periander, of Corinth, who died 585 B. C. ; Chilo, of Sparta, who died 597 B. C. ; Pittacus, of Mytilene, who died 570 B. C. ; Cleobulus, of Lindos, who died 564 B. C. ; and Bias, of Priene, who flourished at the same date. Of other Greek philosophers, besides those already mentioned as founders of sects, (p. 20, 21), we would name Anaximander, the pupil and friend of Thales, who died 547 B.C. ; Zeno, the elder, of Elia, a disciple of Xenophanes, who flourished 464; and Leucippus, of Elea, who flourished 440 B.C. ; Anaxagoras, of Clazomene, who was the pre-
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ceptor of Pericles, and died 428 B. C. ; HeraelituSf the weeping philo- sopher, who flourished 500 ; and Demoeriiu$t the mirthful, who died 361 B. C. ; Xenocrates, the virtuous, who died 314 ; and Theophraa- tuSf the eloquent, who died 286 B.C. LonginuSf the critic and states- man, undei Queen Zenobia, of Palmyra, died A.D. 273.
Of the Greek $ciente$^ or scientific men, besides those termed philosophers. Met on of Athens, the astronomer, flourished 432 ; Eudoxu8t the astronomer and geometer, died 352 ; Euclid of Al- exandria, the geometer, flourished 300 ; and Archimedes of Syra- cuse, the geometer and mechanician, was killed 212 B. C. ErtUos- thene$t the geographer and librarian, of Alexandria, died 194 ; Hip^ parchus of Nicxa, the astronomer, died 125 B. C; Strabo of Ama- sia, the geographer, died A. D. 25 ; and Ptolemy of Alexandria, the astronomer, flourished about A. D. 100. Cteaibius of Alexandria, the mechanician, flourished 135 ; and Hero, of the same place and pur- suit, flourished 120 B. C. Hippocratea o( Cos, the great physician, died 361 ; and Galen of Pergamus, alike renowned in n^edicine, died 201 B. C. Of Grecian artists, Phidiaa, the sculptor, died 432 B. C; Parrhaaiua, the painter, and Ztuxia, his rival, flourished about 400 ; Apellea, the painter, flourished about 330 ; and Praxi- telea, the sculptor, about 324 B. C.
$ 4. The subject of Roman Biography, is alike extensive and interesting. Of the seven kinga of Rome, Romulus, its founder, is said to have died 715 B. C. ; Nvma Pompiliua, the pious, died 672; 7\dlua Hoatilius, the warlike, was killed 640 ; Ancus Martius, the prudent, died 616; Tarquiniua Priscua, (the elder Tarquin), was assassinated, 578 ; and Serviua Tullua, the freedman, met the same fate, 534 B. C. ; but Tarquiniua Superbua, or the proud, died about 14 years after his expulsion, (p. 208). Of the conaula, who succeeded in the Roman government, there were no fewer than four or &ye hundred, besides occasional dictatora, on great emergencies. Juniua Brutua, one of the first two consuls, fell in battle, in the year of his election, 509 B. C. : Collatinua, his colleague, being of the Tarquin family, retired from Rome ; and Publiua Vale- riua, styled Poplicola, was chosen in his stead; while Spuriua Lucretiua, succeeded Brutus; all in the same year. Florua Lartiua, the first dictator, 498 B. C, was previously a consul. Meneniua Agrippa, appeased the people at Mount Sacer, in the same year. Marciua Coriolanua, who was exiled, and went over to the Volsci, but afterwards saved Rome, died 488 B. C. M, R. Fabiua, five times consul, twice dictator, and seven times triumphant, proba- bly fell in battle with the other Fabii, 477 B. C. L. Q. Cincinnatua, thrice dictator, returned each time victorious to his plough, and died 430 B. C. L. F. Camillua, who, as dictator, saved Rome from the Gauls, died 365 6. C. C. L. Fabriciua, the magnanimous con- queror of Pyrrhus, died about 270 B. C.
M, A, Regulua, the invader, and afterwards the captive of Car- thage, was there put to death 251 B. C. Q, M. Fabiua, called Cunctator, or the delayer, because, when dictator, he avoided a battle with Hannibal, was twice triumphant, and died 202 B. C. M. C, Marcellua, victorious at Syracuse, was killed 208 B. C. P. C.
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Scipioj the first surnamed Africanus, victorious at Zama, died about 184 B. C. ; L, C. Scipiot surnamed Asiaticus, was his brother; and P. JEmiliua Scipio, styled Africanus the younger, died 128 B. C. M. P. CatOj the censor, died 147 B. C; and L. Mummius, sur- named Achaicus, who completed the conquest of Greece, flourished at the same date. Caiu8 Gracchus, the seditious agrarian, was killed 121 B. C. ; thirteen years after his brother Tiberius. Q. C. MeteUuSj surnamed Numidicus, who warred against Jugurtha, flourished 109 B. G. C. Marius, the victor and tyrant, died 86 B. G. ; Cinna, his adherent, was previously slain ; and L, C. Sylia, his rival, alike cruel, died 78 B. G. Cneus Pompeius, or Pompey the Great, the friend of Sylla, and rival of Gsesar, was slain in Egypt, 48 B. G. M. T. Cicero, the orator, and friend of Pompey, was killed 43 B. G. ; and M. Cato, surnamed Uticensis, sacrificed himself at Utica, 46 B. G. Julius Caesar, was slain at Rome, 44 B. G. ; M. J. Brutus, and C, Cassius, who took part in slaying him, fell atPhilippi, 42 B. G. ; and M, Antonius, or Mark Anthony, their vanquisher, sacrificed himself for Gleopatra, 31 B. G. ; when Rome ceased to be a republic, even in name.
Julius Gsesar, and Augustus, were included among the Twelve Csssars, so called ; of whom the other ten, with the dates of their accession, were Tiberius, A. D. 14 ; Caligula, the vile, A. D. 37 ; Claudius, the first of that name, 41 ; Nero, the cruel, 54 ; Galba, the weak, 68; Otho ^ndVttellius, each a few months in 69; Ves- pasian, Uie popular, 69 ; THtus, the virtuous, 79 ; and Domitian, the cruel, A. D. 81. Next succeeded the five good emperors, Nerva, the aged and prudent, 96 ; Trajan, the popular, 98 ; Adrian, the enterprizing, 117 ; Antoninus Pius, the peaceful, 138 ; and M, Au- relius Antoninus, the virtuous, and philosophical, A. D. 161. Of the remaining emperors, some of the most remarkable, were Com' modus, A. D. 180; Septimius Severus, 193; Caracalla, and Geta, 211; Heliogabalus, or Elagabalus, the vicious, 218; Alexander Severus, 222; the Gordians, 236-8; Decius, 249; Gallienus, 260 ; Claudius, the second of that name, 268 ; Aurelian, the brave, 270 ; Tacitus, 275 ; M. Aurelius Carus, 282 ; Diocletian, 284 ; Constantine I. the Great, 306 ; Julian, 361 ; Jovian, 363 ; Valen- Hnian I., and Valens, 364 ; Honorius, 395 ; Valentinian III., 424; and Romulus Augustus, 475; with whom terminated the western empire, (p. 209.)
Of Roman orators, we would mention Hortensius, with his great con- temporary and rival, Cicero, above named ; and Quintilian, who died A.D. 95, Of Roman historians, besides Julius Csesar, the three prin- cipal wer& Crispus Sallustius, or Sallust, who died 35 B.G. ; Titus Livius, orLivy, who died A.D. 17; and C Cornelius Tacitus, who flourished A.D. 97. Of the minor historians, Valerius Maximus, flourished A.D. 20 ; Velleius Paterculus, soon af\er ; Quintus Curtius, flourished A.D. 60; Floras, 110; Justin, 130; and Eutropius, flourished about 360, during the decline of the empire. Of the biographers, Varro, Nepos, and Suetonius, we have already spoken, (p. 242).
Of the Roman poets, the most distinguished were P. llrgilius Maro, or Virgil, who died 19 B. G. ; and Q. Horatius Flaccus^ oi
Y
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254 BIOORAPHT.
Horace, who died 8 B.C. ; both of them patronized by Augustus and Maecenas. PlautuSy the comic poet, died about 184 : Ttrenct^ his rival, flourished 167 ; and LuciliiiSt the satirist, died 103 B.C. Ca- tullus, Propertius, and TibuUus, preceded Ovid, the third best poet of Rome, who died A.D. 17. Phxdrus, the fabulist, flourished about A.D. 20. Lucan, was put to death by Nero, A.D. 65 ; and Petronitu met the same fate in the following year. 3fartialf died about A.D. 104 ; and Juvenal died A.D. 128. Among the minor poets, were Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Attius, Gallus, Persius, and Seneca ; and others, whom we have no room even to name.
Of Roman philosophei-s, besides Cicero^ we can only mention Zti- cretiua, who died about 54 B.C. ; and Seneca^ who was put to death by Nero, A.D. 65. In sciences and arts, Rome produced Pomponius Mda, the geographer, who flourished A.D. 60; Plintu the elder, the naturalist, who perished while observing Vesuvius, A.I). 79 ; CeUuSj the physician, who flourished A.D. 20 ; Sammonicus^ the physician, who flourished A.D. 200 ; Columelia, who wrote on agriculture, in the first century ; VitruviuSf the architect, who flourished at the Christian era ; Pollio^ who wrote on architecture and mechanics, at the same era : and Frontinus^ who wrote on the military art, and died A.D. 106.
Our notice of Byzantine Biography must be confined to the men- tion of the following emperors, with their dates of accession : At car diusj the first of the eastern emperors, distinctively so called, A.D. 395; Theodosius II., 408; Leo I., the Thracian, 457; Leo II., (Zeno), 474 ; Anastatius, styled the Silentary, 491 ; Justin I., the Thracian, 518; Justinian I., 527; Justin II., 565; Phocas, 602; Heraclius, 610 ; ConsUns II., 642 ; Justinian II., 685, and 704 ; Z«(\III., Isauricus, 717 ; Constantine V., 742 ; Irene, 797 ; Michael III., 842 ; Basilius, 867 ; Leo VI., the philosopher, 886 ; Constan- tine VII., Porphyrogenitus, 912, associated with Romanus I., 919 ; Nicephorus II., (Phocas), 963 : and Basilius II., with Constantine VIII., A.D. 975. (p. 209). The renowned general Beliaarius, died in 565 ; and Tribonian, the lawyer, died in 545. Zosimus, and Pro- copius, were among the Byzantine historians who wrote in the Greek language ; all of whom were of minor note.
CHAPTER n.
ORIENTAL BIOORAPHT.
The subject of Oriental Biography is very imperfectly known to us ; owing to the remoteness of its scenes, the deficiency of its records, and our imperfect knowledge even of those which do exist. It doubt- less presents topics of romantic interest, and well worthy of contem- plation, which have not yet been exhibited to the western world. The wild and fiery zeal of the Mohamedan conquerors ; the self-im- molation of their opponents ; and the sudden reverses of fortune, so frequent in the eastern world, and so fatal to social improvement, are among the characteristics of this branch, which we have no room
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more fully to describe. We shall here follow the same general order as in Oriental Chronography : for the reasons therein explained. This arrangement will bring the Biography of all the Mohamedan nations into one connected series ; which will be followed by that of the re« maining nations, in the east of Asia.
$ 1. Commencing with Arabian Biography^ the names of the first ten Caliphs J or yicarious successors of Mohamed, and the dates of their accession, are as follows : Mu-Bekir^ (or Aboo Beker, whose original name was Abdallah Ebn Abu Koafas), A. D. 632 ; Omar, the victo- rious, 634 ; Othman, (or Osman), 644 ; AH, regarded by the Persians as the first caliph, 656, assassinated 660 ; Moawiyah, (or M oawiah), first of the Ommiades, 660 ; Fezid, (or Jezid), 679 ; Moawiyah II., 683; Abdallah, 684; Merwan I., same year; and Abdulmelek, 685. Among the remaining caliphs were Walid I., the victorious, A. D. 705 ; Suleiman, 714 ; Hashtm, 723 ; Ibrahim, 744 ; Abul Abbas, called Saffah, or the bloody, first of the house of Abbas, A. D. 750 ; Al Mansor, (Mansur, or Abu Giafar), 754, first of the caliphs of Bagdad ; Haroun al Rasehid, (or Haroon al Rasheed), 786; Al Mamun, 813; and Motaaim, 833; the four last men- tioned being known as patrons of learning. Al Motazem, (or Mostasem), the last caliph of Bagdad, was put to death, A.D. 1258. Khaltd, (or Galed), the general of Aboo Beker, died in 630 ; Ainroo, (or Amru), the general of Omar, died in 663 ; and Thaher, the general of Al Mamun, flourished in 813.
Of Arabian geographers, we would mention Scherif Edrisi, who flourished A. D. 1160; and Ismael Abulfeda, prince of Hamah, in Syria, who died in 1333. To this class of writers belong also Al Balkhi, Al Beirouni, and Ibn Essakar. Of historians, besides Abul- feda just mentioned, Hesham Schoaib Alkhekebi flourished in 818 ; and Abulfaragius, (or Abulpharagius), bishop of Guba in Syria, died in 1286. Other historians were Makrizi, Assoiuti, Aljazri, Elmacin, Tabari, and Arabshah. Elmanieua, of Egypt, wrote a Saracen History, in the 13th century. Of Arabian poets, besides those of the Moallakat, to be mentioned under Callography, Montanabbi, (or Motenabbi), was killed by robbers, in 965; Abu Ismael To-
fraiy (or Thograi), vizier of Bagdad, flourished in 1100; Abu 'emam, in 830 ; and Bochteri, in 880. Other poets were Abu Beer, Al Nasaphi, Shafari, Abu Mansur, Al Gazi, and Ibn Zadun. Admai, (or Asmai), the great romancer, flourished at the court of Haroon al Rasheed, in 800; and Ithiel Hariri, and Abu Dschafar Ibn To- phail, also excelled in romance.
Of scientific Arabians, we would name as astronomers, besides the caliph Al Mamun, Albategnius, (or Albatani^, of Mesopotamia, who died 888 ; Alhazen, of Spain, who flourishea about 1100 ; and Aben Bagel, who lived in the thirteenth century. Al Farabi, (or Alfara- bius), the natural philosopher, flourished in 954. Almubasaar, was a follower of Aristotle. Among the Arabian physicians, were Sera- pion, who flourished about 800 ; Rhazes, about 880 •; and Geber^ and Halyabbas at about the same time. Avicenna died in 1036; Albucasis, in 1 106 ; Avenzoar, of Spain, died at Morocco, in 1 1 69 ; and Averroes, of Cordova, who was famed for general learning,
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died at Morocco, about 1220. Most of these physicians were also alchemists.
$ 2. We shall commence Turkish Biography, by giving the names of the Sultans, and the dates of their accession, since the conquest of Constantinople. They are Bajazet, (or Bayazeed) II., 1481 ; Selim I., 1512; Soliman 11., (or Suleiman], the magnificent, 1520; Selim 11., 1566; Amurath 111., 1574; Mohamed 111., (or Mahomed), 1595 ; Ahmed I., (or Achmet), 1604 ; Mustapha, (or Mustafa), 1617 ; Amurath IV., 1623 ; Ibrahim, 1640 ; Mohamed IV., 1655; Soliman II., 1687; Ahmed II., 1690; Mustapha II., 1695; Ahmed III., 1703 ; Mahmood I., (orMahmoud), 1730 ; Mustapha III., 1757 ; Abdul Ahmed, 1774 ; Selim III., 1789 ; Mustapha IV., 1807 ; Mahmood II., 1808 ; and Abdul Medjid, 1839. Of Turkish histo- rtan«, Saad-ed-din, who was also mufti of Constantinople, died in 1599. His work was followed by those of Naima, Raschid, and Hadschi Chalfa, surnamed Tchelebisade, who was also an encyclo- pedist, and died in 1657. Of Turkish poets, we would mention Bakij the lyric poet, who died in 1600; Molla Khosrew, the ro- mancer ; and Abdul Laiiji^ who made a collection of minor poems, or a Turkish Anthology. Abdorrhaman Eflendi, was a Turkish mathematician, who flourished in 1793.
In modern Persian Biography, we have room to give the sove- reigns of the Suffavean dynasty only, with their dates of accession, as follows. Shah Ismail, 1504 ; Tamasp, (or Thamas), 1523 ; Ismsul II., 1576; Mohammed Meerza, 1577; Hamzeh, 1586; Mhas, the Great, 1587; Sam Meerza, (or Shah Suffee), 1629; Abbas II., 1642 ; Suffee Meerza, (or Shah Suleiman, or Soliman), 1666; Hoossein, 1694; Meer Mahmood, the Affghan, 1722; Ash- raff, the AfFghan, 1725 ; Tamasp II., (or Thamas), son of Hoossein, 1729 ; Abbas III., 1732 ; Nadir Shah, (Thamas Kouli Khan), 1736; Adil Shah, 1747; Ibrahim, 1748 ; Kerreem Khan, (or Kerim, 1753; Ali Murat, 1784 ; Aga Mohammed, 1789 ; Feth Ali, (or Futteh Ali Khan), 1796; and Mohammed, 1834. Of Persian historians, we would mention Abu Said, (or Abulkasin Beidavi), who flourished in 1276; Kazwini, who died in 1351; T\tran Shah, who died in 1377 ; Chowand Shah, who flourished in 1741 ; and Ferishta, at about the same date. Among the Persian poets, Ferdusi, flourished in 1020; Sadi, (or Saadi), of Shiraz, aied in 1292; Hafiz, (or Hafez), died in 1389 ; Jamy, (or Djamy Abdalrahman), died in 1494; Hatifi, died in 1520; and Nizami, (Nisami or Nisam), flourished in 1690. Ansari, (Ansseri or Anasari), flourished A. D. 1000; Anvari, (Anweri, or Enweri), died in 1200; Khakani, (or Chakani), was his contemporary; and Roumi of Balk, surnamed Balkhi, died in 1262. Rudigi is a modem poet; and Blab Phelair, a recent poet of note, died in 1825. Other poets will be mentioned under Persian Callography. Of Persian astronomers, we would mention Omar Chehan, who flourished in 1072 ; and Nassir Eddin, (or Nasereddin), of Thus, in 1259.
$ 3. The Biography of the East Indies, is less known to us, than that of any other part of the civilized world. We shall com- mence that of Hindoostan, by naming some of the great Moguls,
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chiefly those who were the most distinguished. Baher^ (Babur or Baba), the first of this series, died in 1530. Shere, the Afghan, died in 1545; and Houmaioun^ the son of Baber, after regaining his throne, died in 1555. His son, Akbar^ (or Acber^, the fortunate, died in 1605; znA Jehan Ghire, (Jehanghire, or Selim), died in 1628. Shah Jeharij died about 1660 ; and his son, the ambitious and re- nowned Aureng Zebe^ died in 1707. After the short reigns of B&hauder, Jehaunder, and Mahomed Shah, and the Persian con- quest by Nadir Shah, already mentioned, (p. 213), the great Moguls, from their diminished power, became of minor consequence. The principal native chiefs who were subdued by the British, have been mentioned in the preceding department. Of Hindoo hiatoriansj we would mention, besides the emperor, Jehan Ghire, (or Jehan Guir)» the vizier, Mul Fazl, who wrote, in the Persian language, and wa& put to death in 1604. Of the Hindoo poets, Valmiki and Vyasa flourished long before the Christian era ; and Calidas flourished 60 B. C. Other Hindoo poets, and the fabulous name of Filpay, wiU be referred to under Hindoo Callography.
Under Chinese Biography, we give the names of the emperors of the present (2'2d, or Tai Tsin) dynasty, with the dates of their accession, as follows: Shun-chi, or Shee-tsong, 1644; Kang-hee, (Kang-hi), or Shin-tsoo-gin, 1662; Yong-ching, (Yong-tching), or Shee-tsong-hien, 1723; ^ien-/ong, (or Kien-lung), 1736 ; Kia-kingy 1796; and Tao-ktoang, (Tara-kwang, or Daoguan), 1821. Of Chinese historians we would mention Con-fu-tse, (Kung-fu-dsu), or Confucius, who was also a poet and moralist, and flourished about 550 B. C. ; and Meng-tsen, or Mencius, his successor, and com- mentator, who died 314 B. C. Se-ma-tsien, was also a Chinese historian; and the recent emperor JKien-long, may be mentioned among the Chinese poets.
CHAPTER HI.
EUROPEAN BIOGRAPHT.
The branch of European Biography, is very extensive, and aboundsr in distinguished characters, in all the walks of life. Next to that of our own country, it presents to us lessons the most available for prac- tical benefit ; as the circumstances of the European nations are, of all others, the most similar to our own ; and therefore aflbrd precedents the most suitable for our guidance. All that we can here attempt, is an enumeration of some of the most renowned and meritorious characters, in such a manner as to give an idea of their relative posi- tion, in the scale of time, and the circle of nations ; by which the reader will be enabled to study them in a connected and natural order, on referring to extensive biographical works. It is gratifying to observe, that the names distinguished in the cause of learning and philanthropy, may at least rival the number of those renowned in arms 33 T 2
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or in power ; while not a few of the latter may also be reckoned among the former. By this retrospect, we are also encouraged to hope that the prejudices and jealousies which have in time past opposed barriers to international intercourse, are gradually disappear- ing; and that the various nations will henceforward become more and more united, in a reciprocity of kindness and beneficence. In pursuing this branch of Biography, we shall of course follow the geographical order, adopted in the preceding departments.
§ 1. The Biography of Modern ^ Greece, relates chiefly to the leaders in the late Revolution; among whom were MavroeoT" dtUo, the first president ; Colocotroni and Conduriottis, who were among his successors ; the brothers VpsUanti, of whom Alexander died in prison at Vienna, in 1828; Mavromichalis the Patriotic ; and Marco Bozzaria, the Brave, who fell in the arms of victory, in 1823.
The subject of Italian Biography^ naturally commences with an enumeration of some of the most distinguished Popes ^ and the date of their accession. Reckoning from the apostolic age, their whole number is about 258 ; but we have ro^m to give the names only of the following. Leo I., called the Saint, A. D. 440 ; Hilary, (or Hilarius), 461 ; Felix II., 483 ; Symmachus, 498 ; Hormisdas, 514; Pelagius I., 556; John III., 560; Gregory I., sumamed the Great, 590; Boniface III., 606; (see p. 218;} Honorius I., 626; Thea- dore I., 641, the first who was styled sovereign pontiff; Vitalianus, (or Vitellianus), 655 ; Domnua, 676 ; Benedict II., 684 ; Sergius I., 687; Constantius, (or Constantine), 708; Gregory II., 714; Gre- gory III., 731 ; Zachary, (or Zacharius^, 741 ; Stephen III., 752, the first who acquired territorial so\'ereignty ; Adrian I., 772 ; Leo III., 795; Paschal I., 817, who first created cardinals; Leo IV., 847 ; John VIII., 872 ; Benedict IV., the virtuous, 905 ; Anastatios III., 910 ; John X., 913 ; Martin III., 943 ; John XIII., 965 ; John XVI., 985; Benedict VIII., 1012; John XIX., 1024; Leo IX., 1049; Gregory YIU (Hildebrand), 1073; Urban II., 1088; Eu- gene III., 1145; Alexander III., 1159; Clement III., 1188; Inno- cent III., 1198; Gregory IX., 1227; Gregory X., 1271; Boniface VIII., 1294 ; Clement V., 1305, who removed to Avignon ; Gregory XL, 1370, who restored the papal chair to Rome ; John XXIL, 1410; Martin v., 1417; Pius IL, 1458; Alexander VI., the vile, 1492; Leo X., (Giovanni or John de Medici), 1513, who opposed the Reformation; Paul III., the licentious, 1534; Pius V., 1566; Gre- gory XIIL, 1572 ; Sixtus V., 1585; Clement VIIL, (Aldobrandini), 1592; Paul V., 1605; Urban VIIL, 1623; Innocent X., 1644; Clement X., 1670; Clement XL, 1700; Benedict XIV., (Larober- tini), 1740; Clement XIV., (Ganganelli), 1769; Pius VI., 1774; Pius VII., 1800; Leo XIL, 1822; Pius VIIL, 1829; and Gregory XVL, 1831.
Of Italian statesmen and warriors, Obizzo of Eate, first leader of the Guelfs, or papal party, flourished about 1130; as did also his rival, Eccelino Romano, (or Da Romano), the first chief of the Ghibelines. The Este family were of Modena; the Romano, of Verona and Padua. Eecdino Romano III., the cruel, was defeated
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by Azzo of Este, and killed himself about 1260. Nicolas 11. of Este, who died 1388, and Nicolas III., who died in 1441, were dis- tinguished patrons of learning. So were also Cosmo de Medici, chief of Florence, who died in 1464 ; and his grandson, Lorenzo, called the Magnificent, who died in 1492. Gian Galeazzo Vtsconti, a descendant of Lucchino, and duke of Milan, died of the plague in 1402. Maehiavelli, the politician, of Florence, died in 1530; and Andrew Doria, the defender and doge of Genoa, died in 1560. Of the Ricci, Albizzi, Strozzi, Scali, and Alberti of Florence ; the Torri and Visconti of Milan; and numerous other distinguished families, we have no room here to speak. Nicholas Bienzi, (Cola di Rienzi), the popular tribune of Rome, celebrated in romance, was slain in 1354.
Of Italian voyagers and travellers, we have only room to mention Marco Polo, (or Paulo), who flourished in 1272 ; the brothers Zeno, (or the Zeni), in 1390 ; the great Columbus, (Cristoval Columbo), who died in 1506; Vespucius, {kmerigo Vespucci), who died in 1512; and his rival contemporaries, John Cabot, and Verrazano. Of the Italian historians, besides Machiavelli, we would mention Guicciardini of Florence, who wrote a history of Italy, and died in 1540; Sarpi, called Father Paul, or Fra Paolo, of Venice, who died in 1623 ; Davila, who lived in France and Venice, and died in 1631 ; Beniivoglio, the cardinal, who died in 1644; MurcUori, who wrote several works, and died in 1750 ; and Botta, who died in 1837. Davila wrote on French history ; Bentivoglio on Flemish ; and Botta on American. Among other Italian historians, we may name Nerli, Nardi, Segni, Varchi, Denina, CoUetta, Serra, Varese, Sfor- zosi, and Giannone.
Of the Italian poets, Dante Alighieri, of Florence, died at Ra- yenna, in 1321 ; Francesco Petrarca, or Petrarch, born at Florence, died near Padua, in 1374 ; Ludovico Ariosto, died at Ferrara, in 1533 ; and Torquato Tasso, after an unhappy life, died at Rome, in 1595. Sannazaro died in 1533 ; Trissino of Vicenza, died at Rome in 1550 ; Vida died in 1566 ; Guarini, in 1612 ; and Maffei, in 1755. Metastasio, the dramatist, died at Vienna, in 1782; Goldoni, of Venice, died in 1792 ; Alfieri, of Piedmont, a dramatic and epic poet, died at Florence, in 1803; and Ugo Foscolo, died near Lon- don, in 1827. Boccacio, the novelist, of Florence, died at Certaldo, in 1375.
In the physical sciences, Italy has produced Galileo, (Galilei), who was patronized in Venice and Florence, persecuted in Rome, and died in 1642 ; Torricelli, his pupil, who died at Florence, in 1647 ; Boscovich, who died at Milan, in 1787 ; Galvani, of Bolog- na, who died in 1798 ; and Volta, the electrician, and Piazzi, the astronomer, both of whom died in 1826. Csesalpinus, of Arezzo, the physician and botanist, died in 1603 ; Aldrovandi, of Bologna, the naturalist, died in 1605; and Spallanzani, the naturalist, died in 1799. Among other Italian physicians, Mondini, (or Mundinius), of Bologna, flourished in 1315; Berengarius died in 1527; Fro- castorio, (or Fracastor), in 1553; F£tllopius, \n 1563; Vessalius, in 1564 ; Eustachius died at Rome, in 1574 ; Asellius, died in
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1626; BorellU in 1679; Bellini, in 1703; and Baglivi died in 1706. Among the earlier physicians, was Fabricius Aquapendente.
Of Italian artists, Palladio, the architect, died in 1580; Michael •Angela Buonarottiy the famed architect, painter, and sculptor, died in 1563; Cellini^ the sculptor and painter, died in 1570; Bernini, the architect, painter, and sculptor, died in 1680 ; and Canova, the sculptor, died at Venice, in 1822. Of the remaining Italian painters, Leenardo da T^lnci, styled the head of the Florentine school, died in 1519 ; and Raphael, (Sanzio da Urbino), head of the Roman school, died in 1520. To the Roman school also belonged Michael Angelo, already named ; Giulio Romano, and Penni, called II Fattore ; Salvator Rosa, who died in 1673 ; and Carlo Maratti, who died in 1713. The Florentine school includes the earlier painter, Citnabue, who died in 1300; as also Luini and Penigino, Fra Bartolomeo, (Baccio della Porta), who died in 1517 ; and Andrea del Sarto, who died in 1520. Carlo Dolce, who died at Florence in 1686, is usually classed with the Florentine school. To the Venetian school belong Giorgione, (Bar- barelli di Castel franco), who died in 1511 ; the famous THlian, (Ti- ziano Vercelli), who died of the plague in 1576, at the age of 99; Paul Veronese, (Cagliari of Verona), who died in 1588; the elder Bassano, who died in 1592 ; and Tintoretto, (Robusti), who died in 1594. Of the Lombard school, Correggio, (Antonio Allegri), its founder, died in 1534 ; Lodovico Carracci died in 1619, having sur- vived his cousins, Agostino and Annibale Carracci ; Domenichino, (Domenico Zampieri), their pupil, died in 1641 ; and Guido Rent, another pupil of the Carracci, died in 1642. Caravaggio, (whose (irst name was Michael Angelo), head of the natural school, died in 1609. Of Italian musicians, Piccini died in 1800; Cimarosa, in 1801 ; Paesielto, in 1816 ; and Paer, in 1839. Bellini died, we be- lieve, in 1838 ; and Zingarelli, in 1839.
$ 2. We shall commence the section on Spanish Biography, by giving the names of the sovereigns, since Spain became one united kingdom, with the dates of their accession. Ferdinand and Isabella, were married in 1479 ; Charles I., (the emperor Charles V.), acceded to the throne in 1516; Philip II., in 1556; Philip III., in 1598; Philip IV., in 1621 ; Charles II., in 1665 ; Philip V., in 1700 ; Fer- dinand VI., in 1746 ; Charles III., in 1756 ; Charles IV., in 1788 ; and Ferdinand VII. in 1808 ; but Joseph Bonaparte was sovereign from 1808 to 1814, when Ferdinand was restored; and he was suc- ceeded by his daughter Isabella II., in 1833. Of Spanish warriors and statesmen, Don Rodrigo, called the Cid, and the flower of Spa- nish chivalry, died in 1099. Hemandes Gonsalvo, called the great captain, so victorious against the Moors, died in 1515 ; and Francisco Ximenes, cardinal, and prime minister, the conqueror of Oran, in Africa, died in 1517. Alvarez, (duke of Alva), the cruel viceroy of the Netherlands, died in 1582. Gaspar de Guzman, (count of Oli- varez), prime minister of Philip IV., died in 1645 ; and Giulio Albe- roni, cardinal, and prime minister of Philip V., died in 1752. Don Manuel de Godoy, prince of peace, the unworthy favorite of Charles IV., is, we think, still living. The patriot Riego was put to death in 1823 ; but his coadjutor Mina, we believe, still survives.
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Of Spanish voyagers and explorers, Almagro was slain in 1538; Pizarro^ in 1541 ; Cortez died in 1554 ; Oreliana died about 1550; Ponce de Leon flourished in 1512 ; De Solis, in 1517 ; Valdiviaj in 1541 ; Saavedra, in 1526; Mendana, in 1567 ; and Quires in 1606. Of Spanish historians, Zurita flourished in 1579; and Mendoza in 1584; Mariana died in 1623; Herrera, (Tordesillas), died in 1625 ; and Antonio de SoliSt died in 1686. John Leo, the biogra- pher, died about 1526. Of the Spanish poets, the marquis Henry de Villenat died in 1434 ; Inigo de Mendoza, was his pupil ; Juan de Mena, died in 1456 ; GarcUaso de la Vega^ in 1536 ; Juan Boscan, in 1543; Hernando Herrera, in 1578; Louis de Leon, in 1591; Er cilia y Zuniga, died about 1600 ; and Louis Gongora, died in 1627. Cervantes, (Saavedra), the poet and novelist, died in 1616 ; don Lope de Vega, of Madrid, the dramatist, died in 1635 ; and don Pedro Calderon, (or Calderona), his rival, died in 1687. Vincent Garcias de la Huerta, the recent dramatist, flourished in 1778 ; and Yriarte, the fabulist, at the same date. Prince Juan Manuel, the novelist, died in 1362 ; and Mattheo Aleman flourished in 1580. Of the Spa- nish painters, Murillo, of Seville, died in 1682; and Velasquez, of Seville, his patron, died in 1660. Zusbaran and Vargas, were painters of less note.
The sovereigns of Portugal, since it was last separated from Spain, are John IV., of Braganza, 1640; Alfonso VI., 1656; Peter II., 1668; John V., 1706; Joseph, 1750; Maria Francisca, 1777; John VI., as regent, 1799 ; and Maria II., in 1826. The romantic king Sebastian, (or Don Sebastian), fell in Africa, in 1578. The infante don Henry, called the Navigator, the pioneer in southern dis- coveries, died in 1463. Vasco de Gama, who first sailed around Africa to India, died at Goa, in 1524. Alfonso de .Albuquerque, the admiral and Asiatic conqueror, died at Goa, in 1515. Fernando de Magellan, (or Magalhaens), the first circumnavigator, under Spanish patronage, was killed at the Philippine Islands, in 1521. Bartholo' mew Diaz, who discovered the Cape of Good Hope, flourished in 1486 ; but the time of his death we have not been able to ascertain.
Of Portuguese historians, besides the admiral Albuquerque, Bar' has, (or Barras), also a novelist, died in 1571 ; Brito, (or Debrito), died in 1617; Manuel y Souza, flourished in 1610; and Freire de Andrade, the biographer and poet, flourished soon after. Of Portu- guese poets, the most celebrated is Louis de Camoens, who died in 1579. B ernar din Bib eyro, ^ouriBhed in 1510; and Andrade Ca- minha and Falcum were his contemporaries. Gil Vicente died in 1557; Miranda, in 1558; Ferreira, in 1569; Lobo flourished in 1560; Cortereal; (or Cor te Real) ; in 1570; and Bacelar in 1640, Montemayor died in 1558; and Bernardes Pimenta, in 1596. 3/e- neses, count of Ericeyra, died in 1744, and Basilio da Gama, was his contemporary : Bocage died in 1805 ; and Manoel, in 1819. Of Portuguese novelists, besides Ribeyro and Barhas, we would men- tion Moraez and Carvalho; Lobeira, who died in 1403; and Fer* reira de Vasconcellos, who flourished about 1580.
§ 3. We commence the section of French Biography, by giving the names of the French sovereigns, from the Capetian dynasty,
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incIuHive, with the dates of their accession ; as follows. *Hugh Capets A. D. 987; Robert I., the Wise, 996; Henry I., 1031; Philip I., the Amorous, 1061 ; Lewis (or Loais) VL, the Fat, 1 106 ; Lewis VIL, the Young, 1137 ; Philip IL Augustus, 1180; Lewis VIIL, the Lion, 1223 ; Lewis IX. the Saint, 1226 ; Philip III., the Bold, 1270; Philip IV., the Fair, 1285 ; Lewis X., 1314; John I., 1315 ; Philip V., the Long, 1316 ; and Charles IV., the Fair, 1321 ; all of the house of Capet. They were followed by Philip VI., of Valois, the Fortunate, 1328 ; John II., 1351 ; Charles V., the Wise, 1364 ; Charles VI., the Beloved, 1380; Charles VII., the Victorious, 1422 ; Lewis XI., 1461 ; Charles VIIL, 1483 ; Lewis XII., 1498; Francis I., 1516; Henry II., 1547; Francis II., 1659; Charles IX., 1560; and Henry III., 1674; who was the last of the house of Valois. To these succeeded Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, 1689; Louis (or Lewis) XIII., 1610; Louis XIV., 1643; Louis XV., 1715 ; Louis XVL, 1774 ; (Louis XVIL, nominally in 1796) ; Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1804; Louis XVIII., in 1814; Charles X., in 1824 ; and Louis Philippe of Orleans, in 1830.
Of French statesmen and warriors, Godfrey of Bouillon, who took Jerusalem in the first Crusade, died there, A. D. 1100. Ber^ trand du Guesclin, constable of France, and general of Charles V., died in 1380. Joan of Arc, the heroine, was burnt by the Inquisi- tion, in 1431. Gaston de Foix, nephew, and general of Lewis XII., died in 1512; and the chevalier Bayard, (Pierre du Terrain, the knight without fear and without reproach, died of a wound, in 1524. Charles, duke and constable of Bourbon, unjustly banished, was killed in attacking Rome, in 1527. Anne de Montmorency, general of Francis I., died of wounds, in the war against the Hugue- nots, in 1567; and Gaspard de Coligny, his antagonist, fell in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572. The chancellor, Michael de rilopital, shared the same fate. Henry of Guise, the catholic duke of Lorraine, was slain by order of rienry III., in 1688. The duke of Sully, (Maximilian de Bethune), the able financier of Henry IV., died in 1641. Cardinal Richelieu, (Armand Jean du Plessis), minister of Louis XIIT., died in 1642. Cardinal Afazann, (Julius), the first prime minister of Louis XIV., died in 1661 ; Cardinal dei?e^z,his rival, died in 1679; and Jean Baptiste Colbert, his successor, renowned as a financier, died in 1683.
Marshal Turenne, general of Louis XIV., fell in 1676 ; and his coadjutor, the prince of Cond^, (Louis de Bourbon, ancestor of the duke d'Enghien), died in 1687. Marshal Luxembourg, (Mont- morency), died in 1695 ; Marshal Vauban, the engineer, died in 1707 ; and Marshal Vil/ars, in 1734. Cardinal Fleury, minister of Louis XV., died in 1743. James 7\crgot, who died in 1781 ; and James Necker, of Geneva, who died in 1804, were ministers of Louis XVI. Of the cruel revolutionary triumvirate, Danton and Robespierre were guillotined in 1794, and Marat was assassinated in 1793. Napoleon Bonaparte, the ex-emperor, died at St. Helena, in 1821. Of his generals, including Murat, ex-kin^ of Naples, and Ney^ who were shot in 1815, Massena, Larrey, Kl^ber, Lannes, Desaix, Davousl, Lasalle, Suchel, Bessi^re, Soult, Macdonald,
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Grouchy, and others, we have no farther room here to speak. La Fayette^ the patriot and philanthropist, died in 1834 ; and Talleyrandt the famed diplomatist, died in 1838.
Of French lawyers^ we can here only mention DomaU who died in 1696; Ferrihre^ the elder, in 1715; Burlamaqui, of Geneva, who died in 1748 ; the chancellor D^Aguesseau, in 1751 ; Monies^ quieUj who died in 1755; Vattelj of Swiss birth, who wrote in French, and died in 1767 ; Pothier, who died in 1772 ; De Lolme^ of Geneva, who died in 1807 ; and Lacretelle, who died in 1824. Of French divines^ Robert of Sor bonne f founded the Sorbonne, or Theological college in Paris, about 1250. John Calvin, the reformer, born in France, died at Geneva, in 1564 ; and Theodore Beza, his successor, died in 1605. Martin Bucer, another distinguished reformer, died in England, in 1551. Cornelius «/an»mtti», founder of the sect of Jansenists, opposed to the Jesuits, died in 1638. Jaques Benigne Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, who wrote on Universal History, died in 1704; and Louis Bourdcdoue, in the same year. Francois Fenelon^ the pious archbishop of Cambray, died in 1715 ; and Jean Baptiste Massillon, the eloquent prelate of Sevigny, died in 1742. Of the French schoolmen, or scholastic philosophers, Feter Abelard, died in 1 142 ; and Thomas Aquinas, (or St. Thomas, called the angelic doctor), founder of the sect of Thomists, as also John Bonavenlura, (or St. Bonaventure, styled the seraphic), both of Italian birth, both died in 1274.
Of French voyagers and geographers, we can only mention here Gonneville, who flourished in 1503; Cartier, in 1542; Champlain, who died in 1635 ; Tavemier, who died in 1689 ; La Peyrouse, who was probably lost at sea, in 1788 ; and D^Anville, the celebrated geographer, who died in 1782. Of French historians, John Frois^ sort, the chronicler, died in 1401 ; Philip de Comines, died in 1500 ; Pierre Brantome, in 1614; James de Thou, (Thuanus), in 1617; Francis de Mezerai, in 1683; Pelisson, in 1693; Varillas, in 1696 j Peter Bayle, in 1706 ; Nicholas Boileau, in 171 1 ; Vertot {TAubosuf, in 1735 ; Charles Rollin, in 1741 ; Crevier, in 1765 ; Francis de Voltaire, in 1778 ; Claude Millot, in 1785 ; Honord Mirabeau, in 1701 ; ffVliam Raynal, in 1796 ; and Count Louis de Segur died in 1830. The statesmen Sully, and de Retz, also wrote on history ; and the brothers Michaud, as also Thouret, Thiers, and others, are, we believe, still living. The abbd Barthilemy, celebrated as an archsologist, died in 1795.
Of the French poets, fFtlliam, count of Poitou, called the first troubadour, flourished about 1071; and Thibaut, count of Cham- pagne and king of Navarre, died in 1253. Clotilde du Vallon Cha- lys, (de Surville, by marriage), died about 1500; Clement Marot, in 1551; Du Bellay, in 1560; Jodelle, in 1573; 2X\A Ronsard, in 1585. Desportes died in 1600 ; Malherbe, in 1627 ; Sarrazan, in 1654 ; and the marquis of Racan, (du Breuil), in 1670. Jean B. de Moliere, died in 1673; Pierre Comeille, in 1684; Thomas Corncille, his brother, in 1709 : Jean de la Fontaine, in 1695 ; Jean Racine, in 1699; and Madame Deshoulieres, in 1694. Se- grais died in 1701 ; Jean Baptiste Rousseau, in 1741 ; Fontenelltj
Digitized by
264 BIOGBAPHT.
in 1757: Cribillony in 1762; Potnpignan, in 1784; Berlin, in 1700 ; and Chenier, in 1794. Ponct-Denia LeBrun, died in 1807 ; Jacques Delille, in 1813 ; and Count Coetlogon, in 1826. Froiuart, Boiieau, and Voltaire, have been mentioned among the historians ; and among other poets, Chateaubriand and Lamariine are, we believe, still living. Of French novelists, besides Rousseau, Voltaire, and Chateaubriand, we can only name Rabelais, who died in 1553; Montaigne, the essayist, who died in 1592 ; Mile, de Scuderi, who died in 1701 ; Le Sage, in 1747 ; Marmontel, in 1798 ; Madame de Cottin, in 1807; St. Pierre, in 1814; Madame de Staei, in 1817; and Madame de Genlis, in 1830.
In the physical sciences, France presents many distinguished names. Of mathematicians, Descartes, also a metaphysician, died at Stock- holm, in 1650; James BernouiUi died in 1705; and his brother, John, in 1748: Delahire, in 1718; Clairault, in 1765; D'Alem- bert, in 1783 ; Condor cet, also a politician, died in 1794 ; Lagrange^ in 1813; and Monge, in 1818. Gassendi, the astfonomer, died in 1655 ; Lacaille, in 1762 ; and Laplace, the mathematician and astronomer, died in 1827. Fermat, the mechanician, died in 1664; Pascal, in 1662 ; Coulomb, in 1806 ; and Poisson, in 1840. Arago, Biot, and Amvire, are, we trust, still living. Of French chemists, Lavoisier died in 1794 ; Fourcroy, in 1809 ; Ouyton de Morveau, in 18 1 6 ; and Berthollet, of Swiss birth, died in 1 822. Gay Lussae, and Vauquelin are, we believe, still living. Of French naturalists, Tournefort died in 1708 ; Anthony de Jussieu, in 1758 ; and his brother, Bernard, in 1777: Buffon died in 1788; Saussure, in 1799 ; the abb^ Hauy, in 1822 ; and Cuvier, in 1832. DecandoUe, Lamarck, and Brongniart, are, we believe, .still living. Of French physicians and surgeons, Pard died in 1590; Pecquet, in 1674; Geoffroy, in 1731 ; Sauvages, in 1767 ; J. Z. Petit, in 1750; An- thony Petit, in 1794 ; Desault, in 1795 ; and Bichat, in 1802.
Of French painters, Euslache Le Sueur, historical painter, died in 1655; Nicholas Poussin, his rival, died in 1665; Gaspar Poussin, landscape painter, died in 1675 ; and Claude Lorraine, of the Vene- tian school, died in 1682. Claude Joseph Vernet, the marine painter, died in 1789 ; and some of his descendants are also distinguished painters. Girodet-Trioson, died in 1824 ; and David, the recent historical painter, died in exile, at Brussels, in 1825. Of French sculptors, Puget died in 1694 ; and Falconet, in 1791. Of French musical composers, we can only name Boieldieu, who died in 1834; and Le Sueur, and Auber, who, we believe, are still living.
§ 4. We commence the section on British Biography, by giving a list of the sovereigns, with the dates of their accession, from the time of the Saxon Heptarchy. Of the Anglo-Saxon line were Egbert, 828; Ethel wolf, 838; Ethelbald, 857; Ethelbcrt, 860; Ethelred, 866; Alfred, the Great, 872 ; Edward, the Elder, 900 ; Alhelstan, 925 ; ' Edmund I., 941 : Edred, 948 : Edwy, 955 ; Edgar, the Peaceable, 959; Edward II., the Martyr, 975; Ethelred II., the Unready, 978; Edmund II., Ironside, 1016; to whom succeeded the Danish conquerors, Canute, the Great, 1017 ; Harold Harefoot, 1036; and Canute IL, (Hardicanute), 1039; after which the Saxon
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line was restored in Edward IlL, the Confessor, 1041 ; and Harold II., 1066. Next succeeded tlie Norman line, of Wiiiiam, the Conqueror, 1066; William II., Rufus, 1087 ; Henry I., 1100 ; and Stephen of Blois, 1135; who was followed by the house of Plantagenet, com- prising i/i?nry II., Plantagenet, 1154; Richard I., Coeur de Lion, 1189; John, Lackland, 1199; Henry IIL, of Winchester, 1216; Edward I., Longshanks, 1272; Edward II., of Caernarvon, 1307 ; Edward III., of Windsor, 1327 ; Richard II., of Bourdeauz, 1377 ; Henry IV., Bolingbroke of Lancaster, 1399 ; Henry V., of Mon- mouth, 1413 ; Henry VI., of Windsor, 1422 ; Edward IV., of York, 1461 ; and Edward V., and Richard III., the Hunchback, in 1483. Next came the house of Tudor; Henry VII., 1485; Henry VIII., 1609; Edward VL, 1547; Mary, 1553; and Eliza- beth, 1558 : next the house of Stuart; James I., 1603 ; Charles I., 1625; the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell, 1649 ; Charles II., 1660; James II., 1685 ; William III., and Mary, 1689 ; and Anne, 1702 ; and lastly, the house of Brunswick, George I., 1714 ; George II., 1727 ; George III., 1760; George IV., 1820 ; WiUiam IV., 1830; and Victoria, 1837.
Of British statesmen and warriors, Edward^ the Black prince, son of Edward III., died in 1376. Henry Percy^ of Northumberland, called Hotspur, fell at Shrewsbury, in 1403. John Talbot^ first earl of Shrewsbury, fell in fighting tlie French, in 1453. The earl of Warwick, called the king maker, fell at the battle of Bamet, in 1441. Cardinal Wohey, minister of Henry VIII., died in 1530. The good Sir Philip Sidney f died of a wound, near Zutphen, in 1586; Sir Francis WaUingham^ died in 1590 ; and Sir Walter Raleigh, was beheaded in 1618. George Villiers, the unworthy duke of Bucking- ham, was assassinated in 1628 ; and Thomas frentworth, earl of Strafford, was beheaded in 1641. Admiral Robert Blake , died in 1657. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, chancellor, and historian, died in 1674. Algernon Sidney, the patriot, was beheaded in 1683 ; and Anthony Ashley Cooper, first earl of Shaftsbury, died in the same year. John Churchill, duke of Marlborough, the renowned general, died in 1722. Robert Walpole, earl of Oxford, died in 1745 ; and his rival, Henry St, John, viscount Bolingbroke, died in 1751. William Pitt, earl of Chatham, died in 1778 ; and Edmund JBurke, the orator, in 1797. Horatio Nelson, the renowned admiral, fell at Trafalgar, in 1805. Charles James Fox, died in 1806; WiUiam Pitt, the same year; Richard Brinsley Sheridan, in 1816; and George Canning, in 1827. Arthur Wellesley, duke of Welling- ton, still lives to enjoy his well-earned reputation. Of British jurists. Sir Thomas Littleton, died in 1481 ; Sir Edward Coke, in 1634; Sir Matthew Hale, in 1676; Sir William Blackstone, in 1780; and William Murray, earl of Mansfield, died in 1793.
Of British divines, commencing with the schoolmen, Alexander Hales, styled the irrefragable, died in 1245 ; John Duns, usually called Duns Scotus, and styled the subtle doctor, founder of the sect of Scotists, (Realists), died in 1308 ; and William Occam, styled the invincible, and leader of the sect of the Nominalists, died in 1347. John Wickliffe, the reformer, died in 1384; William T'ynrfo/ suffered 34 Z
Digitized by
S66 BIOOHAPHT.
martyrdom in 1536 ; Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, in 1555 ; and Thomas Cranmer, in 1556. John Knox, the Scotch reformery died in 1572. Richard Hooker, died in 1600 ; James Usher, arch- bishop of Armagh, the chronologist, died in 1656 ; and Jeremy Taylor, died in 1667. Richard Baxter, the non-con former, died in 1691. John Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1694 ; and Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Sarum, died in 1715. Dr. Isaac ffatls, died in 1748 ; and Dr. Philip Doddridge, in 1751. Joseph Butler, bishop of Durham, died in 1752; and TflUiam Warburton, bishop of Gloucester, in 1779, John Wesley, died in 1791 ; Dr. iruiiam Foley, in 1805; and Robert Hall, m 1831. Reginald Hebcr, the poet, bishop of Calcutta, died in India, in 1826. Of mental philoso- phers, John Locke died in 1704; Thomas Reid, in 1796; Tho- mas Brown, in 1820; and Dugald Stewart, in 1828.
Of British voyagers and travellers, Sebastian Cabot died about 1557; Sir Thomas Cavendish, in 1502; Sir Francis Drake, in 1595 ; Capt. John Davis, in 1605; Capt Henry Hudson, in 1611 ; Capt. William Baffin, in 1616; Capt. «/oAn Smith, in 1631 ; Capt. William Dampier, probably about 1716; CapU Woods Rogers, in 1732 ; Com. George Anson, in 1762 ; Com. John Byron, in 1786 ; Capt. James Cook, in 1779 ; and Capt. George Vancouver, in 1798. Of British historians, besides Walsingham, Raleigh, the carl of Clarendon, Bishop Burnet, and Archbishop Usher, already named, George Buchanan, of Scotland, died in 1582 ; Tobias Smollett, in 1771; David Hume, in 1776; Dr. William Robertson, in 1793; Edward Gibbon, in 1794; William Mitford, in 1827; and Sir James Mackintosh, in 1832. Dr. John Lingard, Lord John Russell, Sharon Turner, Henry Hallam, and James Grahame, Esqrs., are, we believe, still living.
Of the British poets, Geoffrey Chaucer died in 1400 ; and John Gower, who wrote in Latin, died in 1402. Gascoigne died in 1577; Tusser, about 1580 ; and Edmund Spenser, in 1599. William Shakspeare, the dramatist, died in 1616; John Fletcher, in 1625; and Ben Jonson, in 1637. Davies died in 1626 ; Greville, (Lord Brooke), in 1628 ; Drayton, in 1631 ; Donne, in 1631 ; Carew, in 1639; Giles Fletcher, in 1623; and Phineas Fletcher, about 1650. John Milton died in 1674; Cowley, in 1667; Butler, in 1680; Waller, in 1687 ; and John Dryden, in 1700. Prior died in 1721 ; Gay, in 1732 ; Swift, in 1744 ; and Alexander Pope, in the same year. Thomson died in 1748; Collins, in 1756; Shenstone, in 1763; Dr. Young, in 1765; Akenside, in 1770; Falconer, in the same yoar; Gray, in 1771 ; Goldsmith, in 1774 ; and Dr. Armstrong, in 1779. Robert Burns, the Scotch poet, died in 1796 ; William Cowper, in 1800 ; James Beattie, in 1803 ; Grahame, in 1811 ; and Shelley, in 1822. Lord Byron, (George Gordon), died in 1824 ; Mrs. Bar- bauld, in 1825 ; Crabbe, in 1832 ; Sir Walter Scott, in the same year; Miss Hannah More, in 1833; Coleridge, in 1834; Mrs. Hemans, in 1835; and Miss Landon, (Mrs. Maclean), in 1838. Miss Baillie, Campbell, Rogers, Wordsworth, Bowles, Montgomery, Moore, Southey, and Prof. Wilson, are, we believe, still living. Of novelists and essayists, not already named, Addison died in 1719 ;
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i }\^ V r\AAv. . ^ ^A^
in 17AAC
buhopbanA ^'^'•^^-m.^ 267
Fielding, in 1754 ; Richardson, in 1761 ;' Sterne, in 1768 ' and Dr. Johnson, in 1784. Mrs. Radclifle died in 1822 ; and Gait, in 1839. Miss Burney, (D'Arblay), Miss Edgeworth, Mrs. Roche, and the Misses Porter, are also among, the novelists. D'Israeli, Bulwer, James, Marryat, and Dickens, are still before the public.
Of British mathematicians, Napier^ baron of Marchiston, died in 1617; Hariott in 1621 ; Sir Isaac Newton^ alike celebrated in na- tural philosophy, died in 1627 ; Brook Taylor, died in 1741 ; Colin Maclaurin, in 1746; and Robert Simson, in 1765. Of natural phi- losophers, besides Newton, Roger Bacon, (the friar), died in J 294; Dr. Gilbert, in 1603; Francis Bacon, (Lord Verulam), in 1626; Robert Boyle, in 1691 ; Mitchell, and Dr. Gowan Knight, flourish- ed about 1740 ; Dr. Joseph Black, died in 1799 ; Dr. Joseph Priestley, in 180i ; Dr. Tf^lliam H. Wollaston, in 1828 ; Sir Humphrey Davy, in 1829; and Sir John Leslie, in 1832. Of British astronomers, John Flamstead, died in 1719; Dr. Edmund Halley, in 1742; Dr. James Bradley, in 1762; Mr. Ferguson, in 1776; Dr. Nevil Mas- kelyne, in 1811 ; and Sir William Herschell, in 1822. Dr. Henry, the chemist, died in 1836. The philosophers and chemists, Brew- ster, Herschell, Dalton, Thompson, Ure, and Faraday, are, we believe, still living. Of British naturalists, and geologists, John Ray, died in 1705; Thomas Burnet, in 1715; William Whiston, in 1752; James Hutton, in 1797; Dr. Erasmus Darwin, in 1802; Professor John Playfair, in 1819; and Professor Robert Jameson, is, we be- lieve, still living. Of British physicians and surgeons. Dr. William Harvey, died in 1658; Dr, John Mayo w, in 1679; Dr. Thomas Sydenham, in 1689; Dr. William Cheselden, in 1752 ; Dr. William Hunter, in 1783; Dr. John Brown, in 1788; Dr. William Cullen, in 1790 ; Dr. John Hunter, in 1793 ; Dr. John Mason Good, in 1827; Dr. Thomas Young, in 1829 ; and Sir Astley Paston Cooper, in 1841. Sir Benjamin Brodie, Sir Charles Bell, and Dr. John Bell, are, we believe, still living.
Of British artists and inventors, Edward Somerset, marquis of Worcester, died in 1667 ; Savary, and Newcomen flourished in 1700 ; James Watt, died in 1819 ; Sir Richard Arkwright, died in 1792 ; Har greaves, and Crompton, flourished in 1767 and 1779 ; Rev. Edmund Cartwright, died in 1824 ; and John Harrison^ died in 1776. The engineers, James Brindley, died in 1772 : John Smea- ton, in 1792 ; John Rennie, in 1821 ; and Thomas Telford, in 1834. Of British architects, Inigo Jones, died in 1652; Sir Christopher Wren, in 1725 ; James Stuart, in 1788 ; and Sir William Cham- bers, in 1796. Of British painters, William Hogarth, died in 1764; Sir Joshua Reynolds, in 1792; George Romney, his rival, in 1802 ; Sir Thomas Lawrence, in 1830; Richard Westall, in 1836; and David Wilkie, we believe, is still living. Of sculptors, John Flax- man died in 1826; but Francis Chantry and Richard Westmacott, are still the ornament of their profession. Among the writers of music. Sir John Hawkins, died in 1789; and Dr. Charles Burney, in 1814.
§ 5. We come next to the Biography of Central Europe; com- menciniT, as in the preceding departments, with Belgium, Holland, and Switzerland. Of Dutch statesmen and warriors, William I.,
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prince of Orange, the originator of his country's independence, was assassinated, in 1584. His son, Maurice, of Nassau, prince of Orange, and the second stadiholder, died in 1625 ; by whom Bameveldt, the patriot, was put to death in 1610. John de ffltt, the republican stadtholder, or pensionary, fell by the hands of a mob, in 1672. Ad- miral Alidiael Fitz Adrian De Ruyter, died in 1676 ; Admiral Mar- tin Harpertzoon Van Tromp, fell in battle, in 1653; and his son. Admiral Cornelius Van Tromp, died in 1691. Under ffllliamlV,^ in 1747, and William V., in 1751, the stadtholdership was declared hereditary. Of Dutch jurists, we can only mention Hugo Gro* tiusy who died in 1645; Ulrich Hubert who died in 1694; and Zacharias Hubert in 173 1 . Of Dutch divines, Desiderius Erasmut, died in 1536; James ArminiUs, in 1609; and John Drusius, in 1616. Of Dutch poets, Van der Doos, (or Douza), died in 1604 ; Heinse, in 1655; Van Hooft, also a historian, died in 1647; Cats, in 1660; Van der Goes, in 1687; Van der Vondel, in 1679; Rot- gans, in 1710 ; Poot, in 1733 ; Van der Vliet, in 1780 ; and Nienw- land, in 1794.
Of Dutch mathematicians and natural philosophers, Ludolph Van Ceulen, died in 1610 ; Gerard Mercator, in 1594; Nicolas Merca- tor, in 1690 ; Simon Slevin, in 1635 ; and Christopher Huygenst in 1695. To this class belong also Albert Girard, and Zacharias Jan- sen. Aluschenbroekf flourished in 1720 ; and Leuwenhoek, died in 1723. The chemists and physicians, John Baptist van Helmont, died in 1644 ; Francis Salvias, in 1672; and Hermann Boerhaave, in 1738. Of Dutch, including Flemish painters, Jean de Bruges, {Van Eyck), flourished in 1410; Peter Paul Rubens, died in 1640; Anthony Vandyck, in 1641; David Teniers, the elder, in 1649; Paul Potter, in 1654 ; Francis Snyders, in 1657 ; and Paul Rem- brandt, in 1668. Gaspar Grayer died in 1669; James Jordaens, in 1678 ; Gerard Dow, (Douw), a pupil of Rembrandt, died in 1680 ; and Albert Cuyp, (or Kuyp), flourished in 1690.
Of Swiss patriots and warriors, fVtlliam Tell, died in 1354 ; and Walter Furst, Arnold of Melchthal, and JVerner Stauffacher, were his coadjutors, in achieving his country's independence. The brave Arnold von TVinkelried, fell in the battle of Sempach, in 1386. Aloys Reding, and Hirzel of Zurich, were among the opponents of the French, in the time of Bonaparte. Ulrich Zuinglius, (or Zwingli), the Swiss reformer, fell in battle, in 1531. Of Swiss scholars, we would here mention, Hottinger, the philologist, who died in 1667; Sulzer, the metaphysician, who died in 1779 ; Bonnet, also a na- turalist, who died in 1793 ; Lavater, the physiognomist, who died ia 1801 ; and Pestalozzi, the paedagogist, who died in 1827. John von Mailer, the historian, died in 1809 : John Charles Sismondi, we believe, is still living. Solomon Gesner, (or Gessner), the poet, died in 1788. Theophrastus Paracelsus, the alchemist, died in 1541 ; and Conrad Gesner, the naturalist, died in 1565. Albert von Holler, the physician, died in 1777. Hans Holbein, the painter, died in 1554 ; and Henry Fuseli, in 1825. Several Swiss writers, in the French language, have been mentioned under French Biography.
We shall commence German Biography, including Austrian and
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Prussian, by giving the following list of the later German emperors, with the dates of their accession. They are, Rodolph, of Hapsburg, 1273; Adolphus, of Nassau, 1291; Albert I., of Austria, 1298; Henry VII., of Luxemburgh, 1309 ; Lewis IV., the Bavarian, 1314 ; CharlesIV.,ofLuxemburgh, 1347; Wenceslaus, 1378; Rupert, 1400; Sigismund, king of Hungary, 1410; Albert II., of Austria, 1438; Frederick III., 1440 ; Maximilian I., 1493 ; Charles V., 1619 ; Fer- dinand I., 1558; Maximilian II., 1564r'Rodolph II., 1576; Mathias, 1612; Ferdinand II., 1619; Ferdinand III., 1637; Leopold, 1658; Joseph, 1705 ; Charles VI., 1711 ; Charles VII., 1741 ; Francis I., 1745 : Joseph II., 1765 ; Leopold II., 1700 ; and Francis II., 1792 ; who, in 1804, assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, as already mentioned, (p. 229). The kings of Prussia^ are Frederick I., 1701 ; Frederick William I., 1713: Frederick IL, the Great, 1740: Fre- derick William IL, 1786: and Frederick William III., 1797.
Of German statesmen and warriors, Berengarius, duke of Friuli, and rival of Arnold, flourished in 888 : Philip, duke of Swabia, and rival of Otho of Saxony, was assassinated in 1208 : and Frederick, of Austria, the rival of Lewis of Bavaria, flourished in 1330 : John Zisca, the formidable general of the Hussites, died in 1424 : and John Corvinus Hunniades, defender of Hungary against the Turks, died in 1456. Frederick, the Wise, elector of Saxony, and the friend of Martin Luther, died in 1526 : and his nephew, John Frederick, who headed the league of Smalcalden, died in 1554. John Tzerklas, count of Tilly, general of the Catholic League, died in 1632 : and Albert Wallenstein, his predecessor, was assassinated, in 1634. Prince Raymond Montecuculi, the imperial general against Turenne and Conde, died in 1680. Prince Francis Eugene, of Savoy, co- adjutor of the duke of Marlborough, died in 1736. Marshal Maurice of Saxe, who served against the Turks, and in the armies of France, died in 1750, Count Leopold Joseph Daun, the Austrian general, opposed to Frederick the Great, died in 1766. Paul de Werner, a Prussian general, died in 178^ : and Marshal Lebrecht von Blucher^ died in 1819. Prince Schwarlzenberg, the Austrian field marshal, died in 1820 : but Prince Metier nich, is, we believe, still living.
Of German divines, John Huss, the reformer, was burnt by Sigis- niund, in 1415: and Jerome, of Prague, his friend, shared his fate, in 1416. Thomas a Kempis, the pious, died in 1471. John (Eco- lampadius, the reformer, died in 1531 : and Philip Melanchthon, the friend of Luther, died in 1560. Martin Luther, the great reformer, died in 1546. Johann Lorenz Mosheim, the ecclesiastical historian, died in 1755. John Augustus Ernesti, thq, theological critic, died in 1781 : and Henry Gottlob Tschirner, the eloquent preacher, died in 1828. Of metaphysical philosophers, Jacob Bohme, (or Boeh- nien), died in 1624: Christian von Wolff, (or Wolfius), died in 1754: and /mwianwc/ JTan/, of Prussia, died in 1804. Of jurists, besides Wolff, we would mention Baron Samuel von Puffendorf, who died in 1694.
Of German geographers, /. G, Hassel, the most celebrated, died in 1829. Martin Behaim (or Behem) died at Lisbon, in 1606. Of German historians, EinardEginhard, secretary to Charlemagne,
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died in 839; and Oito von Frevaingen was the grandson of Fre- derick Barbarossa. Ottocar of Homeck, who wrote in the German language, flourished in 1300; and Turmayr, (Aventinus), and Franke, were among the early historians. John Christopher Fre- derick von Schiller, also a poet, died in 1805; and Berihold George Niebuhr died in 1831. John Godfrey von Herder, the critic and poet, died in 1803 ; and Frederick von SchlegeU also an historian, died in 1829. His brother, Augustus William Schlegel, we believe is still living.
Of the German poets, besides Schiller and Herder, Henry of Vol- deck, the first of the minnesingers, flourished in 1180: and the rivals, Henry of Ofterdingen and Wolkram of Eschenbach, flourished about 1200. Of the mastersingers, Hans Folz and Hans Sachs^ flourished about 1450. Martin Opitz, (or Opitius), the Silesian, died in 1639; Paul Fleming, in 1640; and Paul Gerhard, in 1676. Ewald Christian of Kleist, died in 1759 ; Frederick Hage- dorn, in 1754; John Christopher von Gottached, in 1762; Chris- tian Frederick Gellert, in 1769; Gotthold Ephraim Leasing, in 1781 ; and Gottfried Augustus Burger, died in 1794. Frederick Gottlieb Klopstock died in 1803 ; Christopher Martin Wieland, and Theodore Komer, in 1813 ; Count Frederick Leopold Stolberg, and Augustus von Kotzebue, in 1819; John Henry Voss, in 1826; and John Wolfgang von Goethe, died in 1832. Winkelman, Tieck, and Tiedge are, we believe, still living. Of German novelists, Meissner died in 1807 ; Nicolai, in 1811 ; and John Paul Richter died in 1825.
Of German mathematicians and natural philosophers, Gottfried Wilhelm, baron of Leibnitz, died in 1716; and Leonard Euler, of Swiss birth, died at St. Petersburg, in 1783. John Miilier, called Regiomontanua, died in 1476 ; Athanasius Kircher, in 1680 ; Otho von Guericke, in 1686; Ehrenfried Walter von Tachimhausen, about 1690 ; James /Terman, in 1733 ; Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit^ in 1736 ; John Ingenhouz, in 1799 ; and Joseph von Fraunhofer, died in 1826. Of the astronomers, Johi^ Bayer flourished in 1603; John Kepler died in 1630 ; Tobias Mayer, in 1762 ; Prof. Harding, in 1834 ; and Dr. Olbera died in 1840. Of the alchemists, ^Ibertua Magnus died in 1280; Basil Valentine flourished about 1420; George ^gricola, in 1530; and Nicholas Sebastian ^ranc//, flou- rished in 1669. John Joachim Becher died in 1685; William Homberg, in 1715; and George Ernest Stahl, in 1734. Of mineral- ogists and geolodsts, Lehman, the miner, flourished in 1756 ; Abra- ham Gottlob Werner died in 1817; and Frederick 3foA« died in 1839. Of naturalists, Joachim Junge died in 1657; John George Gmelin, in 1755; Charles Louis frtlldenow, in 1812; and Baron Alexander Humboldt, we believe, is still living.
Of German physicians. Dr. Maurice Hoffman, died in 1698; and Dr. Frederick Hoffman, in 1742. John Frederick Blu- menbach, the celebrated physiologist, died in 1840. Hildanua was a physician of note ; and Dr. Samuel Hahneman, the homoBO- pathist, is, we believe, still living. Engelbert Kampfer, celebrated also as a traveller, died in 1716. Of German pamters, Martin Sehoen (or Schoenbaiier) died in 1486 ; Michael tVohlgemuth, in
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1519; Lucas Kranach^ in 1553 ; and Sir Godfrey Eheller, in 1723. Cornelius, and the sculptors, Tieck, and Rauch, are, we believe, still living. Of musical composers, Handel died in 1759; Mozart, in 1792 ; Haydn, in 1809; Weber, in 1826; and Beethoven, in 1827.
Under Danish Biography, we have room to give the sovereigns of Denmark, only since its union with Norway and Sweden, in 1438. They are Christopher III., 1438 ; Christian I., 1448; John L, 1481 ; Christian II., 1513; Frederick I., 1522; Christian III., 1533; Fre- derick II., 1559; Christian IV., 1588 ; Frederick III., 1648 ; Chris- tian v., 1670; Frederick IV., 1699 ; Christian VI., 1730; Frederick v., 1746; Christian VII., 1766; Frederick VL, 1808; and Chris- tian VIII., 1839. Count Struensee, the minister of Christian VII., was beheaded in 1772 : the elder count Bernstorff died in the same year; and the younger, in 1797. Of Danish historians, Sueno (or Svend ^ageson, flourished in 1188 ; and Saxo-Grammaficus, (Lang of Schonen), died in 1204. Wielandt died in 1730 ; Sneedorf, in 1764; and Suhm, in 1799. Of literati, Charles B. Tullin died in 1765 ; and Baron Louis of Holder g, of Norwegian birth, in 1754. Of Danish poets, Arreboe died in 1637; Bording, in 1677; Sches- tedt, in 1698; Kingo, in 1703; Lorterap, in 1722; Ewald, in 1781 ; Wessel, in 1786 ; Weyer, in 1788 : Falsen, in 1808 ; and Baggesen, in 1826. (Ehlenschldger, the poet and novelist, is, we believe, still living. 7)fcho Brake, the astronomer, died in 1601 ; and Longomontanus, his pupil, in 1647. Olaf Worm, (or Wor- mius), the mineralogist, died in 1654. Professor Oersted, is, we believe, still living ; as also ThorwcUdseni, the sculptor.
§ 6. AVe shall commence Swedish Biography, with the names and dates of accession of the Swedish sovereigns, since the last union with Denmark. They are Gustavus I., Vasa, 1523 ; Eric XIV., 1560; John III., 1568; Sigismund, king of Poland, 1592; Charles IX., 1598; (7u«/ai;i/5 IL Adolphus, 1612 ; Christina, 1632 ; Charles X., 1654; Charles XL, 1660; Charles XIL, 1696; Frederick and Ulrica, 1718 ; Adolphus Frederick, 1751 : Gustavus III., 1771 ; Gustavus IV., 1792 ; Charles XIIL, 1809 ; and Charles XIV., (John Bemadotte), in 1818. General John Banier, (Baner, or Banner), died in 1641 ; and General Leonard Torstenson, died in 1651. The chancellor, Axel of Oxenstiem, minister of Gustavus Adolphus, died in 1654. Snorro Sturlason, the Icelandic historian, died in 1241 ; and Eric Pontoppidan, bishop of Bergen, died in 1764. Urik Olaf sen, the Swedish chronicler, flourished in 1490; and Eric Gustavns Geyer, (Geijei^, is a Swedish historian of the present day. Emanuel Swedenborg, founder of a new religious sect, died in Lon- don, in 1772. Of Swedish poets, Glaus or Olof Dalin, died in 1763 ; Madame Nordenflycht, in the same year ; Lidner, in 1793 ; Charles M. Bellman, in 1795; and Gyllenborg, in 1808. Atterbom and Ling, are, we believe, still living. Among the Swedish novelists are M5rk, and Livijus. Of the Swedish chemisU, Bergmann died in 1784; Scheele, in 1786; and Berzelius is still living. Charles Linnasus, (Linn^), the naturalist, died in 1778 ; Artedi, his friend, the zoologist, died in 1735 ; and Dr. Olaus Rudbeck, the elder, died in 1702.
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Under Polish Biography, we would mention the last kings of Poland; Alexander, in 1501; Sigismund I., 1507; Sigismund II., Augustus, 1548; Henry of Anjou, 1573; Stephen Balore, 1576; Sigismund III., 1587; Vladislaus VI., 1632; John II., Casimir, 1648; Michael, 1669; John III., Sohieski, 1674; Augustus II., 1697; Frederick Augustus, 1734; and Stanislaus Poniatowski, 1764; who was dethroned on the dismemberment of Poland. Thaddeus Kosciusko, the Polish patriot, died in 1817, in Switzerland ; and Count Joseph Pulaski, (or Pulawski), who abo aided the United States, fell at Savannah, in 1779. Of Polish historians, Dvglosa died in 1480 ; and Naruszewicz, also a statesman and poet, died in 1796. Slryikowski, and Kobierzyzki, are also Polish historians. Of Polish poets, Kochanowski died in 1584; Krasicki, in 1802; Trembecki, in 1812; and Karpinski, in 1820. Nicholas Coperni" cus of Thorn, the Polish astronomer, died in 1543.
Under Russian Biography, we have room to mention only the more recent sovereigns, since Russia became a prominent empire. They are Peter, the Great, sole monarch, in 1696 ; Catherine L, 1725; Peter II., 1727; Anne, 1730; Ivan (or John) III., 1740; Elizabeth, 1741; Peter III., 1762; Ca/Amne II., same year; Paul, 1796 ; Alexander, 1801 ; and Nicholas, 1825. Prince Ghregory Alex- androwitsch Potemkin, the favorite and minister of Catharine II., died in 1791. Count Peter Alexandrowitsch J?oman2rq^ died in 1796; Count Suwaroff'Rimnitzkoy, (or Suwarrow^, who defeated the Turks, and opposed the French in Italy, diea in 1800 ; and Field Marshal Kutusoff, died in 1813. Krusenstem, the circumnavigator, is, we believe, still living. Nicholas Karamsin, the historian, died in 1826. Of the Russian poets, Michael Wasilowitz Lomonosoff died in 1765 ; and Gabriel Romano wich Derschawin, died in 1819. Oseroif and Cheraskoff, are also poets of note. Professor Peterman Simon Pallas, the naturalist, of German birth, died in 1811.
CHAPTER IV.
AMERICAN BIOGRAPHT.
On the subject of American Biography, we feel it a duty to be more full than in the preceding branches, so far as we have the means of being so : though unfortunately the records of Spanish America are so imperfect as to present us with only a skeleton of that division of the present branch. Under American Biography, will properly be included the names of many persons bom in Europe ; but who came to this continent at an early period, or here acquired distinction. The Biography of citizens of the United States, being to us much the most important, will naturally occupy a large portion of our allotted space ; especially as our own country has produced a large portion of all the Americans who have yet acquired distinction, in the various pursuits of life.
§ 1. We shall commence the section on United States Biography,
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by giving the names of our early statesmen^ not celebrated as warriora. John WirUhropf historian, and governor of Massachusetts, died in 1649 ; John IVinthrop^ governor of Connecticut, died in 1676 ; and Roger Williams f governor of Rhode Island, died in 1683. Lord Delawartf governor of Virginia, died in 1618 ; and Leonard Calvert^ first governor of Maryland, died in 1676. fFtlliam Fenn, the first governor of Pennsylvania, died in 1718 ; William Burnet, governor of New York, and afterwards of Massachusetts, died in 1729 ; Jame» LogaUf governor of Pennsylvania, died in 1751 ; and Thomas Hutchinson, historian, and governor of Massachusetts, died in 1780* Of military men, in the Indian and French wars, Capt. Johi Smithy. historian, and president of Virginia, died in 1631 ; Capt. John Mason^ of Connecticut, leader in the Pequot war, died in 1673 ; Capt. Miles Standishf of Plymouth, in 1656 ; CapL Daniel Henchman, of Mas* sachusetts, celebrated in King Philip's war, died in 1675 ; and Capt. Samuel Wadstoorth, of Massachusetts, was slain in 1676. General William Phipps, of Massachusetts, died in 1695; General William^ Pepperell, of Massachusetts, in 1759; General William Shirley,. governor of Massachusetts, died in 1771 ; and General WilUam^ Johnson, of New York, died in 1774.
Of the statesmen of the Revolution, Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, first president of the Continental Congress, died in 1775 ; John Hanr cock, of Massachusetts, its second president, died in 1793 ; Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, its third president, died in 1792 ; and John Jay, of New York, its fourth president, who was afterwards: first chief justice of the United States, died in 1829. Of the remain* ing presidents of that Congress, Samuel Huntington, of Connecticut,, died in 1796; Thomas M'Kean, of Pennsylvania, in 1817; John Hanson, of Maryland, in 1783 ; Elias Boudinot, of Pennsylvania, in 1821; Thomas Mifflin, of Pennsylvania, in 1800; Richard Henry Lee, the orator, of Virginia, in 1794 ; Nathaniel Gorham, of Massachusetts, in 1796 ; Arthur St. Clair, of Pennsylvania, in: 1818; and Cyrus Griffin, of Pennsylvania, died in 1810. Josiah Quincy, the orator, of Massachusetts, died in 1775 : and James Otis, another patriot and orator, of Massachusetts, died in 1783. Benjamin Franklin, the patriot and philosopher, died in 1790. Patrick Henry, < the orator, and governor of Virginia, died in 1799. Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts, and Edmund Pendleton, of Virginia, died in 1803 ; Arthur Middleton, of South Carolina, in 1787; and Edward Rut- ledge, of South Carolina, in 1800. Usher Ames, the orator, of Connecticut, died in 1808; Robert R. Livingston, of New York, died in 1813 ; and Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, in the same year. Robert Morris, of Pennsylvania, the financier, died in 1806. John Adams, of Massachusetts, second president of the United States ; and TTiomas Jefferson, of Virginia, the third president, both died July 4, 1826. Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut, the second chief justice of the United States, died in 1807; and George Clinton, of New York, vice president of the United States, after Adams, Jefferson, and Burr, died in 1812. John Marshall, of Virginia, the historian, and third chief justice of the United States, died in 1836.
Of statesmen of the Revolution who were also distinguished in 35
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arms, George Washington, of Virginia, commander-in-chief of the Revolutionary armies, and first president of the United Stales, was born February 22, 1732 ; and died December 14, 1799. General Mtxander Hamilton^ of New York, fell in a duel, in 1804 ; and Colonel Aaron Burr, his antagonist, died in 1836. General frUHam Moultrie, of South Carolina, also an historian, died in 1805. Colonel Timothy Pickering, of Massachusetts, died in 1829 ; and Charles C. Pinckney, of Soutli Carolina, in 1825. Of other general officers of the Revolution, General Joseph ff'arren, of Massachusetts, fell at Bunker's Hill, in 1775 ; and General Richard Montgomery, of New York, fell at Quebec, in the same year. General Hugh Mercer, of Pennsylvania, fell at Princeton, in 1777. General Israel Putnam, of Connecticut, died in 1790 ; General Nathaniel Greene, of Rhode Island, in 1786 ; General Benjamin Lincoln, of Massachusetts, in 1810; Geneni Henry Knox, of Massachusetts, in 1806; General John Stark, of New Hampshire, in 1822 ; General Ethan Mien, of Vermont, in 1789 ; General Philip Schuyler, of New York, in 1804; General Horatio Gates, of New York, in 1806; General James Clinton, of New York, in 1812 ; General Anthony Wayne, of Pennsylvania, in 1796 ; General Otho H. Williams, of Maryland, in 1794 ; General Charles Lee, of Virginia, in 1782 ; General Daniel Morgan, of Virginia, in 1799 ; General Francis Marion, of South Carolina, in 1795 ; and General Thomeu Sumter, of South Carolina, died in 1832. Of foreign officers who assisted our country, besides La Fayette, Kosciusko and Pulaski, already mentioned. Baron De Kalb, of Germany, was slain near Camden, in 1780; and Baron Steuben, of Prussia, died in 1794. Capt. Nicholas Biddle, of the Continental Navy, fell in 1778 ; and Capt John Paul Jones, died in 1792.
Of officers distinguished in the war of 1812, we would first name General Zebulon M. Pike, of New Jersey, who fell at York in Canada, in 1813. General Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, died in 1829; General Thomas Pinckney, of South Carolraa, in 1828; General Jtuob Brown, of New York, in 1828; General James Wilkinson, of Maryland, in 1826; General James Winchester, of Tennessee, in 1826; General William H Winder, of Maryland, in 1824 ; General John Strieker, of Maryland, in 1825 ; General George Izard, of South Carolina, in 1823 ; General Eltazer W, Bipley, of New Hampshire, in 1839 ; General Wade Hampton, of "South Carolina, in 1835 ; and General Stephen Van Rensselaer, died in 1839. Generals Jackson, Porter, Macomb, Gaines, and Scott, are, we believe, still living. Of distinguished naval officers, in the war of 1812, Captain James Lawrence was slain in 1813 ; Captain William Burrows, and Captain William H. Allen, fell in the same year; Commodore William Bainbridge, died in 1833 ; Commodore Stephen Decatur, in 1820 ; Commodore Oliver H. Perry, in 1820; Commodore Tliomas McDonough, in 1825 ; Commodore Joshua i9arney, in 1818; and Commodore «A>An7?o«fer< died in 1838. The names of Barron, Stewart, Hull, Chauncey, Jones, Morris, and War- rington, now stand at the head of the list of the United States navy.
Of statesmen since the times of the Revolution, James Madison^
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of Virginia, the fourth president of the United States, died in 1836; and JElbridge Gerry , his associate, as vice president, died in 1814. James Monroe, of Virginia, the fifth president, died in 1831 ; and Daniel D, Tompkins, of New York, his associate, as vice president^ died in 1825. General William Henry Harrison, distinguished in the war of 1812, died in 1841 ; one month after his inauguration, as the ninth president of the United States. De Witt Clinton, of New York, died in 1828; William H, Crawford^ of Georgia, in 1834; and Robert F. Hayne, of South Carolina, in 1839. James A. Bayard, of Delaware, died in 1815; Gouverneur Morris, of New York, in 1816; Caleb Strong, of Massachusetts, in 1820; George Cabot, of Massachusetts, in 1 823 ; and Brockholst Livingston, of New York, in the same year.
Of United States lawyers, not yet mentioned, George Wythe, of Virginia, died in 1806; John Rutledge, of South Carolina, in 1800; Bushrod Washington, of Virginia, in 1829 ; William Gushing, of Massachusetts, in 1810; Alexander J. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, in 1817; Nathan Dane, of Massachusetts, in 1835; Thomas Addis Emmett, of New York, in 1827 ; Alexander C, Hanson, of Mary- land, in 1806 ; Francis Hopkinson, of Pennsylvania, in 1791 ; Levi Lincoln, of Massachusetts, in 1820 ; William Paca, of Maryland, in 1799 ; Tapping Reeve, of Connecticut, in 1823: James WUson^ of Pennsylvania, in 1798; and William Wirt, of Pennsylvania, died in 1834.
Of United States divines, Rev. John Harvard^ of Massachusetts, died in 1638 ; He v. John Elliot, missionary to the Indians, died in 1690; Rev. Cotton Mather, of Massachusetts, died in 1728; and Rev. David Brainerd, missionary to the Indians, died in 1747. Rev. President Jonathan Edwards, the elder, of Princeton College, died in 1 758 ; Rev. President Scnnuel Johnson, of King's, now Columbia College, died in 1772 ; Rev. Charles Chauncy, of Massa- chusetts, died in 1787 ; Rev. Jeremy Belknap, historian, of New Hampshire, died in 1798 ; Rev. Presfdent JoncUJian Edwards, the younger, of Union College, died in 1801 ; Rev. Samuel Hopkins, of Connecticut, founder of a religious sect, died in 1803 ; and Rev. President THmothy D wight, of Yale College, died in 1817. Rev. President Eleazer WheeTock, of Dartmouth College, died in 1799 ; Rev. Joseph Bellamy, of Connecticut, died in 1790 ; and Rev. John Blair Linn, also a poet, died in 1804. Rev. Jedediah Morse, of Connecticut, the geographer, died in 1827. Bishop Samuel Sea- bury, of Connecticut, died in 1796; Bishop Benjamin Moore, of New York, in 1816; Bishop /o/m H. Hobart, of New York, in 1830; and Rt. Rev. William White, senior bishop of the Protes- tant Episcopal Church, died in Philadelphia in 1836.
Of United States travellers, besides Captain Smith, General Pike, and President D wight, already mentioned ,Vo/m I^edyard, of Connecticut, died in 1789 ; Jonathan Carver, of Connecticut, died in 1780; Meriwether Lewis, of Louisiana, died in 1809; and William Clark, of Louisiana, died in 1838. Of United States historians, not yet named, Williatn Smith, of New York, flourished in 1757 ; Samuel Smith, of New Jersey, died in 1776 ;
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Oeorge R. Minot, of MaMachosetU, in 1802 ; William Gordon^ of Maasachusetts, in 1807 ; Dr. David Ramsay f of South Carolina, in 1815; and Samuel fftUiamSf of Vermont, died in 1817. Rev. Jibiel Holmesy of MasaachuaettSt the annalist, died in 1837. Of United States poets, Joel Barlow^ of Connecticut, died in 1812 ; Colonel David Humphreys^ of Connecticut, in 1818 ; and John Trumbull, of Connecticut, died at Detroit, in 1831. Robert Treat Paine, of Massachusetts, the second of that name, died in 1811. Charles Broekden Brown^ of Pennsylvania, the novelist, died in 1809. Many of our distinguished poets and novelists are still living ; some of whom will be referred to in our next department.
Among the scientific men whom our country has produced, besides the immortal Franklin, Professor John Ifinthrop, of Massachusetts, the astronomer, died in 1770 ; David RiUenhause, of Pennsylvania, died in 1706 ; Rev. President John Ewing, of Pennsylvania, died in 1802 ; Rev. President Samuel Webber f of Massachusetts, died in 1810; Professor Alexander M, Fisher^ of Yale College, was lost at sea in 1822 ; and Dr. Nathaniel Bowdiich, of Massachusetts, died in 1838. Of American naturalists, John Bar tram, of Pennsylvania, died in 1777; Alexander Wilson, of Pennsylvania, in 1813; Dr. Benjamin S. Barton, of Pennsylvania, in 1815 ; WiUiam Bartram, of Pennsylvania, died in 1823 ; Dr. John Godman, of Pennsylvania, died in 1830 ; and Dr. Samuel L, Mitchell, of New York, died in 1831. Of other distinguished physicians of the United States, Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, of Massachusetts, died in 1760 ; Dr. John Mor- Stan, of Pennsylvsmia, in 1780 ; Dr. TfWiam Bull, of South Caro- Hna, in 1701 ; Dr. John Redman and Dr. William Shippen, of Pennsylvania, in 1808 ; Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Pennsylvania, in 1813 ; Dr. Caspar Tfutar, of Pennsylvania, in 1818 ; Dr. Samuel Bard, of New York, in 1821 ; Dr. David Hosack, of New York, in 1836 ; and Dr. Philip Sing Physick, of Pennsylvania, died iu 1837.
In the useful, as well as the fine arts, our country has contributed its share of distinguished names. Thomas Godfrey, of Pennsylva- nia, inventor of the quadrant, died in 1746. Robert Fulton, of New York, the first successful inventor of the steamboat, died in 1815; and Oliver Evans, of Pennsylvania, the pioneer in this invention, died in 1810. Eli liliitney, of Massachusetts, inventor of the cotton gin, died in 1825. Of distinguished painters, Edward G. Malbone, of Rhode Island, died in 1807 ; John Singleton Copley, of Massa- chusetts, died in 1815; Benjamin West, of Pennsylvania, after- wards president of the English Royal Academy, died in 1820; Charles Wilson Peale, of Pennsylvania, also a naturalist, and founder of the first American Museum, died in 1827 ; and Gilbert Stuart, of Rhode Island, died in 1828. The numerous distinguished names of men who still adorn our country, in literature, science, and the arts, we here forbear to repeat
§ 2. Our sketch of the Biography of Spanish and Portuguese America, will necessarily be very brief and imperfect. Fernando Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, died neglected, in Spain, in 1554. Rurrigaray, and after him Venegas, were the last Spanish viceroys, before Mexico became independent The priest Hidalgo^ who
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favored the revolntion, was put to death in 1811 ; and his coadjutor, M6relo$t was shot in 1815. General Xavier Mina, another patriot, was shot in 1817. Augustin Iturbide^ sometime emperor of Mexi- co, was shot in 1824. The successive presidents of Mexico, have been, Fernandez Guadaloupe Victoria^ (or Vittoria), in 1825 ; Vin- eente Guerrero^ in 1820 ; Antonio Lopez de ScofUa Jlnna, in 1833; and Anastasio Bustamente^ in 1837. Among other political charac^ ters in Mexico, we would simply name Nicholas Bravo^ the first vice president, and Negrete, and Pedrazas. In Central America, the succession of presidents, has been, Manuel Jos^ Arce^ in 1825 ; and Francisco Morazariy in 1 830 ; who has since been re-ielected. Among other statesmen of Central America, are, Beltranena, Barrundia, Prado, Salazar, and Virgil, all of whom have held the office of vice president, in the succession above named, (p. 238.) Inez de la Cruz, was a Mexican nun, and poet of the 18th century.
The monarch s of Brazil, since it became a distinct kingdom, are, John VI. of Portugal, in 1815 ; Don Pedro L, the first independent emperor, in 1822; ^n^ Pedro II., in 1831. Among the statesmen of Brazil, are the brothers Andrade ; also Bonifacio, Ribeiro, Cam- pos, Da Gama, Mello, and others. Among the Brazilian commanders, were admiral Lord Cochrane^ now the Scotch earl of Dundonald; and generals Lima, and Brandt. The minister, Conde da Barca, is named as a patron of science. Manoel Ayres de Cazal, is a Bra- zilian historian; and we may mention as Brazilian poets, Claude Manoel da Coata, for Corta) ; Andre Nunes de Silva ; and Antonio Diniz da Cruz e Silva, who flourished in 1807.
Ojeda and Nicueesa, to whom New Grenada was first granted, flourished in 1508. Pedro Arias de AvUa, and Quesada and Benal- eazar were their successors in the conquest of this region. General FVanciseo Miranda, of Caraccas, who first attempted to liberate his eountry from the Spanish dominion, died in prison, in 1814, at Ca- diz, in Spain. General Simon Bolivar, the first president of the temporary republic of Colombia, died in 1830. General Francisco de Paula Santetnder, its first vice president, was elected, in 1832, president of New Grenada, but died in 1840 ; and Joachim Mos- quera, elected president of Colombia in 1830, has since been vice president of New Grenada ; of which latter republic Josd Ignacio de Marquez became president in 1836. Among other patriots of New Grenada, we would name Urdanata, General Caicedo, and General Sucre, the victor at Pichincha, and Ayachuco, who was assassinated in 1830. General Jose Antonio Paez was elected pre- sident of Venezuela, in 1831 ; Dr. Vargas, in 1835 ; and General Paez was re-elected in 1839. Navarreto was its first president. Tincente Roeafuerte succeeded General Flores, we believe in 1838, as president of Equador, or Equator.
Of Peruvian Biography, Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was assassinated at Lima, in 1541 ; Diego Almagro, his asso- ciate, having been put to death in 1537, by Ferdinand "Pizarro, bro- ther of Francisco. General Jose de San Martin, the liberator of Peru, was declared its first president, or protector,, in 1821 ; and General Josi La Mar, elected president in 1822, was superseded by 67 2 A
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Bolirar ; bat re-elected in 1827. He was deposed by La Faente ; and General Gamarra sacceeded as president in 1820; but he was sao- ceeded by Obregoso^ in 1833. General Sucrty of Venezaela, was elected president of Bolivia, or upper Peru, in 1826 : General Ve^ Iosco succeeded him, in 1828; General Blanco, elected soon after, was assassinated in 1829 ; and General Santa Cruz was elected president in 1829; as we have already mentioned in the preceding department (p. 240). Among the royalist generals, opposed to the revolution in Peru, were La Sema, Valdez, Canterac, Rodil, and Olaneta. Torretagle first joined the republicans, but afterwards united with the Spanish forces.
Of Chili, Pedro de Valdivia, the first conqueror, was defeated by the Araucanians, in 1553 ; Joseph Manto was the governor in 1742 ; and Antonio Gonzago, in 1770. Rodriguez and the three Carreras, were murdered, at Uie instigation of San Martin, in or about 1817. Bernardo O^Hxggins became the first supreme director, in 1817 : General Ramon Preire succeeded him in 1823 ; and Admiral Manuel Blanco J in 1 826. Don Josd Maria Benevente was elected president in 1827; and General Joaquin Prieto, in 1831. The successive vice presidents have been Pinto, in 1827 ; Vicuna, in 1829 ; and Por tales, in 1831, who was assassinated in 1838.
Of La Plata, or Buenos Ayres, Pedro de Mendoza, the first co- lonizer, flourished in 1553. Since the revolution in La Plata, tlie successive heads of the government have been, Liniers, the French- man, in 1810; Cisneros, in 1811, superseded the same year by a triumvirate; Pozadas, in 1814, as supreme director; Pueyrredon, in 1816; Rondeau, in 1819; Rivadavia, in 1826; Dorrego, in Buenos Ayres, in 1827, who was shot, and superseded by General Lavalle, head of the federalists or UniUirios, in 1828 ; General Juan Jose Ftamont, in 1829 ; General Juan Manuel de Rosas, in the same year; General Quiroga, in 1830; General Ramon de Balcarce, in 1833 ; General Viamont, again in 1834 ; and General Rosas, again in 1835. General Frtictuoso Ribeira, (or Rivera), was elected pre- sident of Uruguay, in 1833 ; General Oribe, in 1835; and the former was re-elected in 1836.
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Vin. DEPARTMENT:
CALLOGRAPHY.
In the department of Callography, we comprehend a wide range of entertaining and miscellaneous literature ; particularly Poetry and the Drama ; Romances, Novels, Tales and Fables ; Essays and Let- ters ; and Orations, Addresses, and Speeches, not strictly belonging to the other departments! The name is derived from the Greek xoxo;, beautiful, or xoxxo;, beauty ; and ypa^<o, I write, or ypa4>]7, a descrip- tion. It corresponds nearly to the term Polite Letters ; which is nearly synonymous with the French term Belles Lettres : but both of these terms are generally used in a more extensive, though rather vague signification. The French have several works giving general views of this department ; among which we may mention tliose of Le Batteaux, La Harpe, and the Countess D'Hautpoul, under the title of Cour» de Liiterature, or Course of Literature. AH that we can here attempt, in tliis department, will be a brief allusion to some of the best works, as far as we are able to discriminate. Works of this class are prominent subjects of criticism ; though the latter term, as already explained, is correlative with the whole extent of human knowledge, (p. 37).
The study of Callography, unfolds, to some extent, what has been termed a knowledge of the world, that is of mankind, their characters, passions, and principles of action. At the same time, it requires a considerable portion of such knowledge, in order to be understood and appreciated. It may also aid in storing the mind with grand and beautiful ideas ; in warming the heart with noble sentiments ; and in giving vivid impressions of scenes and events, which embody, as it were, the spirit of distant nations and past ages. While such results may be derived from the best Callographic Writings, it must be confessed that other works of this class abound in feeble, false, or unworthy sentiments and ideas ; such as tend to enervate both the memory and the reasoning powers, and to unfit the mind for the active duties of life. Some of them are purposely designed to corrupt the heart, and poison the fountains of all virtue ; either openly, or by the most artful and alluring disguise ; and such works have been ruinous to many victims, by stimulating their passions, or sanctioning their crimes. Even the best works of imagination, we think, should be regarded as a luxury, and read only in leisure hours, for relaxation and amusement : but the indiscriminate and unrestrained perusal of inferior works of this class, is fatal to intellectual vigor, and to the pursuit of exact and useful knowledge.
The progress of Callography, has generally been concurrent with that of the other branches of literature ; though in eariy times the
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poetic age appears lo have preeeded the scientific. The world has witaessed four remarkable periods when Literature especially flou- rished, anterior to our own times. Thev are, 1. The Grecian age^ from the times of Pericles to those of Alexander the Great ; 2. ^Hie Roman age^ in the days of Julius and Augustus Cesar; 3. The Romantic age^ or times of Leo X. in Italy, Francis I. in France, and Elizabeth in England, sometimes called the Italian or Elizabethan age ; and 4. The Gallant agt^ or times of Louis XIV. and Queen Anne, in which German Literature first began to excite general atten- tion. Chateaubriand remarks that Homer, Dante, Rabelais, and Shakspeare, are the four ffreat fountains, from which all other writers have more or less derived their subjects, and imbibed their ideas ; a remark which, though quite ingenious, is true only to a very limited extent.
Poetry^ so named from the Greek itoM^at^, is the language of feeling and imagination: and its proper subjects are the sublime and the beautiful, in nature and morals ; — ^including the human afiTections in general, but especially those which most attach us to our Creator and our fellow men; — ^religion, patriotism, friendship, and love. In a technical sense. Poetry is understood to be any composition formed in regular verses or stanzas ; although many highly poetical compo- sitions are in the form of prose. A verse ^ is a single line of poetry, of determinate length ; so called from the Latin verto^ I turn, because we turn back from it to the next line. A stanza^ signifies several lines, completing the poetic measure, and ending in a pause. The word is Italian, but derived from the Latin stans^ standing or stopping. The distinction between rhyme and blank verse, with the common poetic feet, has been already explained, in the branch of General Grammar, (p. 48).
Epic or heroic poetry, has for its subject the exploits of some hero, or heroes, of national celebrity. The plot, action, or fable of an epic poem, is sometimes called an epopeiag and should possess the requi- site unity and interest : this being regarded as tlie highest kind of poetry. Lyric poetry, is that kind which is designed to be set to music ; as psalms, hymns, odes, and songs : and it was originally accompanied, when sung, with the lyre or harp ; whence it derives its name. Odes, have been classed as sacred, heroic, moral or philo- sophical, and festive, or amorous. Elegiac poetry, is that employed for solemn purposes, or on mournful occasions ; as in elegies on deceased friends. Epitaphs, or inscriptions on tombstones, are often elegiac in their character. Pastoral poetry, is such as would be appropriate to shepherds, treating of rural affairs and the social aflections. An idyl is a short pastoral poem, so named from a Greek word signifying a little image or picture : and an eclogue, is a pastoral poem, in which shepherds are introduced as conversing together. Didactic poetry, has for its chief object to convey instruction ; and it is almost exclusively written in verse. Satiric poetry, is designed to reprove the vices, errors, and follies of mankind, by holding mem up to censure or ridicule. Descriptive poetry, is that which simply describes interesting objects, either mental or material. Rommitic poetry is usually descriptive ; but its subjects are tales and remarkable
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adventures, like those of romances, and novels ; sometimes probable^ sometimes supernatural.
Dramatic poetry, in prose or verse, is that kind in which various persons are introduced as speakers and actors: it being designed for rehearsal on the stage ; and its name being derived from a Greek word signifying action. A Tragedtf, is a dramatic poem or play, of a grave character, and usually navmg a fatal termination: but a Comedy, is a more sportive play, designed for amusement or satire. A Aieiodrama^ is a dramatic performance in which songs are introduced ; and a /aree, is a minor play, usually performed after one of a graver cast, for the sake of diversion and variety. The prologue is the introduction to a play; and the epilogue^ is the concluding address. An Operas is a drama set to music: and a Comic opera, or opera buffa^ is one of a sportive kind, in contra- distinction from tne opera seria, A pantomime, is a theatrical performance consisting merely of action, without words.* A cantata^ is a diversified poem, intended to be sung. A sonnet^ is a poem of fourteen lines ; usually the amplification of some striking thought. The first sonnets were those of Petrarch. A madrigal, is a short poem, of variable length and construction, usually on some tender, delicate, or simple subject. An epigram, is a brief expression of some witty thought, often, though not always satirical. An acrostic is a short poem, in which the first letters, syllables, or words, of the suc- cessive lines, taken together, form a word or sentence by themselves.
The name Romance, is applied sometimes to works of fiction in general, sometimes to indiviauai works of this class ; and some- times it is used to express the spirit, taste, or style in which snch works are composed. It comes from the mixed Latin, or Romance language, used by the troubadours, or minstfels, of Pro- vence, in France; whose compositions first received this appella- tion. The word Novel, from the Italian novella, a tale or story, has been more recently introduced in our language, as applied to works of fiction. A romance, is properly one of the older or more extra- vagant compositions ; and a novel is one of the more recent and natural, relating usually to historical facts, or social life. The earliest romances, narrating the exploits of Arthur and his knights, or of Charlemagne and his peers, are full of supernatural agents and events : those of intermediate date also deal largely in mystery and extravagance ; but the better class of modern novels, a limited few, are valuable, as giving the ideas of well informed writers concerning men and manners, character and conduct, in the various phases and emergencies of life. Some of these works are auxiliary to geogra- phy and history ; presenting new views, or details, which more systematic writers have omitted : but their statements are always to be received with caution ; as they often take great liberties with the facts of the case. The name of Tales, is now mostly applied to brief novels or stories, such as those for children, and those which
^ * Although, in the following paget, mention is made of the moet prominent drama- tic oompoeitions; it is with the conyiction that the theatre, as at present conducted, is far more injurious than beneficial to the best interests of society, or of those who tllow tbemselTes to become its votaries.
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abound in our lighter periodicals. Fables^ or apologues, are also fictitious compositions, usually very short, but illustrating some im- poftant truth.
A.n Essay^ is a literary composition, usually of limited extent, and confined to some particular topic ; though less restricted than an ora- tion, in its construction and unity. A IHsquintion, is similar to an essay, but more formal, and supposed to be more thorough, in its examination of the subject. A Letteff or Epistle, is the least systematic kind of composition; being ususilly add/essed by the writer to some friend, or friends; and written in an easy, familiar style, on topics often miscellaneous, or of a personal character. Some few systematic works are written in the form of letters ; but these may be more properly arranged under the branches or subjects of which they treat. Discourses, are properly analyses or examina- tions of particular subjects ; their name being derived from the Latin discurro, I run through or over. An Oration, is a methodical dis- course, designed to be spoken before a public assembly. Funeral orations are often styled eulogies } (p. 243) ; and political or miscel- laneous discourses often take the name of speeches. An Address, is an oration of less pretending character ; as the term was originally applied to a communication made to a sovereign or otlier superior party. Legal and Religious discourses, or pleas and sermons, belong, we think, more properly to the departments of Nomology and The- ology. Of the principles which should govern such compositions, we have already spoken, under the branch of Rhetoric, (p. 74).
Of minor kinds of composition, besides those mentioned under Poetry, an Enigma, popularly called a Riddle, is a description, or a question, purposely obscured or concealed, to make the answer more difficult of discovery. A Rebus i is an enigmatical representation of some name or object, by means of pictures or emblems, instead of words. A Charade, is a designation of some particular word, by means of other words, which together will compose it ; and which latter are enigmatically described, but not expressly mentioned. An Anagram, is a transposition of the letters in a word or phrase, so as to form some other word or phrase with the same letters. A Fun, is an expression containing some word which has two different signi- fications ; the contrast of which presents a witty or ludicrous idea : a Conundrum, is a question involving a comparison, the answer to which is a pun. A Froverb, or aphorism, is a brief expression of some important truth ; and an Apothem, (Apophthegm), is a brief precept, or instructive remark. The termination ana, is applied to the names of distinguished persons, as a title to collections of their remarkable sayings ; as Johnsoniana signifies the aphorisms and apothems of Dr. Johnson. A Dialogue, or Colloquy, is a com- position in which several persons are introduced as the immediate speakers ; the former term being more appropriate where there are several, and the latter where there are only two. In such composi- tions, a Soliloquy denotes a part spoken by one of the persons, sup- posed to be alone.
In the further examination of Callography, we shall pursue the ethnographical order, adopted in the three preceding departments ;
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regarding the poetry and the prose works of the same nation, as having a closer connection than the poetry of one nation has with that of another. In the minor subdivisions of this subject, we shall group together works of a similar character, though written by differ- ent authors ; since the names of the latter have already been given in chronological order, in the department of Biography : and their pro- ductions will be mentioned collectively in the Bibliographical appendix to this work.
We proceed to offer an outline of Callography, under the four branches of Euclassic, Oriental, European, and American,
CHAPTER I.
EUCLASSIC CALLOORAPHT.
In the branch of Euclassic Callography, we include the study of all the poetical and lighter prose works of the ancient Greeks and Romans ; with all similar works, written prior to modern times, in the Greek and Latin languages. The poetical books of the Hebrew Scriptures, and perhaps some fragments of other oriental poetry, are more ancient than that included in the present branch : but their connection with the later oriental literature, extending down to the present time, induces us to preserve in this department the order adopted in the preceding; by assigning the first place to Euclassic, or Grecian and Roman literature. It should here be remarked, that as the earliest inhabitants of Greece and Italy were in a savage or barbarous state, the first dawn of polite literature as well as of science, came to them from the east, with the colonies which migrated thither, especially from Phoenicia and Egypt. Hence the influence exerted by the eastern mythology on that of Greece and Rome ; and a similar influence might doubtless be traced through all the arts, had their earlier traditions and records been preserved.
5 1. Grecian Callography , consists chiefly of Poetry ; with some Fables and Tales, and Oratorical and miscellaneous productions. As the great fountain of European callographics, it deserves particular attention, aside from its intrinsic merit; and it may safely be said that in original and fertile genius, in beauty and sublimity, the Gre- cian writers have never yet been surpassed.
Among the Greeks, Poetry appeared much sooner than prose; perhaps because it was more easily remembered, in an age when writing was difficult : and the first poets were also musicians. Their earliest poetry was lyric and sacred, and appears to have originated in Thrace. The Greeks regarded Linus as the inventor of melody, and the first favorite of the Muses. Orpheus and Musxus, it is said, were his pupils ; and wrote dilhyramba, or songs in honor of Bacchus ; of which there remain only some fragments, of doubtful authenticity. Pxans^ were originally hymns to Apollo, but after- wards addressed to other gods. The oracles of the ancient Sibyls^ or prophetesses, may also be classed among the early sacred poetry
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of the Greeks. To the tacred poets, succeeded the rhapaodistSf or minstrels ; who rehearsed tlie gene^ogy of the gods, the origia of the world, and the exploits of demigods and heroes ; but their rhap- sodies were all eventually eclipsed by the compositions of Hesiod and Homer.
The principal epic poems of the Greeks, are the Iliad and the Odyssey, both attributed to Homer, who is styled the father of epic poetry. There seems but little doubt that these works were essen- tially composed by him ; though many scholars suppose that they were not committed to writing till the times of Solon, or later. The subject of the //tW, is the wrath of Achilles against Agamemnon ; the misfortunes of the Greeks, on the withdrawal of the former ; and their success, in the conquest and destruction of Troy, on his return. The Odyssey t describes the wanderings of Ulysses, aAer the fall of Troy ; with his dangers and sufferings, till his safe return and rees- tablishment in his kingdom, the isle of Ithaca. These works differ so much in subject and style, that some writers have attributed them, piecemeal, to various rhapsodists, collectively styled the Hamtridst^ of whom Homer is admitted to have been the chief. The Batra- ehomyomachy, or battle of the frogs and mice, a mock heroic poem, attributed to Homer, was, doubtless, the work of a later age. The Theogony of Hesiod has been classed as an epic poem ; treating of the origin and acts of the gods of Grecian fable. The ArgonauiicSt of Apollonius Rhodius, relating to the Argonautic Expedition, is a work of some merit. The Perseid, Thebaid, and other epic poems of note, are lost : but the Dionysiacs of Nonnus, and the Paralipo* mena of Calaber, written in a later age, are preserved ; though of minor importance. The cyclic poets^ were imitators of Homer, of inferior note.
Grecian Ijfrie poetry^ was written in a great variety of metres, many of which were named from their inventors. Of the odes of Sappho, two only have been preserved, remarkable for their warm and tender feeling; one of them being a hymn to Venus. Many odes of Anacreon, have been preserved, most of them in praise of love, wine, and social pleasures. Pindar, sang, in more lofty strains, the praises of the victors, in the great public games of Greece ; and many of his odes are still extant. The odes of Archilochus, Alcman, Alcfeus, and others, have almost entirely perished. The poems called scoliuj were songs for social and festive occasions. Callinus, of Ephesus, is said to have written the first poem in elegiac measure, which was properly a lyric ; but Mimnermus, and Simonides, are regarded as the first elegiac poets, properly so called. Of Grecian pastoral poetry, the invention of which was attributed to Daphnis, the idyls of Theocritus, are the most important remains. The most beautiful of the idyls of Moschus, is the Seizure of Europa ; and the principal one of Bion, is the Funeral Song in honor of Adonis.
Of Grecian didactic poetry, the earliest specimen is the Works and Days of Hesiod; the first book of which consists principally of moral precepts, and the second of rules of husbandry ; concluding with a repetition of precepts on the conduct of life. The term gnomic poetry^ has been applied to collections of moral precepts or
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aphorisms ; such as those of Solon, and the Golden Verses, so called, attributed to Pythagoras, but of doubtful authenticity. Dicssarchus ivrote a didactic poem on Grecian geography ; Archestratus another on Gastrology ; and Nicanor wrote two others on medical subjects, the Theriaca, and Mexipharmaca* The poem of Aratus on Astro- nomy ^ is mentioned as a superior production. Most of the Grecian satires J are in the dramatic form; but we may here mention the Silloij (Stxxoe), or didactic satires, of Timon of Philius, and others. Of descriptive poetry^ we may instance Hesiod's Catalogue of Womenj and his Shield of Hercules ; both of which are supposed by some writers to have been parts of a larger poem, now lost. The only romantic poems in Greek, which have been preserved, belong to the Byzantine age, and are of little merit.
Dramatic poetry^ in Greece, took its rise from the religious cere- monies, in which represeqtations were introduced of some scene, or action, relating to the god in honor of whom they were instituted. Thespis of Icarus, in the time of Solon, is said to have invented tra- gedy, and to have introduced greater refinement in theatrical amuse- ments. He first assigned a part of the rehearsal to an actor, in order to relieve the chorus ; Eschylus added a second actor, to admit of dialogue ; and Sophocles added a third, or even a fourth speaker, to increase the interest of the fable or plot. The three great tragic poets of Greece, are JSschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The Prometheus bound, of Eschylus ; the OSdipus Turannus, of Sopho- cles ; and the Medea, of Euripides ; are regarded as their best pro- ductions. Grecian comedy, is said to have sprung from the choral songs of villagers ; and Epicharmus of Cos, is mentioned as the first writer of comedy, about 470 B. C. Living persons, and public characters were represented and satirized in comedy, until the abuse of this practice led to its suppression. Aristophanes is the only comic poet, of whose plays any are still preserved complete. In his come- dy entided the Clouds, he ridiculed Socrates ; and he attacked Euri- pides, in another, entitled the Acharntans. Of the later comedies of Menander, only some slight fragments remain. The satirical dramas, of the Greeks, were a peculiar kind, intermediate between tragedy and comedy, not generally satirical in the modern sense ; but so named from the chorus of satyrs, introduced to enliven the per- formance. The Cyclops, of Euripides, is the only specimen of this kind which has been preserved.
The early works of fiction in Greece related to their mythology : and works of romance were unknown until a later period. The Cy- ropsedia of Xenophon, describing the education of Cyrus of Persia, but supposed to contain more of fiction than of fact, has been some- times styled a political novel. The Milesian and Ionian Tales, have mostly perished; but from what is known of them, we have little reason to regret their loss. The piece by Lucian, styled Lucius or the Ass, is a specimen of this kind ; and his True History, is chiefly a satire on travellers, who indulge in the marvellous. The Babylonian Histories, or Loves of Rhodane and Simonis, by Jam- blichus of Syria, was probably the most ancient romance proper ; and next to it was the Ephesiaca, by Xenophon of Epbesus. The 88
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Choice of Heretdes, by Prodicas, is one of the most beautiful fictiooB of ancient times. The chief Grecian fables^ are those of iEsop, originally composed in prose, but afterwards paraphrased in verse, by Socrates and others. Of Grecian epistles^ or letters, which have been preserved, a few only are genuine ; among which are some by Isocrales, Demosthenes, and Aristotle. The only amatory letters before the time of Constantine, are those of Alciphron.
Of Grecian eloquence, Athens was the great school and theatre, commencing as early as the times of Solon. The orations of Pisis- tratus and Themistocles, of Pericles and Alcibiades, were highly praised, but are lost. Lysias, is celebrated for his Funeral oration, over the Athenians slain under the command of Iphicrates ; and Iso- crates, for his Panegyric, pronounced at the Olympic games, and his Panathenaic, or eulogy of the Athenians. The orations of Issus, are chiefly legal, relating to inheritances. Those of Demos- thenes include the Olynthiaca, and Philippics, directed against Philip of Macedon ; besides many judicial, and several political speeches; of which that Concerning the Crown, in defence of Ctesiphon, and of his own policy against Philip, is regarded as the best. The previous oration of iEschines, against Ctesiphon, who had advised the Athenians to present a golden crown to Demosthenes, was unfortunate for its author, and led to his banishment from Athens. We have only room to add that the Dialogues of Plato are philo- sophical, and the characters well sustained ; similar to which is the Picture, by Cebes, (Cebetis Tabula), an aliegoricul dialogue, of ex- cellent tendency. Lucian's Dialogues of the Gods, and of the Dead, are rather satirical than philosophical ; but written in a bold and vigorous style and spirit.
$ 2. Roman Callography, is chiefly derived from Grecian models ; to which it is inferior in originality, but equal in interest and import- ance. The Romans paid but little attention to literature, until a(\er their conquest of Greece ; the arts and productions of which, in- spired them with taste, and furnished them in part with subjects for composition. The most flourishing period of Roman literature, was in the last ages of the republic, and the reigns of the first emperors, especially that of Augustus. Its decline was hastened by luxury and tyranny, and, ultimately, by the invasions of the northern honle of barbarous nations. The literature of the middle ages, being chiefly in the Latin language, may properly be associated with that of Rome, though of minor importance.
The first Roman epic poet, is said to have been Ennius ; whose poem, entitled Annals, is rather a chronicle in verse, than a regular epic ; being devoted to a description of Roman exploits, down to his own times ; and drawn, perhaps, from national ballads, which were common at an earlier period. IThe chief epic poem of the Romans, is the JEneid, of Virgil ; which describes the adventures of JSneas, from his leaving Troy when it was taken by the Greeks, until his final settlement in Italy, as the supposed ancestor of the Roman nation. The poem of Lucius Varius, celebrating the exploits of Augustus and A^rippa, is, with several other minor epics, totally lost. Lucan*8 Pharsalia, ranked as an epic poem, describes the
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wars of Pompey and Cesar : the Argonautica^ of Valerius Flaccds, describes the Argonautic expedition : the Punica^ of Silius Italicus, treats of the second Punic war : and the Thebaid and Achilleid of Statins, relate respectively to the contest of the Tiieban brothers, Eteocles and Polynices ; and the adventures of Achilles, before the Trojan war. The Gigantomachyy of Claudian, and the Antoniad, of Gordian, belong to a later age ; and the Christiad^ is a modem Latin poem, written by Mark Jerome Vida, who died in 156G.
Roman lyric poetry^ seems to have commenced with Catullus, who wrote a few odes ; but the odes of Horace, amatory, convivial, moral, and political, rank, in grace and spirit, second only to those of the Grecian Pindar. The Silvse^ of Statius, contains two odes of merit ; subsequent to which the only lyrics of note were the hymns of the Christians, commencing with those of Hilarius and Pruden- tius. The chief elegies, of the Romans, are those of Catullus, Gallus, Tibullus, and Propertius; most of which have been pre- served. The Tristia, of Ovid, belong to this class. Of Roman pastoral poetry, the Bucolics of Virgil, chiefly eclogues, are very beautiful, though mostly imitations ; as are also the later eclogues of Calpurnius. The idyls of Ausonius and Claudian, are not of a pastoral character.
The earliest Roman didactic poems, were probably those of En- nius, entitled Phagetica, on diet and eatables ; and Epicarmus, a translation, concerning the nature of things. The poem of Lucre- tius, On the Nature of Tilings, is a digest of the Epicurean phi- losophy ; and the Georgics, of Virgil, is a beautiful didactic poem relating chiefly to agriculture. Ovid's Metamorphoses, and Fastis are chiefly mythological, derived from Greek books now lost ; and hence they are more valuable. Horace's Art of Poetry, may be mentioned in this class, as a superior production. The poem enti- tled ^tna, is attributed by some to Cornelius Severus ; but by others to Lucilius Junior. There are also poems by Atacinus, on geography, and navigation ; by Columella, on gardening ; by Palla- dius, on grafting ; by Maurus, on grammar ; and by Vida, in later times, on the art of poetry. Of Roman satires, the earliest were those of Ennius and Pacuvius, chiefly of a comic character. Lu- cilius introduced a more grave and severe style ; but the satires of Horace are considered superior. The Menippean satires of Varro, and Petronius, and the more caustic ones of Persius and Juvenal, exhibit in a strong light the vices of declining Rome. The epigrams of Martial surpass those of Catullus, and have much point and spirit; bat they are too often tainted with licentiousness.
The earliest dramatic performances in Rome, were those of the Tuscan Hlstriones; who sang and danced to the music of the flute. The Attelane Fables, were a rude kind of comedy or farce, so named from Atella, a city of the Osci ; hence also named Oscan plays. Regular dramatic pieces were first exhibited in Rome, about 240 B. C, by Livius Andronicus ; who is regarded as the founder of Roman tragedy. Tragedies were also written by Ennius, Pacu- vius, Attius and Naevius ; but they are chiefly borrowed from the Greek. The best Roman tragedies, including 'Medea, and The Tro-
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jonst are attribated to Seneca, the philoeopher. The comedies of Plautus, among which are Amphitryon^ and the Boastful Soldier, and those of Terence, more refined, of which the Andrta is deemed the best, were long popular in Rome, till superseded by gladiatorial and other shows. Some fragments of comedies by Caecilius are also preserved, and possess some merit.
Into the wide field of Romance, the Romans seem scarcely to have entered. The Metamorphosis, or Golden Asa, of Apuleius, analogous to the Milesian Tales, describes a youth named Lucius, as being changed into an ass, to punish his vices and presumption, but restored again by resorting to the mysteries of Isis. The Satyricon, of Petronius Arbiter, describes the love adventures of Encolpius, a young freedman ; and thus portrays the character of the times ; being at the same time a satire and romance. Of Roman fables, the principal are those of Phaedms, partly translated from iEsop, but containing many new ones written in the same style and spirit. Avi- anus also wrote fables in verse, and Titianus in prose. The epistles, or letters, of Roman writers, are numerous. The most valuable, are those of Cicero ; many of which are letters of business, addressed to the great men of that age ; and with th~em are preserved several letters of Julius Caesar, and others. Pliny the younger, left many letters, of value ; some of which are descriptive ; others, like those of Seneca, are moral or philosophical. We have also letters of minor interest by Pronto, Symmachus, Sidonius, and others.
Roman oratory, as well as poetry, seems to have been first care- fully cultivated in imitation of the Greeks; to whose manner, Cato, himself an orator, was strongly opposed. Antony, the grandfather of Mark Antony, was surnamed the Orator, from his eloquence ; and Crassus, died of a fever, from the excitement of delivering a powerful oration before the senate. Their orations, like those of the celebrated Hortensius, the early rival of Cicero, are now lost. Cicero, has ever been regarded as the first of Roman orators ; ranking with the Gre- cian Demosthenes. His most celebrated orations are those against Mark Antony, called Philippics ; those against Verres ; those against Cataline ; and those in opposition to the Agrarian law ; all of which fortunately have been preserved. Next to these, in interest, should be mentioned the Panegyric, so called, of Pliny, the younger ; in praise of the emperor Trajan. His other orations are lost. Seneca and Quintilian should be mentioned rather as rhetoricians than ora- tors ; and the last remains of Roman oratory, the panegyrics of the later emperors, are valuable only as aaxiliaries to history, in illustrat- ing the decline of the empire.
CHAPTER n.
OBXKVTAL CiaLOORAPBT.
In the branch of Oriental Callography, we include the poetry and romance of the oriental or eastern nations, both ancient and* modern.
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It 18 a wide field of research, which has hitherto heen very imperfectly investigated, but is attracting increased attention. The literature of the orientals is surprizingly extensive, when it is considered that the greater part of it is preserved in manuscript: but of many of its valuable works few copies exist; and but a small portion has yet been translated into the European tongues. While there are strong resemblances between these works and those of European writers, there are also striking differences ; such as to excite much interest in the study and comparison, in those who once commence it. Much of the oriental poetry relates to history, mythology, geo- graphy, and politics ; and is important in illustrating the knowledge of these subjects possessed by the oriental nations. Their romantic and imaginative poetry is very rich ; sometimes delicate and natural » but often gorgeous and bombastic.
Ancient Egypt, we believe, has left no poems or romances on record ; though some of its hieroglyphics are doubtless highly poetical. The ancient Hebrew poetry is chiefly, if not solely, comprised in the- Sacred Scriptures ; and its study belongs therefore to the department of Theology. It is remarkable that the Mohamedan nations gene* rally, though rich in imaginative writings, have no dramatic poetry ; owing, perhaps, to their peculiar social institutions. The literature of the East, so far as it is known to us, is principally confined to the Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Sanscrit, and Chinese languages ; the callographic writings in which, we proceed to notice, in the order here named.
§ 1. Arabian Callography, belongs mostly to the middle ages ; and may be regarded as filling the chasm which exists between the literature of ancient, and that of modern Europe. At a time when learning was almost eradicated from Christendom, it flourished at Cordova and Bagdad, then the great seats of Mohamedan power. The caliphs Haroon al Rasheed, Al Mamun, Al Mansur, and Motas- sem were among its patrons, and, as early as the ninth century of our era, the Arabians had translated the writings of Euclid, Diophantus, Hippocrates, Galen, Theophrastus, Aristotle, Pliny, and others; some of which have been preserved to us through their means.
Arabian poetry, dates back to an earlier period than the origin of the Mohamedan religion. In the fairs held at Mecca and Okadh, about A. D. 600, poetical contests took place, and the prize poems were hung up in the caaba or temple, written in letters of gold. Seven of these, collectively called the Moallacat, (Moallakath, or hung up), have become particularly celebrated. Their authors were Amralkeis, Tharafah, Toheir, Lebid, Antara, Amru (Ben Kalthun), and Hareth, called the Arabian Pleiades ; who sang of religion, patriotism, love, and revenge, in highly impassioned strains. These poems are preserved in the Greater Hamasah or Anthology, a select collection of poems, compiled by Abu Temam, A. D. 830 ; and also in the Lesser Hamasahj compiled by Bochteri, in 880. Among the Arabians, Turks, and Persians, a gazelle, or casside, is a poem, the alternate lines of which rhyme together throughout the piece ; and a choice collection of poems, they call a divan.
The elegies of Motenabbi, are noted for their tenderness: and. 37 2B
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those of Tograi, (or Thograi), Tizier of Bagdad, are held in high repute. The idyls of Abu Beer are much esteemed, as also the Song of Al Nasaphi. The Dha Argiouzat of Al Gazi, contains every Arabic word in which the letter l)h occurs. The Lamiatz of Tograi, Shafari, and Abu Mansor, have every line ending in L ; the Bordah of Ibn Zadun, has every line closing with the letter M ; and in his Ntmiais each line ends with the letter N. The poem of AbiM-olae, in praise of Prince Said, and the later poems of Faredh, are mentioned as particularly beautiful. So also is the volume by Abu'l Cassem, entided Particles of Gold. D'Herbelot, in his Biblioth^que Orien- tale, enumerates upwards of thirty Arabian poets, and their works ; of which we have no room here to speak farther.
The epic poetry of the Arabians, being all of a romantic character, we reserved for the present place. Admai's (or Asmai^s) great heroic romance, Antara^s Life, describes the exploits of Antara, (or Andar), an Arabian prince, whom we have already mentioned as one of the poetical Pleiades. The Mecamatf (Makamat), or Sessions, by Ithiel Hariri, is a romantic history of a knight errant: and the Natural Alan, by Ibn Tophail, is a philosophical romance of great interest. The Life of Timur, (Tamerlane), by Ebn Arabshah, is regarded by Sir William Jones as an epic or heroic poem of great merit : but the great storehouse of Arabian romance, is Aff Lail u LaU, or the thousand nights and one night, commonly known as the Arabian Nights Entertainments ; a collection of wild and beautiful tales, said to have been translated from the Persian, in the times of the caliph Al Mansur, and now translated into most of the European tongues. The fables of Lokman, were written, it is believed,' since the rise of Mohamedanism ; and they have found more favour in Europe than at home.
Of Turkish Caliography, we have very litde to say, except that it appears to be quite meagre. The romantic poem entitled Chosroes and Shereen, by Molla Khosrew, is, we believe, derived from the Persian. The principal lyric poet of the Turkish language, is Baki, whose divan, or collection of odes and songs, contains many beau- ties. They have also an Anthology, of choice poems, collected by Latifi and Tschelebi ; besides other minor poems, among which are the songs of Mesihi, mentioned by Sir William Jones. The paucity of Turkish literature is owing perhaps in part to the abundance of the Arabic and Persian ; of which the Turks are fond, and which sup- plies the place of a national literature of their own.
§ 2. Persian Callography, closely resembles the Arabian, both in style and subjects ; unless, perhaps, it is more devoted to luxury and the tender passions. It abounds, however, in pure and beautiful sentiments ; numerous specimens of which are furnished in the trans- lations, by Sir William Jones and others. The Persians have one great epic poem, as distinct from the romantic ; or rather a collection - of epics, Called the Shah Nameh, (Shanamah), or Book of Kings, begun, it is said, by Dakiki, continued by Ansari, but completed by Ferdusi, to whom the whole work is commonly attributed. It is a poetical history of Persia, in detached portions, extending from Nour- shivan to Yezdegerd ; and signalizing the exploits of Rustem, (or
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Rostan), the Hercules of Persia. The history of Alexander the Great, entitled Iskander-Nameh^ is a favourite subject in Persia ; and has been written by Nizami ; by Mir Ali, of Shirvan ; by Achmed of Kirvan ; by Emir Soliman ; and by Jami ; the first and last of whom have best succeeded. Ahmedi composed a heroic poem, on the actions of Tamerlane.
Among the Persian lyric poems, are those of Ansari, Essedi, and Anvari, (or Enweri), whose caasides are unsurpassed. The odes of Khakani, (or Chakani), are spirited and sublime : and those of Mir Chosru, (or Emir Khosrou), are very elegant. The divan, of Hafiz, contains many sprightly odes and songs, chiefly anacreontic. There are also books of odes, or divans, by Jami, Ahli, Saib, Arsi, Casim, Shahi, Hatefi, Senai, Shefali, and others. The Gulistan, or bed of roses, and the Boston, or garden, of Sadi, are longer poems, highly praised, both for style and morality. Jamis Beharistan, or mansion of the spring, as also his Chain of gold, Gift of the noble, and Man- ners of the just, are moral and didactic poems, like those of Sadi. The Lawful magic, and the Taper and the moth, by Ahli ; the Se- crets of lovers, the Seven faces, and the Treasure of secrets, by Ni- zami ; and the Junction of two seas, Beauty and love, the Conqueror and triumpher, by Catebi, we have barely room to mention. The Pend'Namtth, of Attar, a contemporary of Sadi, is a valuable collec- tion of proverbs : and the Kilat el Metnavi, (or Masnavi), of Gela- leddin Roumi, surnamed Balkhi, treats of religion, history, morals, and politics, with great energy and richness. Reshidi's Enchanted gardens, is a treatise on the art of poetry.
Of Persian romantic poetry, and romance, the story of Leila and Meinoun, (or Laila and Mejnoun), has been written by Nizami, Hatifi, Jami, and others. Nizami also wrote the loves of Chosru and Shirin, (or Chosrou and Schirin) ; and Jami wrote Joseph and Zuleika, (Jussuf or Yusuf and Zuleica), as also Selman and Msal ; both of which are contained in his collection of seven poems, called the Seven stars of the bear. Baharam and Gulendam, is a roman- tic poem by Catebi ; and there are long poems by Chosrou, Abubatha, and Nani, probably of a romantic character. The TTiousand and one Nights, is said to have been written by Humai, a Persian queen ; and the Thousand and one Days, in imitation of it, is devoted to the praise of men, as the former is to the vindication of women. The Bahar Danuch, or garden of knowledge, by Doollah, or OoUah ; the Tooti'Nameh, (Tuti-nama), or tales of a parrot, and the Tales of Bakhtyar, and the Ten Viziers, are also of a romantic character. The Hatim Tai, is a popular romance on the adventures of Hatim ; and the Heft Peiker, by Nizami, relates to the adventures of Beh- ram. The Bos fan i Khyal, or garden of imagination, is an historical romance. The fables of Pilpay, so called, have been translated into Persian by Rudigi, (or Roudeki), under the title of Anwar So" heili ; and there are other translations of the same.
$ 3. Hindoo Callography, is chiefly based on the Hindoo My- thology, as comprehended in the sacred books, in the Sanscrit tongue, which we have already mentioned in the department of Theology, (p. 133). It is chiefly in the hands of the Brahmins ; and has been
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but recently cultivated by European scholan. The oldest poem of the Hindoos, is said to be the Ramayana^ (or Ramayon), by Val- miki, (or Balmiki), describing the exploits of Rama, or Ramatshandra, king of Ayodya, supposed to be an incarnation of Vishnoo ; who wrought wonders in rescuing his beloved Sita. Next to this is the Maha-hharata^ (or Mahabharat), by Vyasa, which treats of the wars of the Curavas and Puravas, (or Kurus and Pandus), two branches of the race of Bharata, who strove for the sovereignty of India, it is said, 1391 B. C. In this war, gods, and giants, and heroes, particu- larly Crishna, (Krishnoo), are represented as taking part; and the episode called Jiaghu-vama, gives a distinct history of the race of Crishna. These are both sacred poems, and rank next to the Yedas. The Gita Govinda^ by Djaga Deva, (or Jayadeva), and the Bhaga- vatUt or Bagavadam, which is one of the Puranas, and attributed to Vyasa : both also relate to the life and exploits of Krishnoo. Tho Cumara Sambhava^ (or Kouipara^, by Calidasa, is an epic poem on the birth of Cartica, or Kumara, the physician of tlie gods ; and Ca- lidas also wrote a Raehxivansa^ or children of the sun, perhaps the one already mentioned, besides the Meghaduta^ or cloud messenger, and the Nalodaya^ or rise of Nala, both elegant love tales. The poem called Bhatti^ is a popular epic, by Pandita ; and the Rasa- manjariy by Misra, is an analysis of love. The meeting of Arjoun and SevUy is described by Djana Radjah ; but the subject of the Ka» dambari, by Bhattu Bana, we have been unable to ascertain. The Puranas, being among the sacred poems, we shall not here attempt to describe. The Manava Dharma ShastrUi or Institutes of Menu, embrace not only the Hindoo laws, but morals and mythology.
Of Hindoo romance^ we would mention the Vrihatcatha^ and the Cat^ha SariiaagarOf both collections of tales by Somadeva; the former in verse ; also Singhaaana^ or the throne of Vicramaditya, consisting of tales supposed to have been related by the images sur rounding tlie throne ; and finally the Suca Sapiaiu or seventy tales of a parrot, from which the Persians probably borrowed their Tooti- nameh. The Bitopadesa of Vishnu Sarman, is a collection of ele- gant fables, so connected as to form a code of moral and political instruction : and Sir William Jones supposes that their title, abbre- viated and corrupted in Persian, was mistaken for the name of a person ; but tliat no such person as Pilpay ever existed. Of Hindoo dramatic poems t or Natacas, the SacorUala^ (Sokuntolo), or Fatal Ring, by Calidasa, is regarded as the best performance ; and next to it is his Urvasif (Ourvasi Vikrama), or the heroism of Urvasi. The Ketriabalh or pearl necklace, by Ilersadeva ; the Prabodha Chan- drodayttf or rising moon of knowledge, by Misra ; the Maka Na- tacaf or great drama, by Misra Murari ; and the Hasyamava, or sea of laughter, a farce by Jagadiswara, (or Bhaltatcharia), are all dra- matic productions of interest and value. So are Malati and Mad- hava, (or Malheva), and the Malignant Child, the Rape of Usha, the Taming of Durvasas, the Seizure of the Lock, and others, by unknown authors.
$ 4. Of CfUnese Calhgraphy^ we have very little to say. The Chinese have considerable poetry ; much of which appears to treat
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of their formal systems of morals and politics ; though some of it is highly imaginative, arising in part from the structure of their lan- guage. The most ancient and approved of the Chinese poetry, is the Shee King, (or Shi Kin), a collection of three hundred odes, composed or preserved by Confucius, and many of them in praise of the early princes of China. The Taoo-taee^ and the Shan-hay' king, are poems on philosophical and romantic subjects ; and the San-iaee-king, consisting of verses of three syllables, is one of their elementary books for the young. Among the poems of the late emperor Kien-long, is one on the city of Mougden, the capital of Mantchooria. We believe that Soolo and Kien-gan, are also the names of Chinese poets. Among other dramatic productions, the Chinese have a collection entided the Hundred plays of Yuen; chiefly historical; among which are the Heir in old age, and the Chalk ring or circle. Two plays of this collection. The Orphan of China, and the Sorrows of Han, have been translated into English. Of Chinese romance, we may mention Haou-kew-chuen, or the Fortunate Union ; an imperfect translation of which, has been incor- rectly entitled the Pleasing History. It relates to the trials and happy marriage of Teihchungyn, (or Tingsing^, and the beautiful Shueypingsing. King-ping-moey, is the title of another romance, in which Symengking, the wealthy hero, marries six wives. The three Lins are the principal personages in another novel, in praise of virtue: but whether Yu-keao-le, (or lu-kiao-Ii), is the title of this, or of another one, we have not been able to discover. In another novel, the hero, Tchouangtse, (or Tcho-ang-tse), finds his wife unfaithful, and, after her death, becomes a famous philosopher. This IB said to have been the original of Voltaire's Zadig.
CHAPTER HI.
EUROPEAN CALLOGRAPHT.
The Polite Literature of Modern Europe, though of later growth than either of the preceding branches, and formed in some degree on the model of the ancient classics, is not to be regarded as inferior to them, either in extent and variety of subjects, or in grandeur and beauty of sentiment and style, or even in its intrinsic importance. We have no hesitation in placing Dante and Milton in the same exalted rank with Homer and Virgil : and if the present branch can- not furnish exact parallels to all the great writers of antiquity, it can at least produce those of equal merit, and in still more various kinds of composition.
Modern European Callography originated in the middle ages, com- mencing, we believe, with the songs of the German Minnesingers, and of the Provencal or Romance poets, in France and Italy. It fed upon the remains of Euclassic literature; the preservation of which is due in no small degree to the labors of the ecclesiastics, sheltered, in their convents, from the storms of war and the revola-
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tions of states. Hence it was that the term clerks from the Laiin dericus, a clergyman, came to signify a writer, or scholar. The decline of the feudal system, and the consolidation of society, were favorable to tlie growth of literature ; but it did not reach its matu- rity till the invention of printing enhanced the value of literary fame, by spreading it to the four winds of h^ven, and wafting back the echo to reward the author's labours. The Reformation widened the field of literary research ; the Discovery of America presented new themes for inspiration ; and the number of competitors was increased by those eastern scholars who took refuge in Christendom when the Byzantine empire was subdued by the Turks. No wonder then that a fresh harvest was reaped ; worthy of the age, the labors, and the circumstances, which produced it.
We proceed to treat of European Callography, in the order adopted in the preceding departments.
§ 1. Italian Callography ^ may be regarded as commencing with the love songs, composed at the court of Sicily ; the oldest compo- sitions which have been preserved in the Italian language. Still, the Latin was deemed the only dignified language of literature, till the vulgar tongue, so called, was ennobled by the great work of Dante, and thenceforward met with public favor. The Divina Commtdia^ of Dante, is an allegorical and didactic, rather than epic poem ; describing an imaginary visit of Dante, conducted by Virgil, to Hell, to Purgatory, and to Heaven, or Paradise ; with a description of each, and of its inhabitants, founded partly on Mythology, but prin- cipally on the dogmas of the Roman Catholic religion. This poem has passed through nearly sixty editions, and has had more commen- tators than any other work written since the revival of letters in Eu- rope. The Dettamondo of Uberti, describing the universe, and the QuadriregiOf of Frezzi, on the empires of love, Satan, virtue, and ▼ice, are inferior imitations of Dante.
Petrarch's Africa, was written in Latin ; but the first epic poems in Italian, were La Tlieseidet and Jl Filoatrato ; both by Boccacio ; both now almost forgotten. The Morgante Maggiore, of Pulci, narrating the exploits of Roland or Orlando, with Risaldo, and the giant Morgante, probably suggested the Orlando Inamorato of Boi- ardo; and this, in its turn, led to Ariosto's Orlando Furio»o; an epic and romantic poem, on the exploits of Roland, one of Charlemagne's paladins, or knights errant, who fell in the batde of Roncesvalles. The Orlando Amoroso^ of Bemi, was written in a more sportive vein. The Armida^ of Bernardo Tasso, and the Rinaldo^ of his son Tor- quato Tasso, are both respectable productions ; but the latter writer is immortalized by his Gerusalemme Libtrata^ or Jerusalem Deli- vered ; the noblest of Italian epics ; describing the exploits of Godfrey of Bouillon, and his associates, in the first crusade. Trissino's Italia Liberata, or Italy delivered from the Goths, is a similar but inferior production ; and the Adone^ or Adonis, of Marini, is of little repute.
Of Italian lyric poetry^ the canzoni, or ballads, and the sonetti, or sonnets, of Petrarch, are the most celebrated. The latter are mostly devoted to his love for the virtuous Laura ; but the former are patriotic and religious. The sonnets of Lorenzo di Medici, are in imitation
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of those of Petrarch ; and those of Uberti, are highly esteemed, as also the later ones of Bembo and Frugoni. Of pastoral poetry, the Arcctdia, of Sannazaro, contains some beautiful idyls ; the SagrifiziOf or Sacrifice, by Beccari, was the first Italian pastoral in a dramatic form ; and the Aminta^ of Tasso, is a beautiful pastoral drama, in which shepherds and shepherdesses are the speakers. The Pastor Fido or Faithful Shepherd, by Guarini, is similar to the Aminta ; alike original and beautiful, though perhaps less critically composed. Of descriptive poems, we would mention the Amhra^ of Lorenzo di Medici, in praise of his gardens ; the Tournament, of Politiano ; the Sette Giornate, or Seven Days of Creation, by Tasso ; and the Coltivaziotie, of AUemanni, a descriptive and didactic poem on Agriculture.
Of Italian dramatic poetry, the Sophonisha, of Trissino, was the first regular tragedy ; and next to it was the Bosmonda, or Rosamond, of Rucellai. The Jocasta, of Dolce, and the Orbecche, of Cinzio, (or Cintio), are among the older tragedies of merit. Tasso wrote one tragedy, entitled Torrismondo : and that of ^erope, by Maffei, suggest- ed those on the same subject by Alfieri and Voltaire. Of the numerous tragedies of Alfieri, the best are probably those entitled Saul, and Mel, both from Scripture History ; the latter of which, intermediate between a tragedy and opera, was called by its author a tramelogedia> The Galeotto Manfredi, of Monti, is a more recent tragedy of note. Goldont excelled chiefly in comedy ; but his Belisarius, is a valuable tragedy. The first opera, was composed by Rinuccini, about 1594 ; and the first performed at Naples was in 1615 : but the best of the early operas was probably that of Apostolo Zeno, entitled VInganno Felice, or the Fortunate Stratagem, performed at Venice in 1696. The operas of Metastasio are unsurpassed : among them are his Didone Abhandonata, or Dido Forsaken ; Im Clememia di 7\to, or the Clemency of Titus ; and Hypaipyle, or the conspiracy of the Lem- nian women. Among the early Italian comedies, are the Virginia, of Accolti ; and La Mandragora, and La Clizia, by Macchiavelli : but the most esteemed, are those of Goldoni, the first of which was La Donna di garbo, or the Lady of merit. Those of Avelloni are also popular.
Of Italian romantic poetry, and romance, some of the oldest specimens are the Aspramonte, by an unknown author ; Giron il Cortese, or Giron the CourteouSf by Alamanni ; and the Amadis, by Bernardo Tasso ; all of them tales of chivalry and magic. The oldest collection of Italian prose tales, extant, is the Centi Novelli Antiche, or Hundred ancient stories, by unknown authors. Boccacio wrote two novels ; one entitled Fiammetta ; the other called FilO' copo ; both chiefly amatory : and Macchiavelli is the author of Belfagor, a satirical novel against scolding women. Here may be mentioned the tales of Boccacio, Sacchetti, and Giovanni ; none of which can be recommended as worthy of general perusal. Giraldo Cinzio also wrote a collection entitled the Hundred Fables; most of which are mere stories. The historical species of romance has lately been introduced into Italy by Manzoni, in / Promessi Sposi, pub- lished by him in 1827. In oratory, we have the published orations
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of Badoaro, LoUio, and others ; but Italy has produced few orators of distinction.
The older Spanish poetry, consists chiefly of ballads, or metrical romances, many of which are preserved in the Romancero General collected by Florez ; but their authors are in many cases unknown. The earliest poem worthy of notice here, is El Poema del Cid, a brief epic and romantic composition, written about 1150, by an unknown hand, and narrating Uie exploits of Don Rodrigo, called the Cid, who fought against the Moors. The Historia de los Vandos, is a romantic chronicle, in verse, of the Moorish heroes, the Zegris and Abencerrages of Grenada. The Jiraucanat by Ercilla y Zuniga, is an epic poem, of historical value ; describing the subjugation of the Araucanian Indians, and their struggles to regain their independence.
Of Spanish lyric poetry i a large collection of old songs is con- tained in the Concionero Oeneral, collected by Baena and Castillo. The sonnets and songs of Boscan, and the sonnets and eclogues of Garcilaso de la Vega, are highly valued, though partly formed on the Italian model. Montemayor and Miranda, though Portuguese, wrote also some excellent pastorals, in Spanish. The Diana of the former is a pastoral romance. The odes of Herrera, and the canticles of Luis de Leon, are said to be rich in sentiment and diction. The Galatea, of Cervantes, is of a pastoral character ; and the Spaniards have pastorals also by Enzina, and others. La Gaya Ciencia, or the Gay Science, by Villena, is a didactic poem on the art of poetry. El Labyrintho, or Las T^recientas, The Labyrinth, or Three Hun- dred stanzas, by Juan de Mena, is an allegorical picture of human life, in imitation of Dante. The Centiloquio, or Hundred Maxims, by Mendoza of Santillana, is a didactic poem on morals and politics ; and his Doctrinal de Privados, or Manual of Favorites, contains moral lessons for courtiers.
Spanish dramatic poetry, may be regarded as commencing with the Mingo Rehulgo, a satiric pastoral play ; and the dramatic ro- mance of La Celestina, or Calixtus and Melibcea. The earliest dra- matic performances, were probably the Mysteries, so called, repre- senting scripture scenes, exhibited as religious ceremonies ; and these suggested the Autos Sacramentales, or religious dramas, of the later writers. Cervantes wrote nearly thirty dramatic pieces, of which only two now remain. They are Numantia, a tragedy ; and Life in Algiers, a comedy. Lopez de Vega wrote eighteen hundred co- medies, and four hundred religious dramas; of which more than three hundred were printed. Among the best of them, are. La Discreta Venganga, or the Discreet Revenge, and Lo Cierto por h Dudoso, the Certain for the Doubtful. They are lively and inge- nious ; whereas the one hundred and eighty dramas of Calderon, are said to be monotonous, and to breathe forth the intolerant spirit of the Inquisition. His Devotion to the Cross, and Inflexible Prince, are mentioned as specimens of his style. The tragedy of Rachel, by Garcias de la Huerta, is a later production of superior merit.
The oldest romance, worthy of notice, in the Spanish language, if we except the tales of the Cid, is said to be that of Amadis de Gaul} a Ule of chivalry, supposed to have been written about 1300,
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by Lobeira» a Portuguese. El Conde Lucanor, or the Count Luca- nor, by Prince Juan Manuel, contains excellent precepts for princes ; and is regarded as the first pure model of the Spanish language. Count Alarcos^ is a tragic novel, the author of which we are unable to name. The comic romance, Lazarilio de Tormes^ by the statesman Mendoza, and the Don Guzman de Alfarache^ or Spanish Rogue, by Aleman, are said to have suggested the French novel of Gil Bias, by Le Sage. These were followed by the romances of Timoneda, and Montalvan ; of some repute : but the most celebrated Spanish novel is the Don Quixotte, of Cervantes ; which is at the same time a satire on the absurdities of chivalry, a striking moral picture of human life, and a pure model of the Spanish language. Cervantes wrote another novel, entitled Persilea and Sismunda ; and an earlier collection of Exemplary Novels, or tales, of a moral character. The Life of Friar Gerund, by the Jesuit de I'lsla, under the assumed name of Lobon de Salazar, is a spirited satire on the bad preaching of the monks, suggested by Don Quixotte. The fables of Yriarte, are possessed of some originality and merit ; but in the field of ora- tory, we believe that the Spaniards have few productions.
Of Portuguese poetry, the principal epic is the Jis Lusiadas, (or Os Lusiados), the Lusiad of Camoens ; which relates to the disco- veries and conquests of his countrymen in the east, particularly those of Vasco da Gama, in his first voyage to India : but it has been ob- served that Camoens*s chief hero was his country. The Contestabre de Portugal, by Lobo, is a prosaic poem, the hero of which is Pe- reira, the High Constable of the kingdom : and the Naufragio, by Corte Real, relates to the shipwreck and sufierings of De Sousa, on the coast of Africa. Corte Real also wrote an epic poem on the Siege of Diu, (or Dio\ and its defence by Mascarenhas. The Fountain of Aganippe, by Faria y Souza, is considered inferior ; as also the Henriqueida, of Meneses count of Ericeyra, in praise of the first king of Portugal. The Ulysses, of Castro, and the Malacca Conquistada, of Sa y Menesez, are regarded as works of merit ; as also the Ouraguay, of Basilio da Gama, describing the conquest of Paragnay.
Of Portuguese lyric poetry, the odes and epistles of Ferreira, have been compared to those of Horace ; and are doubtless excellent. Camoens wrote some sonnets and canzonets ; and we have recent odes by Manoel ; and canzonets by Bocage. The pastoral poems of Ribeyro, had many imitators ; and led to numerous other works of this class. Falca6, (or Falcum), was one of his imitators, but his inferior. The pastorals of Andrade Caminha, and Bernardes Pi- menta, are still less regarded ; and the pastoral romances of Lobo, are said to be very monotonous. The elegies of Bacellar, and the comic poems of Freire de Andrade, are also of minor importance. The dramatic poems of Gil Vicente, were probably the best early ones in Portuguese, and served as models not only to Camoens, but also to the two great Spanish dramatists. Camoens wrote the Am- phitryons, Seleucus, and Filodemo, or Philodemus, the latter of a pastoral character; and Miranda wrote two Portuguese comedies, Os Estrangeiros, or the Strangers, and Os Villalpandios, the Vill- 38
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alpands ; though his other works, like those of Moniemayor, are in Spanish. The tragedy of Inez de Castro, by Ferreira, is one of deep interest ; and the Osmia, of the countess Vimieiro, was crowned by the Portuguese Academy, in 1788. Ferreira de Vasconcelloa wrote several comedies of some merit.
Of Portuguese romance, next to the AmadU de Gauly written in Spanish by Lobeira, we would mention the Menina e Mo^a, for Moza), the Innocent Maiden, a chivalric romance by Ribeyro ; Uie oldest prose specimen of the Portuguese language. The Paitner of England, by Moraez, and the Happy Freeman, by an unknown author, are among the older novels ; as also the Emperor Clarimond, by Barhas, (or Barros) ; which, though wanting in invention, is writ- ten in a pleasing style. The History of Charlemagne and hit Thvelve Peers, by Carvalho, is bombastic, but amusing ; and the Knights of the Round Table, by Ferreira de VasconceUos, is a work of similar character.
§ 2. French Callography, may be regarded as commencing with the poetry of the Troubadours, or minstrels of Provence, written in the Provencal or Romance language ; which, however, differs mate- rially from the modem French, (p. 60). They called poetry the Gay Science ; and their short poems, called sirventes, pastovrelles^ or novclles, treat chiefly of war and love. Such were the produc- tions of William, count of Poitou, called the first Troubadour ; and of Thibaut, king of Navarre and count of Champagne, who sang the praises of Queen Blanche of Castile.
The Troubadours appeared in the north of France, about the time of Philip Augustus ; and were there called Trouveurs, using the Romance- Wallon, or Norman French language. The first of these was Gasse, or Wace, who wrote Le Brut, the Romance of Brutus, or the Book of the Britons ; a fabulous poetical history of the kings of England, dated 1155. The Knight of the Lion, is another romance of the same age, but we know not the author, nor whether it was in prose or in verse. Chretien de Troyes, another trouveur, wrote the Romance of Saint Gr4a(d, a poem on the holy cup, from which the Messiah drank during his crucifixion, fabled to have been afterwards carried to England, and owned by the Knights of the Round Table. This, and the poem of Alexander the Great, by Alexander de Bernay, Lambert Di Cors, and others, were written about the year 1200. The Romance of the Rose, begun by Lords about 1250, and finished by Meun, or Mehun Clopinel, about 1300, is an allegorical poem on love ; of which the title is said to be the most beautiful part. Creuze de Leaser's Chevaliers de la Table Ronde, has been praised as a romantic epic of merit.
Of French epic poems, the oldest, we believe, is the Clovis of Desmarets ; rich in conception, but borrowing its incongruous ma- chinery, partly from Christianity, and partly from romance and enchantment. The Alaric, or Rome Delivered, of Scuderi ; the St. Louis, or Holy Crown Reconquered, of Le Moine ; the Pucelle, or Joan of Arc, of Chapelain ; the Childebrande, of Saint Garde ; the Moses, of Saint Armant; and the Petreide, of Thomas; are considered as inferior works, which we can here no farther notice.
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The principal French epic poem, is the Henriade, of Voltaire; describing the events connected with the establishment of Henry IV. on the French throne. It is rich in language, and correct in descrip- tion ; but deficient in inspiration or fervor ; and the allegorical per- sonages, introduced in it, produce an unpleasant impression. The Colombiade, of Madame du Boccage, describing the introduction of Christianity in America, contains some fine descriptions ; but it is deficient in spirit. The Josephs of Bitaube, is an heroic poem ; but the Pucelhy of Voltaire, the Lulrin, of Boileau, and the Vert Vert, of Gresset, are mock heroics, of little worth. Fenelon's T'elemttgue, and Chateaubriand's Martyrs, are sometimes ranked as epics, though botli written in prose. The former is a work of superior merit.
Of French lyric poetry, the pastourelles and rondeaux of Frois- sart the chronicler, are of some note ; though inferior to the more touching chansons of Clotilde du Vallon-Chalys, (Surville by mar- riage). Of the numerous poems of Marot, only a few are worth preserving. Ronsard, Jodelle and Bellay, who with their associates were called the French Pleiades, wrote many sonnets, in the Italian style. Desportes was more natural ; but inferior to Malherbe, who is regarded as the best of the French lyrists. The eclogues of Sar- razan, have some originality ; those of Racan, are correct and digni- fied ; the idyls of Madame Deshouli^res, are tender and spirited ; and the eclogues of Segrais pure and natural. The eclogues of Fon- tenelle, are delicate ; and the idyls of Chenier, and the elegies of Bertin, are highly regarded. The sacred odes, or psalms, of J. B. Rousseau, are full, and occasionally glowing; as are also the sacred odes of Pompignan. The odes of Lebnm, and Lamartine, have poetic inspiration ; nor can we here omit Madame Dufresnoy, whose Last Moments of Bayard, was crowned by the Academy, in 1815. The recent chansons, or songs of Beranger, are among the most popular French poems.
Of French descriptive and didactic poems, we would mention BrebeuPs Entretiens Solitaires, or Solitary Conversations, as one of the earliest of note. The poems by Louis Racine, La Grace, and especially La Religion, are considered works of merit. Boileau's Art Poetique, is highly critical and polished ; but wanting in feeling. Voltaire's Desastre de Lisbonne, contains some vivid descriptions ; but his Discours sur P Homme, or Essay on Man, and his La Be- ligion Naturelle, are, we apprehend, works of a dangerous tendency. Dulard's Grandeur de Dieu, or Greatness of God in the Wonders of Nature, is a poem of merit. Legouve's poem, Ze Merite des Femmes, in praise of women, is full of sensibility and delicacy ; Le Genie de V Homme, by Ch^nedoll^, is strong and correct ; and IjCS Trois Ages, by Roux, is also a superior work. The Seasons, by St. Lambert, and the Months, by Roucher, are imitations of Thom- son. The poems of Delille, are highly esteemed ; and among them are Les Jardins, or the Gardens ; V Homme des Champs, or the Man of the Fields ; La Malheur et La Pitie, or Misfortune and Pity; and La Conversation. His V Imagination, is rich in description ; and his Poeme de la Nature, is a work of great erudi- tion. David, by Coetlogon, is a sublime production ; as are also
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Lamartine^s Mori de Socrate^ or Death of Socrates; and his Chute d^un Ange^ or Fall of an Angel; which is of a wilder character. Le Bmn's poem. La Nature^ is valuable ; and there are also poems on TTieatrical Declamation^ by Dorat; on Paintings by Lemierre; on Astronomy^ by Guidin ; on Navigation^ by Esmenard ; and on Agriculture, by Rosset. Among the French writers of satire, were Boileau, Regnier, Gilbert, and Le Roy. The most noted French fables, are those of La Fontaine.
French dramatic poetry, may be regarded as commencing with the dialogues of Fayait, and other troubadours, first called comediens. To these succeeded the plays called mysteries ; representing scrip- ture subjects ; but degrading them to the level of the vulgar taste. Next followed the moralities, so called ; and the farces of the Clerks of the Bazoche ; and to these succeeded the follies of the Lads without care ; a society which took this name, and performed comic pieces. The Captive Cleopatra, of Jodelle, performed in 1552, was probably the first French Tragedy of note or influence; and his Dido, contains great beauties. The Sophonisha, of Mairet, and the Marianne, of Tristan the Hermit, are less natural ; but La Famine, by Gamier, exhibits great force. The tragedies of Corneille, excel in force and dignity; though sometimes faulty in the plot. His Medea, was his first, and the Cid, is considered his best. Racine, is polished and elegant, but wants fire and inspiration. Les Freres Ennemis, the Inimical Brothers, was his first tragedy; but his Andromache, and Athalie, are regarded as superior. Voltaire, is the third great tragic poet of the French ; and his Zaire, Mahomet, and Alzire, have been much admired. The Rhadamiste, and other tragedies of Cr^billon ; the Omasis in Egypt, of Baour Lormian ; the Charles IX., of Chenier; the Templars, by Renouard ; the Artaxerce, by Delrieu ; the Pavia, of Delavigne ; and the Crom- well, of Victor Hugo ; are tragedies of note, and all that we have room to name.
The oldest French comedy, worthy of mention, is the Avocat Patelin, first represented about 1480, by the Clerks of the Bazoche. The great comic poet of the French is Moli^re ; whose free invention, and ready humor, have perhaps never been surpassed. UEtourdi, or the Wild Fellow, first gave him celebrity ; and his Tartuffe, and Misanthrope, are said to have become models of the higher comedy. We have tarther room to mention only La Mitromanie, by Piron ; Le Trisor, by Andrieux ; Ia Joueur, by Regnard ; VAmi de tout le Monde, by Le Grande ; Le Mechant, by Gresset ; Le Glorieux, by Destouches ; and Les Chateaux en Espagne, by D'Harleville ; as among the best productions of this class. The first French opera writer, was QuinauU; whose Armide, appeared in 1686. The comic operas, originated in the vaudevilles, or sprightly songs, at the fairs, after the prohibition of comedies, in 1707. Favart first gave them a higher character ; and the Barber of Seville, and Marriage of Figaro, by Beaumarchais, are among the most celebrated.
The earliest French romances, in prose, were those relating to King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table ; of which Tristan de Leonois, (or le Lionnais), by Chretien de Troyes, and LaunceJot
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du LaCf by Godfrey de Ligny, were written about the year 1200. To these succeeded the romances of Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers of France ; one of which, is The Chronicle^ falsely attributed to Turpin : and another, entitled Huon de Bordeaux, was of later origin. The tales of magic and chivalry, called fabliaux, were probably borrowed, in part at least, from the Arabs. Gargantua and Fantagruel, by Rabelais, is a satirical romance, witty, but coarse. The Aatrie, or Astrea, of D'Urf^, is a pastoral romance, relating to the court of Henry the Great. The Grand Cyrus, and the Clelia and Cleopatra, of M'Ue. de Scuderi, are said to be feeble and affected ; but the historical novels of M'lle. de la Force, are more natural. The Conies de ma Mere V Oye, or tales of Mother Goose, by Perrault, had their day of applause ; but the Frincesse de Cleves^ and the Zayde, (Zaide), of the Countess de la Fayette, are works of value. The Gil Bias, of Le Sage, and his Diable Boiteux, have been much admired ; but the Candide, and Zadig, of Voltaire, are more satirical and misanthropic. The Nouvelle Heloise, and the JEmile, of J. J. Rousseau, display the weak character of their author: but the Marianne, of Marivaux, is refined and natural ; and the Belisaire, of Marmontel, is said to be good. The Paul and Virginia, and the Indian Cahin^ of St. Pierre ; and the Atala, Ren^^ and Martyrs, of Chateaubriand, are extensively admired. The Corinne, and Delphine, of Madame de Stael ; the Siege ofRochelle, and Adela and Theodore, of Madame de Genlis ; the ISiisabeth, and Mathilde, of Madame Cottin ; and the Caroline de Lichtfield, of Madame de Montolieu ; are also worthy of mention, and are all that we have room to name. Of French epistles or letters, we barely name those of the Marchioness de Sevign^ ; of M*lle. de TEspi- nasse ; and of Madame Defiand ; as models and specimens. The essays of Montaigne, and the funeral orations of Bossuet, are very highly esteemed.
$ 3. British Callography, we are proud to say, is rich and unsur- passed in every important class of polite literature. English poetry, may be considered as originating with Spenser and Gower, and reaching its acme with Shakspeare and Milton. Chaucer's Court of Love, is the oldest English poem extant; and his Canterbury i^ales, resemble those of the Troubadours. Gower's Confessio ^mantis, or Confession of a Lover, written in Latin, was one of the first books printed in England. Spenser's Fairy Queen, a tale of magic and chivalry, has great beauties, though incomplete, and seemingly deficient if unity. It is a series of allegories, in praise of the virtues ; rich in imagination, facile in diction, and abounding in romantic incident, sublimity, and pathos. Davenant's Gondibert, is also a romantic poem of considerable interest. Dryden's Palamon and Arcite, is a tale of Grecian times ; and Thomson's Castle of Indolence, is an allegorical poem, in imitation of Spenser.
The poem of Giles Fletcher, which might be entitled the Messiad; including Christ's Victory in Heaven, Triumph on Earth, Triumph over Death, and Triumph af\er Death ; may be ranked as an heroic poem of merit : but the chief epic poem, in our language, is Milton's Paradise Lost; which describes, in the sublimest strains, the dis-
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obedience of oar first parents, with its deplorable consequences, and the promised restoration of our race to the Divine favor. Milton's Paradise Regained, relating to the events of our Saviour*s life, has less inspiration, and is less admired.^ Blackmore's poem on the Creation, is elaborate, but tame ; and his Prince Arthur, and King Alfred, are heroic poems of minor note. Th» Leonidas, of Glover, is a respectable production ; but, like the Epigoniad, of Wilkie, has fallen into neglect. The Fingal and Temora, attributed to Ossian, but collected and compiled by Macpherson, may be regarded as an epic poem, relatitig to the deliverance of Erin from Swaran, king of Lochlin, by Fingal, the father of Ossian.
Of English fi/ric poetry, other than psalms and hymns, we would mention Drummond's sonnets, and Habington's poems to Casfara, as among the earliest and best. The odes and other poems of Cowley and Waller, we cannot admire. Dryden's Alexander's Feast, an ode for St. Cecilia's Day, is masterly ; and superior to those of Addison, and Congreve, on the same theme. Pope's Messiah, a sacred eclogue, and his Universal Prayer, are noble productions. Collins's Ode on the Passions, is of the first order : and some of Gray's odes, as his Hymn to Adversity, are, we think, superior. T. "Warion's ode on the Crusade, and Mason's odes, to Memory^ and to Independence, are worthy of praise ; as also Mrs. Barbauld's ode to Remorse, Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads, have found strong admirers ; and Coleridge's Sibylline Leaves, contain many good poems of a lyrical character. Bowles's Sonnets, are also good ; but Bums's Scottish Songs, and Moore's Irish Melodies, are among those collections which have met with the most general favor. Mrs. Hemans's poems belong mostly to this class, and deserve high praise. Of elegiac poetry, we would mention Lord Lyttel ton's Monody on the death of his wife ; Shenstone's Elegy on a melancholy event ; and Gray's Elegy, written in a country churchyard ; as models of their kind. Of pastoral poetry, Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar, and Wither's Shepherd's Hunting, are among the oldest specimens of interest. Brif/annia's Pastorals, by Browne, are quaint, but original ; Gay's Shepherd's Week, descends to rustic themes and style; but Shen- stone's Pastoral Ballad, is a truly elegant production. Lyttelton's Progress of Love, in four eclogues, is ornate and attractive ; and Allan Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, is a beautiful picture of Scotch pastoral life. Collins's Oriental Eclogues, finely describe Asiatic pomp; and the City Eclogues, of Lady Montague, assisted by Pope, and Gay, present a striking picture of city life.
Of English descriptive poetry, Drayton's Poly-olbion, is a minute description of England, with many striking episodes. Phineas Fletcher's Purple Island, is an allegorical description of man, phy- sically and mentally considered. Milton's L' Allegro, and // Pen- seroso, are vivid pictures of cheerfulness and melancholy. Gay's Trivia, or walking in London, and his Rural Sports, like Somer- ville's Chase, and Field Sports, and Savage's Wanderer, are re- spectable poems of this class. Goldsmith's Traveller, and Deserted Village, are peculiarly beautiful; and Pope's Windsor Forest, Dyer's Grongar Hill, Denham's Cooper's Hill, and Roscoe's Mount
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Pltctsantj are charming descriptions. Dyer's Ruins of Rome, Ad- dison's Letter from Italy, and especially Rogers's Itatj/, are choice and instructive poems. Falconer's Shipwreck, is a well drawn and affecting picture ; and the same may be said of Campbell's Gertrude of fVyoming. Bloorafield's Farmer Boy, though simple, has excited much interest ; and Burns's Cotter^ s Saturday Night, is one of our sweetest poems. Wordsworth's Excursion, and Grahame's Sab- hath, and Sabbath Walks, are fine productions ; and Parnell's little poem, the Hermit, should not be forgotten. Thomson's poem on the Seasons, is natural and beautiful ; and Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination, Rogers's Pleasures of Memory, and Campbelrs Pleasures of Hope, cannot fail to be read with pleasure and improve- ment. The Triumph of Peace, and the Empire of Neptune, by Hughes, like the Brittania, and the poem on Liberty, by Thomson, are national or patriotic poems of merit. Dry den's Astrma Redux f and Absalom and Achitophel, are in praise of Charles II. ; his An^ nus Mirabilis, treats of the Great Fire in London, and the Dutch War; and Addison's Campaign, describes the battle of Blenheim.
Of English didactic poetry, Tusser's Good Husbandry, is one of the oldest specimens, quaint but valuable. Gascoigne's Fruits of War, is well argued and noble ; and Greville's (Lord Brooke's) poem on Human Learning, is one of merit ; as also Daniel's Musophilus, in defence of learning. The Immortality of the Soul, by Davies, is an admirable argument; and Prior*s Afma, or Progress of the Mind, is a popular poem, superior to his Solomon, or the Vanity of the World, which is wanting in force. The Spleen, a poem by Green, gives good directions for preserving cheerfulness ; and Arm- strong's Art of Preserving Health, is an excellent treatise on Hy- gienics. John Philips's Pomona, a poem on Cider, is amusing and practical; and Darwin's Botanic Garden, is worthy of the horticul- turist's perusal. Pope's Essay on Criticism, is superior; and Churchill's Rosciad, is a good criticism on theatrical performances. Ambrose Philips wrote a poem on Education ; and Stillingfleet one on Conversation. Pope's Essay on Man, has been widely read ; and his Moral Essays, are rich in thought and diction. Cowper's Task, is a valuable and instructive poem ; and Beattie's Minstrel, is noble and snblime. Young's Complaint, or Night Thoughts, is a deeply pious production; and Pollok's Course of Time, is a lofty flight of genius. The poems of Heber, White, ana Miss Hannah More, are chiefly didactic, and very beautiful. Of satirical poetry, Butler's Hudibras, in ridicule of the dissenters in Cromwell's time, is witty, but coarse and vulgar. Pope's Dunciad, and Gifford's Baviad, and Mxviad, are satires on bad, but conceited writers. Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, is a similar satire, but unjustly severe. Young left seven satires on the Universal Passion, or the love of fame. The satires of Wolcot, (Peter Pindar), against George III., are of little worth.
Of English dramatic poetry, the great and early master is Shak- speare ; whose truth to nature and richness of imagination have pro- bably never been surpassed. Of his tragedies, we would mention Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, and Othello $ and
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of his lighter pieces, the TempeH^ and Midsummer Night^s Dreamy as among the best. Of Ben Jonson, Shakspeare's worthy contem- porary, the best dramas are the Alchemist Epicene, and Volpone; full of energy and humor. Beaumont and Fletcher, wrote many plays, but very few of them can be recommended for perusal. Mil- ton^s Comus, and Samson Jigonistes, are worthy of his fame. Dryden's All for Love, and his Don Sebastian, are energetic, but rather bombastic. Otway*s Orphan, and his Venice Preserved, are deep tragedies, though obnoxious to criticism. Lee's Tlteodosius, is rather extravagant ; but Rowe*s Jane Shore, and his Fair Peni- tent, are noble and spirited productions. Congreve's Mourning Bride, has considerable merit. Dr. Young's Revenge, is energetic, but deeply tragic. Addison's Cato, is beautiful, though rather frigid ; and Thomson's Tancred and Sigismunda, has the same fault. Home's Douglas, is a tragedy of great merit. We have farther room to name only Sheridan's Pizarro; Moore's Gamester; Miss Hannah More's Percy; Brooke's Gustavus Vasa; Gibber's Xime- na; and Hughes's Siege of Damascus ; as superior tragedies : and of comedies, Dodsley's King and Miller of Man^eld; Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer; Hoadley's Suspicious Husband; and Sheridan's Rivals; may be added as works of note. Gay's Beg- gar^s Opera, is among the famed productions of its class.
Of English romantic poetry, we have spoken in part at the com- mencement of this section. Crabbe's collection of Tales, is gene- rally interesting ; and Prior's Henry and Emma, is a sweet poem of its kind. So is Goldsmith's Edwin and Angelina. Most of Sir Walter Scott's poems are of this class ; as The Imv of the Last Minstrel; Marmion; The Lady of the Lake ; The Vision of Don Roderick; Rokeby ; The Lord of the Isles ; and others of minor note. Here also we would class many of Byron's poems, as Childe Harold's Pilgrimage; The Giaour; The Bride of Aby- dos; The Corsair; Lara; The Siege of Corinth; The Pri- soner of Chillon ; Beppo; Mazeppa; and others. Next to these we mention Southey^s poems, Thidaba ; Madoc; The Curse of Kehama ; and Roderick, Moore's LaUa Rookh, and Loves of the Angels, are imaginative and pleasing : and Wordsworth's Peter Bell, and his Waggoner, are tales of interest. We have only room to name farther Shelley's Revolt of Islam, wadAlastor; Keats's JEJn- dymion, and Isabella ; Montgomery's Wanderer of Switzerland ; Bowles's Missionary ; Miss Landon's Improvisatrice, and Trouba- dour; Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner, and Christabel; and Professor Wilson's City of the Plague, and Isle of Palms ; as prominent poems of this class.
The earliest romances, relating to, or written in England, were in the French language, introduced by the Norman conquerors; and have been referred to under French Callography. (p. 298). The oldest one, not translated from the French, is probably the metrical romance of Sir Tristram, by Thomas of Ercildoun; which has been edited by Sir Walter Scott. The Romances relating to Arthur and Charlemagne, were followed by those called classical, applying ancient names to the characters and manners of the crusaders. Sir
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Philip Sidney's Arcadia^ is a pastoral romance, of great beauty ; but Sir Thomas More's Utopia, describing an imaginary land of per- fection, had a political object. Boyle's ParthmiaHa, and Mrs. Man- ley's Atalantisy were perhaps the first English novels relating to the fashionable life of their times. Richardson's novels, Pamela, Clch rissa Harlowe, and Sir Charles Grandison, are attempts to paint perfection ; but have considerable merit. Fielding*s novels, including Tom Jones, and Smollet's novels, including Roderick Random, portray scenes of common and low life with force, but too often descend to vulgarity. Dr. Johnson's Rasselas, is a philosophical tale ; and Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakejield, is natural and beautiful ; one of the best works of its kind. Of Sterne's Tristram Shandy, we think less favorably. Mrs. Radcliffe's novels, including the Mys- teries of Udolpho, and the Italian, are chiefly tales of terror ; and still worse are M. G, Lewis's dmhrosio or the Monk, Walker's Tliree Spaniards, and Maturin's Melmoth or the Wanderer. Mrs. Roche's novels are chiefly sentimental ; of which the best is perhaps the Children of the Abbey, Miss Jane Porter's TTiaddeus of Warsaw r and Scottish Chiefs, are pleasing compositions ; perhaps superior to the Don Sebastian^ and other novels, of Miss Anna Maria Porter, her sister. JEvelina, Camilla, and other novels by Miss Bumey, (Mrs. Darblay), and especially Miss Edgeworth's novels, including Belinda, and Helen, are superior in style and sentiment. Mrs. Hofland's novels, including the Son of a Genius, are beautiful and instructive. D'Israeli's Vivian Grey, and Young Duke; Bulwer's Devereux, Rienzi, and other novels ; and Marryat's Peter Simple^ Jacob Faithful, and other productions, are powerful descriptions, but of doubtful tendency. Of James's novels, Darnley, Philip Augustus, Richelieu, Attila and others, we think favorably ; but the great novelist of our language is Sir Walter Scott ; of whose novels, more than five-and-twenty in number, Guy Mannering, The Antiquary, The Heart of Mid Lothian, and Ivanhoe, are among those which we prefer.
Of English essays, those found in Johnson's Rambler, and Idler; in Addison's Spectator; in Mackenzie's Mirror, and Lounger; and in CumberlancTs Connoisseur, are among the more celebrated. The letters of Lord Shaftsbury and Mr. Harris are philosophical treatises. Those of Pope are rather pedantic ; those of Swift unaffected, but they show his character in no favorable light. The letters of Bolingbroke, of Dr. Arbuthnot, and of Bishop Atterbury, are said to be superior. Cowper's letters are beautiful, and exhibit an attractive character. As prominent British orators, we would name Chatham, Pitt, Fox, Burke, and Sheridan among the statesmen ; and Knox, Tillotson, Butler, Sherlock, Barrow, Heber, Hall, and Chalmers, among the divines.
§ 4. Of Dutch Callography, which is limited in extent, and of minor importance, we must speak very briefly. The first poets of note, in the Dutch language, were Van Der Doos, (or Douza), who wrote the Annals of Holland in verse ; and the Heinse, (or Heinsius, father and son), wno wrote however chiefly in the classic tongues. The poems of Cats are said to be spirited and pious ; those of Van 39 d C2
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Der Goes, elegant and correct. Of Dutch epic poems, we may mention the Mam and Eve, of Van Der Vondel ; who also wrote satires, eulogies, and tragedies. The William III., is an epic poem by Rotgans ; and another entitled Gennanicus, is by an unknown authoress. Van Der Vleit wrote a poem entitled 7%e Spaniards in Rotterdam, chiefly historical. The odes of Van BroBckhuyzen, and Moonen, and the idyls of Wellekens, are much esteemed ; as are also the poems of Poot and of Nieuwland.
German Callography, is chiefly the growth of recent times ; during which, sound criticism has secured to it a confirmed nationid character. The heroic songs of the ancient Germans, mentioned by Tacitus, and sung in the days of Attila, are lost. Of the biblical poems, which originated with the introduction of Christianity, Ottfried^s Harmony of the Gospels, written in verse, in the time of Lewis the German, is the most important. To these poems succeeded those of the Minnesingers, or amatory poets, the first of whom was Henry of Veldeck, already mentioned under Biography. They are also called Suabian poets ; because they flourished under the Suabian or Hohenstaufen dynasty, and wrote in the Suabian dialect. They were mostly knights or nobles, and sang chiefly of virtuous love, in connection with chivalric and pastoral themes.
The oldest epic poem, of the Germans, is the Nibelungenlied, or song of the Nibelungs ; narrating the tragic fate of Giinther, an ancient chief of the Nibelungs, (a tribe of Burgundians), with the destruction of that tribe, about A. D. 440. Next to this, is the Heldenbuch, or book of heroes, also arranged and compiled by the Minnesingers, and relating to the times of Attila and the irruption of the Germans into the Roman empire. The Teuerdank, by Pfin- zing, is a romantic epic, of which the emperor Maximilian I. is the hero. The Oheron of Wieland, is a romantic epic, founded on a tale of chivalry, in which fairies and elves are introduced as the machinery. BUrger^s Leonora, is a similar composition, in which ghosts and sorcerers perform a part. Goethe's Hermann and Doro- thea, is rather a tale, than an epic poem ; but of deep interest. Schulze wrote Tlie Enchanted Rose, and Cecilia, classed as romantic poems approaching the epic character. Gessner's Death of Mel, is a beautiful epic or rather descriptive composition, though written in prose: and the Messiad, by Klopstock, relating to the life of our Saviour, is said to be full of sublime inspiration.
Of German lyric and pastoral poetry, the hymns and sacred poems of Martin Luther and his successors, animated and vigorous, fluent and original, served as a model of the German language. There are said to be more than thirty thousand hymns in this language, by more than five hundred authors. The sacred odes, or psalms, of Klopstock, are of a high order ; the hymns of Gerhard are full of deep piety, and those of Novalis, have much feeling and spirit. The lyrical poems of Opitz, are said to want originality, but are well written. The idyls of the Swiss Gessner, are character- ized by purity and truth; and those of Voss are beautiful, particularly that entitled Louisa. The elegies of Hdlty, are said to be in a romantic vein; but the war songs of Korner, breathe the loftiest
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Strain of feeling and of patriotism. We have also beautiful ballcuis, or lyrical compositions, by Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Uhland, and others; and the Minnelieder^ or love-songs of the Minnesingers, have been collected by Tieck. The Urania of Tiedge is said to be of a lyrical and didactic character. Haller's poem on The Alps^ is a fine description ; and his ethical poems are of great value. Hage- dom's poem On Happiness^ contains excellent morality; and his fables are superior. Gellert also wrote fables, and didactic poetry. Kleist's Vernal Season, is said to be a fine production. Amon^ the earlier satirical poems, are Reineckc der Fuchs, or Reynard the Fox, by Henry of Alckmaer ; the Narrenschiff, or Ship of Fools, by Sebastian Brand ; and other similar productions.
German dramatic poetry, originated with the Mastersingers $ who formed poetical fraternities in some of the German cities, about the middle of the fourteenth century. Their first productions were religious poems ; but Hans Rosenpliit, Hans Folz, and especially Hans Sachs, wrote numerous pieces for the theatre. Among those of Folz, are Solomon und Marcolf, and Der Arzt und der Kranke. The dramas of Gottsched, are said to be formal and inferior. Les- sing, who wrote didactically on the theatre, is the author of Sarah Thompson, a tragedy, and Minna von Barnhelm, a military comedy. The tragedies of Schiller, including his Mary Stuart, Wallenstein, and William Tell, are among the best in the German language. Uhland's Duke Ernest of Suabia, and Louis of Bavaria, are re- spectable dramas. The tragedies of Werner, including his Luther, and Attila, are much esteemed ; but those of Goethe are perhaps the most read ; including his Gortz von Berlichingen ; Faust ; Jphigenia; Count of Egmont $ and 7*a«90. The dramas of Kotze- bue, mostly comedies, are regarded as inferior.
Of German romantic poetry, besides the romantic epics already named, some of the most popular productions are the Melusine ; and Magalone$ and the famous T\ll Eulenspiegcl, or German rogue, which last has been attributed to Dr. Murner, but is probably of an earlier date. Herder's romantic poems, including the Cid, Voices of the Nations, and Legends, are highly praised ; but those of Wleland, among whicli are Gandolin, Endymion, and Ganymede, are, to say the least, highly extravagant. Lessing's Nathan the Wise, is, we believe, a poem of the romantic kind. Goethe's Hermann and Do' rothea, is much admired ; and the romantic poems of Schwab, and Tieck are said to be superior.
Of German romance, in prose, many specimens have been handed down from the days of chivalry ; which we have no room to men- tion. Lohenstein's Arminius and Thusuelda, is said to be vigorous, but bombastic and conceited. The Swiss physician Haller, wrote three political novels in German, entitled Usong ; Alfred the Great} and Fabius and Cato ; designed to compare the different forms of government. Gellert's Swedish Countess, was the first German '^ovel devoted to a description of domestic life. Wieland, besides his roj ii.t'c poems, wrote several novels in prose; of which his Aga-- thon, IS the best known ; though its philosophy should be received with caution. Engel's Lorenz Stark, is a masterly picture of life
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and manners ; and the Aldhiadts^ and Bianca CaptUo^ of Meissner, are striking and elegant. Nicolai*s Sebaldus Nothanker^ and other novels, are less esteemed. Jung^s Theobald der Sckwiirmer, is mystical and unnatural ; and Heinrich von Oflerdingerif by Novalis, is a similar work, though in a lofty style. Miller's Sigwart^ is a sentimental novel; but Pestalozzi's Lienhardt und Gertrude, de- scribes humble life witli tnith and feeling. The Hesperus^ 7^/an, and other novels of Paul Richter are both moral and entertaining. Goethe's Wilhelm Meiater, and Sorrows of Verier, have been much read ; and Kotzebue's lldegerte and Zaida^ are worthy of mention, though less admired.
The earliest Danish poets^ were the Scalds^ or minstrels, who sang, in blank verse, the exploits of their leaders, and the praises of their nation. The oldest Danish poem extant, is the epic of the Skyldingians ; which belongs to the ftge of chivalry. The modem poetry of the Danes, may be said to have commenced with Arreboe, in the beginning of the seventeenth century. Kingo celebrated the exploits of the Danish Kings, in an heroic poem ; and Ingemann has written an allegorical epic, entitled T%e Black Knights, resembling Spencer's Fairy Queen. The epic poem by Herz, on the Deliver- ance of Israel, obtained a prize from the society of the fine arts ; and Ewald's Death of Balder, is also a work of genius. The lyric poems of Ewald, Weyer, Brun, and Baggesen, are said to be superior ; as also the comic and satiric poems of Holberg, Guldberg, and Wessel.
The Danish tragedies of Rahbeck, and Weyer, are said to be good, and the Bolfof Ewald, is a work of genius. The tragedies of (Ehlenschlager, including Hakon Jarl, Planatoke, and Axle and Walburg; as also Ingemann's Massaniello, and his Bianca, are highly celebrated. Of Danish comedies, those of Holberg, and Wessel, are said to be the best. Holberg is regarded as the first of the modern Danish literati. His Peder Pdars, a comico-heroic poem, first es- tablished his fame; and his Nicholas Klimm's Subterraneous Travels, a satirical and humorous romance, has been extremely popular.
Here perhaps should be mentioned the Edda, a mythological and heroic poem, or rather collection of poems, said to have been com- posed by the Norwegians in Iceland, as early as A. D. 1 100 ; and from which an abridgment or digest, called the Younger Edda, was after- wards made by Snorro Sturleson. Among those paits of it which have been published, are the Voluspae, or prophecies, and Hava^ maal, or elevated conversation.
Of the early Swedish poetry, chiefly songs of the Scalds, few spe- cimens remain; and the chief literature of this country is very recent. The national taste has j^een improved by a society called the Friends of Science, founded at Upsal, by Atterbom, in 1803. Dalin wrote entertaining poems, in the French style ; and Madame Nordenflicht's lyrics gained her the title of the Swedish Sappho. The poems of Lidner, have much feeling and elevation ; and those of Thorild, are of a noble character. The lyrics of Bellman, are said to be unsur- passed, and his descriptions of Swedish life and manners very correct. Atterbom opposed the French style, in some minor poems of merit
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The lyric and pastoral poems of Tegner, display high genius ; Fran- cen's idyl* are worthy of mention ; and the Dikter von Euphrosynet by C. Julia Nyberg, are lyric poems replete with tenderness and beauty.
Gyllenborg wrote an historical epic poem, in the Swedish language, entitled Taget bfver B'dlt^ as also a didactic poem, Forsok om Skal- deconstenj both of which are highly praised. The drama, in Swe- den, has been but little cultivated. Ling is perhaps the best dramatic poet; and his Agnes, has some striking passages. Of Swedish novels, those of Livijus, including his Knight of St. Jdrrn, and Pique Dame, are perhaps the best. Those of Mdrk, among which are Adcdrik and Oothilda, and Thekla, are also deemed worthy of mention ; and these are all that we have room to name.
§ 5. Of Polish Callography, the oldest and finest monument are the works of Kochanowski, including psalms, elegies, epigrams, and a didactic poem on chess. The lyrics of Grochowski, the idyls of Simonowicz, the odes of Woronicz, and the odes and elegies of Karpinski, are highly esteemed. Of epic poems, the Poles have the Jagellonida, by Tomascewski, on the Union of Lithuania with Poland ; and the Monomachy, or War of the Monks, by Krasicki, archbishop of Guesna. Krasicki also wrote the Mycheid, or Souriad, a mock heroic, which relates how mice and rats devoured king Po- piel ; and the War of Choczin, which is rather historical than epic. Trembecki was distinguished as a lyric, fabulistic, and didactic poet ; Zachowitsch, for his fables and tales; and Niemcewicz, for patriotic songs. Poland has numerous dramatic poems, among which are those of Bielawski, Zablocki, Felinski, Osinski, and others. Bogus- lawski's Krakowiani i Gorali, is an interesting drama, from the number ef its patriotic songs. There are Polish romances, by Skar- beck ; and the Jan. V. Tenczyna, of Niemcewicz is an historical novel, in imitation of those of Scott.
Of Russian Callography, one of the older specimens is the Expedition of Igor, an heroic poem written in the twelfth century. LomonosoiT wrote an epic, entitled Peter the GrecU; and Keraskoff wrote two epics, the Conquest of Kasan, and Wladimir the Great $ which are said to be deficient in interest, though well trritten. PetrofiTs national odes, and BatjuschkofTs lyrics and elegies, display fine taste and imagination. Derschawin's Ode to the Deity, and his Waterfall, are poems of great merit. Dmitriefif wrote odes, and fables ; the latter imitated from La Fontaine. The fables of Ghem- nitzer, and of Krilofif, are original, and highly esteemed. Keraskoff wrote, besides his epics, a didactic poem called Fruits of the Sciences; and Bagdano witsch wrote a romantic poem, entitled Psyche $ the idea of which was borrowed from the classics. The theatre, was intro- duced into Russia, in 1758. SumarokofiT wrote the first regular tragedy; and those of Oseroflf are high in public favor. The older Russian tales, relate chiefly to Wladimir I. and his knights ; who are to the Russians what Charlemagne was to the French, and Arthur to the British. Of the Russian novelists, we can only name Karam- sin, Shukoffsky, a^d Benizky.
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CHAPTER IV.
AMERICAN CALLOORAPHT.
Thb Polite Literature of the United States, though limited in extent, is, we think, not unworthy of a youthful nation. The sub- jugation of a new country, the development of its physical resources, and the acquisition of property, have necessarily preceded the culti- ▼ation of that taste in the fine arts, which wealth and leisure alone can foster, and without which, genius must languish in obscurity and neglect. But we indulge the hope that henceforward, wealth and leisure will be less devoted to gaudy show ; and that taste and genius will be more highly appreciated, and more adequately rewarded, by those who possess the requisite means. We may remark that although less polite literature might have been written, perhaps even more of it might have been preserved, by our countrymen, had not our language been so rich already in this department.
Of American epic poetry^ D wight's Conquest of Canaan, describ- ing the establishment of the Jews in the Holy Land, is perhaps the oldest and best specimen. Barlow's Vision of ColumbuSf which was afterwards enlarged under the tide of the Columbiad, is, we think, a poem of considerable merit, on the Discovery of America, and the future glory of the United States. The Fredoniad, by Emmons, describing at large the events of the Last War with Great Britain, falls below the dignity of an epic poem, and has been but little read. Adams's Modoc, relating to a Welsh prince of that name, who is supposed to have discovered America, is a digni- fied poem, but has not met with general attention. Trumbull's Sfac Fingal, is a mock heroic poem, written in favor of the Revolution; and the Anarchiad, by Lemuel Hopkins and others, was designed to further the adoption of the Federal Constitution.
Of American lyric poetry, the patriotic songs of Hopkinson and others, had a marked influence during our struggle for Independence. The Adams and Liberty, of Robert Treat Paine, and especially the Hail Columbia, of Judge Hopkinson, are among those happy efforts which have acquired a national renown ; and next and similar to them we would mention the Star Spangled Banner, by Francis Key, and the American Flag, by Drake, as among the noblest effusions of patriotism. Humphrey's Address to the Revolutionary Army, and other patriotic poems ; Freneau's Address of Columbus to Ferdi- nand; and Ladd's Address to the Sun, a Runick Ode ; are amonff the older and valuable specimens of American poetry. We would mention Percival's Ode to Music, and Ode to Freedom ; Bryant's Forest Hymn, Hymn to Death, and Hianatopsis ; Sprague's Shak- speareOde; Halleck's Afarco^o2rzart«; Brooks's Greece; Everett's Alaric ; Mrs. Sigourney 's Napoleon* s Epitaph, and Lady Jane Grey ; DsLUSi^s Dying Haven; W oodworiW 8 Bucket ; WiWis's Confessional, and Table of Emerald; Brainard's Epithalamium; Whiltier's New England; Peabody*8 Hymn of Nature; Clark's Last Prayer of
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Queen Mary ; Mellen*8 Bugle $ Dawes^s Spirit of Beauty ; Pier- poo t's Airs of Palestine} and Jjongfellow^s Voices of the Night $ ZB worthy specimens of poetry, chiefly lyrical.
Of American descriptive^ and didactic poetry^ one of the oldest specimens is Folger's Ltooking Glass for the Times^ written as early as 1676. Wiggles worth's Day of Doom, created a strong sensation ; but Godfrey's Court of Fancy, attracted little notice. R. T. Paine's Invention of Letters / Linn's Powers of Genius, and Valerian ; and Lathrop's Vision of Canonicus, are valuable works. Dr. Dwirht's Greenfield Hill, is a beautiful poem of this class. Barlow's Hasty Pudding, and his Conspiracy of the Kings, are, we believe, of a satirical or political character. Livingston's Philosophical Solitude^ has met with little notice. Trumbull's Progress of Dullness, and D wight's Triumph of Infidelity, are satirical poems of a high cha- racter. Osborne's Thanksgiving, is a touching description of that social New England festival. Mrs. Sigoumey's Zinzendorf, relates to a nobleman of that name who became a Moravian Missionary to the Indians. Hillhouse's Vision of Judgment, and Mellen's Mar^ tyr^s Triumph, are sublime productipns ; and Bryant's Ages^ exhibits the power and purity of its author. Percival's Voyage of Life, and Consumption, are also excellent. Lunt's poem on Life, and Bacon's on 3fan, are, we think, worthy of mention. Of Romantic poems, we would name Percival's IVreck, his Prometheus, and The Suicide ; Halleck's Fanny and Alnvnck Castle ; Drake's Culprit Fay; Willis's Melanie; Dawes's Geraldine; Mitchell's Indecision ; Miss Davidson's Amir Khan ; and, we believe, Dana's Bucaneer, Whitlier's Minstrel Girl, and Sand's Yamoyden. Eve- rest's Babylon ; Hill's Ruins of Athens ; and Rees^s Battle of Saratoga ; are, we believe, descriptive poems. Several of WilliB^B scriptural poems, as Jephthah^s Daughter, and Hagar in the Wil- derness, are beautifully descriptive and didactic ; and this character belongs generally to the poems of Mrs. Sigoumey and Bryant.
Of American dramatic poetry, the first specimen was probably the Prince of Parthia, by Thomas Godfrey, Jr. ; and next to it was Leecock's Disappointment, a comic opera, printed in 1767. Mrs. M. Warren, of Boston, wrote The Adulateur, The Group, Tlie Blockheads, and The Motley Assembly ; political plays, during the Revolution. Her tragedies, the Sack of Rome, and the Ladies of Castile, we believe, were written at a later date. W. Dunlap wrote or translated nearly fifty pieces, including The Archers of Switzer- land, the Voice of Nature, and Andre, a tragedy, founded on the fate of Major Andre. Colonel Humphreys wrote the Widow of Mala- bar, a tragedy, from the French ; and Rev. John Blair Linn wrote Bourville Castle, and we believe other dramatic pieces. We must not omit to notice Lathy's Reparation, a comedy; D. Everett's Daranzel; W, Jones's Independence; W. C. White's Clergyman^ s Daughter, and Poor Lodger; J. N. Baker's Marmion, and Su- perstition; C. J. Ingersoll's tragedies, Edwy and Elgiva, and /u- lian ; and D. P. Brown's Sertorius, and Prophet of St. PauTs. Among other works of merit are Willis's Tortesa, the Usurer;
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Epes Sergeant's Vekuco ; and especially Dawes's Jithenia of Dor mascua : but the tragedies of Hillhouse, called Hadad^ Percuss Masque^ and Dtmelria^ are perhaps the best which our country has yet produced.
Of American Bomanct^ in prose, the first production appears to have been The Forestera^ by Dr. Belknap of Boston, first published in 1787, in the Columbian Magazine, Philadelphia. It relates to our colonial history, and may be regarded as a continuation of Ar- buthnot's John Bull. Tyler's Algerine Captive^ published in 1797, is a genuine novel, though founded on facts. The first professed novelist, Charles Brockden Brown, wrote fflelandt Ormonde Ar- thur Mervyriy Edgar Huntley ^ Clara Howard^ and Jane Talbot; works of genius and merit, though not of the most recent school. Washington Irving's Knickerbocker* 8 History of New York ; and his Jonathan Oldstylt's Letters^ Salmagundi^ Sketch Book, Brace- bridge Hallt Tides of a Traveller, and Alhambra, are also classed as works of fiction, and are unsurpassed in style and character. Wirt's Old Bachelor, and British Spy, are also standard works of tliis class. Dennie's Female Quixotism; Mrs. Foster's Board- ing School, and Coquette ; and Mrs. Rowson's Rebecca, and Sarah, have met with less notice. Cooper's novels, have been generally read and admired ; particularly The Spy, TTie Pioneers, The Pilot, Tlie Last of the Mohicans, The Prairie, and The Bed Rover. We would also mention Paulding's Dutchman's Fireside, and Westward Ho! $ Flint's Francis Berrian; Kennedy's Swallow Bam, and Horseshoe Robinson; Bird's Hawk of ndwks Hollow, Calavar, and Peter Pilgrim ; Ingraham's Southwest, Lajitte, and Burton ; Simms's Yemassee, Guy Rivers, and Mellichamp; Fay's Norman Lesley, and Countess Ida; Tuckennan's Isabel or Sicily; and Longfellow's Hyperion ; as worthy specimens of American romance, generally evincing talent and taste. Miss Sedgwick's New Eng- land Tale, Redwood, Hope Leslie, Clarence, and Hie Linwoods, are beautiful and natural ; and her recent minor tales are fraught with excellent instruction. The Hobomok, Rebels, and Wilderness, of Mrs. Child, (formerly Miss Francis) ; as also Miss Leslie's Pencil Sketches, and Mhea Vernon, are entertaining productions ; the last of this class which we have room to name.
Among the best productions of American eloquence, it is to be regretted that most of the speeches of Patrick Henry, Edmund Ran- dolph, James Otis, Samuel Adams, and otl\er Revolutionary worthies, have not been written out and preserved. Those of Fisher Ames, Hamilton, and Jefierson, are, we believe, mostly published with their works. A selection from the numerous eulogies of Washing- ton, by various orators, would of itself form an interesting volume. The speeches and addresses of Clay, Webster, and Everett, have been published in separate volumes, and are, we think, models of their kind.
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PHYSICONOMY.
In the province of Physiconomy, we would include those studies which relate more immediately to the material world ; its forms and structure ; its agencies and changes ; its composition and varied rela- tions ; including those of animal and vegetable life. The name is derived from the Greek fwsiiy nature : and yo/to;, law ; signifying literally the Laws of Nature ; using this term, as it is often used, to designate the world of matter, or material objects collectively con- sidered. In this province we comprehend the departments of Mathematics, or the study of numbers and magnitudes ; Acrophy- HcSf or Natural Philosophy, relating chiefly to natural phenomena ; IdiophyaicSf or Natural History, treating chiefly of natural produc- tions ; and Androphysics, or the Medical Sciences, relating chiefly to the human frame, that microcosm, or minor world, the last and highest material production of the great Creator. The reasons for arranging these departments in the above mentioned order, having already been stated, need not here be repeated. (See pp. 34 and 35.)
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MATHEMATICS.
Ths department of Mathematics, includes the study of nnmbers and magnitudes ; and hence it is sometimes termed, the science of quantity. The name is from the Greek ^a»9ava>, I learn : and was applied to it, because the ancients considered this department, in reference to its various uses, as the basis of all learning. As it finds its highest applications in the investigation of the laws of nature, we have here considered it as chiefly introductory to their study ; and as belonging to the same province of human knowledge. As the science of quantity, it is applicable to all quantities which can be measured by a standard unit, and thus expressed by numbers or mag- nitudes. There are objects, such as feeling or thought, which may vary in intensity, but which we have not the means of measuring. We cannot say that we love one person exactly twice as much as another ; or that one man is four times as wise as another ; since love and wisdom aie not mathematical quantities. But we can measure time, by seconds, days, or years ; space, by inches, yards, or miles ; and motiofif by the space passed over in a given unit of time. Such quantities, therefore, may be expressed by numbers, and subjected to Mathematical calculations.
Mathematics, as a general science, is often subdivided into Pure, and Mixed. Pure Mathematics, relates to numbers, figures, or magnitudes abstractly, and without any necessary reference to material or tangrible objects : but Mixed Mathematics, is the application of the former to natural objects ; as matter, space, time, motion, and the like, which, though subject to mathematical relations, involve other principles, depending on the laws of nature. Thus, Mechanics, Astronomy, Navigation, Music, and other sciences, are sometimes included under the name of Mathematics : but we would here restrict the term to the Pure Mathematics, with some occasional applications ; as being sufficiently extensive and important to constitute one department of human knowledge. It should not be forgotten that new mathemati- cal principles and problems have led to new discoveries in nature, or inventions in the arts ; and these, in their turn, have led to other new principles and problems in Mathematics.
The question may here arise, into how many branches this depart- ment should be divided. The branches of Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, are generally recognized as distinct and elementary ; while Trigonometry is sometimes connected with the latter, and sometimes regarded as a distinct branch. Considering, however, that Trigo- nometry is an application of Algebra to certain Geometrical figures, we have no hesitation in associating it with Conic Sections, in the branch of Analytic Geometry. The study of Descriptive Geometry, 314
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or the delineation of objects geometrically , as it involves no other prin- ciples than those of Elementary Geometry, and differs chiefly in the mode of applying those principles, we would include in the same branch, under the common name of Geometry. There remains only the science of Fluxions, as it was named by Newton, or the Differen- tial and Integral Calculus, as it has been named by the French mathe- maticians, to complete the list of branches in this department.
The Histoiy of Mathematics, may, we think, be referred chiefly to tliat of its individual branches. The knowledge of the ancients, in this department, was evidently far inferior to that of the moderns. Although they reckoned by tens; a fact which is adduced, among others, as proving the common origin of the nations thus reckoning ; yet they did not use, and probably were not acquainted with the deci- mal notation which has so greatly simplified our modern Arithmetic. In Elementary Geometry, and the Conic Sections deduced therefrom, the knowledge of the Greeks would bear a comparison with that of modern times ; but in these branches only, of the Pure Mathematics. Some of their most learned works were destroyed in the Alexandrian Library, or during the dark ages ; but others were preserved by the Arabians themselves, when a milder dynasty succeeded ; and the Greek works collected and translated into Arabic, by order of the Caliph Al Mamun, have supplied much of the information which we DOW possess, concerning ancient science, (p. 289.)
To the Arabians, we are indebted, for the introauction of the De- cimal Notation, and for (he science of Algebra ; which they appear to have transmitted rather than invented ; as we shall have occasion to show, in treating of the individual branches. Their mathematics, being introduced by the Moors into Spain, was zealously cultivated by Alphonso of Castile ; and from thence it was introduced into France, as early as A. D. 970, by Gerbert, who afterwards became Pope Sylvester II. It was disseminated in Italy, about A. D. 1228, by Camillus Leonard, a rich merchant of Pisa, who had travelled in the East ; and at' about the same time, John of Halifax, or Sacro- bosco, of England, wrote a treatise on the Arithmetic of the Arabs. From that period to the present, the progress of mathematics has been continuous ; and the greatest natrons of Europe have been com- petitors for the honor of its new discoveries and inventions.
The invention of Analytic Geometry, by Descartes, and of Coor- dinates, by Maclaurin, has greatly extended our means of investigating curves, and curved surfaces in general, as well as their included solids. The invention of Logarithms, by Napier, has simplified, in a won- derful degree, the higher numerical calculations, which before were extremely tedious. The invention of Descriptive Geometry, by Monge, has given us a complete method of representing and mea- suring geometrical magnitudes, and forms ; the applications of which are of great practical value. And especially, the invention of Flux- ions, or the Calculus, almost simultaneously by Newton and Leibnitz, has opened the way to a new and wide range of mathematical investiga- tion, quite beyond the reach of ancient science, and which has served, in skilful hands, to detect and explain various laws of nature that before seemed absurd or contradictory.
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We proceed to speak more particularly of the individual branches of Mathematics ; commencing with Arithmetic, taking next Algebra, Geometry, and Analytic Geometry, or Ancylometry, and concluding with the Calculus, or Rheometry,
CHAPTER I.
ARITHMXTIC.
Arithmetic is that branch of Mathematics which treats of calcula- tion by means of the Arabic numerals, or ordinary characters repre- senting numbers. Its name is derived from the Greek opi^/Ao;, a number ; and it is regarded as a science, when we study its theory or principles ; but as an art, when we apply it in practice. From its constant application to other sciences, and to the common pursuits of life, it is one of the most useful branches of knowledge, among those which are necessary to complete an elementary education. It is much to be regretted that in teaching its rules, attention is not more generally paid to the theory or reasons on which those rules are founded ; both as rendering them more intelligible, and as serving to discipline the mind.
The invention of Arithmetic, is attributed by Josephus to the He- brews ; by Strabo, to the Phoenicians ; and by others to the Egyp- tians, Chaldeans, or Indians. Its first principles, were evidently known, at a very early period, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians, from whom the Hebrews and Phoenicians doubtless received them. They were introduced into Greece, by Thales, and Pythagoras ; both of whom travelled among the nations just named ; doubtless acquiring, as well as communicating knowledge. Pythagoras either invented or borrowed the Multiplication Table, about 520 B. C. : and, in some books, it is still called by his name. Much of the Arithmetic of Pythagoras, and the other philosophers, related to imaginary mys- tical properties of numbers ; such as the Tetraehys, or most perfect number, (36 or 40), to which they attributed wonderful virtues. The Sieve of Eratosthenes, was a contrivance for finding the series of Prime numbers, by successively cancelling all those which admit of exact division: and the properties of Square numbers, were the subject of many problems invented by Diophantus.
We have already remarked that although the ancients reckoned by tens, they did not use our modem Decimal notation. The Greeks used the first letters of their alphabet for the successive numbers as far as ten ; but the next letter stood for 20, and the next for 30, thus proceeding as far as 100 ; after which the next letter stood for 200, and so on to 1000, which was represented by the first letter of the alphabet, with a dash beneath it. Three additional characters, how- ever, were used in this scheme, as already explained, (p. 56.) They also used numerals, similar to the Roman, though not the same. The Soman numerals probably originated as follows. They expressed the numbers from one to dye, by straight marks, which afterwards took the form of the letter I. Five was expressed by two straight
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marks, meeting in the shape of the letter V. Ten, being expressed by two Vs, one of them inverted, would form the letter X. Fifty, being expressed by two straight marks in a new position, would form the letter L, which might also have been derived from the lower half of the letter C : but C and M were more probably abbreviations of centum and millet the Latin words for 100 and 1000.
Early in the second century of our Era, Ptolemy introduced the Sexagesimal notation ; which probably originated in India, where it is still used. From 1 to 50, the numbers were expressed by the Roman numerals ; but 60 was represented by I with a dash on the right, (r) ; twice 60 by (IF), and so on to 60 times QO, which was represented by I with two dashes, (I") ; and so onward. Hence came Dur division of the hour and degree into 60 minutes, and of the minute into 60 seconds. The Decimal notation, already noticed, as intro- duced by the Arabians, is proved by Montucla, almost conclusively, to have been invented in India, before the Arabian conquests. The first European writer who is known to have employed this system, was Jordanus Nemorarius, A. D. 1230 : but it was not applied to fractions till nearly 300 years thereafter. The rules of False Posi^ fion, were also borrowed from the Arabians.
We shall treat further of Arithmetic, under the heads of, 1, Ground Rules ; 2, Denominate Numbers ; 3, Fractions ; 4, Proportion ; 5, Mercantile Rules ; and 6, Powers and Progressions.
$ 1. The Five Ground Rules of Arithmetic, constituting the Ara- bic Algorithm, are Numeration, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division. Numeration, is the art of writing or reading num- bers, expressed by means of figures ; whereas Notation rather sig- nifies the kind of figures used, as the Roman, or Arabian. The nine digits and cypher, of the latter notation, express directly any number less than ten : but every ten is regarded as a distinct quantity, and ex- pressed by a figure in the second place ; that is, with another figure on the right of it, to make it stand in the teiis' place, and to express the remaining units. Every ten of these tens, forms one hundred ; which is written in the third place, with two other figures necessarily on the right of it, for the surplus tens and units. Thus, the great principle of Numeration, is, to regard every number as composed of anits of different kinds ; each higher unit being equal to ten of the next lower, throughout the scale. For example, the number 1841, is written as if it were the sum of the numbers, 1000, 800, 40, and 1«
Addition, is the putting together of two or more numbers, and finding of their sum. For this purpose, we write the numbers, one tinder another, so that all the right hand figures or units may be in the same column, or vertical line ; after which, we add all the units together, and find how many tens they make, setting down the remainder for the odd units of the sun. We then carry the tens thus found, that is add them, to the column of tens ; and find how many tens of tens, or hundreds this column contains, setting down the surplus tens as the odd tens of the sum. In like manner, we carry the hundreds to the third column, and so repeat the process till we come to the last column ; the whole sum of which being written on the left, completes the total sum required.
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Subtraction^ is the taking of a smaller number, or subtrahend^ from a larger number, or minuend, and finding what remains. To do this, we write the subtrahend underneath the minuend, units under units, and so on : then beginning with the units, we take each lower figure from the one above it, and write the difference below, to form the remainder sought. If the upper figure happen to be the smallest, we add ten to it, and subtract as before ; and to compensate for this, we add one to the next lower figure, before subtracting it; which increases the lower line as much as the upper, and thus preserres their diflference unchanged.
Multiplication^ is the repeating of a given number, called the multiplicand, as many times as are denoted by another given num- ber, or multiplier : the two numbers thus employed being called factors ; and the sum obtained being the product. The operation might be performed, b^ writing down the multiplicand as many times as the multiplier denotes, and adding the whole together : but this would be tedious. Hence, we write the multiplicand only once, and the multiplier underneath ; then multiply the upper line by the unit figure of the multiplier; carrying as in addition, and writing the result If the multiplier have a second figure, we multiply the upper line by this also, setting the first figure of its product, which expresses tens, under the tens of the first product ; and so proceed- ing to the left. If the multiplier contain hundreds, the first figure of their product must come under the place of hundreds ; and so to the end. Then, adding all these partial products together, the sum will be the total product required.
Division, is the process of finding how many times one nnmber, called the divisor, may be contained in, or taken from, another, called the dividend; and also whether a surplus number remains. This last, if there be any, is called the remainder: and the number which expresses how many times the divisor is contained in the dividend, is termed the quotient. To find it, we take as many figures on the left of the dividend, as are sufficient to contain the divisor ; and the number of times they contain it, will be the left hand figure of the quotient. We multiply the whole divisor by this figure, and subtract the product from that part of the dividend used. To the right of the remainder, if any, we bring down the next figure of the dividend, and divide again to obtain the next figure of the quotient ; or if the remainder thus increased be too small, we place a cypher in the quotient, and bring down another figure to the remainder, with which we obtain another quotient figure, as in the first instance. When all the figures of the dividend are brought down, and all those of the quotient found, the last subtraction will give the final remainder. The reasons for this rule, we have no room here to present.
5 2. By Denominate Numbers^ called also Compound, or Com- plex Numbers, we mean those that refer to certain kinds of quantity, having different denominations; as pounds, shillings, and pence; miles, rods, feet, and inches ; days, hours, minutes, and seconds ; and other like series. The different tables, expressing the ratios of these de- nominations, we have no room to insert. Denominate numbers of the same kind, can be added or subtracted in the same manner as
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simple numbers ; except in the item of carrying from a lower to a higher denomination. To add them, we commence with those of the lowest denomination, and find how many units these will make of the next higher ; carrying therefor ; and setting down the excess or surplus as a part of the sum ; thus proceeding through all the denominations, to the highest, in which we set down the total sum. To subtract denominate numbers, we proceed as in simple numbers: only, when the upper number is the smallest, we add to it as many units as are required of this denomination to make one of the next higher; in return for which, we add one to the lower number of the next denomination, before subtracting it from that above.
Multiplication of a Denominate number by a simple one, is per- formed as in simple numbers ; only carrying by the proper ratios in passing from one denomination to the next higher. We cannot properly multiply one denominate number, by another, witliout con- sidering one of the two abstracdy, as composed of certain units and fractional parts ; as is sometimes done in the Rule of Three. Divi' sion of Denominate numbers, by a simple number, is performed as in simple division : only, when we have a remainder of a higher denomination, we reduce it to the next lower, by multiplying by the proper ro/to, and to the product we add the number of the same denomination in the dividend, before dividing, to find the number of that denomination in the quotient.
§ 3. Fractions f are broken numbers, or parts of entire numbers ; the common kinds of which are Vulgar, and Decimal. A Vulgar Fraction, is expressed by two numbers, written one above the other, with a line drawn between them. The lower number, called the denominator, shows into how many equal parts a unit is supposed to be divided ; and the upper number, called the numerator, shows how many of these parts the fraction expresses. By increasing the denominator, we diminish the value of the fraction ; because while the number of parts remain the same, the value of each of these parts is diminished, as more of them are required to make one unit. To add, or subtract, vulgar fractions, we must first reduce them to a common denominator; in order that they may express like parts of unity. This may be done by multiplying both the numerator and denominator of each fraction by the product of all the other denomi- nators, as the value of the fractions will not be changed thereby. We have then only to add or subtract the numerators, and write the sum or difference over the common denominator, for the result required.
To midtiply, or divide, a vulgar fraction by a whole number, we have only to multiply or divide the numerator ; preserving the deno- minator unchanged. Or instead of dividing the numerator, we may multiply the denominator, to perform the division. To multiply two fractions together, we have only to write the product of the nume- rators over that of the denominators : but to divide one fraction by another, we invert the terms of the divisor, that is, make its numera- tor and denominator change places, and then multiply the fractions together. A mixed number, consisting of a whole number and a fraction, is reduced to a fractional form, by multiplying the whole number by the denominator, adding the product to the numerator,
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and writing this snm over the same denominator ; forming what is called an improper fraction.
Decimal Fractions, are those in which the denominator is always one-tenth, one-hundredth, one-thousandth, or other decimal part of a unit ; so that by simply writing the numerator, with a point on the left side of it, called the decimal point , the denominator need not be written at all. Thus, /^ is written, .5 ; and -f^ is the same as •54 ; the denominator always consisting of the figure 1, with as many cyphers on its right as there are decimal places, that is, figures on the right of the decimal point. To convert a vulgar fraction into a decimal, we annex cyphers to the right of the numerator, and then divide it by the denominator ; observing that the quotient, or decimal sought, must have as many figures as we annexed cyphers ; and sup- plying any deficiency in the quotient by cyphers on its lef\. Deci- mals are added, and subtracted, in the same manner as whole num- bers ; placing them with the decimal points always one under the other, and beginning on the right; since decimals and whole num- bers, together, form one continued series in tenfold proportion. De- cimals are also multiplied, and divided, in the same way as whole numbers ; only, the product roust contain as many decimal places as there are in both the factors ; and the quotient, as many as there are in tfie dividend more than in the divisor. The deficiency, if there be any, must, in either case, be supplied by cyphers on the left.
$ 4. Proportion, signifies a certain definite relation of several quantities. Four numbers are said to be in Arithmetical proportion, when the first is as much greater or less than the second, as the third is greater or less than the fourth : as in the example, 2 •• 4 : : 18 •• 20. But four numbers are in Geometrical proportion, when the first is €U many times greater or less than the second, as the third is greater or less than the fourth : as in the example, 20 : 4 : : 500 : 100. The first term divided by the second is called the ratio of the antecedents, and the third term divided by the fourth, is the ratio of the consc' quents: and these two ratios are equal. It also follows that the pro- duct of the two middle, or mean terms, is equal to the product of the two extremes : and the product of the means, divided by one ex- treme, gives the other extreme for a quotient.
The Bute of TTiree, is the process in which we have three num- bers given, and seek to find a fourth, which shall complete the geometrical proportion. Of the three given numbers, one will ne- cessarily be of the same kind as the fourth, or answer sought ; and this may occupy either the second or third place. If the answer sought, ought to be greater than this, then the greater of the other two terms should be placed last of these two ; both being reduced to the same denomination : but if the answer ought to be less than that term which is of the same kind with it, then the lesser of the other two terms should be placed last of those two, and the greater of them will be the first. The question being thus stated, multiply the second and third terms together, and divide their product by the first ; and the quotient will be the fourth term, or answer sought. A Compound Proportion, including the solution of problems by what is called the Double Rule of Three, is merely a connection of two or more simple
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proportions ; by means of which it may always be resolved ; with- out requiring any special rules.
§,5. Of the strictly Mercantile Rules of Arithmetic, most of which depend upon the principles of proportion, we have only room to speak ▼ery briefly. Tare and Tretty is a rule for making allowances in selling goods by weight. Tare^ is an allowance for the weight of the box, bag, or other recipient ; and trett^ or drafts is a per ceutage deduction for refuse, waste, or loss. These being taken from the gross weight, leave the net weight for the remainder. Interest, is an allowance made for the use of money ; and is generally reckoned at a certain rate per cent,, per annum: that is a certain number of dollars paid for tlie use of one hundred dollars for one year. Insu- rance, paid for risks ; Brokerage or Commissions, paid for exchanges or sales ; and Discount, allowed for the payment of money before it becomes due ; are also usually reckoned at a certain rate per cent. Loss and Gain, is the rule by which merchants discover their total profit or loss, in buying or selling certain quantities at fixed rates : and Fellowship relates to the division of profit or loss among- partners. Alligation, is the rule for finding the price of mixtures^ or for making mixtures of a given value.
$ 6. The Powers, of any number, are the successive products of that number by itself, and of this product by the same number again : the exponent of the power denoting how many times the same num- ber is taken as a factor. One multiplication produces the square, or second power, of which two is the exponent ; and a second multipli- cation produces the cube, or third power, the exponent of which is three. Thus 25 is the square, and 125 is the cube, of the number 5 ; and its fourth power, or biquadrate, is 725. The Root, of any number, is another number, which, multiplied by itself a certain number of times, will produce the given number. Thus 5 is the square root of 25 ; and it is the cube root of 125. Involution is the process of finding powers ; and the name Evolution is given to that of finding roots.
A Progression, is a series of numbers in continued proportion. In an Arithmetical series or progression, each term is found by add- ing or subtracting the common difference to or from the preceding ; according as the series is increasing or decreasing. In either case, the sum of the series is equal to the sum of the two extreme terms multiplied by half the number of terms. A series is in Geometrical progression, when each term is either the product or the quotient of the preceding term by a common ratio. In such a series, any four consecutive terms form a geometrical proportion. The Rules of Position, for which those of Algebra are a far preferable substitute, we have no room to describe.
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CHAPTER IL
ALGEBRA.
Algebra is that branch of Mathematics in which the relations of quantities are expressed, and problems resolved, by means of letters and other symbols. The name is derived from the Arabic phrase, J3l gebr u al mocabdaf signifying the reduction of equations : and from the generality of its results, it has also been called Universal Arithmetic. It presupposes a knowledge of Arithmetic, or at least of the elementary rules, on the general principles of which it also depends ; but in representing unknown or variable quantities by httera, and expressing their relations by means of other symbols, it reaches a wide range of useful and curious problems, and theorems, which common Arithmetic could never grasp.
The first germs of Algebra are found in the writings of Diophantus of Alexandria ; who flourished A. D. 350, and is the reputed inventor of the indeterminate analysis. His works, however, are merely a collection of difficult questions concerning squares and cubes, and the genera! properties of numbers. Here ends the history of Algebra among the ancients : and, accordingly, its invention is ascribed by some writers to the Hindoos; and by others to the Arabians; to whom we are indebted, as has already been mentioned, for its intro- duction into Europe. The earliest mentioned Hindoo writer on Algebra, is said to have been the astronomer, Aryabhatta, probably as early as the fifth century of our era. Some of the Arabians admit that they received their Algebra from India ; but others attribute its invention to their countryman, Mahomed Ben Musa, about A. D. 800; and, in either case, it was doubtless improved by their mathematical knowledge derived from Greek authors.
The first printed treatise on Algebra, entitled Summa de Arith' metica, was published in Italy, in 1404, by Lucas Paccioli de Borgo; but it only extended to quadratic equations. The first resolution of cubic equations, is claimed by Tartaglia, (or Tartalea), about 1535; and that of biquadratic equations is ascribed to Ferrari, by Cardan of Pavia, in his book De Arte Magna, published in 1545. Cardan used letters to represent unknown quantities : but Vieta of France, who died in 1603, first applied them to known quantities; and thus generalized the solutions. Vieta also improved the modes of resolv- ing equations ; particularly by approximation. Harriot, of England, who died in 1621, first discovered that every algebraic equation is composed of as many factors of the first degree, as are indicated by the degree of the equation. Descartes first introduced the use of exponents ; and explained the nature of the negative roots of an equation : and he also made the application of indeterminate co- efficients, to resolve equations into their several factors. Newton enriched Algebra, not only by farther discoveries concerning equa- tions, but by thQ invention of the binomial theorem, for problems of involution and evolution. The later discoveries of Maclaurin,
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Clairaut, Euler, Lagrange, and others, we have no room to describe. The invention of Logarithms^ by Napier, of Scotland, in 1614, with the improvement of Professor Briggs, has particularly facilitated the numerical operations of Algebra, to which science they belong: and the Arithmetical Triangle of Pascal, who died in 1662, by exhibiting the properties of figurate numbers, originated the Calculus of PTobabilities ; a distinct and interesting application of Algebra.
We proceed to treat of Algebra under the heads of 1. Preliminary Rules; 2. Simple Equations; 3. Quadratic Equations; 4. Powers and Roots in general ; 5. Equations in general ; and 6. Series and Logarithms.
§ 1. The Preliminary Utiles of Algebra, relate to its peculiar syrnbols^ and their simple applications. In this science, quantities, or rather numbers, are expressed by letters: and it is the general practice to use the first letters of the alphabet for known quantities, and the last for unknown. The sign of addition, (-f )) is read plus; and shows that the quantity placed after it, is to be added to the pre- ceding. The sign of subtraction, ( — ), is read minus; and is placed before quantities that are subtractive, or to be subtracted. The sign of multiplication, (x), called St. Andrew's Cross, is read tn/o, and placed between quantities that are factors : or they may be writ- ten each in a parenthesis ; or if letters, with simply a point, or with- out any sign, between them. The sign of division, (-^), may be read divided by, being placed after the dividend, and before the divisor : but division is more generally indicated by writing these quantities as a fraction ; the divisor becoming the denominator ; and the value of the fraction being the quotient.
The power of a quantity, in Algebra, is expressed by writing its exponent above the quantity, on the right. Thus a' denotes the square of a; and a^, its third power, instead of aaa. If a denote 5, a^ will denote 125. The co-efficient of a quantity, is properly the number written as its first factor : thus 3a denotes three times a, and three is the co-efficient. If a denote 5, then 3a will be 15; and 3a' will be 3x125, or 375. Like quantities j are those which con- sist of the same letters, raised to the same powers ; as 6 a' 6, and 12 a^b; which are added or subtracted, simply by adding or sub- tracting their co-efficients, and appending the literal part. Unlike quantities, do not admit of this reduction ; but must all be written with their proper signs. To subtract any quantity, we must change its sign, and append it to the subtrahend ; or if no sign be written, plus is understood. A term, in Algebra, is a simple expression, not separated into parts by the signs, plus, or minus. A single term is called a monomial; but a quantity having two terms is called a binomial; and one having more than two terms, h polynomial.
In Algebraic multiplication, the product of two terms must con- tain all the factors of them both; and its sign will be plus, if the terms have like signs, but minus, if their signs are unlike, that is, one positive, and the other negative. Thus the product of 6 a' 6, by 7a6«c, is 42 a^^'c. The product of two polynomials, is the sum of all the products of each term of the multiplicand by each term of the multiplier. Algebraic division of monomials, is the reverse of
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multiplication ; and consists in cancelling from the dividend all the factors which it has in common with the divisor; the remaining factors being the quotient. Division of polynomials is performed in much the same manner as arithmetical division ; requiring first that all the terms both of the dividend and divisor should be arranged according to the powers of some one letter ; aAer which the first term of the quotient is fouad by dividing the first term of the dividend by the first of the divisor. Of algebraic fractions, which are similar to arithmetical, we have no room to speak farther.
§ 2. An Equation^ is an expression denoting the equality of two quantities : and a Simple Equation^ is one in which no unknown quantity is multiplied either by itself or by any other unknown quantity. The sign of equality, (»)« is read, equal to, and is placed between the two equal qualities which are the first and second mem- bers of the equation. Common algebraic problems are most fre- quently solved by means of equations ; or by proportions, from which equations are easily obtained. To form the equation, we usually express the unknown quantity, if there be but one, by the letter x; and with this we form an expression which, by the conditions, is equal to some other expression or formula; after which it only remains to find the value of x from the equation thus formed. Thus, to find a certain number, twice which, being added to 76, and the sum divided by 4, the quotient will be equal to 10 times the same number,
2 X -\- 76 we write the equation j — =10ar; as the first operation.
If we multiply each member of the above equation by 4, it will form another equation, free from denominators, and without changing the value of ar ; viz. 2 or + 76 s 40 or. The next step, is, to bring all the terms containing the unknown quantity to stand by themselves, in one member, usually the first member of the equation. In the present example, to transpose the term 2 ;r, to the second member of the equation, we cancel it, where it stands, which is really sub- tracting it from the first member : and hence we must also subtract it from the second member; and write 76as40 a: — 20?; or by reduc- tion, 76=38 X. If, now, we divide both sides of the equation by 88, the co-efiScient of the unknown quantity, we shall have 2 = ar ; or a; SB 2. When the problem involves two distinct unknown quan- tities, say X and y, there must be two distinct equations ; from one of which we find the value of x, in terms containing y ; and then substitute this value of Xy wherever x occurs, in the other equation : which will then contain only one unknown quantity, y.
§ 3. Quadratic Equations, are those which contain the square or second power of the unknown quantity ; but no higher power. To resolve them, we first transpose, if necessary, so as to bring all the terms containing x* to stand first in order ; those containing x to stand next ; and all the known terms, that is, those which do not contain x, form the other member of the equation. We then divide both members by the co-efficient of x^, which reduces the equation to the regular form, x' ^ a, for pure quadratics, and x^ + ax^b, for those which are affected, or complex: a and b here simply denoting any known quantities. A pure quadratic, is then resolved.
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simply by extracting the square root of both of its members. Thus, from the equation 10 =108 — 2 a:", we obtain 2a:« = 108 — 10 ; or 2 AT* a 98 ; or a:* = 49 ; or a: = 7. In this case we may have a? = 7, orar = — 7; since a negative quantity multipUed by itself produces a positive square. As the square root of any quantity is denoted by the rcuiical sign, (^Z )» we might have written above, X = v' 49 = =b 7.
The square root of a monomial, is also a monomial : but if we multiply ar + a by a? + a, we shall have (ar + a)' =» a?" + 2 aa? + a* ; that is, the square of a binomicdt is made up of the square of the first term, plus twice the product of the two terms, plus the square of the last term. This suggest the rule for extracting the square root of a polynomial ; which we have no room here to present. Hence, to resolve a complex quadratic equation, when reduced to the regular form, a?" + oa? = 6; we must consider ax as twice the product of the two terms of a binomial root ; and x being one of them, s a will ne- cessarily be the other. We must therefore add the square of i a to each member of the equation ; making x^ + ax + k o^^ = h -^ k a^ ; and the first member will then become a trinomial and perfect square ; while the second member will contain only known quantities. Then, extracting the square root of each member, we have x + ka^^ :^ s/b + f a* ; from which, as a simple equation, the value of x may readily be found. For example, if we have x*+ 6 a? as 27, then is aH» + 6a: + 9=3 27 + 9 = 36; anda:+3=db6, ora; = =t 6 — 3 s 3, or — 9.
§ 4. The theory of Powers and Roots in general, comes next in order, as a preparation for the more general study of equations. If we form the successive powers of the binomial a + ^9 we shall have
(a + 6)« = a«+2« ft + 6«.
(a 4- ft)" = «• + 3 a« 6 4- 3 a 6» + ft».
(a + ft)* = a* + 4 a«ft + 6 a"ft» + 4aft» + ft*. In the formation of these powers, we observe certain remarkable laws, which have been generalized by Newton, in the binomial the- orem. We see that the number of terms in the power, is one greater than its exponent. The exponents of the leading factor, a, go on diminishing by unity from term to term ; while those of the succeed- ing factor, ft, go on increasing, according to the same law. And to form the coefficient of any term, we multiply the co-efficient of the preceding term by the first exponent in that term, and divide the product by the number denoting the place of that term, counting from the first.
By these same rules, we may develope the powers of any other binomial. Thus, to develope (2 a? + vYt we write 2 x instead of a, and y instead of ft ; and the result becomes, (2 x)* + 3 (2 a:)" y + 3 (2 x) y* + y*; or by reduction we have f 2 ar + y)* =8 ar* + \2x*y -f. 6 X y' 4- y'. Roots, in general, are aenoted by the radical sign, (s/'"), with the index of the root written above and on the left ; ex- cept the square root, whose index is understood, but not written. As we multiply the exponent, in raising to a power, so we may divide the exponent, to extract the root ; thus forming a fractional exponent.
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For example, ;^64 = (64)* = 4 ; since 4 x 4 x 4 ss 64. We have only room to add that by means of fractional exponents, the binomial theorem serves also to develope or extract roots in general, in the form of a series ; which, in these cases, is generally interminoua, or endless.
$ 5. The general Theory of Equations^ depends on the principle that every equation, having all the terms transposed to the first mem- ber, and arranged according to the powers of the unknown quantity Xf may be regarded as the continued product of as many binomial factors, X — a, x — 6, x — c, &c., as the degree of the equation, that b, the highest exponent of x, denotes. Thus, if we have the equa- tion X* + 2 X ^^ lb, OT X* -\- 2 X — 15 = 0, it may be written thus, {x + 6) {x — 3) s 0 ; and this equation will be satisfied, if we make 27 SB 3 ; since the factor x — 3 then becomes zero, and reduces the whole member to 0 also : or if we make x =^ — 5, the other factor will become equal to zero, and the equation will be satisfied ; and hence 3, and — 5, are called the root 9 of the equation. Particular rules have been discovered for resolving equations of the third and fourth degrees ; but for those of higher degrees no general rules have yet been discovered. Numerical equations, or those which contain no other letters but the unknown quantity, may generally be resolved by approximation: simple and quadratic equations being those of far the most frequent occurrence.
$ 6. We have alluded to Arithmetical and Geometrical Series^ or Progressions, under the head of Arithmetic ; and have given examples of other series, in the application of the binomial theorem. We have only room left here to speak of Logarithms ; which are a series of numbers in arithmetical progrression, corresponding to the natural numbers in geometrical progression. Their nature will best be un- derstood by examining the following scale, in which the logarithms are placed under the natural numbers to which they correspond. 5 1; 10; 100; 1000; 10,000; 100,000; 1,000,000. ^0;1;2; 3; 4; 6; 6.
Thus, in the common system, 2 is the logarithm of 100 ; and the logarithm of any number between 100 and 1000, is some decimal between 2-00000 and 3*0000. It will be seen that adding the logarithms, corresponds to multiplying the numbers ; and subtract- ing the logarithms, corresponds to the division of one of the numbers by the other. For example, subtracting 2 from 5, the difference is 3, the logarithm of 1000; which is the quotient of 100,000 divided by 100. Moreover, to raise a number to any power, we have only to multiply its logarithm by the exponent of that power, and it will give the logarithm of the power sought ; from which the power itself may be found by means of a table of logarithms. In like manner, the extraction of any root is performed simply by dividing the logarithm of the number, by the index of the root, and the quotient will be the logarithm of the root required.
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CHAPTER III.
GEOMETRY.
Geometry, is that branch of Mathematics which treats of the measarement of space, and the properties of lines, surfaces, and solids. The name is derived from the Greek, 717, the earth, or land, and fittpwj a measure : and this science was thus designated from its early application to the measurement of land. Under this branch, we would also include the modem Descriptive Geometry ; for rea- sons already given in the introduction to the present department. The science of Geometry, is one of the most beautiful, as it is also one of the most useful, among the exact sciences ; and, from its frequent applications, in all the arts of construction, it is a branch which we think should be studied by every mechanic, if not gene- rally introduced into our common schools.
The origin of Geometry, is ascribed by some writers to the Hin- doos : but by others, as Herodotus, to the Egyptians, who employed it in retracing their landmarks, after each subsidence of the Nile. It was introduced into Greece by Thales, and his pupil, Pythagoras^ both of whom travelled in Egypt. Thales discovered that all angles inscribed in a semi-circle are right angles ; and Pythagoras, besides noticing the five regular solids, discovered that Uie square on the h^^pothenuse of a right angled triangle is equal to the sum of those on the two sides. Hippocrates of Chios, by the quadrature of his famous lunulas, was the first to discover the exact area of a curvili- near figure ; 450 B. C. Eudoxus, the friend of Plato, found the measure of the pyramid and cone ; and Archimedes of Syracuse, that of the sphere and its circumscribed cylinder, which were sculptured on his tomb. This involved the quadrature of the circle, towards which Archimedes gave the first approximation. The two famous problems, in the Platonic School, of the trisection of an angle, and the duplication of the cube, led to the invention of geometrical loci : and the spiral of Conon, the quadratrix of Dinostratus, the conchoid of Nicomedes, and the cissoidoi Diodes, are curves having reference to these problems.
Among the best ancient works on Geometry, were the MathemO' tical Collections of Pappus; and Euclid's Elements; which were first translated from the Arabic into Latin, by Adhelard, an English monk of the 12th century. The Arabians seem to have made no advances in Geometry ; though Mahomet of Bagdad wrote an original work on Mensuration. Gerbert, already mentioned in the introduction to this department, also wrote a treatise on Mensuration ; and the first printed treatise on Algebra, by Paccioli, already referred to, related in part to Geometry. Van Ceulen of Cologne, who died in 1610, calculated the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle as far as to 36 places of figures : and Albert Girard, another Fleming, first found the area of a spherical triangle. Descartes first
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noticed the logarithmic tpiral ; and Galileo, the cycloid; which was afterwards more fully investigated by Huyghens.
In more recent times, numerous discoveries and improvements have been made in Geometry, by the application of algebraic formulas to geometrical figures ; the study of which belongs to the succeeding branches of Mathematics. We hare only room to add that the sul^ branch of Descriptive Geometry, was chiefly invented by Gaspar Monge ; who published his treatise on this subject, about the year 1794. Ptolemy drew maps according to the stereographic projec- tion ; but the other spherical projections are of later origin ; and the globular was invented by De La Hire. The subject of Perspective, is here deferred, until we come to the branch of Painting, among the Fine Arts ; and Surveying, is reserved for Civil Engineering, or Viatecture.
Elementary Geometry is sometimes divided into Longimetry, or the measure of lengths, and the properties of lines ; Planimetry, relating to surfaces; and Stereometry, relating to solids. We shall here treat of it under the heads of 1. Preliminary Elements ; 2. Plane Rectilinear Figures ; 3. The Circle and its Measure ; 4. Solid Angles and Polyedrons ; and 5. The Three Round Bodies. To this division. Descriptive Geometry will be regarded as an appendix.
§ 1. The ^rsi Elements of Geometry, are the definitions of magni- tudes. A point, has no magnitude, but serves to designate a position in space. A line, has length, but no breadth or thickness ; and it may be considered as formed by a series of points, or generated by the flowing, that is the motion, of a point. A surface, has length, and bread til, but no depth or thickness ; and it may be generated by the motion of a line. A solid, has length, breadth, and thickness ; which are called the three dimensions of extension. A straight line, is one which follows or measures the shortest distance between any two of its points ; or which lies in the same direction throughout : but a curved line, is one which continually changes its direction. An angle, is the inclination of one line to another ; and is measured by the divergence at their point of meeting, which is called the vertex of the angle. In naming an angle by means of three letters, the one
? laced at the vertex is always named in the middle place ; as ABE, late VII. Fig. 1. When the adjacent angles, formed by the meet- ing of two straight lines, are equal, they are called right angles, as ABD, Fig. 1 ; and each line is said to be perpendicular to the other. Oblique angles, are either obtuse, that is greater, or acute, that is less, than a right angle. Lines which are not inclined to each other, but have the same direction, are said to be parallel; as AD and BC, in Fig. 3.
A plane, is a surface, with which a straight line, applied to it in any direction, will entirely coincide. A plane figure, is a plane limited on all sides by lines ; which, if straight, enclose a rectilinear figure, or polygon, A polygon of three sides, is called a triangle, as Fig. 2 ; one of four sides, a quadrilateral, or tetragon ; one of five sides, a pentagon; and so on. A right angled triangle, has one right angle ; the side opposite to which is called the hypothenuse; as BC, in the triangle BDC, Fig. 2. An equilateral triangle has its three sides equal ; an isosceles triangle has only two of them equal : and a
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scalene triangle has no two sides equal. A square, has four equal sides, and four right angles, as ABCD, Fig. 3 ; and a rectangle, has four right angles, but two of the sides longer than the other two, as ABDC, Fig. 9. A rhombus, has its four sides equal, but its angles oblique : a rhomboid, or parallelogram, has its opposite sides equal, but its angles oblique, as ABEF, Fig. 3 ; and a trapezoid^ has only two of its four sides parallel, as ABCF, Fig. 3. A diago- nal, is a line joining the vertices of two angles not adjacent to each other.
A circle, ia a plane surface, terminated by a curved line, called its circumference, all the points of which are equidistant from a point within, called the centre. Fig 4. A straight line passing through the centre, and terminated by the circumference on both sides, is called a diameter, (AB) ; and a straight line from the centre to the circum- ference, is called a radius. (OB). An arc, is any portion of the circumference, (AC) ; and the chord of an arc is a utraight line join- ing its extremities. A segment, is the surface between an arc and its chord ; and a sector is the surface between two radii. (BOB'). A tangent to a circle, is a straight line which merely touches it, (AT) ; and a secant, is one which cuts the circle, as a chord prolonged. An angle formed by two radii, is measured by the intercepted arc ; a right angle being divided into ninety degrees. (90°.) Angles of a given magnitude, are usually constructed by means of a scale of chords, AF, Fig. 12 ; the chord of 60°, or distance A, 60, being used as the radius.
§ 2. Of Plane JRectilinear Figures, we have only room to give some of the more important measures. In every triangle, the greater side is opposite to the greater angle : and either side is always less than the sum of the other two. In every triangle, the sum of the three angles is equal to two right angles, or 180°. When two triangles have the angles of the one equal to the corresponding angles of the other, each to each, they are said to be similar; and the homologous or corresponding sides are proportional. The measure of a triangle, is the product of its base by half its altitude ; this latter being mea- sured on a line perpendicular to the base. The square on the hy- pothenuse, of a right angled triangle, is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. The measure of a square, is the square of one of its sides ; and the measure of a rectangle, is the product of two of its contiguous sides, one being considered as the base, and the other as the altitude. The measure of a rhombus, as well as that of a parallelogram, is the product of its base by its altitude ; this latter being measured on a line perpendicular to the base. Any polygon, may be measured, by subdividing it into triangles, and finding the sum of their areas, or measures, separately taken. In all these mea- surements, the unit of surface, is a square, each side of which is the adopted unit of length ; as a square foot, each side of which is one foot in length.
$ 3. We come next to the Properties of the Circle. In the same
circle, or in equal circles, if we take equal arcs, their chords will also
be equal, and at equal distances from the centre ; that is, equal chords
subtend equal arcs. The radius which is perpendicular to a chord,
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biBects both the chord, and the arc which it subtends. Every tan- gent is perpendicular to the radius drawn to its point of contact, that is, the point where it touches the circle. Arcs of circles are used to measure angles ; the vertex of the angle being at the centre of the circle. An angle is said to be inscribed in a circle, when it is formed by two chords meeting on the circumference. A polygon is said to be thus inscribed, when all its vertices lie in the circum- ference : and it is said to be circutMcribed about the circle, when all its sides are tangent to the circumference. The ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference, is nearly as 7 to 22 ; more nearly as 113 to 355; and still more nearly as I to 3*141596. The measure of a circle, is the product of the circumference by half the radius ; or of half the circumference by half the diameter.
$ 4. The study of Solid Angles, and Polyedrons, requires some preliminary explanations. When a given straight line meets a plane, and is perpendicular to two other straight lines lying in the plane, and meeting the former at its /bo/, then the given line is perpendicu- lar to all other lines in the plane, and to the plane itself. A line is parallel to a plane, and two planes are parallel to each other, when they do not meet, however far extended or produced. Two planes are perpendicular to each other, when either one of them contains any line which is perpendicular to the other. The angle formed by two planes, is measured by that of two lines, one in each plane, and both perpendicular to the line of intersection of the planes, and meet- ing it at the same point. A solid angle f is one formed by three or more planes, all meeting at the same point; which is the vertex both of the solid angle, and of the plane angles that enclose it ; as the angle at D, or those at A, B, and C. (PI. VIL, Fig. 5.)
A Polyedron, is a solid, bounded on all sides with planes, called its faces, the terminating lines of which constitute its ed^es, A cube has six equal squares for its six faces. A pyramid. Fig. 5, is a solid enclosed by several triangular planes, proceeding from a com- mon vertex, to the sides of a polygon which forms the base. A prism. Fig. 6, is a polyedron, the ends of which are similar poly- gons, and the sides are parallelograms. The measure of a prism is the product of its base by its altitude ; which is the perpendicular distance between its two bases. The measure of a pyramid is the product of its base by one-\hird of its altitude, or perpendicular height. The unit of solidity, in these measurements, is a cube, each of whose edges is equal to the unit of length, and each of its faces equal to the unit of surface.
§ 5. The Three Round Bodies, technically so called, are the cone, cylinder, and sphere. A cone, PI. VIL, Fig. 7, is a solid gene- rated by a right angled triangle, (ACD), revolving around one of its legs, or shorter sides, (DC), which remains stationary as an axis. A cylinder. Fig. 8, is a solid generated by the like revolution of a rectangle, about either one of its sides : and a sphere, is a solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle, around one of its diame- ters, which remains stationary as an axis. All possible sections of a sphere, by a plane, are circles ; and planes cuttings cone, or cylinder, perpendicular to its axis, produce also circular sections. A zone, of
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a sphere, is a part of its surface, cut off by a plane, or intercepted between two parallel planes; and the intercepted solid is called a spherical segment. A spherical triangle^ is a portion of the sur- face of a sphere, bounded by three arcs of greeU circles, that is, circles whose planes pass through the centre.
The convex surface of a cylinder, is equal to the circumference of its base, multiplied by its altitude : that of a cone, is equal to the circumference of its base, multiplied by its slant height, or distance from the vertex to any point of the circumference just named : and the surface of a sphere, is equal to the product of its diameter by the circumference of a great circle, that is, of the sphere itself. The measure of the solidity of a cylinder, is the product of its base by its altitude ; that of a cone, is the product of its base by one-third of its altitude ; and that of the sphere is the product of its surface by one- third of its radius.
§ 6. Descriptive Geometry, relates to the representation of geo- metrical figures on planer, and tiie construction of graphical problems thereby. It includes, therefore, the principles of perspective, and Spherical Projections. If we suppose the eye to be placed at a very great height, and looking vertically down upon an object situated above a horizontal plane, then the object will hide a part of the plane, of the same shape or outline, as that which the object itself presents to the eye. This representation of the object on the plane, is called its horizontal projection; and the plane itself is called the horizontal plane of projection. In like manner, if we suppose the eye to be placed in front of an object, and a vertical plane behind it, we may have a vertical projection, of the object, on the vertical plane of pro- jection. When these two planes of projection are both used, they intersect each other in a line called the ground lijie : and if we sup- pose one of them, with any projections made upon it, to be revolved about the ground line as an axis, till it coincides with the other plane, we shall then have both the projections of any object, on one and the same plane; as that of the paper or drawing board. Plate VII., Fig. 9, represents the horizontal plane GHIB, as revolved about the ground line AB, until it coincides with the vertical plane ACDB, prolonged downwards to EF.
The projection of any point, is another point, directly above or below it, or else directly before or behind it ; and is found by drawing a perpendicular from the given point to one or the other plane of projection. The projection of a line, is another line, lying in one or the other plane of projection ; and is found by joining the projec- tions of two of its points on that plane. The position of any plane, in space, is known, if we have its intersections with the two planes of projection ; which intersections are called its traces. If a given plane be revolved about one of its traces as an axis, until it coincides with the plane of projection in which that trace lies, each point of the given plane will revolve in a circular arc, and take the same rela- tive position in the given plane, after the revolution, as it had before. It is by an ingenious application of these and similar principles, that lines, surfaces and solids may be delineated on a single plane, and their dimensions or relations determined to a surprizing extent. In
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Plate VII., Fig. 9, aa! and bh\ are supposed to be perpendicular to the plane ABDC ; and a' h* represents the projection of the line a6, on that plane. In like manner, h" and a" are the projections of h and a on the plane GHIB, and d* and c' are the same project tions when this plane is revolved down into the position GKFB.
When all the projecting lines and planes are perpendicular to the planes of projection ; that is, when the eye is supposed to be at an infinite distance above, or in front of the object, the projection is then said to be Orthographic. When the eye is supposed to be placed comparatively near to the object, or objects, so that the projecting lines diverge from the eye as a focus or centre, then the projection is said to be Scenographic, which is the same as Perspective ; and the plane of projection, is, in this connection, termed the perspective plane. The name of Spherical Projections, is applied both to the orthographic and scenographic projections of the sphere, with its dif- ferent circles: and, in Sns case, the plane of projection is called the primitive plane ; and its intersection with the sphere is called the primitive circle. In the Stereo graphic projection, the primitive plane is supposed to pass through the centre of the sphere, and the eye to be placed at one pole of the primitive circle, viewing the oppo- site hemisphere. In this case, all circles of the sphere are projected either as circles or right lines ; as in Plate VII., Fig. 11. If the eye were revolved down to A, the point d would evidently be seen as if it were at d"; but if the eye were revolved about AB as an axis, to the point D, then the point d would appear in the direction d\ Thus, the parallels and meridians are determined. In the cylin- drical projection, or developement of the sphere, which is that used in the Mercator Charts, the eye is supposed to be placed at the centre, and the surface is projected on a circumscribed cylinder, tangent to the sphere, around the equator ; which cylinder is afterwards deve- loped, or spread out, as a plane. Of the other projections, and of warped surfaces, and surfaces of revolution, we have no farther room to speak.
CHAPTER IV.
ANCYLOMETRT.
Anctlometry, or Analytic Geometry, is that branch of Mathema- tics in which Algebra is employed in determining the relations and properties of Geometrical figures ; or, in other words, it is the appli- cation of Algebra to Geometry. We venture to propose, for this branch of Mathematics, the name of Ancylometry, suggested by Judge Woodward, and derived from the Greek oyxvxof, a curve, and fictpoy, a measure ; it being extensively employed in the measure of curves. Under this head, we comprehend not only Conic Sections, which it is generally made to include; but also Trigonometry; which, though sometimes considered as a distinct branch of Mathematics, may rather be regarded as a sub-branch, of limited extent, but of high importance. The object of Trigonometry, is the relation of the
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parts of triangles ; by which, certain parts being given, the others may be determined. Conic Sections, is the name applied to the study of the curves formed by the intersections of a plane and a cone ; that is, the circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. These curves are ofWn referred to, particularly in Astronomy and Navigation ; while Trigonometry is also of frequent service, in these studies, and in the practice of Surveying and Mensuration.
Trigonometry, derives its name from the Greek ^ptywoj, a triangle, and ficfpov, a measure. It is said to have been first investigated hy Hipparchus : but the oldest work extant upon it, is that of Menelaus of Alexandria; and the earliest trigonometrical tables which have been preserved, are those of Ptolemy, in his Almagest. The Arabi- ans simplified Trigonometry, by the introduction of sines, or the half chords of double arcs, as the means of expressing angles : a method employed in the writings of Albategnius, about A. D. 880 ; though its invention is also claimed for the Hindoos. The Arabian astronomer, Geber ben Aphla, in the 11th century, compiled three or four theorems, which became the basis of modern trigonometry. Miiller, of Germany, called also Regiomontanus, farther improved Trigonometry by the use of tangents s and he was the first to resolve spherical triangles, by finding the relations of their sides and angles. To Napier, we are indebted, for his rules or Analogies, which assist us in remembering the more difficult formulas ; and especially for the invention of Logarithms, by which trigonometrical calculations are 80 greatly simplified. Other improvements have been made by Euler and others ; and the formulas of Trigonometry are now become so general, and complete, as to leave but little more to be expected, or even desired.
The first examination of Conic Sections, has been attributed by some writers to Menechmus, a friend of Plato ; and by others to Arista3us, whose writings are lost. The earliest work extant, on this subject, is that of Apollonius of Perga, who flourished about 150 B. C. ; and who ranked next to Archimedes, as a geometer. Dr. Wallis, in 1655, introduced the method of studying these curves without any necessary reference to their being sections of a cone. Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, discovered that the orbits of the planets are curves of this class ; since which discovery they have been very extensively and carefully studied.
The invention of the modern Analytic Geometry, is attributed to Vieta, and Descartes. Vieta applied it only to the construction of the roots of equations ; but Descartes, in 1637, by the invention of codrdinates, found the means of designating geometrical curves by algebraic equations ; in which the essence of this branch consists. Descartes applied this system to curves of double curvature, by means of their two projections ; but Maclaurin discovered a more direct method, by means of triple coordinates, parallel to three different axes, and related to each other by the nature of the curve, or surface. It is only since the time of Descartes, that Trigonome- try and Conic Sections have been treated analytically, and thus be- come a part of this branch of Mathematics ; which has thus aided the study of pure Geometry.
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We proceed to treat first of Trigonometry ; then of Coordinates, and their immediate applications ; and lastly of the Conic Sections.
§ 1. Plane Trigonometry^ has for its object the solution of pro- blems concerning plane triangles; the sides of which are always straight lines. It is subdivided, in reference to the different kinds of triangles, into Hight Angled and Oblique. In any right angled triangle, ABC, Plate VII. Fig. 13, if, from the vertex, A, of one of the acute angles, as a centre, and with the hypothenuse, AC, for a radius, we describe an arc of a circle, the side, BC, opposite to the vertex used, becomes the sine, and the adjacent side, AB, becomes the cosine, of the angle, A, in question. The cosine, prolonged, becomes another radius of the same arc ; and the prolonged part, BD, beyond the triangle, is called the versed sine of the arc or angle in question. If now we apply a scale, on which the hypothenuse or radius shall be equal to unity or 1, the sine and cosine will be expressed by decimals, which are called the natural sine, and cosine, of the angle in question. But if we take the radius equal to 10,000,000,000, (whose logarithm is 10), and then find the logarithms of the corresponding lengths of the sine and cosine, we shall have the logarithmic sine, and cosine, of the same angle. Thus, angles may be designated by their sines, or cosines.
Again, if from the same vertex. A, as a centre, and with the base, AD, as a radius, we describe an arc, then the other leg, BC, is called the tangent, and the hypothenuse, AC, is called the secant of the same angle. The tangent and secant of the complement of an angle, or what it wants of 90^, are called the co-tangent and co-secant of the angle itself. It is chiefly by means of Tables of the sines and co-sines, tangents and co-tangents of angles, that all problems of Tri- gonometry are resolved. In every plane triangle, we must have given at least three parts, sides and angles, one of which at least must be a side, in order to find the other parts.
Thus, in a right angled triangle, if we have given the base, and angle at the base, the right angle being of course known, then, the base is to the perpendicular, or other leg, as the cosine of the angle at the base, is to the sine of the same angle ; and the base is to Sie hypothenuse, as the cosine of the angle at the base, is to radius, or the sine of 90**. In an oblique angled triangle, the sides are pro- portional to the sines of the opposite angles : also, the sum of any two sides is to their difference, as the tangent of the half sum of the two opposite angles, is to the tangent of their half difference : and finally, the sine of half of either angle, is equal to radius multiplied by the half sum of the three sides minus one of the adjacent sides, this multiplied by the same half sum minus the other adjacent side, and the whole divided by four times the product of the two adjacent sides, adjacent to the angle sought.
§ 2. Spherical Trigonometry, has for its object the resolution of spherical triangles, formed by arcs of great circles on the surface of a sphere. The angles of such a triangle, (Plate VII. Fig. 14), are those formed by the planes of its sides, with each other ; and its sides are measured as arcs, by the number of degrees which they subtend, at the centre of the sphere. In spherical triangles, the sines of the
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sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles. In a right angled spherical triangle, if we omit the right angle, we have five parts left, sides and angles ; one of which being called the middle part, two of the others become adjacent parts, and the other two, the opposite parts ; taking however not the oblique angles and hypothe- nuse themselves, but their complements in their stead. Then, radius into the sine of the middle part, will be equal to the product of the tangents of the adjacent parts, and also equal to the product of the cosines of the opposite parts. These rules, called Napier^s Analo- gies, may be applied to oblique angled spherical triangles ; by divid- ing them each into two right angled triangles, by means of an arc drawn- from one vertex, perpendicularly, to the opposite side.
§ 3. The invention of Coordinates, has furnished the means of representing geometrical curves, by the medium of algebraic equa- tions. For this purpose, we imagine two straight lines, XX' and YY', PI. VII., Fig. 15, to be drawn in the plane which contains the given curve ; and these lines are called the axes of coordinates : the origin of coordinates being their point of meeting. Generally, the axis which extends across the figure, from right to left, is called the axis of abscissas; and the other, the axis of ordinates. If, then, from any given point, m, we draw a vertical line, m n, until it meets the axis of abscissas, this line is called the ordinate of that point ; and the distance. An, from the foot of this ordinate, on the axis of abscissas, to the origin of coordinates, is called the abscissa of the same point. Thus, the position of the point, in the plane under con- sideration, is fixed by means of its abscissa and ordinate ; which, being parallel to the axes, are generally perpendicular to each other, and together are called the coordinates of that point.
Suppose, now, that we imagine a series of points, at diflTerent dis- tances from the origin of coordinates, but so situated that the ordinate of each point shall be equal to its abscissa. Then will all these points lie in one and the same straight line, ^ 6, Fig. 15, passing through the origin, and making an angle of 45° with each of the axes, when they are rectangular : and the equation of this straight line would be ^ SB a?; calling x the abscissa, and y the ordinate, in gene- ral. By giving any particular value to x, it determines the corres- ponding value of 1/, and defines some particular point of this straight line. For the origin itself, we have x =5 0, and y = 0 . and in general the abscissa will be 0 for any point situated on the axis of ordinates, and the ordinate will be zero for the axis of abscissas. In like manner as above, the equation y as 3 j*, is that of a line, AC^ Fig. 15, passing through the origin, and having the ordinate for each point, the double of its abscissa. A line whose equation x^y =z\ x+ 10, would be parallel to this last, but would cut the axis of ordinates at a distance from the origin expressed by the number 10. The equation y = — i a: + 5, might represent the line d e, Fig. 5 ; the coefficient — |, determining its oblique direction.
$ 4. We must pass on to the Conic Sections. If we suppose a cone, (Plate VII., Fig. 16), to be bounded by an infinite number of consecutive straight lines, all passing through its vertex, V, and together composing its convex surface, these lines are called its
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S36 MATHEMATICS.
dements; and in a right circular cone, they all form equal angles with its axis. Erery section of such a cone, by a plane parallel to its base, or perpendicular to its axis, is a circle, as EF ; which curve is therefore one of the conic sections. If the cutting plane be ob- lique to the axis, but make with it a greater angle than the elements do, then the section will be an ellipse, as GH ; which is a curve returning to itself like a circle, but elongated in one direction. If the cutting plane make with the axis the same angle that the elements do, the section will be a parabola, as UK : but if it make with the axis a smaller angle than this, the section will be a hyperbola, as LMN, OPQ. The ends, or branches of a parabola, or hyperbola, never meet, but go on diverging to an infinite distance.
If we suppose the elements of the cone GVD to be prolonged beyond the vertex, they will form another cone, AVB, equal and opposite to the first ; both having a common vertex. These two, in connection, are technically called a cone of ttco nappes. If we con- sider them both as extended to an infinite distance from the vertex, the plane which cuts out a hyperbola from one of them, will cut out an equal and opposite hyperbola from the other; and these two are called conjugate hyperbolas. A cylinder, may be regarded as a cone, whose vertex is at an infinite distance from its base : and its sections, by planes, whether circular or elliptical, belong therefore to the conic sections. All the conic sections may be comprehended in one general equation; by varying the terms of which it is made applicable to every particular case.
In the circle. Fig. 12, if we take two diameters for the axes of coordinates, and consider any point C, on the circumference, its ordi- nate, CD, will be the same line as the sine, and its abscissa, OD, as the cosine, of the arc between this point and the diameter which is made the axis of abscissas. Calling die radius, R ; the abscissa, x ; and the ordinate, y ; the equation of the circle will be y* -f of* = /?*; in which x, and y, vary for the different points of the circumference ; y diminishing as x increases, but R remaining constant for all points of the same circle. In the ellipse. Fig. 17, the longest of all the diameters is at right angles to the shortest ; the former, being called the transverse and the latter the corrugate diameter. Taking these as axes, and calling the halves of them respectively ^ and B, the equation of the ellipse becomes w^*y' + 5*a:' = Ji* B*; in which A and B remain constant for the same ellipse. The points F and F', are called the foci of the ellipse : and the sum of their distances FP and F' P, from any point on the curve, is a constant quantity, always equal to the transverse diameter. In the hyperbola. Fig. 19, the difference of the distances F' P and FP is constant; and in tlie para- bola. Fig. 18, the point P is equidistant from the focus F, and the directrix CD. The equation of the parabola, taking its vertex as the origin of codrdinates, is y^^Px; and that of the hyperbola, referred to the middle of its transverse diameter, is ^y^ — B^x*^ — A^ B*. The applications of these equations, we have no room to explain.
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RHE0METR7. 337
CHAPTER V.
RHEOMETRY.
Rheometrt, or the Differential and Integral Calculus, is that branch of Mathematics which treats of the correlative increments of quantities that are mutually dependent ; and of the relations of these increments to each other, and to the quantities from which they are derived. For this branch of Mathematics, we venture to propose the name Rheometry ; from the Greek ;i«w, I flow, suggested by the name Fluxions, applied to this science by Newton. The word Cah cuius, is the Latin for a small stone, or pebble ; and as the ancients used pebbles to assist them in numbering or reckoning, the word was hence applied to the method or means of numerical calculation. Leibnitz conceived the dependent quantities to receive infinitely small increments, the sum of which would make up the quantities them- selves : hence he proposed for this branch the name above given. Newton considered all quantities as generated by motion ; a line by the motion of a point ; a surface by the motion of a line ; and a solid by the motion of a surface. This idea of magnitudes moving, or flowing, led him to propose for this new science, the name of fluxions; which is now, however, for the most part superseded by the name proposed by Leibnitz.
Kepler was the first, among the moderns, who applied the infini- tesimal method to geometrical figures ; and he considered the circle as composed of infinitely small triangles, formed by the radii. The method of indivisibles, first published in 1635, by Cavalieri, or Cavallerius of Bologna, regarded surfaces as made up of mere lines ; whereas Roberval, his contemporary, regarded them as composed of infinitesimal areas ; and applied this method to the measure of the cycloid. Format's method of finding maxima and minima, im- proved by Descartes, in his method of tangents, and still farther extended by Wallis of England, in his Arithmetic of Infinites, on the quadrature of curves, as also by Huyghens, in his theory of evolutes, was among the successive steps which led to the invention of the DifTerential Calculus. This invention has been claimed both for Newton, and Leibnitz ; but the question has never been fully decided. Newton is said to have invented his method of Fluxions as early as 1672 ; but he made no publication of it till that in his Principia, in 1686. Leibnitz claims to have invented the Calculus in 1676 ; and the first publication of it was made by him in 1684, in the Leipsic Acts, under the title of A New Method for Maxima and Minima ; but it contained no demonstrations. Leibnitz gave the first ideas of the Integral Calculus, in two small tracts, on the quadra- ture of curves, published in 1685.
From this time, the new calculus made rapid advances, in the
hands of its inventors and others ; and its great utility was shown in
its successful application to many of the more difficult problems in
physical science, which had never before been resolved. The first
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398 MATHEMATICS.
regular treatise on the Diflerential Calculus, was the Analysis of Infi- nites, published in France, in 1699, by the Marquis de L'Hopital ; and the first elementary treatise upon it in England, was published by Hayes, in 1704. Brook Taylor's theorem, published in 1715, and Maclaurin's theorem, deduced from Taylor's, have become the basis of the calculus of finite differences, or increments and series, on which Lagrange has founded his whole theory of the Calculus. Maclaurin, in his Treatise of Fluxions, published in 1742, first sub- jected the principles of this science to strictly geometrical proof; and they were demonstrated analytically by Lagrange, in 1772.
James Bernouilli, a friend of Leibnitz, distinguished himself by the application of the Calculus to the elastic spring, the logarithmic spiral, and to the most difficult isoperi metrical curves: and his brother John Bernouilli, though doubtless his inferior, did much to promote this science ; particularly in his examination of expo- nential functions, about the year 1697; and in his application of Leibnitz's method of differencing from curve to curve. The import- ant method of partial differenceSj first applied by Euler, was extended by D'Alembcrt, in studying the vibrations of a musical strifig ; and still farther extended by Euler himself, in his Investiga- tio runctionum, published in 1762. La Grange, in 1760, invented the Calculus of Variations; which Euler was one of the first to adopt, and which La Place has successfully applied to the planetary perturbations. The developement of functions in series, has been facilitated by tlie labors of La Place ; as also by Hindenburg's combi- natory analysis, and by Arbogast's calculus of derivations, in%'ented in the year 1800. Of farther improvements, by Clairaut, Fontaine, Legend re. Cousin, and others, we have no room here to speak.
Our further notice of this science will be very brief, and com- prised under the two divisions of the Differential, and the Integral Calculus.
§ 1. The immediate object of the Differential Calculus, is, having given the relation of two quantities, or fluents, to find the ratio of their differentials, or fluxions. The name of differentials is given to the increments of quantities, when supposed to become infinitely small or zero ; but though the increments themselves thus disappear, their ratio or proportion to each other does not disappear, but becomes an exact and definite mathematical quantity, having important appli- cations. In this branch of mathematics, quantities are considered as either constant, or variable; the former being expressed by the first, and the latter by the last letters of the alphabet. When the value of one quantity depends upon that of another, the former is said to be a function of the latter. Thus, in the equation, y = aar -f 6, y is said to be an explicit function of x; and x is said to be an implicit or implied function of y ; but a and b represent couJ^Unt quantities. In this example, if x mcreases in value, y is also increased ; and hence y may be called an increasing function of x. Functions are also distinguished as either algebraic or transcendental; the latter being either logarithmic, or circular functions, which cannot be ex- pressed by a limited number of algebraic terms, but only by a series ; as y S3 log. X, orysassina*.
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BBEOMETRT. 339
Resuming the equation y ssox + b, which is that of a straight line, (p. 335), if we give to :r an increment A, and the correspond- ing increment of y he A;, then the equation becomes y + k^^a [x + h) -^-b^stox + ah + b; and, from this, subtracting the original equa-
lion, we hare A a a/k, or ^ « a; which shows that in an equation
of the first degree, corresponding to a straight line, the increments of the variables, or of the ordinate and abscissa, have a constant ratio. But if we take the equation of a ctrc/e, y* + x*sa jR*, or y^^^R* — x^y which is an equation of the second degree, hence belonging to a curve of the second order, and if we give to x and y the correspond- ing increments h and A, we have (v -f k)* ssR* — (x + /*)■ ; or y* + 2 Jy + A;' as /?■ — x* — 2kx — A* : and subtracting the original equation from this, we have 2 A:y + A' a — 2hx — A* ; in which the ratio of k and A varies, whether we vary x and y, or change the values of k and A themselves. But if we make these increments infinitely small, their squares k^ and A* will become infinitely small^ even compared with k and h; and hence may be neglected; so that
k X we then have the equation 2 Ay = — 2 Aar; or -^ =s . In this
case, k and A become the differentials of x and y, and are expressed by writing the letter d before the quantity m>m which they are derived.
Thus, when we pass to the limit, by making k and y infinitely
small, the last equation becomes -r^s—.— ; from which we have
X ^^ y
rfy =s (far, for the first differential equation of the circle. The
*^ X ,
rcUio of the increments, that is, , is technically called the diffe*
rential co-eficient ; and it expresses the tangent of the angle which a tangent line to the circle, at the point whose coordinates are x and y, makes with the axis of abscissas. This furnishes us with an easy mode of drawing a tangent line to the circle, at any point whose coordinates ar, and y are given. Moreover, if the value of y, after increasing to a certain extent, should reach its greatest limit, this will be shown by dy becoming infinitely small, or zero, in compari- son with dx; that is, we shall have in this case -^ s=s 0 ; or — — « 0 ?
dx y
or— *XsyxO=0, showing that the greatest value of y is that which corresponds to a; « 0. From this, the maximum value of y itself may be found, by making a;=:0 in the original equation; which, for this value, gives y=i?. The minimum value of y, is found on precisely the same principle, and by the same method ; from which we perceive the ready application of this Calculus to problems of maxima and minima.
We have only room remaining to give some of the simplest rules for differentiating quantities, in order to find the differential equations. The differential of ax, is a.dx; and that of a constant term is zero ; so that constant terms have no influence on the differential equation ; as shown by the term i?* in the last example. The differential of
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xy is x.dy + y.dx: that of x* is 2x.dx; and that of x* is Bo^dx, In general, the differential of a product, is found by multiplying the differential of each rariable by the product of all the other variables, and taking the sum of these several products. The differential of
. 18 Si lJl • the differential of the sine of :i; is cos x . (/x.* the
differential of the cosine of :i; is — sin x,dx: and that of the loga- rithm of x is — . By differentiating anew the first differential equa- tion, we obtain the second differential equation, and iVom this the third, and higher equations ; which are necessary in the application of Taylor's and Maclaurin's theorems : but these, we have no room here to explain.
$ 2. The object of the Integral Calculus^ is, having given the differential coefficient of any function, to find the function itself. Hence, it is the reverse of the Differential Calculus ; and was called by Newton the Inverse Method of Fluxions. In this view, the func- tion is called the integral^ or fluent ; being considered as the sum of all the successive increments which together make up the function sought. To find the integral of any expression, is to find tlie quan- tity which will have that expression for its differential, or differential coefficient. Thus, the differential oiax •\- h being a,dx, conversely we say that the integral of a.dx is clx + h. The integral of any
quantity, is designated by writing before it the chiazcier j] resem- bling the letter a, the initial of the word sum ; as (f was used to de- signate the differential, by a similar alliteration. Thus we have d {ax -f 6) ■■ c/y « a.dxj and
/
a.dx ssywBax+b.
The constant term 6, was called by Newton the correction of the Jtuent : and it cannot be found immediately by the integration, be- cause this process only gives the variable terms, of which this constant term is entirely independent.
This explanation of the Integral Calculus, will serve to show how it may be applied to the rectification of a curve, that is, the finding of its length ; or to the quadrature of a surface, that is, the finding of its area; or to the cubature of a solid, by which we measure its so- lidity. Taking, for example, the quadrature of the parabola, the equation of which is y' » 2 px; (p. 336) ; and calling s the area com- prehended between the axis, the curve, and a given ordinate y, (or PH, Plate VII., Fig. 18,) we assume the equation ds = y.dx; each member expressing the infinitely small area comprehended between two consecutive ordinates : and substituting, in this, the value of rfx, found from the differential equation, 2y . d|y a 2p . dx, which gives
dx = ?^^ we have ds « ^-^ ; the integral of which is fds = *
y*
"^ 3p' '^^^ integral requires no correction, or constant term, be- cause it already makes the area * = 0 when y becomes zero, which
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KHXOMXTBT. 341
the case requires. We have then a bs ^ ; or since y' s 2 pa?, we
have a = ^ ■" ~^5 "^^ showing that the area in question is 30 3
two- thirds of the product of the abscissa and ordinate by which the area is included. Such are the beautiful applications of the differ- ential and integral calculus.
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Z. DEPAHTBIENT:
ACROPHTSICS.
In the department of Acrophysics, we include those branches of science which relate to the dynamical laws of matter, or the agencies by which the inanimate material worid is regulated. The name is derived from the Greek, a»po$, high, and fvcK* nature ; properly sig- nifying the higher study of nature ; that is, as regards material objects. The term FhyiicSf has been variously applied ; sometimes limited to the mathematical, and at others extended to the chemical laws of matter ; sometimes including both Natural Philosophy and Natural History, but more frequently confined to the former. Hence the desirableness of a generic term, which, being strictly defined, may designate exclusively the class of sciences constituting the present department. The term Natural PhUoaopkyt might suffice for this purpose, were it not liable to ambiguity : but it sometimes excludes Astronomy ; and is generally considered as exclusive of Chemistry ; although we have high authority for regarding this latter branch as a part of the same group of sciences.
In the department of Acrophysics, we therefore place not only Me- chanics, Optics, Electricity, and Calorics, which are usually com- prehended under Natural Philosophy ; but also the branches of Astronomy and Chemistry ; as chiefly relating to the general laws, though pardy to the special productions of nature. Most of these sciences depend more or less on the pure mathematics for their elu- cidation ; and hence were formerly, and are still occasionally designa- ted as Mixed Mathematics, But the data, or facts, to which the calculations are applied, we obtain chiefly from observation and ex- periment : hence these branches have also been comprehended under the name of Experimental Philosophy ; though this term is most frequently applied to the studies of Optics, Electrics, and Calorics. The uses to which this department of science may be applied, are numerous and important; not only in dispelling superatition, and elevating the miud, by explaining the wonderful phenomena and operations of nature ; but in aiding the physical arts, by a knowledge of the facts which they require, for Uieir successful practice, and farther improvement
By the general term, matter^ is meant any substance which is capable of aflecting our senses. Matter exists in three states ; solids liquid, and gaseous. In the first, the particles cohere together, so as not to be freely separated ; in the second, they cohere slightly, but separate freely ; and in the third, or aeriform stete, they not only separate freely, but tend to recede from each other, as far as the space which they occupy, or pressure which they experience, will allow. Liquids and gases are both termed fluids s the former in-
342
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compressible, or nearly so ; the latter compressible and elastic. The effects of light, beat, and electricity, are usually attributed to one or more fluids, pervading all space ; but too subtile and diffusive to be collected and weighed, and hence termed imponderable. Concern- ing the constitution of matter, there are two opposite theories. The dynamic theory f supposes that matter is continuous, without any atomic organization, and without any pores or interstices. The atomic theory, supposes all matter to consist of insensibly small, or ultimate particles, called atoms ^ each having a regular, and probably a rounded shape; with interstices between them, like those in a pile of cannon balls. This theory is now generally adopted ; and it is strongly supported by the laws of crystallization, and of chemical combination in definite proportions.
There are two essential properties of matter, without which we cannot conceive of its existence. They are extension, and resisti- bility. Extentionf is that property of matter by which it must occupy a certain space ; and reaistibilityf less properly called im- penetrability, is that property by which it will not permit other mat- ter to occupy the same space at the same time. Four other properties of matter may be termed general; as they belong to all matter with which we are acquainted ; though not essential to its existence. They are gravitation, inertia, porosity, and divisibility. Gravitation, is that property of matter by which it tends to move towards other matter, unless prevented by some force, to which, in that case, it opposes a certain pressure or resistance : and inertia, is that property of matter by which, being at rest, it tends to remain at rest, or being in motion it ever continues in motion, unless affected by some extra- neous force. Porosity, is that property of matter by which, accord- ing to the atomic theory, it presents interstices or pores between its particles : and divisibility, is that property by which matter may be resolved into particles, at least as small as our vision will permit us to discover. Of the remaining properties of matter, which may be termed accidental, such as color, shape, hardness, elasticity, and the like, we have no room here to speak.
The progress of Acrophysics, was necessarily dependent, in a great measure, on that of Mathematics ; and its study has been a great stimulus to mathematical inquiries, by clothing them with new interest and importance. How much knowledge in this department was possessed by the ancient Chaldeans and Egyptians, we are unable exactly to ascertain ; but it appears to have been considerable, and derived from one common source. Their knowledge of these sciences was carried into Greece, by Thales and Pythagoras ; in whose doctrines truth was often mingled with error. Thus, Thales taught that wfter was the sole element, of which all things were composed ; and he believed amber, and the magnet, to be animate beings. Pythagoras attached a mysterious importance to certain num- bers, as exercising a control or influence over the material world. Anaximenes and Diogenes regarded air as the primary element, of wliich even water was composed; and Heraclitus maintained that fire was the primary element, into which all others might be resolved. Empcdocles admitted the existence of four elements ; fire, air, water.
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344 ACAOPHTSICS.
and earth ; and considered light as also a material substance. Aris- totle maintained the idea of a series, or succession of elements ; the highest being the lightest: and he regarded mature form, and privation, as the three great agents by which the wond is con- trolled, (p. 20.)
We have now pointed out some of the errors of the ancient philo- sophers ; reserving the truths which they discovered for the history of the different branches of Aerophysics. We may add that Archimedes thought it beneath the dignity of philosophy to write explanatory and practical works on the sciences ; which, perhaps, was the greatest error that this profound philosopher ever entertained : as it caused the loss of much valuable information to succeeding ages. The knowledge of the ancients, in this department of science, was pre- served in part by the Arabians ; and by them transmitted to modem Europe, with some important additions, (p. 289). Among the ear- liest pioneers of modem science, we may mention Roger Bacon, an English monk or Friar, whose discoveries in optics and chemistry deserve an honorable mention. Still, the limits of physical tmth trere confined, and its march impeded, in his time, by the metaphy- sical subtleties and vagaries of the schoolmen, based on the high authority of Aristotle. To Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, whose profound work, entided " Novum Organum Scientiamm," in contra- distinction from the Organon of Aristotle, first unfolded the right method of studying nature, by observation, experiment, and a careful induction of principles from numerous and well known facts; to him is modern science indebted, at least in a considerable degree, for its rapid and continuous progress, among all enlightened nations, down to tlie present time.
Of the Acrophysical sciences. Astronomy was the first to emerge from darkness, when Copernicus and Galileo revived the true solar system ; the theory of which has since been developed by Newton and La Place. Galileo also laid the foundation of Dynamics, or the theory of variable motion, with which the ancients were slightly or not at all acquainted : and his pupil, Torricelli, originated the science o( Pneumatics, by discovering the ponderability of the air. The prismatic decomposition of Light, by Newton, gave a new impulse to the study of Optics, which had previously been limited to a few of the more common phenomena of reflection and refraction. The discoveries of Dr. Gilbert, first elevated Magnetism to the rank of a science ; and formed a nucleus on which has arisen the kindred science of Electricity. Galvanism originated, in the last century, with Ihe discoveries of Professor Galvani ; and Electro-Magnetism, in the present century, with those of Professor Oersted ; to which Dr. Seebeck has since added a new class of phenomena, in those of Thermo-Electricity. Chemistry first took a scientific form in the hands of Beccher and Stahl ; though its trae theory was more recently made known by Lavoisier and Dalton. To Dr. Black we are indebted for the initial discoveries in Pneumatic Chemistry, and some of the most important laws of Calorics.
Thus rapid and brilliant has been the modem progress of the sciences included in the present department. We proceed to treat
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of them, in the brief manner here required, under the branches of 1. Mechanics; 2. Astronomy; 3. Optics; 4. Ceraunics, including Calorics, Electricity, Magnetism, and Galvanism ; and 5. Chemistry.
CHAPTER I.
MECHANICS.
Mechanics, is the science which treats of forces acting upon matter, and which investigates the laws of equilibrium and motion, both of solids, and of fluids. The name is derived from tho Greek firjxotvfj, a machine ; as the constniction of machines probably first led to the study of this science. The term matter, has been already defined, and the principal properties of matter explained, in the intro- duction to this department. A force, is an agent, tending either to produce or to resist motion. When the forces acting upon a body counteract each other, or do not produce any motion, the body is said to be m equilibrium. When a body moves through equal spaces in equal times, its motion is said to be uniform ; but in all other cases it is variable. In the former case, the forces cease to act, or else counteract each other : but all cases of variable motion are owing to the action of continuous or incessant forces.
The best sub-division of Mechanics, is probably into the four heads of Statics, Dynamics, Hydrics, and Pneumatics. Statics, treats of the conditions of equilibrium, and of uniform motion, particularly in regard to solids ; though many of its principles are also applicable to fluids. Dynamics, treats of the laws of variable motion ; with the same restriction concerning its application. Hydrics, including both Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics, treats of those laws of equilibrium and motion which are peculiar to liquids ; and Pneumatics, treats of the corresponding laws, in so far as they are peculiar to aeriform fluids, or gases. The term Hydraulics, more properly applies to those constructions for the conveyance of water, the study of which belongs to Civil Engineering; and Acoustics, or the doctrine of sound, may properly be included under the head of Pneumatics. The science of Mechanics, finds its applications not only in the construction of Machinery, but also in the succeeding branches of the present department; to some of which, the study of it is an indispensable preliminary.
According to Vitruvius, the ancients were from time immemorial acquainted with several of the mechanical powers, so called ; as the inclined plane, capstan, and pulley ; to which, no doubt, should be added the wedge, and the lever, as the simplest of them all. The screw was also known to, if not invented by, Archimedes ; to whom the theory of the mechanical powers is justly attributed. The most ancient writings extant, on this science, are those of Aristotle ; who understood the principle of momenta, but not that of the lever. This latter principle was first discovered by Archimedes ; who deduced from it the principle of the centre of gravity, as explained in his 44
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work entitled lioporrikat concerning equiponderants. He also dis- covered the important law of the equilibrium of fluids ; and applied it to the finding of specific gravities, in the celebrated problem of Hiero's crown. The invention oi pumps for raising water, is due to Ctesibius, and Hero, of Alexandria, 150 to 120 B. 0. : and the first correct ideas on the motion of water in canals^ belong to Frontinus of Rome, who flourished A. D. 100. The initial theory of Acous- tics, or at least of musical sounds, belongs to Pythagoras ; and was suggested, it is said, by the concordant notes of several hammers^ whose weights he found to have a certain ratio.
The discovery of the parallelogram of forces^ was made by Ste- vens, or Stevinus of Holland, about A. D. 1600 ; to which Varignon afterwards added the ratio of the sines of the angles. Galileo dis- covered the laws of falling bodies^ and invented the pendulum; thus founding the branch of Dynamics. TorricelU*s discovery of the pressure of the air, and his invention of the barometer, were in like manner the basis of Pneumatics, as already mentioned. Pascal first noticed the principle of the transmission of pressure, afterwards applied by Bramah to the hydrostatic press ; and Mariotte discovered the law of pressure in gases when confined. Huyghejis invented the eycloidal pendulum, and explained its peculiar properties ; and con- temporaneously with Wallis and Wren, he demonstrated the laws of collision of bodies. Newton, in his Principia, or Principles of Natural Philosophy, investigated the resistance of the air, and first revealed the great law of Universal gravitation, Euler, by a happy analysis, generalized the theorems of Mechanics, and reduced the whole to a system of analytical formulas. James Bemouilli studied the centre of percussion ; D'Alembert discovered the principle of efficient and residual forces ; Coulomb investigated the laws of fric- tion ; and Prony, those of running water : but many other discoveries, in this branch of science, it is beyond our limits to notice.
We proceed to explain some of the leading principles of me- chanics, under the four heads of Statics, Dynamics, Hydrics, and Pneumatics.
$ I. The science of Statics, relates to the conditions of equili- brium and of uniform motion, applied particularly to solid bodies. A force is measured, by the velocity which it communicates to a given mass : and the momerUum, or quantity of motion, is equal to the product of the mass into the velocity. The mass, is represented by the weight ; and is equal to the product of the bulk by the density; which latter is the weight of the unit of mass. The velocity of a body, is the space over which it moves in a unit of time ; as so many feet per second. The resultant, of two or more forces, is a single force, which might take the place of them all, and produce the same effect. The forces which together are equivalent to the resultant, are called components. A force equal and opposite to the resultant, may be called a quiescent force ; as it produces equilibrium.
If two forces act in the same straight line, their resultant is equal to their sum, or difference, according as they act in the same, or in opposite directions. If two component forces are oblique to each other, but lie in the same plane, they will meet, and may be repre-
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sented by the two contiguous sides of a paralUlogram $ having the directions of the forces for those of the sides, and the momentum of the forces proportional to the lengths of the sides ; in which case the diagonal will represent the reauUantj both in momentum and direc- tion. The moment J or leverage, of a force, is the product of its mo- mentum by the perpendicular distance from it to a fixed point called the origin of momenta: and it measures the tendency of the force to turn the body around the origin, considered as a fixed axis. In any system of forces, the moment of the resultant is equal to the sum of the moments of all the components. This important fact is called the principle of moments. The centre of gravity, of any body, or system, is a point through which will pass the resultant of all the component forces of gravity, acting on the different particles, or parts of the system. It may be found by the principle of moments ; and if this point be supported, the whole body is supported thereby.
The rope machine, or funicle, consisting of forces acting on three or more cords, or ropes, connected together at one point, is some- times res^arded as a mechanical power. There are, however, usually reckoned six mechanical powers, or simple machines for rendering forces more available ; viz. the lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, screw, and wedge. The lever, is essentially an inflexible rod or bar, supported by a fulcrum, either a prop or a pivot, and acted upon by two or more forces tending to turn it, or to resist its turning. In the case of the balance, or steelyard, the forces, when in equili- brium, are inversely as their distances from the fulcrum. In the wheel and axle, capstan, or windlass, the forces are inversely as the radii on which they act. In the simple fixed pulley, the power is equal to the resistance, but acts in a different direction ; whereas, in the simple moveable pulley, the weight supported by the pivot, is double tfie force at either end of the rope.
In the inclined plane, the force parallel to the slape, is to the weight of the body which it sustains, as the height to the slope. In the screw, acted upon by a lever, the power is to the resistance, as the distance between the spiral threads, is to the circumference de- scribed by the power. In the common wedge, the forces are as the length of the sides against which they act. Such are the ratios re- quired to produce equilibrium ; but, having regard to friction, the forces must be considerably augmented when they are designed to produce motion. The principle of virtual velocities, is, that what- ever is gained in the pressure exerted, or mass moved, is compen- sated for by the greater space which the power must move over : so that what is gained in weight is lost in velocity. Friction, always acts as a retarding force, proportional to the pressure which pro- duces it.
$ 2. Dynamics, treats of variable motion, produced by continuous forces, applied particularly to solid bodies. An impulsive force, is one which acts momentarily; or is imparted momentarily, from one body to another. The body receiving it, moves consequently in a right line, and with a uniform motion, unless affected by the resistance of the air, or by gravity, or other forces ; and when it strikes another
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body, it communicates to the latter a part, at least, of its own force. A continuous forecj is one which acts continually ; either increasing or diminishing the velocity, if it acts on a free body, or changing the direction of motion ; or producing these effects conjointly. Gravity^ is a continuous force, which, near the earth's surface, produces equal increments of velocity in equal times ; and hence it is called a con- stant forces being the cause of bodies having weight, and of their falling, when unsupported.
A body falling freely, descends through 16 feet in one second ; at the end of which time it is falling at the rate, or with the velocity of 32 feet per second. At the end of two seconds, it will have fallen four times as far, and at the end of three seconds, nine times as far, as in the first ; the space increasing as the square of the time. Call- ing / the time in seconds ; v the velocity in feet ; s the space fallen through ; and taking g^32 feet, as the measure of the force of gravity ; we have v » ^ f a 32 f ; and s ^ i g t* ^ 16 t* ; and con- sequently, V* ss 2^« BB 64«.* for problems concerning bodies falling vertically, or for their vertical descent, when falling obliquely. In the case of a ball thrown obliquely upwards, if there were no resistance of the air, its projectile curve would be a parabola ; and calling X and y the horizontal and vertical coordinates of this curve, a being the angle of elevation above the horizon, and v the initial velocity, its equation would be y v' cos 'a = a? v* sin a cos a — J gx\ But the resistance of the air, wnich is proportional to the square of the velocity, diminishes the random^ or distance to which a cannon ball can actually be thrown, from 15 or 20 to only 3 or 4 miles.
A pendulum, is a rod, or thread, suspended at or near one end, usually with a weight at the other end, and made to oscillate by the force of gravity. When once set in motion, it would continue to oscillate forever, were it not for the resistance of the air, and of fric- tion, which require that it should be kept in motion by an extraneous force, usually that of a descending weight. Calling a the length of the pendulum, in feet ; t the time, in seconds, of one oscillation ; g the measure of gravity, =s 32 feet, as before ; and ^ as 3.1416, the circumference of a circle whose diameter is unity ; we have the equa^
tion t sa jt j^—f for finding the time of one oscillation, by means of
the length of the pendulum ; it being proportional to the square root of the length, while the force of gravity remains constant.
$ 3. In the division of Hy dries, so named from the Greek vdup, water, we would include both Hydrostatics, and Hydrodynamics; or the laws both of equilibrium and motion, in so far as they are peculiar to liquids. All liquids, are, in theory, regarded as incompressible ; though they are found to admit of compression in a slight degree. When enclosed, or confined, in vessels, so as to be acted on as single masses, liquids are subject to the same laws of motion and rest, as solids. But even in this case, their pressure against the sides of the containing vessel, becomes a distinct problem of Hydrics ; and it is found that the pressure produced by their weight, is the same, for equal surfaces, at ^qual depths below the highest level of the liquid ;
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increasing solely with the depth, and without regard to the shape. When a close vessel is filled with a liquid, a pressure applied to any one part, is distributed and felt on every part alike.
When a body floaii on a liquid, it displaces a bulk of liquid of equal weight with itself ; and is thus supported by the upward pres- sure of the liquid tending to regain its level. A floating body can be in equilibrium, only when the centre of gravity is in the same vertical line with that of the liquid displaced. If the body is totally immersed, it is still pressed upwards ; and if thus suspended by a thread, it will weigh less in the liquid than in the air, by the weight of an equal bulk of the liquid ; which weight may thus be found. The specific gravity of any body, denotes the number of times that it is heavier than water, taking equal bulks of each. Thus as platinum is 21 times as heavy as water, the number 21.000 expresses its specific gravity; and cork is so much lighter than water that its specific gravity is ex- pressed by the decimal 0*240. In the case of gases, air, instead of water, is taken as the standard of comparison.
Water, and all other liquids, have some viscidity, or cohesivencss ; as shown by their collecting in drops, before, or while falling. A similar cohesion between them and the containing tubes or vessels, causes the phenomenon of capillary attractions shown also in sponges, and other porous bodies ; by which the water along the edges is raised above its general level. When water is confined in a bent tube, or an enclosure of any shape whatever, it tends to rise to the same levels or horizontal plane, in every part of its exposed sur- face. If there be any aperture or orifice by which it can flow out, its velocity will depend somewhat upon the shape of the aperture, but principally on its depth below the surface of the liquid : it being nearly the same velocity which a heavy body would acquire in falling freely through the same depth. Allowance must be made here for friction, and the resistance of the air.
$ 4. Under the division of PneumaticSf are included all the pe- culiar mechanical laws of elastic or compressible fluids, whether gases or vapours. GaseSy retain their aeriform state at all ordinary tem- peratures and pressures ; but vapors^ are substances ordinarily liquid, which have taken the gaseous form, owing to heat or diminished pressure. The air, or atmosphere, is a permanently gaseous fluid, elastic and compressible, surrounding the earth on every side, and extending at least to a height of 45 miles above its surface. The lower parts of it are compressed by the weight of the upper parts, so that for each three miles that we ascend, its density is reduced by about one-half; or, the height increasing in arithmetical, the density diminishes in geometrical progression. Its total weight is about 15 pounds for every square inch of the earth's surface, at or near the level of the sea. This pressure would counterpoise a column of water 34 feet high, as shown in the sucking pump ; or a column of mercury 30 inches high, as shown in the barometer.
In the sucking pump, as the piston rises and removes the air from within, the pressure of the air on the external water forces it into, and up the pump, till it is in equilibrium. Then, when the piston de- scends, the fixed valve, below, closes, and prevents the descent of
2 G
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the water ; which is therefore forced upwards through the valve of the piston. In the liftings and forcing pumps^ the valve of the piston opening in one direction, allows the fluid to pass, and then, hy ihe opposite motion of the piston, forces it onward, without allow- ing it to return. The air pump^ is a forcing pump, with tight pistons and valves, for exhausting the air from any attached vessel. 'Hie barometer^ consists of a glass tube, more than 30 inches long, open at one end, which dips into a cup of mercury exposed to atmospheric pressure. The mercury with which the tube was at first entirely filled, descends in it, leaving a vacuum above, but still remains about 30 inches higher than that in the cup ; varying with ihe change of pressure of the air. Its use, in calculating heights, depends on the falling of the mercury, about ^^^ of an inch for every 90 feet in height that we ascend.
The atmosphere would rush into a vacuum^ at the level of the sea, with a velocity of about 1330 feet per second. The resistance of the air to bodies moving through it, increases with tlie square of the velocity ; as in the case of liquids ; so tliat by doubling the velocity the resistance is increased fourfold. Hence, vessels moving swiftly, are propelled at a great sacrifice of force. Swind^ is caused by vibrations of the air, produced by sounding bodies : but though the sound moves onward to a great distance, each particle of the air only vibrates through a very small space, towards and from the source of sound. The rapidity of these vibrations, determines the note, or font; as will be explained in treating of Music. The vibrations axe propagated successively, and continuously, like waves from a pebble thrown into still water : and hence we say that sound movta at the rate of about 1130 feet per second, in the air; and nearly ten times 88 fast, along cast iron.
CHAPTER n.
▲STRONomr.
Astronomy is that branch of Acrophysics, or Natural Philosophy, which treats of the heavenly bodies ; and their relation to the earth, regarded as a part of the planetary system. The name is derived from the Greek, o^rpw, a star, and voiiou a law ; literally signifying the laws of the stars. The most prominent heavenly bodies, compose a central group ; central at least so far as the universe is known to us, and called the solar system ; at an immense distance from which are \hejixed stars ; the nearest of them being at least 200,000 times as far from us as we are from the sun. The solar system, consists of the sun^ placed at its centre ; the planets^ of which the earth is one, revolving around it in nearly circular orbits ; the satellites^ revolving around the planets ; and, lastly, the comets, which also revolve around the sun, but in very eccentric orbits. Could we fly at the rate of 100 miles an hour, the speed of the tempest, we should require more than twenty million years to reach the nearest fixed star : and our
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ASTBONOMT. 351
sun would then appear to be a mere star itself; while the whole solar system would, if visible, seem to occupy less space than the evening star does to us.
The study of Astronomy, properly comprehends an investigation of the shape and dimensions of the earth. This has been found, by measuring, in various places, a degree of the meridian ; from which the circumference of the earth, being 360^, may be readily calcu- lated ; and from this we obtain its diameter. The diameter of the earth, thus found, becomes a basis, from which the distance to the sun is ascertained, by ascertaining the angular difference of direction in which that luminary would appear, to observers on opposite sides of the earth. In like manner, the distance from the earth to the sun being known, becomes a basis, by which the distance of the fixed stars is found to exceed a certain limit; although so great that it cannot be exactly measured. The uses of Astronomy, are as import- ant, as its discoveries have been surprizing : and both have prompted its votaries to new and persevering researches. It is especially in its services to Navigation, that Astronomy has aided in extending the progress of discovery ; encouraging commercial enterprize, and dif- fusing the lights of civilization and Christianity around the habitable globe.
Astronomy is a science doubtless of the highest antiquity. Jose- phus speaks of a period of 600 years, called the grand year, as being known to the Antediluvians, according to the Jewish tradition : and it is certain that the Egyptians and Chaldeans paid great attention to the stars, in connection with their favorite study of astrology, or divination by means of celestial phenomena. Ancient writers state that when Babylon was taken by Alexander the Great, astronomical records were found there, extending back 1903 years, or to the year 2234 B. C. : but the earliest eclipses authentically recorded, are those observed at Babylon, 720 and 718 B. C. The origin of Astronomy has also been attributed to the Indians, and Chinese ; but we think without sufficient proof. The Sothic period, of the Egyptians, was one of 1460 years, in which their months returned to the same day of the year ; and the Saros, of the Chaldeans, corresponded to the Metonic or lunar cycle, (p. 200).
The Greeks derived some knowledge of Astronomy from Egyp- tian, and perhaps Phoenician colonies; but Thales was the first among them who observed the solstices, and calculated eclipses. Anaximander discovered the sphericity of the earth ; and Pythagoras first taught the true doctrine of the Solar system : but he confined this knowledge to his disciples; and it does not appear to have pre- vailed, at any time, among the ancients. Meton discovered the Metonic oxjunar cycle, of nearly 19 years ; at the end of which the sun and moon return to nearly the same position, in relation to the earth. Eratosthenes first measured an arc of the meridian, and deduced the circumference of the earth : and to Hipparchus we are indebted for the earliest catalogue of the stars ; and for the invention of latitude and longitude, to define their position. Ptolemy retarded the science of Astronomy, by maintaining that the earth is at rest, and that the sun and planets revolve around it, as a centre ; but his
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Almagest, (p. 161), famous from the Arabic translation of it, was in other respects a valuable compendium of this science.
On the revival of science, in modern Europe, Alfonso, king of Castile, in the year 1252, corrected the astronomical tables of Ptole- my, and caused those to be published which have since borne his own name. Copernicus, of Thorn, next revived the true solar sys- tem, about 1530 ; and he shares with Pythagoras the honor of giving it his name. It was opposed by Tycho Brahe ; and in part by Lon- gomontanus ; but their systems have been long since rejected. The Tychonic system agreed with the Ptolemaic in supposing the earth to be* stationar}', and the sun and moon to revolve around it ; but it dif- fered in regard to the planets, which it supposed to revolve primarily around the sun. Kepler first analyzed the motions of the planets, and discovered those Jaws on which rests the theory of universal gravitation. Galileo advocated the Copernican system; and by the aid of one of the first telescopes, discovered Jupiter*s satellites. Huyghens discovered Saturn's ring, and fourth satellite; and four others were soon after noticed by Cassini.
Newton, in 1686, published his Principia, explaining the theory of universal gravitation, and thereby establishing the Copernican system on an immovable basis. This theory has been farther deve- loped, particularly by Euler, D'Alembert, and La Place. Dr. Brad- ley discovered the aberration of the fixed stars ; of which catalogues have been made by Bayer, Flamstead, Ilalley, and Herschel : but the best are those of Lacaille, Bradley, Mayer, and Maskelyne. The transits of Mercury in 1631, and of Venus, in 1639, were predicted by Kepler : Gassendi observed the former, and Horrox, the latter. To H alley, who predicted it, and Maskelyne, who observed it, we are most indebted for the application of the transit of Venus, in 1761, to discover the true distance of the sun; which was farther corrected by that of 1769. Dr. Herschel discovered the planet Uranus, in 1781 ; and its satellites, in 1822. Ceres was discovered by Piazzi, in 1801 ; Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, in 1802; Juno, by Hard- ing, in 1804 ; and Vesta, by Dr. Olbers, in 1807. Thus far, only have we room to speak of the history of Astronomy.
We proceed now to give some ideas of this science, under the four divisions of Descriptive, Siderial, Physical, and Practical Astronomy.
$ 1 . Under the head of Descriptive Astronomy, we would include the study of the magnitudes, distances, motions, and phenomena, of the bodies which compose the Solar System. The sun, which we have already mentioned as placed at the centre of this system, is a globe, 885,000 miles in diameter ; which turns on its axis once in 25 days, as ascertained by the spots on its surface. The planetSf of which the earth is one, revolve around the sun in orbila^ which are ellipses^ having the sun in one of their foci. The point at which a planet is nearest the sun, is called \\» perihelion $ and the opposite or farthest pJint of each orbit is called the aphelion. These points, in connection, are called the apsides ; and the line joining them is the line of the apsides. The orbits of the other planets are slightly inclined to that of the earth ; and cut its plane, each in two opposite points, which are called the nodes: that one at which the planet
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passes to the north side of the earth^s orbit being called its ascending node. The apsides gradually advance, but the nodes retrograde; and thus the direction in ^vhich these points appear, is changed, as seen from the sun, and referred to the fixed stars or celestial sphere.
The earth, is an oblate sphere, 7899 miles in polar, and 7925 miles in equatorial diameter : its mean distance from the sun being 915,000,000 miles. The principal circles of the earth, we have already defined, in the introduction to Geography ; (p. 162) ; and we there mentioned that the earth's diurnal rotation causes the alter- nation of days and nights ; while the parallelism of its axis, which makes an angle of 66l° with the plane of its orbit, but points con- tinually towards the north star in the heavens, and hence sometimes inclines the north pole towards the sun, and sometimes from it, varies the length of the days and nights, and causes the changes of the seasons. The exact length of the tropical or equinoctial year, is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds. The moon, is a satellite, or secondary planet, 2160 miles in diameter, and 237,500 mUes from the earth ; around which it revolves, while carried, with the earth, around the sun. It performs a lunation, or synodic revolu- tion, that is from new moon to new moon again, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds. When near either of its nodes,' at new moon, its shadow falls upon the earth, and causes a solar eclipse, or eclipse of the sun ; and in the like case at full moon, it passes into the earth's shadow, and causes a lunar eclipse, or eclipse of the moon.
Mercury and Venus are called inferior planets, because they are nearer to the sun than the earth is ; but the other planets are ^called superior. Their principal data are given in the following table.
Annual Revolutten.
PLAHm.
McTciny ■...•.>.....
VeniM
TheEarth
Man
{Ve«U ^ Juno I Ceret f PaliM J
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Diameter in miles.
Distance from the sun.
3 months 7 months
1 year
2 years 3| years 4| years 4|yean 4^ years
12 years 29^ years 84 years
Diurnal Rotation.
3,000 7,600 7,912 4,200
2501 1,4001 1,2001 2,0001 89,100 79,000 35,000
36,800,000
68,700,000
95,000,000
145,000,000
225,200,000
253,800,000
263,000,000
264,000,000
494,000,000
907,000,000
1,834,000,000
23^ hours 24 hours 24| hours
>unknoum.
10 hours 10^ houn
The planets Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, sometimes called a«- teroids, may more properly be termed intercalary planets ; from their filling a supposed chasm in the series. Their size is somewhat un- certain. Jupiter has four satellites; Saturn, seven; and Uranus, formerly called Herschel, has six. The extreme diameter of Sa- turn's ring is 176,000 miles. The brightest planets, are Venus, and Jupiter ; and next to these are Mars and Saturn ; Mars being recog- nizable by its red color. Of the Comets, usually distinguished by their bright train, Halley^s returns once in about 75i years ; Encke% once in about 3? ; and Biela*s, once in about 6| years. 45 2 o2
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$ 2. Under the head of Siderial Astronomy., we include the stndy of the Fixed Stars ; or those luminaries whicn maintain continually nearly the same relative position in the heavens. These stars are supposed to be the suns of other systems ; each having planets re- volving around it, which latter, from their fainter reflected light, are to us invisible. Of the immense distance of the fixed stars, we have already spoken, in introducing the present branch. They are classed according to their apparent magnitudes : those of the first magnitude appearing the largest, and those of tlie sixth magnitude being the smallest, which are visible to the naked eye : but the telescopic stars are also classed, down to the sixteenth magnitude. These magni- tudes depend not only on their actual size, but on their distance from the earth, which is doubtless very different for different stars. Some of them are variable ; regularly increasing and decreasing in bright- ness ; and some of them are double or binary Biara, one of which is, in many instances, found to revolve around the other. There are also nebulm ; of which the galaxy or milky way is an assem- blage ; and which are shown, by the telescope, to consist of almost innumerable small or very distant stars.
The position of the fixed stars, is defined, either by their right ot- etnHon and declination^ which correspond to longitude and latitude on the earth ; or by their celestial latitude and longitude^ which iire essentially different. As the plane of the earth's equator, prolonged to the heavens, forms the celestial equator ^ so the plane of the earUi's orbit, extended to tlie heavens, defines the ecliptic ; a circle which is very nearly stationary among the fixed stars. The vernal equinox^ or point at which the sun, appearing always in the ecliptic, crosses the equator, in going to the north, is the origin of both right ascension and celestial longitude, or the point from which they are both reckoned ; the former on the equator, but the latter on the ecliptic. And aa terrestrial latitude is distance, in degrees, north or south of the equa- tor, so is celestial latitude distance north or south of the ecliptic. Circles of declination^ are perpendicular to the equator, and corres- pond to terrestrial meridians; but circles of latitude^ are perpen- dicular to the ecliptic, and meet at its poles. Parallels of declina- tion, are parallel to the equator ; but parallels of celestial latitude^ are small circles parallel to the ecliptic.
In order to designate the fixed stars, they have been grouped into clusters, or constellations^ which are now 128 in number ; occupy- ing the whole celestial sphere. The brightest star in any constella- tion is named alpha^ (a), as a Arietis / the next brightest is named beta ; and so on, until the Greek alphabet is exhausted ; when re- course is had to the Roman alphabet; and after this, to numbers. The twelve constellations of the zodiac, in which the planets gene- rally appear, are, Jiries, the ram ; Taurus, the boll ; Gemini, the twins ; Cancer, the crab ; Leo, the lion ; Virgo, the virgin ; Libra^ the balance ; Scorpio, the scorpion ; Sagittarius, the archer ; Ca- pricomus, the goat ; Aquarius, the waterer ; and Pisces, the fishes. Among the other most remarkable constellations, are Orion, known by three bright stars in its belt, neariy on the equator ; Ursa Major, or the great bear, in which lies the cluster called the dipper, two
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Stars of which, called the pointers, point to the pole star ; and CassitH peia, which lies on the opposite side of the pole from the great hear, and contains the figure of a smaller dipper, by the position of which the pole star may also be found.*
$ 3. It belongs to Physical Astronomy, to investigate the causes of the celestial phenomena, which Descriptive and Practical Astro- nomy make known. The key to this subject is the law of universal gravitation, discovered by Newton. The planets gravitate, towards the sun, and towards each other ; that is, they are attracted, directly as their masses, and inversely as the squares of their distances. Hence, they would all fall together, and meet in their common centre of gravity, did not their motion in their orbits give them a tendency to recede from the centre, like a stone from a sling, in a line tangent to the curve which they are describing. This tendency, called their centrifugal force, and their mutual attraction, called their centripetal force, especially that of the sun, counterbalance each other, and cause the planets to move according to Kepler's three laws ; which were the basis of Newton's discovery. 1. The planets describe ellipses, having the sun in one of their foci ; 2. Their radius vectors, or lines drawn from tliem to the sun, pass over equal areas in equal times ; and 3. The squares of their times of annual revolution are propor- tional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
By the second law, the planets move slowest when farthest from the sun ; as the radius vector, being then the longest, describes an equal area by a smaller angular motion. The mutual attractions of the planets cause slight irregularities in their orbits, called perturba- tions : and it is the common centre of gravity of the earth and moon, which describes an elliptic orbit around the sun ; the earth's centre deviating slightly from this ellipse, during its annual revolution. When the moon is at or near the syzigies, that is the new or full, the sun's attraction, tending to separate the earth and moon, causes the inequality called the evection, affecting the shape of the orbit; and when the moon is about 45^ from the syzigies, the sun's attrac- tion affecting its angular velocity, causes the inequality called the moon's variation,
$ 4. Under Practical Astronomy, is included the use of instru- ments in making celestial observations, and the use of tables and formulas in deducing results therefrom. The most important astrono- mical instruments, are the Transit Instrument, and the Astronomical Clock s but even these, we have no room to describe. The altitude of a heavenly body, is its angle of elevation above the horizon : and the azimuth, is the angle between a vertical circle passing through the body, and the vertical plane of the meridian ; which latter cuts
* On the fifth day of Aagust annaally, at 9 o'clock in the evening, the central star of the dipper, {S Ursa Majoris), will be on the west aide of the pole ; and the aeoond brightest star, (/8 Gasaiopeie), will be on the east aide of it, and at nearly the same altitude ; both of theee stars being nearly in the equinoctial colure. At the same time, the pole of the ecliptic will be directly above the pole of the heavens, as shown in Plate VIII. On the fifth of February, at the same hour in the evening, Cassiopeia will be to the west, and Ursa Major to the east, of the pole ; as repre- sented by turning the plate halfway around : and Orion will then be a little to th« west of the meridian.
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the north and tooth points of the horizon. The direction of a hearenW body, u defined by means of its azimath, and its altitode, or ztniih distance; which Utter is the complement of its aititade. This direction is adSected by atmospheric rrfraction^ which makes objects appear higher than they really are ; and by parallax f which is the Tariation that would be produced in the direction, were the object seen from the earth's centre. The refraction is greatest at the horizon, being there neariy half a degree, and it diminishes from thence to the zenith^ or point directly overhead, where it is zero, or no refraction takes place.
The Transit instrument is generaUy so placed, that the axis of its telescope shall rotate in the plane of the meridian ; which may be found by observing the same star when at equal altitudes, before and after passing the meridian, and bisecting the angle formed by these two positions. We may then find the altitude of the po/e, that is, of the point where the earth's axis, prolonged, meets the celestial sphere* by observing the meridian altitudes of a star which is near the pole, both when above and below it, and bisecting the difference, after correct- ing it for refraction. The altitude of the pole is equal to the latitude of the place ; and the longitude may be found by means of a chro- nometer ; which is a very accurate timepiece ; or by observing an eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites at that place, and comparing the time with that of the same eclipse at Greenwich ; if the longitude from Greenwich be sought. The difference of time, will give the dif- ference of longritude; allowing 15^ for each hour. The sun appears to move eastward among the fixed stars ; but this must be caused by the real m'^tion of the earth around the sun ; for in no other way can all the celestial phenomena be reconciled and explained.
CHAPTER III.
OPTICS.
Optics, is that branch of Acrophysics, or Natural Philosophy, which treats of the nature and properties of light, and the phenomena of vision. The name is derived from the Greek, ortto^c, I see. Lightf is an emanation, or something proceeding from bodies ; which, reaching the eye, makes a peculiar impression, as sound does npon the ear ; an impression to which the other organs of the human body are insensible. Light is found to move generally in straight lines ; and with a velocity of 192,500 miles per second ; or from the sun to the earth in about 8 minutes. A ray of light, is compre- hended in a single line proceeding from any luminous point ; and an assemblage of rays forms a beam, or pencil, of light. When light impinges on any body, it is either reflected from it, or transmitted through it, or absorbed within it ; and these eflects are frequently produced conjointly. These facts give rise to the old divisions of Catopirictf treating of reflected light, and Dioptrics, treating of trans- mitted light ; which, however, do not exhaust the subject.
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Concerning the nature, or essence, of light, two different theories have long been maintained. The emissive theory, supposes light to consist of material, though imperceptibly small particles, or atoms ^ thrown off from the luminous body, and diverging in all directions. This theory was maintained, in ancient times, by Pythagoras ; and was adopted by Newton. The undulatory theory j supposes light to be caused by a peculiar fluid, or ethereal meJtum, diffused through- out all nature ; in which vibrations are produced by luminous bodies, like those in the air by sounding bodies ; only, far more rapid, and sensible only to the eye. This theory was proposed by Huyghens ; and was advocated by Euler, and Young. Either of these theories may serve to explain most of the facts, and assist in remembering them : but the preference is now more generally given to the lalter. The study of Optics, has served not only to aid the sight, by the in- vention of various instruments ; but also to explain many phenomena of nature, which were previously unknown, or involved in mystery, or applied to purposes of deception and crime.
The history of Optics, commences, perhaps, with the mention of brazen looking glasses, in the books of Exodus and Job, as in use among the ancient Hebrews ; and of burning lenses, of glass or crystal, as known in Greece, about 450 B. C. Archimedes is said to have set fire to the Roman fleet attacking Syracuse, by means of an assemblage of glass mirrors. The earliest systematic writer on Optics, was Euclid, the geometer ; who adopted the notion of Empe- docles and Plato, that light proceeds originally from the eye, and is then reflected back from luminous objects. The prismatic spectrum^ was known to Seneca; but his explanation of it was imperfect Ptolemy first gave a table of refractions, in his work on Optics, and applied it to the correction of astronomical observations. Alhazen, the Arabian, who wrote about A. D. 1100, disproved the Platonic notion of ocular beams ; and adopted the emissive theory.
Roger Bacon, the English monk, first discovered the principle of microscopes and telescopes, and probably invented spectacles; which were first used about 1275, during his life time. The invention of the camera obscura, by Porta of Naples, about 1460, led Kepler to discover the true mechanism of the eye. The invention of the telescope, is attributed, by Descartes, to Metius of Holland, about 1600; and by others, to Jansen, or Johnson, of Zealand, about the same date : but the English claim the invention for Leonard Digges, as early as 1591. Galileo, having heard of this instrument, invented, in 1609, the telescope which b^ars his name. The astronomical telescope, was suggested, or revived, by Kepler, and made by Schei- ner, about the year 1650 : the reflecting telescope was first con- structed by James Gregory, in 1663 ; the Newtonian, was invented in 1666; and the Cassegrainian, in 1672. The invention of the simple microscope, has been attributed to Drebbell, of Holland, about 1618 ; but we think more justly to Jansen, about 1610. The com- pound refracting microscope, was invented by Fontana of Naples, in 1618. The magic lantern was invented by Kircher, who died in 1680.
In 1611, Antonio de Dominis, archbishop of Spalatro first illus-
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trated experimentally the cause of the rainbow ; the complete theory of which was afterwards given by Descartes. The law of refraction was discovered by Snell, of Ley den, in 1621 ; and Bartholin, of Denmark, first noticed the phenomenon of double refraction about 1669 : to which Huyghens added, that the light thus refracted, was polarized at the same time. Grimaldi first noticed the diffraction of light, in 1665 : and Newton, in 1675, studied the formation of colored rings, and fringes, by means of thin plates. In 1673, Newton announced to the Royal Society his new theory of light ; and its application to the prismatic spectrum. The invention of achromatic telescopes, belongs to Mr. Hall, of England, as early as 1733 ; though first patented and made public by Mr. Dollond, in 1757. In 1800-8 Dr. Young applied the undulatory theory to the general explanation of colors; and in 1810, Malus, of France, discovered the polarization of light by reflection. Dr. Wollaston invented the camera lucida, in 1807. The more recent discoveries made by Biot, Brewster, and others, we have no room to describe.
We proceed to give some ideas of this science, under the heads of Catoptrics, Dioptrics, Physical Optics, and Practical Optics ; as the more common division of the subject.
$ 1. Catoptricif so named from xatoftt^^ a mirror, treats of the reflection of light from smooth or polished surfaces. This reflection takes place according to the same law as in the case of sound, or of elastic bodies. The incident ray, and the reflected ray resulting from it, both lie in the same plane, perpendicular to the reflecting surface ; and the angles which they form respectively with a line perpendicular to the surface, that is, the angles of incidence and of reflection^ are always equal. A polished metallic reflector, is called a speculum ; and a glass reflector is usually called a mirror ; but, in the latter, the light is chiefly reflected from the silvering, or metallic surface on the back, to which the glass gives shape and smoothness. Reflectors are generally either plane, or concave, or convex ; the two latter with spherical surfaces, and taking their name from the side which reflects the light In plane reflectors, the rays make the same angle with each other, after, as before their reflection.
From a concave reflector, parallel rays are reflected, converging, to a point called the principal focus ; at which the heat and light are concentrated. Rays which previously converged, are reflected by a concave surface still more converging : but rays which diverged, before impinging, will be reflected either less diverging, or parallel, or con- verging, according to the distance of the radiant point from which they emanated. If the luminous object be more distant from the concave surface than the centre of curvature of the latter, then an inverted and reduced image of the object will be formed, between the centre of curvature and the principal focus : but if the radiant object be brought between these two points, it will produce an inverted and magnified image, farther off than the centre of curva- ture. This latter, is the precise arrangement of the reflecting micro* scope; and the former case, where the luminous object is very distant, is the principle of the reflecting telescope. As the concave reflector always renders the rays more converging, or less diverging, than pre-
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Tiously ; 80 the convex reflector renders them more divergent, or less conrergent, than they were before reflection; and hence forms reduced images of objects, apparently behind the mirror.
$ 2. Dioptrictf from aioitrpA, a perspective instrument, relates to the phenomena of light transmitted through transparent bodies. When a ray of light impinges obliquely on a transparent body, that part which passes through it, is refracted^ or bent from its previous course, both on entering and on leaving the body. Thus, if we look at any object at the bottom of an empty vessel, and watch it while water is poured into the vessel, the object will seem to rise. If the transpa- rent medium be of uniform density, the ray, while in it, will move in a straight line : but if the density vary, the ray will describe a curve, as in the atmosphere, where the rays of light are bent down* ward. The angle formed by the refracted ray with the perpendicular to the surface, is called the angle of refraction: and, for the same media, the sines of the angles of incidence and of refraction have a constant ratio, whatever be the obliquity. This ratio, called the index of refraction^ is, at the common surface of air and water, 1.336; and for air and glass it is about 1.5 ; varying with the com- position of the glass employed.
These facts apply immediately to lensei ; which are, usually, cir- cular pieces of glass, having one at least of the two opposite surfaces spherical. The double convex^ plano-convex, and meniicus lenses, are thickest in the middle, and have a converging effect on the rays which pass through them ; while the double concave, plano-concavCf and concavo-convex lenses are thinnest in the middle, and tend to make the rays which pass through them divergent. The focus of parallel rays passing through a converging lens, is called the prin^ cipal focus; but as the radiant point, or object, draws nearer, the focus is carried farther off, and, beyond a certain distance, the image is magnified. This is the leading principle of the compound re* fr acting microtcope. If an object be brought too near to the eye, the rays from each point diverge too much for distinct vision ; but a converging lens interposed enables the object to be seen distinctly when much nearer, and thus makes it appear larger. This is the principle of the simple refracting microscope, and of all convex eye-glasses. In the refracting telescope, an image of the distant object is formed by the rays passing tnrough the object glass ; and this image is seen magnified, through the eye-glass, placed very near it. Objects seen through a concave, or diverging lens, appear nearer and smaller than they really are.
$ 3. Physical Optics, is that branch of this science, which treats of the physical properties of light, and the means by which they have been investigated. Light may be decomposed, either by refrac- tion, absorption, or reflection. If a ray of light be made to pass through two faces of a triangular glass prism, it will not only be re- fracted, or turned away from the vertex of the angle formed by those two faces, but it will be decomposed into rays of seven distinct colours ; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet : and if these colours be received on a screen, or card, they will form what is called the prismatic spectrum. Red, yellow, and blue, are gene-
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rally regarded as primary colours ; but orange is a compound of the two former ; green of the two latter ; and indigo and violet are com- pounds of the two extreme colours, red and blue. The violet rays will deviate most from their original direction ; as they are the most refracted.
Hence, when a beam of light falls on a simple converging lens, it is not only somewhat scattered at the focus, by the refraction of the spherical surfaces, producing what is called tpherical aberration; but the different colours, being unequally refracted, form an imago with colored rings : and this effect, called ehromatic aberrationt long presented the greatest difficulty in forming perfect refracting telescopes. It was remedied by the discovery that flint glass, con- taining lead, forms a longer spectrum than crown glass, for the same deviation ; or, in other words, has a greater dispersive power. Hence, by combining a convex lens of crown glass, with a weaker concave one of flint glass, the latter may counteract the dispersion of the former, without entirely counteracting its refraction; and this constitutes an achromatic Um, such as is used for the object glass of the best telescopes.
Light may be decomposed by absorption; as when it meets a blue glass ; which absorbs the other colors, and chiefly transmits and reflects the blue. In this way it may be shown, that most of the colors are compounded; black being the absence of light; and white, a combination, or interpolation of all the colours ; which are sup- posed to be caused by the more or less rapid undulations, or vibra- tions of the ethereal medium. Thus, green glass, or the green leaves of plants present this color, it is supposed, because they reduce the vibrations of the ethereal medium to a certain length or rapidity: these being shortest for the violet, and longest for the red, of all the colors. The formation of colored rings, by thin plates, as in soap bubbles ; or, by diffraction^ as around the shadows of small bodies held in a cone of diverging light ; or, by difflection^ as in the light reflected from a thick concave mirror ; and the colored fringes seen on fibrous, or finely grooved surfaces, are all attributed to the inter- ference of undulations proceeding from different points, and more or less counteracting each other. Of the double refraction and polari- zation of light, we have no room here to speak.
$ 4. Practical Optics^ properly includes the application of op- tical principles to the explanation of natural phenomena, and the con- struction of optical instruments. The rainbow, is formed by rays of light, from the sun or moon, striking drops of water, being re- fracted in entering them, reflected back, in part, from the opposite side of the drops, and refracted again on leaving them, so as to pro- duce prismatic colors, some of which meet the eye. In the inner, or primary bow, the light is refracted downwards, and undergoes but one reflection : while in the outer, or secondary bow, the light striking the lower side of the drop, is first refracted upwards, and reflected twice within the drop, before leaving it : hence, its light is fainter. Solar and lunar halos, or circles of light ; and parhelia^ and paraselenxt or mock suns and moons, are supposed to be caused by the refraction of light through crystals of ice, floating in the air.
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We must not omit to notice the mechanism of vision. The outer coating of the eye is transparent in front ; and this part is called the cornea : while the sclerotica^ which covers the rest of the eye, is opaque and white, but lined with the choroid coat and a black pig* ment; witliin which, is the retina, a nervous coating, connected with the brain. The tru , is a dark screen, behind the cornea ; from which the eye takes hs colour : and the pupil, is a circular aperture, or window, through the iris, by which light is admitted to the dark chamber within. In this chamber is the crystalline lens, held in its place by the ciliary processes ; with the aqueous humor in front of it, and the vitreous humor in the back part of the eye. All the rays coming from any one point of a luminous object, and entering the pupil, are refracted, by the interior media, to one point or focus on the retina, by means of which the luminous point is perceived. The same principle applies to the camera obseura ; in which all the rays from any one external point, are reflected and refracted, so as to form one point of the image or picture within, ki the magic lantern^ the image formed by refraction, is enlarged, and received on a screen, which corresponds to the retina of the eye. Of telescopes and microscopes, referred to in the preceding divisions, we have no farther room to speak in this brief synopsis.
CHAPTER IV.
CERAVNICS.
We would propose the name of Ceraunics, for that branch of Natural Philosophy, which relates to the effects of heat and electri- city ; commonly associated in nature, and together forming one great division of science.* The name is from the Greek, xcpawos, light- ning ; a phenomenon in which the union of heat and electricity is peculiarly manifested ; and the study of which involves that of nearly all the sub-branches here included ; that is to say Calorics, Electricity, Galvanism, Magnetism, Electro-Magnetism, Thermo-Electricity, and Meteorology. The order in which these branches are here named, is that in which we think they may best be understood : as those first named, can be studied independendy ; but the others, only by their aid. They all belong stricdy to Experimental Philosophy ; and they have already contributed largely to the comfort of mankind, by their applications to the Physical Arts : but some of these sciences are still in comparative infancy, and open a wide field for new researches.
Following our general order, the history of these sciences will first engage our attention. The study of Calorics, as a connected science, is of modern origin. Lord Bacon conceived heat to depend upon a vibration of the particles of matter, tending to separate them ; an idea
* Should it appear hereafter, as may be the case, that heat consists in andulations of an ethereal medium, like those of light ; it will then be proper to remove Calorics from this branch, and associate it with Optics ; with which it has close relations^ already recognized.
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which was sanctioned by Boyle and Newton. The other doctrine, that heal is produced by a peculiar subtile fluid, was maintained by Boerhaave, and is, we believe, the one more generally adopted, in explaining the phenomena. The first invention of the Thermometer, is by some writers ascribed to Drebbel of Holland ; but more gene- rally to Sanctorio of Italy, about the year 1026. The temperature was at first measured by the expansion of air ; and afterwards by that of alcohol; till in 1720, Fahrenheit, of Dantzic, proposed the use of mercury, and introduced the graduation which bears his name. Wedge wood's Pyrometer was invented in 1731 : and the use of concave mirrors for reflecting heat, appears to have been discovered by Lambert of Germany, in 1758. The discovery of latent heat, was made by Dr. Black of Edinburgh, in 1757 ; and radiant heat was first identified by Scheele, about 1770. We have only room to add that the invention of the galvanic battery, by Cruikshank, and of the compound blowpipe, by Dr. Hare, have furnished the most powerful means of producing heat yet discovered.
The knowledge of Electricity^ possessed by the ancients, was simply the fact, known to Thales, that amber ^ when rubbed, acquired the power of attracting light bodies. In the year 1600, Dr. Gilbert announced his discovery of several other electrics ; and first suggested the idea of an electric fluid, or effluvium. Otho Guericke, about 1 650, constructed the first electric machine, by mounting a globe of sulphur; with which he produced electric light, and sound. In 1733, Dufaye discovered that two electrics, when rubbed together, become oppo- sitely excited ; on which fact he founded his theory of two fluids ; the one collecting on glass, which he called vitreoui ; the other on sealing wax, or rosin, hence called resinoui electricity. Dr. Franklin proposed the theory of one fluid, which, when accumulated, consti- tutes the vitreous or positive state ; but when abstracted or deficient, causes the resinous or negative state, or excitement. In 1746, the Lcyden jar was discovered by Cuneus and Muschenbroek ; and in 1752, Dr. Franklin made his great discovery that the electric fluid is the cause of lightning. The later electric discoveries, belong chiefly to Galvanism ; under which they will be mentioned, in connection with their theoretical relations. Those of Professor Faraday, and of our countryman. Professor Henry, concerning electric induction and electro-motion, are brilliant, but transcend our present limits.
The attraction of the Magnet^ or loadstone, for iron filings, was known to Thales ; but its property of pointing to the poles of the earth, though said to have been known to the Chinese, 1120 B. C, appears to have been first known in Europe, to the French ; who availed themselves of it, in Navigation, about A. D. 1150: and the Mariner's compass was improved, rather than invented, by Flavio Gioia, in 1302. The variation of the compass, was first noticed by Columbus, in 1402: and the dip, was first made known by Robert Norman, in 1581. Dr. Gilbert explained the polarity of the needle by considering the earth as a large magnet attracting it ; and i£pinus proposed a magnetic theory similar to the electric theory of Dr. Franklin. Dr. Knight invented the mode of magnetizing by single touch, in 1745 ; and Mr. Mitcheirs mode, by double touch, was made
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public in 1750. The science of EUctro-Magnetumj originated in 1820 ; when Oersted of Copenhagen discovered the peculiar action of a galvanic current on a magnetic needle. The initial discovery in T^ermO' Electricity ^ was made by Dr. Seebeck, in 1822. Our his- tory of Meteorology must be so brief that it will be deferred until we come to that science in its place.
We proceed to speak briefly of Ceraunics ; taking the divisions in the order above named, (p. 361).
$ 1 . The science of Calorics^ relates to the phenomena of heat, and the laws of its action. The name is from the Latin, calor, heat : and the name caloric^ has been applied to the agent which causes the sensation of heat, and which has long been regarded as a subtile, imponderable fluid, self-repellent, capable of penetrating ponderable substances, and perhaps uniting with them in definite combinations : though recent discoveries strongly favor the extension of the undula- tory theory to heat, as well as to light. The sources of heat, are the sun ; combustion, and other chemical action ; friction, and other mechanical action ; electricity and galvanism ; and animal life. Calo- ric is conceived to exist in two different states ; sensible and latent. Semibie caloric^ is that which affects the thermometer, and produces the sensation of heat ; while latent caloric, though supposed to be present in bodies, does not affect the thermometer or the senses; perhaps because it is, as it were, chemically combined with the ponderable substance.
Caloric is supposed to emanate from all warm bodies, either by radiation or conduction. It is said to be radiated, when it darts forth with great velocity, like light : and it is said to be conducted, when it passes slowly from particle to particle of the surrounding bodies. Caloric radiates best from dark and rough surfaces ; and is best con- ducted by the metals; more slowly by wood and earths; and in liquids it is carried upwards chiefly by circulation. Radiated caloric, meeting any substance, is, like light, either reflected, absorbed, or transmitted ; and in the latter case refracted, as in the solar prismatic spectrum. It is best reflected from bright and polished surfaces; and absorbed by dark and rough ones. The cooling of bodies is, of course, attributed to the abstraction of caloric, from their giving out more than they receive. The effects of « caloric, are the expan- sion of nearly all bodies, except melting ice, or antimony, and heated clay ; the liquefaction of solifls, and the vaporization of liquids ; in which cases a certain quantity of caloric is supposed to become latent, or chemically combined ; and, finally, the production of light, electri- city, and chemical action.
5 2. Electricity, so named from lyxsxfpw, the Greek word for amber, treats of the phenomena first discovered in that substance, when subjected to friction; and ascribed to an extremely rare or subtile fluid, pervading the material world. If we rub smooth glass with a silken cloth, both substances become electrically excited ; as is proved by their attracting pith balls, or other light bodies near them. This is explained, according to Dr. Franklin's theory, by supposing that the glass becomes charged with an excess of the electric fluid, that is positively excited; and that while this fluid repels its own
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partides, it attracts those of ponderable substances, as of the pitfa balls. The silk is supposed to be deprived of the electric fluid, that IS, to become negatively excited; and hence to attract the pith balls which contain the electric fluid, by attracting the fluid itself. The pith balls which are attracted by the glass, bMome charged with the fluid, on touching the glass ; and are then repelled by the self-repellent power of the fluid : but two negatively excited bodies repel each other, either because ponderable matter, when deprived of the electric fluid, b self-repellent, or because they are attracted in opposite directions by the electric fluid in the surrounding air. The electric excitement is strongest when the air is cold and dry ; for moist air conducts and distributes the electric fluid.
Those substances along or through which the electric fluid passes freely, are called conductors^ or non-electrics ; as metals, charcoal, and water : but those substances which will not permit the fluid to move freely over them, are called electricit or non-conductors ; as glass, rosin, and silk ; which latter becomes negative when rubbed with glass, but positive when rubbed with rosin or sealing wax ; the resins being among the strongest negative electrics. When an ex- cited electric is brought in contact with another in a neutral state, the latter becomes similarly excited by conduction: and on this prin- ciple the prime conductor of the electric machine collects the elec- tric fluid from the glass plate or cylinder. This principle applies also to the interior of the electric jar, commonly called the Leyden Jar f when its knob is brought near to the electric machine : but the exterior of the jar becomes oppositely charged, by induction ; which is attributed to the electric fluid on one side, repelling that on the other. Electric excitement may also be produced by chemical ac- tion, by heat, and probably by mere contact of bodies, though in a feeble degree.
$ 3. To Oalvanism, belongs the study of electrical currents, pro- duced continuously, by chemical action ; with their direct efl*ects, and the mode of producing them. This science originated with Professor Galvani, of Bologna ; who, in 1700, observed that if a piece of zinc, and another of silver were brought in contact, the one with a muscle, and the other with a nerve of a frog recently killed, muscular convul- sions would ensue, whenever the two metals were brought, at the same time, in contact with each other. Galvani believed this eflect to be produced by a peculiar animal electricity ; while Volta main- tained that it was owing to common electricity developed by mere contact of the metals : but Dr. Wollaston maintained that the electric excitement was produced by the chemical action of the moist animal matter on the more oxidable metal; which last is now fully proved to be the chief cause. So rapid was the progress of this new science, that in 1800, Nicholson and Carlisle applied it to the decomposition of water; and in 1807, Davy was enabled, by its means, to discover the metallic bases of the fixed alkalies.
When a plate of zinc, and another of copper, are dipped, with- out touching each other, into any acid solution, the zinc, by the action of the acid, is supposed to acquire an electro-positive state ; which enables it to decompose water, and seize on the oxygen;
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forming an oxide, and from this a salt, of zinc; in which the free electric fluid of the zinc is probably combined ; while the remaining zinc attracts more of that fluid from contiguous bodies. The hydro- gen of the water, being set free, probably carries with it the electric fluid of the decomposed water ; and is bolh repelled from the zinc and attracted by the copper ; to which it conveys a charge of the electric fluid. If, then, wires be attached to the two plates, and brought in contact, a galvanic current will pass along them, from the copper to the zinc plate ; forming what is called a simple voltaic circle. If we have a series of cells, all containing an acid solution, the zinc plate in each cell having a metallic connection with the copper plate in the next, they will form a compound circle, or galvanic battery: in which, as in the former case, the wire from the last cop- per plate is called the /}0«t7tt;e, and that from the zinc end, the nega- tive electrode} the ends of the wires being usually termed potea. If these poles be brought near to each other, provided there be at least 50 pairs of plates in action, they will produce vivid ignition, and other chemical efiects: and the current may also be used to charge a Leyden jar, or to produce the other efl*ects of common elec- tricity.
$ 4. Magnetism^ so named from the Greek, fiayvfji, a loadstone, treats of the peculiar properties first discovered in the loadstone, or native magnet ; with their applications, and the means of observing them. The loadstone, is a complex oxide of iron, with a small proportion of silex and alumina. On presenting it to iron filings, it attracts them ; and two opposite parts of it, which collect them most abundantly, are called the poles. If a piece of 8o(\ iron be brought near to a magnet, it becomes magnetized by induction: the part which is nearest to the north pole of the magnet becoming a south pole, and vice versa. As dissimilar poles always attract each other, and similar poles repel each other, the preceding fact explains why the magnet attracts soft iron ; and why it points in a fixed direction in regard to the earth, which really acts as a large magnet would, upon the compass needle. The magnetic poles of the earth do not coincide with its geographic poles ; and hence arises the variation of the compass. As we approach either magnetic pole of the earth, the dissimilar pole of the needle is attracted downwards, and hence results the magnetic dip. The property by which one magnet acts upon another, is called polarity.
Soft iron, is speedily magnetized by induction ; but loses its mag- netism, as soon as the magnet which excited it is removed. Hard steel, on the contrary, is magnetized slowly ; but retains its magnet- ism for a long time. The best mode of magnetizing a bar, is by placing the opposite poles of two strong magnets at the ends of it ; then rubbing it from the centre towards the ends with the poles of another magnet; each end being rubbed with a pole dissimilar to that which is to be produced ; which is the method of single touch : or else rubbing it from end to end with two dissimilar poles kept near to each other ; the rubbing north pole being nearest to that end which is to become a south pole ; in which consists the method by dotible touch. Pieces of soft iron, called keepers, or armature's, are
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often kept in contact with the poles of magnets, to strengthen them hy inductive action.
$ 5. Electro-Magnetism^ and Thermo-Electrieity, are kindred branches of electric science, treating of the relations between gal- vanism, and magnetism and calorics. It was first discovered by Professor Oersted, in 1820, that a galvanic current has a peculiar action on a magnetic needle placed near it. Supposing the current to pass through the centre of a watch, from the face to the back, it tends to carry the north pole of any magnet around it, in the direction in which the hands of the watch move; and the south pole in the opposite direction. If the magnet, or needle, turn on a pivot, exterior to the galvanic current, it will soon come to rest, in a trans- verse position, as the above forces require. These facts were applied by Schweigger, to the invention of the galvanometers in which, if a very feeble galvanic current circulate around a coil of insulated wire, it will be rendered manifest, by acting on a magnetic needle suspended within the coil.
In 1820, Arago discovered that a bar of steel can be magnetized by a galvanic current made to circulate around it ; and hence, that a spiral coil of insulated wire, so long as a galvanic current is passing around it, acts as a magnet; manifesting polarity; attracting other magnets ; and speedily magnetizing a steel bar placed within it. This furnishes a new mode of forming artificial magnets ; and it led to Ampere's theory, that the peculiar properties of magnets are owing to galvanic currents circulating around their elementary particles. On this ground, it is now generally admitted that the earth's magnet- ism is produced by such currents, circulating around it, and caused by the heat of the sun. This is farther confirmed by Dr. Seebeck's thermo-electric discovery, that if a ring be formed of two metals, one- half of it, for example, of bismuth, and the other of copper, soldered together, then, on heating one of the junctures, a galvanic current will pass through the same, from the bismuth to the copper.
% 6. Meteorology ^ so named from the Greek ftcffupa, meteors, relates to atmospherical phenomena ; their causes, and the means of observing and foretelling them. This science, if it has now reached that dignity, engaged the attention of Aristotle, and Theophrastus ; and, in more recent times, of Leslie, Dalton, and other philosophers : and it is at present the subject of profound study and careful observa- tion. Of our own countrymen, Dr. Fran(tlin first observed that all extensive storms, in the United States, travelled towards the north- east: and Mr. Redfield first traced their course from the southern to the northeastern states ; while he ascribed them, generally, to a gyratory or whirling motion of the air. Mr. Espy, who has made extensive and important researches on this subject, ascribes their formation chiefly to the action of heat : and Dr. Hare considers elec- tricity as an equally prominent agent in their production.
If the air be heated, at any one place, it becomes rarified, and rises* as balloons do; spreading itself out above; while currents of cooler air converge to that place below, to supply the partial* vacuum. This principle explains the trade winds, blowing towards the equator; and the monsoons^ of the Indian ocean, (p. 163). As the heated air
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rises, it becomes cooler ; and the aqueous vapor which it contains, is partly or wholly condensed, thus forming a cloudy or mist $ which,, by the aggregation of small drops, causes rain, or, if it be sufficiently cold, hailf or snow. If the surface of the earth be cool enough to condense the aqueous vapor in the contiguous air, it causes the depo- sition of dew. The dew point, is that temperature at which the condensation commences : and as it varies with the quantity of vapor in the air, being the highest when there is the most vapor, it furnishes the best hygrometer, or measure of the humidity of the atmosphere. We regret the want of room to explain this subject more fully.
CHAPTER V.
CHEMISTRY.
Chrmistrt, is that branch of Acrophysics, which treats of the composition of all ponderable substances ; their sensible properties and mutual relations ; and the effects produced upon them by cohe- sion, affinity, light, heat, and electricity. The name is derived from the Arabic or Egyptian word kimia ; originally applied to Alchemy, and signifying the occult science. The general properties of pon- derable substances, or those which can be collected and weighed, including solids, liquids, and gases, have already been referred to, in the introduction to this department ; and the imponderables, as they are often termed, have formed the subject of the two preceding branches. Of course the study of Chemistry is aided by that of light, heat, and electricity ; while it not only reflects light upon them in return, but becomes itself subsidiary to the natural and medical sciences which are to follow. The applications of Chemistry, extend throughout the wide' range of the physical arts, wherever it is desira- ble to change the state or composition of the materials employed : and hence it ranks among the most useful of the sciences.
The Greeks ascribed the invention of Chemical science to Hermes, or Mercurius Trismegistus, called by the Egyptians, Thoy t ; and, in honor of him, they gave to this branch the name of the Hermetic art. It was brought from Egypt to Greece, about 460 B. C, by Democritus ; who had learned to soHen ivory, and to make glass. If we except the working of the metals, little was known of this science by the ancients; and that little was obscured, rather than enlarged, by the reveries of the earlier alchemists. Alchemy, appears to have been first mentioned in the writings of Matemus, about A. D. 330 ; and it was fully introduced into Europe by Rhazes, and Geber, Arabian chemists of the ninth century. The object of Alche- my, was to discover an imaginary substance, called the philosopher's stone, elixir vitas, universal solvent, or grand oatholicon ; which would transmute all the other metals into gold, and prevent or cure all diseases. This research, though of course a failure, led to several important discoveries ; as those of gunpowder, of sulphuric, nitric« and muriatic acids, and of phosphorus, antimony, and zinc.
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The first collection of chemical facts, freed from the mysticism of Alchemy, was published by Bamer, ia 1670: but the phlogiHie theory y suggested by Beccher in 1669, and more fully developed by Stahl, first gave these facts a connected and scientific form. This theory supposed the metals, and other combustibles, to be compounds, containing phlogiston^ or the substance of heat, which they gave out in burning. Chemistry was thenceforward rapidly advanced, by the labors of Boerhaave, Bergmann, Scheele, and others. In 1754, the discovery of carbonic acid gasj by Dr. Black, led to the discovery of other gases, and originated what is called Pneumatic Chemistry ; forming an important era in this science. In 1778, Lavoisier pro- posed his antiphlogistic theory; that bodies when burning, instead of emitting any substance, absorb and combine with oxygen: a theory which was soon adopted by Bertholet, and proved by exact experiments.
The chemical nomenclature now in use, originated with Guyton de Morveau, about 1780; and was soon generally adopted. The idea that chemical compounds are formed of elements uniting in de- fioite proportions, originated with Wenzel, of Saxony, in 1777, but was fully developed and generalized in 1803, by Dal ton; whose laws of combinationf proved by the labors of WoUaston, Davy, Gay Lussac, Thenard, Vauquelin, Berzelius, and others, are now regarded as the basis of this great science. The atomic theory, already referred to, (p. 343,) as known to the ancients, and main- tained by Epicurus, was revived by Dalton, to prove these laws ; and the electro-chemical theory of Davy, tliat combination takes place in consequence of the opposite electric states of the combining elements, has thrown new light on these mysterious phenomena. To Sir Humphry Davy, we are indebted, for the discovery of the metallic bases of the alkalies, in 1807 : and his researches have been recently extended by our countryman. Dr. Hare. The first discovery of the vegetable alkalies was made in 1803, by Sertiiemer, of Germany : since which time, the progress of this science in all its divisions has been extremely rapid ; though there is still room for new investiga- tions.
We proceed to give a brief outline of chemistry, under the heads of Non-metallic, Metallic, Organic, and Analytic Chemistry.
5 1. Under the head of Non-metallic Chemistry ^ we would in- clude so much of this science as relates especially to the non-metallic elements ; which, for the most part, are gases, liquids, or light solids; destitute of metallic lustre ; and non-conductors, or imperfect con« ductors of heat and electricity. There are 55 elements^ or simple ponderable substances, now known to chemists ; 42 of which are metals t including the newly-discovered metal Lataniam ; and 13 are non-metals, including Silicon. These elements, by uniting together, form compounds, of which the material world chiefly consists. Most of the elements are usually solid ; but it is supposed that by intense heat, all the solids might be converted into liquids, and these into gases ; and that by pressure and abstraction of heat, all gases and liquids might be solidified. The elements, by combination, oAen change their state ; as when oxygen gas unites with sulphur, forming
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the liquid oil of vitriol $ or with iron, to form the solid rust, or oxide of iron.
An acidf is an electro-negative compound ; which, if soluble, has a sour taste ; and which will combine with alkalies, or bases, to form salts. An alkali^ or basCj is an electro-positive compound ; which, if soluble, has an acrid taste ; and which will unite with acids, to form salts : these latter being compounds of an acid and base ; and, if soluble, having what is called a saline taste. Many acids, and bases, contain oxygen ; but others contain chlorine, sulphur, or other electro-negative elements, in its stead. An oxide t ususdly signifies a compound containing oxygen ; and which is neither an acid nor an alkali, though it may be a base. Potassa^ is an alkali ; composed of oxygen and the metal potassium : and pearlash is a salt, composed of potassa and carbonic acid. A chloride, is a compound containing chlorine ; and a carburet is one containing carbon. Sulphuric acid contains more oxygen than sulphurous ; and the salts of the former are called sulphates, but those of the latter are termed sulphites. Thus, sulphate of soda, denotes a compound of sulphuric acid and soda ; and arsentte of copper, is a compound of arsenious acid and the oxide of copper.
Cohesion, is the mutual attraction of homogeneous, or similar par- ticles, causing the formation of solids. Affinity is the mutual attrac- tion of heterogeneous particles, causing the formation of compounds. Thus, by affinity, carbon and oxygen unite, in ordinary combustion, forming carbonic acid ; and this unites with lime, to form carbonate of lime : but, by cohesion, the particles of this compound are aggre- gated, to form solid marble. By affinity, if we add lime water to a solution of pearlash, the lime will seize on the carbonic acid ; and, by cohesion, it will form a white precipitate, or deposite, of carbonate of lime ; leaving the potassa in solution. When distinct compounds are thus formed, the elements, or constituents, are found to unite in certain definite, invariable proportions ; which may be represented by what are called their equivalent numbers, or equivalents. Thus, 8 parts by weight of oxygen, unite with 1 of hydrogen, to form water; and with 16 of sulphur, to form hyposulphurous acid: while 1 of hydrogen unites also with 16 of sulphur to form hydro- sulphuric acid. In gaseous compounds, the elements have also a very simple ratio to each other, by bulk, as well as by weight.
Of the non-metals. Oxygen is a colorless gas, somewhat heavier than the air, and an element of air and water, as well as of nume- rous other compounds. It is essential to animal life ; being converted into carbonic acid when inhaled, as also by the burning of carbon- aceous substances. Various other elements burn or combine with it, forming oxides, acids, alkalies, and earths. Hydrogen, is also a colorless gas ; but 14.51 times lighter than the air : and it bums or explodes, with oxygen, forming water; which is an oxide of hydrogen, expressed by the formula H+0, or one equivalent of hy- drogen to one of oxygen ; as above mentioned. Nitrogen, is also a colorless gas, found chiefly in the air; which consists of I mea- sure of oxygen to 4 of nitrogen ; or by weight, of 8 of the former to 28 of the latter. Nitrous acid, (N-f4 O,) is distinguished by its 47
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pQDgenty orange colored fumes, from niirie acidf or aqua fortis: which consists of 14 by weight of nitrogen to 5 times 8 of oxygen ; its formula being N+5 O. J^mmonia^ or spirits of hartshorn, con- tains 14 of nitrogen, to 3 of hydrogen ; expressed by N+3 H.
Sulphur^ is found chiefly in minerals, or volcanic effusions : and by burning, it forms sulphurous acid gas, S + 2 O, known by its suffocating odor. Sulphuric acid, or oil of yitnol, contains 16 by weight of sulphur, to 3 times 8 of oxygen, as expressed by the formula S + 3 O ; or Si Selenium^ is a rare element, resembling sulphur. Carbon, is the chief constituent of all kinds of coal ; and, in burning, it forms carbonic acid gas, C -f 2 O, which always exists in the air as an impurity. Coal gas, consists of various carburets of hydrogen. Boron, is a rare element, the basis of boracic acid, B + 3 O ; found in borax. Silicon, is a dark brown solid, the basis of sand ; which is ailicic acid, S + 3 O, and which may be rendered soluble by heating it with potassa. Phosphoruu, a so(\, white inflam- mable solid, abounds in the bones of animals, in the state of phos- phoric acid, 2 P + 5 O, bat combined with lime. Chlorine, is a green gas, of a pungent odor, obtained from common salt; and which by uniting wi3i hydrogen forms muriatic, or hydrochloric acid, H + CI ; while with oxygen it forms highly explosive gases. Bromine, is a red liquid, found in sea water : Iodine, is a black crystalline solid, found in the ashes of marine plants ; and Huorine, is a reddish brown gas, found in the mineral called fluorspar. All these latter elements are electro-negative, like oxygen and sulphur ; and they all form acids with hydrogen ; and, excepting fluorine, they form acids also with oxygen.
$ 2. Under Metallic Chemistry, we include the study of the metals, and their various compounds. The metals are characterized by their peculiar lustre, and their being good conductors of heat and electricity. They may be classed as the crypto^metah, or concealed metals, which are the bases of the alkalies and earths; and the Mopho-metah or common metals, several of which are found native, that is, uncombined with any otlier elements. The metals are generally obtained from their ores ; which are mostly oxides, sul- phurets, or chlorides ; by heating them with charcoal or combustible matter, which unites with the other elements, and sets the metal free. Of the crypto-metals. Potassium, is as bright as lead, but much softer, and so light that it floats on water ; burning at the same time, and forming potassa, K + O, which is the caustic base of pearlash. Sodium, is a whiter metal, the base of soda, N + O : and common salt is the chloride of sodium. Lithium, is a very rare metal, the base of the remaining alkali, lithia. Barium, and Strontium, are rare metals, the bases of baryta and strontia : Calcium, is a white metal, the base of lime, which is an oxide of calcium ; and Magnesium, is the base of magnesia, the remaining alkaline earth. Muminium, is the base of alumina, the chief constituent of clay : and Glucinium, Yttrium, Thorium, and Zirconium, are rare metals, found in the remaining earths, technically so called.
Of the sapho-metals, or metals commonly found as such, seven were known to the ancients ; to which the alchemists gave the names
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of the planets : calling; Gold^ Sol, or the sun ; Silver j Luna, Diana, or the Moon ; Quicksilver, Mercury ; Copper , Venus ; Iron, Mars ; 7^n, Jupiter; and Lead, S^iturn. Of these, gold and silver are highly valuable for their rarity and durability ; and mercury is the only metal which is liquid at common temperatures. Red lead, is an oxide of lead ; red precipitate, is an oxide of mercury ; calomel and corrosive sublimate are chlorides, and vermilion is a sulphuret of mercury. Eight other metals were discovered before the Lavoisierian revolution in Chemistry ; namely, Antimony, Arsenic, Bismuth, Zinc, Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese, and Platinum. Of these metals, Antimony is brittle ; Arsenic, volatile ; Bismuth, heavy, and of a reddish tinge; Zinc, hard, and easily combustible; Cohcdt, and Nickel, are rare metals, and, like iron, magnetic ; Manganese, resem- bles iron, but is never used in the arts, though its black oxide is employed for obtaining oxygen ; and Platinum, is the heaviest of all metals, hard to oxidize or melt, and hence of peculiar use in thwarts. The fifteen remaining metals, more recently discovered, are rare, and of less importance. They are Cadmium, resembling tin ; Chromium^ forming rich colored salts ; and Columbium, Molybdenum, Tita- nium, Tellurium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Uranium, Cerium, Lata- nium, Osmium, Rhodium, Palladium, and Iridium. Several of the metals, as Arsenic, Antimony, aiid Chromium, form acids with oxygen ; and they all, except arsenic, by rusting, form oxides, which may become bases of salts. On the properties and uses of the metals, some farther remarks will be made in the subsequent branch of Hylurgy.
Among the more important salts, Glauber* s salt is the sulphate of soda, and Epsom salt, the sulphate of magnesia, ^lum, is a double sulphate of alumina and potassa ; Green vitriol, or copperas, is a sulphate of iron ; White vitriol, the sulphate of zinc ; and Blue vitriol, the sulphate of copper. Nitre, or saltpetre, is the nitrate of potassa ; and Lunar caustic, is the nitrate of silver. Pearlash, and Potash, and salt of tartar, are carbonates of potassa ; Kelp, and Barilla, are carbonates of soda ; Blue verditer, is a sub-carbonate of copper ; and White lead is a carbonate of lead. Borax, is a borate of soda ; and Glass, a sub-silicate of potassa. Chrome yel' low, is a chromate of lead ; and ScheeWs green, is the arsenite of copper. Prussian blue, is a complex salt, of iron, carbon, and nitrogen. Sal ammoniac, is the hydrochlorate of ammonia ; and Hartshorn, and smelling salts, are carbonates of ammonia. Cream of tartar is the bi-tartrate, Soluble tartar, the neutral tartrate, and Salt of lemons, the oxalate, of potassa ; the latter being poisonous. Verdigris, is an acetate of copper ; and Sugar of lead, is an acetate of lead.
$ 3. Organic Chemistry, is that division of this science which treats of animal and vegetable substances. Most vegetable substances, are chiefly composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen ; and most animal substances, contain these elements, together with nitrogen ; in both cases forming very complex combinations. Vegetable substances may be classed as acids ; alkalies ; aliments ; oils and resins ; alco- hol and ethers; nitrogenous compounds; and coloring matters.
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Among the vegetable acids, are the oxalic^ which is poisonous ; the acetic, which is the basis of vinegar; the tartaric^ obtained from crude tartar in the lees of wine ; and the gallic f obtained from gall nuts, and used for ink, and dyeing. The chief vegetable alkalies, are morphia, and narcotina, from opium; and cinchona and quinia from Peruvian bark. Among the vegetable aliments, are sugar, starch, and gum ; which, by fermentation, produce alcohol, and after- wards vinegar : and among the nitrogenous compounds are gluten, vegetable albumen, and yeast. Indigo, one of Uie most important coloring matters, also contains nitrogen.
Animal substances, besides the elements above mentioned, fre- quently contain sulphur, phosphoras, chlorine, potassium, sodium, lime, magnesia, and iron. Among the animal constituents, are^ftnn, obtained from muscular flesh ; gelatin, or glue, from the skins, car- tilages, and tendons ; and albumen, from the white of eggs, found also in the blood : these being the chief constituents of the fleshy parts, and composed essentially of the four elements named at the head of this section. It is remarkable that while some vegetable substances contain nitrogen, and hence are peculiarly subject to the putrefactive fermentation ; the animal oils, tallow, and fat, do not contain nitrogen, and hence are moro permanent compounds. When the oils or fats are boiled with potassa, or soda, they are converted into distinct acids, the roargaric, oleic, and stearic, which unite with these alkalies, and form soaps. The hones of animals, consist chiefly of carbonate and phosphate of lime ; and the blood contains all the chemical elements which are found in the bodies that it nourishes.
$ 4. The object of Analytic Chemistry, is to examine substances and discover of what chemical elements or constituents they are composed. This it does, by a variety of means, which we have here no room to describe, but of which some examples may be presented. A substance containing free carbon, or carbon combined with hy- drogen, will burn with oxygen ; and the carbonic acid gas and watery vapor, may be collected, and measured, or weighed. Substances which will not burn, are often soluble in water or some other liquid ; and in such cases they may often be tested by the precipitates which they form. Thus, all tlie sapho-metals, or higher metals, may be precipitated from their solutions, by adding the hydrosulphate of am- monia, or any soluble hydrosulphate ; and several of the metals may be distinguished at once, by the color of the irsulphurets thus preci- pitated. Substances containing silicic acid, as sand, quartz, or flint, may be rendered soluble in water by heating them to redness with a large dose of potassa or soda : and the silicic acid may be separated, by its becoming insoluble on evaporating the solution to dryness. Among the best means of testing substances, is the use of the blow- pipe ; which by the acid of certain fusible salts, called fluxes, wOl melt most substances and produce certain characteristic eflTects.
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XL DEPARTMENT:
IDIOPHYSICS.
In the department of Idiophysics, we include the immediate study of the various productions of nature, animal, vegetable, and mineral; with their classification and description ; their relations, and origin ; as £ir as these latter can be ascertained. The name is from the Greek fr6«o;, special or particular, and ^aif^ nature ; as this departs ment examines the individual objects in nature, of which the preced- ing department traced only the phenomena, and general laws. The name Idiophysics, here introduced, is nearly synonymous with the term Natural History : but the latter term is sometimes used in a more limited sense, as when it is made to exclude Geology : though this science belongs, we think, essentially to the same group. In treating of the animal kingdom, a place must necessarily be assigned to the human race, as the head of this division : but Uie more im- mediate study of the human frame, will be reserved for the follow- ing department, that of the Medical Sciences.
The popular division of natural objects, into the three kingdoms of nature^ as they have long been called, — animal, vegetable, and mineral,— >gives rise to the corresponding sciences of Zoology, Bo- tany, and Mineralogy ; which have been also termed the ciassifi- catory sciences, for reasons soon to be explained. But Geology is also a clcusificaiory science ; inasmuch as it classifies, on a grand scale, the rocky strata and mountain masses which compose the outer covering of our globe. And although Geology borrows from Acro- physics the general laws and principles which it uses, in examining the structure and revolutions of the earth ; the other sciences of this department do the same, whenever they find occasion. Thus, the Zoologist employs the laws of Mechanics, in studying animal mo- tion ; and the Mineralogist^ particularly, is guided by the light of Chemistry, in his difficult and often dubious path. In arranging these sciences among themselves, we have been governed by the consideration that Geology is absolutely dependent on all the others, for the means of its advancement : since a knowledge of Zoology, and even of Botany, is necessary to the study of the organic re- mainSf from which Geology derives many of its most important conclusions. We have therefore placed Geology last in this group, although it thereby interrupts the connexion between Zoology and the Medical Sciences.
As the study of Idiophysics, essentially requires tlie means of distinguishing each object, of which it treats, it should be based on a classification of all natural objects; or a System of Nature $ founded on the most permanent and important properties, or pecu- liarities, of these objects ; and so arranging them, that those which
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agree most nearly, or haye the strongest points of resemblance, may come next to each other in the system. Such a system may be formed of a series of divisions, each more comprehensive than the preceding, and characterized by some more general property, till we come to the last and highest gradation in the scale. Thus, each kingdom of nature is divided into cla9$e$i founded on the most prominent distinctions; these are subdivided into orders^ founded on the chief distinctions among objects of the same class ; and the orders are, on the same principle, subdivided into genera; and these, in like manner, are composed of tipeeie*^ among which all the individual objects may be distributed. The most natural system of classiGcation, is, we think, that in which the chief divisions are founded on the most important distinctions; and in which objects that most resemble each other, are placed nearest together. Any other system, founded on minor distinctions, may be characteristi- cally termed artificial.
The laws of organic life, are, generally, not so easily tested by experiment, as those of inanimate matter: hence Zoology, and Botany, are sciences rather of observation, than of experiment; though often aided by the latter also. They are, however, governed by definite laws, no less remarkable than those of the inanimate world. Among these, we would mention, that objects which resemble each other in external form, are likely also to have strong resemblances of internal structure, and general properties. The essential law, by which all living beings, both animals and plants, are governed, is that of final causes, or conditions of existence; by which, their structure and functions, must be adapted to their habita- tion, and the circumstances in which they are placed. By this law, beasts of prey must be swifl to seize, and strong to hold, their victims ; birds, that dig for insects, must have sharp and hard bills ; and fishes, living under water, must have corresponding organs of motion, as well as a different mode of respiration from that of animals surrounded by the air alone. To trace this principle throughout the living world, in plants, as well as animals, would require many volumes ; and would afford to Natural Theology, the strongest proofs of design, and of wisdom, in the Creation.
The existence of final causes, and the marks of design, are also numerous in the mineral, as well as tlie organic kingdoms of nature. Thus, iron, and the more useful metals, are found the most abun- dantly scattered over the earth ; while arsenic, and the other less useful, or even deleterious elements, are comparatively rare. Thus, again, volcanoes, which seem at first yiew to be agents of waste and destruction, serve rather as chimneys to the subterranean fires, to give vent to the confined gases, and prevent the recurrence of extensive and devastating earthquakes. On the uses of Idiophysical studies, we have no room to descant ; though they are numerous ; not only in their applications to the various arts, to the materials for which they specially relate ; but also as a means of recreation, a gratification of laudable curiosity, and a clue to the designs of the Great Author of nature ; whose Works, and whose Revelation, if rightly interpreted, must necessarily accord with each other.
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The history of Idiophysics, might be traced back, at least to the time of Solomon ; who discoursed largely of plants and animak ; though his writings, if he wrote upon these subjects, are lost. Aristotle, is gener^ly regarded as the founder of Natural History ; aided, as he was, by the munificence of Alexander, in procuring rare specimens of plants and animals from the east. Among the Romans, Pliny wrote extensively on Natural History ; but his writings are full of fables and exaggeration ; though less so than those of iElian. After the lapse of the dark ages, Conrad Gesner, who has been styled the German Pliny, wrote a history of animals, and me a classification of plants, according to the character of the seeds and flowers. Aldrovandi, of Bologna, also wrote voluminously on Zoology and Dendrology; but his works are deficient both in system and accuracy. B^lon's works, on Ornithology, and Ichthy- ology, published about 1555, were the harbinger of a brighter age ; but the first decided improvements in the method, of arranging and studying natural objects, are found in Lister's Zoological works, the first of which appeared in 1678 ; and, next to these, in Willoughby's Ornithology and Ichthyology, and Ray's Mazology and Entomology.
The first writer who ever gave to the world an entire System of NcUurt^ comprehending a classification of animab, plants, and minerals, was the celebrated Linnseus : who did more than any other person has ever done, towards the advancement of this depart- ment of knowledge. The system of Linnsus was first made public about the year 1730 ; and soon found a numerous school of admirers and improvers. Bufibn, though not a profound observer, nor a systematic naturalist, gave a new interest to the study of Idiophysics, by the vivacity of his style, and the amusing information which, by the aid of his friend Daubenton, he was enabled to diffuse through his voluminous work. Among all the successors of Linnaeus, none has done more for Natural History than Guvier; as well in his Rtgne Animaly or work on the animal kingdom ; as in his exten* sive and thorough investigations of the fossil or organic rtmaim^ of former races of animals ; many of which are now extinct, but still, by the labors of this naturalist, are almost as well known to us, as if they were still living in our presence.
With these general remarks, we come to the individual branches of Idiophysics ; which are Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy, and Geology.
CHAPTER I.
ZOOLOGY.
Zoology is that branch of Natural History which treats of anl^ mals ; their appearance, structure, and functions ; their classification and distribution ; their instincts and their habits. The name is de- rived from the Greek, C»<K9 living, or, ^uov, an animal ; and xoyof, a discourse. An animal^ may be defined as a living being, having
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parts or memben, more or less nmneroas, which are requisite to its complete strocture; endowed, like plants, with organs of growth and reproduction ; bnt differing from plants in possessing volUianj or the power of voluntary action, to a greater or less extent, Taryin^ with the different races. In other woi^, animals are characterizea by the attributes of life, motion, and organized form. It should be observed, however, that the animal and vegetable kingdoms of nature are connected by transitions so gradual, that it has been a difficult point to ascertain their common boundary. The study of animals, is a very extensive one, and possesses high interest ; especially to the agriculturist, the sportsman, and the devout student of nature.
To the Zoological labours of Aristotle, Pliny, Gesner, and Aldro* vandi, we have sdready alluded, in the introduction to this department; where the writings of Belon, Lister, Willoughby, and Ray, were also mentioned, as commencing a new era in ZwAogy, of which Linnsus was the rising sun. Linnsus subdivided the animal kingdom into six classes; founded chiefly on the respiratory and sanguineous organs; and arranged as follows: 1. Mammalia^ animals which have warm, red blood, and nourish their young at the breast, being mostly quadrupeds ; 2. Avta^ or birds, which have warm red blood, but produce their young from eggs, and are hence called oviparous ; 8. Amphibia, or reptiles, which have cold, red blood, and voluntary respiration ; 4. Pisces, or fishes, which have cold, red blood, and breathe by means of gills ; 5. Imecta, or insects, which have the sanies, a fluid in the place of blood, cold and colorless, and are pro- yided with antenns, or horns; and, 6. Vermes, or worms, with sanies cold and colorless, and tentacula, or fleshy feelers, instead of antennie. These classes, Linnsus subdivided into orders ; those of quadrupeds characterized chiefly by the teeth and feet; those of birds, by the beak and the feet ; those of fishes, by the lower fin ; and those of insects, by the wings. This classification, founded on real distinctions, established Zoology on a firm basis, though occa- sionally imperfect, and still incomplete.
Zoologry was rendered still more popular, by the fascinating writings of Buffon, already referred to ; and in England it acquired a new interest, from the attractive, though still less accurate pen of Goldsmith. The TVieatrum Instetorum of Mouffet, in 1634, was the first zoological work ever printed in England ; and the works of Margrave, on Brazil, and Bontius, on India, were the first local Faxmx, or natural histories of particular regions. The work of Ellis, on Corallines, served to correct the views of Linnsus, by proving that these productions were of animal origin. Ichthyology was farther improved by Artedi and Bloch ; and Entomology, by Fa- bricius and Kirby, before the era of Cuvier. The system of Lin- nsus was an artificial one, not always developing the most important relations of the animals which it classified. By studying the fune- tions of animals, and their conditions of existence, Cuvier was enabled to produce a more natural system, which by the aid of La- marck, in Conchology, and Latreille, in Entomology, he developed in his Regne Animal; a work of the highest order of merit.
Among the more recent zoologists, we may mention Geoffrey St.
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Hilaire, and Illiger, who have made quadrupeds their particular study ; Temminck and Audubon, as ornithologists ; and Agassiz and Strack» as ichthyologists ; who have extended the boundaries of this science, by additions and corrections. The doctrine of a circular progrcM- iiorii in the arrangement and relation of animals, propounded princi- pally by Mr. Macleay, is doubtless true in part ; and exhibits the same complexity in the classification of animals, which we have already noticed in the classification of the various branches of know- ledge. In our own country, Dr. Godman has written ably on quad- rupeds ; as Wilson, Nuttall, and Audubon, have done on birds ; and Lea on shells. The invaluable collection of specimens made by Mr. Peale, and now in the Philadelphia Museum, deserves, we think, to be mentioned, even in this brief enumeration.
We proceed to describe the Zoological system of Cuvier, under the popular heads of, 1. Zoonomy; 2. Mazology; 3. Ornithology; 4. Herpetology ; 5. Ichthyology ; 6. Arlhrology ; and, 7. Actinology.
$ 1. Under the head of Zoonomy, including Comparative Anor tomy, and Animal Physiology, we would treat of the general struc- ture and functions of animals. Every organic body, whether animal or plant, has a peculiar and definite /orm; which form it continues to possess, although, by accretion and excretion, the materials of which it is composed may be changed. All organic bodies have also a peculiar structure ; consisting of solid fibres, or layers, enclos- ing cellular, or tubular cavities, for containing the fluids necessary for their nutrition ; the whole constituting what has been called an areolar tissue, which is essential to every living body. Of this tissue, there are, in animals, three different kinds ; the cellular sub' stance, consisting chiefly of gelatine, which forms the various mem- branes, cartilages, and vessels that contain fluids, and which, indu- rated by earthy matter, forms the bones : the muscular fibre, con- sisting chiefly of fibrine, and constituting the muscles, whose con- tractile power is the immediate cause of animal motion ; and the medullary matter, a pulpy substance, which chiefly constitutes the brain, the spinal marrow, and the nerves, by whose agency the mind acts on the muscles, to cause their contraction, and thus produce voluntary motion. This effect is doubtless connected with galvanic action ; but the manner and laws of this action are still a mystery.
The growth of animals, is owing to the absorption and assimila- tion of fluids, derived' from their food : while their healthiness is preserved by the exhalation or excretion of noxious and superfluous matter. Having increased in bulk to their natural limit, animals acquire an increase of density, in most of their parts, which pre- cedes, and perhaps causes their decay and ultimate death. The races would therefore become extinct without the power of repro- duction ; which is perhaps the greatest mystery of life. The most essential of the animal fluids, is the blood, or, in lower animals, the sanies, which takes its place ; circulating through the system, and supplying nutriment to every part, while it absorbs and removes any superfluous or deleterious matter. The blood is elaborated from the food, by means of the alimentary system: and, by means of the respiratory system, it is purified and vivified during the process of 48 2 I 2
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breathing. More fuU details of animal atroctare and functions, we muBt reserve for the next department; in which the study of the human frame will be a clue to that of the inferior races, of animal intelligence, including instinct, or a natural spontaneous impulse to perform certain actions, we can only say that it differs from the human intellect, not so much in kind as in degree ; and that man's sense of divine dependence and accountability are the strongest prooft of his superior rank in the scale of existence, as the connecting link between the creatures of earth and of heaven.
In the arrangement of Cuvier and his coadjutors, animals are classed under the four great divisions of Vertebrata, Molluscs, Articulata, and Radiata. The Vertebrata^ including quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fishes, all have red blood, and a muscular heart, which acts as a forcing pump to circulate the blood ; with distinct organs for seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting, associated in the head or face ; with distinct sexes, and never more than four limbs ; and with a skeleton, or at least a spine, or back bone ; from the joints of which this divi- sion of animals derives its name. They all have a stomach ; and all have lungs, except the fishes, which have branchiae, or gills, in their stead. The vertebrated animals, from tlieir more perfect organiza- tion, their higher importance in the economy of nature, and their greater interest to mankind, will form the subject of the next four sections, in this outline of Zoology.
$ 2. Mazology^ treats of mammalia, or animals which nourish their young at the breast ; including all quadrupeds, except reptiles ; together with the whale, dolphin, and porpoise, or family of Cetacea, the study of which is sometimes termed Getology. The mammalia are all viviparous; producing their young alive, and nourishing them with milk. They have a double circulation of the blood; which passes from the heart to the lungs, and thence back to the heart, before again pervading the system: but their respiration is simple, that is, performed by the lungs only. They are divided into orders ; characterized by the structure of their limbs, and by their organs of manducation, or those which serve to tear and chew their food, as the teeth and claws ; for on these parts their mode of life chiefly depends. The first order, Bimana, is confined to the human race ; characterized physically by having two hands, with thumbs placed opposite to their fingers, for the purpose of seizing small objects. Of the difierent races of men, or rather varieties of the human race, (for they are not sufficiently distinct to form species), we have already spoken under Physical Geography, (p. 164).
The second order, Quadrumana, or animals having four hand- like extremities, includes the whole race of monkeys ; among which are the orang-outang, the gibbon, baboon, magot, mandrel, ouistiti, and lemur. The third order, Camaria, or flesh eating animals, comprises the families Cheiroptera, the bat and vampyre ; Insectivora, the hedgehog, shrew and mole ; and Camivora, including the bear, raccoon, badger and glutton ; the weasel, marten, skunk, and otter; the dog, wolf, fox, and hyaena; the lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, and cat ; and the seal, morse, and walrus. The fourth order, Marsu* piaia, or pouched animals, comprises the opossum, phalanger, kah-
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guroo, and wombat : the fifth order, Rodentia^ or gnawing animals, includes the squirrel, rat, mouse, marmot, jerboa, beaver, porcupine, and hare : and the sixth order, JEdentatOf or quadrupeds without front teeth, includes the sloth, the extinct megatherium, or megalonyx ; the armadillo and anteater. The seventh order, Pachydermala^ or thick skinned animals, comprises the elephant, the extinct mastodo.n, the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, tapir, and swine ; the extinct anoplo- therium, and palseotherium, and the horse : and the eighth order, Ruminanlia, or animals which chew the cud, includes the camel, lama, deer, giraffe, antelope, goat, sheep, and ox. The ninth order, Cetacea, or the whale tribe, includes the manatus or sea cow, the dolphin, porpoise, and whale.
$ 3. Ornithology 9 is that division of Zoology which treats of birds. They are vertebrated animals ; oviparous, or producing eggs, with double systems of circulation and respiration ; with a feathery or downy covering, long naked jaws or beak, two feet, and two wings formed for flying. They are divided into orders, according to the stmcture of the beak and feet, as indicating their mode of living* The first order, Accipitrea^ or birds of prey, comprehends the vul- tures, among which is the condor ; and the falcons, among which are the eagle, goshawk, kite, and buzzard ; together with the distinct family of the owls. The second order, Paaaerinx^ or sparrowlike birds, comprises the Dentirostres, or the shrike, fly catcher, thrush, mocking bird, oriole, nightingale, wren, and meadow lark ; the Fis- sirostres, or swallow and whip-poor-will ; the Conirostres, or the lark, sparrow, finch, linnet, starling, crow, rook, pie, and jay ; the Tenui- rostres, or the humming bird and hoopoe ; and the Syndactiles, or the kingfisher and hornbill. The third order, Scansorea, or climbers, includes the woodpecker, cuckoo, toucan, and parrot : and the fourth order, GallinaceXt or fowl-like birds, includes the hocco, peacock, turkey, pheasant, domestic fowl, grouse, partridge, quail, pigeon, and dove. The fifth order, Grallatorise^ or stilted birds, includes the Brevipennes, or ostrich and cassowary ; the Pressirostres or bustard, plover, and lapwing: the Cultirostres, or crane, boatbill, heron, bit- tern, stork, pelican, and spoonbill ; the Longiroatres, or ibis, curlew, snipe, woodcock, sandpiper, rufif, and avoset; and the Macrodactyles, or the rail, coot, water hen, sheathbill, and flamingo. The sixth order. Palmipedes^ or webfooted birds, includes the Brachypteres, or diver, puflin, and penguin ; the Longipennes, or the petrel, albatross, gull, tern, and skimmer; the Totipalmes, or the pelican, cormorant, and booby ; and the Lamellirostres, as the swan, goose, duck, and merganser.
§ 4. Herpetology^ treats of amphibia or reptiles^ such as the tor- toise, lizard, serpent, and frog. The study of serpents is also termed Ophiology. Reptiles, are cold, red blooded animals, oviparous, producing eggs with soft shells, which hatch spontaneously; and they are called amphibia^ because most of them. can live a long time under water, as well as on land ; and some of them can live entirely without air for a long time. They have a heart with but one ventri- cle, producingr only a single circulation ; and their lungs receive only a part of the blood which enters the heart : hence their respiration
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18 languid, and their motion generally slow. The first order of rep- tiles, Chehniat or tortoises, have hard shells coyering their backs, and thinner ones on the under side ; with four feet, which like ihe head can be either drawn in, or protruded, as in the land turtle. The second order, Sauria, or lizard-like animals, covered with scales, and most of them having four feet and long tails, includes the extinct Ichthyosauri, with the plesiosaurus, and megalosaurus ; the Crocodili, or crocodile and alligator ; the Lacertidie, or lizards ; the Stellionidae, or dragon, and ancient pterodactylus ; the Iguanidae, or iguana, and the ancient mosasaurus and iguanodon ; the Geckotidae, or geckos ; the Chamelionids, or chamelions; the Scincoids, or scincus ; and the Anguidae, or seps and bipes, resembling serpents.
The third order of reptiles, Onhidia^ or serpents, having the body exposed, or slightly covered, ana with no feet, includes the Anguinae, or glass snake ; the Amphisbaenae, so named from the head and tail appearing alike; the Golubridae, or boa, anaconda, and blacksnake; the Viperinae, as the rattlesnake, redsnake, viper, adder, and asp ; and the Coecilidae, or blindworm. The fourth order, Batrachia^ or frog-like animals, with the body naked, and differing from the three preceding orders in the heart having but one auricle, includes the Anouras, or frog and toad ; the Urodelae, or salamanders ; the Am- phiumidae, or hellbenders ; and the Sirenidae, or proteus and siren, resembling eels. These last named animals, except the sirenidae, change their primary fish-like form, at a certain age ; acquiring limbs, losing their gills, and afterwards breathing like other reptiles.
$ 5. Ichthyology t is that branch of Zoology which treats of fishes; the last division of vertebrated animals. They live solely in the water, are oviparous, and very prolific ; they breathe by means of branchiae, or gills, consisting of laminae covered with innumerable blood vessels, which absorb oxygen from the air existing in the water ; and most of them have a scaly covering, and swim by means of four, or at least two fins, besides the tail : bat in some of them the scales and fins are wanting. They are divided into orders, distin- guished by the fins and the gills. The first order, Acanthopterygiu or spiny finned fishes, includes the Percoidae, or perch, rock fish, and dragon weaver ; the Buccae loricatae, or gurnard, genuine fiying fish, bull head, and father lasher ; the Sciaenoidae, as the king fish ; the Sparoidae, as the sheephead ; the Scomberoidae, or mackerel, tunny, sword fish, and pilot fish ; the Mugiloidae, as the mullet ; the Go- bioidae, or blenny and gudgeon ; the Lophioidae, as ihe angler or sea devil ; and the Labroidae, as the tautog or black fish.
The next great division of fishes, is the Malacopterygii, or fishes with soft fins, which compose the next three orders. The second order, Malacopterygii abdominaUs, having the ventral or under fin behind the pectoral or side fins, includes the Gyprinoidae, or the carp, gold fish and silver fish ; the Esocidae, or pike, and a kind of flying fish ; the Siluridae, as the cat fish ; the Salmonidae, or salmon and trout ; and the Glupeoidae, or herring, shad, and anchovy. The third order, Malacopterygii aubrachiati, having the ventral fin under the pectorals, includes the Gadoidae, or cod, haddock, and whiting; ^e Pleuronectidae, or halibut, turbot, sole, and flounder ; and tlie Disco-
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boli, such as the lumpsucker. The fourth order, Malacopterygii apodes, having no ventral fin, includes the common eel, murena, and electric eel. The fifth order of fishes, Lophobrcmchi, having tufted gills, includes the sea horse, and pegasus. The sixth order, PlectO' gnathic or fish with cheek bones knitted to the jaw, includes the short Bunfish, and the file fish. The last great division of fishes, Chon- dropterygtif having cartilaginous fins, includes the Sturiones, or sturgeon and paddle fish; the Selachii, or shark, angel fish, and saw fish, the sting ray, torpedo, and skate ; and the Suctorii, or lampreys.*
$ 6. Malacology, including Conchology, treats of the mollusca^ most of which are popularly called shell fish, but some of which live on the land, and some are destitute of shells. Conchology is properly the study of the nhells ; though sometimes applied to that of the animals themselves. The mollusca, Cuvier's second grand division of animals, have soft bodies, without bones, but mostly protected by shells; with a double circulation of white blood, in- cluding that from the branchiae back to the heart ; with no spinal marrow, but with nervous ganglia, or bunches, connected by filaments ; having the senses of touch and taste ; while those of seeing, hearing, and smelling are mostly wanting. The nautilus, and cuttle fish, hav- ing a distinct brain, are the most perfecdy organized animals of this division ; and they constitute the first class, Cephalopoda, so named from the feet or limbs being attached to the head ; to which class the fossil belemnites and ammonites probably belong. The second class, PUropoda, with winglike fins attached to the head, includes the clio, and limacina.
The third class, Gasteropoda^ having a fieshy disk, instead of feet, for crawling, includes the Pulmonea, or the slug, snail, and planor- bis ; the Nudibranchiata, as the doris ; the Inferobranchiata, as the phyllidia; the Tectibranchiata, as the dolabella ; the Pectin ibranchiata, or trochus, turbo, melania, nerita, crepidula, conus, cyprea, ovula, voluta, oliva, buccinum, dolium, harpa, murex, fusus, and strombus or conch ; the Tubulibranchiata, as the vermetus ; the Scutibranchiata, as the halyotis; and the Gyclobranchiata, or patella, and chiton. The fourth class, Acephala, having no apparent head, includes the Ostracea, or the oyster, the pecten, sometimes called scallop, the anomia, malleus, pinna, and area; the Mytilacea, or muscle, and unio; the Chamacea, as the chama; the Cardiacea, or cardium, donax, tellina, lucina, and venus ; the Inclusa, as the mya or clam, the sdlen or razor shell, the pholas, and teredo, all of which belong to the order Acephala testacea ; while the thalia, ascidia, and botryl- lus, having no shells, form the order Acephala nuda. The fifth class, Brachiopoda, having fieshy arms instead of feet, includes the tere-
* Agasnz divides fishes into the four foHowing orden : 1. Plaeoidiaru, having the dun covered with enamelled plates ; including all the cartUaginoas fishes of Cuvier, except the sturgeon: 3. Ganoidiaru, having angular scales, covered with bright enamel; among which axe the bony pike, and stargeon: 3. Cterwidiana, having scales with rough or jagged edges; as the peich; and 4. CyeloidianSf having smooth scales ; as the hmng and salmon.
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bratula and orbicula ; and the sixth class of mollusca, Cirrhopoda^ having tufted filaments instead of feet, includes the lepas or analifa, and the balanus or baraacle. The shells of these animals are dis- tinguished as univalves, bivalves, or multivalves ; according as they consist of one, two, or more pieces.
$ 7. We would apply the name of Arthrology to the study of Cuvier's third grand division of animals ; the articulata; or worms, crabs, spiders, and insects, having jointed tninks, and mostly jointed limbs. The study of worms, has received the name of Helfnintko- logy ; and that of insects, is popularly termed Entomology. The nervous system of the articulata, consists of two long cords, dilated at intervals into knots, called ganglia ; and their covering is composed of rings, either hard or soft ; but they have in other respects wide diflferences, by which they are subdivided into classes. The first class, Annulata^ including red blooded worms, is the only class of the articulata which has red blood : and it comprises the Tubicole. as the serpula, sabella, and terebella, which have shells ; the Dorsi- branchiata, having branchiae or gills along the back, as the sand worm, eunice, and nereis ; and the Abranchiata, which respire only through the skin, as the earth or angle worm, and the leech or blood- sucker.
The remaining articulata, called by Linnsus tn«ee/a, are dis- tinguished by having at least six articulated, that is jointed feet. The second class, Crustacea^ most of which have a calcareoas covering, and all of which have a double circulation of sanies or white blood, includes the Malacostraca, as the crab, lobster, shrimp, and prawn, the squill, and the wood louse; and the Entomostraca, as the king or horseshoe crab, the fish louse, and perhaps the fossil trilobite. The third class, ArachnideB^ breathing by means of transverse air tubes, called stigmata, includes the Pal- monaris, or the spider, tarantula, and scorpion ; and the Trachea- riae, among which are the mite and the tick. The fourth class, Insecta^ breathing by means of two longitudinal air tubes, called tracheae, and provided with antennae, horns or feelers, includes the Myriapoda, or centipede, and scolopendra ; the Thysanoura, as the podura ; the Parasita, as the louse ; the Suctoria, as the flea ; the Coleoptera, as the water flea, snap bug, glow-worm, and firefly, the gnib, and the beetle, the cantharis or Spanish fly, the weevil fly, the cow bug, and lady bug ; the Orthoptera, as the earwig, roach or cockroach, cricket, and grasshopper; the Hemiptera, as the bed bug; with the Homoptera, or locust, and cochineal insect ; the Neuroptera, as the dragon fly, ephemera or May fly, the lion ant, and white ant; the Hymenoptera, as the saw fly, ichneumon fly, common ant, wasp, and bee ; the Lepidoptera, or butterfly, moth, and silk worm ; and the Diptera, or mosquito, crane fly, horse fly, gad fly, and the com- mon fly. Many of these insects undergo transformations or metor morphoses ; taking, when first hatched, the form of larvss, as worms or caterpillars ; which at length surround themselves with a web or cocoon, and are then called pnpm^ chrysalides, aurelias, or nymphs ; from which they finally emerge in ihe\r perfect state, many of them with wings ; prepared to lay Sieir eggs and die.
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$ 8. Aciinology, or Zoophytology, is the name applied to the stady of Cuvier's fourth and last great division of animals, the radiata^ or zoophytes : this last name signifying plant^like animals. These animals generally have their parts arranged around an axis, and radiating from it. They have no distinct circulation, or nervous system, and no other sense than that of touch ; and even this, in some of them, is nearly wanting. They are mostly capable of loco- motion, and nourished by digestion of food ; in which points they differ sensibly from plants ; though some of them are produced by the mere separation of portions, each of which becomes a perfect animal. The first class, Echinoderfnata, includes the slar fish, sea urchin, and other similar genera. The second class, Entozoa^ or Intestini, includes the Guinea worm, tape worm, and others which live within larger animals. The third class, Acidepha, includes the varieties of sea nettle : the fourth class, Polypi^ growing from the bottom of the sea by stems, like plants, includes the sea anemone, tubipore, coral animal, madrepore, and spunge : and the fifth class. Infusoria^ or animalculae, includes all those small animals which are only visible by the aid of the microscope, as the eel-like animals In vinegar*
CHAPTER n.
BOTANT.
Botany, is that branch of Idiophysics or Natural History, which treats of plants ; their structure and mode of growth ; their classifica- tion, description, localities, and uses. The name is derived from the Qreek, jSofay^, an herb or plant : and from ^vtov^ a plant, this study is also termed Phytology, Plants^ or vegetables, are organ- ized bodies ; endowed with life ; but differing from animals, in wanting the powers of sensation and voluntary motion. They differ from minerals, or inorganic bodies, both in possessing a principle of life, and in containing a set of organs, whereby diey assimilate new matter to increase their substance ; in which consists their growth. Most plants have a root, stem, and leaves ; and produce flowers, and fruits, or seeds, from which their species are perpetuated : but in some plants the seeds are not perceptible, and the leaves are wholly wanting. The study of plants, should be highly interesting; not only from their beauty and variety, but from the important purposes which they subserve in sustaining animal life ; and the proof, thence derived, of the harmonious designs of the Qreat Creator.
The chief ancient writers on Botany, were Aristotle, Theophras- tus, Dioscorides, and especially Pliny ; whose History of the World embodies much of the botanical knowledge of his predecessors. But they formed no general system of Botany ; and, after their times, this study declined, until the modern revival of learning. The first modem work on Botany, which copied nature, rather than ancient authorities, was that of Brunfels, published in 1530. The arrange-
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ment of plants in genera, commenced with Gesner; bat the origin of a natural system of classification belongs to Cssalpinus. The description of plants, was much improved by Clusius, (or De TEcluse) ; and the nomenclature was relieved of many synonyms by the labors of the younger Bauhin. New systems of classification were proposed, by Ray in England, and by Toumefort in France ; die former founded on the petals and fruit ; the latter on the form, and presence or absence, of the corolla ; but they both preserved the unscientific distinction between herbs, and trees. The first JFlorat or description of plants in one locality, worthy of notice, was Ray*8 Catalogue of Cambridge plants, published in 1660.
It was reserved for Linnaeus to mark a new era in the science of Botany ; by inventing a complete artificial system, founded on the organs of fructification, as had been suggested by Quirinus Rivinus ; by means of which a given plant might be more readily identified than by any other method. This system was adopted by most of his contemporaries, except Van Royen, the Gmelins, and Haller, who had systems of their own : but it has the defect of often bring- ing together, in the same order, plants which differ most widely in tlieir habits and properties. Of this defect, Linnaeus himself was sensible ; and he endeavoured to remedy it by the addition of a natural system, in which plants should be classed according to their general resemblances. The natural method, to which the artificial may be regarded as subsidiary, is chiefly indebted to the labors of Bernard de Jussieu, and his nephew Antoine, for tlie degree of perfection and favor which it has since attained.
To Linnaeus belongs the credit of having studied vegetable physi- ology, or Phytonomy, widi great zeal and success ; and this division of Botany has since been pursued by Duhamel, Bonnet, Malpighi, Mirbel, and Knight; whose names are connected with important investigations. Among the most extensive works on descriptive Botany, are DecandoUe's Flore Fran9aise, and Willdenow*s Species Plantarum ; the latter of which, published continuously, like other periodicals, has become a great storehouse of botanical discoveries : but the Genera Plantarum of Endlicher, according to the natural sys- tem, will probably be the most satisfactory work on this subject, yet undertaken. The plants of Central America, were examined to a great extent by Humboldt and Bonpland ; and those of North Ame- rica, by Kalm, Michaux, and Pursh. Among those who have studied the Flora of the United States, the names of Bartram, Bar- ton, Clayton, Elliott, Bigelow, Eaton, Nuttall, and Torrey, deserve a distinguished place.
We proceed to give some farther ideas of Botany, under the heads of Terminology; Phytonomy; and Systematic, and Descriptive Botany.
§ 1. Botanical Terminoiogy, relates to the numerous terms which are used in describing plants, or their different parts. The principal parts of a plant, are the root, the stem or trunk, the leaves, and the organs of fructification, or flowers and fruit. The rooty is that part which, descending into the ground, or adhering to some other sub- stance, aids in supporting and nourishing the plant Roots are
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branching, as in common trees ; or fibrous, as in many grasses ; or creeping, as in some vines ; or fusyorm, as in the parsnip ; or buU bous, as in the turnip ; or tuberous, as in the potato ; or granulated, as in the wood sorrel. The stem of a plant, is that part which rises from the root, and supports the leaves and flowers. The sUlk or stem of grasses, is called a culm; the flower stalk, as in dandelions^ a scape ; the fruit stalk, as in apples, a peduncle ; and the stalk of the leaf, a petiole. The leaves of plants are the spreading organs,, usually of a green color, which terminate the stems and branches. They have various forms; as ovate^ or egg-shaped; cordate, or heart-shaped ; reniform, or kidney-shaped ; palmate, like the hand with spread fingers ; pedate, like a bird's jfoot ; pinnatifid, or half cleA ; sinuate, or lobed ; and several other forms. Of their edges, ends, surfaces, and position, we have no room to speak.
The organs of fructification, or those connected with the fruit, are the -cdyx, corol, stamen, pistil, pericarp, seed, and receptacle. The calyx, is the outer, or lower part of the flower ; generally color- less, which in botany signifies having a green color. Every calyx is either monophyllous, consisting of but one leaf; or polyphyllous, consisting of more than one leaf, or sepal, as the calyx leaves are called. The corol, is the colored blossom, within or above the calyx ; and its separate leaves are called petals* Monopetalous corols, are distinguished as bell-form, funnel-form, salver-form, wheel-form, or labiate, that is lip-form ; and polypetalous corols are cruciform, or caryophylleous as in the pink, or liliaceous, or rosaceous, or papi- lionaceous as in the pea, or anomalous. The stamens, are organs within the corol, each terminating in an anther or knob, which fur- nishes the pollen, or fertilizing dust, to perfect the seed. The anthers are either sessile, or supported by filaments, which are the thread- like part of the stamen. The pistils, one or more in number, are the central organs of the flower ; their base becoming the pericarp and seed. This base is called the germ ; and the outer end of the pistil is called the stigma; which is connected with the germ, either directly, or by a short stem called the style.
The pericarp, is the fruit containing the seed ; whether it be a silique, or bivalvular pod ; a legume, or pod without a partition ; a capsule, or cellular enclosure, as in the poppy ; a drupe, as in the cherry and walnut ; a pome, as in the apple ; a berry, as in the currant; a pepone, as in the melon ; or a strobile, as in the cone of the pine. The seed, consists of a tunic, or integument, covering the cotyledons, or fleshy parts ; and the embryo, or corcle, which is the rudiment of the future plant. The receptacle, is the base, which being con- nected with the stem, supports the flower and fruit. Flowers are either simple, when there is but one on the receptacle ; or aggre- gate, when there are several on the same receptacle ; or compound, when several florets, or little flowers, have their anthers united, as in the sunflower. The diflerent forms of the corol, and modes of in- florescence, we have no room to explain.
§ 2. The object of Phytonomy, or Vegetable Physiology, is to investigate the structure of plants, and their mode of growth. The seeds of plants, when mature, are scattered ; by an inherent repulsive 49 2K
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force, or by the agency of animals, or the wind ; and throws info situations more or less favorable for germination ; that is, for the development of a new plant of the same kind. The necessary con- ditions for germinating or sprouting, are warmth, mobture, air, and the exclusion of light : though light is afterwards beneficial to their growth. Porous earth admits the air, but excludes the light, if the seeds are not planted too deep. The corcle, or embryo, then ex- pands into a radicle, which shoots downwards to form the root ; and a plumuia, which shooting upwards, becomes the stem of the future plant: while the cotyledons are generally converted, by fermentation, into sugar, for its nourishment. Plants may be propagated, not only by reproduction from the seed ; but also by eantiniuUion ; whether by grafting, inoculating, transplanting, or setting out shoots or twigs in the earUi.
Plants are nourished, partly by the roots, which absorb moisture, and nutritious salts, especially those of potassa ; and partly by the leaves, which absorb carbonic acid, and perhaps oxygen, from the air. Their carbon is doubtless derived from the decomposition of carbonic acid ; and their hydrogen from water : while a part of the oxygen is set free. The leaves, are to plants, what the lungs are to animals ; but they exhale oxygen, instead of carbonic acid, at least when exposed to the light of the sun. Whether this action is reversed by night, and carbonic acid evolved, we are not prepared to say ; as authorities differ thereon. In regard to the mode of growth, plants are divided into two great classes. In monocotyledonous or endogenous plants, the stem has seldom any external bark, bat consists mostly of pith ; and the growth takes place at the centre ; while the preexisting parts are thereby crowded outwards, and compressed, as in the palm tree, and Indian com. But in c/tcofv/e- donous, or erogenous plants, the growth takes place externally, between the wood and the bark, as in the elder, or oak. The stem of exogenous plants, consists of the pith, or soA central core ; the heart wood, or hardest part, and the sap wood, or alburnum, which is the outer and softer part of the wood ; the lU)er or inner bark, strong and fibrous ; the cellular integument, or middle bark ; and the cuticle, or outer bark, probably lifeless, and serving merely to protect the parts within.
The substance of plants, is generally porons, and consists of either cellular or vascular texture; the former composed of cells, and existing in the pith, bark, and leaves ; while the woody part is chiefly vascular, consisting of tubular fibres. The s(^ of plants, is a limpid. liquid, which rises from the roots to the leaves, it is said, through the medullary sheath, consisting of spiral vessels surround- ing the pith ; and after respiration, it descends through the liber, or inner bark, underneath which it deposits the camb, a mucilaginous substance ; and from this a new annual layer of wood is formed, by which the age of exogenous plants may be known. The proper juices, or peculiar fluids, secreted by plants, as gum, oils, and the like, are said to be elaborated by glandular knots, analogous to the glands of animals.
§ 3. Under the head of Systematic Botany, we proceed to
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describe briefly the two great systems of classification of plants, which have prevailed in recent times. It was known, before the time of Linofleus, that the seeds of plants cannot be perfected from the pistil alone, but require the agency of the pollen, or pulverulent, fertilizing substance, from the stamens. Thus, if we cut off the tope, or staminate flowers of Indian com, before the pollen has fallen on the silk of the ears, these latter, which contain only pistillate flowers, will not fill out with kernels. Hence, those alone are called perfect flowers^ which contain both stamens and pistils ; and the importance of these organs induced Linnaeus to make them the basis of his artijiciai system of classification. In this system, the classes and orders are founded on the number, positions, and other relations of the stamens and pistils.
The first ten classes are Monandria, having one stamen ; Diandriat two ; Triandriat three ; Tetrandria, having four equal stamens ; Pentandria, five ; Hexandria, six ; Heptandria, seven ; Octandria, eight ; JEnneandria, nine ; and Decandria, having ten stamens. The 11th class, Icosandria, has more than ten stamens, inserted on the calyx ; and the 12th, Folyandria, has the same, but not situated on the calyx. The 13th class, Didynamia, has two long stamens and two short, with labiate flowers ; and the 14th, Tetradynamia, has four long, and two short stamens, with the flowers cruciform. The ] 5th class, Monadelphia, has the stamens united by their filaments, in one set; and the 16th, Diadelphia, has them in two sets, with papilionaceous flowers. In the 17th class, Syngenesia, the flowers are compound, and the florets have their stamens united by the anthers. The 18th class, Gynandria, has the stamens growing on the pistil, and separate from the corol. The 19th class, Moncecia^ has the stamens and pistils in different flowers, but on the same plant ; while the 20th, Dicecia, has tliem not only in separate flowers, but on separate plants. In the 21st class, Crypto gamia^ these organs are either wanting, or invisible, or very caduceous.
In the first twelve classes, the orders are founded on the number.. of pistils, whether with styles, or only with sessile stigmas. These orders are monogynia, having one pistil ; digynia, two ; and so on, following the Greek numerals, to decagynia, having ten, and polygynia, having more than ten pistils. The 13th class has two orders, gymnospermia, with naked seeds; and angiospermith with the seeds in a capsule. The orders of the 14th class, are sUiculoaa, having round pods ; and siliquosa, with pods long and narrow. In the 15th, 16th, 18th, 19th, and 20th classes, the orders are distinguished by the number of stamens, and have the same names as the first twelve classes ; but in the 17th class, the orders are sequalia, having all the flowers perfect; auperflua, having the disk or central florets alone perfect ; the ray florets, if any, being pistillate ; fruatanea, having the disk florets perfect, but the ray florets neutral ; necessaria, having the disk florets staminate, but the ray florets pistillate or fertile ; and segregatUj having a separate perianth, or calyx, for each floret, as well as for the whole flower. The 21st class is divided into the natural orders of ^/icc*, or ferns ; tnusci, or mosses ; hepaticse, or liverworts ; Kchenes, or lichens.
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with leafless stems, often growing on rocks ; and fungi^ or mosh- rooms, and sidiilar plants.
The genera of plants, are farther distingnished by characters of the flower and fruit ; while the speeieSf are distinguished by the leaves, and other minor difierences. In general, plants of the same genus possess similar medical and other properties ; but this rule does not apply to the Linnean classes and orders ; which, as we have before remarked, bring together plants of widely diflerent characters. To remedy this deficiency, is the object of the natural system ; in which plants are arranged in the three classes of dieotyleaonouM^ monoco- tyledonoust and acotyhdonout, distinguished oy the number of cotyledons found in the seed, which is deemed a predominant characteristic. The farther explanation of this system, we must reserve for the next section ; in order to connect it with references to as many important plants as we have room to mention.
$ 4. Descriptive Botany, properly includes a description of plants, duly arranged ; by means of which the genus, species, and proper- ties of any given plant may be recognized. We shall here connect it with the natural system ; and commence with the dicotyledonous, or exogenous class of plants : which have stems of bark, wood, and pith ; leaves with branching veins ; the parts of the flower usually with a four fold or five fold division ; and the seeds with two or more cotyledons. This class is divided by Lindley into three sub- classes ; polypetalsSf having distinct petals, as the rose, and pink ; monopetalss, naving but one petal, forming the corol, as in the cur- rant and potato ; and incompletx, without petals, as the walnut, oak, and buckwheat ; to which other writers have added a fourth sub-class, anomalss, including the achitospermous plants, which have no cover- ing to the seed, as the pine and cedar.
The polypetalous plants, are divided by Lindley into the albumi- nous group, having the embryo of the seed shorter and smaller than the albumen or mealy part, as in the currant and grape ; the epigy- nose group, having the flower above the ovary or seed vessel, as m the cucumber and melon ; the parietose group, having the placenta to which the seeds are attached, parietal or forming a wall around them, as in the cabbage and violet ; the calyeose group, having two sepals of the calyx exterior to the others, as in the maple and flax ; the syncarpouB group, having the carpels or pods compactly united, as in the nollyhok and pink ; the gynobaseoae group, having five carpels or fewer, around an elevated axis, as in the geranium and nasturtion ; and the apocarpous group, having the carpels or pods distinct, as in the rose, apple, peach, pea, and clover.
The monopetalous plants, comprise the polycarpous group, hav- ing the ovary composed of many carpels, as in the honeysuckle and whortleberry ; the epigynose group, having the flowers above the ovaries, usually with two carpels, as in the cardinal flower and elder ; the aggregose group, having the ovary composed of but one perfect carpel, as in the dandelion, thistle, and daisy ; the labiose group, having ovaries of two carpels, within unsymmetrical flowers, as in sage, and mint ; and the dicarpous group, having ovaries with two carpels, within symmetrical flowers, as in the ash, potato, and tobacco.
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The incomplete dicotyledonous plants, comprise the rectembrose group, having the embryo straight, and the calyx very imperfect, as the oak, chesnut, birch, mulberry, walnut, elm, hop, and hemp ; the achlamydose group, having neither calyx nor corol, as the willow, poplar, and buttonwood, to which Lindley adds the achitospermous plants, the pine, yew, cedar, and sago ; the tubiferoua group, hav- ing a tubular calyx, as the sassafras ; and the curvembrose group, having the embryo curved, as in the beet, and buckwheat.
The second class of plants, the monocoiyledonous, or endogenous plants, are characterized by the wood and pith being mingled, and the true bark wanting ; the leaves having parallel veins ; the parts of the flower being ternary or threefold ; and the perianth often in two rows. This class is divided by Lindley into the epigynose group, having complete (lowers, above the ovary, as in flower-de-luce, and saffron ; the spadicose group, with herbaceous or imperfect flowers, as in the sweet flag, cat-tail, and asparagus ; the glumose group, with scale-like bracts attached to the flowers, as in wheat, oats, or- chard grass, rice, cane, and Indian corn; the hypogynose group, having the ovary within a colored flower, as in the palm, lily, tulip, onion, and bulrush ; and the gynandrous group, having the stamens united with the styles, as in the ladies' slipper.
Of the acotyledonous or acrogenoua plants, which constitute the Linnean class of cryptogamia, we have already given some idea, in mentioning the Linnean orders. They are cellular plants, wanting in proper vessels, growing by increase at the extremities, and propa- gated by means of sporules, instead of perfect seeds.
CHAPTER IIL
MINEIULOOT.
Mineralogy, is that branch of Idiophysics, or Natural History, which treats of minerals ; their classification, composition, proper- ties, and uses. The name is derived from the word mineral : and this from the French word mine, a mine ; because from mines are many of the most valuable minerals derived. This science has also been termed Oryctognosy, from the Greek, o^mxto;, or fossil, and yvcotrt^, knowledge or science. A mineral, as the term is now used, signifies any inorganic natural substance ; whether gaseous, as the air ; or liquid, as water ; or solid, as stones and earths : but the term fossil, from the Latin fodio, I dig, is now applied exclusively to organic remains ; that is remains of plants or animals, which have been buried in the earth ; the study of which pertains, in part, to the preceding branches. The study of Mineralogy, is limited to simple minerals, considered independendy or individually ; and the study of their arrangement, or association, in the strata which compose the surface of our globe, together with the distribution of fossils therein, is reserved for the science of Geology. But, considered even in this limited sense. Mineralogy is a science not devoid of interest;
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whether it examines the stones from which the vegetahle soil is derived ; or the ores which yield the usefol and precious metals ; or the gems which grace the brow of beauty or the diadems of kings.
Aristotle and Pliny wrote vaguely on minerals ; but the first regu* iar classification of Uiem appears to have been made by Avicenna, the alchemist ; who divided them into stones, metals, inflammables and salts. A similar classification was made by Agricola; and another by Beccher, the first writer on Chemistry ; who regarded all minerals as composed of salt, sulphur, mercury, earth, and water. The first idea that certain minerals always crystallize in certain par- ticular forms, may be traced to Gulielmini, in 1707 : but Linnaeus had the merit of first pointing out the importance of crystallography, in classifying and examining minerals. His views on this subject were corroborated by the researches of De Lisle ; and especially by the Abbe Hally, who first examined the cleavage of minerals, and applied the atomic theory to account for their formation. Meanwhile, Werner, in his work on the External Characters of Fossih, (as minerals were then termed), in 1774, attained great precision in describing minerals ; particularly by means of their color, lustre, hardness, and specific gravity : but in classifying minerals, he adopted a system, like that of HaQy, partly natural, and partly chemical, as first proposed by Cronstedt, in 1758.
The views of Haily, concerning primary and secondary forms of crystals, were corrected, in various instances, by Weiss ; who, in 1800, gave a new classification of crystals, forming several crystalline systems, or groups, founded on the axes of figure, and such that those of the same group might be derived from each other. This true, and probably ultimate theory, was applied by Mohs to all the known species of minerals ; and in his Outlines of Mineralogy, pub- lished in 1822, it was made the basis of a natural classification of minerals, closely resembling those of animals and vegetables now prevailing. This system, as at present modified and simplified, agrees so far with the chemical, as to show that it has a foundation in nature ; although it doubtless admits of farther modifications and improvements ; and although the mixed system has been adopted by Brongniart, and more recently by Naumann of Freiberg, who excels in the department of crystallography. The purely chemical classi- fication, proposed by Berzelius, founded on the electric relations of the chemical elements, has failed of giving a fixed character to the science, or of coming into general use. In our own country, the inixed system was adopted by Cleaveland ; but the natural classifica- tion has been preferred by Dana, in his recent valuable work ; which we here propose to follow, as far as our limits will allow.
We proceed to give a brief synopsis of Mineralogy, under the heads of Crystallography, and Idiographic, Systematic, and Descrip- tive Mineralogy.
5 1. The science of Crystallography, has for its object the exa- mination of crystalline forms : and its connection with Mineralogy arises from the fact that most of the crystalline forms, with which we are acquainted, belong to simple minerals ; and that each mineral
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flpecies, whereTer it is foinid cryitallized, is limited to certain simple forms, or g^roops of forms, by which its composition and properties may often be recognized. Minerals which have no regular shape, are said to be amorphous. Others have what is called imUative forms ; as dentiform^ or tooth-shaped ; JUiform, or thread-like ; dendriform^ or tree-shaped ; peettformt or comb-shaped ; reniform^ or kidney-shaped ; and hotryoidm^ resembling a cluster of grapes. But of all the mineral species known, the larger portion are found, at least occasionally, having a regular erystauine form^ subject to mathematical laws : and these forms alone are the object of the pre- sent section.
A erystalj is an inorganic solid, bounded by plane surfaces, and usually possessing a homogeneous structure. The bounding surfaces are called faces; the lines of intersection, edges ; the angles of the faces themselves, plmie angles; those which they form with each other, interf octal angles ; and an angle formed by three or more fiices, meetmg in a point, is called a solid angle. The forms of crys* tals are considered as either primary f or secondary ; the latter being derivable from the former, either by excision or by accretion. Crystals generally admit of cleavage f or splitting ; and when this can take place only in one direction, the cleavage is said to be single ; but when in two directions, double ; and it may also be triple or quadru- jde. When the edges or angles of a crystal are cut off by a plane equally inclined to the sides which it cuts, they are said to be trun- cated ; but when tlie edge is replaced by two faces, equally inclined ; or an angle replaced by as many such planes as there are contiguous faces, they are then said to be bevelled.
All those crystalline forms which are reducible to one and the same primary form, are said to constitute a crystalline system. There are seven of these systems, distinguished by the relations of their axes. In the monometriCi or regular system, the three axes are equal, and at right angles to each other ; as in the cube, the axes of which are the lines joining the centres of the opposite sides ; and in the regular octahedron, and the rhombic dodecahedron, derived from the cube by truncating all or a part of the edges; these figures having their axes joining the vertices of opposite angles. The dimetric system, has one axis either longer or shorter than the other two, as in the right square prism : and the trimetric system has all the axes unequal, but still at right angles ; as in the right rectangular prism. The other systems, which we have no room here to describe, have one or more of their axes oblique. An instrument for measuring the angles of a crystal, is called a goniometer ; one form of which, invented by Wollaston, employs for this purpose the reflection of light.
$ 2. Under the head of Idiographie Mineralogy t we would treat of the various physical and chemical properties of minerals;, which serve, often in part, and for amorphous minerals entirely, to aid us in recognizing them. We speak here only of simple minerals ; all the separable particles of which are homogeneous : as the study of compound minerals formed by the aggregation of two or more simple ones, belongs to the study of Geology. The physical or external properties of minerals, are those which are obvious by mere inspee-
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tion, or by the aid of some simple mechanical experiment. Such are the color, lustre, hardness, and specific gravity; which are easily noted, and are, perhaps, the most important external characters to which we can refer.
The color^ of earthy minerals, may vary from a very slight ad- mixture of foreign ingredients ; but in ores, it is a better test of the composition. The colors selected by Werner, as standards for the comparison of minerals, were the eight following : snow white ; ash gray ; velvet black ; Prussian blue ; emerald green ; lemon yellow ; carmine red ; and chesnut brown. Besides the colors of minerals in mass, that of their streaky when abraded by a file, is often a useful characteristic. The lustre of minerals, is distinguished as metallic, vitreous, resinous, pearly, silky, or adamantine ; either of which may vary in intensity. As regards the transmission of light, minerals are either transparent, translucent, or opaque: and some minerals are characterized by the degree of refraction^ or by the double refraction of light; as others are by the property of phosphorescence^ or assum- ing a luminous appearance by friction or by heat.
The hardness of minerals, is ofVen an important characteristic; and is expressed, in the manner which Mohs proposed, by a scale of numbers, referring to a series of minerals, each of which will scratch any one of the preceding. The scale, thus constructed, is as follows: 1. talc; 2. rock salt; 3. calcareous spar; 4. fluor spar; 6. apatite ; 6. feldspar ; 7. quartz ; 8. topaz ; 9. sapphire ; and 10. diamond ; which is the hardest substance known. To these, Breit- haupt has added two intermediate degrees; 2$, foliated mica ; and 5i, scapolite ; subdividing the largest intervijs of the scale. As regards their aggregation^ minerals are either brittle, sectile, malleable, flex- ible, or elastic : and their fracture is either conchoidal, even, uneven, or hackly, as in broken iron. The specijic gravity of minerals, is found, on the principles of Hydrics, by dividing the weight of the mineral by the weight of an equal bulk of water ; which is the loss of weight when it is suspended in water. Minerals are also charac- terized, in some few cases, by their electriCt or magnetic properties, or by their taste, or odor.
Among the chemical properties most frequently employed by the mineralogist, are the action of acids, and the effects of the blowpipe. The acids used for this purpose, are chiefly sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic, in a diluted state. Most of the carbonates, when exposed to either of these acids, are decomposed, with eflfervescence of carbo- nic acid gas ; and most of the sulphurets, when acted upon by either sulphuric or muriatic acid, especially with the aid of heat, are recog- nized hy the fetid odor of the sulphuretted hydrogen, otherwise called hydrosulphuric acid, which they evolve. The blowpipe^ is a tube, one end of which is applied to the mouth, and the other end terminates in a small orifice, through which a jet of air is thus forced into the flame of a lamp or candle, causing a conical flame, of intense heat, to pro- trude in the direction of the jet. By this flame, the fusibility, or combust ilifv, of minerals is tested ; and many refractory minerals are rendered fusible by adding some salt, as a flux ; while the color and appearance of the melted drop, or bead, thus obtained, often indi-
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cates their composition. The complete analysis of minerals, requires a thorough acquaintance with all the resources of chemistry.
$ 3. Under the head of Systematic Mineralogi/t we are to speak briefly of the different systems according to which minerals have been classified and named. The object of the chemical system, is to place together those minerals which most resemble each other in composition ; while that of the ncUural system, is to associate those which most resemble each other in their general properties. The chemical classification, adopted by several writers, usually com- mences with the non-metallic minerals, the gases, combustibles, and non-metallic acids : proceeding next to the salts ; both the soluble salts, or those commonly known as such ; and the earthy salts, or earths; which are mosdy salts of silicic acid : and the list is usually completed by the higher metals, and their various ores ; of which the oxides and sulphurets are the most important.
In the natural classification, as proposed by Mohs, and modified by Dana, all minerals arc divided into three classes: Epigsea, or minerals found mostly on the earth's surface, as gases, acids, and soluble salts, of all of which, the specific gravity is less than 3-8 : JEntogxa, or minerals found mostly within the earth ; insoluble and tasteless, and all having a specific gravity above 1*8 : and Hupogsea, or minerals which were once on the earth's surface, being of vegeta- ble origin ; but have since been buried ; as the coals and resins. These classes are subdivided into orders; which we shall briefly describe in the following section. The orders have been farther subdivided into genera, and species, which we shall not in this work have room to describe. We can only mention tlie most important species, giving them their common or trivial names ; which are for the most part arbitrary, and often derived from the names of indi- viduals who have distinguished themselves in this science.
§ 4. Under the head of Descriptive Mineralogy, we proceed to give some idea of the more prominent minerals, arranged according to the natural orders of Dana ; with some remarks on their proper- ties and uses. The first class, Epigaea, is divided into two orders, Rheutinea, or fluids, and Sterinea, or solids. The order Rhtutinea, includes the native gases; or carburetted hydrogen, which is the same as coal, or oil gas ; phosphuretted hydrogen, which is sponta- neously inflammable, and the cause of the ignis fatuus ; sulphuretted hydrogen, known by its fetid odor; atmospheric air, essential to animal life and ordinary combustion ; carbonic acid, or the choke damp of mines, fatal to animals confined in it ; and sulphurous and muriatic acids, suffocating gases, evolved from volcanoes. This order includes also the native liquids; water, and sulphuric and mu- riatic acids ; these latter being in a dilute state. The order of Ste^ rinea, or solids, includes boracic and arsenious acids, found sparingly ; borax, or borate of soda, useful as a flux to cause other minerals to melt; alum, which is sometimes found native; solfatarite, or soda alum; natron, a hydrous carbonate and sulphate of soda; common salt, found in mines, springs, and the sea; Glauber's salt, and Epsom salty useful in medicine ; sal-ammonic, nitre, and the vitriols, useful 50
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in the arts ; and polyhalite, a complex sulphate of lioie, potassa, and other basea.
In the second, or Entognan claaa of minerals, the order Ha- linea^ or saline minerals, includes alum stone, from which alnm is made ; fluor spar, or fluoride of calcium, used for ornaments ; apatite chiefly phosphate of lime ; gypsum, and anhydrite, both sulphate of lime; calcareous spar, and arragonite, carbonates of lime; and dolomite, or magnesian limestone. The order Barytinea, or heavy earthy minerals, includes strontianite, and celestine, or the car- bonate and sulphate of strontia : witherite, and heavy spar, or cai^ bonate and sulphate of baryta ; bismuth blende, and calamine, or silicate of bismuth, and carbonate of zinc ; spathic iron, or brown spar, a car- bonate of iron ; white lead, or carbonate of lead ; chromate of lead, or chrome yellow ; blue and green malachite, carbonates of copper ; and uranite, chiefly phosphate of uranium. The order Ceratinea, or hornlike minerals, includes horn-silver, and horn quicksilver, chlo- rides of silver and mercury ; and iodic silver, having also a resinous lustre. The order Osmtrinea, or minerals possessing odor, includes allophane, or hydrous silicate of alumina ; serpentine, or hydrous silicate of magnesia ; also native magnesia ; with talc, and steatite, or soapstone, which are chiefly silicates of magnesia ; and chlorite, and nacrite, silicates of alumina and iron.
The order Chaiicinea, or silicious minerals, includes mica, impro- perly called isinglass, it being a silicate of alumina, potassa, and iron; feldspar, or silicate of alumina and potassa ; hornblende, or silicate of magnesia, lime and iron ; and turquois, and lazulite, of a rich blue color. The order Hyalinea, or glass-like minerals, includes tourma- line, chiefly a silicate of alumina and iron ; the beryl, and chryso- beryl ; the sapphire, which is pure alumina ; the diamond, or pure crystallized carbon ; the topaz, and chrysolite; quartz, or pure silex; the garnet, and zircon. The order ScaptineOi or excavated minerals, includes most of the ores of the metals, other than sulphurets ; most of them being oxides, or containing oxygen. The order Mefid- linea, includes the native metals, and their alloys, having a bright metallic lustre. The order Pyritinea, includes those sulphurets of the metals, usually called pyrites, which have a full metallic lustre ; as iron pyrites, or bisulphuret of iron ; and copper pyrites, a double sulphuret of iron and copper; both these minerals resembling gold in appearance. The order Galinea, or shining metals, also com- prises chiefly sulphurets having a metallic lustre, but a darker color than those of the preceding order; as tin pyrites,. or sulphuret of copper and tin ; galena, or sulphuret of lead ; and the sulphuret of bismuth. The order Adelinea, or minerals of imperfect lustre, in- cludes those sulphurets, and similar minerals, the metallic lustre of which is not very manifest ; as blende, or sulphuret of zinc ; cin- nabar, or sulphuret of mercury ; and realgar and orpiment, sulphu- rets of arsenic. The last order, 7%mnea, is confined to native sul- phur, chiefly of volcanic origin.
The third class of minerals, Hypogma, is subdivided into two orders ; the first of which, PitUnea, or pitch-like minerals, easily
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fusible, includes amber, retinasphaltum, and bitamen: and the second order, ^nthracinea, or coal-like minerals, infusible, but combustible, includes bituminous coal, which bums with a flame ; anthracite, which burns without flame ; and graphite, which is a compound of carbon with a small portion of iron, improperly called black lead. We are constrained to express the opinion, that a still more natural classification of minerals might be formed ; and that the distinctions of being soluble, or earthy, or metallic, or inflammable, would be proper types for four classes in which all minerals might natorally be arranged.
CHAPTER IV.
OEOLOOT.
Geoloot is that branch of Idiophysics, or Natural History, which treats of the structure of the earth, and the masses which compose it; and of the changes, both organic and inorganic, which it has hitherto undergone, or to which it is still exposed. The name is de- rived from the Greek, yij, the earth ; and xoyo^, a discourse : and this branch has also been termed Geognosy^ from another Greek word signifying knowledge, or science. As It is impossible to understand the structure of mountain masses and rocks, without knowing the simple minerals which compose them, the study of Geology evi- dently presupposes and depends upon a knowledge of mineralogy. As it includes the study of organic remains, or fossil plants and animals, the study of which has received the name of Paleontology, its connection with the other natural sciences will be distinctly per- ceived ; and the more so, the farther we advance in its attainment. While its practical importance, in the arts of Agriculture, Mining, and Engineering, is generally recognized, it ranks with Archaeology in its recondite researches, and with Astronomy in the sublimity of its themes and results, as one of the most profound and interesting of the sciences.
Among the ancient philosophers, Thales believed that the earth was of aqueous origin ; an idea probably derived from the Egyptian priests : while Zeno maintained that it was produced by the action of Are. In modern times, Agricola of Saxony, and Bernard de Palissy in France, were among the first to promulgate rational views of the formation of minerals. Leonardo da Vinci, about A. D. 1 500, observing the shells of the Appenines, boldly maintained that those mountains were formerly covered by the sea; an opinion which thenceforward found advocates, and elicited new researches. The idea of geological maps, appears to have originated with Dr. Lister, in 1683 ; and the first notice that rocks and earths occur in regular strata is attributed to Mr. Woodward ; who founded a geological museum, as early as 1605. The division of rocks into primary, and secondary, was first made by Lehman of Germany, in 1756, and eonfirmed by Arduino, in 1759 : and a more minute classifi cation was introduced by Werner. The importance of the study of fossils,
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in geological classifications, was first brought into view by Mr. Smith of England, about the year 1793 : but it was more fully appreciated in the great work of Cuvier and Brongniart, on the Environs of Paris, published in 1811; and further illustrated in Cuvier*8 work on Fossil Bones, in the following year.
The aqueous, or Neptunian theory j of Thales, was revived, in 1740, by De Mailiet of France, in a work entitled Teliiamed: and this opinion was adopted by Linnsus, and Werner. Werner carried this theory so far as to maintain that all superficial or superincumbent rocks were formed by deposition in water : but the opposite, or Vul' canian theory^ that basaltic and trap rocks, though lying on the earth^s surface, are of igneous origin, having been cooled from a melted state, was revived by Hutton, about the year 1785 ; and afterwards maintained by Playfair; and finally admitted by all parties to be correct. The theories published by Burnet in 1681, and by Whiston in 1722, were merely crude speculations.
Leibnitz and Buflbn maintained that the earth was originally in a state of igneous fusion ; and that its whole interior is still in a melted state, owing to the intense central heat. Mr. Lyell, has discarded the doctrine of central heat, in his Principles of Geology, published in 1830, in which he attempts to explain the former changes of tlie earth's surface, by causes now in action : a doctrine which, in a qua- lified sense, may doubtless be true. Dolomieu was one of tlie first geologists who studied carefully the nature of active volcanoes ; and new light was thrown on this subject by the researches of Hum- boldt in Central America, 1799-1804. Saussure, in his travels, made many important geological observations ; as did also Professor Pallas, who examined the minerals and fossils of Russia and Siberia. The geology of Great Britain has been extensively illustrated by the labors of Jameson, Conybeare, Phillips, Sedgwick, Buckland, Mur- chison, De la Beche, and others already named ; as that of France by Brochant de Villiers, Elie de Beaumont, Dufr^noy, and others. Our own country is at present the theatre of extensive geological explorations, by zealous and competent observers ; but we have only room to cite the names of Maclure, Silliman, and Eaton, as pioneers of American geology ; and of Prof. Hitchcock, Dr. G. T. Jackson, Professors H. D. and W. B. Rogers, and W. W. Mather Esq., as gentlemen charged with important geological state-surveys.
We proceed to give an outline of this science, under the heads of Introductory, Systematic, Descriptive, and Physical Geology.
§ 1. Under the head of Introductory Geology^ belongs a descrip- tion of the difierent rocks which compose our globe, so far as they are accessible to examination. The term rock^ is applied by geolo- gists, not only to the hard masses usually so called, but also to the various soft or pulverulent substances, derived from the former, by disintegration, or pulverization, and commonly called earths. The hard rocks, are either simple minerals^ such as are studied under Mineralogy ; or composed of two or more simple minerals, united by aggregation. Among the minerals which occur in large masses, and hence may be called simple rocks^ are quartz, feldspar, hornblende, serpentine, gypsum, and limestone, or marble.
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Of composite rocks, granite is an aggregate of qnartz, feldspar, and mica ; with which hornblende is sometimes intermingled ; but it 18 then more properly called sienitic granite. The name 8ienite, is applied to an aggregate of feldspar and hornblende, sometimes mingled with quartz ; and when fine grained, and of a greenish color it has also been termed greenstone. Frotogine, is a granite in which the mica is replaced by talc, steatite, or chlorite; rendering it softer. When feldspar is found intermingled with augite, hypersthene, or diallage, the rock thence resulting is named from one of the latter three minerals : and diallage rock is often found associated with ser- pentine. Gneiss differs from the preceding granitic rocks only in being stratified, or found in layers ; and mica slate^ difiers from gneiss chiefiy in being stratified in thinner layers, caused by the mica being diflused in parallel directions through the quartz.
The name of trap, or trappean rocks, is applied to those which contain a considerable portion of feldspar, hornblende, or augite, and are supposed to have been ejected from the interior of the earth in a melted state. Indeed, the trappean rocks pass by insensible grada- tions, on the one hand into granite and gneiss, and on the other into basalt, and similar rocks of known volcanic origin. Basalt, is now considered as a trappean rock; analogous to greenstone, or augite rock, in its composition : and wacke is a softer kind of basalt. Por- phyry, is an aggregate of large crystals, usually of feldspar, imbedded m a cement or basis of feldspar, or some allied mineral. Graywacke, is an aggregate of various small mineral fragments, angular, flat, or rounded, united by a silicious cement ; and conglomerate or pudding- stone, is an aggregate of larger pebbles, or boulders, united by a silicious, argillaceous, or ferruginous cement. Amygdaloid, is a rock usually of basalt, wacke, or greenstone, in which are vesicular cavities, more or less filled up with various minerals, apparently formed there by infiltration. Breccia, is an aggregate of angular fragments, of one or more minerals, united by some cement. Sand- stone, is chiefly composed of grains of quartz, united by a cement, which may be calcareous, argillaceous, or silicious, and is often colored red by the oxide of iron. Jlrgillite, or clay slate, consists of indurated clay, often interspersed with particles of other minerals ; and passing, by imperceptible gradations, into silicious slate, contain- ing a large portion of silex, or sand.
§ 2. Under the head of Systematic Geology, we would comprise a general analysis of the structure of the earth ; reserving for Descrip- tive Geology, the application of this analysis, to the description of the Tarious countries and regions which have yet been explored. The study of Palseontology, so far as it relates to the characters of ancient plants and animals, belongs to the branches of Botany and Zoology ; but in so far as it examines what particular species are found in par- ticular strata or formations, we would include it in the present section. On penetrating deeply into the earth, at various contiguous places, we find its mass to be composed of numerous strata, or layers, usu- ally nearly horizontal, though sometimes much inclined. The strata which are inclined, are said to dip$ and the direction in which they descend most rapidly, is called the direction of the dip. When, from
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m certain ridge, the stnta dip or decline in oppoeile directions, that ridge is called an aniiclinai line or axiv : and when the strau decline, on both sides, towards a line of meeting, this latter is called a syne/t- nal line or axis. Strata which are twisted, or bent, are said lo be contorted : and they are said to be amfortnable^ when their surfaces are nearly parallel ; but uneonformahle^ when this is not the case.
When the strata present their edges so as to be risible at the sor- face, they are said to crop out : and when their outcrop is abrupt or precipitous, it is called an escarpment, Deteched portions of strata, which remain elevated, while the surrounding parts have been re- moved, are called outliers. A stratum of small extent, is called a bedf and a very thin stratum is sometimes called a seam. When the strata have been apparently broken across, and those on one side raised above those on the other, so as to break the continuity, this break is called a fault. When some volcanic or other matter has been injected into the break, so as to form a wall or partition crossing the strata, this wall is called a dyke ; or, if small, a vein ; such as often contain metallic ores. A series of rocks supposed to have been produced at about the same time, is called a formation.
The lowest rocks which have been examined by geologists, are found to contain no organic remains, and no coal nor salt : but they bear the marks of igneous origin, and are supposed to have crystallized in cooling from a melted state, before the higher strata were formed, or any animals existed. Hence they have been called primary rocks ; including granite, sienite, and similar rocks, which are the lowest, and unstratified ; and gneiss, mica slate, and primary lime- stone or marble, which are all stratified, and crystalline, when they belong to this formation. These rocks extend beneath the lowest valleys ; but protrude above them, and form the masses and tops of the highest mountains ; towards which the strata incline upwards, as if the mountains were upraised by a subterranean force. Talcose and chloritic slates, and quartz rock, occupy extensive areas of the earth's surface ; but their crystallization is less distinct than in those before mentioned ; and these rocks are, in many places metamorphiCf or more or less altered by heat, from injected igneous rocks, as trap dykes, or granite, sienite, and quartz veins.
The rocks next above the primary, have been called transition rocks; including the Cambrian and Silurian systems: and they contain occasional shells, as the ammonite, (Plate IX. Fig. 1.), the beleronite, (Fig. 2.),* the orthoceratite, (Fig. 8.), and the trilobite, (Fig. 4.) ; some fishes, as the orodus, of the shark family, (Fig. 5.) ; with some zoophytes, marine plants, algs, and ferns, but no organic remains, of a higher class, and but slight traces of coal or salt. They include argilUte or clay slate, gray wacke, granular limestone, gypsum, and sometimes granite: but the granite, and similar rocks, which occasionally overlie the slate or limestone, were probably ejected from below, and deposited, like lava from volcanoes, long after the primary formations. Transition strata often extend up the sides of primary mountains; and sometimes constitute extensive mountain
* The belemnite appears to have been the internal shell or skeleton of an animal fesembling the cutUe-fisb, hence called, by Buckland, the beiemnosepia.
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ranges. We may here remark that the animals delineated in Plata IX. ; several of them restorations from the skeletons, are ail of genera which are now extinct.
Next above the transition strata, are the secondary rocks ; which include numerous organic remains, and comprise the principal beds of coal and salt ; hence giving rise to salt springs* The organic re- mains in the lower secondary rocks, including the old red sandstone, carboniferous limestone, and coal formations, are chiefly vegetable ; and were doubtless buried there, for the most part, by the gradual accumulation of earthy materials. It is now very generally admitted that all mineral coal, both anthracite and bituminous, was produced from vegetable matter, deposited in beds, perhaps, of former lakes, and afterwards subjected to subterranean heat. The coal measures^ containing beds or seams of coal, consist chiefly of sandstone, and slate or shale, with ironstone, or ore ; but sometimes of limestone. Above the coal formations, are the new red sandstone and magnesian limestone ; the former sometimes associated with rock salt, or gyp- sum : next come the lias and oolite, both composed of alternating strata of clays and limestones, with some slates ; the former named from its being in layers; the latter, from its containing rounded granules, like eggs: and highest among the secondary rocks are compact formations of clay, sand, and chalk, including the Weald clay, and green sand of England, containing numerous organic remains. The lower secondary rocks contain rare remains of vertebrated fishes, as the cephalaspis, (Plate IX. Fig. 6.) ; and some reptiles, as scorpi- ons ; but chiefly shells and plants. In the new red sandstone, are found the palaeoniscus, (Fig. 7.), the plesiosaurus, (Fig. 8.), the ichthyosaurus, (Fig. 9.), and the pterodactylus, (Fig. 10.) ; besides some slight traces of quadrupeds and birds. In the Wealden rocks. Dr. Mantell found the remains of the iguanodon, (Fig. 11.), which in some specimens was nearly 70 feet long. The secondary rocks are often broken through, and overlaid, by unconformable masses of basalt : and, in a few instances, porphyry, and even granite, appear to have been thrown up like lava, through fissures from below.
Next above the secondary, are generally found tertiary^ rocks, con- sisting of various deposites, of soft sandstone, limestone, gypsum, sand, clay, and marl ; which last is chiefly a mixture #f clay and car- bonate of lime. These strata were apparently formed in bays, or lakes, and hence are of limited extent. The lower series contain numerous marine shells ; while some of the upper contain, in a few localities, fresh- water shells, and the bones of quadrupeds and birds, often of extinct species ; and these sometimes alternate with strata of marine formation. Here we find the remains of the anoplotherium, (PI. IX. Fig. 12.), the paleeotherium, (Fig. 13.), the dinotherum, (Fig. H.), the megatherium, or megalonyx, (p. 379.), and the mastodon, or mammoth, (Fig. 16.), all of which races are now extinct. Above the tertiary formations, we find strata of gravel, sand, clay, and shells, mingled with large boulders, or rounded masses of rock, which have evidently been transported from their original position, directly or in- directly by the action of water. These strata have hence been called diluvial; and they contain remains of the animals last named as well
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as of the elephant, rhinoceros, and numerous other genera, such as now exist. Lastly, the deposites formed by the wash of rivers, the action of currents, the labors of coral animals, and similar causes, are called alluvial f and of course contain numerous remains, chiefly of animals and plants still living.
$ 3. Under the head of Physical Geology^ we are to treat of the causes which have been, or now are in operation, pro<Iucing changes in the structure, or aspect of the globe. These may all, it is be- lieved, be referred to the action of wind, water, heat, or organic life. The wind, by transporting sand, forming hills, and burying cities or forests, becomes a geological agent worthy of notice. The action of watefj requires to be studied both on the land, and in the ocean. On the land, it has an abrasive action, wearing away the solid earth, and transporting it to some lower region, or to the sea. This action is increased by the effect of frost ; as the freezing of water in porous rocks, by i«s expansion, causes them to crack or scale off, and thus assists in their disintegration. The earth, on mountain sides, be- coming soft by thawing, is then more easily carried away by torrents ; forming avalanches, or slides of earth, like those of ice. Rocks are also corroded by vegetation ; and this partly by the action of acids, produced from the mosses or lichens which cover them.
By such means, the loose superficial earth b believed to have been derived from solid rocks : and the detritus, carried away by streams, is still forming alluvial land ; especially in the deltas f or islands and shoals, at the mouths of rivers ; which are continusdly encroaching upon the sea. Islands may also be formed by deposition, from cur- rents in the ocean ; or by coral animals, shells, or submarine plants ; and in some instances by subterranean forces, as in modern volcanoes, raising the bed of the ocean above the level of its surface. If this were done upon an extensive scale, it would account for the existence of marine shells in elevated positions ; and the currents which such upheaving would produce, may account for the boulders, or rounded rocks, which we find scattered over the land, dragged from their pri- mitive beds, and leaving stratches on the rocks over which they have passed ; while beds of gravel and sand were deposited in the eddies.
The cause adequate to produce such a rise of the bed of the ocean, roust be sought in the internal fires of the earth ; whose existence is proved by more than two hundred volcanoes, still burning, as well as by the numerous hot springs, in various parts of the globe. An- other proof is found in the fact, that the earth grows warmer, as we descend in caves or mines, at the rate of 1^ Fahrenheit, for every 50 feet, nearly ; commencing with the average temperature not far below the surface. At this rate of increase, the earth, at the depth of ten miles, would be at a red heat ; at the depth of twenty miles it would be at a white heat ; and at a depth of fifty miles, the hardest rocks would be in a liquid state, like melted iron or lava. Nor is this statement incredible, when we consider how cool may be the exterior of a large furnace, while the iron is melting within it. The tempera- ture of the bottom of the ocean, is probably, nearly that of its sur- face ; while, beneath it, the heat may increase according to the ratio above given.
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The facts here stated, have led many geologists to believe that the earth was once completely melted with fervent heat ; and has been gradually cooling for ages, since elephants lived in Siberia : and that the whole of the interior is still in a melted state ; the central heat still remaining, while the exterior has nearly reached its limit of cool- ing; since no change has been recorded within the period of authentic history. Others deny the doctrine of central heat, and attribute the volcanic fires, which they suppose to be of limited extent, to chemical action, such as the burning of the alkaline metals, by contact, per- haps, with water from the sea. According to this theory, the com- bustion should penetrate deeper and deeper : and this refers us back to a period when the earth's surface might have been heated by ex- ternd fires. Either of these theories may account for the formation of crystalline rocks, by heat and pressure ; as it has been proved by experiment, that such materials may be crystallized by these causes^ Either of these theories will also aid in explaining the action of earth- quakes, and volcanoes ; the generation and confinement of gases causing the former, till the gaseous matter finds vent in the latter, or rends new fissures, to make its escape. But farther investigations are yet required, to complete the theory of Geology, and to reconcile all the facts hitherto collected. We can only add, that the book of nature and the book of revelation will, doubUess, when fully under- stood, be found to agree entirely ; both being the work of the same infinitely wise and omnipotent Author.
$ 4. As a specimen of Descriptive Geology ^ we have only room to give a general idea of the structure of our own country ; which presents a rich field of geological investigation. It should here be understood that countries are named geologically from the strata which appear on their surface ; though other formations may exist beneath. The greater part of New England, including the White and Green mountains, i» of the primary formation; consisting chiefly of granitic rocks. Rhode Island, and a narrow belt to the north of it, are of the tran- sition formation, but contain traces of coal ; and the red sandstone of the Connecticut river, belongs to the secondary. The Highlands of New York, and the Blue Ridge in Virginia, are primary moun- tains ; but the GatskiU, and Alleghany range, are transition : and between these two chains lies the Great valley^ chiefly of the se- condary formation. The coal regions of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Ohio are chiefly transition and secondary ; and this latter forma- tion prevails in New York and the Western States. Coal is found not only in eastern Ohio, but in northern Michigan, western Illinois, on the Wabash and Green rivers, and west of the Arkansas. The coast of the United States, from Long Island southward to Florida* and westward to Louisiana, is alluvial ; widening towards the south. Back of this, is a belt of the tertiary formation, rich in fossil shells ; and still farther back, is an upper secondary, or cretaceous formation, extending nearly to the foot of the primary mountains already re- ferred to.
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Xn. DEPARTMENT:
ANDROPHYSICS.
In the department of Androphysics, we include the study of the structure and functions of the human body ; the diseases and acci- dents to which it is exposed ; and the remedies for these, so far as they have been discovered. The name is derived from the Greek a«^p, a man, and fv<si,i, nature ; and it may be regarded as synonymous with the appellation of Medicine, or the Medical Sciences, derived from the Latin medico, I cure ; by which names this group is often referred to. In our own language, the word physician, has a relation to these sciences alone : whereas the French word phyncien, is ap- plied, as we have already intimated, only to the natural philosopher. The study of this department, presupposes a general knowledge of Natural Philosophy, and a thorough knowledge of Chemistry ; on which many of its reasonings, and still more of its practical applica- tions depend.
The study of Medicine is often ranked as an uncertain science ; in contradistinction from the mathematical and acrophysical, which have received the appellation of the exact sciences. In this respect, medicine stands on a somewhat peculiar basis : for not only are its principles, derived as they must be from extensive induction, liable to be called in question ; but the problems which it presents, are so complicated and embarrassed, that even when its principles are correct, there may still be an uncertainty in making their application. Grant- ing that a given remedy is efficacious in a certain stage of a certain disease, it may nevertheless be difficult to identify the disease, and especially to determine the precise stage at which the remedy should be applied. These last remarks relate to medicine considered as an art, rather than as a science : for many of the facts and principles of Anatomy, Physiology, and even of Medicine proper, are as firmly established as any truths in the whole wide range of knowledge ; though others are less certain, or still on trial : and, after all, the in- herent difficulty of rightly applying them is the greatest source of error ; one which we fear can never be wholly removed.
On the importance of the Medical profession ; the rewards which await its successful votaries ; and the responsibility which it imposes, in cases where the slightest error may prove fatal to the confiding patient ; on these themes, we need not here expatiate. But we feel bound to remark, that the physician who has studied the microcosm, or little world, of the human frame, without realizing that it is the work of a Divine Architect, can hardly possess those reasoning facul- ties, which alone can merit success in this profession, or ensure a proper use of it when attained. The last branches of Androphysics, are among the ultimate sciences ; subsidizing others, but subsidiary to
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none : and it thus ranks in the physical world, with Theology in the intellectual ; as alike aiming to meliorate the condition of the human race. To the pious Physician, alone, it belongs, to unite these noble aims ; by caring for the eternal welfare of those whose health he attempts to restore; and referring them to the great Physician of souls, for the cure of diseases far more fatal than any which his skill can remove.
The principle of life, and the connection of the soul and body, are among the greatest mysteries of nature ; such as man, in his finite state, probably can never completely fathom. Hippocrates attributed animal warmth to a material fire, residing in the left ventricle of the heart, and moderated by the inhalation of the air ; but the mind he regarded as an ethereal fire, immortal, and intelligent, acting on the body by means of certain faculties or powers. Plato regarded the spinal marrow as the bond of union between the soul and body : and he believed in three vital principles, residing respectively in the head, the heart, and the liver, or stomach. Galen modified this idea, and imagined the existence of three spirits, or faculties ; the animal^ residing in the brain, the source of sensation and motion ; the vitalf residing in the heart, the source of warmth and vitality ; and the natural, residing in the liver or stomach, the source of nutrition and growth.
Id modern times. Van Helmont gave the name of archeus, or the chief, and Boerhaave, that of impetumfadenSf or the active energy, to the great principle of life ; but without throwing any new light upon the subject. Glisson, in his work on the *' Life of Nature and of its three first faculties, the perceptive, appetitive, and motive," published in 1672, first ascribed to the fibres of the animal body a peculiar power which he called irritability. This he divided into three kinds, natural, vital, and animal ; pointing out the differences in different organs. The idea of a nervous fluid, as the exciting cause of muscular action, has always been a prominent one ; the ancients comparing it to air ; the alchemists to an acid ; while New- ton suggested that it might be ethereal; an opinion which was adopted by Haller and Cuvier. But although an ethereal medium, which 10 very probably a galvanic current, may be the intermediate agent in producing muscular motion ; still the mind, or soul, the power which controls this mechanism, is led as inexplicable as ever. The mechanism itself may yet be farther elucidated by new discoveries ; but the presiding spirit, must, we apprehend, be loosed from its earthly bondage, before it can turn and perceive the chains which bound it.
In distributing the medical sciences under their appropriate branches, we incline strongly to the opinion that Anatomy and Physiology, from their close relations, the one treating of the mechanism of the body, and the other of its uses, should both be included in one and the same branch ; for which we would propose the name Andro* nomy ; a name which, we trust, will often be found convenient to designate these subjects connectedly; with the greatest possible brevity. Pharmacy, Materia Medica, and Therapeutics, in so far as they relate to the preparation and properties of medicines, we would
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include in one branch, under the name of Pharmacology. The study of diseases, and their proper remedies, forms another extensive branch, usually known as the Practice of Medicine, or medicine proper, for which we would propose the name Thereology. And lastly, for Surgery, and other kindred subjects which cannot properly appear in a general classification, we would revive the term Chinirgery; as admitting of this extended signification. The subject of Medical Juriaprudencef being an application of the various principles of Androphysics to legal cases, of murder, suicide, wounds, or personal injuries, may be considered as an appendix to this department, rather than a distinct branch of it.
We proceed then, to give a synopsis of Androphysics, under the branches of Andronomy, Pharmacology, Thereology, and Chinirgery.
CHAPTER I.
ANDRONOMY.
In the branch of Andronomy, we comprehend the study of the numan frame, in a healthy state ; or the structure and functions of its various organs, and the means by which they have been made known. The name is derived from the Greek, ai^p, a roan, and pofAOij a law ; hence signifying the laws of the human body, as Zoonomy does those of animals in general, and Phytonomy those of plants. Anatomy, so named from the Greek avattfiyta, I dissect, or cut in pieces, relates to the structure of the body, or its organi- zation ; while Phynology, relates to the functions of the diflTerent organs, or their uses in supporting animal life : and both are included in the present branch, Andronomy. Human Anatomy and Physi- ology, have been greatly illustrated by the study of Zoonomy, or Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, which names have been applied to the similar study of the various animal races. The study of Andronomy is evidently indispensable to the physician and surgeon; and of high importance to the sculptor and painter : while all classes of men may profit by a knowledge of its general principles, in preserving or improving their health.
The earliest knowledge of Anatomy, probably originated in the casual exposure of skeletons, and the inspection of wounds, or diseased parts of the body. Great knowledge of this science has been attributed to the Egyptian, Thoth, called by the Greeks, Hermes ; (p. 26) ; but as the Egyptians held in abhorrence those who dissected the human body, or even who practised embalming, their knowledge on this subject must have been very limited. In Greece, Democritus of Abdera, devoted much time to the dissection of animals; and perhaps did more for this branch than Hippocrates, his great contemporary. Plato theorized on Andronomy ; but Aristo- tle wrote practical treatises on it, of real value, though frequently erroneous. Hippocrates spoke of the muscles merely as fiesh : and confounded the nerves with the ligaments and tendons : but Aristotle
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confounded the nerves with the mascles ; in saying that the nerves originate in the heart
Anatomy was cultivated in Egypt, under the Ptolemies, by Hero- philus and Erasistratus, the two earliest physicians who are recorded as having dissected human bodies. The former first taught osteo- logy from the human skeleton ; and traced the nerves from the brain and spinal marrow : and the latter first asserted that digestion is per- formed by the action of the stomach ; regarding the nerves as the primary organs of sense and of motion. At length, Galen, who had been educated at Alexandria, collected the andronomical knowledge of his predecessors, in a text book, which was adopted by all civil- ized nations down to modern times ; and especially by the Arabians, whose religion prohibited dissection, and made them depend on other sources for a knowledge of the human frame. Galen held the liver to be the origin of the veins ; and the heart, of the arteries : but he has the merit of giving prominence to the doctrine oi final causes; insisting that every organ must have its appropriate functions :^-« principle which has perhaps been of greater service to Andronomy than to any other science.
In modern times, the practice of Anatomy was revived by Mon- dini, or Mundinus, who first made public dissections, at Bologna, in 1315; and who published a regular treatise on this science: but a far better work was produced by Vesalius, about 1550, founded on his own observations. The anatomy of the ear, was soon after investigated by Fallopius and Eustachius ; and that of the eye, by Meibomius. Meanwhile, Servetus, who was burnt as a heretic, at Geneva, in 1553, had noticed the smaller circulation of the blood* between the heart and lungs : and Csesalpinus inferred a motion of the blood in the veins, from their swelling on the application of a ligature. Silvius discovered valves in the veins, and Fabricius Aquapendente noticed that they were all turned towards the heart ; but the great discovery of the general circulation of the blood, from the heart, through the arteries, and back to the heart through the veins, was first ms^e by Harvey, in 1619 ; and published in 1628.
The lacteal vessels had been noticed by Eristratus, in ancient times; but they were rediscovered by Asellius, in 1622; and their use in conveying chyle into the blood, was ascertained by Pecquet, in 1651. The lymphatic vessels, were first noticed by Rudbeck, of Sweden ; and their valves by Ruysch, of Holland : their use being to absorb superfluous fluids from various parts, and return the same to the blood. The injection of small blood vessels for dissection, first practised by Silvius, was greatly improved by Swammerdam ; who, in 1672, used melted wax for this purpose; which, hardening as it cools, gives an exact cast of the vessels injected. Borelli was the first to show that the muscles, which in the dead body have but little strength, are capable, in the living animal, of sustaining an enormous tension ; acting, as many of them do, at a great disadvan- tage, in producing force or motion. The gastric juice of the stomach was first noticed and examined by Boyle, and Ray : and Mayow first promulgated accurate ideas concerning the nature of respiration. Haller studied and wrote very extensively on Andronomy ; and he
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was the first who treated Physiology as a distinct science ; though his work involves all the elements of Anatomy. Haller maintained the doctrine of animal irritability, proposed by Glisson; and re- carded it as a power distinct from sensation. The nomenclature of descriptive anatomy was improved by Dr. Barclay, in 1803 ; parti- cularly by the introduction of terms for describing more precisely the relative positions of the parts and organs. More recently, Bichat has proposed an excellent classification of organic structures ; and has made the important distinction of a cerebral, and a ganglionic sys- tem of the nerves. To Sir Charies Bell, and Mr. Mayo, we are in- debted, for the discovery that the nerves are of two distinct classes, one for the exercise of volition, and the other for sensation : — a dis- covery which has been termed the greatest, in this branch of know- ledge, since the time of Harvey.
General Anatomy y is that division of Andronomy which treats of the difierent kind's of structure, found in the human body, as re- gards the mode of organization. These structures^ or systems, are, according to Bichat, the osstous^ or bony, constituting the bones ; the cartilaginous y composing the cartilage, or gristle of the joints ; the fibrous y forming the ligaments of the joints, and the coverings of the kidneys, and other organs ; the muscular, found in the mus- cles ; the vascular, in the heart, arteries, and veins ; the nervous, in the nerves ; the mucous, forming the inner lining of the nose, wind- pipe, and other parts ; the serous, enveloping the stomach, lungs, and other organs ; the glandular, occurring in small rounded organs of secretion ; the adipose, or fatty, forming the inner covering ; and the cellular, forming the outer covering, of the kidneys, and other or- gans ; and the dermoid structure, occurring in the skin. The study of the particular parts and organs of the human body, has been termed. Special Anatomy; and this, with the corresponding parts of Physiology, will constitute the remainder of the present branch, under the commonly received divisions of Osteology, Myology, Neu- rology, Angiology, and Splanchnology.
$ 1. Osteology, is that division of Anatomy which treats of the bones ; their structure, shape, number, and position. Bones, are of a porous structure ; the hard part consisting chiefly of carbonate and phosphate of lime ; but the pores being filled with vessels and fluids, which supply the materials for their growth. When fully developed, in the human body, they are about 250 in numbef ; and collectively they form the framework which supports the body, called, in tech- nical language, the skeleton. The skeleton is generally divided into the head, trunk, and extremities. In the head, the cranium, or skull, is composed of eight bones, united by serrated joints, or sutures, the upper front bone being called the sinciput, and the hinder bone the occiput. The face, has fourteen bones, besides Airty-two teeth ; the incisors, or cutting teeth being in front, four in each jaw; the canine, or cuspid teeth next; the bicuspid, or small molars, next to these ; and the molars, or grinding teeth, com- pleting the series, on each side. Eight small bones of the ears, might be added to the above enumeration.
The trunk, of the skeleton, is composed of the vertebrae, the ribs.
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the sternum, snd the ossa innominata. The vertebrm, or jointa, which together form the vertebral column, called the spine, or back bone, are twenty-four hi number. The ribs 9 extending jfrom the spine around the sides, are tweWe in number on each side ; of which the upper seven are called true ribs $ and the others, being shorter, are called false ribs. The sternum, or breast bone, generally con- sisting of three pieces, extends vertically along the breast; and is connected by cartilages, with the ribs on eaeh side. The ossa innth minata, are the hip-bones ; between which is the sacrum, a bone supporting the spine, and terminated by the coccyx, of a conical form.
The upper, or atlantal extremities, consist of the clavicula, or collar bone, in front, serving to brace back the scapula, or shoulder blade ; which latter supports the os hunieri, or bone of the upper arm ; and to this are attached the two bones of the lower arm, the radius and ulna; the former being on the side towards the thumb. Eight bones of the carpus, or wrist; five of the metacarpus, or palm of the hand ; twelve bones of the fingers ; and two of the thumb ; complete the list of bones in the upper extremities ; thirty- two on each side. The lower or sacral extremities, consist of the OS femoris, or thigh bone ; the patella, or knee pan ; the tibia, or large bone of the leg ; the fibula, or small hinder bone of the leg ; the OS calcis, or heel bone ; and six other bones of the tarsus, or instep ; five bones of the metatarsus, or body of the foot ; and four- teen bones of the toes ; making in all, thirty bones on each side. The bones are covered with a firm membrane, called the periosteum; which receives, where it invests the skull, the name 0^ pericranium: and the joints are lined with cartilage or gristle, to prevent their wearing. They are kept together by strong fibrous ligaments, the study of which is termed Syndesmology ; but of which we have here no room to treat.
$ 2. Myology, is that division of Anatomy which treats of the muscles. These organs are almost entirely composed of fibres, usually of a red color, and placed side by side, but sometimes of considerable thickness ; as shown in the lean part of animal flesh. They are the immediate agents, by means of which all animal motion is produced, whether of mere vitality or of volition. They act, in every case, by contraction ; whether to expel the blood from the heart, or to move a limb: and this contraction, produced probably by the galvanic action of the nerves, is one of the mysteries of animal life. If the brain is compressed, the power of contracting the mus- cles, by volition, ceases ; and life soon becomes extinct. The mus- cles constitute the fleshy part of the body ; and sometimes cross over each other, or interlace ; while, at other times, they pass through loops, like a cord over a pulley, in order to produce the requisite motion. Those which move the limbs, are attached to the bones, mostly near the joints, by means of tendons or sinews ; and those on opposite sides often counterbalance each other's effects.
The muscles are classed according to the region of the body which they occupy ; and they are about 527 in number; of which 267 are in pairs, and on opposite sides of the body. To describe
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them, would far transcend our limits ; but we may observe that they are mostly named from the organs to which they belong, and the kind of motion which they are intended to produce ; or from their struc- ture, or position. Thus, those which cause the bending of the limbs, are called flexor s^ as the flexor carpi radialis, serving to bend the wrist and fore arm ; while those which act to straighten the limb by their contraction, are called extensors, as the extensor carpi ulna- ris, on the outer or upper side of the fore arm, serving to bend the hand backward. Thus too, we have the levator menti, or muscle which, by contracting, raises the chin ; the orbicularis oris, serving to contract the mouth ; and the rectus superior, which, by contracting, raises the eye.
$ 3. Neurology t is that division of Anatomy which treats of the nerves, and the nervous system ; including the organs of sensation ; among which are the eye and the ear. The nervous system, con- sists of the brain ; the spinal marrow ; the nerves ; and Uie nervous ganglia. The brain, situated withiu the skull, is regarded as the immediate seat of the intellect ; or the organ by means of which we perceive, feel, reason, and will. It is a soft, pulpy substance, and consists of the cerebrum, made up of convolutions or folds, occupy- ing the whole upper part of the skull ; the cerebellum, or smaller brain, occupying the lower and back part; the pons Variolii con- necting the preceding, at the centre of the brain ; and the medulla oblongata, or oblong marrow, extending from the pons Variolii down to the spinal marrow. These parts together are enveloped by mem- branes, and are sometimes called the common sensorium, considered as the seat of sensation and volition. The medulla spinalis, or spi- nal marrow, is a continuation of the medulla oblongata, extending down the interior of the spine, and terminating in a complex nerve called Cauda equina.
The nerves, are white cords, usually consisting of bunches of filaments, often interweaving with each other, and connected by cellu- lar tissue. All the cerebral and spinal nerves, are connected with the brain, either directly, or by means of the spinal marrow : and they are found to consist of two classes ; nerves of sensation, by which the mind perceives or feels ; and nerves of volition, which are con- nected with the muscles, and serve to produce motion : but these two kinds are generally associated, forming compound nerves. They usually proceed in pairs, branching as they diverge, towards the extremities of the body : those designed to produce motion being usually the largest. There are twelve pairs of cerebral nerves, pro- ceeding directly from the brain, and chiefly distributed ever the head; and thirty pairs of spinal nerves, proceeding from the spinal marrow to the various parts of the body.
The ganglionic system consists of ganglia, or knots, in which several nerves unite, forming what some anatomists have termed ** diminutive brains** : but although these ganglia have a connexion with the nerves proceeding from the brain, and may produce sen- sation, they are more or less independent of volition, and hence may be called nerves of instinctive action : their use being to cause those muscular motions, of digestion, respiration, and circulation, which
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are necesa try to the preservation of life, in sleep as well as in a con- scious state. The ganglionic system, is, in fact, a collection of fila- ments, from every nerve in the body, meeting in the ganglia, and causing every part of the system to be affected by, or sympathize with, every other part ; while the mind takes cognizance of the state of the body, or is prompted to action, by the sensations thus ex- perienced. Hence the gangliouic system has been termed the great sympalhetie nerve.
Of the eye^ as the organ of sight, we have already spoken in treat- ing of Optics, (p. 361). The internal ear^ is hollowed out from the side of the skull ; and the membrane of the tympanum, is stretched over the passage leading to this cavity ; within which are four small bones, serving to transmit the vibrations of the air, from the mem- brane to the labyrinth^ or innermost spiral chamber, whence the auditory nerve conveys the impression to the brain. The sense of smelling^ depends on the olfactory nerves ; that of tasting, on the nerves of the tongue, terminating in small papillae or pointed protu- berances; and the sense o^ feeling, is produced by nervous papillas extending nearly to the surface of the skin. The akin, consists of the cuticle, epidermis, or scarf skin, on the exterior; the rete mucO' sum, in which the nerves terminate, and which gives the color or complexion ; and the dermis, or true skin, which is thicker than the other layers, and is connected with the cellular membrane covering the muscles of the body.
5 4. Angiology, is that division of Anatomy which treats of the vessels, of the human body ; that is the blood vessels, lacteals, and absorbents. The blood vessels, are the heart, arteries, and veins ; with which the lungs are so closely connected, that we shall here describe them together. The heart and lungs occupy the thorax, or chest ; and are separated from the lower viscera by a membranous partition, called the diaphragm. The heart, formed by thick and strong muscular coatings, contains two cavities, called the right, and the left ventricle, acting as forcing pumps; below which are two other cavities, called the right and left auricle, of inferior strength. The blood, whose use is to nourish the body, is collected from all parts of the same, by the veins, and enters through the superior and the inferior vena cava, into the right auricle of the heart. From this it passes into the right ventricle, through an aperture with a valve, which does not allow it to return. This ventricle, then con- tracting, drives the blood, through the pulmonary artery, into the lungs ; whence, after being acted upon by the air, it proceeds, through the pulmonary veins, into the left auricle, aud from thence into the leA ventricle of the heart, which also has a valve to prevent its turning back, in its course. This ventricle, then contracting, acts as another forcing pump, to drive out the blood, through the aorta, or systemic artery, and its numerous branches, to every part of the system.
Thus, by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the ventricles, the double circulation of the blood is maintained, first through the lungs, and then through the body. The arteries, are more deeply seated than the veins ; as any accident rupturing them would be more suddenly fatal : for the external veins, receiving the blood through 52 9M
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minute or capillary Tesflels, from the ends of the arteries, would dis- charge it more slowly. Nearly 200 arteries, or arterial branches, have received distinct names ; and the veins are probably equally numerous. The lungSt called in brutes the lights, are two in num- ber, and occupy the greater part of the thorax, or upper cavity : the left lung consisting of two iobes or divisions, and the right long consisting of three lobes, as it is the largest. They are composed of membranous cells, which are permeable to gases, but not to the blood ; and which receive the air inhaled by respiration. "Hie blood, is a fluid, consisting of water, fibrin, serum, and various salts ; and receiving its red color from small globules suspended in it, which separate when it coagulates. In the veins, it has a dark color : but after circulating through the lungs, absort>ing oxygen, and giving out carbonic acid, it acquires a rich red color, and is then fitted for giving nourishment, as, by means of the arteries, it pervades the whole ani- mal system. This absorption of oxygen by re»piration, is necessary to animal life ; and its uniting with carbon in the blood is probably one source of vital heat.
The absorbent vessels, are small pellucid tubes, which occur in all parts of the body, and which serve to absorb any superfluous fluids, and convey them back to the blood ; thus relieving the several parts, and contributing to the general nourishment. They are mostly called lymphatic vessels ^ from their containing the lymph or ab- sorbed fluid ; which has a slight rose or yellow color, and which, when extracted, coagulates, like the blood. But those absorbent vessels which convey the chyle from the digested food, and pour it into the blood, are cdled lacteals ; from the milk-like appearance of the chyle ; although they are similar, in structure and office, to the other lymphatics. There are also lymphatic glands^ in which seve- ral of the vessels unite, and thence discharge the lymph by a common reservoir.
% 6. Splanchnology^ is that division of Anatomy which treats of the viscera^ or entrails, occupying the interior parts of the body : but we would here restrict the term to the viscera of the abdomen^ or lower cavity of the body ; excluding the lungs, which have already been described. The stomach, next to the liver, occupies the upper part of the abdomen ; and is a strong muscular vessel, presenting, on its interior surface, small villi, or tubular points, for infusing the gas- tric juice. The masticated food, passing from the mouth into the pharynx, is forced, by muscular action, down the asophagus, or gullet ; and enters Uie stomach, at its left end. It is there mixed with the gastric juice j by the aid of which it is digested, or con- verted into a soft pulpy mass, called chyme. The chyme then passes from the right end of the stomach into the duodenum, where it re- ceives the bile and pancreatic juice ; by the action of which, a liquid, resembling milk, is produced, called chyle s and while travers- ing xhe jejunum and ilium, or small intestines, the chyle is absorbed by the lacteal vessels, and conveyed into the blood.
The name Adenohgy, has been applied to the study of the glands, or organs of secretion : but as several of these belong with the viscera, and with the organs of digestion, we shall here describe
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them under the present section. The salivary glands, are situated behind, and below, the lower jaw ; and their office is to secrete the saliva; which serves to moisten the food, during mastication, and to aid the processes of deglutition, and digestion.
The largest of all the glands is the liver ; which lies immediately beneath the diaphragm, mostly on the right side of the abdomen, and partly covering the stomach. It consists of- three lobes ; and its use is to secrete, or elaborate the bile or gall ; a greenish, bitter fluid, which it forms from the blood, and discharges into the gall-bladder, whence it is conveyed to the chyme in the duodenum. The pancreas, called in brutes the sweetbread, is also a glandular body, situated behind the stomach, and secreting the pancreatic juice} which resembles saliva, and which goes with the bile, to modify the chyme, and assist in the formation of chyle, for the recruiting of the blood. The spleen, or milt, is a sponge-like organ, much smaller than the liver, and situated below the diaphragm, on the back and left side. It contains numerous blood-vessels, and its cells are usually filled with blood ; from which some have supposed it to be a reservoir or safety vessel for the blood ; but others regard it as subservient to digestion, by occasioning an increased secretion of the gastric and pancreatic juices. The kidneys, are small glands, whose office is to secrete or separate superfluous and noxious fluids from the blood, and discharge the same through the ureters into the bladder. If this action be prevented for a long time, as by disease, the result is fatal to the patient.
We have only room remaining to speak of the Voice, which can hardly be studied under any of the preceding divisions of Andronomy. The voice is produced by means of air expelled from the lungs ; though imperfect sounds may also be produced during inhalation. Thus, the lungs serve the double purpose, of respiration, and of articulation, or speech. The air vessels of the lungs, untte» on leaving these viscera, in two tubes called the bronchi, which, ascending, also unite, to form the trachea, or windpipe ; situated in front of the oesophagus, or gullet; which is also in front of, and attached to, the spinal column. The principal organ of the voice, is the larynx, at the upper end of the windpipe, opening into the pharynx, just behind the root of the tongue, and often causing, by its size, a remarkable protuberance in the front part of the neck. The larynx, owes its vocal powers to the arytenoid cartilage } the two opposite sides, or edges of which, when nearly closed together, are made to vibrate, like a reed, by the air passing between them. The opening which they form, is called the glottis ; and the carti- lage at the root of the tongue, which falls back, when we swallow, and thus prevents the food from entering the windpipe, is called the epiglottis. The part performed by the other organs of speech, has Already been alluded to, in giving the classification of articulate sounds under the head of Phonology, (p. 43).
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CHAPTER II.
PHABMACOLOOY.
Pharmacology, is that branch of Androphystcs which treats of medicines ; including the modes of preparing them ; their properlies ; and their uses. The name is derived from the Greek ^f^ftaxov^ which may signify either a medicine or a poison : as many of the most important medicines, from their powerful action, would neces- sarily be poisonous to a healthy person, especially if taken in largo quantities. A medicine may be defined as any substance applied to the animal system, either externally or internally, to cure disease, or restore health. The art of comparing and compounding medicines, is termed Pharmacy ; the person who prepares them, an apothe- cary ; the book which describes them, a dispensatory ; and the me- dicines themselves, as well the study of them, are sometimes termed Materia Medica. The study of poisons, and their antidotes, is called Toxicology ; and is here included in the present branch of Androphysics.
We think it proper to notice a- prejudice which prevails, with many persons, against the use of any mineral substance, as an in- ternal medicine. This prejudice supposes that all mineral substances are injurious to the system : whereas, even vegetables themselves, contain several of the mineral medicines. The human body, in a healthy state, contains salts of potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, and iron ; equally powerful with the salts administered by the physician^ Even our common salt, contains elements, which, when disunited, would be as virulent and noxious to swallow as almost any com- pound which the chemist can prepare. While, therefore, mineral me- dicines, as well as vegetable, may be abused, by being given too fre- quently, or in excess ; they are, doubtless, to be ranked among the most important, and in some cases, as the only remedies, which can combat the disease, or give the least promise of recovery.
The preparation of medicines was, in the earliest times, made by the physicians themselves : but it first became a distinct branch of medical science, at Alexandria, about 400 B. C. Mantias, a pupil of Herophilus, seems to have been the author of the first systematic treatise on Pharmacology ; and even kings, as Attalus of Pergamus, and Mithridates of Pontus, devoted themselves to the study and in- vention of medicines. Heras, of Cappadocia, appears to have written the first work on Pharmacy at Rome, 49 B. G. ; and And^omachus, the physician of Nero, has left a description of the theriaca; an electuary, or treacle, composed of about seventy difierent ingredients, long famous as an antidote against poison. Dioscorides wrote a work on Materia Medica, evincing much discrimination ; and Galen pro- posed a classification of medicines, founded, however, on his theory of temperaments, and therefore, long since discarded.
The Arabian alchemists introduced several new chemical medi- cines; among which were mercury and its preparations: but the prin-
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cipal pharmaceutical work of the middle ages, was the ^ntidoiarium, published by Prapositus, of Salerno, as early as the twelfth century Paracelsus, the founder of the chemical party in medicine, published a work on the medical virtues of antimony ; and brought that article into extensive use. The Dispensatory of Valerius Cordus, published in 1542, was long used as a guide in compounding medicines; but the Fundamenta Materiae Medicse, of the German Cartheuser, founded on the improvements then already made in botany and che- mistry, introduced a new and more scientific era, in the present branch of medical knowledge. In France, this science was pro- moted by the labors of Ghomel and Geoffroy ; and in England, the treatise of Lewis, improved by Dr. Aiken, contributed much to its advancement. A superior classification of medicines has since been proposed by Dr. Young ; and modified by Dr. A. T. Thompson : nor should we here omit to mention the U. S, Pharmacopeia^ prepared by a convention of physicians, as a work of high authority ; and the Dispensatory of Drs. Wood and Bache, as one of sterling value.
We proceed to treat of Pharmacology under the heads of Thera- peutics ; Materia Medica ; Pharmacy, and Toxicology.
§ 1. Under the head of Therapeutics^ we would treat of the clas- sification of medicines, in reference to the manner in which they act, or the effects which they produce, on the human system. The clas- sification here presented, is drawn chiefly from Dr. Dunglison's re- cent and valuable treatise on Therapeutics. In reference to their mode of action, medicines are classed as either vital, chemical, or mechanical agents. The vital aeents, are those which directly affect the functions of life ; acting either as excitants, which increase, or sedatives, which diminish organic action. The chemical agents^ are those which produce an immediate chemical change, favorable to health ; and the mechanical agents, are so called, because they are supposed to act mechanically, in producing their peculiar effects.
The excitant medicines, are farther subdivided into several orders, if we may use the term ; according to their peculiar effects. The stimulants, or excitants proper, are those which transiently Increase the vital action, whether locally or generally ; including carminatives, or remedies against flatulence, or wind in the stomach. Tonics, not only excite, but permanently invigorate the system; including an- thelmintics, or medicines to expel worms. Emetics, are medicines used to produce nausea and vomiting ; and cathartics, are used for loosening, or cleansing the system ; being called laxatives, when gradual ; purgatives, when sudden ; and drastics when severe, in their operation. Diaphoretics, or sudorifics, are used to produce perspi- ration ; diuretics, to increase the secretion of the kidneys ; errhines, to produce sneezing, or nasal secretion, sometimes relieving the head ; and expectorants, to remove obstructions of the air passages, and of the lungs. Sialogogues, are medicines which increase the se- cretion of saliva. Sorbe/acients, are employed to cause the absorp- tion and removal of superfluous, or noxious fluids : revellents, among which are rubefacients and vesicants, producing local irritation and blisters, serve thereby to reduce the diseased action of other parts : and antispasmodics, on a similar principle, remove muscular contrac-
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tion, by relaxing the nerves which prodace it. JiitringeniSt are pometimes used internally as tonics, to give strength ; but more fre- quendy as styptics, to contract the muscukr fiibres, and arrest the effusion of blood.
The sedative medicineMf include gedatives proper^ which, acting on the nerves, or on the vascular system, diminish vital action ; also narcotics^ which first excite and then diminish nervous action, pro- ducing, in sufficient doses, lethargy or stupefaction ; also refri^eranU^ which reduce morbid heat, or heat caused by disease ; and finally nauseants, which by producing nausea, flow of saliva, and perspira- tion, allay morbid action. The Chemical agentB^ are antacids^ used to counteract acidity, particularly in the stomach ; antaikalies^ used to counteract alkalinity ; antilithicB^ designed to prevent, and lithon- tripfica, to remove, urinary calculus, or stone in the bladder ; and disinfectants, used either for fumigation, to purify the air, or as anti- septics, to prevent putrefaction or mortification. The Mechanical agents, are demulcents, which sheathe sensitive parts from irritation; including emollients, which soften the parts, or render them more flexible ; and diluents, which serve merely to dilute the animal fluids, or render them thinner and less irritating.
$ 2. To Materia Medica, belongs the description of all simple medicines, and their medical properties. We shall here classify them, so far as we have room to mention them, according to the order established in the preceding section. Among the stimulant medi- cines, may be mentioned alcohol ; either concentrated, as in spirits of wine ; or diluted, as in distilled liquors ; or modified by other sub- stances, as in wine and other fermented liquors. Next to this, are ether ; camphor; and the essential oils, as of peppermint, or turpen- tine ; all of which are similar compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Ammonia, and its carbonate, which latter is known as hartshorn, sal volatile, or smelling salt, are stimulant and antacid at the same time. Mercurial medicines, as calomel, and red precipi- tate, are powerful stimulants, which should be used with the greatest caution. Heat, electricity, and some mental emotions, may also be classed with the stimulant medicines.
Among the tonic medicines, are cinchonia, and quinia, sometimes called quinine ; as also their salts ; all obtained from Peruvian bark ; and found to be most important remedies in certain fevers. Several astringent barks and roots, have tonic properties ; as nutgalls, quassia, and snake root : and several astringent salts, — of iron, copper, and zinc, — particularly the sulphate of iron, and its carbonate found in chalybeate waters, belong to this class of medicines. Exercise, and cheerful emotions, have also a tonic efiect. Among the anthelmintics, are Carolina pink root ; and cowhage, which is the down of a tro- pical plant. The powder of tin, probably acts mechanically to de- stroy intestinal worms; but as it is often poisonous, its use can in no case be recommended.
The most common emetics, are tartar emetic, the double tartrate of antimony and potassa ; and ipecacuanha, the active principle of which, called emetia, is milder than the preceding. Lobelia, or In- dian tobacco, and sanguinaria, or blood root, have also emetic proper*
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ties. Among the stiooger cathartics, are daierium^ colocynth, gam- boge, and aloes; but one more frequently used is Epsom salt^ or the sulphate of magnesia. Pure magnesia^ and its carbonate, are milder cathartics; the fcNrmer being an excellent laxative. The most im- portant vegetable cathartics, are castor oil^ obtained from the castor bean ; and rhubarb, and jalap, which are the roots of foreign plants. Calonui^ or the protochioride of mercury, is both a purgative and anthelmintic ; or, if taken in very small dose, it has general stimulant and alterative effects ; like those of metallic mercury, and its oxide, in the blue pill.
Among the reputed diaphoretics, are ipecacuanha^ and tartar emetiCi when taken in very small quantity. The former, mixed with opium and sulphate of potassa, forms the sudorific medicine called Dover's powder. The acetate^ and carbonate of ammonia; and nitric ether ^ often called sweet spirits of nitre ; also produce perspi- ration : and better than these, in some cases, are warmth, exercise, and friction. Among the diuretics, are several salts of potassa and soda ; and several vegetables; as the meadow saffron, foxglove, juniper berries, and squills. The principal errhines, are S7iUjff\ euphorbium, and white hellebore : and among the expectorants, we may name am- moniac, assafoBtida, squills, and the balsams of Peru and Tolu» In- halations of ammonia, vinegar, or tar, in the state of vapor, may also promote expectoration. The chief sialogogues are tobacco, horse radish, and the sweet flag; the habitual use of which is however injurious to digestion. The mercurial medicines also act as sialo- gogues, when taken in sufficient quantity.
Among the sorbefacient medicines, are iodine, bromine, ammoniac, and galbanum : and absorption of the fluids may also be promoted by compression, or friction. Of revellent medicines, ammonia^ mustardf cayenne pepper, and Burgundy pitch, are used as rubefa- cients, producing local excitement or irritation. The Spanish fly is sometimes used as a vesicant, to raise blisters ; and Croton oil, as a suppurant, producing pustules or sores. Lunar caustic or the nitrate of silver, and lapis causticus^ or caustic potassa, are used as escha- TOtics, for removing unsound flesh. Among the antispasmodics, are castor ; musk ; assafcetida ; and sulphuric and nitric ethers ; which exert a peculiar soothing effect on the nervous system.
Of sedative remedies proper, venesection, or blood-letting, is most frequendy employed; though it should be with caution. The inhalation of diluted nitrogen, hydrogen, carbonic acid, or carburetted hydrogen gases, has also % sedative effect. Among the narcotics, opium^ or its active principles, morphia and narcotina, are frequently used. Laudanum, is a strong tincture, or alcoholic infusion of opium; and paregoric, is a much weaker tincture of opium, with camphor, ana other ingredients. The ethers, may have a narcotic effect, as in Hoffman's anodyne ; and hops, and tobacco, are also used as narcotics, both externally, and internally. The refrigerants most employed, are cooling drinks, or cold external applications. Nitre, and borax, have also a cooling influence, in proper cases. The nauseant medicines, are chiefly emetics admi- nistered in very small doses.
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Of chemical agents, the antacids are the aOtaliea; as ammonia, potassa, soda, lime, and magnesia ; or their carbonates ; which serve directly to neutralize acids, and prevent their injurious effect. On the oiher hand, the antalkalies are the acidi ; as acetic, tartaric, sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic ; which however are seldom required, unless it be as stimulants, or tonics. Acids, and alkalies, are some- times used as antilithics ; but not without careful discrimination : tlie tonics and diuretics being perhaps preferable. The chief disinfectants, are chlorine ; or in its place the chloride of soda, or of lime ; and sulphurous, nitric, and muriatic acids, charcoal, creosote, and smoke. Of mechanical agents, in medicine, we may name as demulcents, gum Arabic, or gum tragacanth ; Iceland, or Irish moss ; flaxseed, barley, oat-meal, or starch ; sassafras pith, or slippery elm bark ; and olive oil, lard, or spermaceti. When the action of diluents is required, water^ and the most simple beverages, are those generally employed.
§ 3. Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics, is that division of Pharmacology which relates to the selection, preservation, and preparation of medicines ; constituting the art of the apothecary. In purchasing mineral substances, it is of course highly important that they should be pure and genuine ; which can only be ascertained by chemical tests. In procuring drugs from plants, botanical knowledge is also necessary, in order to identify the species, to which chemical tests would be inadequate. It is moreover important that the plants, or their parts, should have been gathered in the right season, in a sound state ; and that they should have been properly preserved. In general, the best seasons for gathering medicinid plants, are the spring and autumn : but flowers should be gathered when just expanded ; and aromatic herbs, when just in flower.
Among the chemical processes, employed in preparing medicines, are sublimation, ox the conversion of a solid into vapor ; pulverizor Hon, or the reducing of a solid to a powder; solution, or the dissolving of a solid in a liquid ; maceration, or the soaking of a vegetable substance, for a long time, in a cold liquid, to dissolve some soluble principle ; digestion, or the same process at a temperature between 90^ and 100^ ; decoction, or the same process briefly conducted at a boiling heat; distillation, or the heating of any substance, in a retort, or close vessel, with a receiver to condense the vapors which pass over; lixivation, or leaching, to extract any soluble substance by means of a liquid filtering through it ; crystalli- zation, either by the evaporation of a liquid, or the cooling of a melted substance ; and calcination, or the exposure of any solid to a strong heat, to expel a vaporizable ingredient.
In prescribing medicines, and preparing prescriptions, the measures used, are, for solids the grain, (gr.) of which 5760 make a pound Troy, and 7000 make a pound avoirdupois ; the scruple, O), or 20 grains ; the drachm, (5), which is three scruples, or 60 grains ; and the ounce, (^), which is 8 drachms, or 480 grains : the ounce and pound of apothecaries* being the same as those of Troy weight, but differently subdivided. For liquids, the wine gallon, (c), is divided into eight pints, (o), of 28.875 cubic inches each ; so that a pint
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of distilled water, at 60^, weighs precisely 7289.7 grains. The pint, is divided into 16 Jluidounces^ (/^) ; each of these into 8 fluidrachms^ (/3) ; and the fluidrachm contains 60 minims, (m) ; of which, therefore, 480 make one fluidoance.
§ 4. Toxicology, is the study of poisons ; their effects, and their antidotes. These should be understood not only by the physician, but also by the apothecary, who may often be called on directly to furnish a remedy. A poison, is any substance which, applied to the bod , will destroy life ; and the remedy for it is called its antidote. Some substances are poisonous when applied externally, being absorbed into the system : some gases are poisonous to inhale ; and indeed^ no gas except pure atmospheric air, can be considered as entirely healthy: but the poisons which most frequently prove fatal, are those taken into the stomach ; sometimes by mistake ; but at other times administered with criminal designs. For these, the first best remedy,, if at hand, is their immediate extraction by the stomach pump ; to be followed by vigorous curative measures, under medical direction.
The antidote for arsenic, is freshly precipitated peroxide of iron, speedily administered : that for antimony, or its preparations, is tannin, gall nuts, or Peruvian bark ; that for sugar o/Jead, Epsom or Glauber's salt ; and for corrosive sublimate, and the salts of cop- per, the best antidote is the white of eggs, swadlowed in a raw state. For oxalic acid, the antidote is lime water, or powdered chalk ; for Prussic or hydrocyanic acid, liquid ammonia, or chloride of soda, if it can be administered before it be too late ; and for other strong acids, the best antidote is magnesia, or the carbonates of potassa,. soda, magnesia, or lime. For alkalies, as caustic ammonia, potassa or soda, the best antidotes are fixed oils, or vinegar, or lemon juice. When any acid gases have been inhaled, the best antidote is the cautious inhalation of ammonia; but for sulphuretted hydrogen, the cautious inhalation of dilute chlorine is recommended ; ana for chlorine itself, the inhalation of vapor of ammonia or ether. For ammonia, taken into the lungs, perhaps the fumes of vinegar would be the best antidote.
For most of the vegetable poisons, containing an alkaline principle, the best antidotes yet discovered are chlorine, iodine, or bromine ; which act by neutralizing or decomposing the poisonous principle. As morphia, quinia, ipecacuanha, and other vegetable alkdies form sparingly soluble salts with iodic acid, perhaps this would be found a beneficial application, when they are taken in excess. Tannin, or infusion of gall nuts, is also found to have a beneficial effect, in some cases of vegetable poisoning, particularly as an antidote for opium, and its proximate principles. For poisoning by the bite or sting of animals, strong ammonia, and chloride of soda, are among the best an- tidotes ; but if the wound be severe, a ligature should be immediately applied to the part affected, to prevent Sie poison from circulating ; and, if possible, the poison should be withdrawn by suction, or the poisoned part cut away. In slight cases, common salt, or ammonia, in solution, is often successfully employed. 53
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CHAPTER HL
THEREOLOOT.
In the branch of Theieology, we include the stody of diseases, and the practice of medicine. The name is derived from the Greek, etptHf I cure, or take care of; and hence it may be applied to the means of preventing, as well as of removing disease. We make it therefore to comprehend the subjects of Hygienics^ or the means of preserving health; Nosology , or the classification of diseases; Pif thology, or their anatomical and physiological effects; Etiology, or their causes ; Symptomatology, or their symptoms ; and Clinics, or the Practice of Medicine, as the name implies, at the bedside of the patient. The term prognostics, is applied to those symptoms which indicate the causes or probable event of diseases ; and diagnostics, to those symptoms which distinguish a disease from other similar ones. The Institutes of Medicine, a term of somewhat indefinite meaning, but applied to the physiological, pathological, therapeutic, and hygienic relations of medicine, belongs partly to this, and partly to the preceding branch of Androphysics : but as the term Medicine, is oflen applied to all the branches of this department, as well as to the remedies themselves, we have selected for the present branch what appears to us a definite and unexceptionable name.
The Egyptians attributed the invention of Medicine to Thoth, the Hermes of the Greeks; but the Greeks ascribed this invention to Chiron the centaur, and his pupil ^sculapius ; who probably lived about 1260 B. C. ^sculapius is said to have first practised bleeding; and Melampus, probably his contemporary, to have introduced the use of purgatives : but these remedies are also said to have been employed in Egypt, more than 200 years earlier. The practice of Medicine in Greece, was for ages confined to the descendants of iBsculapius; and from his name, Asclepias in Greek, they were called Asclepiades ; being also prophets and priests at the shrine of their deified ancestor. While Pythagoras attempted to explain dis- eases by his mystic numbers, or planetary influences ; Democritus, by his theory of atoms, and a vacuum ; and Heraclitus, by his ideas of ethers and elements ; it was left for Hippocrates, one of the Ascle- piades, to establish the practice of medicine on rational principles, of experiment and observation. Hippocrates, however, believed in four constitutional temperaments ; the sanguineous, phlegmatic, choleric or bilious, and melancholic; according to the predominance of blood, phlegm, yellow bile, or black bile, which he supposed to be the four principal humors.
The successors of Hippocrates, combining his doctrines with those of the Platonic philosophy, founded the dogmatic school in medi- cine ; which flourished at Alexandria, and often substituted wild speculations for facts and experience. In opposition to this, Heropbi- lus, and his adherents, founded the empiric school ; which professed to be guided by experience alone. The methodic school, originated
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at Rome, with Aselepiades of Bithyiiia, or Themison, his disciple ; and founded its practice on the principle of either bracing or relaxing the system. The eclectic school, supported by Aretsus and Celsus, professed to select and combine the excellences of the others : and this is also called the pneumatic school, from its admitting the exist- ence of a fifth element, air or spirit. By these different sects, the practice of medicine was thrown into complete confusion, until Galen of Pergamus appeared, and breaking through the restraints of system, revived the principles of Hippocrates, with such arguments and im- provements, as fixed a standard of practice, and gave him almost absolute authority, as a physician, down to modern times. The Ara- bians paid much attention to this branch of knowledge ; and Avicenna wrote a work, entitled Canons of Medicine, chiefly a compilation from Galen and the other classic writers, which was used, to some extent, in the schools of Europe.
The earliest medical school, of importance, in Christian Europe, was that of Salerno, founded probably as early as A, D. 900, and well established in 1143. It gave a new impulse to this science; and aided in preserving the ancient medical classics. With the re- vival of letters, the Greek writers came into general use ; until the time of Paracelsus : who boasted of intercourse with spirits, and professed to have discovered the elixir of life. Van Helmont adopted the views of Paracelsus ; but Sylvius proposed a new theory, main- taining that all animal action results from fermentation; a theory which was partly adopted by Sydenham in England. To these mystical and chemical theories succeed that of the pneumaticians, headed by Stahl ; who attributed the origin of all diseases to the mind, considered as acting on the body, and ordinarily preserving the fluids in a healthy state. On the other hand the mechanicians^ as they were called, commencing with Borelli and Bellini, regarded the body as a complex hydraulic machine ; while Baglivi and Hoffman, founders of the dynamic sect, attributed disease to either excessive or deficient nervous and muscular action ; producing in the one case spasms, in the other, atony or weakness. The errors of these differ- ent theories, are now too evident to require our farther notice.
Meanwhile, the knowledge of practical medicine was enlarged by the introduction of new, and especially chemical remedies ; and by the appearance of new diseases. The small-pox and the measles were first described by the Arabians ; and the leprosy was spread in Europe by the Crusades. An infirmary for the plague, was esta- blished at Venice, in 1423. With the discovery of distant regions, and the repetition of long voyages, the scurvy first made its appear^ ance : and a remarkable disease, called the sweating sickness, first broke out among the English forces returning from France, in 1483. The use of Peruvian or Jesuit's bark, in fevers, dates back to 1639 ; and inoculation for the small-pox was introduced from Turkey into England, by Lady Montague, in 1722. The milder practice of vac- cination, was brought into vogue by the writings of Dr. Jenner in 1798.
Among the more recent physicians who have promulged new views of medicine, we may mention Dr. CuUen, whose classification
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of diseases has been extensively referred to ; Dr. Brown, from whom was named the Brunonian theory, that all disease results from excess or deficiency of excitement ; Dr. Darwin, who taught, in his Zoo- nomia, that all organic life results from, or consists in, living, irritable filaments ; and Dr. Good, who has given a new and unique classifica- tion of diseases, in his work, on the study of Medicine. In France, the new doctrine of Broussais, that all febrile diseases originate in inflammation of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal, has found its votaries : and in Germany, the homceopathic system of Hahnemann, maintaining that all diseases may be cured by producing similar artificial diseases, of transient duration, and with extremely small doses of medicine, has attracted much attention, notwithstanding its extravagance. We may add that animal magnetiim^ originally proposed by Mesmer, has been recently revived as a means of cure, by a supposed sympathetic effect upon the nerves, communicated from the operator to the patient. These various innovations have been useful in promoting new researches, but none of them has ever been gene- rally and implicidy received ; and the eclectic principle, of selecting the good from all systems, and rejecting the rest, has been the guide of modem physicians.*
We proceed to treat of Thereology, under the heads of Hygienics ; and Febrile, Eruptive, Nervous, and Secretive diseases.
§ 1 . Hygienics, we have already defined as that division of The- reology which relates to the preservation of health. Among the conditions on which it depends, are diet, exercise, air, temperature, clothing, occupation, rest, habits, and passions. The consideration of diet, or the quantity and quality of food, is so important that it has sometimes been regaixled as a distinct study, under the name of Die- tetics. The structure of the teeth, and other organs, indicates that animal as well as vegetable food is the proper diet of mankind ; and experience has shown that animal food is generally the most nutri- tious, but vegetable food is the most easily digested, and that which should be the most freely used. The name aliment, is applied to substantial articles of food ; and the substances used for flavor or seasoning, are called condiments. Of course both the food and drink should be wholesome, taken at proper intervals, and never in excess.
Of animal substances, jW/y is the most easily digested; and next to this, fibrin, or muscular flesh ; while fat, or oily matter, is less digestible, and should therefore be taken sparingly. MUk and eggs, containing albumen, are moderately digestible, but the latter should not be cooked hard. The common scaly fish, when properly cooked, are of easy digestion ; and oysters much more so than other shell fish. Salted meat, and fish, are best adapted to stronger stomachs, of persons accustomed to vigorous exercise. Of vegetable substances, gluten, contained in wheat, rye, peas, and beans, is quite nutritive
* The achool of the arithmetidant, founded veiy reoently by Buron Lonia, pro* poMS to improve medicine by a strict analysis of symptoins, and a rigid investigatkm of organic lesions; and thus, by a close adbersnoe to the numerical reMiIts, to asoeiw tain the usential qualities of efm disease. The same method is also applied to the treatment
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and digesdbli ; and the same may be said of starchy which abounds in all kinds of grain, and especially in rice and the potato, as well as in sago and arrowroot. Fruits, containing mucilage, as the melon ; or sugar, as the grape; or acids, as the apple; are healthy and digestible, if taken when ripe, and in moderate quantities. Sweet- meatSi spices, and other stimulants, tend to weaken the digestive or- gans; and should therefore be taken sparingly.
Besides receiving nourishment, the vital organs require to be sti- mulated by frequent, but not too violent exercise. This is best taken, when the weather permits, in the open air ; and the greatest care should be taken by all persons to breathe a pure and fresh air; as being absolutely necessary to vivify the blood, and to preserve the system in a healthy state. A due degree of moisture, in the air, so that it be not too damp, is also favorable to health. Extreme, or sudden changes of temperature, should be avoided ; especially after exercising, or when in a state of debility ; lest the perspiration should be checked, and colds, coughs, fever, or consumption ensue. For the same reason, the clothing should be properly regulated, and cleanliness be carefully attended to ; as essential to a healthy cuta- neous action. Regular intervals of rest and sleep, are also among the requisites of long continued health. In general, those occupa- tions are the most healthy, which furnish due exercise both to the body and mind, in a pure atmosphere, and with moderate exposure. Regular and cheerful habits, are highly conducive to health and lon- gevity ; but the indulgence of violent and exhausting passions, fre- quently causes disease, and aggravates it when otherwise produced. On some of these points we have already spoken, and more fully, in treating of Physical Education, (p. 93.)
§ 2. We come now to the study of diseases ; commencing with Febrile Diseases, as forming the most numerous and important divi- sion. They are classed as Pyrexiae, or inflammatory diseases, by Cullen ; and as Hsematica, or sanguineous diseases, by Good ; and are generally characterized by chilliness at the commencement, fol- lowed by preternatural heat, and acceleration of the pulse, denoting an irritated state of the system. The Febres, or fevers proper, are called intermittent, when they return at stated intervals ; as quoti- dian, returning every day; tertian, returning every other day, or every third day, inclusive ; and quartan, returning every fourth day, or with intervals of two entire days ; these returns being followed by stages of perspiration, and of ague, or chilliness. Fevers are called remittent, when, although continued, they present periodical abatement ; as the bilious, or gastric fever, connected with derange- ment of the liver and alimentary canal ; and the yellow fever, very similar to the bilious, but often more violent, and less remittent. Continuous fevers, are those which have no marked abatement ; as the synochal, or inflammatory fever, with strong pulse ; and the typhus fever, characterized by great debility, and a morbid state of the animal fluids.
The second division of febrile diseases, consists of the Phlegma- six, or inflammations ; usually manifesting themselves locally, or in some particular part; though accompanied by general irritation, pro-
2N
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429 AKDROPHTSICS.
bably from a diieased state of the blood. Among these diseases, are phretiUiSf or inflammation of the brain ; glotsitiSf or inflammation of the tongue ; tannUitiif of the tonsils, commonly called qninsy ; parotitis, called also the momps, an inflammation of the parotid gland ; lar^gitiSf or inflammation of the larynx ; trachitis, of the trachea, or windpipe ; bronchitiM^ of the bronchi ; and pneumonitiMt or pneumonia, an inflammation of the lungs. These latter diseases 6fien commence with a catarrh, or cold, and may terminate in phthintt or consumption.* To the phlegmasise also belong gas- tritis, or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach ; enteritis, or similar inflammation of the bowels, which, when acute, is termed dysentery , but when caused by irritation, witli but slight fever, is called diarrhoea ; hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver ; splenitis, of the spleen ; nephritis, of the kidneys ; and cystitis, of the bladder.
To these diseases, we may add rheumtUism, or inflanunation of the muscles and tendons ; and arthritis, podagra, or sout, charac- terized by inflammation in the joints of the feet and hands. Ophthal- mia, or inflammation of the eyes ; and otitis, of the internal ear, are the last of the phlegmasis, which we have room to name. The treatment of these diseases, of course, varies with their causes and symptoms ; but it consists generally, in removing obstructions, by cathartic medicines; reducing tlie febrile action, if necessary, by blood-letting ; and otherwise soothing and relaxing the parts afiected, so that they may be restored to their proper state, and enabled to re- sume their functions in a healthy manner.
§ 3. Under the head of Eruptive Diseases, we would compre- hend those disorders which, though usually accompanied by fever, are characterized by cutaneous eruptions ; and hence termed Exan- themata, in several systems of Nosology. Of this class of diseases are the oriental plague, and the variola, or small pox ; diseases which have, in times past, made such fearful ravages among man- kind. The varicella, or chicken pox ; the vaccinia, or cow pox ; and other varioloid affections, come next in this class ; after which we would name rubeola, or the measles; scarlatina, or scarlet fever ; and erysipelas, or St. Anthony's Are ; all attended with erup- tions of the skin. These diseases, though febrile, are regarded as of a specific character, or produced by special causes ; and they are generally contagious. The mode of treating them, is of course, similar to that of fevers proper ; and consists in arresting dangerous action, if possible ; and watching the disease, until it has run its course.
The minor Exanthemata, or eruptive diseases, comprise the differ- ent forms of herpes, or tetter ; as the ringworm, and shingles, dis- tinguished by an assemblage of small ulcers ; also pemphigus, or vesicular fever, producing small blister-like eruptions ; urticaria, or nettle rash, with smarting blotches ; miliaria, or miliary fever, with small white vesicles, resembling millet seed ; erythema, with red spots on the skin ; roseola, or rosy rash, affecting the skin with rose-
* SevenU of them are comprehended under the designation of evnanehe, m eore throat.
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THERE0L06Y. 423
colored spots ; and purpura^ in which the spots are of a livid or purple color. In this class of diseases may be placed boils, (or biles), termed by some writers phlogOMis ; and, perhaps, the paro- nychia^ or whitlow ; though this may be caused by local injury, fol- lowed by inflammation.
In this division of medicine, we may place the diseases termed HsemorrhagisSt or effusions of blood ; which, though not eruptive diseases in a technical sense, are yet placed next to them by most nosologists, and partake, at least, of their febrile character. They are, in fact, an ertqation of the blood ; sometimes owing to an irritated state of the capillary vessels, in which the blood passes from the arte- ries to the veins ; and sometimes caused by the rupture of a blood vessel. Among these diseases are epiataxia^ or bleeding of the nose ; hssmoptisiSf or spitting of blood from the lungs ; hxmatemesis^ or vomiting of blood from the stomach ; hematuria, or sanguineous effu- sion from the bladder ; and hsemorrkois, or piles, with sanguineous discharges from the bowels. Organic diseases of the heart, might, we thmfc, here find their proper place. The treatment, in most of these cases, must have a reference to their locality ; and consists in relieving the blood vessels, if necessary, and strengthening the parts affected.
§ 3. Under the head of Nervous DiaeaseSf we include those disorders, termed by CuUen, Neuroses^ in which the nervous system is more immediately affected ; whether originally, or by sympathy; and whether the mind be disordered thereby, or not. First, among these diseases, we would place the Adynamim^ or diseases resulting from nervous debility ; as apoplexy^ or sudden and continued failure of the powers of sense and motion ; paralysis^ or loss of sensation and motion in only a part of the body ; catalepsy^ or a temporary suspension of consciousness, without lethargy or spasms ; and ayn" eopcj or fainting, with deficient circulation and respiration during the swoon : to which we may add anoreocia, or failure of appetite ; dya- pepaiay or indigestion, often attended with hypochondriaaia^ or lan- guid melancholy; aphonia^ or loss of the voice; amaroaia^ or gutta Serena, consisting in paralysis of the optic nerve ; cophoaia^ or ^ilure of hearing; and similar diseases, arising from weakness, or suspension, of the nervous functions. Dementia^ or wandering of the mind ; and amentiat or idiotism, also belong, we think, to this group of diseases.
Next, among the nervous diseases, we place the Ertthiami ; In which the nerves are irritated, or their sensibility increased. These include agrypnia, or watchfulness, through nervous excitement ; and oneirodynia, or the incubus, or night mare, consisting in a sense of oppression, during sleep; to which we may add bulimiOf or pre- ternatural hunger ; and pica, or appetite for unnatural food. In this class we may also comprehend Neuralgia, or local pains in the nerves; as cephalagia, or headache; proaophalgia, or faceache; otalgia, or earache ; odontalgia, or toothache ; gaatrodynia, or pain in the stomach ; and pleurodynia, or pain in the side. These diseases are produced, sometimes by local injury to the nerves, and Sometimes by miasmata, or other causes. In the latter case, relief is
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ofien obtained from tonic medicxnes ; but in the former case, recourse is sometimes had to dividing the nenres.
The last class of nervous diseases, Spoitnif or spasmodic affec- tions, includes mania, or violent madness ; epilepsy, or the falling sickness, with sudden insensibility, and convulsions ; chorea, or St Vitus's dance, with frequent convulsive motions of the limbs ; rapha- nia, or cripple disease, with spasms of the joints ; hysteria, or hyste- rics, affecting the whole nervous system; tetanus, or spasmodic rigidity of the body, including trismus, or the locked jaw; and hydrophobia, caused by the bite of a rabid animal, but characterized by dread and loathing of water. In this class of diseases, we may also place asthma, or difficult respiration at intervals, with cough and stricture across the breast ; dyspnoea, or difficult respiration, and cough, without a sense of pressure ; pertussis, or whooping cough; asphyxia, or suspended animation, as by suffocation or drowning; angina pectoris, or spasms of the chest, usually caused by some disease of the heart ; colic, or spasmodic pains in the abdo- men, usually caused by irritation of the stomach or bowels; and cholera, or spasmodic vomitings and purgings, probably caused by derangement of the liver.
$ 5. In our last division. Secretive Diseases, we would include various disorders of the absorbent, secretive, and assimilative func- tions ; affecting different parts of the system. To this class belong most of the Epischeses, or suppressions, and the Apocenoses, or fluxes, so named by Dr. CuUen. Of the former, are icterus, or jaundice, caused by retention of the bile ; and constipation, or cos- tiveness ; and of the latter kind, are ptyalismus, or flow of saliva ; ephidrosis, or excessive perspiration ; and diabetes, or excessive secre- tions of the kidneys. Here also we would mention the hydrops, or dropsy, attended with watery swellings ; sa hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the brain; hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest; ascites, or dropsy of the abdomen ; and anasarca, or dropsy of the skin or cellular system. These diseases are said to be best counteracted by venesection and powerful cathartics.
Last, in this class of diseases, we would place a part of the Cachexia, of CuUen, attributable to morbid humors ; as scrofula, or king's evil, producing external tumors and ulcerations ; scorbutus, or scurvy, with spongy gums, debility, tumors, and ulcers; ele- phantiasis, producing swollen limbs, and a rough, wrinkled skin ; lepra, or leprosy, producing dry scaly patches on the skin ; psora, or the itch, produced by small insects penetrating the skin ; tinea, or scald head, causing ulcers and scabs at the root of the hair; and plica, or trichoma, a disease in which the blood flows from tlie hair ; all of which might have been classed with eruptive diseases, but are not usually attended with sensible inflammation. Bronchocele, or the goitre, producing a large tumor in the throat; scirrhus, or a hard glandular tumor, of\en resulting in a cancer; exostosis, a tumor or morbid enlargement of a bone; and caries, or decay of the bones, are the last diseases which we have room here to name ; reserving for Surgery the mention of those which are curable chiefly by surgical operations.
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CHAPTER IV.
CHIRVRGSRY.
Under the fonner name of Chinirgery, we would comprise al] that branch of Androphysics which relates to manual operations for medical purposes ; including Surgery, as at present defined, and otlier subordinate subjects. The name is derived from the Greek, Xtt'p, the hand ; and cpyof, a work or operation ; and the word Surgery, may be traced to the same original. It relates chiefly to the treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocations or sprains, tumors, ulcers, and such deformities as can be removed by mechanical means ; but for these purposes, it presupposes a general knowledge of Medi- cine, and a thorough knowledge of Anatomy, both to perform the operations aright, and to administer the proper means of recovery from their effects. The practice of Surgery, requires the utmost firmness, self-possession, skill, and dexterity; without which, the more critical operations, where life hangs upon a single touch, should not be attempted.
The practice of Surgery, doubtless commenced with the dressing of wounds, caused by accident, or inflicted in war. It is related that Chiron, and his disciple ^sculapius, accompanied the Argonautic expedition,^ to take care of the wounded and sick ; and that this office wa^-'performed, during the Trojan war, by Machaon and Po- dalirius, the sons of ^sculapius. The Greek and Roman physi- cians practised both medicine and surgery, as far as then known ; though the latter branch began to be treated separately, as early as 300 B. C. Hippocrates practised blood-letting, with the lancet; trepanning, for injuries of the brain ; and cauterizing, for the removal of ulcers. Celsus invented ligatures, for wounded arteries ; ampu- tation, for gangrened limbs ; couching, for cataract in the eye ; the use of cupping-glasses, for drawing blood by scarification; and a mode of lithotomy, still called the Celsian operation. Galen wrote on ruptures, and bandages ; and Paulus ^gineta, who flourished A, D. 640, and invented bronchotomy, wrote the last classic work of merit on this science.
Among the Arabians, Avenzoar, and Albucasis wrote briefly on Surgery ; but this art was practised chiefly by women and slaves. In Christendom, it was practised by the monks, till A. D. 1163; when this avocation was prohibited to them, by the Council of Tours ; on the plea that the church abhorred all bloodshed. Surgery was then given over to the barbers ; and degenerated to mere blood- letting, and bandaging of wounds, with minor empirical operations. The first English work on this art, was written by Gilbert Anglicus, about the year 1300 ; and this was followed by the French work of Chauliac, and the Latin one of Vidius : but it was not until 1585, that Ambrose Par^, who styled himself barber-surgeon, profiting by the new anatomical discoveries, wrote a work on Surgery, which gready assisted in rabing this branch to its proper station in the 54 2n2
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department of Aadrophysics. The later works of Fabriciiis Aqna- pendente in Italy, and Hildanus in Germany, also contributed to this effect ; and especially the founding of a Surgical Academy in France, in 1731.
In later times, a host of distinguished surgeons has arisen, whom we have not room here even to name. Pare, we should have added, revived the Celsian invention of ligatures for wounded arteries, instead of cauterizing them ; and Desault has again revived this practice, when fallen into disuse. Petit is celebrated as the inventor of the screw tourniquet, for compressing the arteries ; by which the danger from amputations is gready diminished. More recently, Desault has enriched surgery with various improvements ; and he was the first clinical lecturer on this branch of medical knowledge. In England, surgery was gready neglected, till the publication of Wiseman's treatises, in 1676 : but it has since profited by the labors of Chesselden, celebrated for his practical skill ; of Alexander Monro, who studied the pathology of surgery ; of John Hunter, who wrote on inflammation, and gunshot wounds ; and of John Bell, who also wrote on wounds, and improved the means of taking up arteries, in diflicult cases of aneurism.
We proceed to offer some illustrations of this branch of Andro- physics, under the heads of Vulnar, Normal, and Topical Surgery.
§ 1. Under the head of Vulnar Surgery^ we comprise the treat- ment of external injuries; as wounds, fractures, and dislocations, in all their various forms. To this section belongs the process of blood'letiing ; which, though beneficial in many disease^,, is itself a surgical operation, producing one or more wounds, which require surgical attention. The diseases for which this process is remedial, are most frequently those in which there is plethora, or fulness of blood ; or which are accompanied by inflammation. The method usually employed, is the drawing of blood from a vein : called also phlebotomy^ or venesection. The veins, being more superficial in the body than the arteries, are more accessible ; and as they convey the blood from capillary vessels back to the heart, there is less danger from them, of excessive bleeding. In using the lancet^ in this process, the greatest care must be taken, neither to wound an artery, which might be fatal, through loss of blood, or might produce a dangerous aneurism; nor to wound a nerve, which might eventually cause convulsions, equally dangerous. The other modes of blood- letting, are scarification, or cuppings where many small punctures are made at once, and the cupping-glass applied, having a syringe for exhausting the air, and thus increasing the flow of blood ; and leeching^ or the extraction of blood by the application of leeches, often called bloodsuckers.
The stoppage of blood, when flowing by hemorrhage, or from bruises or wounds, may often be effected by some simple application ; as of adhesive plaster, lint, flour, or agaric, or an astringent. If these do not succeed, the application of pressure is necessary, either by a common bandage, or by means of the tourniquet^ which is a bandage that can be tightened by turning a screw. When applied to a wounded artery, it should be placed on the side towards the heart, from which
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the blood is flowing. When an artery is completely divided, the ends contract spontaneously into the cellular tissue, and the coagulated blood may prevent farther bleeding ; but with the risk of ulceration. Hence, a badly wounded artery should if possible be taken up on both sides, and secured by ligatures, that the wound may heal. A great object, in these cases, is to avoid inflammation ; or, if produced, to allay it, by bleeding, and laxatives ; or to bring it to a healing suppu- ration. Should gangrene, or mortification ensue, as when the wounded arteries fail to nourish the limb, the last resort is amputcUionf or the cutting off of the part affected.
Wounds, are either incised wounda^ inflicted by a sharp cutting instrument, without injury to the surrounding parts ; or contua^ wounds, as punctures, lacerations and gunshot wounds, in which the surrounding parts are bruised and injured. The dressing of wounds, requires that the blood should be stanched, and the large arteries secured ; after which, the wound is washed, the sides approximated, and held together, by narrow strips of adhesive plaster, with openings between ; or, if necessary, by more powerful bandages, or sutures. When the wound is slight, and the parts heal immediately, they are said to unite by the first intent: otherwise suppuration follows, with a discharge of pus, or fluid matter. Contused wounds, or bruises, and especially punctured wounds, or stabs, are often more dangerous than cuts ; as the bruised and deadened parts must be removed by suppuration, before the wound can heal. The applica- tion of a poultice ; the allaying of inflammation, by reduced diet, and blood-letting if necessary ; and entire rest and composure, with opi- ates, if required, to allay extreme pain ; are among the best remedial measures.
In case of the dislocation of a limb, the bone should be restored to its place ; and in the case of a fracture^ the broken parts require to be carefully readjusted to each other, and kept in their position by proper fixtures and bandages. A thorough knowledge of Anatomy, is of course requisite, to detect fractures or dislocations, and readjust the parts ; which, in some cases, requires the application of powerful forces. When the skull is fractured, the broken parts are frequently forced inward, and exert a pressure on the brain ; which must be relieved as speedily as possible, or the insensibility which it produces will soon result in death. The last resort in this case, and in other cases of like pressure, is trepanning, or cutting a circular piece out of the skull. The instrument employed, is a cylindrical saw, turning like an auger, but with teeth set around one end of it : and it is called a trepan, or trephine. This operation should generally be followed by blood-letting; to diminish the subsequent inflammation of the brain.
$ 2. Under the head of Normal Surgery, we would treat of those operations which are necessary to promote recovery from ordinary diseases ; or to remedy malformations ; excepting diseases or mal- formations of the eye, the ear, and the teeth, which are reserved for the following section. The word normal, from the Latin norma, a rule, is here used in reference to the regular action of the organs, or the proper shape and state of the parts, on which it is intended to act.
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To this section belong the treatment of hernia, or rupture ; in which some of the viscera are protruded from their natural cavity ; producing tumors, and sometimes dangerous consequences. This disease may often be cured by a trussy exerting mechanical pressure, to keep the parts in place. Here also we may speak of tumors of the blood ves- sels ; as aneuritmf or the unnatural enlargement of an artery in some part ; and vortx, or varicose aneurism, which is the similar enlarge- ment of a vein. Aneurism is ffcnerally best cured by passing a ligature around the artery ; which is thus obliterated, and the wound allowed to heal. EcchymoMy is the effusion of blood, from a vein or artery, into the surrounding cellular tissue: but this blood is, in general, easily absorbed and removed.
MscetteSf or swellings, usually result from, or are connected with, inflammation : and they sometimes require to be opened with a sharp instrument, to remove the purulent matter, or to allay pain. If they cannot be removed by friction, or cooling applications, at an early stage, then suppuration is necessary to their cure ; and they are then called ulcers. A sore which remains for a long time without either healing or spreading, is called an indolent or callous ulcer ; but one which continues to spread and corrode the flesh is called a malignant or phagadenic ulcer ; of which class is the cancer. Ulcers, unless produced by wounds or bruises, indicate a morbid or indolent state of the system : and they require various treatment ; either soothing, as by poultices, lint, and cooling applications ; or stimulating, as by mercurial or styptic applications ; or sometimes they require cauter- izing, either with escharotics or the actual cautery. The moxa^ used as a cautery, is made of cotton, immersed in a solution of nitre, then rolled up in a small mass, and when dry, burnt in contact with the part which is to be cauterized. When ulcers heal by a healthy action, they are said to granulate $ the forming of new flesh being termed granulation.
To this division of Surger}% also belongs the treatment of mo/- formations; or natural defects and deformities, which admit of surgical remedies. Many of these can be obliterated by proper operations ; especially if attended to in the vigor of youth, when nature exerts the greatest recuperative power. Among them, we would mention curvature of the spine ; and especially loxarthruB^ or club-foot, consisting in an irregular growth or developement, and hence an unnatural shape, of that important member. The applica- tion of pressure, by preventing the growth in a wrong direction, and promoting it in a right one, is among the remedies proposed for this deformity.
$ 3. Under the head of Topical Surgery^ we would comprise the surgical treatment of diseases of the eye, the ear, and the teeth; which, from their difficulty, and importance, have been separated, in large cities, from general surgery, and assigned respectively to the Oculist, the Aurist, and the Dentist. The diseases of the eye, re- quiring the attention of the Oculist, are numerous, and sometimca difficult to discover. Among them, is ophthalmia, or inflammatioa of the eye, farther distinguished according to the part most affected ; also hydrophthalmia, or dropsy of the eye ; albugo, or leucoma.
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that is opacity of the cornea ; cataract^ or opacity of the crystalline lens ; glaucoma^ or disease of the vitreous huraor ; and amaurosis^ or gutta serena, a disease of the retina, or optic nerve. Albugo, and cataract, may be removed; the former by a careful application of nitrate of silver, at intervals ; and the latter, either by extraction, or by the operation of couching ; which consists in pushing the crystal- line lens aside, so that it shall not interfere with regular vision.
The diseases of the ear, the care of which belongs to the Jurist, are less numerous than those of the eye ; but, like them, often require surgical operations. The introduction of foreign substances into the ear, sometimes thoughtlessly effected by children, may cause serious injury, and deafness, unless speedily removed. When insects pene- trate the ear, they may be killed by dropping in olive oil, or a decoction of tobacco; and they may then be removed, like other substances, by syringing, or by means of the forceps, or probe. Deafness may also be produced either by too abundant, or too scanty secretion of cerumen, or wax of the ear ; and when this aggregates and hardens, it may be softened by means of olive oil.
To the Dentist, belongs that division of Surgery which relates to operations on the teeth. The teeth, are organized substances, con- taining nerves, and vessels, by means of which they grow : and the pressure of these vessels, when swollen, causes the very common complaint of odontalgia, or toothache; which sometimes results from injury or decay of the teeth, and sometimes from inflammation, as in colds or fevers. Hence, toothache is of\en removed by subdu- ing the inflammation : but when it is chronic, or long continued, it indicates exposure or disease of the nerves ; and when the teeth are decayed beyond repairing, the last resort is their removal. Teeth often decay from injury to the enamel $ which is. a peculiar coating, protecting the sensitive parts ; and which being gradually supplied, is not easily restored where it is once worn or broken through. Young persons should be cautioned against biting hard or rough substances, lest they suffer severely for this imprudence in after li^ ; and, for a like reason, we prefer prepared chalk, as a dentifrice, in habitually cleansing the teeth, and removing acid matter, rather than charcoal, which may injure the enamel.
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FOURTH PROVINCE;
TECHNOLOGY.
Ih the proTinee of Teehnology, is here indaded the stody of the Phyiical Arts ; or those which relate to material objects, and result from the physical constitotioii of the human race. The name is de- rived from the Greek, ffz^i?* an art, or trade ; and xoyosf a word, or discourse : and although the term has been sometimes applied in a more limited sense, lo the mere mechanic arte, we feel entirely jus- tified, from its convenience and propriety, in giving it the extension here proposed. We comprehend in this province, the departments of ArchiieehnieMf or the arts of Construction and Communication ; Chreoieehmcif or Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce ; Ma- €heteehnie$9 or the Arts of War ; and CaUoteehmcit or the Fine Arts, in a limited sense ; exclusive of Poetry and Romance, which have formed the basis of a preceding department The reasons for this arrangement have already been given, in the introduction to the pre- sent work ; (pp. 34 — 36) ; with the distinction between the Sciences and Arts ; and the reasons why they have not been uniformly sepa- rated, in the present classification. The claims of Technology, as here defined, may, we think, be easily vindicated, to constitute one of the four great provinces of human knowledge ; the relative im- portance of which has never been more highly estimated than at the present day.
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Xm. DEPARTMENT:
ARCHI TECHNICS.
In the department of Architechnics, we include the stady of the Arts of Construction, and Communication or Convection ; that is of building and conveyance ; comprehending, of course, the requisite preliminary information. The name is derived from the Greek, apxoii chief; and ttzpfj, an art; being suggested by the name of Architecture, one of its prominent branches ; though, perhaps, suffi- ciently appropriate, aside from this consideration. It naturally com- prehends the study of the materials used in the arts, which may be termed Hylurgy ; the construction of preparatory apparatus, or Ma- chinery ; and the kindred branches of Architecture ; Civil Engineer- ing, or Yiatecture ; Ship Building, or Navitecture ; and the manage- ment of vessels, or Navigation, including Seamanship.
The study of materials and machinery, including the application of mechanical forces, belongs in some degree to all the departments of Technology : but as they find in this department some of their most important uses, and must therefore, be studied here, at least in part, we have chosen to include them generally, as introductory branches of Architechnics ; referring back to them, in the subsequent parts of the work, whenever there shall be occasion. We might have considered these subjects as merely contingent to other branches; and have treated of each kind of material or machine, only when speaking of its application : but as the same article is often used for various purposes, the description of it would still, in many cases, have been separated from the account of its use ; while many im- portant principles, relating to materials and machines in general, would thus have been entirely neglected.
The arts of construction, and of conveyance, are among those which have highly contributed to the intellectual advancement of our race ; and which have, therefore, received much attention from both scientific men and statesmen. The modem improvements in public and private edifices, especially in regard to warming and ventilation, have provided new facilities for the elevated pursuits of science, and safer depositories for its accumulated stores ; while public halls have become more comfortable and attractive resorts, for those who seek instruction or amusement. As knowledge has thus been accumulated at central points, the numerous means of conveyance and communi- cation, provided by ancient and modern art, have furnished the ne- cessary channels for its general diffusion and circulation ; often re- flecting back new and fresh supplies to the original sources. Con- sidered in this point of view, the arts of Commerce and Printing
431
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might be associated with the present group, as powerful means of diffusing useful knowledge : but on account of other relations and dependences, those arts are reserved for the subsequent departments.
We have here spoken of the intellectual utility of the arts of con- struction and conveyance ; from which their favorable influence on morals, might, we think, be justly inferred : but their immediate im- portance to the physical comfort and well-being of our race, is much more obvious, if not more certain. The improvements in architec- ture, above referred to, have doubtless contributed essentially to the general improvement in health, and corresponding decrease in the bills of mortality, exhibited in modem statistics ; while the improve- ments in conveyance, have greatly stimulated commercial pursuits, and thus furnished greater supplies of desirable commodities ; be- sides enlarging the personal intercourse, and with it the social rela- tions, of the various branches of the human family. That there are drawbacks to these advantages, we must, indeed, admit, in the in- creasing opportunities for crime, and temptations to luxury and vice ; but most reluctantly should we believe that these drawbacks could ever countervail the positive benefits already adverted to.
The arts embraced in the present department, depend, generally, like most of the following branches of Technology, on tlie principles of Acrophysics, or Natural Philosophy and Chemistry. Accordingly, they have been mostly classed by Dr. Ure, in his Philosophy of Manufactures, under the divisions of Mechanical^ and Chemical Jlrls, Were these arts intermingled with the sciences on which they depend, this principle of classification would become a necessary one ; although it would separate processes which are closely connected in their prac- tice and application. But since, in the present work, we have adopted the plan of separating the physical arts from the physical sciences, in order that the principles peculiar to each may be examined in their natural connection ; we here, for a similar reason, adopt the method of treating the arts, rather in reference to their general uses and objects, than to the scientific principles on which they depend. These prin- ciples we suppose to have been previously studied ; and they may then be easily referred to, in treating of Technology, as often as they are called in question.
The history of Architechnics, will be more naturally distributed under its different branches : but we may here remark how rapidly most of these arts have been improved in modem times. The ancients were not entirely unacquainted with machinery ; though their ponderous stractures appear to have been raised, chiefly, at a great sacrifice, by unaided human force. They made roads, and even canals ; though without locks to overcome inclinations of the ground : and they built ships, some of which were of great size ; though gene- rally they were smdl, and their voyages coifiined to the coasts, lest they should lose themselves in venturing more widely. But it was reserved for modem science, to apply the magnetic needle, to guide the beclouded mariner, over trackless seas, to worlds before unknown; and to invent the atecun engtne, driving the rapid wheel along the iron road, or through the billowy deep; instinct with life and motion ; performing the labor and relieving the toils of thousands of horses ;
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yet governed by a touch of the hand ; by which a vapor, light as smoke, is revolutionizing the world. That these great results are due to physical science, it were vain to deny ; and well has art repaid the debt, by procuring for mankind the leisure to study science more profoundly, while seeking every channel for ameliorating the condition of the human race.
We proceed to treat of Architechnics, under the branches of Hylurgy ; Machinery ; Architecture ; Civil Engineering, or Viatec- ture: Ship Building, or Navitecture; and Navigation^ including Seamanship.
CHAPTER I.
HYLURGT.
We propose the term Hylurgy, to include the study of the various materials used in the arts, and of those elementary processes, for pre- paring and working them, which belong to no particular art, but are of general application. The name is derived from the Greek, vXf^r matter, or any material ; and ovpyca, work :, and it was suggested by the term Metallurgy, signifying the working of metals, which is of course included in this branch, at least so far as regards its elementary processes. The other classes of materials, which are here studied, are, as regards their origin, either earthy, vegetable, or animal ; and the present study relates to their selection, properties and qualities ; their strength, and durability, or preservation ; their uses, and their preparation. These subjects have been made the themes of large volumes ; and they are deemed sufficiently important to merit a place, as constituting a distinct, introductory branch of the arts.
Vitruvius, one of the earliest writers on Architecture, treats at large of the materials used in building, as a part of that branch ; and in this he has been followed by several later writers. But the same description of materials would apply, for the most part, equally well to Civil Engineering, and Fortification ; and as regards the use of wood, to Ship Building and various other arts. Hence, the propriety of separating these subjects, and forming them into a distinct branch, will, we trust, be fully evident. Among the leading topics which this branch should embrace, we will here mention Mining, Metallurgy, and Smithery, as belonging chiefly tothe metals ; Quarrying, Brick- making, Masonry, and Stonecutting, as belonging chiefly to earthy materials ; and Forestwork, Carpentry, and Joinery, relating chiefly to wood ; to which may be added various minor subjects, not belonging immediately to special manufactures ; since these latter are reserved for the next department of the arts. The important topic of the strength of materials, may properly form the subject of a distinct and concluding section of Hylurgy.
The history of the materials used in the arts, is, as might be expected, quite obscure. Vulcan is reputed to have been the first blacksmith ; and some writers have supposed this personage to have 55 2 0
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been the Tubal Cain, mentioned in the Scripture, as the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron, long before the Deluge. Ithonus, of Thesnaly, is said to have been the first who melted the metals, and coined money ; that is, as we must limit the tradition, the first among the Greeks. Iron is said to have been discovered accidentally, by the burning of Mount Ida, 1406 B. C; but the early mention of it in the Scriptures, above quoted, shows that this could not have been its first discovery ; though it is generally admitted that gold, silver, and copper were the metals first known. The brass and copper mines of Cyprus, were discovered by Cinyra ; and the iron mines of Crete are said, by Hesiod, to have been discovered by the Dactyl i, or priests of Cybele. The other metals, known to the ancients, have already been referred to, under Chemistry; (p. 370); but we may here add that the brass spoken of in Scripture, was probably, for the most part, bronze; or an alloy of copper with tin, rather than zinc. Masonry, perhaps of a simple kind, was practised at least as early as at the building of the Tower of Babel ; and the walls of Babylon, like the present houses in the east, were made of bricks unburnt, but dried in the sun.
If we may judge from the progress of the arts among savage na- tions, the working of stone would naturally precede that of the metals: and not only might rude edifices be built of them ; but rude instru- ments could be formed of them, for cutting wood, and for domestic uses. The employment of leaves, vegetable fibres, and skins of animals, for clothing, was probably the first application of Hylurgy ; and next to this, the use of stones, bark, and wood, for constructing shelters, and procuring warmth. The invention of carpentry, was attributed by the Greeks to Daedalus : but this art must have been practised at a much earlier period ; that, for instance, of the building of the Ark, which sheltered the patriarchal family from the deluge. In modern times, the progress of scientific discovery has not only suggested new uses for materials already known ; but it has added various other materials to the List, and furnished new supplies, where the former ones seemed almost exhausted.
Some of these substances we are now to mention, under the heads of Metallic materials ; Earthy materials ; and Organic materials : and a section on the strength of Materials, will conclude the branch of Hylurgy.
§ 1. Of the Metallic Materials used in the arts, on which some- thing has already been said in the branch of Chemistry, a few prominent examples must here suffice. Of all the known metals, iron is the most useful ; and its ores, particularly the oxides, are the most abundantly diffused. From its great strengtli, and its property of welding, or uniting with another piece of iron, by hammering at a white heat, it serves many purposes for which no other metal could be employed. Although hard of itself, it is rendered much harder by combining it with charcoal, as in cast iron, or steel ; and then tempering it, by sudden cooling. Next to iron, in importance, is copper ; the only metal, except titanium, which has a red color. It is, like iron, quite malleable and ductile ; and hence much used in rolled sheets, to cover ships, and roofs, and form various utensils.
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When used for cooking, it should be tinned over ; as its rust and salts are poisonous. Tin, is a white metal, which produces a pecu- liar crackling sound when bent. It is used sparingly, for coating iron or copper; and for forming, with copper, bell-vietal and bronze, Lecult is a heavy, but sof^, bluish metal, easily tarnished, and, like tin, easily melted. It is poisonous internally; but there are few substances which will dissolve it: and it is much used for covering roofs and cisterns, and forming water pipes. Zinc, is a hard and brittle metal ; though ductile when hot ; and melting at a heat below redness. With copper, it forms brass, and pinchbeck.
Metallurgy t properly comprises the reducing of the metals from their ores, and the elementary processes of working them. Most of the metals are obtained from their oxides, sulphurets, or chlorides, by smelting $ that is by heating them with charcoal, or coke, and adding sometimes a flux, as of lime, or sand, to react upon the ores, and fuse them. The charcoal combines with the oxygen, and thus separates the metal ; which, in most cases, runs down, and is drawn out from the furnace. The sulphurets and chlorides, by roasting, or heating in the air, are converted into oxides ; and then reduced as above explained. The furnaces used, are either draught furnaces, which bum by the natural draught; or blast furnaces, into which the air is driven by bellows, or by machinery. Reverberatory fur- naces, have arched roofs, to reflect the flame back upon the ores. Among the processes of working iron, are casting, from the impure melted iron first obtained ; forging, or purifying cast iron, which is brittle, and hammering it into wrought iron, which is malleable ; rolling and drawing wrought iron into sheets, bars or wire ; and the converting of iron into steel, by combining it with a due portion of carbon. The worker in rough iron is called a blacksmith : but the filing and polishing of iron or steel is the work of the whitesmith $ and the worker in lead is called a plumber.
The art of Mining, or procuring metallic ores, mineral coal, and rock salt, from mines dug in the earth, supposes a knowledge of Geology , and oflen requires the aid of Machinery and Civil Engi- neering. Mines, are worked, either by sinking a shaft, or pit, like a well, and drawing up the materials, by means of a wheel and axle, or other machinery; or, when lying beneath a considerable slope, they are entered by tunnels ; commencing, externally, on the level of the bottom of the mine, or lower, in order to draw oflf the water which may infiltrate. The minerals sought, lie sometimes in veins ; but oftener in beds, or in successive thin strata ; requiring the removal of much superfluous matter. The occurrence of a fault, where the beds are broken across, and one part raised above the other, often perplexes the miner, and interrupts the work.
§ 2. The Earthy Materials, used in the arts, are principally stones, clay, sand, and lime ; used chiefly for building. In this relation, stones may be classified as either calcareous, containing lime, or its metallic base ; or siliceous, containing sand or silicic acid. Of cal- careous stones, the most important is marble, which is simply crys- tallized limestone ; it being easy to cut, and in mild climates suffi- ciently durable, though gradually disintegrated by frost. Gypsum,
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or sulphate of lime, may also be used for building ; but it is much softer than marble, and found in less abundance. Of silicious stones, granite is the most valuable for building ; being sufficiently hard and strong, and very durable. Basalt, and hornblende, are much harder, and of rarer occurrence ; but neniiic granite j and sienite, containing hornblende, are very useful and durable, though hard to cut. Gneiss f and especially mica slate^ are highly useful for flagstones; on account of their splitting in thin layers. Sandstone, also called freestone, is more easily wrought, but less durable ; and argillite, or clay slate, is chiefly used for covering roofs, and as a material for writing. Steatite, or soapstone, is valuable for resisting the effects of fire. To these and other similar materials, some reference has already been made, under the branches of Mineralogy and Geology. The quarrying of stones, is analogous to mining : but quarries are generally open to the sky ; and the stones are loosened by drilling holes, and either splitting the rock with wedges, or blasting with gunpowder.
Clay, a hydrous silicate of alumina, is extensively used in brick- making, as well as in pottery. Bricks, are made of well kneaded clay, struck in moulds of proper shape and size, then thoroughly dried in the sun, and afterwards burnt, to give them the requisite hardness. Lime, is obtained by calcining marble, limestone, chalk, or shells, to drive off the carbonic acid. Pure lime slakes freely, and swells greatly by the absorption of water ; hence it is also called fat lime / but mortar made of it does not harden under water. Hy- draulic lime, contains alumina, silex, iron, or some other impurity ; which makes it hard to slake, but causes it to harden under water, and thus to form what is called hydraulic mortar. Common sand may be used with hydraulic lime, to form this mortar ; or it may be formed of common lime with burnt clay, or bricks finely pulverized, which constitute what may be called a hydraulic base. Common mortar, contains from two to four parts of sand, to one of lime.
Masonry, is the art of building with stones or bricks, and mortar ; or it is the structure itself thus built. When laid without mortar, it is called dry, or open masonry; to distinguish it from mortar masonry. The stones, or bricks, should always be laid with their upper and lower surfaces horizontal, except in arches. When the stones are laid without any regular order, they form rubble masonry : but when in horizontal courses, they form coursed masonry ; and when the vertical joints are also regular, they constitute ashlar masonry, A header, is a stone laid crosswise in the wall ; and a stretcher, is one laid lengthwise ; the bottom of a stone being called the bed, and the top, the build. Masonry is strongest, when the stones break joints : the vertical joint, in one course, coming over or under the middle of a stone, above or below. The art of Stone cutting, rests on principles of Geometry, which we have no room here to apply.
§ 3. Of the Vegetable Materials, used in the arts, the most im- portant are, the different kinds of wood, obtained from the trunks of trees ; and vegetable fibres, used for making cloth and cordage. Of animal materials, we shall have no room here to treat. The most
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important kinds of wood, are the oak and pine. The oakf of the genus of plants called quercua, is hard, heavy, strong, and durable; particularly the white oak, and live oak ; which are the species most used in ship building. The pine, or genus pinus, is softer, and more easily wrought ; and, from its straightness, is generally used for the masts of vessels. The spruce, and cedar, resemble pine, in their properties and uses : the aah, is elastic and fissile ; the elm, and hickory, are tough and strong, but less durable when exposed ; and the maple, and black walnut, are used for furniture, as substitutes for mahogany. Chesnut, and hemlock or Canada spruce, are used for fences and coarse purposes ; and the bark of the hemlock and oak is used for tanning leather. Trees, after felling, or cutting, require to be seasoned, or freed from the sap, by drying, before they are used for building. fVater seasoning, consists in laying the wood for some time under water; in order that the fermenting juices may be dissolved out, before drying : and timber is also rendered more dura- ble, by saturation with corrosive sublimate, or blue vitriol ; as proved by Mr. Kyan, and others.
Carpentry, is tlie art of working in timber and boards, in framing and covering buildings ; though the covering, and especially the internal finishing, is distinctly called joinery. Timber, after being hewed, or sawed, into a proper shape, is framed, when the pieces form an angle with each other, by cutting mortices, or cavities, and tenons or projections, fitting closely together. When the timbers are at right angles, braces are required, extending obliquely across, from one to the other, to prevent the joints from springing. The great principle in framing, is, to arrange the timbers in triangles ; so that each side becomes a brace to the other two. A piece of timber which acts by pushing, or resisting compression, is called a strut; and one which acts by drawing, or tension, is called a tie. Timber may be lengthened, by uniting two or more pieces endwise ; either by splicing, or, as when they are notched into each other, by scarf- ing. Thick boards are called planks ; and small timber is called scantling.
§ 4. The Strength <^ Materials, is ascertained, primarily, by ex- periments on each difilerent kind : but when, by trials on specimens of various dimensions, the law of variation is found, the strength of > other pieces, of the same kind, may be approximately determined by calculation. When any material is drawn asunder lengthwise, the strain which it undergoes, is called tensive : when it is crushed lengthwise, as may happen to a column, the strain is compressive : when broken crosswise, the strain is transverse; and when fractured by twisting, the strain is called torsive. Hence, to resist these dif- ferent kinds of strain, there are required four corresponding kinds of strength ; which may take the same names as the kinds of strain or force which they resist. It is remarkable that oak is stronger than iron, for equal weights of the two materials.
The tensive strength, is directly proportional to the cross section ; without regard to the length. A bar of wrought iron, one inch square, will sustain about 65,000 lbs. of tension ; and a like sized bar of oak, will require about 14,000 lbs., to draw it asunder. The
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eompreaiive strength of a post, is neariy proportional to the greater side, into the square of the lesser, divided by the square root of the length. A cubic block of wrought iron, each side of which is one inch long, will bear a pressure of about 17,000 lbs. ; and a like cube of oak, will bear about 5,000 ibs., before crushing. The transverMe strength^ of a horizontal beam, is proportional to the breadth, into the square of the depth, divided by the length. The tonive strength^ is nearly proportional to the cube of the diameter, divided by the square root of (he length. These formulae are only approxi- mations ; and reference should always be had, as far as possible, to experiments on the same materials, and masses of nearly the same dimensions.
The manufacture of chemical articles, as the alkalies, acids, and various salts ; and the preparation of paints and dye stuffs, en a large scale ; would probably find its most appropriate place, in our ar- rangement, as an appendix to Hylurgy.
CHAPTER II.
HACHINERT.
In the branch of Machinery, we would comprehend the appli- cation of the moving forces used in the arts, such as water, wind, and steam power ; and the construction of machines in general, so far as it may be considered to form a distinct class of arts. The name machine^ is of French extraction ; but derived originally from the Greek, fifjx<^i having the same signification. The construction and management of machinery, has, at the present day, become so extensive and technical, as, in our opinion, to require its separation from the science of Mechanics, and its location as a distinct branch of the arts ; depending, of course, on the principles of Mechanics and Hylurgy ; with special reference, also, to the objects for which machines are constructed. Although subservient to Civil Engineer- ing, Manufactures, and various other arts, most machines have so much similarity of construction, and are so oflen compared or con- trasted, that a connected study of them seems necessary to a full • course of Technology.
A niachine, may be defined as a structure serving to produce, or to regulate motion ; and to apply it to some special purpose in the arts : the object, in general, being a saving of time, or of force. Machines are applied, for accumulating power, as in the tilt hammer, and pile engine ;«-for regulating power, as in the fly wheel, and governor ; — ^for increasing the velocity, as in the turning lathe, and carding machine ; — for increasing the pressure, or tension, as in the lever, and other simple mechanical powers ; — for prolonging the ac- tion of a power, as in the clock, and watch ; — for registering opera- tions, as in the gas-meter, and anemometer ; — and for performing de- licate operations, more accurately than can be done by the hand alone, as in graduating machines, for dividing scales and circles, or in ma-
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chines for card-setting, dye-engraving, and coining. Machines do not create power ; but they serve as vehicles, or agents, by means of which it is applied : and whatever is gained by them, in the in- crease of pressure, or tension, is compensated for by the consequent loss of velocity. Generally, machines are employed to transmit mo- tion ; but in the case of presses, and in some other instances, their object is merely to maintain a continued pressure, or tension.
The simpler forms of machinery, known to the ancients, have already been referred to under the branch of Mechanics ; and their warlike machines will be reserved for the department of Machetech- nics. Machines for grinding grain, were, doubtless, of very early invention ; and the hand-mill is referred to in the New Testament. The upper stone was, in later times, attached to a shaft, and turned by oxen or asses. The invention of mills, has been ascribed to Myles of Sparta, and to Pilumnus, one of the gods of Rome : but they were certainly known, at an earlier period, to the oriental na- tions. Water-milhy were invented about the time of Mithridates ; near whose residence one was built: and floating water-mills, or tide mills, were constructed by Belisarius, when the Goths stopped the Roman aqueducts, A. D. 536. Wind-mills^ are said to have been invented in the time of Augustus ; but they were first introduced into central Europe, by the Crusaders, about the year 1100. Saw- mills^ are said to have existed in Germany as early as A. D. 350 ; but more certain mention is made of them at Augsburgh, in 1322. Paper-mills ^ are said to have been invented in the 14th century.
The elastic power of steam^ was known to Hero of Alexandria ; who applied it to produce the rotation of a hollow sphere* about 120 B. C. The invention of the steam engine, has been ascribed to Garay in Spain, in 1543; to Mathesius of Germany, in 1560; to Branca of Italy, in 1629 ; to Solomon de Cans, of France, in 1615 ; to the Marquis of Worcester, in 1663 ; and to Denis Papin of France, in 1690 : but none of their inventions deserves the name of a steam engine ; though they may have illustrated its principles. The first available application of steam power, was made in 1698, by Savery of England ; whose apparatus would more properly be called a steam pump. It was not till 1705, that the first steam engine, properly so called, was invented by Newcomen, a blacksmith of Dartmouth. It was an atmospheric engine ; the pressure of steam indirectly raising the piston, and the pressure of the atmosphere driving it down, when the steam was condensed.
Newcomen's engine was greatly improved by the addition of the safety valve, invented by Papin ; and of the self-acting valve rods, con- trived by Humphrey Potter; by which the engine was made to work itself, while he found time to play. This engine sufifered an enor- mous waste of heat, by the cooling of the cylinder at each stroke ; to remedy which was the object of James Watts's great improvement, in using a separate condenser. This was invented in 1763, but pa- tented in 1769^ to Watt and Roebuck, afterwards Watt and Bolton. By this invention, and by the application of the crank, to enable it to produce rotary motion, the steam engine has become that powerful agent in the arts which it is at the present day. The use of high
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pre9$ure en^nei, at leait in England, commenced with Messrs. Tre-
vithick and Vivian, in 1802 ; of which more will be said under Via- lecture, in treating of locomotives ; and under Navitecture, in relation to steamboats. The present water, wind, and steam power of Great Britain, are estimated to perform the labor of more than twenty millions of men.
Our farther remarks on Machinery will be arranged under the heads of Elements of Machinery ; Water power ; Wind, and Animal power ; and Steam power.
§ 1. The Elements of Machinery^ include, besides the simple me- chanical powers, and the theory of forces, already referred to under the branch of Mechanics, the various means of changing the direc- tion and application of forces ; and the classification of machines. Motion, in machinery, is either continuotUf or alternate, that is alter- nately in opposite directions. Continuous motion, on the earth's sur- face, can only be circular, or curvilinear, unless by a succession of matter, as in a running stream : but alternate or reciprocating motion may be either curvilinear^ or rectilinear, that is either in a curve, or in a straight line. Rotary, or circular motion, is transmitted from one axle to another, by hand wheels, one of which is turned by the friction of the band around them both ; or by rag wheels, having pro- jections, and surrounded by a chain instead of a band ; or by cog wheels, the teeth of which interlock; or by the perpetual screw, acting on a cog wheel ; or by a universal joint, directly connecting the axles ; or by double cranks, with two connecting rods, from the cranks on one axle, to those on the other. The axle of large wheels is often called the shafts and when two unequal wheels gear together, the smaller is sometimes called a pinion.
Rotary motion may be made to produce alternate motion, by means of cams, or eccentric and irregular wheels, pressing on levers ; and especially by means of cranks. Rectilinear motion may be made to produce circular, by acting on a circumference ; as in the rack, or toothed bar, acting on a wheel ; or in the unwinding of a cord ; or in the motion of windmills and water wheels. Alternate motion may be changed from circular to rectilinear, or the reverse, by means of a belt passing over a segment of a circle ; or by a vibrating crank and connecting rod. Alternate motion may be converted into continuous, by ratchet wheels, and catches ; or by scapements, as in clocks and watches. The engaging and disengaging of machinery, is performed, in the case of cogwheels, by moving one of them backward or forward in the direction of the axle ; in band wheels, by having live and dead pulleys, the latter turning separate from the axle ; and in other cases, by means of attaching pins, or separable levers, or con- necting rods. Machines may be classified, according to the kind of power employed, as wind mills, hand mills, steam mills ; or accord- ing to the nature of the process, as grist mills, saw mills, fulling mills ; or according to the material operated upon, as flour mills, sugar mills, and oil mills. On this subject we have no room to dwell.
$ 2. Heater Power, is generally applied by means of wheels, with floats or buckets, in striking which, the water turns the wheel.
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Water wheels, turning on a horizontal axis, are distinguished as overshot, undershot, or breast wheels. The overshot wheels receives the water at, or near its top ; and is turned by the pressure of the water, descending by the force of gravity. In practice, it is capable of raising as much water as is employed in turning it, to about three- fourths of the height of the wheel ; and the velocity of the circum- ference should be between two and five feet per second. The undershot wheel, receives the water near its lowest part; and is turned by the impulse, or momentum, which the water already has on striking it. It will raise an equal quantity of water to only one-third of the height through which the water that turns it would have to fall, to acquire the velocity with which it strikes the wheel. The breast wheel, receives the water at some intermediate height ; and the float boards move nearly in contact with a surrounding enclosure called an apron, so that the water can descend only by turning the wheel. It is intermediate between the preceding kinds, in its power; and is best suited for moderate falls, not sufficiently high for an overshot wheel.
For great heights, and a small supply of water, the chain wheel is sometimes used, consisting of an endless chain, passing continually around two rag wheels, at the top and bottom ; and hung with buckets, which, receiving the water near the top, descend on one side of the circuit by its pressure. The horizontal wheel, is occasionally used, with a vertical shaft, and oblique floats around its circumference, at the foot. When these floats are placed within a hollow cylinder, receiving the water from above, it is called a tub wheel. In several of these forms, the eflfect may be much diminished by the resistance of back water, remaining at the foot of the wheel. Tide mills, are usually undershot wheels ; resting on boats, moored in the current ; and turned by the tide.
§ 3. Wind Power, is still occasionally used, in those localities where water power is wanting ; although so uncertain in its continu- ance, that its use is necessarily limited. It is ordinarily obtained by means of the vertical windmill, turning on a horizontal axis, and having arms with oblique sails, revolving in a vertical plane. In this case, the sails should make an angle of only about 20 degrees, with the weather, or plane of rotation ; that is, an angle of about 70° with the axis ; and the axis should be capable of turning around horizon- tally, as the wind shifts, in order that it may act in whatever direction the wind blows. The Horizontal windmill, turns on a vertical axis, and has its sails so arranged that they may catch the wind and draw, during one-half of the revolution, but not during the other. Windmills are used for grinding grain ; but oftener for pumping water, either in salt works, or for draining.
Animal power, is necessarily used more frequently than any other kind; that of men, oxen, and horses, being the most generally employed. Where mere physical force is required, that of oxen, or horses, is preferable, from its being cheaper ; but where strength must be combined with skill, or applied on a small scale, that of man is alone available. The most favourable application of human strength, is in drawing, rather than pushing ; and it is greatest when 5%
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the joints, or limbs, are nearly straightened, as at the close of the stroke in pulling at an oar. An ordinary man is said to be capable of raising 6000 lbs. at the rate of one foot per minute, during 8 hours per day. The measure of a horse* 8 power , according to Mr. Watt, is, that he can raise 33,000 lbs. at the rate of one foot per minule, during 8 hours per day.
$ 4. The application of Steam Power^ depends on principles of mechanics and calorics, to which we have already referred ; and it now remains to describe the steam engine. The boiler, for generat- ing steam, is usually made of sheet iron, in a cylindrical form ; and with its gauges and safety valve, is rather a necessary appendage to the engine, Uian a part of the engine itself. The steam from the boiler, flows through the steam pipe, when the supply valve or throtde valve is opened, into one end of the cylinder; where it acts upon the piston, and presses it to the opposite end of the cylinder ; from which part the previous steam, or air, is allowed to escape. The steam being then admitted into this end of the cylinder, and let off from the other, drives back the piston, and thus causes it to move alternately forward, and backward, in the cylinder. The admission, and escape of the steam, is regulated by means of the steam, and exhausting valves ; which are so connected, by rods, or levers, with other moving parts, that they are mechanically opened, and shut, at the proper time. The piston rod, connecting the piston with the working beam, or with the crank rod, transmits the motion to the axle, in order to produce circular motion, either directly, or by means of the working beam.
In some high pressure en^nes,— especially for locomotives, — ^the steam is let off into the air, or goes to create a draught through the fire : and in such engines, the motion of the piston is constantly resisted by the atmospheric pressure ; but in the Watts, or condens^ ing engine, the steam escapes into a condenser, or separate cylinder, kept cold by an influx of cold water, through the condensing valve ; by means of which, the steam is almost immediately condensed, and its pressure on one side of the piston, in a great measure removed. The water resulting from this condensation, is exhausted from the cylinder, by the air pump ; and thrown into what is called the hot well. This hot water is carried back to the boiler, by means of the hot water pump ; and the condenser stands in what is called the cold well, supplied by what is termed the cold water pump, to assist in keeping it cool. The rotary motion of the axle, is equalized, where this is desirable, by means of a heavy fly wheel ; the mo- mentum of which keeps up the motion at the dead points of the crank: and the velocity may be regulated by means of a governor ^ consisting of heavy balls suspended from levers, on each side of a vertical axis ; and which, by flying off farther from the axle, if the velocity be increased, act on other levers, which at once diminish the supply of steam.
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CHAPTER III.
ARCHITECTURE.
ARCHiTECTUREt in a j^eneral sense, denotes the whole art of build- ing ; but the term is now usually restricted to what was formerly called Civil Architecture; or the building of dwellings and other edifices for civil purposes, with all their subordinate arrangements. The name is derived from the Greek, apzoi^ chief; and fexfi^v, build- er; or from apz^'f^xtovtM, the term by which this art was known among the Greeks. The building of ships, is sometimes called Naval Architecture ; and that of fortifications, Military Architecture : but these subjects are now generally regarded as distinct branches, and seldom called by these relative names. Architecture is occasion- ally spoken of, in reference to its ornamental parts, as one of the Fine Arts : but though it involves ornamental forms, and principles of taste, it is still, in the main, an art of construction, ranking even higher in utility, than in beauty and sublimity. The practice of this art, presupposes a knowledge of Geometry, of Mechanics, and of Hylurgy ; and requires a sound judgment, correct taste, and practi- cal skill and experience, for its successful prosecution.
As Architecture is one of the most useful, so is it one of the most ancient, among the arts. The earliest habitations of mankind were probably caverns, tents, rude cabins, and bowers of trees. From these, may have originated the four principal styles of Architecture, which have prevailed in the world; the Egyptian, or Hindoo; the Chinese, or Tartar ; the Classic ; and the Gothic. The Egyptian and Hindoo styles, appear to be the most ancient ; but their origin is lost in remote antiquity. They have since given way to the lighter style of the Arabs, and Tartars ; intioduced, by conquest, into Hin- doostan and China. The use of unburnt bricks^ may doubtless be traced back to the building of Babel and Babylon ; and the invention of tentSf for dwellings, is ascribed in the Mosaic Scriptures to Jabal, the son of Lamech, long before the Deluge.
The Grecian style of building, appears to have originated with the Doric order; the oldest specimen of which was the temple of Juno at Argos, built about 1400 B. C, under the reign of Dorus. The Ionic order, was invented by the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor, about 1000 B. C. : and the Corinthian order, is said to have been first employed by Scopas, about 430 B. C. ; the story that its capital was invented by Callimachus the sculptor, being doubtless fabulous. After Greece was subjugated by Rome, the Grecian orders were modified by the Romans; who added two other orders, of minor note ; the Tuscan, and the Composite. This style has been some- what further modified by the modern Italians ; but its best specimens are those modelled aflef the ancient Greek. The Gothic style, origin- ated as early as A. D. 1093, when pointed arches were introduced in Winchester cathedral, in England; or 1137, when they were used
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in the abbey chnrch of St DeniB in France. This style afterwards underwent successive modifications ; and it received its name from Inigo Jones, and Sir Christopher Wren ; both of whom gave a pre- ference to the Italian style.
We proceed to offer some farther details on this subject, under the heads of Elements of Architecture ; Oriental Architecture ; Classic Architecture ; and Gothic Architecture.
$.1. The Elements of Architecture^ comprise a description of the various parts of buildings, with their construction and tlieir modifica- tions. The foundations of a buildiog, are the lowest parts, usually carried below the earth's surface, to support the principal structure, or superstructure, resting thereon. They should extend to firm ground, below the reach of frost ; or, when the ground is soft, they should be commenced by driving pileSi or sharpened timbers, firmly down, for an adequate support The walls of a building, are the sides which form the enclosure , whether of stone, brick, wood, or other materials. Fire places, and chimneys, are usudly built in con- nection with the walls ; and doors are provided for entrance, and windows for admitting light. The part immediately over a door or window, supporting the wall above, is called a lintel; the projections around the top and sides, the architrave ; and the part at the foot is called the silL Arches, are used either for support, or enclosure, as over doors, between columns, or piers, and for ceilings.
The roof is the superior covering of a building ; and, if rounded, it is called a dome. Roofs are either flat, that is level ; or pent, that is with two opposite slopes ; or curb roofs, that is with a double slope on each side ; or hip roofs, having four slopes, extending down to the four walls. The frame of a roof, is composed of trusses; each including a pair of rafters, and a tie beam. A small dome, is called a cupola. Floors are surfaces for supporting persons and other objects, often dividing the building into upper and lower stories. Stairs, for connecting different stories, are either straight or wind- ing ; and their proportions depend on the length of the human step. Partitions, are used for separating rooms ; and galleries, in public buildings, for accommodating a greater number of persons. A piazza, is a colonnaded shelter, along the whole front of a building : but a portico shelters only the door ; and a balcony is a projecting floor on the outside of upper windows, not supported from beneath.
The front of a building, is called the fagade ; and the triangular part, at the end of the roof, is called the pediment. An order of Architecture, (Plate X.), usually comprises a colonnade, or row of columns, with their support and entablature. A stvlobate, is a colon- naded platform, with steps, extending around a building ; and a pedes- tal, is an elevated block, or mass, supporting one or more columns. A column, is a round pillar, or elongated support ; and a pilaster is a square one. A column usually consists of a base, or enlarged part, at the foot ; a shaft, or central part ; and a capital, or orna- mented part, at the top. The entablature, is the continuous part resting on the columns. It consists usually of an architrave, next above the capitals ; a frieze or central part, separated from the archi- trave by mouldings ; and a cornice, composed of projecting mould-
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ings; forming the eaves. Mouldings, are continuous ornaments, projecting or receding ; as the torus, or convex moulding, and the scotia, or concave moulding around the base of columns ; the echi- nU9, or convex moulding of the capital ; and the cymatium, and ogeti which are convex on the one side, and concave on the other. The ovolo, cavetto, and talon, shown also in Plate X., are chiefly confined to the Roman style of Architecture.
$ 2. Oriental Architecture, includes the Egyptian, Hindoo, Chi- nese, and Moorish, or Arabian and Turkish. Egyptian architecture, seems to have been modelled after the cavern or mound ; and it con- sists of catacombs, temples, pyramids, pillars, and colossal statues. It is characterized by sloping walls, with simple concave entabla- tures ; flat roofs, and ceilings ; and short ornamented columns : the capitals being sculptured with lotus leaves, human heads, or other figures ; the entablature sculptured with a winged globe ; and the walls, with a profusion of hieroglyphics. Of the pyramids, at Gizeh, that of Cheops is the largest building in the world ; being 500 feet high, and 690 feet square at the base. The temples of ancient Thebes, that is, at Karnac and Luxor, with their avenues of lions and sphynxes, are among the most sublime monuments of human labor; though consecrated to a debasing idolatry. Similar to these, in its effect, is the ancient Hindoo Architecture ; as illustrated in the caverns of Elephanta, Ellora, and Salsetta : but the modern buildings of India, are of a lighter oriental style. The ancient Persian archi- tecture, as shown by the ruins of Persepolis, closely resembled the Egyptian.
The Chinese style, modelled after the tents of the Tartar con- querors, is characterized by its light and airy verandahs, or piazzas, often enclosed by lattice work; its slender columns, and widely projecting concave roofs ; and its many storied pagodas, or idol temples, often octagonal, and covered with porcelain, with litde bells hung at the angles; as in the porcelain tower at Nankin. The Moorish architecture, of Arabian origin, is also, for the most part, light and airy ; with numerous minarets, or small domes, projecting above the roofs ; with internal courts, shade trees, and fountains ; and with a profusion of ornamental tracery, or lattice work, resem- bling birds and flowers, called from its origin arabesque, and bearing some resemblance to the Chinese.
§ 3. Under the head of Classic Architecture, we comprehend the Grecian and Roman styles, with their later modifications. The Grecian style comprises three orders ; the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- thian. The Doric Order, (Plate X.), is characterized by its strength and simplicity : being the oldest order, and evidently modelled after the primitive log cabin. Its columns, resting on a stylobate, are usually 5 or 6 diameters high ; and are peculiar in having no base : but are fluted, like those of the Grecian orders generally. The capital comprises an echinus, surmounted by an abacus, or tablet. The entablature is about one-third as high as the column : and the architrave is plain : but the frieze is composed of alternate triglyphs, or grooved projections, and metopes, or intermediate pannels, some- times sculptured. The cornice comprises the mutules^ or sloping
2P
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blocks, like the ends of rafters, with gultse or conical drops under- neath ; above which is the corona, or larmier, projecting far out to form the eaves ; and above this is the echinus f or crowning mould- ing. The best model of this order, is the Parthenon, or temple of Minerva, in the Acropolis or citadel of Athens.
The Ionic order, (Plate X.), is more slender than the Doric, and is recognized by its simple volutes, or parallel scrolls, one on each side of tlie capital ; their front ends being connected by what is called an apron ; with an echinus, but no leaves, underneath. The Attic base, as well as the peculiar Ionic, consists of two loruses, (tori), or projecting mouldings, and an intermediate scotia. The columns are usually 7 or 8 diameters high ; and the entablature less than one- third as high as the columns. The architrave consists of either one or three fascias, or distinct and slightly projecting surfaces ; but the frieze is undivided, though often sculptured. The cornice has a row of (lentils, or small tooth-like blocks, instead of mutules, underneath the corona ; above which, the crowning moulding is usually a cyma- tium. As examples of this order, we may mention the Erectheum, in the Acropolis at Athens ; and the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
The Corinthian order, (Plate X.), still more delicate than the Ionic ; from which it is distinguished also by two rows of leaves, sculptured on the capital, beneath the apron. The Corinthian base has two scotias, alternating with three toruses ; and the capital has not only four volutes, meeting obliquely at the angles, but smaller spirals, called caulicolsB, between the- leaves of the upper row ; the whole surmounted by an ornamental abacus. The column is 9 or 10 diameters high ; the shafts, as in the preceding orders, being generally /luted, or cut in grooves ; and the entablature is rather lower than the Ionic, in proportion to the height of the column. The architrave has three fascips; the frieze is either plain, or sculptured with figures ; and the cornice has dentils, and a corona, like tlie Ionic ; but is surmounted by dactyls, a favorite Grecian ornament, resembling leaves, united in clusters, like the fingers. The purest Corinthian model, was the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, in the Acropolis at Athens ; built before this order was modified by the Roman con- quest.
The Romans adopted the three Grecian orders ; but altered them, we think generally for the worse ; by the introduction, for instance, of circular arcs, instead of elliptical, for the section or contour of the mouldings ; and by adding a profusion of sculptured omamentB. The Tuscan order, is like the Roman Doric, deprived of its tri^yphs; and the Composite order, also added by the Romans, may be re- garded as a combination of the Roman Ionic and Corintliian ; though sometimes less ornamented than the latter: whereas, it would seem to belong at the end of the scale, as the lightest and gayest of all the orders. The Arch of Titus, at Rome, was of the Composite order ; but the Pantheon and temple of Jupiter Stator, were of the Corinthian. The Coliseum, at Rome, was a vast amphitheatre, capable of holding more than 90,000 persons. The great modem churches, — St. Peter's at Rome, and St. Paul's in London,- essentially in the Roman style.
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PLATE X. ARCHITECT1TRE.
d
Or. Torus
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Or. Seotia
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Bcbiniu
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Cymatlu
^
Ogee
MOULDINGS.
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Astragal
Annulet
FUlet
Rom. Torus
J
Rom. Scotia
I
Cavetto
T
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Ovolo
Talon
i^
GRECIAN ORDERS.
DORIC.
liifilrtilll.i 1,1 uj|i[
IONIC CORINTHIAN.
Encraved by R. 8. QHbert, PMU.
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$ 4. The term Gothic Architecture^ is applied to* that style which prevailed throughout Great Britain, France, and Germany, in the churches and castles huilt during the feudal and recent ages. It is characterized by the great height j and long vertical lines of its edifices; its lofty towers and spires ^ the former square, the latter pointed, as it were to pierce the sky ; its buttresses, or projecting external piers, to strengthen the walls, with pinnacles surmounting them ; its pointed arches, over doors and windows, the latter often subdivided by mullions ; its clustered columns, formed of several small ones united ; its groined ceilings, formed by pointed arches, often springing from pillars or corbels, and meeting in the groins or ogyves ; and, finally, its great display of ornaments, or tracery and entail, on the ceilings^ and around windows, and the galleries of churches. This style, therefore, unites the qualities of strength, sublimity, and neatness ; producing, we think, especially in large buildings, a pleasing and solemn effect.
In the early Gothic style, from 1189 to 1272, the arches were acute, or lancet. In the pure Gothic, from 1272 to 1461, the arches were equilateral ; each side being an arc of 60^ : and in the florid Gothic, from 1461 to 1509, the ogee arch was used ; the upper part being convex downward, and the whole depressed or flattened. The catludrals, or minsters, that is the central churches of the dioceses, had generally a ground plan in the form of a cross ; the nave, or longest branch, being turned towards the west, where was the main portal, or entrance ; the choir facing the east, with its large oriel, or bay window; and the north and south branches being called the transepts. The choir contained the chancel : and the rood loft, so named from the holy rood, or holy cross, was placed in the centre of the cathedral. Ttic best English specimens of this style, are the cathedrals of York, Ely, and Lincoln ; and Westminster Abbey.
CHAPTER IV.
VIATECTURE.
We propose the term Viatecture, as nearly synonymous with Civil Engineering, to include the construction of roads and bridges, rail- roads, and canals, and water works ; and the improvement of rivers and harbors. The basis of this term, in the Latin word via, a road, or way ; as the construction or improvement of ways of communica- tion is the principal object of Civil Engineering. The word En- gineer, or its primitive word engine, is derived from the French engin, signifying any complex machine, but applied originally to machines used in war; the managers of which were termed En- gineers. Civil Engineering was comprehended by Vitruvius, and the older writers, as a part of Architecture : and it was not until about the year 1760, that the term Civil Engineer was applied to the builders of roads, bridges, and canals ; to distinguish them from Engineers, primarily so called, or Military Engineers. The term
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Topographical Enginettf has been more recently applied to those persons engaged in making surveys or reconnaisances for viatectoral, or similar purposes.
In 1771, Mr. John Smeaton, the constructor of the Eddystone Light House, and other works, procured the formation of a Society of Civil Engineers ; since which time, this art has been recognized as a distinct profession. The term Civil Engineering has since been more widely extended, at least by some writers, to include the con- struction of machinery in general, and the arts of metallurgy and mining. For this reason, and for greater symmetry in the nomen- clature, we have ventured to propose the term Viatecture^ as above defined, to include a more limited and distinct range of objects, all of which properly be comprehended as arts of conveyance. The qua- lifications of the viattct, or civil engineer, should be essentially the same as those of the architect ; though somewhat differendy directed. On the importance of this art, already alluded to, in introducing this department, as one of the means by which improvement is extend- ing its march among the nations, we have no farther room to ex- patiate.
The construction of Roadsj must have commenced at an early period of history ; and those of the Romans are justly celebrated ; some of them being of masonry, several feet deep. Great improve- ments have been made, in modem France and England, particularly by McAdam and 'J*elford, in the construction of stone roads, at once both cheap and durable. Of Bridges ^ the earliest remains are those of the Romans ; who constructed no fewer than six, across the Tiber, at Rome. The first cast iron bridge, was that of Colebrookdale, over the Severn, erected in 1777. The earliest Canal for navigation that we can mention, was in Egypt, from the Nile to the Red Sea, begun by Necho, 616 B. C. ; and completed by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 280 B. C. Other canals were constructed in Egypt; and a few in Italy, by the Romans, chiefly for purposes of draining. Locksj were invented in Holland, about A. D. 1371 ; and used soon after in Italy. The first great canal in France, was that of Briare^ uniting the rivers Loire and Seine ; begun in 1605, but completed in 1642 : and the first of magnitude in England, was the Duke of Bridgewater^s canal, extending from his coal mines, to Manchester, begun in 1758, and completed in 1776; Mr. Brindley being the Engineer. The Mid- dlesex canal, in Massachusetts, the first of note in the United States, was begun in 1789, and completed in 1808; under the supervision of Col. Baldwin.
Railroads^ appear to have been used in the stone quarries of an- cient Egypt; and, at a more recent period, in the mines of Germany. They were first introduced in England, at the coal mines near New- castle, in 1630 or 33. Iron rails were not used until 1738; nor on any extensive work until 1767, when they were employed at Cole- brookdale. The first railroad in the United States, was that from the stone quarries, in Quincy, Massachusetts, to Boston harbor; completed in 1827. Locomotive engines, of imperfect construction, were invented and patented, as early as 1802, by Trevithick and Vivian ; but it was not till 1829, when the great trial took place on
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the Liverpool and Manchester road, that their importance was appre- ciated ; and they were found to be adapted for rapid, as well as cheap transportation.
The subject of Viatecture, is naturally divided into the study of Common Roads and Bridges ; of Rail Roads ; of Canals and Water- works; and of River and Harbor Improvements. Perhaps Gas Lighting belongs most closely to this branch of the arts ; to which, if so, it may be regarded as an appendix.
$ 1. The construction of Common Roads^ as well as of other via- tectural works, should be based on a reconnaisance of the route or location; requiring, in all important cases, a regular survey, with levellings. The arts of Surveying, and Topography^ belong, we think, more closely to this than to any other branch of the arts; and although they depend on mathematical principles, they are rather applications than essential parts of Mathematics. Roads, should, of course, be as straight as the places to be connected, and difficulties in the way, will allow. The rise should not be greater than 1 foot in 14, or 1-14; unless in extreme cases. The transverse, or cros& section, should be convex ; and for a road 20 or 24 feet wide, at least 6 inches higher in the middle than on the sides. Side drains, to carry off the water, and occasional cross drains, are necessary, to preserve roads in good order. To prevent the action of rain and frost on earthen roads, is the object of stone roads; which are covered with a crust of finely broken stone, called metal, from 8 to 12 inches deep, ultimately becoming so compact as to resist th^ im- pression of carriage wheels.
Bridges, are variously constructed, of wood, stone, or iron : and they may be classed either as elevation, or suspension bridges ; the latter hanging on chains, firmly fixed at the extremities. Bridges should always rest on firmly founded piers. The simplest piers, used for wooden bridges, are formed by driving piles ^ or sharpened posts, in rows, crosswise of the bridge; and these rows framed together with cross timbers, are sometimes called trestles* Stone piers are sometimes founded by means of a coffer dam, or strong enclosure ; from which the water is pumped out, leaving the bottom temporarily dry. Sometimes they are built in a close caisson, or water tight box, made to sink in its place, as it is filled with the masonry : and sometimes they are built by means of an open caisson, made of piles and pile planks driven down, and filled vriih beton, or a mixture of small stones and hydraulic mortar. The ends of piers, called starlings, have usually a rounded or pointed form, to break the ice, and divide the water in its passage. The abutments, or extreme piers, when tliey are to resist the pressure of an arch on one side only, have need of great thickness and strength.
$ 2. The construction of BaU Boads, like that of the best common roads, requires a careful preliminary survey, and great judgment in the location. The track, or line of parallel rails, must have no angu- lar points, but change its direction by means of curves ; which, unless in extreme cases, should have a radius of not less than 400 feet Neither should the slope, or inclination of the road, exceed 30 feet in a mile, or in extreme cases 50 feet ; if intended for locomotives with 57 2p2
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450 ARCHITECHNIC8.
eonsiderable loads. A. greater rise than this, is sometimes overcome by inclined planes; with stationary engines, or other additional power. A locomotive engine^ witii 4 tons of its weight resting on the driving wheels, will draw with a force of at least 360 lbs. or l-25lh of its driving weight, without slipping on the rails : and this force of traction will draw a load, on level rails, at least 200 times as great, that is of 200 times 300 lbs. ; or at least 32 tons.
After a rail road is grculed, the excavations generally supplying earth for the embankments, the latter should have time to settle be- fore the rails are laid down. Rails of wrought iron, are now preferred to those which are cast ; as being stronger for the same weight, and less liable to fracture. The train raiU^ formerly used, having a flange to keep the wheel from running off, are now almost entirely superseded by the edge raiU with is rounded on the top, and does not collect the dust ; the flange being transferred to the wheel. The rails sometimes rest on wooden string pieces and cross sleepers ; but the best are fastened to stone sleepers, by means of iron chains, or fixtures. To enable the engines to pass each other, turnouts and crossings are constructed ; with a switch, or moveable rail, to direct the car either to the main track or to the side one.
$ 3. The construction of Canals, and fVater Works, is based, like the preceding works, on a careful survey and location. Canals are used either for irrigation, or watering; including aqueducts, for supplying water to buildings and cities ; or for desiccation, as for draining marshy land ; or for navigation, which last are the more numerous and important class. Ship Canals are usually 20 feet deep ; sloop canals, 8 or 10 feet ; and boat canals, from 3 to 6 feet deep ; the banks having usually a slope of about 2-3, or two in height, to three of base. A canal must either be on one continuous level, or divided into several levels : and if one of these be higher than those on either side, it is called the summit level; being the most difficult to supply with water. This supply sometimes requires the construction of large and expensive reservoirs, and feeders.
The passage from one level to another, is effected by means of locks, formerly called chamber locks ; with gates at each end. By shutting the lower gates, and gradually filling the lock, a boat, within it, is raised to the higher level ; and the upper gates may then be opened, for it to pass on its way. The locks should, if possible, be so located, and the canal kept of such a height, that the contiguous excavations and embankments may be equalized, as nearly as cir- cumstances will allow. Canals sometimes pass over streams, on aqueducts, or strong bridges ; and sometimes, as in the case of rail roads, they are made to pass through mountains, by tunnels, dug for the purpose. Small streams pass under canals, through culverts ^ and superfluous water is carried ofl* from canals by waste wiers. The supply of water required, will depend upon its loss, by leakage, lockage, and evaporation.
5 4. The improvement of Rivers and Harbors, depends partly on the removal of obstructions, and partly on the construction of liydrau- lie works; requiring a thorough knowledge of the theory of currents, waves, and tides. The navigation of rivers, is improved by removing
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shoals, rocks, mud, trees, and snags, from the channel: and these im- provements are effected by various means ; as by washings that is, causing a sudden flood to carry away the obstructions ; or by dred' ging, removing the earthy niatter with a dredging machine ; or by blasting, for the removal of rocks ; or by cutting and dragging, for the removal <)f driftwood, snags, and sawyers. These latter, stand erect in the water ; but the snags are fixed ; while the sawyers have a vibratory motion. Where the current is deadened, producing a shoal, the remedy is a wing dam, diminishing the width, and increas- ing the velocity. Where the current is too strong, producing rapids, the remedy is a short canalt with locks, and a dam if necessary at its upper end ; for passing around the rapids or falls.
Harbors are improved, by removing obstructions, as above ex- plained ; and by building wharves, docks, and marine railways, for lading or repairing vessels ; with light-houses, and beacons, to guide ships in entering; and piers, moles, jetties, or breakwaters, to shelter the harbor; or sea walls, and revetments, to protect the shores from abrasion. Dry docks, are so constructed, with strong gates bracing outward, that the water may be exhausted, af\er the ship has entered to be repaired. Wet docks, are made to be kept always full, and entered by ships only at high tide; in harbors where, without this aid, the falling tide would leave them aground. Jetties, are walls designed to turn the current, and wear the channel deepest in certain parts of the harbor. Breakwaters, are usually formed of a great mass of stone thrown into the sea, till it forms a wall rising above the surface, to shelter an important and exposed position from the waves. This subject is an extensive one ; but we have no room here to pursue it
CHAPTER V.
NAVITECTTTRE.
The branch of Navitecture, or Ship Building, relates to the con- struction of all vessels ; whether ships or steamboats. We here ex- tend the term to include a description of the rigging of ships ; to- gether with the construction of small boats, technically called boat building. The name Navitecture, is derived from the Greek vwvi, a ship, and ttxtcw, a builder ; and the appellation of navitect, would be applicable to persons engaged in this branch of art. The word ship, is from the Saxon scip, or the German schiff; and it is often used in a general sense, as synonymous with vessel ; though it has also a specific meaning. Ship building is an art of great antiquity and importance ; requiring a knowledge of the higher principles of Mechanics, and of Hylurgy, and Architecture, for its successful prosecution.
The first vessels, built in the primitive ages, were small boats, or rafts ; sometimes covered with skins, and used for crossing rivers, or coasting within sight of the shore. The invention of scAls has
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452 ARCHITfiCKNICS.
been attributed to Daedalus ; but, on thiB point, nothing certain is known. The Phoenicians improved the art of ship building ; and constructed vessels of greater size and strength. Sailyarda, are said to have been invented 1240 B. C. ; and anchors were used as early as 700 B. C. ; previously to which, vessels in harbor were either stranded, or secured by halsers. The Romans dedicated their ships to particular divinities ; and built some few vessels of enormous size. The invention of the Compass, already alluded to under magnetism, (p. 362), and especially the extension of voyages to the Indies, and to America, in pursuit of wealth, led the Spaniards and Portuguese to a bolder style of ship building, which was adopted and farther im* proved by the English. The ships built two or three centuries ago, were very high at the ends, and liable to bend, or become broken- backed. The theory of mechanics was first thoroughly applied to ship building, by Paul Hoste, in a work published at Lyons, in 1690; and this theory has been farther extended by Navier, in France ; Atwood, in England ; and Chapman, in Sweden.
The first project of Steam Navigation, worthy of notice, appears to have been that of Jonathan Hulls, of England; who, in 1736, proposed the construction of a steam tow boat, with paddles at the stem. In 1781, the Marquis Jefiroy, or Joufiroy, is said to have built a steam boat at Lyons, in France. In 1783, Rumsey of Va. conceived the plan of a steam boat, propelled by the reaction of a current of water, forced through the boat, in a cylinder extending its whole length: and he actuaUy built a boat on this plan. In 1787, Mr. Fitch built a steam boat at Philadelphia, moved by vertical oars at the sides, and with considerable effect. The first boat actually propelled by steam, in England, was built by Symington, in 1788, with paddles at the stern. The project of propelling a boat by means of paddle wheels at the sides, was suggested by Oliver Evans of Philadelphia ; and actually executed by him in 1804. But all these attempts were con- sidered, by the world at large, as failures : and it was reserved for our countryman Fulton, to demonstrate the utility of steam naviga- tion; by constructing, in 1807, a boat which maae regular voyages, from that time onward, between New York and Albany. This improvement was not adopted in Great Britain, till the year 1812. The first voyage across the Atlantic, by steam, was made in 1819, by our countryman, Capt. Rogers ; and the present system of trans- atlantic steam navigation, which commenced in 1838, forms a new era in this art, if not in the history of the world.
We shall treat briefly of Navitecture, under the heads of Ship Building, Ship Rigging ; and Steamboats.
i 1. The process of Ship Building, requires accurate drawings; which are often made on a large floor, and of the full size of the vessel. The drawing in elevation, is called the sheer plan ; and gives the height and appearance of the ship as seen from one side. The cross section, showing the ship as seen from behind, is called the body plan ; and a drawing of the ship, as seen from above, is called the deck plan^ or half-breadth plan. These drawings presuppose a thorough knowledge of this art; as of the displacement of water by the ship ; its centres of gravity and buoyancy ; its stability or
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resistance to overturning; the best shape for sailing, and for re- ceiving the load ; the position of the masts and sails ; and other considerations.
The fore part of a vessel is called the boWt or stem ; and the hinder part, the stem. The lowest part, formed of projecting timbers, is the keel; which runs along the whole length, from the cut water , in front, to the rudder, by which the ship is steered, at the stern. The rudder is turned, in small vessels, by means of the helm or tiller ; but in large vessels, by means of a wheel and axle. The floors of a vessel, are called decks ; and a higher portion, at the stern, is called the quarter deck. An opening through the deck, to receive the lading, is called a hatchway, or hatch ; and the space within the vessel, which contains the cargo or load, is called the hold. The body of the vessel is called the hull ; and the masts, sails, and ropes, for moving and managing the hull, are called the rigging.
The timbers of a ship being shaped, by means of patterns, from the drawings ; the framing is commenced in the ship yard, usually near the water's edge. The keel is first laid, on the stocks, or supports prepared for it ; and to this, the stem and stem posts are framed ; being held in their place by shores or props. The ribs, or floor timbers, forming the sides of the ship, are next set up, and framed into the keel ; and the angles at the ends of the ship, on each side of the stem and stem posts, are filled up by timbers called futtocks, held more firmly by top timbers, crossing them at the top. The keelson, stemson, and stemson, are then fitted over the keel, and end posts ; as it were, doubling the keel, on the inside, and securing the whole together more firmly. The beams, or deck timbers, are then laid across ; and the joints which they form with the ribs, are braced by knees ; one branch of which is bolted to the rib, and the other to the beam. The frame is then ready for planking, calking, sheathing, coppering, and launching; all of which is done before the rigging commences.
§ 2. The Rigging of Ships, is, we think, more closely connected with Navitecture than with Seamanship ; though it must necessarily be understood by sailors. A mast, is a timber, or series of timbers, erected in a ship, to carry the sails. When there are two masts, rising from the deck, the hinder is called the mainmast, and the other, the foremast. When there are three, the hinder is called the mizenmast ; the next the mainmast; and the other the foremast. When shorter masts are placed above these, they are called topmasts ; as the fore or main-topmast ; and other masts, placed above these, are called topgallantmasts ; distinctively named from the lowest masts which support them. Spars extending horizontally across the masts, are called yards, being named from the masts, and usually supporting square sails ; while a boom, extending back from the foot of a mast, and a gaff, back from the top, support a trapezoidal fore- and-aft sail ; as the mainsail in sloops and schooners. The bowsprit, projecting over the stem, and the jib-boom, in prolongation of it, receive the lower end of the iib and flying jib; which are triangular fore-and-aft-sails, extending down from the top of the foremast, to keep the vessel's head to the wind. Similar to these, are stay-
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sails, extending from the top of any maat, to the foot of the one next before it. The square sails, like the yards which support them, are named from the contiguous masts ; and studding sails are sometimes added on each side, to enlarge them, when the wind is light.
The masts are held more steady by the shrotuts ; which are strong ropes extending from their tops down to the sides of the ship; and which, with cross ropes called rattling»^ form ladders for the sailors to ascend. The masts are prevented from falling backward, by 8tay9y or ropes extending from tlieir tops downward and forward ; and their back-stays have the reverse effect. The ropes for support- ing the bowsprit and jib-boom, are called bobstays, martingales, and guys. Those for managing the sails, are halyards, for raising them ; sheets, for turning them to the wind ; with tacks, braces, lifts, and clewlines ; all of which are called running rigging, to distinguish them from the standing rigging, which remains fixed.
Vessels are differently named, according to the manner of their rigging. A sloop, has but one mast; with gib, and mainsail, and sometimes a square topsail. A schooner, has two masts, but with fore-and-aft sails, except the topsails. A brig, has two masts, both carrying square sails; and a brigmitine has two masts, but the hinder, or mainmast, is rigged like that of a schooner. A ship, has three masts, all square rigged : a barque has three masts, but the mizen mast not square rigged; and a three masted schooner, has three masts, all fore and aft rigged. A ship of 500 tons burthen should be about 100 feet long, and 30 broad ; drawing about 12 feet of water.
§ 3. The construction o( Steamboats, is similar to that of sailing vessels, except in the arrangements for applying the moving force. Steamboats require to be built very strong, on account of the strain and jarring of the machinery ; but the general arrangement of the framing is the same as that which we have already described. For river navigation, and transportation of passengers, the deck is made much wider than the body of the vessel, by an extension of the deck timbers ; an arrangement which, for ocean navigation, would be un- safe. The proper adjustment of the engine or engines, to the boat, as regards weight, shape, position, and power, is of course a subject of the highest importance. A steamboat of 300 tons burthen, suited for river navigation, should be about 120 feet long, and 30 feet broad; with about 6 feet draught of water ; and should have an engine of about 55 horse power, weighing about 32 tons ; with a cylinder of 3 feet diameter, a piston of 4i feet stroke, and paddle wheels 17 feet in diameter, and 5 feet long. The fly wheel, is entirely superfluous in steamboats, if they have two cylinders, with pistons acting on cranks, at right angles to each other, on the axle of the paddle wheels. For sea vessels, the engine is placed in the hold ; and the paddles may be so constructed as to be unshipped, or taken in, during a gale.
The causes of explosion of steam boilers, are various ; but chiefly, the excessive heating of the boiler, while the engine is stopped, and the sudden flow of water upon the heated part, producing the sudden generation of a great quantity of steam ; the boiler at such times, being already overcharged, unless the steam has been escaping freely in the mean while. The best of all remedies, would be the thorough
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training of professed steam engineers, in the whole theory, as well as the practical use, of steam power : and next to this, the use of boilers without return flues, or chimneys, passing through them; with additional safety valves ; and fusible plugs, which would melt and let out the steam, when too much heated. All large sea vessels should be provided with life bocUa^ so built as to be incapable of sinking, even when filled with water.
CHAPTER VI.
NAVIGATION.
NAVIGATION is the art of conducting and managing vessels ; espe- cially while at sea, or sailing from port to port. In this definition, we include Seamanship^ or Uie art of manoeuvring a vessel, by means of the sails, anchors, and other appendages ; considering this as an essential part of navigation, in its wider sense. The name is derived from the Latin word navigation of the same meaning; and this from the Latin, navis, or the Greek mv$, a ship. Navigation depends on the principles of Mathematics and Astronomy, Physical Geogra^ phy and Meteorology : and the sailing of vessels involves a peculiar class of problems in Mechanics. In connection with ship building, this art has been, and still is, one of the mightiest agents of com- merce and civilization. It has rendered oceans, which would other- wise have been impassable, the great highway of nations ; and the source of vast riches, from their extensive fisheries, and their sub- marine productions. The subject of XronauticSj or the navigation of the air, by means of balloons^ has perhaps more relations to this branch than to any other ; though it is a subject of minor import- ance.
Among the ancient nations, the Phoenicians were the most skilled in Navigation ; and they are said to have directed their course by the stars, as early as 1630 B. G. Their voyages were mosdy con- fined to the Mediterranean, and the neighboring seas ; though some writers believe that one of their vessels circumnavigated Africa. The construction of maps was the greatest step attained by the ancients, in advancing the art of navigation. This art was revived, in modem times, by the rich commerce of Venice and Genoa with the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. The invention of the Mariner's Com- pass, aided Vasco de Gama in discovering a southern passage to India ; and guided Columbus to the discovery of a New World ; thus enhancing the importance of Navigation, and stimulating others to its improvement.
The log line was introduced, about the year 1570, to measure the rate of a ship's sailing; and in place of the Astrolabe^ with circular rings, and the Arbalete^ or cross staff, for finding the altitudes of celestial bodies, the Back staffs invented by Davis, about 1 600, and sometimes called Davis's quadrant, furnished a better method ; until the introduction of Hadley's, or more properly Godfrey^ a Quadrantf
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iavented by Godfrey, of Philadelphia, in 1780. Prince Henry of Portugal, revived the use of plane charts, to mark and indicate a ship's course : but the mode of allowing for the earth's sphericity, or the convergence of the meridians, was successively improved by Nunes or Nonius of Portugal, in 1687 ; by Mercator of Belgium, in 1509 ; and by Wright of England, in 1599. The invention of logarithms, by Napier, in 1614, and of Gnnter's scale, in 1620, greatly facilitated nautical calculations : and the more exact measure- ments of the earth, and improved astronomical tables, of later times, have farther benefitted the art of Navigation. The British govern- ment, in 1763, rewarded Mayer for his new Lunar Tables, with a gift of JS3000; and, in 1765, it awarded J610,000 to Harrison, for his invention, in the preceding year, of a Chronometer, sufficiently accurate to serve for finding the longitude at sea.
The principal topics of Navigation, may be comprehended under the heads of Seamanship ; Dead Reckoning; and Astronomical Navi- gation, or Nautical Astronomy.
$ 1. Seamanship J is the art of sailing a ship ; chiefly by managing the sails and rigging, so as to conduct it on the desired course, and preserve it from danger. The rigging of vessels, we have already described, as far as there was room, in the preceding branch. A ship, when in harbor, is either attached to some object on shore, by a strong rope called a holier ; or is secured at a distance from shore, by one or more anchors, let down upon the bottom of the sea, and to which the vessel is attached by strong ropes, or chains, called cables. When a vessel heaves up her anchors, or casts off her fastenings, and hoists sail, to change her position, she is said to get under weigh. The left side of a vessel is called the larboard, and the right, the starboard side ; and the side turned from the wind is also called the leeward. A stiff vessel, is one which will not easily overturn ; in contradistinction l^om a crank one.
A ship sailing with the wind, that is, in the direction in which the wind blows, is said to have the wind aft, or to sail before the wind. When it blows crosswise of the ship, she is said to have the wind abeam ; that is, against the beam ends, or sides. In this case, the sails are placed obliquely to the wind, which thus exerts a force to move the vessel at right angles to its own direction. When the wind comes from a point still more ahead, the ship is said to be close hauled ; and by having the sails very oblique, most vessels can sail towards the point from which the wind blows, within 4 or 6 points, that is, 45° or 67^°. In this case, they sail slower, and make more leeway; drifting sideways with the wind, and falling off from the course on which they strive to sail. In order to approach a place to the windward, a vessel must frequently tack ; sailing as directly as possible towards the place, but inclining alternately to the right and to the left of it, at each tack or turn.
Vessels always tack by turning their head towards the wind, and bracing the sails obliquely, to aid the turning, till the wind comes sufficiently on the other quarter ; when the sails which act favorably are said to draw. To gibe a fore-and-aft sail, is to turn it so that it may receive the wind on the opposite side ; and the same object is
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effected, in square sails, hj bracing the yards obliquely in one or the other direction. When a ship turns, with her head from the wind, so as to receive it on the other quarter, she is said to veer. The danger arising from strong winds, is diminished by shortening sail; either taking in a part of the sails ; or reefing, that is, contracting them, by tieing them in folds. In a sudden gust of wind, fore-and- aft rigged vessels should bear up, or head towards the wind ; but square rigged ones should receive it abeam. In a storm, vessels sometimes lie tOy or head towards the wind ; and sometimes they seud<, or drive^ heading from the wind, when there is no danger from a lee shore.
§ 2. Dead Reckoning, is the mode of estimating the course and distance which a ship has sailed, by means of the compass and log, without the aid of celestial observations. The course, or direction sailed, as well as the bearing, or direction, of distant objects, is reckoned from the north or south point of the horizon, towards the east or west ; on land, usually in degrees, but at sea, in points, each of which is equal to lU degrees. The point called N. N. E. (north- north east), for example, is half way between N. E. and North ; and E. N. E. is half way between N. E. and East. The log, consists of a flat, quadrantal piece of wood, loaded on the curved side, so as to make it float edgewise in the water, and attached by its three corners to a line, which, unwinding from a reel, when the log is thrown overboard, measures the distance which the ship sails, away from the log, in a half minute. The number of knots, run out by the log line, indicates the number of miles, per hour, that the ship is sailing. The log is cast at frequent intervals ; the course being continually noted ; and from these data, the actual course anjd dis- tance gained, or made good, each day, are calculated by what is called Traverse Sailing ; an application of plane trigonometry.
Distance gained by a ship, northward or southward, is called dif- ference of latitude; and that gained eastward or westward, is called departure. The former, compared with the previous latitude, gives the latitude attained ; but the departure, being expressed in nautical miles, differs, numerically, from the difference of longitude ; except at the equator ; owing to the convergency of the meridians. When, near the equator, this difference is neglected, in finding the longitude, the calculation of the ship's place is then called Plane Sailing. At a distance from the equator, the reduction is usually made by means of the proportion, cosine of the latitude : radius :: departure : dif- ference of longitude ; which last is thus found, by the method called Middle Latitude Sailing. In high latitudes, the surface sailed over may be considered as a portion of a cone, having its vertex beyond. the pole ; and the method of finding the ship's progress, on this prin- ciple, is called Parallel Sailing. The most accurate solution of this problem, is by the principle of Mercator's Chart ; in which the parts of the earth towards the poles are represented as enlarged, to make the meridians parallel ; the degrees of latitude being enlarged in the same proportion ; by which the true bearings of places are accurately preserved. The application of this principle to problems in Navigation, is hence called Mercator*s Sailing. 5B dQ
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§ 3. Jistronomical Navigatum^ or Nautical Aatronomy, relates to the finding of a ship's position, by means of celestial observations ; whether of the sun, moon, planets, or fixed stars. It consists of two principal operations ; finding the latitude, and finding the longitude : as by these data the ship's place is defined on the earth's surface. The instruments chiefly used in taking angles for these purposes, are the reflecting quadrant^ and ntxtant^ and the repeating circle ; all of which have a moveable arm, with an attached, or revolving mir- ror, which is turned till the image of one of the objects, seen by a second reflection from a fixed mirror, appears close by the side of the other object seen directly ; when the vernier, on the arm, gives the angle between them, read off on the graduated limb.
The latitude^ is most commonly found by observing the meridian altitude of the sun's lower limb ; adding thereto the sun's apparent semidiameter, for the altitude of his centre ; subtracting from this the dip of the horizon, which, at sea, appears lower than its true place ; and subtracting also the refraction^ produced by the atmosphere. Knowing, thus, the sun's altitude, and finding his declination by means of the tables, we find, by addition or substraction, the altitude of the equator, which is the complement of the latitude sought, or the diflerence between it and 90°. In the same manner we may find the latitude by means of the moon, or a star ; but in the case of the moon, we must allow for the parallax in altitude^ to obtain the direction in which the moon would appear if seen from the earth's centre.
The longitude^ is found by means of the chronometer; which may either be used as a simple timepiece, for noting the local time of any celestial phenomenon ; or, if well regulated, it may be re- garded as showing the time at Greenwich, by comparing which with the local time, the difference of longitude is found; allowing 15° to an hour. In the former of these two uses, if an eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites happens at 4 o'clock, P. M., by the ship's local time, when, as found by the Nautical Almanac, it happens precisely at noon, at Greenwich, then the ship must be 60° east of Green- wich, or in 60° of E. longitude. This difference of time is more commonly found, by observing the angle between the moon and a star, and noting exactly the local time ; then finding, by the Lunar tables, the exact time at Greenwich when the moon and star make the same angle ; correcting it in both cases for the parallax. In this way, the chronometer itself may be verified at frequent inter- vals, by means of Lunar Observations: and thus, wherever the ship may be, the actual time at Greenwich may always be known; and thence the longitude may be found, whenever the local time can be found, by celestial observations.
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XIV. DEPARTMENT:
CHREO TECHNICS.
In the department of Ghreotechnics, we include what are com- monly termed the Useful Arts, exclusive of those comprehended in the preceding department ; or, in popular language, the arts of Agri- culture, Manufactures, and Commerce. The name is derived from the Greek, ;tpeo$, necessity or utility, and ttz^ij^ an art ; correspond- ing to the common appellation above mentioned. Strictly speaking, these arts rank with the preceding in utility ; and all the arts are use- ful in a greater or less degree : but as the present classification re- quired the adoption of some distinctive appellation for this group of arts, we have selected that above given, as the best which has come to mind. We may add, that the arts here comprehended, are more miscellaneous than those of any other department ; and the classifi- cation, in this instance, may seem less natural than, perhaps, in any other. Still, the common association of Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce, — in connection with the necessity of assigning to them some definite place in the system,-*will, it is believed, be found a sufficient reason for the arrangement here adopted ; especially when compared with that of the other departments of this province, and with the system at large.
The connection between the arts above named, results rather from the aid which they afford each other, than from any similarity in their processes or operations. Agriculture^ supplies some of the requisite materials ; though many of them are obtained from the mines, the forests, or the sea, and hence have been treated of, col- lectively, under the branch of Hylurgy. By Manufactures, these ma- terials are prepared for their immediate uses or objects ; and, by means of Commerce, they are distributed in the various places where they are wanted for consumption or exchange. Thus, these arts conspire to promote the comfort, and thereby to advance the intellectual state of society. Were we to adopt the classification of the arts as either mechanical or chemical, those above named would be widely sepa- rated ; and some of them would be entirely omitted in the province of Technology.
The antiquity of Agriculture, might seem to demand for it an earlier place in the present province ; and would have obtained it, had there been sufficient affinity between this art and those assigned - to the preceding department. But when it is considered that Agri- culture, as an art, could have made but little progress before the con- struction of dwellings for shelter, and roads for communication, this
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argument will sink in importance ; while the reasons already assign- ed for the present arrangement, will retain their full force. The subject of Horticulture^ or gardening, is, we think, so extensive and interesting, as to merit a separate place, as a distinct branch of the arts, though closely allied to Agriculture, or the labors of the field. But there is another group of arts, standing next to these ; and which, though very essential to our physical comfort, seldom meets with literary notice ; we mean the arts of housekeeping and cookery. For this group, usually the province of the gentler sex, and some- times comprehended under the title of Domestic Economy, we ven- ture to propose the name Domiculture, as significant and distinctive, and symmetrical with the names of the preceding branches.
•The word Manufacture^ derived from the Latin, manvs, the hand, and facto, I make, literally signifies the making of things by hand ; but it is commonly applied to the fabrication of any small articles, whether immediately by the hand, or by the aid of machi- nery ; as cloth, cabinet work, porcelain, and various machines, in- struments, and utensils. The minor manufacturing pursuits, are often called trades ; probably from the Latin, trado, I deliver ; be- cause the articles made are often delivered singly to customers, or purchasers. As the distinction between trades and other manufac- turing pursuits, is vague and unimportant, and as the subject is so extensive as to merit a division, we propose to treat of manufactures under the two heads of Vestiture, and Furniture ; the former com- prehending the manufacture of cloth, and the arts subordinate thereto; and the latter comprehending the remaining manufactures of move- able articles, which collectively form an important group, though separately they are of minor importance. The subject of Commerce^ may, we think, be properly comprehended as one single branch of Chreotechnics ; the last in this department.
The arts above referred to, aside from those of construction and conveyance, probably furnish occupation to nine-tenths of the human race. Their pursuit is necessary, to a certain extent, for the main- tenance of society ; and honorable, in all cases, where it promotes the general welfare. It has stimulated the cultivation of the sciences, and thereby opened new avenues to truth and utility, discovery and invention. It has subsidized the powers of nature, and compelled the winds and the waters to come forth and labor, at the wheel and the forge, the loom and the lathe, that man may find time to t;ix his ingenuity, for new and farther improvements. But we are constrain- ed to add that their pursuit may become too engrossing ; especially when it has mere wealth for its object ; and that unless relieved by intervals of rest, study, and meditation, it tends to degrade the mind, and absorb the better thoughts and feelings of our nature. We shall rejoice in the increase of labor-saving machinery, if it allow the laboring classes leisure for mental culture, and the charities of life : but if it have the effect of converting men themselves into mere money making niachines, it is a result rather to be deprecated than desired.
The improvements which have been made, in the arts now under consideration, refer, for the most part, rather to their extension tlian
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to their excellence. The fields and gardens of the ancient Romans were nearly as well cultivated as our own : their food was quite as delicious ; their dresses were as durable, and as gay, if not so fine in texture ; their furniture was nearly as comfortable ; and what they most desired, they procured, though at great expense, from foreign parts. But instead of a few fertile spots, vast regions, which were then impermeable forests, are now brought under tillage : silk, which in Rome was a luxury for princes, is now worn by the common classes of society ; cotton, which there was barely known, is now, by the aid of machinery, become the cheapest of fabrics ; domestic comforts are multiplied ; and commerce, aided by the mariner^s compass, and the mighty power of steam, now distributes with sur- prizing facility, the productions of every clime, over all the civilized portions of the globe.
With these introductory remarks, we proceed to consider the indi- vidual branches of Ghreotechnics, in the order already pointed out ; Agriculture; Horticulture; Domiculture; Vestiture; Furniture; and Commerce*
CHAPTER I.
AORIOULTURE.
Agriculturb is the art of cultivating the ground ; including, in its ordinary acceptation, the rearing and management of domestic ani- mals. Its name is derived from the Latin, ager, a field ; and cultus, tillage or cultivation ; and the term Rural Economy has, we believe, nearly the same meaning ; including, perhaps, something of Architec- ture and Gardening. It has been termed Farming, from the word farm, which in England usually signifies a portion of land leased or rented ; and it has also been called Husbandry, though this word has often a wider signification, as synonymous with good manage- ment of one's business, and provision for one's family. Agriculture, though apparently simple in its operations, still derives benefit from various sources of knowledge. From Machinery, it borrows its im- plements ; from Chemistry, it may derive a knowledge of soils, and the means of fertilizing them ; from Botany, a knowledge of the plants which it cultivates or eradicates ; and from Zoology, it may learn the habits and peculiarities of the animals which it rears, with the means of improving and training them for greater utility to man- kind.
As Agriculture is one of the arts essential to the existence of society, it was cultivated in the earliest ages of human history. Cain was a tiller of the ground ; Abel was a shepherd ; and Noah planted a vineyard. That this art was carried to great perfection in ancient Egypt, is evinced by the dense population which that remark- able land must have sustained, in the age when the pyramids were in progress, and Thebes was in its glory. The poem of the Works and Days, by Hesiod, is a description of early Grecian Agriculture ; and
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the Ge5rgic8 of Virgil, the Natural History of Pliny, and the frag- ments of Columella, and other writers, which have come down to us, show in what high estimation this art was held in ancient Rome ; where generals and dictatora returned to the plough, aAer the tri- umphs of the battle field.
By the Roman conquests, their knowledge of Agriculture was disseminated, not only throughout southern Europe, but through France, England, and perhaps a part of Germany. This art lan- guished, every where, during the Dark Ages, on account of the gene- ral insecurity of property, and the transient interest felt by cultivators in lands which were not their own. Agriculture began to be studied methodically, in the principal countries of Europe, about the middle of the 16th century. The earliest modem work on this subject, was that of Crescenzio of Bologna, entitled. In Commodvm Rura' Hum ; written in 1300, and printed in 1478. The earliest English work on Agriculture, worthy of note here, was the Book of Hu9' bandry, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, printed in 1523. The Scottish Agricultural Society was formed in 1723 ; and the British Board of Agriculture was established in 1703 ; through the exertions of Mr. Marshall, and Sir John Sinclair. Loudon's Encyclopsdia of Agri- culture, is doubtless the most valuable treatise on this subject which has yet appeared in Great Britain.
In France, there were, in 1761, no fewer than 13 agricultural societies, and 10 auxiliaries. An agricultural survey of that kingdom was completed in 1780, by Arthur Young ; and more recent general views have been given by Chaptal, Dupin and others, exhibiting decided improvements. A national garden was established, for the trial of experiments in Agriculture ; but whether it is still flourish- ing, we are not informed. The state of this art in Germany, has been described, by Hodgson, and others, as generaUy and rapid- ly advancing. In our own country, owing to the abundance of uncultivated land, this art has been less refined upon, than in the old world ; except, perhaps, in the vicinity of our cities and large towns. The subject is however growing in interest ; and the writings of the late Judge Buel and others, are an earnest of the attention which it cannot fail to excite, as our. population increases.
We may distribute the branch of Agriculture under the heads of Agricultural Implements; Preparing Lands for Tillage; Fertilizing the Soil ; The Cultivation of Vegetables ; and The Rearing of Ani- mals.
§ I. On the perfection of Agricultural Implements^ including Machines, depends much of the improvement of which this art is susceptible. We may commence their enumeration with the cart, waggon, sled, sleigh and wheelbarrow ; all of them useful for various purposes of transportation. The Pennsylvania waggon, is remark- able for its great size, its long body, with sloping ends, and its covered top, of canvas, supported on bent hoops or ribs ; it being drawn by four or six horses, and used for carrying heavy loads to a considerable distance. Next to these vehicles, we may mention the oxf, and the saw^ for forest work, or felling and cutting up trees; the plough^ for turning up the ground ; the harrow, for pulverizing
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and smoothing it ; the hoe^ and spade^ for planting and weeding ; and the shovel^ for removing earth, or other loose substances. The driUi is a machine for planting or sowing seed ; and the cultivator ^ is a somewhat similar machine, for harrowing, and removing weeds : these machines being worked, sometimes by horse-power, and some- times by hand.
For gathering crops, the acythty and roAre, are used in hay mak- ing; the sickle^ and cradle^ in harvesting; iiie flail, for threshing, and the /an, or van, for winnowing grain. The norse rake, has been recently introduced in our own country, for raking hay; and it is deemed a very valuable implement. Machines have also been in- vented for mowing; for reaping, and threshing, and winnowing grain ; and for shelling Indian corn : but excepting for the two latter purposes, we are not certain that they have yet answered the end proposed, the saving of manual labour on a large scale. The mowing and reaping machines, are propelled by horses ; and have points or fingers projecting forward into the grass or grain, by which it is held, until cut off by a sliding or revolving scythe or knife.
§ 2. The Preparing of land for Tallage, consists in clearing it of trees, where they are found ; fencing it, in proper portions, called lots ; and draining it, where it is marshy ; or irrigating it, if water for the purpose is accessible, where it is too dry. In our own coun- try, the clearing of land is generally effected by felling the trees with the axe ; but sometimes the larger trees are left standing, and merely girdled, by cutting all around them, through the bark, so deeply as to cause their death and decay. In the newly settled portions of the country, the wood is of so little value, that it is piled in heaps and burned, to free the land of its incumbrance. Machines have been constructed for raising and removing the stumps of trees ; but it is considered far cheaper, where economy alone is concerned, to leave them, till they become so loose, by the decay of the roots, as to be easily removed. It is to be regretted that in some extensive districts of our country, scarcely any trees have been left, for ornament or shade.
The object o( fencing land, is either to prevent the access of the larger animals, or to keep them within certain limits. Fences are of various kinds ; as the log fences, of new settlements ; the lighter rail fences, including the zigzag or Virginia fence, and board and lattice fences for ornament ; the stone walls of New England ; the turf and ditch fence, used where stone is not procurable ; and the hawthorn hedge, which decks the fields of England with its annual bloom. Stone walls are the most durable fence ; while they absorb the surface stones, which would impede the cultivation. The drain- ing of marshy or wet land, is effected, by blind drains, which are filled with loose stones ; or box drains, having a free passage, but covered over, with a permeable covering ; or open drains, which are mere trenches ploughed or dug along the surface of the ground. On sloping lands, they should run obliquely along the side, in order that their descent may not be too rapid.
$ 3. The different modes of Fertilizing the Soil, have been sug- gested, partly by chemical analysis, and geological observation, and
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partly by experiments; which are of course the decisive test of their relative value. The soil^ is the uppermost stratum of the earth's surface ; and consists chiefly of pulverulent earthy matter, resultiog from the decomposition of ancient rocks ; mingled with vegetable matter, by which it is distinguished from the aubsoil beneath it. The chief earthy constituents of soils, are gravel, and sand, of variable fineness ; clay, consisting of alumina and silex ; chalk, or carbonate of lime ; and the oxide of iron, usually communicating a red color. Clay absorbs moisture, and thereby becomes soft ; but when dry, it is too hard and stiflf for the fibrous roots of plants to penetrate. Sand, gives looseness and lightness to soil ; but, not retaining moisture, it speedily becomes too dry for vegetation. Hence the best soil is chiefly a mixture of clay and sand, with a due proportion of the other earths, and a large supply of vegetable and animal matter. Such a mixture is properly called ham*
Soils have been classified, according to their chief ingredients, as loamy, clayey, sandy, gravelly, chalky, and peaty, or mossy ; the latter consisting chiefly of vegetable matter, or mould, which is very retentive of moisture. Of these varieties, loamy soil, is, as we have already explained, the best ; but the others may be ameliorated, by adding the ingredients in which they are deficient ; as adding sand and lime to a clayey soil, or clay to a gravelly one. Clayey soils, when well prepared and manured, are suitable for wheat, oats, beans, and clover : but they require breaking up, or fallowing, more frequendy than most other kinds. Sandy, or light and dry soils, are suitable chiefly for barley, turnips, and the drier grasses ; and wet soils are best appropriated for raising succulent grasses, and oats.
Most soils are improved by the application of suitable manure: but the kind required, varies with the nature of the soil. Lime is a good manure for clayey soils; and gypsum, for sandy ones ; perhaps because it attracts moisture. Marl, on account of its containing potassa, mixed with clay, is an excellent manure, especially for sandy soils ; and wood ashes, which also contain carbonate of potassa, are of similar use. But vegetable and animal manures, especially with proper mixtures of the preceding, are chiefly to be depended upon, in rendering soils more fertile. The compoeta, thus formed with refuse organic matter, should not be exposed to heavy rain, while heating and fermenting ; as it would wash away their soluble salts, and greatly diminish their value. Certain plants are found to require a peculiar nourishment ; wheat, for example ; which will not grow to a full kernel, in a soil wholly destitute of lime. Next to the application of manure, and equally important, for some crops, is the thorough breaking up of the soU, by ploughing or otherwise ; by which it is loosened, exposed to the air, and its nutritious ingredients brought into action. All plants exhaust the soil ; but in different degrees, and of diflferent ingredients ; and hence the importance of due rotation of crops, to keep the land in good heart.
§ 4. The Cultivation of Vegetables, consists in sowing or plant- ing the seed, in ground properly prepared ; in fostering its growth, by stirring the soil and eradicating noxious plants, or weeds ; and finally, in gathering and preserving the products of this labor. The
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plants thas cultivated are mostly grains, esculent roots, and grasses, for the food of men and domestic animals ; or flax, hemp, cotton, and other plants, useful in the arts. The production of fruits and garden vegetables is reserved for the succeeding branch of Chreo- technics. Grains^ including wheat, rye, barley, and oats, are culti- vated by ploughing, manuring, and harrowing the ground ; then sowing the seed broadcast, that is, scattered over the whole surface, and slighdy covering it with the harrow ; after which no farther labor is required till the harvesting; when the ripe grain is cut with the sickle or cradle, bound in bundles, and stored till perfectly dry ; then separated from the straw or culm, by threshing and winnowing. Similar to this, is the cultivation of rice, in the wet lands of our southern states. Maize or Indian corn, and potatoes, are planted in hills, or rows, usually three or four feet apart : and they require repeated hoeings, to subdue the weeds and accumulate the earth around the roots. The top stalks of maize, should not be cut until the kernels are formed in the ears ; otherwise the plants would be unfruitful. The field, or common turnip, may be raised by scatter* ing and covering the seed, in ground well tilled, without farther cuU tivation.
The grasses most cultivated in our country, are clover, herd's grass, red top, and furze top, succeeding each other in soils which have been previously tilled. Herd's grass, or timothy, grows well in stiff clayey soils : orchard grass is best suited for dry soils ; and foul meadow grass answers well for soils which are wet. Grass, after being mowed, is spread to dry, and thus converted into hay, which is then raked together and secured in stacks or barns. Flax and hemp, are sown broadcast ; and require no farther tillage ; but, when mature, they are pulled by the roots, and subjected to the pro- cess of .rotting, to remove the woody parts from the fibrous coating. Cotton, is planted in rows, and weeded at intervals ; and the pod& are picked, from time to time, as they ripen. Tobacco, is first sown in beds ; and afterwards transplanted, in rows„ for tillage : and the leaves are gathered when sufficiendy mature. The sugar cane, is cultivated like maize ; and sugar is obtained from the expressed juice of the green stalks.
§ 6. The Rearing of Domestic Animals, is chiefly confined, in our own country, to horses, catde, sheep, and swine ; which are col- lectively termed, by farmers, live stock. There are various breeds of horses; of which the Arabian is the fleetest; but those of colder climates, as the Dutch, and Scotch, are more hardy, and better for draught. Horses require careful treatment, as they are subject to^ various diseases ; the cure of which belongs to Farriery, or the Veterinary Art, thus connected with the pursuits of the farmer. Some of these diseases are caused by the animal taking cold, after being overheated ; by which the lungs especially are injured : and the disease called the bots, is caused by the horse swallowing the eggs deposited by flies upon his hair; the larvae produced from which, gnaw through the stomach. The blacksmith, who practises shoeing horses, often acquires a knowledge of Farriery.
There are also various breeds of cattle j as the Dutch, or short 59
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horned; the LancaBhire, or long homed; the Galloway, or no homed ; and the Kyloe, or Highland breed. Those are preferred which are hardy, which yield the most and beat milk, and which fatten well, producing the best beef. Cattle should always have access to a good shelter, especially in winter. Sheep, may be classed as long wooled, and short wooled ; including numerous breeds ; of which the Merino, imported from Spain into England, in 1787, having fine wool, is the most valued. Sheep also do best when pro- perly sheltered, of course with access of fresh air: and they are sheared, for their fleeces, in the spring, when the weather has be- come settled and warm. A preference should be given to those breeds of awine which have the best form, and fatten best ; and they should neither be suffered to run at large, nor yet confined too closely. Of the raising of silkworms, poultry, and olher animals, we have no room here to speak.
CHAPTER U.
HORTICULTURB •
HoRTicTJLTURK, or Gardening, is the art of preparing and cultivat- ing gardens ; including pleasure grounds, and ornamental shmbbery. The name is from the Latin, hortua, a garden ; and ctdiua, tillage, ' or management ; and it is sometimes divided into Horticulture pro- per, or the cultivation of vegetables ; and Landscape Gardening, or the laying out of grounds. Horticulture has so close relations with Agriculture, that it is difficult to draw the line of division between them ; though sufficiently distinct in their principal features. As in- volving principles of taste, and elements of beauty. Horticulture, like Architecture, might be grouped with the Fine Arts, as a branch of Oallotechnics : but its connection with the Useful Arts, especially in our own country, we regard as the stronger relation. Whether con- sidered in reference to utility, or ornament, it is an art which de- serves much attention, and exerts a salutary influence on its votaries.
Horticulture is the most ancient art of which we have any record: for we read that Adam was placed in the garden of Eden, to dress it and to keep it. We read also of the hanging gardens of ancient Ba- bylon, supported on arches, one tier above another : and the gardens of Solomon, are glowingly described in the sacred Canticles. The Academy, or Academian grove at Athens, was an extensive public garden, frequented by orators, poets, and philosophers. The Ro- mans, also, in their days of prosperity and luxury, paid great atten- tion to gardening ; as illustrated in the descriptions of their princely villas, and imperial palaces. Many of our choicest fruits, shrubs, and flowers, derived immediately from England, were transplanted thither from the milder climes of the south, and were also the favor- ites of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
Gardening appears to have been much cultivated in England, by the Romish clergy ; as gardens and orchards are frequently mention-
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ed in the charters of convents, granted in the twelfth and following centuries. The cultivation of vegetables was much patronized by Henry VIII. ; prior to whose reign, cabbages, and other kitchen vegetables, were imported in large quantities from Holland. The early work of Fitzherbert, on Husbandry, already alluded to, ex- tended, also to gardening; and it was succeeded, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by the Gardener's Labyrinth, and other Horticul- tural works. The first hot houses, and ice houses, in England, are said to have been built by Charles II. ; who introduced the French style of horticulture, in his royal gardens. Evelyn's Complete Gar- dener, published in 1693, has acquired great celebrity ; and become the basis of more modem works. In our own country, the beauti- ful garden laid out by John Bartraro, about the year 1720, on the banks of the Schuylkill, below Philadelphia, de9erves particular mention, as containing a large proportion of all the forest trees of North America.
We proceed to treat briefly of Horticulture, under the heads of Landscape Gardening ; Kitchen and Table Gardening ; and Botanical Gardening ; the latter relating to shrubs, flowers, and medicinal plants.
$ 1. Under the head of Landscape Gardenings we include the laying out of gardens and pleasure grounds : the planting of shade trees ; and the construction of fountains, green houses, and hot houses; with the erection of statues, arbors, grottoes, and other similar ornamental structures. In selecting the location of a garden, a southern exposure should be chosen, inclining to the east rather than to the west ; of fertile soil, and neither too moist nor too dry. It should be properly enclosed ; and the walls or fences concealed or covered, at least in part, by shrubbery. If the ground be suffi- ciently extensive for plantations of trees, they should be distributed in groups, rather than formal rows ; and in the higher as well as the lower parts of the garden. The walks, should be gravelled, or other- wise prepared ; and they should be, for the most part curved, rather than straight : waving or variable curves being more beautiful than the circle or circular arcs. If there be any striking ornaments, as summer houses^ arches, or fine prospects, the walks should be so arranged as to make them prominent in the view.
All gardens require to be well provided with water. In small es- Ublishments this may be supplied from tlie farm or family ti7e//: but large gardens require a greater supply, which may be rendered orna- mental, as well as useful, by the construction of 2i fountain. Jetteaux, or jets, of water thrown upward into the air, are produced by pressure ; the water flowing through a small orifice, from some higher source : and the water may either fall into a basin, or be allowed to flow away and disperse itself in the ground. All large gardens are provided with green-houses, with roofs chiefly of glass, for sheltering the less hardy plants, which are protected from frost, if necessary, by artificial heat ; and hot houses, similar to green houses in their construction, but provided with furnaces, or heated by steam, and kept always at a higher temperature, for the growth of the most delicate plants, which are natives of a tropical clime. The smaller plants are usually placed in pots, and arranged on shelves, rising one above another, so
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that they may all have access to the light. Hot walU, are sometimes constructed, with furnaces and extensive flues, for forcing the growth of wall fruit, by artificial heat. JirborSf covered witli vines, are highly ornamental in gardens, and present a grateful shade in hot weather. Of grottoes, statues, and other like ornaments, we have no farther room to speak.
$ 2. Under the head of Kitchen and Table Gardenings we com- prehend the cultivation of vegetables, and of fruit, for the kitchen and the table. This division of Gardening, is doubtless the most useful ; as supplying no small portion of our vegetable food. The ground allotted for raising esculent or kitchen vegetables, should have a deep, rich soil, well manured, and thoroughly tilled. It is usually laid out in small compartments, termed bedst with narrow paths, or walks, between; especially for those smaller vegetables which would be injiired by walking among them. Garden potatoes, of the richer and earlier kinds, are cultivated like those in the fields : and tomatoes, of which the fruit alone is eaten, are raised in a similar manner. Peas are planted in rows ; and the larger kinds require bushings that the vines may cling to the dry bushes for support. Some varieties of beans, require the support of long poles, like the hop and the vine : but mo9t kinds are of low growth. Cucumbers, squashes, and melons, are planted in hills, which should be filled deeply with manure ; but cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli, beets, carrots, and parsnips, turnips and onions, are planted singly, at short intervals, in beds of deep soil. Of salads and herbs, as the radish, lettuce, celery, asparagus, sage, and mint, we can make no farther mention.
The plantation of orchards^ for the larger fruits, as apples, pears, plums, peaches, cherries, and quinces, belongs alike to agriculture and to gardening. The young trees are raised from the seeds, in nurseries, and then transplanted to a more ample space. Fruit trees, thrive well along the walls of gardens ; where they also serve for shade. In training fruit trees, the processes of grafting , and tnacu- latingi are often resorted to, in order to improve the quality of the fruit ; by taking shoots, or buds, from approved trees, and inserting them on others, where, with proper precautions, they continue to grow. The grape vine, is an appropriate ornament for bowers or walls ; and is also cultivated in green-houses, called graperies. Shrub fruits, as the currant, gooseberry, raspberry, and blackberry, are appropriate for borders : while the strawberry is raised in beds ; and, like various other plants, requires some protection from the vicissitudes of the winter.
§ 3. Under the head of Botanical Gardenings as already ex- plained, \ve include the cultivation of flowers, and ornamental and medicinal, as well as rare and exotic plants. A private flower garden, should form an ornamental appendage to the man- sion; and be visible and easily accessible therefrom: the kitchen garden and orchards lying beyond it, towards the open fields. It should be well supplied with evergreen trees and shrubs, which give it a cheerful appearance, even in winter ; and the box and ampler evergreens are occasionally used as edgings^ surrounding the flower beds or compartments. Much skill, as well as taste, may be dis-
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played in the distribution of the flowers, with reference to their seasons of flowering ; so that as some of them decline, others may come in bloom, and thus preserve the beauty of all parts of the gar- den, during the whole season. The part appropriated to roses, is called the rosary; and when a part is overflowed, for growing aquatic plants, it is called the aquarium.
Among the more prominent flowers, we may mention the rose, dahlia, tulip, pink, and lily ; of all which there are numerous species and varieties. Of climbing flower plants, the Champney rose, the honeysuckle, the jessamin eor jasmine, and the bignonia or trum- pet flower, are among the most beautiful : and of flowering shrubs, we may mention the lilac, snowball, althea, and laburnum. We must abstain from any attempt to particularize the numerous rare and medicinal plantB,-*many of which require artificial warmth and shel- ter ;— 4is our limits for the present branch are already transcended.
CHAPTER in.
DOXICULTURE.
We propose the name Domiculture, to include the subjects of Housekeeping and Cookery ; which collectively are deemed of sufli- cient importance to rank as a distinct branch of the Useful Arts* The name is derived from the Latin, domua^ a house ; and cultus^ culture or attendance. It is nearly synonymous with Domestic Economy ; but we have adopted the former term for the sake of brevity, and a more symmetrical nomenclature. This branch is related, it will be seen, to Agriculture and Horticulture on the one hand ; and to the arts of Vestiture and Furniture on the other ; from which considerations its place in our arrangement is clearly defined. It comes, even more closely than the preceding branch, within the province of the fair sex ; and hence, on the score of gallantry, deserves especial notice ; though its labors, particularly in large establishments, are often assigned to those of sterner mould.
We have mentioned Cooker}^ apart from Housekeeping, because the former, though often, is not always comprehended under the latter : many families, particularly in European cities, procuring their food, already prepared, at shops where cooking is made a regular business. Housekeepings in its more limited sense, relates to the general management of a house ; the selection and arrangement of furniture, and the constant attention required by the wants and for the comforts of a family. The name Cookery, from the Latin, coquOf I cook, though ordinarily restricted to the mere dressing of food, is here used in a more extended sense, to include all prepara- tions of food and drink ; as Baking, Confectionary, Brewing, Vint- ing, and Distilling, and the polite art of Carving, often practised at the table. Cookery produces important changes in the constitution of food, thereby rendering it more or less easily digestible ; some of which changes. Chemistry has not yet been able to explain.
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In ancient times, the labors of Housekeeping extended to the spinning, weaving, and fashioning of most articles of clothing : or rather these labors were performed in private dwellings. The art of Cookery, was somewhat cultivated by the Greeks ; but still more so by the Romans ; whose luxury is perhaps in no case more conspicu- ous than in the extravagance of their entertainments. Dishes of singing birds, peacock's brains, goldfishes' livers, and pearls dissolved in vinegar, are examples of their insatiate epicurism, in an age when Rome was sinking to decay. Under Tiberius, there were teachers, and schools of cookery in Rome ; and the inventor of a new dish was sometimes munificently rewarded. Their dishes, like the modem Italian, were characterized by the free use of oil, from their native olives ; while the French cookery is distinguished by its light soups, and meats variously disguised ; and the English dishes are noted for substantiality, as in their national roast beef and plum- pudding.
Our further remarks on Domiculture will be embraced in the topics of Housekeeping ; Cookery ; and Butlery, or the preparation and selection of table liquors.
$ 1. The study of Housekeepings naturally commences with the selection and arrangement of furniture ; and the engagement of ser^ vants, where servants are required. Good taste requires that the furniture of the same suite of rooms, or at least, of the same room, should harmonize, or correspond throughout. Thus, if the sofa be of mahogany, the chairs, tables, and sideboards should be of the same material ; though the black walnut furniture is by some pre- ferred to that of mahogany. A correspondence, even of the frames of mirrors and pictures, whether gilt or otherwise, presents an agree- able effect. In general, there should be one predominant color; especially of the carpets, and curtains, or hangings ; with which the rest of the furniture should harmonize. A plain and neat style of furniture we think far preferable to the more gaudy and ostentatious. Next in order, comes the procuring of supplies of fuel, provisions, and other stores ; which vary in different places, and require the aid of local experience, in regard to the selection and quantity. The warming of rooms,— >where anthracite is used,— by means of cellar stoves, and air chambers around them, with flues for conducting the warm air into the different rooms, is a method which we think is gradually gaining ground in public favor ; and it prevents much dust from being dispersed from the fire grates, and injuring the furniture. Rooms with white walls, are more easily lighted than those with dark : and the effect of lights placed against walls, is much increased by introducing mirrors behind them. The labors of housecleaning, which require to be at least semiannually repeated, we leave to be directed by the housekeepers, whose province it is to superintend them. The same remark may be applied to laundry work, or the washing and ironing of clothes ; and to various other household arrangements.
§ 2. The labors of Cookery^ comprise the preparation of animal food, farinaceous food, confectionary, and beverages. Of the rela- tive healthiness of different kinds of food, we have already briefly
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spoken, in treating of Hygienics, (p. 420). The principal meats, such as beef, venison, mutton, and fowls, are generally preferred roasted ; the process consisting in exposing them before the fire, on a spit which is constantly turned. Mutton is sometimes, and fish are generally, boiled; by keeping them, for a sufficient time, in water at a boiling temperature. Meats are said to be baked, when roasted in a close oven ; broiled^ when cooked upon a gridiron ; friedy when heated with lard or butter; and stewed, or fricaseed, when boiled to a soft state, with but little water. At entertainments, where several courses are served, soup is generally the first dish ; and fish is intro- duced before meat ; the dessert, of confectionary and fruits, conclud- ing the service.
Farinaceous food, is that derived from plants called eetealia; as wheat, rye, and com ; or from esculent roots, as the potato, beet, and turnip, which contain more or less farina or starch. Among these, wheat contains the greatest proportion of gluten, and hence makes the lightest bread. Bread, is formed, by mixing flour with water, and with leaven or yeast ; which latter excites the panary fermenta- tion ; pardy converting the starch into sugar, and the sugar into alco- hol and carbonic acid : and this latter, being retained, in gaseous bubbles, by the gluten, causes the dough, or unbaked bread, to rise. It is then baked, at a regulated temperature ; during which process the alcohol, and sometimes the carbonic acid escapes ; in the .latter case causing the bread to fall, or become heavy. Cakes are made in nearly the same manner ; but pastry, including pies and puddings, does not require yeast; the flour, when used, being mixed with butter. Rice, and potatoes, and other esculent roots, are usually cooked by boiling; and are the most healthy when thoroughly cooked.
The term confectionary, from the Latin conficio, I concoct, or prepare, is properly applied to both sweetmeats, and pickles; the former being preserved with sugar, and the latter with vinegar. Sweetmeats^ are made of various kind of fruit, as the apple and peach ; and require a large quantity of sugar, to prevent them from fermenting and moulding. They are sometimes reduced, by means of boiling and straining, to b. jelly ; resembling hydrous gelatin, or animal jelly, only in form. Pickles, are made from various vege- tables, as the cucumber, and mango, simply preserved in vinegar, with the occasional addition of salt and spices. Pickles should never be made in brass or copper vessels : nor should either pickles or sweetmeats be kept in vessels containing copper or lead, nor in earthen vessels glazed with lead ; as the acid which they contain would form, with these metals, salts which are poisonous.
Of beverages, water is the natural drink of man, afler the period of infancy ; and if it be pure, none can be more healthy. Milk, especially when diluted, forms also a healthy drink, and quenches the thirst better than liquids which are stimulant Chocolate, is made from the cacao nut, which grows of the shape and size of the almond ; and a drink is sometimes made of the shells of the same nut. This latter drink is purer than the chocolate ; which contains a large portion of oil or butter ; and they are both less stimulating
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than tea or coffee. Tea is made from the leaves of the tea plant of China; and coffee from the seeds of the coffee tree of Arabia. They are both stimulants, but coffee the most so ; and when taken hot and strong, they often, in process of time, debilitate the digestive organ.
§ 3. The term Butlery^ applies in a strict sense to the selection and preservation of table liquors : but we shall here extend it to in* elude also brief notices of their sources and preparation. By table liquors, we mean those prepared by fermentation or distillation ; all of them being produced from vegetable substances, containing sugar, or starch, which is converted into sugar before fermenting. Of these liquors, the simplest, and probably the least injurious, are cider, made from the juice of the apple ; perry, from the pear ; and untu, from must, which is the newly expressed juice of the grape. By the alcoholic fermentation, the sugar previously existing in the juice, is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid ; the latter escaping, if the vessel be open, or being condensed, if the vessel be tight and strong, but effervescing when the vessel is afterwards opened, as in the case of Champagne, or bottled cider. If the alcoholic fermentation be not checked, it results in the vinous fermentation ; b)r which the alcohol is converted into vinegar.
Me, or strong beer, and porter, are also fermented liquors, made from malted barley ; first rendered sweet by the process of malting, or causing the barley to germinate, and then speedily drying it, be- fore it is fermented. Of the distilled liquors, whiskey is made from rye ; rum, from molasses ; brandy, from wine ; and gin, from malt liquors, flavored with juniper berries. The lighter wines, as Claret, Hock, Burgundy, and Champagne, contain from 12 to 17 per cent, of alcohol : the stronger wines, as Port, Sherry, Madeira, and Ma- laga, contain from 20 to 25 per cent. ; and distilled liquors or ardent spirits contain about 50 per cent, of the strongest alcohol. The red, or dark wines, contain more tannin and extractive matter than' the white or pale wines ; and hence act less speedily upon the animal system. But however tempting their appearance, the fact should not be disguised, that all these liquors act as an unnatural stimulant ; and although serviceable occasionally as medicines, their habitual use gra- dually vitiates the blood, deranges the nervous functions, and causes premature exhaustion and decay.
CHAPTER IV.
VESTITVRE.
Under the head of Vestiture, we include all those arts which re- late immediately to the manufacture of cloth, and preparation of clothing. The name is derived from the Latin, vestis, a garment, or vestio, I clothe ; in reference to its most important application ; for covering or clothing the human body. Clothing is made of various materials ; and the selection is governed partly by their greater or less power of conducting heat. Linen, being the best conductor^
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forms the coolest clothing in summer ; and cotton, in this respect, comes next to linen : while wool, silk, and fur, being the worst con- ductors of heat, are the best retainers of animal warmth in the winter. The operations of making cloth, are chiefly mechanical ; but those of bleaching and dying it, are strictly chemical, requiring a know- ledge of the properties of dye stuffs, and the theory of colors. The tanning of leather, is also a chemical process ; but the manufacture of garments, including shoes and boots, consists of what are termed mechanical operations. The importance of these subjects to our physical comfort, and their increasing extent, are our reasons for grouping them together, as a branch of Ghreotechnics, distinct from other manufactures.
The arts of sewing, spinning, and weaving, appear to have been invented in the earliest times : the former at the expulsion from Pa- radise ; and the two latter probably in ancient Egypt. JFTox, is sup- posed to have grown originally in that country, or in Persia ; and linen cloth was used by 9ie ancient Egyptians for the sole dress of their priests, and for enveloping the dead after embalming. From them its use was learned by the Jews and Phoenicians ; and thence carried into Greece and Italy, long before the Christian Era. Cot- ton^ is a native product of India ; and there it was first manufactured into cloth, in remote ages. Cotton fabrics were scarcely known to the Greeks and Romans ; but they were introduced into Spain by the Arabians, about A. D. 912 ; and thence the manufacture spread over modern Europe. Cotton was first manufactured in England, about 1641 : but the quantity was small, before the invention of spinning and weaving machinery ; and was much increased by the invention of the saw gin, for cleaning cotton of its seeds, by our countryman, Mr. Whitney, in 1792.
Wool, was, probably, one of the earliest materials used for cloth- ing; being originally worn with the skin of the animal, rudely dressed. It was much worn by the Romans ; who introduced its manufacture into England. Silk, was first manufactured in China ; tradition says, by the empress, Si-ling-shi, about 2700 B. C. Silk fabrics were first used in Rome, only a short time before the Chris- tian Era. The culture of silk, was brought from China to Greece, it is said, by Persian monks, about A. D. 650 ; and the manufacture extended thence to Sicily, in the 12th century; and thence to central Europe.
The most ancient mode of spinning, was by means of a distaff, and spindle ; one or both of them held and turned by the hand. This mode was superseded, in later times, by the one thread spin- ning wheel, still used in spinning linen. The next step, and a great one, in this art, was the invention of the Spinning Jenny, by Mr. Hargreaves, in 1767 ; with which machine, several threads could be spun at the same time. The next invention, that of the Water Spinning Frame, in which the thread is drawn out by rollers, though ascribed by some to Mr. Wyatt, was first made known by Arkwright, who took a patent for it in 1769. Mr. Arkwright after^ wards connected the carding with the spinning, in another machine, patented in 1795. The last great invention in spinning, was that of 60 2 r2
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the Mule^ or the Mule Jenny, by Mr. Crompton, in 1779 ; combin* ing the spinning jenny with Arkwright's improTements ; so as to make finer and smoother thread. The invention of the first Carding Machine^ is attributed to Mr. Paul, in 1748.
The most ancient looftM^ such as are still used for weaving, by the natives of India, had the thread descending vertically from the beam on which it was wound : and the weaving commenced at the lower end, progressing upwards. The horizontal loom, with heddles, to separate the alternate threads, or warp, before inserting the woof, or filling, by means of the shuttle, was of later origin. The first suc- cessful invention of the Power loom^ moving solely by machinery, was by Rev. Dr. Cartwright, in 1785 : but this invention was re- peatedly modified by others ; and was a long time in coming into use. We have no room here to explain how great an influence these improvements in spinning and weaving have exerted, upon the pro- ductive industry, not of Great Britain and the United States only, but of the whole civilized world.
Our further remarks on Yestiture, will be distributed under the heads of Linen, Cotton, Woolen, and Silk Manufactures ; conclud- ing with some remarks on Felting and Tanning.
$ 1. The Linen Manufacture^ derives its name from linum^ the botanical name oi flax. The flax, after being pulled and rotted, as mentioned under agriculture, is dressed by breakings or passing it between alternate bars, which break the woody stem; then sunn- 'Kngf or beating it, to remove the woody fragments; and lastly eeklingt or combing it, to remove the coarser fibres, and split the remaining bark more finely. It has hitherto been spun only on the one thread wheel : as it requires the (>eculiar management of the hand, in drawing it. After the weaving, which is usually performed by hand, it is bleached, either by dipping it in ley, and exposing it to the sun ; or by the action of chlorine.
Among the linen fabrics, are sail clothe which is coarse and plain ; sheeting and shirting, which are finer; cambric^ which is plainly woven, but still finer, so named from Gambray in Flanders ; and lawn^ which is a sheer cambric, thin and transparent Linen di(q>er, is woven with figures ; one thread crossing two or more at a time ; and lace, is a network, formerly woven on a cushion or pillow ; the thread being wound on bobbins of bone, and netted around pins, stuck in the cushion, whence it is called bone lace. This, when embroidered with the needle, is called point lace ; while bobbin-net is made with machinery, and usually of cotton. The coarser sail cloth, is made from hemp ; much in the same manner as cloth is made from flax ; and both materials are wrought into ropes and cordage, on the same principles which are employed in spinning thread.
$ 2. The Cotton Manufacture, is now chiefly carried on by the agency of machinery ; to which we have already referred. Raw cotton, is derived from the seed pods of the cotton plant, or gossy- pium. The two principal varieties, cultivated in our Southern States, are the black seed, or long staple, with long fibres, which are drawn out from the seeds by means of the roller gin ; and the green
t
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seedf short staple^ or upland cotton, which was of little value before the invention of the saw gin ; but is now the most abundant product. The nankeen cotton, so named from its natural nankeen color, is a short staple, used only for coarse and domestic manufactures.
In Arkwright's machinery, the cotton, after being picked or batted into a light, uniform mass, and then twice carded, once in the breaker, and once in the finisher, comes from the latter in continuous rolls, called card ends ; which next pass through the drawing framCj between two pairs of rollers, the second turning more rapiJly than the first, by which the ends are drawn out in length. Several of them are then united to form a sliver, or untwisted rope, of many strands ; which, passing through the roving frame, or double speeder, is again drawn and slightly twisted; forming a loose, imperfect thread, called roving. This is transferred to the spinning frame, where it is again drawn and twisted, to form a perfect thread. In Crompton's Mule, or mule jenny, the thread is farther stretched, after leaving the rollers, by the spindles being moved backward, while twisting, and thus producing a more even thread. Of the power loom, now used for weaving, we can only say that it performs all the requisite motions, with such steadiness and uniformity, as to make better cloth than can possibly be woven by hand.
Cotton cloth is usually bleached by the mobt application of chlo- rine, evolved from chloride of lime, called bleaching powder. Calico printing, is performed by passing the cloth over engraved copper cylinders, tlie incised figures or hollowed parts of which, contain the pastelike coloring matter ; while, from the raised and polished parts, the color is scraped away, as the cylinder turns. For adjective colors, which will not adhere without a mordant or basis, the cloth is first printed with the mordant, and then dipped in the dye ; which is afterwards washed out from the other parts. Madder, and logwood, give a black dye with salts of iron, but a red dye with a mordant of acetate of alumina. Of cotton fabrics, muslins are named from Mosul ; and calicoes, from Calicut; places formerly celebrated for their manufacture. In England, white, or unprinted cotton cloth is called calico : but we give this name to printed cotton, having not more than two colors ; and cotton cloth with more than two colors, we call chintz. The name muslin, we apply only to the finest cotton cloths ; and gauze, dififers from it, only in being still finer, and loosely woven, making it open, or transparent.
$ 3. The Woolen Manufacture, has also been greatly promoted by the modern improvements in spinning and weaving machinery. Wool, is selected according to its softness, fineness, color, and regularity of curling ; which curling enables it to yield in length, and hence, like cotton, to be spun mechanically. The short, fine, and curly wool, is used for broadcloths, flannels, and other fabrics which require fulling to thicken them : and the long, straight wool, or worsted, is used for camlets, bombazines, and similar fabrics. The wool, by carding, is formed into small cylindrical rolls ; which are stretched and spun, first in a stubbing, or roving machine, and afterwards in a mule jenny, as in the case of cotton. The weaving, is mostly done by machinery ; and the fulling, for broadcloths and
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flannels, entangles, and mats the fibres, on the same principle by which hats are made of fur, in the process of felting. The cloth is then dyed, if required; after which it receives a nap, by being scratched with the teasel plant, to lay its fibres parallel ; and it is then sheared to produce an even surface.
Of carpet weaving, and other varieties, we have no room here to speak. Woolens are dyed by first scouring them with an alkali or ley; then immersing them in a bath of the coloring matter: and af^rwards spreading them to dry. If the coloring matter be of vege- table origin, it is generally an adjective color, requiring a mordant, as in calico printing. To this remark, indigo is a prominent excep- tion ; though it is applied in combination with sulphuric acid. The same colors which are used for cottons, as madder, and logwood, quercitron, and indigo, are generally applicable to woolens also. The mineral colors, as orpiment yellow, and chrome red, are gene- rally substantive colors, adhering to the cloth without a mordant.
§ 4. Of the Silk Manufacture, we must speak very briefly. The cocoons, spun by the silk worm, in which to shelter itself during its transformation, are steeped in water, warm enough to loosen the threads, but not so warm as to injure them : and each cocoon, by unwinding, gives a strand, of which many are reeled and twisted together, to form one thread. These latter operations are now performed by machinery. Of silk fabrics, besides plain silk cloth, crape is plain, but loosely woven, and hence open and transparent ; satin, is woven with one thread crossing two or more at a time ; damask, is thicker, and woven with figures ; brocade, the same, only still thicker, and often inwoven with thread of gold, or silver : gauze, probably named from Gaza, is a light, transparent fabric, often cross-woven, or with the contiguous threads intertwisting; and velvet, is formed by superfluous threads drawn in between the warp and woof, in weaving, but left projecting in loops, which are aAer- wards sheared ofl", producing the pile, or close downy surface, formed by the ends of the fibres.
Of Dress Making, or the arts of the Tailor, Mantuamaker, and Milliner, though worthy of notice, we have no room here to treat. Modern hats, are made by the process o( Felting; in which the fibres of fur or wool, being rough or barbed in one direction, become entangled, by working or agitating them, when hot and moist, so as to form a matted mass, which is then shaped upon a block. Leather, is made by the process of Tanning : the skin being first cleansed of hair and flesh, by the action of lime and the beaming knife ; then immersed in a vat of oak or hemlock bark, ground fine, and difiused in water. The tannin, or tannic acid of the bark, unites with the gelatin of the skin : and the leather, thus formed, is afterwards cur- ried, by oiling, coloring, and smoothing or softening it. Boots and shoes are shaped on a block of wood called a last; the upper leather being first applied, and the sole leather fastened to it, by pegging or sewing.
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CHAPTER V.
FURNITURE.
In the branch of Furniture, we include the manufacture of the various utensils, and moveable articles, required for housekeeping or personal convenience ; and which are not included in any of the pre- ceding branches. The name is derived from the French foumir, to furnish or provide; and hence it admits of the extended sense in which the term is here used, in the absence of any other more appro- priate term. Thus, we include under it, the manufacture of glass and gems ; of porcelain and pottery ; of hardware and jewelry ; of lamps and mirrors, timepieces, and musical instruments ; of cabinet work and carriages ; of saddlery and travelling equipments ; and of various other minor articles, which hardly admit of rigid classification. These manufactures, though separately they might be overlooked, are, we think, collectively, of sufficient importance to be ranked as a distinct branch of the arts included in the present department.
The invention of furniture, of various kinds, must of course have been very ancient ; and nearly coeval with that of the ruder forms of Architecture. Seats, tables, beds, and implements for cooking, would be required as soon as men began to improve their physical condition. Earthen ware, was made by the ancient Egyptians ; and the potter's wheel is said to have been invented as early as 1270 B. C. Porce- lain, was invented in China, and first introduced into Europe by the Portuguese, in modern times ; and the art of making it was reinvented by Botticher of Germany, about A. D. 1706. Glass, according to Pliny, was first made accidentally in Syria, by heating an alkali on the sand. It was ornamented by cutting, as early as A. D. 60 ; and first used for windows, near tlie close of the third century. Glass windows were first introduced in England, about 1100; and plate glass was first cast in France, by Thevenart, in 1688.
Lamps, were an early invention ; and street lamps were used in Antioch, A. D. 380. The clepsydra, or water clock, was invented in Egypt ; and^introduced into Rome by Scipio Nasica, about 200 B. C. The invention of clocks with wheels, is attributed to Gerbert, (who was afterwards Pope Sylvester II.) about the year 996. Hook in- vented spiral watch springs, about 1660 ; and Harrison's chronometer was completed in 1764. The hydraulic organ, is said to have been invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria ; and it was first used in Roman churches by Pope Vitellian, who died in 669. The water probably served to compress the wind, forced into the wind chest at intervals, by a simple bellows, but expelled in a constant current, to produce the sounds. The modern organ, was invented about the year 1300, by the Germans. The harp, and trumpet, were inventions of early times ; but the violin appeared about the time of the crusades. The piano-forte, or piano, a great improvement on the old virginal, and harp- sichord, was invented by Schroeder of Saxony, about the year 1717.
We shall here distribute the arts of Furniture under the heads of
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Vitrefactures ; Metallifactures ; Horology, and Musical instrumenis; and Cabinet and Carriage work ; with interspersed notices of minor articles.
$ 1. Under the head of Vitrefactures^ we include glass, pottery, and porcelain ; though strictly speaking, the latter are vitrified only OB the surface, by glazing. Glaas^ is composed of sand, that is, silex or silicic acid, melted with an alkali, usually potassa or soda, in the furnace of a glass house. Bottle glass, is made of common sand and potash ; and is colored green by the oxide of iron in the materials. When melted, a portion of it will adhere to the end of a long iron tube dipped in it, and on blowing into the tube, it swells out like a soap bubble, and thus receives its shape. Croicn glass, used for windows, is made of purer sand and alkali ; with a little oxide of manganese to render it quite colorless: and it is shaped by rapid whirling on the end of a tube. Plait glasSf is of similar composi- tion ; and is cast in plates > on large tables. Flint glass ^ contains not only pure sand and alkali, but a large portion of the oxide of lead ; which renders it more brilliant, and softer to cut, or rather to grind ; as for table glass. The cutting of gems, by the Lapidary, is chiefly effected by rubbing them wiih fine, nard, powders.
Pottery, or common earthen ware, is made like brick ; except that the tempered clay is shaped by throwing, that is, placing it on a wheel turning rapidly on a vertical axis, and moulding it with the hands, or tools, into a rounded form. It is burnt in saggars, or larger vessels, previously burnt, and which serve to protect it while burning. It is often glazed, by throwing salt into the kiln ; the soda of which converts its surface into a kind of glass : and, like glass, it may be colored by metallic oxides. Stone ware, of a gray color, is made of clay containing less or no iron ; and it is thoroughly burned. fVhite ware, including Wedgewood and Queen's ware, is made of the finest white clay ; and in the former, a portion of flint is added, by which it is partially vitrified throughout. China ware, and porcelain, are made of feldspar, finely pulverized, and mixed with kaolin, which is feldspar deprived of its potassa by decomposition. The feldspar melts while burning, and enveloping the particles of kaolin, gives the ware its translucency. It is burnt in saggars, like pottery, forming what is called biscuit ; which is coated with paste of feldspar, and then burnt anew, to glaze it.
$ 2. Under the head of Metallifactures, we include the manufac- ture of hardware, brassware and jewelry : reserving, however, that of watches, for the following section. By hardware, is usually . meant that made of iron or steel ; as kettles, and similar vessels, of cast iron : but knives, forks, scissors, and the like, made of steel, are collectively termed cutlery. The former class, are made of cast iron, by the process of melting and founding : but the latter are shaped from bars of steel, by forging or hammering, either on a plain anvil, or pn a block so shaped as to form a pattern. They are then hardened, by plunging them, when red hot, into cool water or oil ; and afterwards tempered, by heating them anew to about 500^ Fah., by which they are rendered less brittle. Lastly, they are polished,
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on wheels coated with finely powdered emery ; and then properly set or mounted.
Lamps, are often made of brass or bronze ; as the astral lamps $ which are covered witli a spreading glass shade, and have tlie oil contained in a hollow ring, with tubes leading to the cylinder and wick, so that there is no large reservoir to obstruct the light on the table. They are usually Argand lamps ^ having cylindrical wicks, with a supply of air rising through the centre : and the draught is farther promoted by a glass chimney around the flame. The brass, or bronze, is cast, in parts which may be soldered together ; and the gilding may be performed by coating the polished metal with an amalgam of gold, which is then heated to drive off the mercury. Gilding on wood, as for the frames of mirrors, is performed by applying gold leaf to a smooth surface covered with whiting, and size, or glue; and afterwards burnishing it, with smooth iron or steel. Gold and silver pUUtj as spoons,' cups, and tlie like, are chiefly made by hammering ; as also the minor articles of jewelry, of which we have no farther room to speak.
§ 3. Of Horology^ and musical instruments, our notice must be very brief. The motion of clocks j is produced by means of weights $ and that of watches and chronometers, by means of the main springs the pendulum in the former, and the hair spring in the latter, serving merely to regulate and retard the motion, by distributing it through a longer time. In common clocks, the pendulum, in connection with the scapement, acts upon the scape wheel, which rotates once in a minute ; and, by nleans of wheels and pinions, this wheel governs the motion of the hands. In toatcheSf Uie hair spring acts on the balance wheel, which performs the same office as the scapement in clocks. In the remaining parts of the machinery, clocks and watches are very much alike ; except in regard to the striking part of clocks, a description of which would transcend our present limits. Chrono- meters, difier from watches, chiefly in being larger, with contrivances for keeping time more accurately.
Musical instruments, are usually classed as either st ringed j or wind instruments ; and the latter are blown either by the mouth, or by machinery. The violin, or fiddle ; the viol, or tenor ; the vio' lonceUo, or bass ; and the violono, or double bass, are all played with a bow ; and are made of thin plates of wood, moulded by pres- sure. Similar to these, are the lute, and guitar, which are played with the fingers. The lyre, and harp, are also played with the fingers ; but the lyre has a body, and the harp only a frame ; with strings of animal membrane. The piano, has wires for strings; with keys, acting on levers, and so arranged that the fingers striking the keys, cause the wires to be struck and sounded. Of mouth and fingered instruments, the Jiute, clarionet, and bassoon, are made of wood, turned in a lathe ; but the trumpet, bugle, and horn, are made of brass or silver. The organ, the grandest of musical instruments, is an assemblage of pipes, opened or closed by the action of the keys, and receiving air from the wind chest, so as to sound when opened. Pulsatile instruments, are formed like the drum, and tam'
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bouritiej of tightly strained discs of animal membrane ; or, like beBSf and cymbals^ of sonorous metal.
$ 4. Cabinet, and carriage worky are similar in their operations, and hence are here associated. A cabinet j in its original sense, is a large bureau, or chest of drawers : and cabinet work includes the making of wardrobes, sideboards, sofas, tables, chairs, and other similar articles. It consists chiefly of joinery ; and the frames, made of common wood, are often veneered^ or overlaid with thin leaves of maliogany, or other rare wood, fastened with glue, and then polished and varnished. Cabinet work is sometimes associated with uphol- stery, or the preparation of bedding, curtains, carpeting and similar articles ; the materials of which belong to the branch of Yestiture. These arts acquire increased importance from the principles of taste on which their successful practice depends.
Among the different forms of Carriages^ the coach is entirely covered, and has two or more seats, for two or more persons each, facing Uie centre. The barouche, has a folding, or chaise top ; but with two similar seats. The chariot, and post coach, have only one seat, for two or more persons, inside ; but, like the preceding, axe drawn by two or more horses. The phaton, resembles a chaise body set on four wheels : the dearborn, or carrydl, has two seats, with flat top, and curtains ; and the York waggon has a single seat, without a top ; but they all have four wheels. The curricle, is a two horse chaise : the gig diflfers from the common chaise, in having no top ; and the tilbury, or buggy, is a lighter kind of gig. The sulky, has also two wheels, but contains a seat for only one person. The cutter is a lighter kind of sleigh, for winter use ; moving on runners. — Of the manufacture of saddles, harnesses, trunks and like articles, made chiefly of leather, we can here take no farther notice.
CHAPTER VI.
COMMERCE.
In the branch of Commerce, we include the exchange of commo- dities, of every kind; with the principles and considerations by which such exchange is regulated. The name is derived from the Latin, commercium, having the same signification ; and it is synony- mous with trade, or traffic ; comprehending the whole profession of the merchant. It has close relations with Political Economy, par- ticularly on account of its connection with banks and currency, as supplying the medium of exchange: but we consider it as still more closely related to the productive arts, of which we are here treating. This art requires an extensive knowledge of both artificial, and natural products, in order to be able to judge of their quality, and to estimate their value. Indeed, there is no profession in which we think extensive and varied knowledge can be more useful than to the merchant, who deals in all kinds of commodities, and with all classes of men. This profession has done much to foster the arts ; and by
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bringing the nations acquainted with each other, it has greatly promoted the advancement of knowledge, and the civilization of our race.
Commerce must have originated as soon as men had a superfluity of any commodities, and voluntarily exchanged them for others. Thus, we read of the Ishmaelites carrying spices, balm, and myrrh, from Gilead to Egypt, as early as 1729 B. C. ; and the transporta- tion of goods by caravans, was doubtless still more ancient; the merchant accompanying his goods, to protect them. The Phoeni- cians, having great facilities for navigation, and much skill in that art, became the first great commercial nation ; and so continued, till the conquest of Tyre, by Alexander, 332 B. C. The use of gold and silver, as a circulating medium, was of great antiquity : but these metals were first coined into money, by Phidon, king of Argos, about 870 B. C. Greece was never a commercial nation ; but Rome acquired an extensive commerce, by rendering the conquered nations tributary to its wants; till the removal of the empire to Constantinople made that city the great emporium of the civilized world.
In the dark ages. Commerce declined ; owing partly to the defi- ciency of productions, and partly to the insecurity of property^ This latter circumstance gave rise to the famous Hanseatic LeagtiCr of cities confederated for mutual protection. This league, in the year 1200, comprised no fewer than 72 cities, in Germany, Denmark, England, Holland, France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy : and it contri- buted much to the revival of trade. At that period, Venice and Genoa were the chief trading states ; and they carried on the overland com- merce with the Indies, until the discovery of the southern passage to those regions, in 1498. This event gave that trade chiefly to the Portuguese : but it was wrested from them by the Spanish, French, and English ; and secured chiefly to the latter by their conquests in Hindoostan. The commerce of England has grown with her manu- factures and naval triumphs ; chiefly since the days of Queen Eliza- beth. That of the United States has also increased with great rapi- dity ; and now extends to every habitable and accessible region of the globe.
We shall offer some farther Temarks on this branch, under the heads of Principles of Commerce ; Sources of Commerce ; Cam- bistry, including weights and measures ; and Book-keeping.
§ 1. The Principles of Commerce^ are the data which should govern the merchant, in the management of his business. His first great object, after making business arrangements, would seem to be, to discover what line of trade, or what class of articles, would afford him the greatest profit ; having reference to the comparative safety, as well as the nominal proceeds of his investments. His next step would be to ascertain where the articles sought can be procured the cheapest, and where they will bring the highest price. Or, having a certain article in his possession, the problem may be to find where it can be disposed of to the greatest advantage, receiving any saleable articles in exchange. The article transported, is generally worth more in the place where it is sold, than the merchant receives in re- turn ; — as few purchases are made except for the sake of gain ;— and 61 2 8
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yet the merchant receives that which is worth more to him than the goods sold ; thereby sliowing how Commerce may be regarded as one of the productive arts.
An important topic, for the merchant, is the use and abuse of credit. By selling goods on credit, he may make greater sales, and at higher prices : but, without security from some trustworthy per- son, that payment shall be made, he may in the end lose all his profits, and his goods likewise. The asking, and giving of security, is a delicate matter : but we hold that no person should ever become bondsman for another, to such an extent as would ruin or severely distress htm, if the principal debtor should fail ; neither should the merchant ever risk his goods, without security, to such an extent as would ruin or greatly distress him, if payment should never be made. With these restrictions, the credit system may, we think, to a certain extent, be beneficial to all the parties concerned. But we would in- sist, that no one risk should be run, nor combination of risks, either in the way of credit or speculation, so great as would cause ruin or failure of obligations, should the risk be unsuccessful. Against ship- wreck and fire, security may be obtained by means of insurance : and where the risk involves a large proportion of our capital, this security should never be neglected.
§ 2. The Sources of Commerce, are to be found in the numerous articles of natural or artificial production, which have an exchange- able value among mankind. Many of these articles, require parti- cular care and skill for their preservation ; as well as a knowledge of their quality and relative value : but these are subjects which transcend our present limits. We have barely room to enumerate a few of the most important articles of commerce ; naming the coun- tries where they are mostly obtained, and those where they are in greatest demand. Cotton^ is raised chiefiy in the southern United States, and in India and Egypt. It is carried chiefly to Great Bri- tain, France, and the northern United States, where it is manufac- tured into thread and cloth ; partly for home consumption, and partly for exportation to all other parts of the world. Wool, is exten- sively grown and manufactured in Great Britain, Germany, and the northern United States : 9%lk, is chiefiy produced in China, southern Asia, and southern Europe ; and lineny is chiefly produced in central Europe, Russia, Holland, and Ireland.
Of breadstufifs, wheat, is carried fVom our Western States to the Atlantic cities ; and flour is exported to Europe and South America. Great Britain receives flour, from Russia, Germany, and the United States ; and rice, from the latter country, and the East Indies. Beef, and pork are exported from our central and western States to the West Indies and South America. Siugar, is exported to Europe chiefly from the West and East Indies ; and refined sugar is exported to various parts, from the United States. France and Germany supply themselves, to a great extent, with sugar from the beet ; and those countries, together with Portugal and Italy, furnish the chief supplies of wine, to the rest of the world. Tea, is produced almost solely in China ; but coffee is raised in the West Indies, Brazil, Arabia, and the East India Islands. These commodities, and
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the spices of the East and West Indies, are distributed among all the civilized nations. The greatest produce ot tobacco, is from Virginia, and the other Southern States of our Union.
Of manufactures, besides cloths, already referred to; iron, is chiefly made in Great Britain, Sweden, Germany, and Uie United States ; and in Great Britain it is most extensively wrought into hardware and cutlery. Copper, is chiefly produced in Sweden, Germany, and Great Britain ; tin, comes from Cornwall in Great Britain, and Banca in the East Indies, as also from Germany ; and lead, is produced in England, and Germany ; but abounds in the western United States. Gold, and silver, are obtained from South America, Mexico, and Russia : silver also from Germany ; and gold from the coasts of Africa and the East Indies, and from the southern United States. Salt, is mined in Poland, and manufactured in the West Indies ; as also, both from sea water, and salt springs, in our own country. Coal, is mined most abundantly, in Great Britain, and the states of Pennsylvania, and Virginia.
§ 3. Under the head of Cambistry, we include the subjects of ex- change, coins, and -currency, to which the term is strictly applicable ; and the kindred subjects of commercial weights and measures. Money, like other commodities, has its fluctuations of value, depend- ing on its relative abundance or scarcity. A silver dollar, at the present day, is worth far less than it was one or two centuries ago ; that is, it -will purchase a smaller amount of commodities, except such as have also become cheaper, owing to new supplies, or new inventions. The currency of Great Britain, is reckoned in pounds sterling, (marked £ ;) which are subdivided into shillings, pence, and farthings. A pound sterling is at present worth about $4*87 ; but a person would be obliged to pay about $5*00 in New York for a drauft, or bill of exchange, on London, which would entitle him to receive one pound sterling from the London banker on whom it was drawn ; the difference, or rate of exchange, varying with cir- cumstances.
The English sovereign, is a gold coin worth just one pound, or S4'87 : the guinea is worth $5-11 ; the crown, a silver coin, is worth about $1*10; and the shilling, about 22 cents. The Russian or German ducat, is worth $2*30 ; the gold ducat of Venice $1*45 ; and the silver ducat of Venice or Naples, about 78 cents. The French crown, (ecu,) is worth $1-07 ; the Austrian, 96 cents ; and the Sardinian, 87 cents. The Ytench five Jranc piece, is worth 93 cents ; and the old Louis d*or, or gold Louis, $4'58. The German florin, of gold, is worth $2-02 ; that of silver, 30 cents ; and the Dutch florin, 40 cents. The Italian zecchin, is worth about $2-30 ; and the Venetian pistole, $3'88. The old Spanish doubloon, of 8 crowns, is worth $15*67; that of 4 crowns, $7*78 ; and that of 2 crowns, $3-88. The Spanish real of 2, or peseta, is worth 20 cents ; and the piastre, $1-00. The Turkish piastre, of 40 paras, is worth 37 cents; the zecchin, $1-35; and the rouble, 9 cents,- but the Russian rouble, is worth 85 cents. The gold rupee, of Hindoostan and Persia, is worth, 67*10; the silver rupee, about 45 cents ; and the Madras go\^ pagoda, $1*84.
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Cloth is measured by its length, that is, by linear meanire ; its breadth being easily known. Expressing linear measures in feet and decimals, the English yard is equal to 3-000; theflnglish eU, 3-75; the French ell, 3*861 ; the Amsterdam ell, 2*223 ; the Venice ell, 2*089 ; and the Vienna ell, 2*557 feet Grain is measured, in Eng- land and the United States, by the bushd ; which contains 22 18 J cubic inches; and is sub-divided into eight ^lons, or 4 pecks. The gallon^ thus determined, is also used for measuring liquids ; and is subdivided into 4 quarts, 8 pints, or 32 gills. Commodities not easily measured, are sold by weight ; the pound being the standard unit. The Dounk TVoy contains 5760 grains, divided into 12 ounces; and is usea by druggists and jewellers ; but the pound Avoirdupou^ more generally used, contains 7000 grains, divided into 16 ounces; the grain being our smallest unit of measure.
$ 4. Book-keeping, is the art of keeping accounts ; so as to show the purchases and sales, debts and dues, and the state of the cash, stock, and other pecuniary affairs, of the person or party concerned. The simplest mode of Book-keeping, is that by single entry; in which we devote a page of the Account Book to each individualwith whom we have an account ; placing his name at the top, and charging him in one column, headed Debtor, (Dr.) with all articles delivered to him ; while in the other column headed Creditor, (Cr.) we give him credit for all money or other articles received from him. The accounts may be at first roughly entered in the Waste Book, miscellaneously as they occur ; and afterwards neady copied into the Account Book ; this latter process being called posting the accounts.
The method of Book-keeping by double entry, sometimes called the Italian method, consists essentially in making two entries of every transaction, in different books, and in different forms ; so that the one may check the other, to aid in detecting errors. Thus, the Re- count Book, may show our account with different individuals, as in the preceding method ; while the Ledger, shows our dealings in dif- erent articles, considered separately ; each article being made debtor to him from whom it was received, and creditor against him to whom it was sold. The Cash Book, may in like manner show all our re- ceipts and payments of money : and the Journal, or Day Book, may be made debtor, in one column, to all receipts whatever; and creditor, in another column, to all deliveries, or payments made each day. From all these books, the balance sheet may be formed ; exhibiting the amount of our transactions, and the state of our affairs. Various other books, and forms, are used in Book-keeping ; which we have no room here to notice.
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XV. DEPARl'MENT:
MACHETECHNICS.
In the department of Machetechnics, we include the Arts of War ; or the management of belligerent operations, both by land and by sea. The name is derived from the Greek, fiaxfj, a battle, or engage- ment ; and tixvij^ an art : this being the most appropriate term that we can propose ; having regard to brevity, euphony, and symmetry of the nomenclature. War is often termed a science ; and, indeed, it involves many scientific principles, some of which are peculiar to itself. But it is also termed an art : and as its essence consists in action, we regard it as still more closely connected with the arts, than with the sciences ; and have located it accordingly. It depends especially on Mathematics, Mechanics, Chemistry, and the Arts of Construction ; requiring also, in the field, a practical knowledge of the Geography or Topography of the region which is the seat of war- like operations. A military, or naval officer, therefore, should have an extensive and liberal education ; and should possess an active, inven- tive mind, with a strong physical constitution.
The Art of War, has occupied so prominent a place, in the records of the past, that a general acquaintance with its operations may be deemed essential to the understanding of History ; whether we re- gard the facts alone, or their causes and consequences. The fate of nations, and the civilization of the world, have more than once hung upon the result of a siege, or a battle ; in which, the fall of a com- mander, or even of the horse which bore him, might turn the scale of victory. Such contingencies should remind us that the battle is not always for the strong ; though they afford no argument against the advantage of strength devoted to a good cause. But, if such be the influence of an able commander, so far as human agency is con- cerned ; the art and science, aside from the energy and courage, by which that influence is maintained, are surely worthy of being studied, by the statesman and philosopher.
Much has been written on the use, and the abuse of the Arts of War. We think that they have done much good, as well as harm, in the world ; the evil passions of men having been made subservient by their means, to higher and divine purposes. Thus, the Arabian conquests in Spain, brought the oriental arts and sciences into Eu- rope ; and the British empire in India, however wrongfully obtained, will, we trust, be the means of rescuing that wide region from the most abject thraldom of superstition and vice. Often, too, have de- fensive wars been the safeguards of nations ; protecting their liberty, or even their existence, from barbarous or ambitious foes. Such
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wan preserred Europe from the grasp of the Saracens ; and secnred to oar own fair country the blessings of cinl and religious freedom. For such sacred purposes, and such only, do we think that these arts should be practically studied; till the time shall come, when the sword may safely be beaten into the ploughshare, and the spear into the pruning hook, in token of final, universal peace.
Although war is one of the greatest evils that can befall a nation, whether Uirough its own fault, or the fault of another, still it is one for which we ought to be prepared ; even as we would prepare to defend ourselves against personal violence, in a land where no laws could protect us. Nations, as well as individuals, may do wrong : but where is the authority to arrest them, or the court to give sen- tence ? They may enter innocent lands, with fire and sword, ravag- ing and plundering ; but who will shield the injured party, if it make no effort in its own defence ? The hand of Omnipotence, will it be said ? No : the Deity works by means ; and requires us to use the necessary means for self-preservation. Would the advocate of un- conditional peace consent to abolish all law in the land, and let the robber and murderer go free ? Or would he offer no resistance to a personal attack ; especially if there were no laws to redress him ? Such, however, must be his conduct, in order to be consistent with his principles.
Doubtless it is our duty to avoid war, as far as lies within our power, by giving no cause for just complaint, on the part of other nations. The great apostle of our Saviour says, " If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with dl men.'* But this doctrine is evidently different from that of unconditional submission; inasmuch as it implies that there may be cases where we cannot thus live peaceably, except by bowing our necks to oppression. How far we ought to suffer wrong, before taking arms in offensive war, — how great should be the provocation to justify the first step, — it is not for us to decide : but to defend ourselves, when assaulted, is manifestly a necessary right, however painful may be its exercise. While, therefore, we rejoice that the more just and humane policy of nations is removing many of the causes of war, we still think it a duty to be always prepared to resist aggression, as the surest way to prevent its being attempted. The project of a Congress of nations, to settle international difficulties, is a noble one ; and it would be worthy of our own Congress to propose the subject to the leading foreign states. But we have doubts of its practicability ; and espe- cially of the potency of such a Congress, however wisely constituted, to secure universal peace ; and hence we would still adopt the pre- cept of our immortal Washington ; ** In peace, prepare for war."
War has been defined, " 3ie act of compelling an opponent to submit to one's will :" but it might with equal propriety be styled the means of self-redress, and self-defence. Armies, fortifications, and fleets, are the great instrumento of warfare : battles are the occa- sions, and blood the price of victory. Armies require provisions and weapons, organization and instruction, and brave men and skilful commanders, to give them a full chance of success : and should they be too feeble to cope with the enemy, or unsuccessful in the onset,
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they require fortifications to strengthen them, andt at the expense of being kept stationary, to enable them to withstand the foe. Fleets require all these accessories ; their own good ships besides : and, still more than armies, they are dependent upon wind and weather ; which sometimes prove their most dangerous antagonists. In estimating the probable results of warlike operations, great allowance must be made for the Various casualties to which they are exposed. This difference has been happily expressed by an able writer on this sub- ject, who calls it the '' friction of war ;*' a deduction analogous to Uiat which must be made from mechanical forces, in allowing for the friction of machinery.
The Arts of War are mostly of very ancient origin ; as shown by the Jewish Scriptures, and Egyptian Monuments; which contain numerous records and representations of battles and sieges. The weapons of the early ages, were of the most simple kind ; to which their rude tactics and fortifications corresponded: but in the days of the Greeks and Romans, these arts had made considerable promss ; and, accordingly, they invented weapons more complicated and pow- erful, which occupied the place of our modern artillery, in naval as well as in agral warfare. The greatest change that the arts of war have^ ever undergone, is that resulting from the invention and general introduction of fire arms ; by whose unseen force the bravest general, or the strongest soldier, is alike exposed with the feeble and Uie pusillanimous. This invention has enabled intellectual skill and science to resist more efiectually the impetus of mere physical force ; though such force is still essential to the labors and fatigues of war. The changes hence introduced in the different branches of the military art, will be farther explained in the following chapters.
We proceed to give some general ideas of Machetechnics, under the branches of Hoplistics ; Fortification ; Geotactics ; Strategy, or Grand Tactics ; and Navitactics, or Naval Warfare.
CHAPTER L
HOPLISTICS.
We propose the name Hoplistics for that branch of the Arts of War, which relates to the arms, ammunition, equipage, and provi- sions, required for military operations. The name is from the Greek, dirxtfw, I arm, equip, or provide ; and this from ^^oa, arms or wea- pons.* In this branch, we would include the duties of the Ordnance Corps^ in our own service ; or the construction and repairs of arms, and the preparation of ammunition ; in armories and arsenals, as weU as in the field. Here also we would describe the duties of the Quar* ter Master*s Department^ in procuring, preserving, and distributing equipage and ammunition ; and those of the Commissariat^ or Ptir- chasing and Subsistence Departments, in furnishing clothing and
* Ampere adopts the tenn Hoplismatics, (Hopliflmatiqoe) ; which he mikes to include both Hoptietica, as above defined, and Tactics, in all its divisions.
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provisions; inclading forage, or grass, hay, and provender, for horses. The arrangements of the Medical Depariment^ so far as relates to fixtures and supplies, may also be referred to this branch : and the importance of these subjects, collectively, will doubtless merit for them a distinct place, among the branches of Machetechnics.
The first weapons used by mankind, for offence or defence, were probably the simple clttb^ and the stone ; which latter soon acquired new force, by being hurled from the sling. Next to these, in anti* quity, appear to have been the sword, of which the first mention is found in the paternal prediction to Esau, (Gen. xxvii. 40) ; the bow and arrows, first alluded to in Jacob's prediction concerning Joseph, (Gen. xlix. 23-4) ; the spear, first referred to in the Lord's direction to Joshua, (Josh. viii. 18) ; and the dart or javelin, used for hurling at the foe ; of which the earliest mention is found in the record of Absalom's death, (2 Sam. xviii. 14) ; though it was used at a much earlier period. Battle axes, and scythes, were also used offensively by the Persians ; the latter being sometimes attached to the axles of their chariots, projecting on each side. In place of artillery, the Greeks and Romans used the catapult, resembling a large crossbow, for throwing arrows ; and the halista, or onager, consisting of one or more levers, imp>elled by twisted ropes, for hurling stones ; sqrae- times in battles, but chiefly in sieges. The scorpion, used by the Romans, for throwing poisoned arrows, appears to have resembled the catapult, in its construction.
Defensive arms were generally used, in ancient times, for the im- mediate protection of the body. Of these, the shield was the most extensively used ; though of varied form and construction. The Grecian shield was generally circular ; but the Roman buckler was cylindrical, or nearly rectangular. The principal parts of a suit of armor, were the helmet, or headpiece, sometimes made of leather, but oftener of iron or brass ; with or without a visor, to cover the face, excepting the eyes: and the breastplate, for protecting the breast ; which, if it covered the back also, was called a hauberk, or habergeon, the same as the modern cuirass : or, in place of these last, a brigandine, or coat of mail, was sometimes worn, extending downward over the whole body. Besides these most essential parts, there were occasionally worn vambraces, for protecting the arms ; gantlets, for the hands ; cuisses, (cuishes), or tasses, for the thighs; greaves, for the legs ; and shoes, of tin or iron, were sometimes worn upon the feet. Armor was sometimes made of small plates, overlap- ping like scales, and constituting plate mail; but sometimes it was formed of small rings, linked together, and hence called chain mail. The armor of the middle ages continued nearly the same as that of the ancients : the lance being the favorite weapon of the knights ; and the pike that of the common soldiers ; until af\er the introduction of fire arms.
The invention of gunpowder, has been attributed by some writers to the Chinese, and by others, to Roger Bacon, about the year 1280 : but the discovery of its use in gunnery, though assigned by some authorities to Anelzen, (Anebren, or Antliz), belongs, we think, to Bart hold Schwartz of Mayence, in 1320 ; and is said to have been
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occasioned by the accidental explosion of the materials, throwing the pestle out of a common mortar. Fire arms, appear to have been first used by the Venetians, in 1330; and by the English at the battle of Oressy, (Crc9y), in 1346. The first pieces, properly called cul- verins, or bombards, were so light as to be carried by hand ; and most of them were made of bars of iron, or even staves of wood, bound together like casks, with iron hoops. The projectiles were of stone or lead^ until the year 1400 ; when cast iron balls were first nsed ; and cannon began to be constructed of enormous size : some of them being upwards of 20 feet long ; and others of more than 2 feet calibre. It was at length found that cannon of moderate dimen- sions were more serviceable ; such as are now used.
The primitive culverin, by slighdy reducing its dimensions, became the arquebus, or harquebuss; a hand gun, which was fired by a match, while resting on a stafi* thrust into the ground for support. The contrivance of a lock, to fire it, appears to have been made about the year 1520, when it took the name of matchlock; and this weapon, being farther diminished, about 1630, became the modern musket. The plug, or wooden handled bayonet, was added about the year 1647 ; but the socket bayonet, which admits of firing while it is fixed, was not invented until 1700, at Bayonne ; soon after which, the pike was entirely superseded. The pistol, was invented at Pis- toiia in Italy, about the year 1570 ; and the carabine, by constructing it with a spiral grooved bore, became essentially the modern rifie, about the year 1720. The invention of bombs, or shells, is attributed to Prince Pandulf Malatesta, about the year 1450 : but large pieces, called mortars, were used somewhat earlier, for throwing stones, or heated balls. Bombs were first used in France, by Malthus, in 1634. The coehom, a small mortar, was invented about 1670, by Coehom, a Dutch engineer : the howitzer, appears to have been invented in Germany, about the year 1690 ; and the carronade, a short gun, of large calibre, was first made at Carron, in Scotland, in 1774.
Our farther remarks on Hoplistics, will be distributed under the heads of Ordnance ; Ammunition ; and Equipments.
§ 1. The name Ordnance, is applied to every kind of cannon, or heavy fire arms, whether for land or sea service : but the duties of the ordnance department, at least in our own service, extend to the inspection and preservation of small arms, and weapons of every kind ; as well as to the preparation of ammunition, treated of in the following section. The term artillery, is also applied to heavy guns ; but generally in reference to the land service, and including also the troops by which the guns are manned. The principal parts of any cannon, or piece of ordnance, are the knob and neck of the cascable, at the rear end ; the breech or base, and base ring, behind the vent ; the first reinforce, extending from the vent, about one-third of the length, to the first reinforce ring ; the second reinforce, or middle part, extending forward to the second reinforce ring ; the dolphins, or handles ; the trunnions or pivots, on which the piece rests, with their rimbases, strengtliening and connecting them with the piece , and, lastly, the chase, or forward part, including the astragal or ring, and the tulip, or swell, the front surface of which is called the fcKe^ 62
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surrouoding the muzzle or mouth. The interior cavity is called the bore ; the diameter of which is the calibre of the piece.
A light brass six-pounder^ carrying iron balls of six pounds in weight, has a calibre of 3| inches ; and is usually made about 17 calibres, or 5 feet long ; weighing about 6 cwt. Mountain pieces, of small calibre, are sometimes made shorter in proportion ; and batter- ing pieces, for sieges, are often made longer; the weight, in this case, being no serious objection, and the force of the powder being rendered more fully available. The limits of length, for guns, are from 11 to 26 calibres. A brass twenty -four-pounderj has a calibre of 5| inches, and is about 8 feet long ; weighing about 42 cwt A twenty-four pound carronade^ would be about 4i feet long ; and weigh only 13 cwt. A brass howitzer ^ of 5f inch calibre, is nearly 3 feet long, and weighs nearly 8 cwt. ; this kind of cannon being used for firing shells horizontally ; shells which explode like bombs. A brass mortar^ of 10 inch calibre, is about 33 inches long, and weighs about 10 cwt. : but mortars of the same calibre, for sea service, are made far heavier.
The best iron cannon, are cast entirely solid, with the muzzle upward, in a vertical mould formed in the ground : the melted metal, from the different furnaces, flowing down a lateral passage, and entering at the bottom of the mould ; by which arrangement the slag rises more completely, and the metal is more pure. The interior is then bored out, from the solid mass, by means of powerful machinery. The carriage, for field guns, consists of two flaaksj framed to the axle tree, and connected by transoms^ the breast transom at the front end ; the pointing transom at the base of the gun : and the trail transom at the rear end or trail of the carriage, which, during the firing, rests upon the ground.* When travelling, the trail is raised and rests upon the limber, which resembles the forward wheels, axle, and tongue of a common waggon : the gun then pointing to the rear. Garrison, and sea coast carriages, also consist of two ^flasks, supporting the gun between them, resting upon its tnmnions : but, instead of wheels, they have small trucks, to allow of their recoil; and they are placed on a traversing platform, to admit of their being pointed to the right or left. Mortars, are supported on « heavy bed, or platform, moveable only by handspikes, or mechanical powers. Of small arms, and their construction, it will be unnecessary here to speak.
$ 2. The term Ammunition, properly signifies the various mate- rials which are used in loading fire arms : but, in a wider sense, it may comprehend various other combustibles, used in warfare ; the preparation of all which constitutes the art of Military Pyrotechny. Gunpowder, is a mechanical mixture of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal; which owes its efficiency to the sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, and other gases, which it generates in exploding. That which is used for war, generally contains six parts by weight of nitre, to one of sulphur, and one of charcoal. The purified and pulverized materials,
* In the more recent gun carriages, the flaska, called eheeJa are shortened ; and a piece of squared wood, called the stock, is inserted between them, the curved extxo> mity of which forms the trail.
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are first mixed intimately, in a dry state ; then moistened, and ground in the powdermill ; then granulated, or shaped into grains, by being passed through a parchment sieve ; next dried, by exposure to mode- rately heated air ; and finally glazed, by the rubbing together of the grains, in a revolving barrel or cylinder. Many precautions, and the greatest care, are necessary; in this manufacture, to avoid dangerous explosions.
The name shotf is applied only to solid balls, used in fire arms. Round shot, are single balls ; and when attached to a bag, containing a charge of powder, to facilitate the loading, they are called car' tridges. Case or canister shot, are small balls enclosed in tin cases, but scattering when the cases burst: and grape shot, are similar balls, placed around an iron stem, and fastened there by a coat of canvass and twine, resembling a bunch of grapes. Shelhy are hollow balls, filled with powder, and sometimes containing small missiles ; being intended to burst, as they strike, and scatter their fragments or contents. The smaller shells are fired from howitzers, which are mounted like gnns : but the larger shells, or bombs, are thrown in an elevated direction, from mortars. Shells are exploded, by means of a fuse, driven into a hole on one side, which must be outermost, in loading. The fuse is ignited, by the firing of the piece ; and burns gradually, for a time depending upon its own length, before it explodes the shell. A grenade, is a small shell, to be thrown by hand ; and a petard, is an iron cone, charged with powder, and de- signed to break open a gate, by being driven into it, and then exploded. These articles are transported in caissons^ or waggons of peculiar construction designed for this service.
Port fires, are long tubes, made of paper, and compactly filled with ft mixture of nitre, sulphur, mealed powder, (powder finely ground,) and antimony, or steel filings ; their chief use being to fire cannons ; as they will burn even in moist places, or in the rain. Slow match, for retaining fire, consists of hemp or cotton rope, soaked in a strong ley, which contains a small portion of nitre. Quick match, for setting ofi* fire works, is make of cotton thread, first saturated with nitre, and then dipped in a mixture of alcohol and mealed powder, of the consistence of cream ; out of which it is reeled, and afterwards dried. Fuses, for firing shells, are wooden tubes, filled with a composition of 4 parts of nitre to one each of sulphur and mealed powder ; and so rammed, or driven, that one inch of it may bum in five seconds. JRock fire, is a mixture of powder, nitre, sulphur, and sometimes rosin and iron filings, used in shells, carcases, and incendiary balls, to set fire to buildings or ships. Light balls, are intended for illumination ; and when armed with loaded pistol barrels, grenades, and the like, to prevent the enemy from extinguishing them, they are called fire balls. Smoke balls, are used for filling mines with smoke; and thundering barrels, filled with explosive materials, are employed in defending forts against an escalade.
§ 3. Under the head of Equipments, using the term in a general sense, we include the various other portable articles, besides arms and ammunition, required for warlike operations on land ; such as
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camp equipage, baggage waggons, and horses, dothing, provisions, and forage.
To the Quarter Master General^ and his assistants, belong the erection or procurement, and assignment, of store houses, for sup- plies ; quarters, for the officers ; and barracks, for the men ; the purchase of fuel, forage, horses, and teams ; the transportation of troops ; and the transportation, and distribution of the arms, ammu- nition, and other articles required for military service. Each indi- vidual is charged with the articles delivered to him ; and held re- sponsible therefor ; until they are returned or finally accounted for. The Quarter Master's department thus becomes the responsible me- dium, by which supplies are transported for the Ordnance, Subsist- ence, Purchasing, and Medical departments, to the places where they are required for use. The Quarter Master on duty in the field, is also charged with laying out the space for encampments, and assign- ing quarters to the several troops ; though the works of defence around the encampment are planned and executed by an Engineer. Both of these officers should therefore understand the principles of Caatrametation^ or the laying out of camps ; both in regard to con- venience and safety. The general parade ground, just in front of the color line, usually extends across an encampment nearly centrally: and in rear of it, the tents are arranged in rows, running back per- pendicularly, %with intermediate spaces or streets for company parade grounds ; the officers' tents being in the rear.
To the Commissary General of Purchases, belongs the purchase of tents and other camp equipage, and of clothing for the troops ; except in special cases, otherwise provided for : and to the Commis- sary General of Subsistence, belongs the procuring of provisions, for the use of the troops. These supplies are often procured by contract ; or else by miscellaneous purchase, wherever they can be obtained. Provisions are usually dealt out to troops in rations, or daily allowances; which are fixed by regulation, based on the results of experience. A ration, in our army, at present consists of 12 ounces of pork or bacon, or 20 ounces of fresh or salt beef; 18 ounces of bread or flour, or 12 ounces of hard bread, or 20 ounces of corn- meal ; and at the rate of 8 quarts of peas or beans, (or 10 pounds of rice in lieu thereof,) with 4 quarts of vinegar, 6 pounds of colTee, 12 pounds of sugar, 2 quarts of salt, 4 pounds of soap, and 1| pounds of candles for every hundred rations. The duties of the Medical Department, are entrusted to a Surgeon General, aided by Surgeons and Assistants; who have charge of the medical stores, including hospitals and hospital tents ; and who attend the sick and the wounded. The Pay Department, is under the supervision of a Paymaster Ge* neral; from whom the several Paymasters receive their funds, and to whom they render their accounts.
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CHAPTER 11.
FORTIFICATION.
Fortification, is that branch of Machetechnics which relates to the construction, armament, attack and defence of forts, and other works ; designed for strengthening an army, or serving as points of support. The name is from the Latin, fortis, strong; and/crcio, I make ; and in an extended sense of the term, it may be regarded as synonymous with Military Engineering, The duties of the Corps of Engineers have been extended not only to the construction and warfare of forts, properly so called ; but to the construction of roads and bridges, for military purposes ; and the making of surveys and reconnaisances, preparatory to military operations, (p. 447). These latter duties are now entrusted, in our own service, chiefly to the Topographical Engineers : and indeed both of these corps require to be well acquainted with the arts of construction and conveyance, treated of in a preceding department. A/or/, is a strong enclosure, serving to protect a body of men within it, who are called its garri' son from an enemy without. It may be useful as a place of refuge, for a feeble or defeated army ; but is oftener required to enable a few troops to defend an important position, which would otherwise re- quire a much larger number.
The most ancient mode of fortification, seems to have consisted in building a uyall, around the city of place to be defended ; either with or without a ditch, or moat, on the exterior. This method was practised by the Canaanites, at least 1500 B. C. The principal ancient improvement on this construction, was the addition oUowerSn at small intervals, along the wall, and slightly projecting therefrom ; both to strengthen the wall, and to enable the besieged to see and defend the exterior foot of it; or, in military language, the towers were said to flank the walls. Such fortresses, were attacked, by undermining the walls ; or by building mounds, as high as the walls, and gradually carried forward to meet them ; or by moveable towers, advancing on wheels, and overlooking the place ; or by using the battering ram, to demolish the wall, and make a breach. This instrument consisted of a great mass of iron, of\en shaped like a ram's head ; attached to a heavy horizontal beam, and either sus- pended by cords, so as to swing forward with great force, or else mounted on wheels, and running on an inclined platform or railway. Instruments were also used for throwing missiles ; (p. 448) ; and the Roman soldiers of^en raised their bucklers over their heads, overlap- ping like shingles, and forming what they called a tortoise, for mu- tual protection when advancing to the assault.
In the middle ages, the baronial castles were fortified, by building them with thick and lofty walls ; or with an outer enclosing wall ; with flanking towers, and a moat, or ditch, on the exterior. The gate was protected by the drawbridge, which could be suddenly raised or removed by those within, to prevent the crossing of the
2T
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ditch ; and by the portcullis^ which was a heavy grating, made to slide in vertical grooves, or turn on hinges at the top, serving, when closed, as a second gate. The tops of the walls were constructed with battlements^ or indentations ; to enable those above to throw down stones, and other missiles, upon the assailants at the foot ; and, in Italy, machicoulis, or projecting scaffolds, were constructed, with holes through the flooring, for the same purpose. In the interior of the castle was the donjon, or keep ; which was made very strong, and served as a citadel, or last resort for the besieged, in case they were driven from the outer walls.
The modem system of fortification, commenced with the enlarge- ment of the flanking towers, until they occupied extensive spaces, and took the name of bastions. This change is attributed by some writers to Ziska, the Hussite, at Mount Tabor, in Bohemia, in 1419; and by others, to Achmet Pacha, at Otranto, in 1480 : but it seems more probable, that the first regular bastions were constructed by San-Micheli, at Verona, in Italy, in 1525. The covert-way, outside of the ditch, was invented by Tartaglia, of Italy, in 1554. Places of arms, at the angles of the ditch, on the exterior, were first con- structed by Cataneo, about 1574; and enlarged, to form the demi- lune, about 1585. Gunpowder was first tried in mines, at the castle of Sarezanella, in 1487: but its first successful application was at the castle De TCEuf, ^Naples), in 1503, by Navarre, a Spanish engi- neer. Errard Bar-le-Duc wrote the first French work on Fortifica- tion, in 1594. His system was improved by Pagan ; and still farther by Vauban, who corrected the proportions of all its parts. Vauban invented ricochet firing, first practised at Maestrict, in 1673, or at Philipsburg, in 1688; and which made an essential change in the modes of attack and defence. The later improvements of Camot, Cormontaigne, and others, we have no room here to describe.
We proceed to give some farther ideas of Fortification, under the heads of Field Fortification ; Permanent Fortification ; and the At- tack and Defence of Places.
§ 1. Field Fortifications, are works thrown up for the immediate use of an army during a campaign; and which, after having served their purpose, are abandoned to decay. The name of intrenchments, is often applied to them, from their being usually constructed by dig- ging a trench, or ditch, and throwing up the earth on the inner side, to form a parapet, or breastwork. (Plate XL, Fig. 1). The sides of the ditch and parapet are made sloping, in order that they may not crumble down so easily. The interior slope of the ditch, is called the scarp; and the exterior, the counterscarp. The parapet is made 3 feet thick, for defence against musketry ; and at least 8 feet thick, to resist cannon ; and it has three slopes ; the superior, inclining gently outwards ; the exterior, which is made steeper, and separated from the ditch by a narrow step, or berme; and the interior slope, or breast-height, behind which the men stand, and over which they fire upon the assailants. The crest of the breast-height, is technically called the covering line : and when the parapet is high, the men who fire over it, stand upon a banquette, or step of earth, which termi- nates the parapet on the interior. The interior space, immediately
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behind the parapet, is called the terre-pleine ; which is sometimes lowered, by excavation : and if there be a large central space, it is called the parade ground,
A redan, (PI. XL, Fig. 2), is a triangular work, two sides of which, called faces, are fortified ; while the third side, or gorge, towards the rear, is often left open. A small redan, is sometimes called a fleche, or arrow. A bastion^ (^ig- 3)» ^^ ^ salient angle, and two faces, in front; connected with two shorter lines, called flanks, which are less divergent, and extend to the gorge ; this latter being either open, or palisaded, or completely intrenched. A small bastion is also called a lunette. A bonnet, mitre, or swallow tail, (Fig. 4), has two salient angles in front, as if it were two redans united, side by side, with a common gorge. These different works are sometimes associated, to form a fortified line, or lines ; whether separate, but defending each other by their fires ; or connected, by intermediate trenches, from gorge to gorge. Any one of these works, completely enclosed, is csdled a redoubt; and a work which is large enough to admit of flanking arrangements, so that one side may enfilade, or fire along the ditch of another side, to defend it, is called a field fort. When the work is designed for receiving can- non, it is often called a battery; the cannons firing through cross- cuts in the parapet, called embrasures; the high parts between which, called merlons, serve to protect the men.
Field works may be farther protected, by palisades, or rows of stakes, presenting their sharp points outward, along the scarp, or in the ditch ; as also by wolf -pits, or holes dug close to each other along the exterior ; or by abattis, which are fallen trees, placed with their top ends outward, to impede the enemy, while he is exposed to the fire of the work ; or by chevauX'de-frise, (wooden horses), which are timbers, armed with stakes, projecting in various direc- tions, for the same purpose. Marshes, ponds, deep streams, preci- pices, and other natural obstacles, are often resorted to, in aid of the defence ; the great object of which, is to prevent the access of the enemy. A work on low ground, is said to be commanded, when it is overlooked by any other work or ground, so as to be exposed to a fire therefrom. From such heights, the position, if it is an import- ant one, should be defiladed ; by making the exposed side the high- eat, so that it may shelter the other side.
$ 2. Permanent Fortifications, or fortresses, are stronger forts, usually built in masonry, around cities, or on the frontiers of coun- tries, and designed for permanent use. The immediate object of a fort, is to separate the defenders, or garrison within it, from the enemy without; whose superior numbers are thus kept in check. This is eflected by means of a high wall ; on the outside of which is usually a deep ditch ; both of them extending quite around the fort ; of which they form a principal part. The ditch varies, in dif- ferent works, from 12 to 20 feet in depth, and from 30 to 100 feet in width ; but it should always be too wide to admit of crossing it by ladders or portable bridges. The wall within the ditch, is called the scarp : and is usually made about 30 feet high ; so that it cannot be easily scaled, if vigilantly guarded. As the scarp is built up from
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the bottom of the ditch, and screened by the outworks, it is com- pletely protected from the distant fire of the enemy. The exterior wall of the ditch, supporting the earth on the outside, is called the counterscarp.
Instead of having a simple circular or polygonal contour, the scarp is broken inward on each side, (Pi. XI. Fig. 5), producing a series of bastions, (oAhc, &c.), connected with each other by curtains, {cd. ^c), so as to form a complete enclosure. Each curtain, with a half bastion on each side of it, forms a boitiontd front ; {^B) ; the parts of which have important relations to each oUicr. The faces ^ {M^ and Be,) and the curtain^ {cd) are chiefly intended for firing upon the enemy at a distance : but the flanks^ {bc^ and de,) are especially intended for the defence of the ditch, in case that the enemy should enter it ; as each flank may enfilade the opposite half of the ditch, on that front, with a fire of grape or cannister shot. Thus, each part of the work is protected by some other part, which is not likely to be exposed to an attack at the same time : but, for this object, it is necessary that the distance of any one flank from the salient angle which it is to defend, should not be greater than the efiective range of small shot, fired from the flank carronades.
The interior area of the fort is called the parade; between which and the ditch, is the rampart, of which the scarp forms the exterior face.* The rampart is elevated, in order to overlook the outworks ; and to protect the men, or even the buildings, in the interior, from the enemy's fire. The top of the rampart consists of two parts ; the terrepleine, or interior part, (doited in Fig. 5), on which the guns are mounted ; and the parapet, which is the exterior and highest part, to shelter the guns and men on the terrepleine. The parapet has a superior and exterior slope, as in field works ; but the breast height is frequently a wall of masonry. Instead of making the whole rampart of solid earth, it is customary, in fortresses, to construct vaults or rooms in it, to protect the men during a siege. Piers are built, running back from the scarp wall to the interior of tlie rampart, which in this case becomes the parade wall ; and these piers support arches, which are covered with earth ; so that the guns stand above them ; leaving spacious rooms, called casemates, under- neath. Some of these casemates are used for guns ; which then fire through embrasures, or openings, in the scarp wall : some are used for magazines or store rooms; and others, fitted with windows in the scarp and parade walls, with fireplaces and other fixtures, are used as quarters for the officers, and barracks for the men.
Of the outworks, which serve to retard the enemy's approach, the principal is the demilune, or ravelin, (Fig. 5. D) ; the faces of which have an advanced and cross fire upon the environs, without being so high as to mask the fires of the main work. The ditch of the demilune, (O), is connected with the main ditch ; but not quite so deep. Outsiae of the demilune, is the covert way, (^)i along which guns are mounted, and men stationed, to fire upon the enemy; without intercepting the fire of the main work. From the breast
* This is more fully represented in Fig. 6 ; which represents a section of the Ibrt along the line YDZ, of Fig. 6 ; as shown by the correspondence of the lettrn.
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height of the covert way, the glacis (0) slopes off to the natural ground on the exterior. The salientf and reentering parts of the covert way, are enlarged, to form places of arms, (i?, and S), which are separated from the rest of the covert way by traverses, (t, t) ; to ward off the fire of the enemy, and enable these portions to be de- fended separately. A small work called the tenaille, {T), is some* times placed in the main-ditch, in front of the cnrtain, to shelter this part from the enemy. The postern^ or main entrance to the fort, leads through the middle of the curtain : and there is a passage through the tenaille, to the demilune, protected by a double capon- nierf or kind of glacis, (C), on each side of it, sloping off into the ditch.
$ 3. On the Attack and Defence of Places, or the operations during a siege, by both the parties concerned, we must here be ex- tremely brief. The besiegers begin by investing or surrounding the fort, with a very superior force; protecting themselves from the sorties of the garrison by lines of circumvallation ; and, if neces- sary, constructing lines of countervaUation, to protect themselves from any exterior army coming to relieve the garrison ; which latter is thus cut off from all extraneous supplies or assistance. The enemy next advances near to the fort, on what he supposes to be its weakest side ; and there, under cover of the night, digs a trench, to* shelter his men, called the first parallel. This trench is often more than a mile long ; and extends circularly around that side of the fort, at a distance of 600 or 800 yards. A strong guard is then placed in it, to defend the sappers ; who now dig trenches from it, advancing towards the fort, called boyaux. These trenches proceed obliquely, in a zigzag line towards the fort, to avoid being enfiladed by its fires.
Meanwhile, the besiegers are erecting batteries, at intervals along^ the first parallel, to destroy or silence the guns of the fort, before they venture to approach nearer. The ricochet fires, in which the ball strikes so obliquely, as to rebound several times successively, are the most effective for this purpose. When the boyaux are extended nearly halfway from the first parallel to the fort, a second parallel ia dug, to which the guards are then advanced, while the sappers advance still farther. In this manner, the third or fourth parallel will bring them close to the crest of the glacis ; along which they will next, by sapping, or by storm, dig a trench, in which to defend themselves, and erect new batteries to make breaches in the walls of the fort. The digging of this trench, is called crowning the covert way ; from which, the garrison will then be obliged to retreat to the demilune^ As soon as a breach is made in the scarp of the demilune, and a gal- lery dug by which to descend into its ditch, the besiegers will storm this outwork, climbing up over the ruins, and entrenching themselves therein ; and they will then proceed in the same manner to carry the mainwork, unless it capitulate, or be relieved by an external force.
The providing of means for passing armies over rivers, is a com- mon duty of the engineers and artillery. Where ordinary bridges are not, or cannot be constructed, and common boats cannot be pro- cured, pontoons are occasionally used ; which are flat bottomed boats of a prescribed shape and size ; such as are usually transported, in 63 8 t2
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considerable numbers, in the train of European armies. The boats, or pontoons, used for a bridge, are anchored or moored at short inter- vals from each other, with their heads pointing up the stream ; after which scantling is laid across them, with proper lashings ; and the whole is tlien covered with suitable planks. Of the construction of military roads ; the laying out and fortifying of camps ; and the making of military reconnaisances ; we have no farther room here to speak.
CHAPTER in.
OEOTACTICS.
We propose the term Geotactics, to include the exercises of troops of all kinds ; by which they are enabled to act in concert, in the dis- charge of their proper functions. The name is from the Greek, f a(fff», or rattu, I arrange ; and it is sometimes made to include Strategy or Grand Tactics ; that is, the management of battles and campaigns : but the later writers have justly considered this a distinct and higher branch of Machetechnics. We have added the prefix Geo, from yt;, the earth, to distinguish this from Navitactics, or Naval Tactics ; a kiudred, but separate branch. Geotactics comprises three principal divisions ; Infantry Tactics^ relating to troops which use the musket or rifle ; Artillery Tactics, relating to those whose chief weapon is the cannon ; and Cavalry Tactics , for troops which fight on horse- back, with the sword and pistol. The process of instructing troops in their respective exercises, is called drilling; on which their effi- ciency essentially depends.
The arts of Tactics were carefully studied by the Greeks and Romans ; and greatly contributed to their military successes. The Grecian infantry were grouped in lochoi, or bands ; taxes, or compa- nies ; xenagissj or battalions ; and chiliarchiss, or regiments ; all having their proper officers. Their cavalry were subdivided into t/at, or squadrons ; and hipparchies, or regiments ; usually of 8 squadrons, or 512 horsemen each. The Grecian phalanx, was drawn up in a rectangular form having from 8 to 16, or even 32 ranks ; with a front usually of 500 men : its force having gradually increased from 4,000 to 16,000 infantry. The Roman century, was so called because it originally consisted of 100 men ; though the num- ber was afterwards increased. Two centuries constituted a maniple; three maniples, a cohort ; and ten cohorts composed a legion ; two of which, commanded by a consul, formed a consular army. The Roman legion was gradually increased, from 3000 to 6000 infantry, besides 300 cavalry ; which last were drawn up in ten turmse, or troops. On the distribution of the different classes of soldiers, in the legion and phalanx, more will be said in treating of Strategy.
The modem changes in the weapons of war, introduced correspond- ing changes in the organization of troops ; of which the three principal kinds are variously subdivided. The heavy infantry, or infantry of ihe line, including grenadiers, armed with muskets and bayonets,
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compose the great mass of modern armies. The light infantry, including riflemen, armed with lighter guns, or rifles, are chiefly em- ployed as skirmishers, or advanced guards, or for rapid marches and sudden attacks. The heavy artillery^ are foot soldiers, armed with short muskets, and swords ; their cannon, and caissons or ammunition waggons, being drawn by horses. The light artillery, or at least the flying artillery, are all mounted, and armed with pistols and broad- swords; with light guns, drawn by strong horses.. The heavy cavalry, are properly cuirassiers, armed with a helmet and cuirass, and broadsword and pistols : other cavalry are carabiniers, armed with carabines, and straight swords ; and among the light cavalry, are hussars, of Hungarian origin, armed with sabres ; and' lancers, suoh as the Russian Cossacks. Dragoons, are armed with muskets, and fight either on horseback or on foot: and voltigeitrs, are troops that ride behind cavalry to the scene of action ; then alight and fight on foot.
We proceed to notice separately the three divisions of Geotactics, Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry Tactics, already referred to.
§ 1. Infantry Tactics, is the most important division of this branch; as it embraces, to a considerable extent, the principles of the other divisions. Infantry are usually drawn up in companies, of 60 or more men each ; and eight or ten companies usually constitute a regiment. In manoeuvring, each regiment is termed a battalion; though this name is of^en applied to a half regiment. Two regi- ments form a brigade, commanded by a brigadier general ; and two brigades form a division, which is a major general's command. The officers of a regiment, in the order of rank, are the colonel, lieu- tenant colonel, and major; of whom, the highest who is present takes the command. The regiment is paraded, and orders are an- nounced, by the adjutant, assisted by the serjeant major. The name regiment was first introduced into the French service, in 1567 : and the title of colonel was first applied in its present sense, in 1661.
The commissioned officers of a company, in the order of rank, are the captain, lieutenant, and ensign ; and the subalterns are the ser- geants, and corporals, usually appointed by the colonel. The first sergeant, is called the orderly sergeant; who forms the company, and commands it, in the absence of the commissioned officers. A company is usually drawn up in two ranks, the front, and rear. A man in the front rank, called a file leader, and one directly behind him, called his file-closer, together constitute a file of men. A com- pany is divided into two platoons ; and a platoon into two sections; each consisting of two ranks, with as many files as there are men in the front rank. One sergeant, and one corporal are assigned to each section ; but their posts or positions we have no room to specify. When in line, the captain is stationed on the right of the company ; but, in column, his post is in front. Two companies united consti- tute a grand division ; of which there are usually four in a regiment.
The School of the Soldier, includes such instruction as every soldier must receive, preparatory to entering a company or battalion. The recruits, drilled in small squads, are first taught the position of a soldier, which should be erect and firm ; next the dressing or align-
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ing of themselves towards the right or left, according as the cou.- mand is right drbss, or left dress ; and next, the facing, or taming to the right or left, always on the left heel as a pivot, at the com- mand rightt or left face. They are next taught to march ; always commencing with the leA foot, and taking steps of 28 inches in length ; 90 in a minute for common time, and 120 for quick time, being the standard speed. Troops marching in line, those of the same rank being side by side, change direction, either by wheeling, or turning s but when marching by a fiank, or those of the same rank following or covering each other, they then change direction by firingy to the right, or lef^.
The remaining part of the School of the Soldier, relates to the use of arms, or the manual exercise, with the musket and the rifle ; hut we here refer exclusively to the former. At the command shoulder ARMS, the musket is made to rest vertically against the left shoulder, supported by the left hand placed under the butt ; the lock being turned to the front. To order arms, when shouldered, the right hand is made to seize the gun, above the lock, and bring it down to the right side ; the butt resting on tiie ground, the lock turned to the rear, and the barrel resting against the right thumb and fore finger. To load in twelve times, the successive commands are, 1. load; 2. Open-j9an; 3. Handle-car/ri(/ge ; 4. Te^v-cattridge ; 5. Primes 6. Shut-jDan; 7. CBsi^out ; 8. Charge-€ar/rt(f^e; 9. Draw-ram- mer; 10. B^m-cart ridge; U. Return-rammer; 12. Shoulder- arms. At the first command, the gun is brought to a horizontal position at the right side, pointing to the front, and supported by the left hand : and, at the seventh command, the gun is carried around to the left side, with the butt resting on the ground ; and the remainder of the cartridge, hitherto held in the right hand, is afterwards inserted in the gun, with the torn end downwards ; the paper of the cartridge serving as a wad, both for the powder and ball. To load in four times, and to load at will, are performed in the same manner; but with four commands, in the former case, and only one in the latter.
The School of the Company, includes instruction in all manceu- vres which are performed by a company ; either alone, or considered as a part of a battalion. It consistB of the different exercises, in marching and fighting ; as taught in the school of the soldier, but here repeated by the whole company. On parade, the manual exer^ cise is performed with open ranks ; the rear rank taking six steps backward, to make room between it and the front When firing, in close order, the men of the rear rank aim over the right shoulders of their file leaders respectively. When marching in line, if the ser-
Seant, acting as guide, is on the right of the line, the men touch and ress to the right ; but if on the leA, then the lei\ regulates the movement. When, from marching by a flank, the company is to come into line, the rear files advance rapidly, and take their places on the right' or left of the leading file ; the file leader of which, retains his position. The platoons, or sections, when marching in column, keep at wheeling distance from each other ; so that by halting, and wheeling ta the right or led, they would again be in line. Of the
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School of the Battalion, or evolntions performed by a single regi- ment; and of Evolutions of the Line, as performed by several regiments ; we have no room here to speak. The exercises of Light Artillery, and Riflemen, are closely assimilated to those of infantry of the line.
$ 2. Artillery Tactics, includes the various mancouvres and exer- cises required in marching and fighting with cannon. There are four principal kinds of cannon, used in modem warfare ; the gun, including the light field piece, and the heavy garrison piece, with others of inter- mediate size ; the earronade, which is shorter and thicker, and of less certain aim, but still very useful in forts and on shipboard ; the howitzer, which is also short, thick and strong, but used for firing shells horizontally ; and, lastly, the mortar, which is extremely short, having a bore of not more than two calibres in length, and used for throwing bombs or shells to a great elevation. The Paixhan gun, which has recently attracted much notice, is essentially a howitzer, of great weight and strength, and designed for throwing shells of very large size. Of the weight of cannon, and the nomenclature of their parts, we have already spoken, as far as our room would permit, in treating of Ordnance, (p. 489).
I^eld Artillery, is generally organized in batteries, of six pieces each ; four guns, and two howitzers. Allowing eight men to each gun, such a battery requires a company of 48 men, besides officers, drivers, and a smsdl reserve. Eight, or ten such companies, form a regiment of artillery; and a half regiment is sometimes called a battalion. The officers of artillery, have mostly the same titles and functions as those of the infantry; with the duties of which they ought also to be acquainted. When horses are used, as they gene- rally should be, for drawing the ^ns, they are harnessed to the limbers $ (p. 490): and when the gun is unlimbered, it may still be dragged by the horses, by using a long rope, called a prolonge, to con- nect the gun with the limber. When the men themselves draw the gun, they do it either by draught ropes, or, when in action, by means of bricoles ; which are leather straps passing over the shoulder, with a cord and hook to each, for fastening to the carriage.
The Manual of the Piece, is performed by two gunners, and four cannoneers, or matrosses, who are numbered, in order to designate their position. The piece being unlimbered, with the trail resting on the ground, and the muzzle turned to the front, it is then said to be in battery. The men then take posts on each side of the piece, facing towards it, as follows : No. 1., with the sponge and rammer, on the right of the muzzle ; No. 2., on its left: No. 3., with portfire and linstock, opposite the cascable, or rear of the piece, on the right ; No. 4., with a havresack, for ammunition, opposite to the cascable, on the left ; the Gunner of the right, opposite to the middle of the pointing or trail handspike, on the right ; and the Gunner of the left, with finger stall, tube pouch, priming tubes, and priming wire, oppo- site to the pointing handspike, on the left At the command <*to action,'' the gunner of the right steps to the pointing handspike, gives the order to ^^load,'' and assists the gunner of the left in point- ing the piece. Nos. 1. and 2. step within the wheels, and sponge and
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load the piece ; but, while drawing out the moist sponge, it is of ▼ital importance that the gunner of the left should close the vent with the finger, protected by the stall, or leather covering ; in order that any fire, previously remaining in the gun, may be extinguished, by the transient exhaustion of the air. The gunner of the left, having aimed the piece, pricks the cartridge, and inserts a priming tube in the vent ; when No. 3., having hghted his portfire, touches off the gun, at the command to that effect.*
The School of the Battery ^ comprehends the manceuvres of seve- ral pieces in concert; usually six pieces, manned by an artillery company. Such a battery is subdivided into three sections, of two pieces each; and sometimes into two half batteries. When the horses* heads are directed to the front of the line, and the pieces point to the rear, the battery is said to be in line : but when the reverse is the case, the battery is said to be in battery. In both cases, the caissons are in rear of the guns ; which are placed at such a distance apart that the sections may wheel to the right or left, and occupy no greater space in column than in line. It will be seen that in order to advance, from the position in battery, the horses must first turn, with the pieces, and face to the front ; and that, in order to resume a position in battery, they must turn again, and face to the rear. To form a column of sections, fronting to the right, the command is, «< by section^ right wheel; march ;" when the first section of the battery in line, by wheeling to the right, becomes the head of the column ; and the other sections cover it, in its rear. Of various other evolu- tions, depending on similar principles; and of the manoeuvres of horse artillery ; as well as the exercise of mortars and garrison pieces ; and the art of gunnery ; our limits forbid any farther notice.
$ 3. Cavalry Taeticsy includes the exercises and evolutions of mounted troops, other than horse artillery, in marching and fighting, on horseback. It embraces, of course, many exercises in common with those of the mounted artillery : as the mandge^ or management of horses and art of riding, and the general principles of formation. Cavalry is usually drawn up in companies^ or troops, of from 50 to 100 men each; two of which form a squadron^ corresponding to a grand division of infantry ; and eight of which usually form a regi» ment. The grades and titles of cavalry ofiicers, for the most part, correspond to those of the officers of artillery and infantry. A troop of cavalry is usually paraded in two ranks, the front and rear ; with intervals of six inches between the men in the same rank ; and a dis- tance of three feet between the ranks, in close order^ and twelve feet, in parade order ,• but in open order, the rear rank is distant a half squadron's length from tlie front rank, so that on wheeling by troops, to the right or left, these ranks would form one continuous line.
A man in the front rank, and the man who covera him in the rear rank, together constitute vl file; and when the line forms a column, by filing to the right or left, and taking distance, the two men of the same file are abreast of each other : but the column, in this case,
* The seventh and eigrhth men, or Noe. 5 and 6, are sUtioned opposite to the hmber: but, in action, their duty ia to supply the piece with ammanition, fit>m its caisson, or ammunition waggon, in the rear.
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is much longer than the line, whii h it previously^ formed. When the troop is all formed continuously in one rank, it is said to form rank-entire : hut when the men of each rank are divided into triads, or divisions of three each, they are said to form ranks by threes $ the advantage of which is, that three men occupy as mucn breadth as depth, and can wheel as one body, on their own ground; the centre man being the pivot. A troop thus arranged, would present, after wheeling, a column of six men abreast, three of the front rank and three of the rear ; who by wheeling back again by threes, would resume their places in line. To these explanations, we can only add, that the evolutions of cavalry are quite analogous to those of in- fantry and artillery ; and that the words of command in these three arms should be made to correspond as nearly as possible, (p. 513.) It remains to speak briefly of the Sword Exercise ; which is of the greatest importance to cavalry, in making a charge. At the com- mand, draW'BWOKD^ this weapon is seized by the hilt, drawn from the scabbard, and extended to the front, with the point a little raised, and the edge towards the right ; it is then brought to a vertical posi- tion, the edge to the left, and the sword hand raised, with the thumb under the chin ; and finally carried forward, by extending the arm, holding it still vertical, and the edge turned towards the horse's left ear. To slope-swoRD^ the hand is then raised a little, and the back of the sword rested on the right shoulder : and to carry-swoRD, is to bring it again to the last position of drawing. In the motion to guard, the sword is first raised vertically, bringing the hand to the ^ left breast ; then extended forward, and held nearly horizontal, point- ing a little to the left, with the edge turned to the right, and inclined slightly downwards. In the St, George, or head protect, the sword is held above the head, pointing over the left shoulder. The six cuts, are different strokes of the sword ; cut one, downwards to the left ; cut two, downwards to the right ; cut three, upwards to the left ; cut four, upwards to the right ; cut Jive, horizontally to the left ; and cut six, horizontally to the right. The pistol exercise, we have no farther room to notice.
CHAPTER IV.
STRATEGY.
Strategy, or Grand Tactics, is that branch of the Arts of War which relates to the more extended operations of armies during a compaign ; or, in other words, to the duties of a general command- ing in chief. The name is derived from the Greek, atpatof, an army ; and ay«, I lead ; or from atpa-frjyia, of corresponding signifi- cation. It is a branch of high importance ; to which the three pre- ceding branches are entirely subordinate : and it should, therefore, be studied not only by high commanders, but by those who aspire to high command. Geotactics relates to the training of individual corps, or their component parts; but Strategy, or Grand Tactics, re- lates to the combining of different corps, to form an army, and the
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or modes of employing them so u to produoe the greateel leeult The principlee of Strategy, are deriTed partly from reasoning on the efiecta of certain meaaurea ; hat chiefly from experience as to the effect of these and similar meksufes* in cases where they have aetoally been tried.
Strategy is an art of ancient origin, though it has but recently been treated as a branch distinct from Tactics. It was practised by Alex- ander and Cesar ; and in the arrangement of the Grecian phalanx, and the Roman legion, as well as in the manhalling of modem armies, (p. 408.) In the Grecian phalanx, the hopHtai^ or heavy armed infantry, clad in full armor, with broad shields, straight swords, and long spean, appear to have occupied the rear ; w^ the oeftas/ot, or targeteers, with smaller shields and spean, held the middle place; and the pn/ot, or light troops, armed with darts, arrows, and slings, were posted in front, to begin the action. The hippeis, or cavalry, either protected the flanks, or formed a reserve. Tne Roman legion was, in early times, drawn up in three ranks ; the Aos/o/i, or young men, in front ; the prineipts^ or middle aged next; and the triariU or veterans, in the rear. They were all armed with a shield, sword, spear, and two javelins ; but the hastati bora the largest shields, and the triarii, the longest swords and spears. The veliUMf or light troops, had no particular place assigned them, but fought as skirmbhen, with javelins, slings, and stones, or bows, and arrows. Of ancient marches, encampments, and battles, we have no room hera to speak.
The great elements of Strategy, or the combining of strength with rapidity of motion, were flrat developed by Maurice of Nassau ; practised and extended by the Duke of Marlborough ; farther improved by Frederick the Great ; and finally perfected by Napoleon ; who taught them, at last, even to his enemies. The works of Lloyd and Tempelhoff, describing the military Operations of Frederick the Great, are perhaps the earliest modern writings in which these ele- ments are formally steted and explained. BUlow, in his work on the Theory of War, appean to have committed some grave erron ; such as in maintaining that retreats should be made in separate corps, diverging from each other. Jomini opposes this and other maxims of his ; and insists that the forces should be kept concentrated, and led by the shortest way, to attack the enemy in overwhelming masses : in proof of which he cites many of the most brilliant ex- ploits of Napoleon ; and might have cited those of his last success- ful antagonist, the Duke of Wellington. In our own country, the most instructive lessons may be drawn from the prudent measures of Washington, compared with those which proved fatal to Burgojrne and Cornwallis ; while they show that a war of self-defence has gready the advantage over one of invasion or conquest.
Our further remarks on Strategy, will be arranged under the heads of Preliminary Operations ; Marches and Encampments ; and Bat- tles and Retreats.
$ 1. Among the Preliminary Operations of a campaign, or sea- son's warfare, are the organization of an army or armies, and the devising of plans of operation. European armies oAen comprise
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many corps ; each corps conaisiing of one or more diTiaions ; each division, of two or more brigades ; and each brigade, of two or more regiments or battalions. In smaller armies, a single brigade, or even a baltalion, may be considered as forming a distinct corps. The principal arms^ so called, which compose the strength of an army, are the infantry, artillery, cavalry, and engineering or fortification. As cavalry and artillery are far more expensive &an infantry, the latter constitute the great mass of modern armies. Thus, the whole French army, in 1804, consisted of about 500,000 infantry ; 20,000 artillery ; 70,000 cavalry ; and 10,000 engineers, including sappers and miners. The regular army, authorized to be raised by oar government, in the war of 1812, would have amounted to 62,448 men ; but the number in service at any one time was far less. The present army of the United States, consists of eight regiments of infantry, four of artillery, and two of dragoons ; which, with the staff corps, form a nominal aggregate of 12,530 men.
Troops are raised or recruited, either by voluntary enlistment, or by draughts, or conscriptions, under the direction of the civil govern- ment. Although the militia are the great resource for the defence of a nation, still they cannot generally be depended upon, until they have been drilled and practised in warfare, so as to acquire somewhat of the character of regular troops. The importance of drilling a suffi- cient body of our militia, to be ready to suppress insurrection, or repel invasion, seems to be too evident, and urgent, to require an argument here in its favor. The means of providing supplies of every kind for an army, have already been indicated, as far as our limits would allow, in treating of Hoplistics. (p. 490 and 402). The Stqjff^ Corps and Departments of our own service, are 1. The Adju- tant General's department; 2. The Inspector General's department; 3. The corps of Engineers ; 4. The corps of Topographical Engi- neers; 5. The Ordnance department; 6. The Quartermaster department; 7. The Subsistence department: 8. The Purchasing department; 9. The Medical department; and 10. The Pay de- partment. The chief officers of these different corps and depart- ments, present with the army, together with the chaplains and the aides-de-camp (or aidecamps) of the commander, constitute the Staff of the army ; on which its efficiency greatly depends. The Adjutant General^ keeps all records relating to the personnel of the army, or the officers and men ; and issues Uie orders and regulations directed by the Commander-in-chief. The duties of the Inspector General^ are implied by his title ; and can here require no farther mention.
Before taking the field, it is customary for the commander to digest a plan of operations ^ proposing the accomplishment of cer- tain objects, and based on the best information which he can obtain ; but liable to alteration from the various and uncertain chances of war. As such a plan generally has reference to a whole season, it is also called a plan of the campais^n. It depends upon a knowledge of his own strength, and that of the enemy ; and a knowledge of the country which is to be the field or theatre of war. If the objects of the campaign be purely defensive, as the protection of a certain 64 2U
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region, or frontier, or fortress, or chain of fortresses, with supplies in the vicinity, the plan is then limited to the best arrangement of the troops for this object ; recollecting that they should not be so much subdivided, nor so far separated, as to expose them to defeat in detail ; and that the best defence may sometimes be made by carrying the war inlo the enemy's own country, or meeting him in advance.
But if the objects proposed be offensive, the plan of operations becomes much more complicated. Considering the whole field or theatre of war as one great parade ground, the side towards the ene- my is called its fTont ; the opposite side, its rear ; and the other sides are called the right and left flanks. If the army draws its sup- plies and recruits from the rear, the space where they are assembled^ or whence they are procured, is called the basis of operations. As the army advances, the roads or routes by which these supplies are carried forward to overtake it, are called lines of operation. As these lines usually require to be guarded by detachments, stationed at successive posts along them ; and as the army, if obliged to retreat, ought generally to be concentrated at some one position ; it is gene- rally preferable to have only one principal line of operations, which may then be guarded more strongly. The posts, for this purpose, should of course be carefully selected ; and, if possible, fortified, at least with field works.
§ 2. Marches f are generally performed in column, on account of the narrowness of roads ; and, if long, they require nightly Encampments. to give rest to the troops. The column of march, should be so disposed that it may readily deploy, or display in line, by oblique marches of its centre and rear to the right and left, if it should be necessary to give or sustain battle. It should be protected by strong ran and rear guards ; with scouts and skirmishers on the flanks, and in all the en- virons ; to guard against surprise, and gain useful information. The greatest precautions are required, in passing forests, ravines, bridges, or other defiles ; where an enemy might lie in ambush, and where there would be no room to form in battle array. The baggage traint should be placed either in the column, or so near it that it may be speedily defended, in case of an attack ; being of course well guarded. Detachments are often required, as guards, or escorts, or foragers : and they should neither be so weak as to be easily over- powered, nor yet so strong as greatly to weaken the main army.
The crossing of rivers, in presence of an enemy, and especially in retreating, is one of the most hazardous warlike operations. To the means of constructing bridges for this purpose, where bridges are wanting, we .have already briefly referred, (p. 497.) If they are to be built in the face of an enemy on the opposite shore, he must be driven hack by a powerful cannonade ; by which the troops that are to cross should also be protected. If we are to retreat across a river, with the enemy pursuing, it is very desirable to have defen- sive works near the entrance to the bridge ; forming a tete-de-pont, by which the enemy may be held in check, and within which our troops may be sheltered, till all have crossed except the rear guard ; which then evacuates the works, and destroys the bridge, the mo- ment that it has crossed it. It is only by keeping the enemy at a
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distance, while the successive corps are crossing and debouching on the opposite shore, that such a movement can be effected without certain destruction.
In all marches and movements, it is important that our different columns, or corps, should keep within atriking distance of each other ; so that if either were attacked, the others might come in time to aid it. The nearer the enemy may be, the more concentrated should our own troops be, to effect this object. It is not safe to divide our own army, because that of the enemy is divided, unless one of our corps can be trusted to itself, while the other is able to vanquish one of the opposing corps. A better course, in this case, is to attack one of the enemy's corps with our whole force ; and thus beat him in detail. If our supplies come from the rear, it is of the greatest importance to preserve our line of operations, and prevent the enemy from intercepting our convoys. Tlie line of batde, of an army, which is usually perpendicular to its line of operations, is technically called ^parhllel; because it is also parallel to the enemy's line. Should the enemy move to the right or lef\, in his parallel, it may require a corresponding movement of our own, either to give or avoid battle ; and this may require a change in our line and plan of operations, unless it has been already provided for.
§ 3. A Battle^ is properly an engagement in which the great mass of both the contending armies is present ; and if unsuccessful, it generally necessitates a Betreat, or if this be impossible, a sur- render. When a part only of one or both armies, is present, the engagement is called an action, or affair^ and if it is between only a few troops, and attended with slight results, it is called a skirmish. Of course a battle should be voluntarily hazarded only under favor- able circumstances, or else for some urgent reason : and the army which acts on the offensive, is the most likely to win the day, be- cause troops on the advance generally retain their courage and firm- ness better than those who await the onset. An army, anticipating an attack, should choose a strong and somewhat elevated position ; with natural obstacles, or temporary works, if possible, to defend its flanks ; but with a free passage for retreat, in case of heavy reverses. It is also desirable to have some detached field works in front, to break the shock of the enemy's charge ; but with intervals through which charges may be made in return. Besides the main army, usually drawn up in two lines, there should be a strong reserve, ready to act at any critical moment.
If any positions can be found, from which the enemy's line can be enfiladed by our artillery, they should of course be made avail- able. Instead of distributing the different troops uniformly along the line, it is generally better that the cavalry, and artillery, should be concentrated in large masses ; which can thus be made to act more effectively against the enemy. An attack is often made on one wing or flank of our line ; which method is called an oblique attacks or oblique order of battle. The best mode of meeting it would probably be to make the threatened wing change front, and stand its ground, while the main army takes such a position as to outflank the enemy, instead of allowing itself to be outflanked: but a skilful general
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would always endeavor to avoid being exposed to an oblique, or a flank attack. An army throwing back one wing, so as to present a salient angle in its line, is said to form a potence, or crotchet ; but SQch a position can rarely be recommended. Oblique movements, are often advantageously made by eehelonSf of battalions, or brigades, preserving certain intervals, by which they are left more free to manoeuvre, or engage, or retreat To attack the weakest point of an enemy, with an overwhelming force, and then follow up the suc- cess, appears to be the leading maxim of Strategy ; applicable by sea as well as by land.
CHAPTER V.
NAVITACnCS.
Navitactics, or Naval Tactics, is that branch of Machetechnics which relates to the arming, manoeuvring, and fighting of ships of war. The name is derived from the Greek, pwou (or the Latin navia), a ship ; and roacrca, I arrange. This great division of the arts of war, depends immediately on the branches of Navitecture and Navigation ; which have already found their place in the present clas- sification of knowledge, and to which we here simply refer, (p. 451). Ships of fFlar^ are distinguished from merchant vessels, by their being generally larger, stronger, and armed with numerous guns; while the latter seldom carry more than one or two, for making sig- nals. They are also recognized by some peculiarities of rigging; which are at once detected by a practised eye ; but which cannot here be described. A nary, is the whole assemblage of vessels of war belonging to one nation ; any number of which, serving together, under one commander, is called a fleets or, if small, a squadron. On the importance of navies to the defence of maritime nations, now •o generally admitted, we need not here enlarge.
The earliest instance of naval warfare, is assigned by some writers to Erythras, who, at an early period, became master of the Red Sea ; but by others to Neptune, or to Jason. The ancient ships of war, called galleys^ were usually of moderate size ; and, though provided with masts and sails, they were generally manoeuvred, in battle, by oars alone. Some of them had two, and some of them three rows or banks of oars^ one above the other ; those above being the longest, and pulled by men sitting or standing on higher benches. Those with three banks, were called by the Romans, triremes. The beak, or foremost end, of the galleys, was made very strong : often present- ing the shape of a lion, or some formidable figure : and an attack was sometimes made by rowing with all force, and striking, with the beak, the side of the opposing vessel, with a view to crush and sink it, or run it doton. The largest of the Grecian vessels at the great battle of Salamis, had 50 oars, but only 18 fighting men.
The rowers, were deemed of inferior grade to the soldiers ; who fought with javelins and arrows, or manned the heavy weapons.
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These consisted of balistw, for hurling stones heavy enough to pierce the bottom of the opposing ship, and sink it, as they fell ; dolphins^ or battering rams, of iron, suspended from the mast, and made to swing, with heavy blows, against the sides of the enemy ; or crowSf which were long beams with iron hooks at the prows, first used by the Roman consul Duillius, to grapple with the Carthaginian fleet ; by means of which the Romans were at once enabled to board their enemy. Ignited combustibles were sometimes thrown upon the foe, to bum his vessels ; and the Greek fire, invented at a late period, served this purpose most effectually, as it could not be extinguished. The ancient mode of drawing up a fleet, was in the form of a trian- gle : the admiral's ship being in front ; the others extending from his, in two diverging lines ; and the store ships forming a connecting line in the rear.
With the general introduction of fire arms, and improvement of navigation and ship-building, naval warfare assumed a new aspect. Ships of war were built so large that oars became insufficient to move them ; and they were propelled by means of sails alone. Port holeSf were invented by Decharges, a French navitect at Brest, in 1500; and the Great Harry, of 1000 tons burthen, built in 1509, under Henry VII., was the first British ship of war which carried guns on two decks. In the reign of James I., ten ships were built, of 1400 tons burthen, and 64 guns each ; but they, were still inferior in size to the ships of the Spanish and Portuguese. The earlier ships of war were greatly encumbered by lofty forecastles and quarterdecks, forming as it were, towers at the ends of the ship, but greatly impeding her sailing, increasing her exposure, and diminishing her force. The use of naval signals, is said to have been improved and extended by the Duke of York ; but it is only within the last century that the evolutions of fleets have been reduced to anything like system. The invention of the mode of attack by breaking the enemy's line, is claimed by Mr. Clerk ; who wrote on this subject in 1779 : but its originality has been strongly disputed by Sir Howard Douglass.
Our own country may claim to have made some decided improve- ments, both in naval architecture, and naval tactics ; as the results of former wars abundantly testify. The introduction of Paixhan guns, throwing shells of great weight horizontally, is likely to render naval warfare more hazardous, and its results more decisive than they have hitherto been deemed. This we regard as a happy omen : for the more dangerous war becomes, the less disposed will nations be to engage in it. The use of steam, for propelling large vessels, is also likely to make some change in naval warfare; though it will not probably turn the balance of power, unless it be against those who neglect it. The idea has been entertained by some persons, that the use of steam batteries, for harbor defence, will supersede the necessity of fortifications on shore. This opinion we cannot adopt : but considering the great advantage which forts possess over floating batteries, in regard to safety, certainty of aim, and permanency, where they are well planned and constructed, we think they must continue to be regarded as an essential element of coast and harbor defence.
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We proceed to give some farther ideas of Navitoctics, under the heads of Naval Armamenls ; Naval Engagements ; and Manoeuvres of Fleets.
§ 1. A Naval Armament ^ consists of vessels of war, fully armed, manned, and equipped for active service: but the term armament^ is also applied to the guns of a single vessel. Vessels of war are ranked according to the number of decks on which their guns are carried. Those carrying guns on three or more decks, are called ships of the line, or line of batlle ships ; carrying usually 74, but some of them 100, or even 120 guns. Those carrying guns on two decks, are called frigates ; if of 44 guns or more, frigates of the first class ; but if of smaller armament, frigates of the second class. Vessels carrying guns on one deck only, but ship-rigged, are called sloops of war, or corvettes ; and carry usually 18, 20, or 24 guns. Other vessels, chiefly of still inferior force, receive their appellation merely from their rig and build, as brigs, schooners, and cutters. Among the principal ofRcers of a %'essel of war, are the captain, lieutenants, midshipmen, sailing master, quarter masters, boatswain, carpenter, and sailmaker ; besides the chaplain, surgeon, purser, and captain's clerk.
The uppermost deck of all vessels of war, is called the spar-deck. When there is another deck carrying guns, it is called the gitn-deck; and if there are two others, they are distinguished as the upper and lower gun-decks. Next below the gun-decks is the orlop-deck, or orlop ; and below this are the hold, for stowing spare rigging and provisions ; and the magazine, for storing powder, — ^which lies en- tirely below the surface or level of the water. Ships recently built, have an arrangement for drowning the magazine ; or filling it with water from below, to prevent the powder from exploding, but with- out admitting the water into the rest of the vessel. The guns, usually 42, 32, 24, and 18 pounders, long guns and carronades, are mounted on carriages resembling those for garrison guns, running on trucks or small wheels ; and their recoil is limited by a strong rope attached to the side of the ship. The oflicers are quartered aft, and the men forward, on the gun-decks ; the upper one in preference.
The dimensions of ships of war have been materially increased, in recent times. A ship of 120 guns is about 210 feet long on the lower gun deck, and has a breadth of beam of about 58 feet, and a depth in hold of about 33 feet ; the extreme length being about 230 feet, and the burthen about 3200 tons. A ship of 74 guns, is about Jp6 feet long, and 54 broad, and of about 2600 tons burthen. A frigate of 44 guns, is about 179 feet long, 47 broad, and of about 1600 tons burthen ; but a sloop of war, of 24 guns, is about 132 feet long, 36 broad, and has a burthen of about 900 tons. A ship of the line, draws at least 24 feet of water; a frigate of 44 guns, 22 feet; and a sloop of 24 guns, draws 16 feet of water. A ship of 120 guns, requires a crew of about 900 sailors and gunners, besides ma- rines ; a 74 gim ship, requires 650 ; a 44 gun frigate, about 300 ; and an 18 gun sloop of war, requires about 125 men, besides ma- rines ; these latter being soldiers, designed to act as a guard, and to assist in close combat, especially in boarding. The usual com pie-
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ment of marines in the British service, is one for every gun. The rigging of sliips of war, differs so little from that of the largest mer- chant ships, as to require no farther notice in this place, (p. 453.)
§ 2. Naval Engagements, or battles, may take place either be- tween fleets, or single ships : but the mode of fighting being essen- tially the same in both cases, we shall confine the present descrip- tion to those of the latter kind. When two hostile ships come in sight of each other upon the ocean, the one which happens to be to the windward, or on the side from which the wind blows, is said to have the weather gage. This is considered so great an advantage that ships often manoBUvre some time before fighting, the one to gain, and the other to retain it. If the weather, or windward ship, be of inferior force, it enables her to avoid an action much longer ; and, in the opposite case, she can the more speedily bear down upon her enemy. Moreover, the windward ship is less endangered in action ; as she careens towards the enemy, and exposes less of her side to his fire. A ship sailing with the wind on her right, is said to be on her starboard tack ; but with the wind from the left hand, she is said to be on her larboard or left hand tack.
In preparing for action, tlie courses, or lower sails, are usually hauled up, and not used ; though kept in readiness, if required : the ship being most manageable under topsails, top-gallant-sails, gib, and spanker. The crew are called to quarters by beat of drum ; each man taking the station which had previously been assigned to Him in drilling. The commander, is stationed in the hinder part of the ship, called the quarter deck ; and his orders are communicated to the lieutenants, or other commanders of sections, or batteries, as also to the sailing-master, and other oflicers, either direcdy, or by send- ing his aids, — ^who are usually midshipmen, selected for this pur- pose. The carpenter rigs the pumps ; collects his plugs to stop shot holes ; and has fishes or splits of wood ready for strengthening a crippled mast or spar. The surgeon is stationed in the cockpit, a part of the hold prepared for the purpose, to attend to the wounded. The decks are wetted and sanded, the latter to prevent their being slippery ; and vessels of water are provided to extinguish fire. Finally, the magazine is opened by the gunner and his crew ; and the ammunition served to the powder boys, who pass it to the different guns.*
Meanwhile, the ship nears the enemy; and as they sail past, or alongside of each other, the firing commences in close action, if it did not begin at a distance. Each ship, in firing, except with bow and stern chasers, (long guns), must present its side to the enemy ; and then usually fires a broad-side, or nearly half its guns at once. It is generally considered best to fire at the water line of the enemy's ship, (between wind and water), with a view to sink him ; or else at the foot of his masts, with a view to cut them away. Each vessel also strives to obtain a
* Of Nayal Cannery, which difibn only in its details from that of the Artillery, we haya do room here to treat
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position, or watch the time, for raking the other; that is, for firing lengthwise of the antagonist ship, especially as she turns in tacking or wearing ; such fires being very effective. It often happens, that one of the two ships is so disabled, as to be obliged to haul down its colors, in token of surrender, without coming in contact with the other: if not, the last resort is boarding; by running one ship afoul of the other ; when the men fight hand to hand, with boarding pikes, cutlasses, and small arms ; and headlong valor, oftener than numbers, decides the contest.
$ 3. The Manoeuvres of ItteUy consist in the arranging of several vessels in prescribed onfer ; and much resemble the evolutions of artillery batteries, or of large bodies of troops. When several ves- sels of war are to act in concert, it is of course necessary that they should all be placed under one commander, who in foreign services has the title of admiral^ or, if commanding a squadron, that of com- 9nodore. The ship in which he sails, has a separate captain, like the others ; and is called the Jiag ahip^ because it bears the flag of the chief commander. His orders are conveyed to the other vessels, by preconcerted signals ; which are usually small flags, pennons, or streamers, of diflerent colors, or in different positions of the rigging ; and, in the night, lights, or rockets, or the firing of guns at prescribed intervals of time. Fleets are often attended by transports, or store ships ; and they sometimes act as convoys to merchantmen, when their cargoes are of national value.
Fleets often mancBu vre in one or more columns ; all the ships tacking, or making sail, or taking in sail at the same time : and the distance between the ships may vary, from a cablets lengthy to a third of the same, that is, from 120 to 40 fathoms, according to cir- cumstances. When there are two or more columns, they should be so far apart that a line drawn from the ship at one end of one column, to the ship at the opposite end of the next, would make an angle of two points, or 22i^, with the direction of either column. Gene- rally, the van-guard forms the weather, or windward column; and the rear-guard, the leeward column: but this order is sometimes changed. Among the other orders of sailing, besides in line, the triangular order, of the ancients, \a perhaps the most important. The particular evolutions by which the different ships preserve their pie- scribed place, in these orders, we have no room here to describe.
In the order of batik, the ships are generally drawn up in line ; under easy sail, and on parallel courses. Here, as in the case of single ships, it is deemed an advantage to have the weather-gage ; though this is sometimes lost, even at the moment of engaging, by an unforeseen change of the wind. The two fleets usually come into action with the wind oblique, or nearly abeam ; and they formerly arranged themselves in two parallel lines; each ship exchanging broadsides with those she passed, and perhaps finally engaging with a single adversary. The more approved method is, as in Strategy, to concentrate if possible an overwhelming force against one portion of the enemy, and thus vanquish him peacemeal. A favorite manceu- vre for this object, recommended, if not invented, by Mr. Clerk, is to
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break the /in&jof the enemy, by an oblique attack ; when the rear- ward portion of his ships, separated from the rest, may be captured with comparative ease, while the others are too far distant to aid them. This method was practised by Rodney, in the West Indies ; and also by Nelson, in the battles of the Nile, and Trafalgar : its excellence, therefore, may be considered as fully established.
Note to page 503. The formation by threes is that prescribed in Herries' Cavdry Tactics ; but the formation now adopted in the United States service is by fours : four men of the front rank wheel- ing as one, and being followed by four men of the rear rank ; thus forming a column of four men abreast, to march by a flank.
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XVL DEPABTMENT:
CALLOTECHNICS.
In the department of Callotechnics, we comprehend those arts of ornament and amusement which relate to material objects, and hence depend upon materials and instruments for their exercise. The name is derived from the Greek, xoxof, beautiful, or xoxxo;, beauty ; and tsx^Vt an art : and the term Fine Arts, is chiefly applied to this group ; which is here made to include Printing, Painting, Sculpture, Music, and Argics, or active amusements. These arts have close relations with Poetry and Romance, or Callography ; and they are accordingly assigned to the final place in the study of the material world, as Cal- lography was in the intellectual : but they differ essentially in the means which they employ to produce the same ideas or emotions ; the one acting through the medium of the senses ; the other direcdy upon the imagination.
Painting and Sculpture, have many principles of taste in common not only with Architecture and Horticulture, which are sometimes ranked as fine arts, but also with Vestiture and Furniture, in their more ornamental productions. There is, however, this distinction between them ; that while these latter arts are chiefly subservient to utility, or the physical wants of man, the former are designed chiefly for intellectual gratification. This distinction also applies to Music, and to Argics, including gymnastic exercises and games of chance and skill : and it may be extended, though with less force, to the art of Printing, for which the present department has seemed the most appropriate place. The close connection of writing and printing with drawing and engraving, is another reason for the arrangement here adopted ; especially as books, the joint production of these arts, are really specimens of the Fine Arts, and greatly contribute to our intellectual gratification.
The characteristic arts, embraced in this group, have of\en been termed Imitative Arts ; a term which belongs to them in common with various others. It is true that Painting and Sculpture imitate shapes and colors, and Music imitates sounds and motions; and hence arises one source of the pleasure which these arts aflbrd. But they are imitative in a higher sense than this ; that is to say, in copying abstract nature, and representing objects not merely as they do exist, or have existed ; but as they might be supposed to exist, under any imagined circumstances or conditions. In this sense, they are properly termed Creative Arts; as producing representations which have no original in nature ; and thus enlarging the boundaries
514
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of human conception. But while venturing into this sphere, it is necessary that they should be controlled by the principles of pure taste, and never lose sight of probabilities, or at least of possibilities, in their imaginative excursions.
Of the Fine Arts, as of Ornamental Literature, it may be said, that they spring from the constitution of human nature ; and though not absolutely necessary to its physical existence, yet they have in all ages served to develope its mental powers, and to promote its highest enjoyments. By furnishing a pleasing recreation, they have often kept the young mind from wandering in forbidden paths ; while age has derived from them the vigor of the bow unstrung. But it is rather to the sentient than to the reasoning powers of our nature that they address themselves ; and hence, if rightly directed, they have power to soothe the stormy passions, and calm the troubled breast ; or to warm the heart to goodness, and implant the seeds of virtue and piety ; or to rouse the soul to action, and incite it to the performance of deeds of daring and of glory. That they have often been abused, and applied to unworthy purposes, must ever be a subject of regret, to virtuous minds : and it furnishes a reason for their being legally and morally scrutinized ; but none for their neglect or extirpation.
To compare the relative merits of these arts, or to give a preference either to them or to Rhetoric, Poetry, or Romance, we deem unneces- sary and invidious ; as each admits of masterly skill in its own sphere ; and the best productions of each branch may well vie with those of the others. Of sensible forms. Painting may give more exact ideas than Poetry ; but, for this very reason, the effect may be less impos- ing ; because deprived of the charm or spell which imagination casts over objects half revealed. The effects of Music, are generally less definite than those of either poetry or painting : but still they are often not the less pleasing; as the very vagueness of their impressions leaves the mind only the more free to follow any train of thought, or feeling, which they may excite, or with which they may harmonize. This fact reminds us that all these arts should be kept within their proper bounds, and enjoyed moderately ; else instead of relaxing and invigorating the mind, they will only enervate it, by the thraldom of mental dissipation.
The history of Callotechnics, will be more appropriately distributed among its different branches. The most important topic in this his- tory, is the invention of the art of Printing ; by which knowledge, once confined in manuscripts, and accessible only to the privileged few, is now disseminated in multiplied copies, widely as the winds are, and almost as free. Though of later date than the invention of the compass, and of fire arms, it has exercised an influence not less important than theirs, on the destiny of the world ; and when the mighty power of steam arose, and winged its way over sea and land, the genius of Printing at once took advantage of its progress, and sub- sidized it as the carrier of her literary treasures. Of the other Fine Arts, none has made substantial progress, in modem times, excepting Music; but this art, next to Printing, has, we think, exerted the greatest influence upon national character. We are of the opinion that music does not form the national character, so much as it is
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formed by it : yet each has an influence upon the other. The gene- ral fact Uiat the moat enlightened nations have made the greatest progress in the arts of this class, forms, we think, a substantml argu- ment in favor of their liberal but judicious cultivation.
We proceed to give some further illustrations of Callotechnics, under the branches of Printing ; Painting ; Sculpture ; Music ; and Argics ; the latter comprehending various games and active amuse- ments.
CHAPTER I.
PRINTIlfO.
We use the term Printing, in a generic sense, for the want of another more appropriate, to include the arts of communicating ideas by means of letters and other symbols. The name is derived from the Latin, imprimOt I imprint or engrave ; and this from premoj I press; probably alluding originally to the impression of seals or signets. We here comprehend, besides printing, properly so called, the arts of writing and engraving, bookbinding, and telegraphic com- munication : all of which have close relations with printing, and are subservient to the same general object. The arts of tliis group have also a reference to Glossology, or the study of Languages ; and the art of Writing might be introduced under that department, as subser^ vient to the study of it, were it not more closely related here. These arts are, collectively, of the highest importance, as means for the diffusion of knowledge ; by which the thoughts, inventions, or dis- coveries of any individual, may speedily be communicated to the whole civilized world.
The most ancient writings now remaining, are those engraved on Btone ; as the Egyptian hieroglyphics ; and the arrow-head charac* ters of Persepolis and Babylon, which have but recently been decy- phered. The Eg>'ptians also wrote on papyrus^ a kind of paper made from a reed growing along the river Nile ; and recent mention is made of a manuscript at Turin, of this material, written as early as 1700 B. C. ; though we are not informed of its contents.* It is highly probable that the books of Moses were written on papyrus ; though possibly on prepared linen. The poem of Hesiod, entitled Works and Days, is said to have been written on leaden tablet $^ and kept in the Temple of the Muses. Tablets of brass, ivory, or wood, were also used by the Greeks and Romans ; being either covered with wax, and written upon transiently, with the stylus^ or iron point ; or else being written upon permanently, with ink, and a calamus, or reed, for a pen. Parchment , made from the skins of animals, was invented at Pergamns, 200 B. G. ; when papyrus could not be procured from Egypt. Paper^ was made of cotton, by the Arabians, as early as A. D. 704 : and they introduced its manu-
*Dr. Jenks'fl Comprehensive Commentary; I; 213; where referenoe is alio made to other ancient Egyptian manuscripts on papyrus.
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facture into Europe ; where paper was first made of linen rags, about 1320. The bark and leaves of trees, are still used as writing materials by some half-civilized nations or tribes.
The art of Xylographies or block printing, by means of engraved wooden plates, was known to the Chinese, it is said, 1100 B. C. It was reinvented in Europe ; we believe by Laurentius Jansen, called Coster, at Harlaem, as early as 1430 ; but the great invention of typography^ or printing with moveable types, is we believe due to Guttenberg, otherwise called Gansfleisch, who was assisted in improving it, by Schoeffer, and perhaps by Faust. The date now generally assigned to this invention, is 1440: and the first printed edition of the Bible was completed in 1455. The invention of ste- reotype printing, from cast metallic plates, is due to Yander-Mey, of Holland, who first matured it about 1690 ; and to Ged, of Scotland, who reinvented it in 1725. The invention of the printing press is ascribed to Guttenberg ; but the invention of printing machinery , or the power press, commenced in 1790, with Mr. W. Nicholson; and was first successfully applied by Messrs. Bacon and Donkin, in 1813.
The art of engraving on wood, is also said to have originated in Germany, with the stamping of cards, as early as 1360. Engraving on copper appears to have been invented by Finiguerra, of Italy, as early as 1452; and it was known in Germany as early as 1460. The engravings of Schoen, (or Schoengaur) of Antwerp, ar^ among the earliest extant. Etching was practised by Albert Durer, as early as 1518 : Mezzotinto engraving was invented by De Siegen in 1643, or Prince Rupert, in 1649 ; and Lithography, by Senefelder, in 1796. Bookselling, as a distinct profession, commenced with Otto, of Nu- remberg, in 1516. Newspapers originated in Venice, in 1563 ; and the first in England was printed in 1588. The first printing press in the United States was brought to Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. The use of signals to convey information, was known to the ancients ; and a Telegraph was contrived by the Marquis of Wor- cester, as early as 1663 ; but the first actual Telegraph was put in operation in 1794, by Chappe, of France.
The branch of which we are now treating may be distributed nnder the heads of Writing ; Printing ; Engraving ; Paper Making, and Book binding; and Telegraphies, or telegraphic communications.
§ 1. The art of Writing, also termed Chirography, is too simple to require any long explanation here ; but we may remark that its greatest perfection consists in its free and easy style, its neatness and regularity of appearance, and especially its ready legibility. Much depends upon having a good pen, which is best made from a strong and elastic quill; and much depends upon a good position of the hand and body, — such as freely to admit of the proper motions. The body should be held as erect as possible, to prevent distortion of the spine ; and the table or desk should be so low that the right fore arm may rest upon it, without being carried very far from the side. The pen should be so held between the thumb and first two fingers, that the thumb can be bent with ease, and that the end of the fore finger may be raised from the pen without letting go of it. Th^
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learner should commence with the elementary parts of letters ; and we would advise that he should form them, from the beginning, not much larger than of the ordinary size in writing ; as the hand be- comes thereby the sooner accustomed to the requisite motions.
Stenography J or Short Hand Writing, is an interesting art ; by the aid of which, the accomplished Stenographer can record most of the words of an orator, as fast as they flow from his lips : but it is an art which requires too much practice and dexterity in writing, and too much skill in reading, to admit of its ever coming into general use, even among professional men. The principles of Ste- nography, consist in selecting the simplest possible distinct charac- ters, such as can be made the most rapidly with the pen, to represent the letters; or, when standing alone, to represent certain selected words, of frequent occurrence. All silent letters, and most of the Towels are omitted : as hvn for heaven ; angl for angel, or angle : — and, in order to keep pace with a public speaker, it is often neces- sary to omit minor words or particles entirely ; supplying them after- wards from memory, or the context; as ur fthr w, n hvn^ for Our father who art in heaven. It will at once be seen, that the advan- tage of these abbreviations is counterbalanced, for common purposes, by the increased difficulty of reading what is thus written ; imper- fect as it necessarily must be, in following a public speaker.
$ 2. The earliest mode of Printing, and that which is still prac- tised in China, has been called xylographic, from the Greek H'^un*, wood ; because the letters are all cut on wooden blocks, after the manner of wood engraving. Each block, as prepared by the Chi- nese, usually contains two pages ; and the printing is executed by inking the letters with a brush, and Indian ink, then laying on the paper, and rubbing it gendy over, so that it may receive the ink from the letters. Our common printing is styled typographic, or typo- graphy ; because done by means of types ; which are small elongated pieces of so A metal, (lead and antimony), cast in
English. Pica.
Small Pica. Long Primer. Biirgeois.
Brevier.
Minion. Nonpareil.
a matrix or mould, and each bearing a letter pro- jecting in relief from one end of it The types are distributed in the compartments of a recep- tacle, or drawer, called the case ; those letters which occur most frequently, as e, f, and a, being placed nearest to the workman. The more common sizes of type are exhibited here in the margin ; being used in printing their own names. The process of setting up the types, to form a page, is called com- posing, and the workman who performs it, a compositor. When a few lines have been set up in a composing stick, held in the hand, they are then emptied upon the galley ; which is a flat board made to hold them, standing, as they do, endwise, in compact masses : and when as many pages have thus been composed as will constitute a form, or print one side of a sheet, they are then arranged upon the imposing stone, and locked up, or wedged together in an iron frame called the chase; after which they are ready for the printing press. The ink, made of boiled linseed oil, and lampblack, is applied either
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by means of inking halls ^ made of leather, firmly stuffed with wool, and provided with handles ; or else by means of elastic rollers. The paper is then laid on, and strongly pressed ; and thus the printing is executed, on one side of the sheet at a time. A single copy is first printed, called the proof} by reference to which, any errors in the composition are corrected, before any more impressions are taken.
In the process of stereotype printing, a page of moveable types is set up, as already explainea, and then covered with a paste or cream of calcined gypsum, freshly mixed with water ; which soon hardens, and being then removed, forms a mouldy from which the whole page may afterwards be cast, in one solid piece. The common printing press, consists essentially of a frame, supporting a bed, or firm table,, on which the form, containing the types is placed ; and a plcUten, or strong metallic plate, which, being moved by a lever, on the principle of the screw or inclined plane, presses the paper hard against the types, to take the ink therefrom. In the printing machine, or power press, the types are inked by means of rollers ; the paper supplied by passing over revolving cylinders ; and in some cases the types themselves are arranged around a cylinder, which turns as it receives the paper.
$ 3. The art of Engraving, presupposes an acquaintance with Drawing, and Perspective ; but we shall here treat only of its me- chanical processes ; reserving those auxiliary studies for the follow- ing chapter, to which they naturally belong. Xylography, or engraving on wood, is performed by first making a drawing of the intended design, on a flat fine gprained block, of boxwood in pre- ference, cut across the grain, and planed very smooth. Those parts which are to make no impression, or leave the paper white, are then cut away with a graver, a kind of chisel, pushed forward by the hand ; while those parts which are to receive the ink, are left pro- jecting, as in common types. Sometimes, an engraving is made at once on soft metal ; bnt more frequently, plaster casts are made from the wood ; and in this way as many metallic copies, like stereotype plates, may be founded, as are desired, for use in common printing.
Copper plate engraving, differs from that on wood, in having the parts that are to retain the ink and blacken the paper, cut into the surface, instead of being raised above it. The ink, applied by means of a roller, at first covers the whole plate ; but it is then wiped ofif from the smooth surface, before the paper is applied, which, by severe pressure, in the roller press, receives the ink from fhe sunken part, in the process of copper-plate printing. Line engraving, ifr pec- formed by means of the graver, already mentioned, or the dry point, of steel, made hard and sharp. Dot engraving, or stippling, is performed by pricking the plate, either with the dry point, which produces circular dots, or with the graver, which makes them triangu- lar. Etching, is executed by corroding the metal with an acid, instead of cutting it away mechanically. The whole copper plate is first covered over with a resinous varnish; which is then scraped off from those parts which are to be bitten, or eaten away by the acid. Any part, after being slightly bitten, may be stopped out, by washing
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off the acid, and covering that part with Tarniah ; and the rest may then be bitten deeper, at pleasure.
Mtzzotinto engraving, is executed by first roughening the copper surface all over mechanically, and then burnishing, or smoothing down again, those parts which are to be light in the picture. Aquaiinta engraving, is usually performed by sprinkling the plate over with finely powdered mastic, and then heating it till the particles soften and adhere to the plate. Those parts which are to be entirely white, are then completely covered over with varnish, as in etching ; and the specks of varnish on the remaining part, protecting numerous small points from the acid, cause the dark parts of the prints to be covered with fine white dots, which produce a pleasing effect. The use of sUtl plaits^ instead of copper, for engraving, was, we believe, introduced by our countryman, Mr. Perkins. The plates are ren- dered soft for the engraver ; but afterwards hardened by tempering, and thus rendered very durable. Lithography^ or stone printing, is executed from a simple 'drawing, made on porous, calcareous stone, with an oily ink or crayon, which drawing is firmly fixed, or ren- dered permanent, by the action of a dilute acid. On moistening the stone, the oily lines or dots remain dry ; and then, on applying the ink, it is repelled by the wet parts, and adheres only to the drawing; which is thus transferred to the paper, by means of a roller press.
$ 3. The art of Paper making, resembles that of cloth making, in producing extended surfaces from vegetable fibres ; but differs so much in the mode of producing them, and in the use to which they are applied, that it may properly be mentioned here. The best paper is made of white linen rags ; which are first washed and ground in the paper mi!l ; in which they pass between sharp revolving knives or cutters, till they are reduced to a fine pulpy substance, uniformly diffused in the water. For paper made by hand, a quantit|^ of this pulp is taken up on a sieve ; and, the water running through, it is left as a continuous sheet, which is then removed and pressed. For ma" chine paper, the pulp is received on a revolving, cylindrical sieve ; which discharges the water, but retains the pulp, and delivers it on another cylinder, in a long sheet : and it is then pressed, by passing it between rollers. Writing paper , before being pressed, is sized, with a solution of glue or gelatin, which renders it smoother, and prevents common ink from spreading upon it. Printing paper, is usually unsized, and therefore bibulous, or capable of absorbing water freely.
The process of Book binding, commences with the folding of the ffheets into leaves, and the arrangement of them, according to the signatures ; which are letters, or numbers, placed at the bottom of the pages, at certain intervals ; by reference io which, the labor of counting the pages is avoided. The leaves are then stitched together at the back edges ; during which operation they are kept in place by a frame, holding the threads to which they are fastened : and the whole back is firmly compacted, by covering it with glue. The cover is then applied, and secured to the body of the book, by the ends of the threads, left protruding for that purpose. The blank leaves at the beginning and end of a book are technically called fly haves ; and ought to bs of sized paper, that they may be written upon with
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common ink. A book is said to be in folio, (2to), when a sheet is folded into two leaves ; in quarto, {4io), when a sheet makes four leaves ; in octavo, (800), when a sheet is folded into eight leaves ; and in duodecimo, when twelve leaves are contained in one sheet. Every book intended for reference, should contain a table of contents at the beginning, and a copious alphabetical index at the close.
$ 5. The Telegraph, is a contrivance for communicating with persons at a distance, by means of a system of preconcerted signals. That invented by Chappe, and called by him the semaphore, or signal bearer, consisted of a wooden bar, called the long indicator, supported at the top of a strong mast, and capable of revolving in a vertical plane, on an axle passing centrally through it. It was moved by means of a cord, passing over a pulley, attached to the same axle ; and at each end of it were smaller arms, called indicators, attached to it by an axle, and capable of turning around it, so as to take any re* quired direction, by means of cords and pulleys. This apparatus, since called the T telegraph, admits of about 100 different signals ; each of which may be made to represent either a letter, a number, a word, or a sentence. The stations are usually from five to ten miles apart ; and in this way information has been conveyed at the rate of more than 500 miles in a minute.
The semaphoric telegraphs, erected by Mr. Parker, in Boston Harbor, consist of tall masts, having each three moveable arms, one at the top, called the indicator, and the others at different heights below. Each of these arms may be placed in six different positions, making a total of 216 simple combinations, which by compounding, or taking them two or more at a time, may express any desirable number of words or sentences. In place of these, and in correspond- ence with them, there are six marine flags, of blue and white differently disposed, which, with a seventh, called the conversation flag, used to announce an intended conversation, constitute a Marine Telegraph, of great service occasionally to ships at sea. A Tele- graphic Dictionary is prepared, answering to these signals ; by means of which, an intelligent person may, in a short time, be able to understand the indications of the telegraph if it be visible.
CHAPTER n.
PAINTING.
Painting, in its generic sense, including drawing, is the art of representing objects on surfaces, by means of lines, shades, or colors. The name is derived from the French, peindre, to paint ; and this perhaps from the Latin, pingere, of the same meaning. In a more limited or specific sense, painting signifies the representation of objects by means of their appropriate colors : but as this cannot be done without giving their outlines, which constitutes drawing, and their chiaroscuro, or lights and shades, by the process of shading, these latter processes are included, togeUier with colorirg, in the 66 2x2
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present branch of the fine arts. It comprehends therefore the prin- ciples of engraving; the mechanical processes of which we have already explained, (p. 519.) Painting holds a high rank among tlie ornamental arts ; often addressing the understanding as well as the feelings ; and hence subserving important purposes in science and morals, as well as contributing to relaxation and amusement.
Drawings, are made with the pen, pencil, or crayon : but paintings, strictly so called, are executed with the brush ; either in water colors, on paper, or ivory, sometimes called washing; or in a still stricter sense, in oil colors, or distemper, on canvass, or on walls, or the like. A picture shaded witli only one color, is called a monochrome ; in contradistinction from polychromes^ shaded with various colors. As regards the subjects represented, painting is designated as flower, fruit, shell, or game painting, all in still life ; lundscape^ and marine painting, either from nature or fancy; portrait painting, which requires both ease and accuracy of execution ; and historical paint- ing, whicii demands the highest powers of the pictorial art. Portraits, are painted either in mtnto/tire, that is, very small ; or in half size ; or in full size, whether full length, or not : and as regards the posi- tion, they are either in profile, giving a side view, or frontal, giving a front view of the face. Historical paintings, comprehending allegorical and mythological, require for their success, ihe choice of a noble or striking subject, and of the best point of time, and of view, for its exhibition.
Painting or drawing, in a rude form, appears to have been prac- tised in the earliest times, and by all the nations of antiquity. Thus, among the monuments of Egypt, the walls of temples and caverns, are often found painted with figures of men and animals, in colors which have retained most of tlieir brilliancy, notwithstanding the lapse of ages. Most of these paintings, like those of the Mexican Indians, are historical and hieroglyphical ; portraying the exploits of warriors and the worship of the gods. This art was introduced into Greece, it is said, by Euchirus, long before the Trojan war : but the first Grecian painting, in various colors, appears to have been the Battle of Magnete, painted by Bularchus, about 720 B. C. Zeuxis and Parrhasius, famed for their rivalry, brought this art to great per- fection, in the age of Pericles ; and the picture of Venus Anady^ omene, or Venus rising from the sea, by Apelles, about 330 B. C., was deemed the most graceful and fauldess painting of ancient times. Both the Greeks and Romans appear to have attached less value to this art, than to Sculpture ; perhaps because it was less intimately connected with their religious institutions. The ancient art of encaustic painting, consisted in mingling the colors with wax, and applying them to Uie wall, or other surface, in a melted state.
The art of painting was revived, in Italy, by Cimabue, who flou- rished at Florence, about A. D. 1270. He copied or studied the ancient artists ; and improved the Italian style so much, that he has often been termed the father of this art. Af\er his time, four different schools, or styles of painting, arose in Italy, distinguished as the Florentine, Roman, Venetian, and Lombard. The Florentine school, commenced with Cimabue ; and reached its acme in the
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works of Michael Angelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. It was charac- terized by the gravity of its subjects ; and by correctness of design, and boldness of composition and coloring. The Roman School, rose and flourished with Raphael ; and breathed its last with Maratti, who repaired Raphaers fading pictures. This school was remarkable for gracefulness of design, and chaste, harmonious coloring. Sal- vator Rosa of Naples, and Carlo Dolci, who painted at Florence, belong, as regards their style, to the Roman School ; thougli the latter is usually numbered with the Florentines. The Venetian School, famed in the works of Giorgione, Titian, Paul Veronese, and Tintoretto, was characterized by simplicity of design, but rich- ness, if not gorgeousness of coloring. The Lombard Scliool, was of later origin, and numbered among its masters, Correggio, the Carracci, Guido, and Domenichino. It was generally distinguished by harmony, grace, and expression ; but its style was less settled than that of the preceding schools. Caravaggio, is, by some, regarded as the founder of another school, termed the natural ; as he professed to imitate nature, without regard to ancient art.
The use of oil, for mixing and applying colors, was unknown to the ancient painters ; and iu invention has been attributed to John Van Eyck, or John of Bruges, in Flanders, about A. D. 1410; though some writers claim the honor for the city of Venice. The Flemish School of painting, is renowned in the works of Rubens and Vandyke ; which are remarkable for their accuracy in details, and the minuteness with which they are finished ; as well as for richness of coloring, and freedom of design. The Dutch School, ^ though it may boast of a Rembrandt, is generally inferior to tlie Flemish : but the German School, as illustrated by Martin Schoen, Hans Holbein, and Albert Durer, is more original and wild ; being founded on Gotliic taste, but combining Flemish accuracy with Italian coloring. Of French painters, we may name Cousin as the earliest, and Poussin as probably the greatest. Claude Lor- raine was born in France, but spent his life chiefly in Italy, and is usually classed with the Lombard school. England also can boast of her Hogarth and Reynolds ; Scotland of her Wilkie ; and our own country may name her Copley, Stuart, and West; without re- ferring to living artists of deserved celebrity. A few of the more celebrated paintings will be named at the close of the present chapter
Our remaining remarks on this art, will be comprehended under the heads of Drawing ; Shading ; Coloring ; and Pinacography, or Descriptions of remarkable Pictures.
$ 1. The art of Drawings consists in the representation of the outlines of objects ; and depends upon the principles of Descriptive Geometry, (p. 331.) We here resume the subject of Scenographic Drawing, or Perspective ;^-of which a correct idea may be formed by looking through a window, and observing the relative positions, on the glass, at which the different external objects appear. The glass corresponds to ^e perspective plane, or surface of the drawing; the position of the eye is called the point of view ; and lines drawn from the eye to the various points of the original or external objects, are called visual rays$ which, by their intersections with the glass.
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fonn the perspective required. Hence, a simple mode of drawing in perspective, consists in using a vertical frame, divided by cross threads into small squares, with a sight vane placed behind it, to fix the position of the eye while looking through iu The paper being divided, by pencil lines, into corresponding squares, we have only to draw in each of these, the objects which are seen in the correspond- ing squares of the vertical frame ; which, from its use, is called a perupectograph.
In perspective, objects appear smaller when they are more distant; and their appearance changes, as we change our point of view. When a near object hides a more remote one, the part which is hidden, is not represented; as the nearer object fills its place. In general, lines which are truly vertical, are drawn vertical in the picture ; but hori- zontal lines appear oblique, unless they are precisely on the level of the eye, or else parallel to the plane of the picture. If they are above the level of the eye, their farthest end appears the lowest: otherwise the effect is reversed. Lines which are truly parallel, and recede from the observer, are drawn converging, in perspective, to- wards their vanishing pointy at which, if they were infinitely pro- longed in reality, they would all appear to meet upon the picture. A line drawn through the eye, and parallel to them, will meet the per- spective plane, or picture, in their vanishing point, which is thus found. Objects seen obliquely, appear smaller than their real size ; and are then said to be foreshortened ; as when a carriage wheel, seen obliquely, is represented by an ellipse ; or a square represented by a trapezoid. Of the general principles of desigrn, or composition, we have no room here to speak.
$ 2. The art of Shading, called by the French claxr-obscure, and by the Italians, chiaro oscuro, consists in making the difierent parts of the picture either light or dark, according to the actual Appearance of the objects represented ; that is, in expressing the lights, shades, and shadows, which depend on the direction and in- tensity of the light. The tights, technically so called, are the brightest parts of a picture : the shades, are ihose parts of objects which are turned from the light ; and the shadows, are those parts from which the light is intercepted by some other object. The middle tints, are intermediate between the lights and shades ; and the reflected tights, are diminutions of the shade, produced by reflect tion from adjacent objects. The brilliant points, or parts, are those which reflect their light directly to the eye ; being the very brightest parts of the picture. The decut points, are those which receive no light, either direct or reflected ; and hence are the darkest parts of the picture ; by which all the other shading should be adjusted.
The shading is easiest, and most distinct, when all the objects are lighted from only one source ; as the sun, or an elevated window : by which cross lights are avoided. In rounded bodies, the shades vary gradually: but in angular bodies the transitions are often abrupt, and extreme. Shadows generally terminate gradually ; and the faint, indistinct edge, in which the transition takes place, is called the penumbra, A bright object, seen in front of a dark one, that is, on a dark ground, appears to stand out from the picture, and is then
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said to be relieved, or in relief. When objeqls are seen at a dis- tance, the intervening air makes the light parts seem darker, and the dark parts lighter, than if they were near ; thus reducing them more nearly to one uniform shade. This effect, which causes distant mountains, or the ocean, to blend, almost, with the sky, is called aerial perspective. Shading may be executed with a pen, pencil, crayon, or brush ; and by means of lines, or dots, oi a continuous mass of color, as in drawings washed with Indian ink.
$ 3. The art of Coloring, consists in representing the various colors of the objects in a picture ; of course, in connection witli drawing and shading. The theory of colors has already been noticed under the head of Optics ; (p. 359) ; but we must here add, that the colors of individual objects are greatly modified by the light reflected from other objects which surround them. Thus, a person sitting by the side of crimson drapery, would receive a red tinge therefrom, distinct from his natural color; and still more so from what he would receive, were the drapery of a gloomy hue. The brilliant parts of a picture, are painted by diluting the natural color with white : but the dark parts require a mixture of some darker pigment, harmonizing with the natural color ; which last is found only in the middle tints. If the colors of a picture are generally bright, with feeble shades, they give it a light tone ; but darker colors pro- duce a deeper tone ; and any one color predominating, gives its own tone to the picture. In portrait painting, much depends on the proper choice of the back ground, or part surrounding the principal figure ; which should generally be of a neutral or mixed tint, rather than of a decided color.
Water colors, are finely ground, and mixed with gum arable, to give them consistency and cohesion ; but oil colors are mixed with linseed or other vegetable oil, which has been previously boiled, to render it siccative, or capable of drying speedily. Vermilion, chrome red, Indian red, carmine lake, madder lake, burnt sienna, raw sienna, (terra di sienna), chrome yellow, gamboge, yellow ochre, chrome green, Brunswick green, Prussian blue, ultramarine, indigo, ivory black, Indian ink, umber, bistre, flake white, and zinc white, are among the pigments used in coloring pictures ; most of them being suitable either for water colours or oil. In distemper painting, which was much practised before the use of oil, the colors are mixed with glue, or size ; and in fresco painting, the colors, thus mixed, are applied to freshly plastered walls, and imbibed by the plaster before it becomes dry. Mosaic work, is executed with small blocks of marble, glass, or other substance, attached to a proper ground ; each block having the color of that part of the picture or design which it contributes to form.
$ 4. Under the head of Pinacography, we propose to name a few of the most remarkable paintings ; of which this would be the place for a full description, in a more extensive work. The name is suggested by the term pinaeothecaj signifying a picture gallery, derived from the Greek ^ttvot, a picture. It is a subject of regret, that many of the finest paintings of the oldest masters are much decayed ; and unless perpetuated by means of superior copies, their
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excellence will, in time, like that of the Grecian paintings, become a mere matter of history. Of the Florentine school, the most cele- brated productions are the Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci ; and the Last Judgment , by Michael Angelo Buonarotti. The former represents our Saviour seated with the twelve Apostles, and warning them of his betrayal ; while the latter portrays the final resurrection of the dead, representing upwards of three hundred figures, on a wall forty feet wide and fifty feet high, in the Sistine chapel of the Vatican. The ceiling of the same chapel, contains a picture of the Creation, also by Michael Angelo.
Of the Roman school, the most celebrated production is the Transfiguration, by Raphael ; which, with many other paintings by him, IS preserved in the Vatican. His Madonna della Seggiola, representing the Mother of our Saviour seated and holding the Infant Jesus, is now in Paris ; and his Cartoons, or drawings of Scriptural subjects, which served as models for the tapestry of the Pope'n chapel, are now preserved at Hampton Court« in England. Among the best paintings of Carlo Dolce, are St. Cecilia, playing the organ ; and Christ blessing the Bread and Wine, or the Eucharist ; both of which are now at Dresden. Of the Venetian school, Titian's Last Supper, and Christ crowned with Thorns^ are very celebrated pic- tures; and, aAer these, we may name the Crucifixion, by Tintoretto; the History of Esther, by Paul Veronese ; and the Fountain piece of Giorgione. Of the Lombard school, we may mention Corregio's picture of Night, or the shepherds seeking the infant Jesus ; and especially his St, Jerome and the Virgin, which rivals the works of Raphael. The fresco paintings of Bacchus and Ariadne, by Han- nibal Carracci, at Rome, are of great size, and justly celebrated. Guido is renowned for his Aurora ; and Domenichino for his Mar- tyrdom of St, Andrew, which rivals a picture of the same by Guido.
Of the Flemish school, the Descent from the Crass, by Rubens, is a fine picture ; but he found a more congenial theme in his mytho- logical allegories, painted in the Luxembourg palace, in honor of Mary de*Medici. More than three hundred engravings have been made from his paintings. Vandyke excelled in portraits; but his Crucifixion, and St, Augustine, are works of merit, among many others. Of the Dutch school, we may name the picture of Tobias and the Angel, and that of Christ at Emmaus, by Rembrandt, as among the best specimens. Of the German school, the picture of the Dance of Death, by Hans Holbein, is very celebrated ; and among the -best paintings of DQrer are his Adam and Eve, and Christ bearing the Cross, Of the French school, the Seven Sacra- ments, and the Deluge, painted by Nicholas Poussin, are all that we have room to mention. Claude Lorraine excelled in landscapes; and in marine painting, Vemet is unsurpassed. Among English paintings, the Ugolino, and the Death of Cardinal Beaufort, by Reynolds, perhaps rank highest ; and of similar style are the pictures of Christ Rejected, Christ Healing the Sick, and Death on the Pale Horse, by our countryman West; the last that we have room to mention.
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CHAPTER III.
SCULPTURE.
Sculpture, in its most general sense, is the art of imitating or producing tangible forms, by the carving, moulding, or casting of solid materials. The name is derived from the Latin, acu/po, I carve, or grave ; as the carving or cutting of statues, from marble or stone, has long been the most prominent division of this art. Sculp- ture has also been termed the plcutic art ; but this appellation belongs more properly to moulding or modelling alone ; which is only one portion of the entire art, corresponding to design and composition in Painting. Sculpture, like Painting, is pardy imitative, and partly Inventive. It preserves the resemblance of objects in nature, as well as ideal forms ; the features of men who darkened nations when they died, as well as the imaginary beings of mythology ; and the noble or affecting descriptions of the historian, as well as the sublime or beautiful conceptions of the poet. Sculpture and Painting have the same object ; but they effect it by somewhat different means.
The most important productions of Sculpture, are statues, or re- presentations of persons, either draped or nude ; and next to these, bustSf which represent only the head and shoulders. Statues are said to be reduced, when much smaller than the natural size ; heroic, when slightly larger than the natural size ; and colossal, when they far exceed the size of the person represented. They are also termed equestrian, or pedestrian, according as they represent the person on horseback, or on foot. Relievos, are figures partially sculptured, as if t>rojecting from a tablet, or back ground. They are called alto-relievos, when the figures project as much as one half of their dimensions ; mezzo-relievos, when the figures are less prominent ; and basso-relievos, when the figures project but slightly above the surface. Gems are often sculptured in relievo ; and when the figure is cut from a vein of one color, leaving another color for the back ground, the work is called a cameo. Sculptures in which the figures are sunk below the surface, are called intaglios; such as seals, which produce an impression in relievo, on wax. Other objects of sculpture are vases ; coats of arms, and military trophies ; and monu- mental or architectural decorations.
Sculpture is an art of very ancient origin, and probably more ancient than Painting ; traces of it being found among the earliest antiquities of the oldest nations. It appears to have been first applied to the carving of idols : and Laban is mentioned in the Bible, as hav- ing his teraphim, or images of household gods, as early as 1739 B.C. The remains of Egyptian sculpture consist of relievos, on the walls of temples and tombs; with colossal statues, lions, and sphynxes, often arranged in rows, exterior to the temples. Two of these statues, in the Memnonium at Thebes, are said to be fifly feet high ; but their posture is stiff and constrained. The capitals of Egyptian columns, are often carved into the form of human heads ; and in the caverns,
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at Phylee, Elepliantis» and Sikilit, cut in the solid rock, thoee parts which are left to support the roof, are also canred into the form of statues ; something like the Grecian caryatides. The same occurs in the ancient cavernous temples of Hindoostan, particularly at Ele- phanta, EUora, and Salsette, where portions of the rock are left, in the form of demigods and elephants, to support the roof. The Per- sians had many works of sculpture, bat their figures were always in drapery : and in Assyria, mention is made of brazen statues of Semi- ramis, Belus, and Ninus.
Sculpture, or rather modelling, was first practised in Greece, it is said, by Dibutades, a potter of Sicyon. The earliest statues, were litde more than rounded blocks of wood, or stone, sculptured first with the head only, but afterwards representing the entire body. Daedalus improved on these rude performances, and produced statues so much like life, that he is by some regarded as the inventor of this art. Rhiecus of Samoa, about 750 B. C. is said to have been the first who practised the casting of statues in brass ; and Dipsnus and Scyllis are said to have first used marble, instead of wood, or metal, for statues, at Sicyon, about 600 B. C. Grecian sculpture, reached its greatest perfection, in the hands of Phidias, under the administra- tion of Pericles ; and retained it until the death of Praxiteles, who was contemporary with Alexander the Great The number of Grecian statues is said to have amounted to upwards of 30,000, when Greece was subjugated by the Romans ; but many of these were afterwards removed to Rome. The ancient Etrurians made no small proficiency in sculpture ; but the Romans were, for the most part, only copyists of the Greeks.
After the lapse of the dark ages. Sculpture was first revived in Italy, by the labours of Ghiberti, who died in 1455, and Donatello, who died in 1466. Michael Angelo was scarcely less celebrated as a sculptor, than as a painter ; though all his works are in the same grand and severe style. Benevento Cellini, was alike distinguished as a sculptor, goldsmith, and engraver; and Bernini was also a sculptor of genius. To Canova belongs the high distinction of having rivalled the ancients in beauty, as Michael Angelo did in grandeur ; and the mantle of the latter seems to have fallen on Thor- waldsen of Denmark. France has produced her Puget, whose style, though cold was grand and classical ; and her Falconet, who wrote upon his art, as well as practised it, with ability. England may also boast of her Flaxman, Chantry, and Westmacott; and the names of Greenough, and Powers, already do credit, in this branch of art, to our own young republic.
Oar remaining remarks on Sculpture, will be arranged under the heads of Modelling; Carving; Casting; and Glyphography, or descriptions of remarkable statues.
$ 1. The art of Modellings consists in forming a representation of any object, out of some soA material, by pressing or moulding it with the hands, or proper instruments. It is the common practice of sculptors, before carving a statue in marble, or casting it in metal, to form a model of it in clay ; which admits of repeated alterations, until the artist has exhausted his skill in perfecting it. In this process,
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genius, and inventiTe power, are mostly displayed ; as the remaining process of transferring it to the stone, or making a cast from it, is chiefly mechanical. When a clay model is undertaken, if the pro- posed figure be large, a frame of wood or iron is erected, to give it support and strength. Upon this frame, the tempered clay is distri- buted, and shaped with tools of wood or ivory, until it has taken the form required. The clay hardens in drying; and if the figure be small enough, it may be rendered firm and permanent by burning or baking it, like pottery.
Modelling in wax, is executed in a similar manner ; only requiring that the wax should be softened, by a gentle heat, in order lo give it plasticity, and tenacity. The toax figures^ often carried about for exhibition, are made of a light frame covered with beeswax ; which, for delicate work, is bleached, and then colored with different pig- ments, in the same manner as for making wax flowers. Wax figures are very perishable, being easily soiled by dust, and deformed or melted by heat ; and hence they are for the most part, rudely made, and of little value. The great principles to be observed in modelling, are, the choice of a suitable subject ; of a suitable attitude and cos- tume ; the observance of harmony and proportion of the parts ; of unity, ease, and boldness in the design : and of delicacy and freedom in the execution : — ^the final object being to produce some striking expression, or decided eflfect.
§ 2. Carvings or sculpturing, is most frequently executed in white marble ; but statues of alabaster, serpentine, porphyry, freestone, and granite, are sometimes executed ; and such are found occasionally among the remains of antiquity. Ivory is sometimes used for small objects, or parts of large ones ; and wood was used by the earlier artists of Greece, before the introduction of marble. The material being provided, the sculptor begins by cutting with the chisel and hammer, until htf establishes a point in the block, corresponding to some prominent point in the model. From this, he measures the exact distance and position of another prominent point, working deli- cately as he approaches it, to avoid cutting in too far. Proceeding in this manner, he knows where he may cut deeply, and rapidly ; and the nearer he approaches the intended surface, the more frequent and cautious are his measurements.
Instruments have been contrived, to facilitate these measurements ; such as compasses with three or more feet, to be applied first to the marked points of the model, and then to the corresponding points of the work ; or a frame, with moveable arms sliding horizontally and vertically, fitted to the model, and another frame precisely simi- lar, fitted to the block, to which the measurements are thus trans- ferred. When a sufficient number of points is thus established, the surface between them is rounded and shaped by the judgment and skill of the artist Occasionally, saws, and drills, or other per- forating tools are employed ; and the surface may be rubbed down with files, or sand paper, and polished with pumice stone, or putty of tin : but the ancient sculptors appear to have relied chiefly on the chisel, and to have finished many of their finest works with this tool alone.
67 2Y
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530 CAI.I.0T2CHKIC9.
$ 3. The Catting^ or founding, of sutoes, is most frequeoUy executed in bronze ; but sometimes in brass, or in lead ; or in varia* ble mixtnres of copper, lead, tin, and zinc. The moulds in which they are cast, are made of calcined gypsum and brickdnst, tempered together ; the latter serving to resist the heat of the melted metal, and prevent the mould from crumbling. The mould is formed in separate parts ; which are afterwards united. When the casting is to be hollow, the mould is coated internally with soft clay, and the rest of the interior is filled with a caret of the same material as the mould. The mould is then taken apart, the soft clay removed, and the mould then readjusted ; so that the melted metal, when poured in, occupies only the space from which the soft clay was removed.
Casting in plaster^ depends upon the property which gypsum, or plaster of Pans, possesses ; that when heated to about 300^ Fah., it gives off the water chemically combined with it, and being then pulverized and moistened, it recombines with water, and speedily become a hard, solid mass. The mould, for such casting, is itself made of this plaster, applied to the original statue or model ; which is previously oiled, to prevent the plaster from adhering. The mould may be formed in parts ; and the cast itself, if of a compli- cated form, may also be made in parts, which are afterwards united. The mould is oiled internally, before the plaster, mixed with water to the consistency of cream, is poured in, and allowed to harden. Plaster casts may be varnished with a solution of soap and white wax, in boiling water, and, when dry, they may then receive a fine polish. When exposed to the weather, they may be protected by applying paint or oil, with which wax or rosin may be combined.
$ 4. Under the head of Glyphography^ so named from the Greek, ikv^t sculpture, we proceed to name a few of the most remarkable productions of this branch of the arts. The most wonderful Gre- cian statues, were those of Minerva^ in the Parthenon at Athens, and Jupiter t in his temple at Olympus ; both executed by Phidias. They were both of colossal size, wrought in ivory, and robed in cloth oi gold. That of Minerva was 41 feet high, and held in its hand a statue of Victory, as large as the ordinary human figure. That of Jupiter was of nearly the same size. Next to these, we may name the colossal statue of Juno^ at Argos, made of ivory and gold, by Polycletus, the rival of Phidias ; and next to this, the colossal group of Minerva^ presenting the deified Hercules to Jupiter ^ executed by Myron, at about the same period. Polycletus modelled the juvenile form, in his Mercury ; and Myron, the mature athletic form in his Hercules, The statue called the Dying Glitdiator^ is ascribed to Ctesilaus, a contemporary of Phidias. Pythagoras of Rhegium created the ideal form of Apollo^ of which the Apollo Belvidere is a copy ; and Praxiteles, that of Diana. Praxiteles made two statues of Venus, one of which, the Cnidian, was nearly copied in the Venus de Medici^ by Cleomenes. Scopas invented the groups of Thyades^ or dancing Bacchantes : and the group of Niobe and her Children, is ascribed either to him or to Praxiteles. Lysippus cast the Tarentine Jupiter^ of bronze, 60 feet high ; and Chares, his pupil, is said to have made the Colossus, at Rhodes, The group of
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Laoeoihiy is attributed to Agesander and bis sons; and tbe Famese Herculesy to Glycoo.
Of modern sculpture, the Moset^ of Michael Angelo is a sublime production ; and bis statues of Momingf Noon^ Evenings and Night, are justly celebrated. Cellini executed a superior bronze statue of PerteuB ; and Bernini is remembered in his St. Tlieresa and Si. Bibiana. Puget's colossal St. Stbaaiian does honor to French sculpture; and Falconet executed the colossal, equestrian statue of Peter the Oreai, at St. Petersburgh. Rauchmttller modelled the equestrian statue of Frederick IFUliam at Berlin : and the Ari* adne, of Dannecker, is mentioned as worthy of classic fame. Flax* man's monument of Lord Mansfield, is considered the best of the kind in England. CanoTa excelled in the beautiful, as shown in his statues of Venue, Cupid, and Fsyehe ; and his groups of Venue and Jidonie, and Ctqnd and Payche : but Thorwddsen excels also in severer themes, as shown in his statues of Mare, and Adanie, which first established his fame. His group of the Gracee is worthy of its author ; but that of our Saviour and the Twelve Apoetlee, is doubt- less the most remarkable which this art has produced since the days of Grecian glory.
CHAPTER IV.
MUSIC.
Music, is that branch of the Fine Arts, which relates to the pro- duction of sounds, regulated according to the principles of melody and harmony. The name is derived from the Greek, funxstxtj ; which originally included not only music, but poetry and eloquence ; or, in a still wider sense, all the arts attributed to the Muses. In common language, the word Music signifies not only the art of composing or peiforming, but the musical composition or the performance itself. Though its object is frequently mere amusement; it serves oUier purposes, when used to convey information, or commands, as by the notes of the trumpet or bugle, in war ; and, from its power in exciting and expressing strong emotions, it has been introduced and conse- crated, in all ages, as a part of divine worship. Its influence, even on the brute creation, proves that it is founded on natural principles ; and when rationally cultivated, without neglecting higher duties, it is a pure and noble source of enjoyment
Music is doubtless an art of extremely ancient origin ; and it may have sprung from an imitation of the notes of birds, whose strains it still occasionally aims to copy. According to the Mosaic records, Jnbal invented musical instruments, long before the deluge: and when the Egyptians were overthrown in the Red Sea, Miriam, and the other women of Israel, sang, to the notes of the timbrel, songs of praise and exultation. Some writers have supposed the Hebrew music to have been derived from the Egyptians ; and it is certain that the lyre and harp, the timbrel or tabor, and pipe or flute, were used
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5S8 CALLOTXCHNIC8.
in Egypt, in Tery remote times. The invention of the lyre, which at first had only three strings, is ascribed to the Egyptian Tboth or Mercary ; and the harp, of a superior construction, is found pictured in the ancient Sepulchres of the Kings, near Thebes.*
The Greeks ascribed the invention of the pipe to Pan ; and that of the flute to Marsyas ; but the honor of inventing the lyre, they reserved for Mercury, or Apollo. The number of its strings was increased, they state, by Orpheus, Linus, Thamyris, Amphion or Terpander ; and the eighth was added by Pythagoras, to complete the octave ; which he is said to have discovered. The Grecian scale of musical sounds, was made up of tetrachordSf or series of four notes each ; the highest being a minor fourth to the lowest : and as the upper tetrachord began with the highest note of the lower, making only seven notes in Sie two, the eighth note was placed below these seven, and hence called protlambanomenotf or the added note. The five modes, called the Dorian, Ionian, Phrygian, JBolian, and Lydian, appear to have designated Uie pitch, or key note, with which the piece commenced ; the last named mode being the highest and softest. The modem diatonic tealtf is said to have been invented by Ptolemy, the astronomer and geographer ; about 130 years after the Christian Era. It is doubtful whether the Greeks understood cotmterpoini or harmony ; as their singing appears to have been only a recitative, accompanied by instruments to support the rhythm.
The use of Sacred Music, in the Christian Church, was coeval with its foundation. As early as the first century, the Jewish prac- tice of antiphonal singing was adopted by Ignatius, at Antioch; different singers responding to each other, or to Uie patriarch himself. This practice was introduced in the west, by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, author of the Ambrosian chant. Pope Gregory the Great, about A. D« 000, reformed the style of church music, and established the graver style, with notes of equal length, still preserved in the Gre- gorian chant. The introduction of the organ in churches, (p. 477), led to the invention of counterpoint^ or the writing and performing of different parts together, so as to combine harmony with melody. This invention has been ascribed to Guido Aretinos, (of Arezzo^, about A. D. 1020 ; but probably belongs to an earlier age. Guiao introduced the musical staff, in which the notes are written both on lines and spaces ; and he was the inventor of tolmizationy or the use of certain syllables, to designate the notes of the hexachord, then in vogue. These he selected from a hymn to St. John; using the initial syllables in each hemistich of the following stanza.
" Ut qaeant lazis msiontre fibris Mm gettoram PAmali tuorain SoLve pollati i.A.bii reatain,
Suicte JohaniMt.'*
A seventh syllable, si has since been added, it is said, by Maire of Paris, to complete the octave ; and the first syllable, ut has been changed to cfo, by the Italians. The theory of counterpoint, or har- mony, was much improved by Franco of Cologne, about 1050 ; and
* A brief notice of muncal inttnimenti will be found in the chapter on Fumitwe. (p. 479,
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M1TS1C* 533
by Palestiiua, in 1555, and Monte verde, in 1582. tn the fifteenth century, notes were first varied in shape, to distinguish their length or time ; but bars were not employed to divide the piece into equal measures, till the beginning of the seventeenth century. The ficst opera, called Daphne, the words by Rinuccini, and the music by Jacopo Peri, was composed and performed at Florence, in the year 1598. It was followed, in 1600, by the first oratorio, entitled Deir Auima e del Corpo, composed by Emilio del Cavaliere, partly in imitation of the ancient recitative. The opera diiBTers from the sim- ple drama, in uniting the charms of miisic to those of poetry ; and hence it has been called by the Italians musica parlante, or speaking music. The oratorio, consisting of a sacred poem set to music, is, we think, the noblest and grandest of musical productions. As a sequel to the history of Music, a few of the best operas and oratorios will be mentioned in the concluding section of this chapter.
The study of Music, may, we think, be comprised under the heads of Physical Theory of Music ; Musical Notation ; Musical Compo- sition and Execution ; and Musical Productions.
$ 1. The Physical Theory of Music, depends upon laws of Acoustics, the statement of wliich has been reserved for the present place. Music is either a succession, or a combination of sotinds : the former producing melody, and the latter harmony. Musical sounds, or tones, are caused by regular vibrations of the particles of the air; which vibrations are transmitted from sounding bodies to the ear. The grave, or low tones, are caused by slower vibrations of the air, and are sounded by the longest pipes, or strings, corres- ponding to the left hand keys of the organ, or piano. The more acute, or higher sounds, result from more rapid vibrations, from shorter strings or pipes. The tone of a musical string, depends upon its tension, its diameter, and its length. Hence, if its tension, or tightness, and its diameter continue the same, we may vary its length to produce various tones ; and express these tones by means of the lengths to which they correspond : for the number of vibrations in a given time is inversely proportional to these lengths.
Thus, two similar strings, of the same length, will vibrate in equal times, or unison ; both sounding the same note. But if one of the strings be only half as long as the other, it will vibrate twice as rapidly ; and produce a sound called an octave above that of the longer string; because this interval is made to comprehend eight notes, including the two in question, in the diatonic scale. If the strings, and consequently their vibrations, be in the ratio of 2 to 3, the resulting interval is called a perfect fifth : but the ratio of 3 to 4 gives a minor fourth; the two extreme notes, in all these cases, being counted. The ratio of 4 to 5, corresponds to the interval of a major third ; and tlie ratio of 3 to 5, or a major third above the minor fourth, gives the interval of the major sixth. The ratio of 8 to 9, gives the major second; and that of 8 to 15, or a major third above the perfect fifth, gives the major seventh ; which completes the eight notes of the octave, in the diatonic, or natural scale. In passing from one of these notes to the next, the ratio will be found to vary ; showing that they are at unequal intervals, which are com-
«t2
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534 CALLOTXCHinCfl.
monly distingaished as tone* and semitones; the latter qccurring between the third and fourth, and the seventh and eighth notes* as above given. It is worthy of remark, that the octave may be subdi- vided into two equal and similar parts, of 4 notes each.
$ 2. The basis of modem Musical Notation^ is the 8laff^ consist- ing of five parallel lines, and their intermediate spaces, on which the notes, denoting the sounds, are written. (Plate XII.^ Each line, and space, corresponds to some one note of the diatonic scale, and con- stitutes one degree of the staff. A few more degrees may be added above and below, by means of short lines called legeriines. The staff itself may also be made to express a higher, or a lower group of notes, by means of characters called cleft. These are the bass, or F clef; the treble, or G clef; and the tenor, or C clef; which last is sometimes used, for the intermediate parts of the harmony. The staves for those parts which are to be performed together, are con- nected by a brace. All the degrees of the scale are named from the first seven letters of the alphabet ; their order, in ascending, being A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and, in ascending still higher, they are repeated in the same order ; so that all the degrees of the same name are octaves to each other. The bass clef is usually placed on the fourth line, which hence is called F ; and then the lowest line of the bass is G : and the treble clef is commonly placed on the second line, which thence becomes G ; so that the lowest line of the treble, or air is E ; from which the rest of the degrees may be named.
When the diatonic octave, (sometimes termed the eight notes), commences with C, the music is said to be in the natural key^ or key of C : and, in solmiasation, this letter is then called do ; the next above, re; the next, mi$ and so on, as already explained, (p. 532, and Plate XII). The notes in this key, are ail sounded by the white keys of the organ or piano ; the semitones falling between E and F, and B and C. But when the diatonic octave is made to commence on a higher or lower degree of the scale, some of tlie degrees require to be sounded either higher or lower by half a tone, corresponding to the black keys of the organ or piano, in order to bring the semitones in their proper place. This is denoted by writing either sharps ^ oxflals^ characters so called, on the degrees which are to be raised or lowered ; and these characters, at the beginning of a staff, constitute the signature: but their effect may be counteracted by means of another character, called a natural.
The time allotted to the music, is divided into equal portions, pro- perly called measures^ by lines called bars^ crossing the staff. In common time, each measure is divisible into two or four equal parts ; in triple time, it is divisible into three ; and in compound time, each primary division of the measure is again subdividea into three equal parts. Notes are varied, in shape and name, to denote the relative times during which they should be sounded. A semibreve is as long as two minims; or four crotchets; or eight quavers; or sixteen semiqtiavers ; or thirty-two quadriquaoers ; or sixty-four octoqua- vers : and the same relation exists between the different rests, or marks of silence. Notes are ofWn connected by a tie or slur, to denote that they are to be sung to one syllable, or played legato, that
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PLATE Xn. MUSIC.
Staff and Clefs.
FEDCBAG OFEBODE
Ban or Treble or Tenor or
F aef. O Clef. C Clef.
Treble or O Clef.
Moods of Time.
ij^^iarmrl ^^g
Common Time. Triple Time.
Notes and Rests.
Compound Time.
= ^
Semi- breve.
Minim. Crotchet. Quaver.
Semi- Quadri- Octo-
quaver. quavers. quavers.
Measure of Time.
drrlfvrlnMrrrrlrr-e^^
First mood of common time. Pointed minim.
Diatonic Scale.
Semitone,
Tone.
Tone.
Pointed Crotchet.
8. Do
IT' Tone.
O. La. rr«««
5. Sol.
4. Fa. 3. Mi. S.Re. LDo.
Tone. <
Semitone. £ Tone. Tone.
I'j jlj iU=Hj-T^-r^
Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do
It'ilr fir.rif ri^
The octave in the natural key. Diatonic Scale.
^JIJ i\f rirr|f|j|J|ri''m
18845678 13 5 8
1 iij jiJ^ifrii'inrif'iriit
The octave in the key of one sharp.
Occasional Characters.
Concords.
^
±
JO
Sharp. Flat. Natural. Tie. Paose. Repeat. Close.
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KiTsic. 535
10, slurring them, or gliding smoothly from each to the next. The dash, is placed over or ander notes which are to be performed stac- eatOf or very distinct from each other. The hold, is placed over or under notes that are to be prolonged beyond their regular time, and at the pleasure of the performer.
$ 3. The Principles of Musical Composition and Execution, are partly arbitrary, depending on taste and fashion ; and partly fixed, or founded on the physical theory of music, already explained. We commence this subject by remarking that those notes which, sounded together, produce harmony, would, if sounded in succession, pro- duce melody: because the vibrations which they produce, corres- pond, or coincide, at certain intervals of time ; and this coincidence is, to a certain extent, agreeable to the ear. When the vibrations coincide frequently, they produce a concord $ but when they concur only at long intervals, they produce a dissonance, or in extreme cases a discord $ which is pleasing occasionally, if sparingly intro- duced. The first, third, fifth, and eighth notes, of the diatonic octave, produce the most perfect conconl ; and next to this we may name the first, fourth, sixth, and eighth ; and the first, third and sixth ; which last concord is the basis of the minor modes, charac- terized by their sadness and solemnity.
Musical intervals, are named from the number of tones and semi- tones which they comprehend. The unison, is termed an interval, although the two notes are sounded precisely alike. The minor second, is an interval of one semitone ; and the major second, an interval of one tone, between the two notes which are sounded together. Both of these intervals are dissonances : and the others are similarly named and distinguished. The study of thorough bass, comprehends that of all these intervals and their changes ; with the principles which regulate their use, in harmonic composition. Vocal music is also governed by the grammatical rules of accent, emphasis, and cadence, as in reading or speaking. Voices, in reference to music, are distinguished as bass, tenor, and counter or alto ; the latter being the highest male, or lowest female voices ; and treble, or soprano, which are the highest voices of females.
$ 4. Of the numerous Musical Productions now before the pub- lic, we have only room to name a few of the most celebrated operas and oratorios. Piccini wrote numerous operas, of which La Buona Figliuola was extremely popular; and his Dido is considered the best. Cimarosa wrote 120 operas, some of them, as II Matrimonio Secreto, or the Secret Marriage, of superior merit. Of Rossini's operas, II Tancredi, or Tancred, was brought out in 1813, with brilliant success ; and was followed by the Barber of Seville ; La Cenerentola, or Cinderella; La Gazza Ladra, or the Tlnevish Mag- pie; La Donna del Lago, or the Lady of the Lake; and several others. Bellini is the author of II Pirata ; La Somnambula ; Norma, and two other operas ; and Cherubini wrote Les deux Journies, or the Two Days, which is deemed a masterly production. The Zau- ber Flote, or Magic Flute, of Mozart, is highly original and beau- tiful ; Weber's Der Freyschutz, or the Free Hunter, is grand and wild ; and Meyerbeer's Crociato in Egitto, or Crusade in Egypt, is
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536 CALL0TECHNIC8.
regarded as his best production. Beethoven composed but one opera, F^delio, Auber's MasaaniellOt and Fra Diavolo, and Boiel- dieu's Caliph of Bagdad, and La Dame Blanche, are among the most celebrated operas by the French composers.
Handel wrote several superior operas ; but they were all eclipsed by his oratorios ; of which the Meaaiah and the Samson are con- sidered the best. Next to these sacred compositions we would name Haydn*s chief oratorios, the Creation^ and the Seasons, as among the noblest efforts of musical genius. Beethoven's Mount of Olives, is also a sublime composition, ranking next to the preceding. Lind- painter's Seven Sleepers, is an oratorio of merit, and the last which we have room here to name. The oratorio of David, by Neu- komm ; and that of the Last Judgment, by Spohr ; are also celebrated productions ; though the latter is a subject which we think should have been left to the awful mystery which belongs to it
CHAPTER V.
AROICS.
In the branch of Argics, we comprehend a variety of exercises and amusements, not included in the preceding branches ; particularly Gymnastics, Calisthenics, and Sedentary as well as Active Games and Sports. The name is derived from the Greek, apyta, leisure, or rest ; as the arts here embraced are mostly the employment of leisure hours, devoted to the pursuit of health or amusement These arts constitute a miscellaneous group, of various tendency: and some discrimination is necessary, in order to separate the baneful from the useful. In general, those amusements which contribute to health, strength, and physical activity, without fostering savage or boisterous passions and habits, are worthy of encouragement ; but those which lead to indolent, effeminate or vicious habits and indulgences, should be carefully proscribed, as deleterious both to individuals and to society. The prevalence of such amusements, in all nations and ages, shows their congeniality to our nature ; but it does not prove that they are indiscriminately useful or praiseworthy. Even the best of them are liable to abuse, when pursued excessively ; and this is one reason, among various others, why their nature and tendency should be understood, and their practice regulated, by those who have the supervision of youth, and the care of public morals.
The name Gymnastics, was first applied, by the Spartans, to those active exercises in which their youth were trained, for the purpose of makinff them skilful and hardy in war : and the place of training was called a Gymnasium. From Sparta, this custom was extended to the rest of Greece ; and athletic exercises acquired increased im- portance, in becoming a part of the celebration of the great national games, or festivals ; the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemsan ; held in honour of their gods and heroes. Prizes and honors were awarded to those who excelled at these games, until success became
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Aftaios. 537
BO difficalt that none but professed aihletss appeared as competitors, and the exercises de^nerated to mere shows of physical strengrth and bratality. The early Roman gymnastics were also of a military character ; and the taste of the Romans led to the exhibition of still more savage and sanguinary scenes; as the naumachiss, or sea fights, to which slaves and criminals were devoted ; or the combats of gladiatortf often fatal, with wild beasts or with each other. These, perhaps, gave rise to the bull fights of modern Spain.
In the ancient gymnasia, the pal«$tra was that part in which the athletic exercises were performed. Five of these exercises were called by the Greeks pentathlon, and by the Romans, quinqutrtium ; including leaping, running, wrestling, quoiting, and darting ; or in place of the two latter, some writers mention boxing and dancing. Boxing, or the casstua, was a common amusement of the Romans : and in the game called pancrcUium, or all fights, two men, disrobed and unarmed, fought together till one of them yielded, barely escaping with his life. Dancing was in early, and in classic times, made a part of religious festivities ; but, unlike the dancing now in vogue, it consisted chiefly in measured movements of individual per- formers. The chariot race was a favorite sport ; and the Greeks, as well as the Romans, set a great value on the art of swimming. With the decline of Roman virtue, the ancient gymnasia degenerated into mere haunts of licentiousness and vice.
In the middle ages, the tournament became the favorite amuse- ment ; in which knights or cavaliers contended with each other, in the lists, on horseback, and armed with the lance. These festivals originated in France, as early as A. D. 900 : and a code of regula- tions, concerning them, was drawn up by Godfrey de Preuilly, in 1060. With the changes in the art of war, they had already begun to decline, when the death of Henry IL, who was mortally wounded in tilting with Count Montgomery, in 1559, led to their abolition in the country which gave rise to them. Swordamanahip, including fencing, was also a favorite practice of the middle ages : and archery is celebrated in the exploits of Robin Hood and his foresters, in the lawless times of Richard and King John. Hunting, has long been a fashionable recreation among the European nobility ; and since the days of Izaak Walton, fishing may claim an honorable place among the arts of amusement.
A regular system of Gymnastics, was first matured in Germany, by Salzmann, a clergyman,^ at his school in Thuringia, about the year 1790. The exercises which he taught, were chiefly running, leaping, climbing, balancing, and swimming. The first treatise on Gymnastics, was written by Guts-Muths, who was a teacher in Salz- mann's institution. Jahn proposed the general introduction of Gym- nasia, with a view to rouse the youth of Germany in the cause of political freedom ; but this course led to their suppression, in 1819 or 20. On the subsequent persecution of the liberal leaders, Mr. Yolker went to London, and there established the first Gymnasium in England, in 1824 : and Dr. Beck, a pupil of Jahn, founded the first Gymnasium in the United States, at Northampton, Mass., in 1825. At about the same time, a system of Calisthenics, or ex- 68
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538 CALLOTXCHiaCS.
Mciies for ladies, wa« iatroduoed in Jjondoii; bat none of these •jTBtems has met with general favor in our own country ; perhaps, because the exercises have heretofore been too monotonous to pre- serve their interest.
Of sedentary amusements, or games, the invention of ehesSf is claimed by the Chinese ; but, more probably, belongs to Sissa, a brahmin of Hindoostan ; and dates back to the fifth century of our era. The object of this invention is said to have been to show the king of the Indies how great was his dependence upon his ofiicers and men ; and thus to procure for them a milder treatment. Chess was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders ; and has ever been regarded as a scientific game, affording great exercise to the intellec- tual powers. Dice are said to have been invented in Greece, by Palamedes ; and they were abo used by the Romans ; although the use of them in Rome was prohibited by law. Cards also, were pro- bably invented in the East ; and painted cards were made in Italy as early as 1399 : but the manufacture of playing cards, by block print- ing, originated in Germany, between the years 1350 and 1360. The game of billiards originated in France ; but at what date, we are not informed.
Our few remarks on Argics, will be distributed under the heads of Field and Water Sports ; Gymnastics and Calisthenics ; and Games of Chance and Skill.
§ 1. Under the head of Field and Water Sports^ we include those active amusements which are enjoyed in the open air, and require free space for their enjoyment. Such are riding, driving, rowing, sailing, swimming, skating, running, bathing or playing ball, quoit- ing, slinging, darting, archery, shooting, hunting, and fishing. Some of these sports may also be practised in the Gymnasium, or hall pre- pared for this purpose ; but they are all, we think, more appropriate for the field or the water. Ridings on horseback, is a healthy exer- cise, generally practised in the open country, and especially serviceable in the operations of war. The rider should sit steadily over the cen- tre of motion of the horse, without pressing too hard upon the sides of the saddle ; the feet being turned direcUy to the front, the toes raised, the shoulders thrown back, the breast advanced, the elbows kept near the sides, and the whole body balanced, and adjusted to the motions of the horse. Both riding and drivings whether of several horses, or only one, require a careful study of this noble animal, and the means of managing him with ease and safety.
Bowing, is also a healthy exercise, and very bracing to the arms and chest. It requires a regulated motion of the hands, in order to dip or raise the oar at the proper moment, and then to pull it horizon- tally, or to carry it back without raising it too high above the water. Sailings is a more dangerous amusement, though not the less fasci- nating, for that reason; while it is enjoyed with so little effort. Swimming, is a healtliy and useful exercise ; by means of which life is often rescued, though sometimes lost. The human body is lighter than its own bulk of water ; and hence, by keeping the nos- trils above water, no exertion is necessary merely to prevent submer- sion and drowning. Skating, is perhaps a more exhilarating sport.
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bat one which should be practised only on ice that is known to be firm and continuons. Runnings which may be practised at all sea- sons, is one of the best juvenile exercises; and auxiliary to most of the games of Baitings or playing ball, the favorite games of boyhood. Quoitingi or the tossing of stones, or metallic disks, called quoits ; and Slingingt or throwing stones by whirling a sling, we think less commendable sports than Ltarting^ or hurling the lance, and Archery ^ or practising with the bow and arrows. Shootings with fire arms, is one of the most dangerous amusements, suitable only for men, of mature age, and instructed as to the nature of these weapons. Our chief objection to Huntings and Fiahingj is the temptation which they hold out to waste time which should be -employed in some nobler pursuit.
$ 2. Under the head of Gymnattics^ and Calisthenictt we include those exercises which are suitable for the Gymnasium, or hall of exercise ; the former class being intended for young men, and the latter, or Calisthenics, more especially designed for young ladies. Among all these exercises, Fencings or the use of the small sword or rapier, has long been accounted one of peculiar dignity; and it is one producing excellent development of all the muscular powers; although, on account of the uses to which it has been, and may be applied, it may be liable to serious objections. It is usually practised w'wh foils t or slender and elastic swords, with buttons on the points ; the fencers also wearing wire gauze masks, and thick gloves, to pro- tect themselves from injury. In the common guard, or carter the right foot is thrown forward, the body presented sideways to the antagonist, resting and balancing on the left leg, and inclining a little backward ; while the foil, with the point slightly elevated, and directed towards the antagonist, is held in the right hand carried forward and slightly depressed, the palm and nails being turned upward ; and the left hand is carried back, and raised to the level of the forehead, to balance the body. In the guard of tierce, the position is the same, but the right hand is turned, with the palm inclining downward. We have no room to pursue this subject ; nor to speak of the Broad- sword Exercise, which indeed belongs more closely to the preceding department, or the Arts of War.
The systematic exercises in Gymnastics, recently introduced in various seminaries, consist in leaping, both in length and in height ; hopping and balancing, on one foot at a time, using the feet alternate- ly ; leaping with a pole, held in the hands, which are thus exerted at the same time ; jumping with a hoop or rope ; vaulting, or spring- ing over an object by resting the hands upon it ; climbing, up a pole, or a rope, or a ladder, in the latter case supporting the body by the hands alone ; walking the rope, or on a horizontal bar, and balancing on the same ; swinging and seesaw ; swinging the dumb-bells, which are heavy metallic weights ; and pulling, pushing, lifting, or carrying heavy bodies. In these, and similar exercises, provision should be made, as far as possible, for avoiding danger; and they should not be taken immediately afler eating, nor too violently at the commencement. Of wrestling, and boxing, we think less favora- bly; and we regard field sports as preferable to those of the hall.
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540 CAI.LOTSCHKI0S.
whenever they are equally accessible : bat we will ventare to add the opinion, that the same amount of exercise, devoted to some of the active arts, as turning, planing, cabinet making, forging and filing, machine making, farming, or gardening, would be alike beneficial to persons of sedentary habits, and far more productive. Of Calisthe' nic8f or exercises for young ladies, we would particularly recom* mend dancing / which, in the social circle, is, we think, alike grace- ful and healthy ; though its practice in crowded halls, and at late hours, is doubdess in many ways injurious.
$ 3. Of Games of Chance^ and of Skills the most scientific and interesting, is that of Chess ; which is played by two persons, on a board divided into 64 squares, painted alternately black and white ; the board being so placed that each player may have a white square on the right hand, in the row which is nearest to him. Each player has eight pieces, besides eight pawns ; which, at the com- mencement of the game, are placed in a certain order ; those of the different sides being distinguished by their colors. The white queen is placed on the central white square of one side, the king being on her left. The two pieces called bishops^ are placed next to the king and queen ; the knights next to these ; and the castlts^ or rooks, occupy the comers. The htack queen is placed on the central black square ; the black king being on her right ; and the pawns^ are placed in the second row on each side. The pawns can only be moved forward, either one or two squares at their first move, and then one square at a time ; and they can take the opposite pieces only by moving obliquely forward. The knights move obliquely, Uiree squares at a time ; the bishops obliquely, forward or backward ; the castles directly, forward, backward, or sideways ; and the queen has the moves either of the bishop or the castle, moving, like them, as far as she pleases, if the board be free. The king moves in every direction ; but only one square at a time, except in castling^ or dis- placing one of the antagonist castles.
If a frequent indulgence in the game of chess be an unjustifiable waste of time, how much more so must be those games of mere chance, which serve only to consume the fleeting hours of life, and leave no returns of health, usefulness, or improvement ; but rather bear with them to eternity the stamp of self-condemnation. Such are games of cardsy and of dice; which are alike pernicious and dangerous, as the avenues to effeminacy and dissipation, to gambling, drinking, and all their train of vices : while the poor victim imagines that he is only indulging in a little harmless amusement, till the chains are forged and fastened upon him, which shall drag him down to tem- poral if not eternal perdition. Some of these games may be interest- ing, as matters of curiosity, or ingenuity ; but a practical knowledge of them, we must regard as one of the most dangerous and dispa- raging acquirements which a young man can possibly make. If a perusal of the present work has not suggested many sources of amusement, equally recreative, and incomparably more laudable than any of these games, then has the labor here bestowed fallen far short of the writer's object ; the moral as well as intellectual profit of all his readers.
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APPENDIX.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
A SELECT CATAIXXSUS OF BOOK3 ON ALL THE BEANCHES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.
In the following list, an attempt has been made to aid the pm^chaser and reader in the choice of Iraoks. Their number is so great, and their merits are, in many cases, so nearly equal, that to make a selection would be difficult, even for a per. son well acquainted with them all. The writer can, therefore, only hope that this catalogue will be found to contain a large proportion of valuable works ; and that its greatest faults may be remedied hereafter, should a new edition be called for. In order to give some idea of the extent of the works enumerated, the number of volumes is generally designited by the letter v. ; and the size of each is marked by a numerical abbreviation of the words foho, (2io.;) quarto, (4to.;) octavo, (Svo.;) duodecimo, (12mo.;) and octodecimo, (l8mo.;>— the reference being generally to the American, or to the later foreign editions. The present work is of uie common octavo size, as explained, p. 521. The order of subjects here adopted is the same as in the preceding part of the work. (p. 37.) The writer is happy to acknow- ledge his obligations to Judah Dobson, Esq., of Philadelphia, for the names of several recent and valuable works, which would otherwise have been inadvertently omitted in the following list Mr. Dobson's extensive agencies in the procurement of foreign as well as domestic publications, have afforded him peculiar facilities in bibliographical researches, which none could have moro successfully pursued.
PANTOLOGY.
Wilbur'M Lexicon of Useful Knowledge, for Schools, 1 v. ]2mo.; Er{fiel<Pa History of Philosophy, 2 v. 4to. ; Tenneman'a History of Philosophy, 1 v. 8vo ; MoreWa History of Philosophy and Science, 1 v. 8vo.; Ampere* s Philosphie des Sciences, 1 v. 8vo; The Eneijetopadiaa, (see p. 27); The Library of Useful Knowledge, in numbers, 8vo.; Harper's Family lAhrary, in numbers, 18mo. The TransactionB and Memoirs of Learned Societies, (p. 22,) are important and exten. sive sources of general information. Of Periodicals, relating to knowledge in general, we can only name the Edinburgh, Quarterly, Foreign Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews, Jamieson*s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, and the Lon- don and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine ; and, in our own country, the North American and New York Reviews, the Southern Literary Messenger, the Journal of the Franklin Institute, and Silliman's Journal of Science.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.*
Homers Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, 2 v. 8vo.; Taylor's Transmis- sion of Ancient Books to Modem Times, 1 v. 8vo.; Eschenberg^s Manual of Clas. sical Literature, 1 v. 8vo.; SehoeWs Histoire de la Littdrature Grecque, 8 v. 8vo., or 4 V. 12mo.; SehoeWs Abr^gto de la Litt^rature Romaine, 4 v. 8vo., and abridged in 1 V. 8vo.; Dnidop's Roman Literature, to the Augustan Age, 2 v. 8vo. ; HaU
* Relating to books on all subjects. 69
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542 APPENDIX.
lanCa Introduction to the Literature of Europe, 9 v. 8vo.; BarreitVs Italian Li- brary, 1 v. 8vo.; Anaya^s Essay on Spanish Literature, 1 v. 12mo.; BouterweVs Spanish and Portuguese Bibliography, 2 v. 870.; BruneVs Manuel du Libraire, 4 T. 8vo., and Supplement, 3 v. 8ro.; Ventouillae^s French Librarian, 1 ▼. 8to.; Ersch^a Handbuch der Deutschen Literatur, 4 r. 8vo.; I^wndea* Bibliogfrapher's Manual, 4 v. 870.; Ooodburgh^a Library Manual, 1 v. 8Vb.; WaWa Bibliotheca Britannica, 4 v. 4to. Sec alio Caialoguen of LibrarieB, (p. 25).
FIRST PROVINCE— PSYCHONOMY.
General Works. — Kamea* Sketches of the History of Man, 2 y. Sto. ; Cud- worth*8 Intellectual' System of the Universe, 2 7. 8va; Ray'a Synopsis of Philoso- phical, Political, and Theological Systems, 1 y. 8yo.; AriatotU% Piato^t^ and Cicero^a Philosophical Works.
I. DEPARTMEin'— GLOSSOLOGY.
General Works. — Prieailey^s Theory of Language and UnlYersal Grammar, 1 ?. 12mo.; Harris^ Hermes, 1 v. 8vo.; Jamieaoti'a liermes Scythicus, 1 y. 8vo.; Beattie^a Theory of Language, 1 v. 8vo. ; Tooke'a Epea Pteroenta, or Diversions of Purlcy, 2 v. 8vo. ; Arnold el LaunceloCa (Port Royal) Grammaire G^n^rale et Raisonnte, 8yo. ; {De Broaae'a) Formation Mechanique des Langnes, 2 y. 8yo.; Murray*8 History of European Languages, 2 v. 8vo.; Hervaa, (see p. 41); Ade- lung and Valeria Mithridates, (see do.) ; Fry*8 Pantographia, (on alphabetic cha- meters,) 1 y. 8yo. ; Barnard'a Polyglot Grammar, 1 v. 8vo.
Oriental Languages. — Calepinus* Lexicon XI. Linguanim, 1 y. 2io. ; Cham" poUion^ Wilkinaon, and Young, on the Coptic, and Hieroglyphics; Hottinger^s Grammatica Chald. Syriac. Hcbr. et Arabica, 1 y. 4to.; SckindUr^a Lexicon Pen. taglotton, 1 Y. 2io., and CaateWa Lexicon Heptaglotton, 2 y. 2io., both on the Shemitic Languages ; Nordheimer'^a Hebrew Grammar, 2 v. 8yo., and StuarCs^ 1 Y. 8yo.; Geaeniua^ Hebrew Lexicon, tr. by Robinson, I y. 8yo.; Frey^a Hebrew Grammar, I v. 8vo., and Dictionary, 2 y. 8yo. ; Erpeniua* Grammatica Syriaca, 1 v. 4to. ; Erpeniua* or Paulua^ Grammatica Arabica, 1 y. 4ta or 8Ya; De Saey*a Grammaire Arabe, 2 v. 8yo. ; Richardaon^a Persian and Arabic Dictionary, 2 y. 4to. ; WUnuVa Lexicon I<ing. Arabicte, 1 y. 4to. ; Fre^tag'^a Lexicon Arabico-Latinum, 4 Y. 4to.; Ludolfa Ethiopic Grammar, and Dictionary, each 1 y. 2io.; Meninaki*a Thesaurus Ling. Arab. Pers. et Turcicae, 2 y. 2io.; ^ W.Jonea* Persian Gram- mar, 1 y. 4to.; Vavid'a Grammar of the Turkish Language, 1 y. 4to.; WUHiis* Grammar of the Sanscrit, 1 y. 4to ; Wi/A:iii«* Sanscrit Dictionary, 1 y. 4ta ; Ca- rey^ a Grammar of the Bengalee, 1 y. 8yo., and Bcng. Dictionary, 1 y. 8vo. ; Roe- huck^a Hindostannee Grammar, &c., 1 y. 12mo.; Tnylor and Hunler*a Hindostannee Dictionary, 1 v. 8vo.; MorHaon'a Chinese Grammar, 1 y. 4to., and Chinese Dic- tionary, 2 Y. 2io.; De Guignea* Dictionnaire Chinois, 1 y. 2io.; Thberd'a Diction- narium Anamitico-Latinum, 2 y. 4to. ; Duponceau on the Cochin Chinese Language, 1 V. 8vo.
European Languages. Pelaagic or Southern. — Hachenherg^ Goodrich, JFIsl:, Anthon, and Wylie'a Greek Grammars ; Stuart^a New Testament Greek Gram, mar, 1 y. 8yo. ; Buttman^a Greek Grammar, tr. by Everett, and by Robinson, 1 Y. 8yo. ; Stephanua* Thesaurus Grscte Llnguce, 4 or 10 y. 2io. ; Schreveliua* Lexicon-Grfflcco Latinum, 1 v. 8yo. ; Donnegan*a Greek and English Dictionary,
1 Y. 8yo. ; Robinaon'a New Testament Greek and English Lexicon, 1 v. 8yo. ; Adama* Latin Grammar, ed. by Grould and by Fiske, 1 y. 12mo. ; Andrewa and Stoddard*a do., 1 v. 12mo.; Facciolati and PorceUinVa Lexicon Totius Latini- tatis, ed. by Bailey, 2 v. 4to. ; Ainaworth^a Latin Dictionary, 1 y. 8yo. ; LeteretVa do., 1 Y. 8yo.; BachVa Italian Grammar, 1 v. 12mo.; BureltVa Italian Dictionary,
2 Y. 8vo. ; Petronj and DavenporVa do., 2 y. 8vo. ; Diccionario della Crusca, 4 y. 21a ; CubVa Spanish Grammar, 1 y. 12mo; Newman and BarrettVa Spanish Dictionary, 2 V. 8vo. ; Dictionary of the Spanish Acadcniy, 1 v. 2io.; Caatro^a Portuguese Grammar, 1 v. 8yo.; Vieyra^a Portuguese Dictionary, 2 y. 8yo.; Lemxac^a French Grammar, 1 y. 12mo.; Berard^a French Grammar, 1 y. 8yo.; Bonifaee'a French Dictionary, 2 y. 8vo. ; Boiate^a Dictionnaire, 1 y. 4to. ; Dictionnaire de TAcademio Fran^aise, 2 y. 4to.
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BIBLIOORAPHT. 543
* Ooihie and Northern Langnages.-^Webtter^s, CM\ and EmerMn'M Spelling Books; Kirkkam*8, Comly\ Greenleaf*9 Braet% and Smilh*8 Gramman for Schools ;♦ Murray*M English Grammar, I v. 8vo. ; Johnson^M Dictionary, 2 t. 4to., and 1 V. 8vo. ; Wehaler*M Dictionary, 2 v. 4to., and 1 v. 8vo. ; Woreester^i Johnson, Walker, and Todd, combined, 1 v. 8vo.; Worceater^a Dictionary, 1 v. 12mo.; Crabb*$ English Sjmonyms, 1 v. 8vo; Bosv>orth*8 Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 1 v. 8to.; JamUson^a Dictionary of the Scottish Dialect, 1 v. 8vo. ; Ewina* Welsh Vocabu- lary, 1 V. 12too.; Irish Dictionary, Paris, 1768, 1 t. 4to; Janaon'a Dutch Gram- mar, 1 V. 12mo. ; Bailey^a Dutch Dictionary, 1 v. 8vo. ; Follen% Schade's, or Ber- nay's German Grammar, 1 v. 12mo.; EArenfreid*8 German Phrases, 1 v. 12mo.; FUifrel and SporachiTa German Dictionary, 2 ▼. 8vo. ; German Dictionary, pub. ty Menta, of Philadelphia, 1834, 2 v. 8vo.; Adelung'a Worterbuch, 7 v. 4to.; Lange^a D&nische Sprachlehre, 2 v. 12mo. ; Wolff and Berthelaon'a Danish Dic- tionary, 1 V. 4to.; SahlatedVa Schwedische Grammatik, 1 v. 12mo.; SahUtedt*9 Dictionarium Suecicum. 1 t. 4to.; Maudru*a Elemens do la Longue Russe, 2 ▼. 8vo. ; Weiaman^a Lexicon, German, Latin, Russian, with a Russian Gram- mar, 1 ▼. 4to. ; Bandtke'a Polish Grammar, and Polish Dictionary, each 1 v. 8to. ' Barbarous Languages. — Roger WHliama* Key to the Language of the Indians of New England, (Mass. Hist. Coll, vol. 3) ; Eliot*a Grammar of the Mass. Indian Language, 1 v. 8to. ; GaUalih*a Indian Vocabulary, 1 v, 8vo. ; Pickering on the Orthog. of the Indian Languages, (Mem. Am. Acad. Sciences); Duponceau'a Re- port on the Languages of the Am. Indians, 1 v. 8ro. ; Say^a Vocabularies of In. dian Languages, 1 v. 8vo. ; ZeiabergerU Delaware Indian Spelling Book, 1 ▼. 12mo. ; the Yaloff (African) Vocabulary, 1 ▼. 8vo. For other Barbarous Languages, see the Publications of ikie Roman Propaganda.
II. DKrARTJUCNT FBTCHOLOGT.
General Works^ — Baxter*a Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul, 2 v. 8vo^ Kirwan^a Metaphysical Elssays, 1 ▼. 8vo.; BenihanCa Table of the Springs of Ac- tion, 1 V. 870.; ScoU^a Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft, 1 v. 12mo.; Kamea* Elements of Criticism, 1 v. 8va, and Frost's School edition, 1 v. 12mo.
Rhetoric. — ^Newman's, or Lacy*s Rhetoric, for Schools ; Comstock's, or Lacy*0 Elocution, 1 V. 12mo. ; Jamieson^s Rhetoric, 1 v. 12mo. ; Walker'^a Grammar of Rhetoric, 1 v. 8vo.; AriatotWa Rhetoric, 1 v. 12mo.; Cicero De Oratore, tr. by Guthrie, 1 V. 8va ; QuintiUan^a Institutes, 1 v. 8vo. ; Longinua on the Sublime, 1 ▼. 6vo.; Cam^teWa Philosophy of Rhetoric, 2 v. 8vo.; Blair'a Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lctties, 1 v. 8vo.; Whateley'a Elements of Rhetoric, 1 V. 12mo.; Aliaoh'a Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, 870.; Barkers Inquiry into the Sublime and Beautiful, I v. 12mo. ; Ruah on the Voice, 1 t. 870.
LoGiOw — Jamieson's, or Hedge*s IxMac, for Schoob; Hinda* Logic, 1 v. 12mo.; Ariatotle^ Excerpta ex Organo, 8vo. ; Baeon*a Novum Organon Scientiarum, tr. by Shaw, 2 V. 12mo. ; Wolfiua' Logic, from the German, 8vo. ; Watta^ Logic, or the Right Use of Reason, 2 v. 8vo., and his Improvement of the Mind, 1 v. 12mo. ; Benthdm'a Book of Fallacies, 8vo. ; Whateley'a Elements of Logic, 1 v. 12mo. ; Malebranche^a Search after IVuth, 2io.
Phrenios. — Blaisdale's First Lessons in Intellectual Philosophy, for Schoolfl, I T. 12mo. ; UpkanCa Mental Philosophy, 2 v. 12mo. ; AriatotU, De Anima, 12ma; P2ffto*s Diak)gue on the Immortality of the Soul, 8vo.; Lockt^a Essay concerning Human Understanding, 1 v. 8vo. ; StewarVa Philosophy of the Human Mind, 1 V. 8vo. ; JtetiTf Essays on the Intellectual Powers, 2 v. 8vo.; Broton'a Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 3 v. 8vo. ; AhercrombUU Inquiries concern^ ing the Intellectual Powers, 1 v. 12mo.; SpurtikeinCa Phrenology, 2 v. 8vo.; Combe' a Constitution of Man, 1 v. 12mo. ; Edwarda* Freedom of the Will, 1 v. 8va ; Kant^a Critic and Investigation of pure Reason, 1 v. 8vo.; Couain'a Psychol<«y, or Examination of Locke, 1 v. 12mo.; Raueh'a Psychology, 1 v. 8vo.; Combe*9 Phrenology, 1 v. bvo,
♦ We object to the phrase you toas^ found in at least one of the above grammars, as being incorrect. If the plural pronoun you is addressed to a single person, by way of compliment, the plural form of the verb »hould be retained, for the same reason ; and it should be you were, in both Qumbers.
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544 APPENDIX.
Etricb.— Sullivan** M<nral Clatt Book, or Lacy^s Moral Sci«ftce« for Sdioob; ArUloile^a Ethics, (and Politica,) 2 y. 8va; Cieere De Officiis, and De Seoectute, (on Duties, and Old Age,) variooa translations; Seneca^t Morals, by Estrange, 1 V, 12mo.; BeattU^a Elements of Moral Science, 3 ▼. 8vo.; Smilh^s Theory of the Moral Sentiments, I t. 8vo. ; Bentham*a Introduction to Morals and Legislation, 1 ▼. 4to. ; PaUy'n Moral and Political Philosophy, 1 v. 12mo.; AbercrmHMe*a Phi. losophy of the Moral Feelings, I v. 12mo.; WaytamPa Elements of Moral Science, 1 V. ]2mo. ; Oliver^a Hints on the Pursuit of Happiness, 1 v. 8vo. ; WardUw'M Christian Ethics, 1 v. 8vo. ; Maekintoah^a Progress of Ethical Philosoi^y, I v. 8vo. ; Jonfroy^a Philosophie Morale, 1 ▼. 8vo. ; Bp. Butler's Sermons at the Chapel of the Rofis, 1 ▼. 8va
Education. — Cousin** Report on Public Instruction in Prussia, 1 t. 12mo.; Bache*a Report on Education in Europe, 1 v. 8va ; Lectures before the Am. Insti- tute of Instruction, Boston, continued annually, 8va ; Wtius* Hints on Popular Education, I y. ]2mo.; Taylor* a District School, 1 v. 12mo.; Goodnch'a Fire Side Education, (author of Peter Parley's Tales,) 1 y. iSmo. ; Thtld^a Student's Manual,
1 y. 12mo.; AbtniWa Teacher, 1 y. 12mo.; M. and A. L. EdgeworilCa Practical Education, 2 v. 8Ya or 1 y. 12mo. ; Shepherd, Joyc^ and Carpenter*a Systematic Education, 2 y. 8Ya; Winalow'a Young Man's Aid; Muzzey^a Young Man's Friend ; Aleott^a Young Man's Guide ; and CobbeWa AdYioe to Young M«i ; Mrs. Sigoumey*a Letters to Young Ladies; Mra, Farrar*a Young Ladies' Friend ; and i^aa Coxt^a Young Lady's Companion ; BuiUr*a American GenUeman, and his American Lady, each 1 y. 18mo. ; Jtfiist H, More" a Strictures on Female Education,
2 Y. 12mo.; Salznuinn'a Gymnastics for Youth, 1 y. 8yo.; Jardina^a Philoeophical (Collegiate) Education, 1 y. 8vo.
ni. DBPAKTIRMT — IfOMOUOGT.
GEifiKAL WoRKSw — Hofman^a Course of Legal Study, 2 y. 8yo.; Boumer'a New American Law Dictionary, 2 y. 8yo. ; Taylor'a Law Glossary, 1 y. Syo. ; Kent*M Commentaries on American Law, 4 y. 8yo. ; Wclker^a Outlines of American Law, 1 Y. 8yo. ; ConkUne^a Young Citiien's Manual, 1 y. 12mo. ; SuUiwtrCa Political Class Book, for Schools, 1 y. 12ma
PouTiCAL Pbilobopht. — (See Ethics.) BurlamaqvVa Principles of Natural and Political Law, 2 y. 8yo.; Monteaquieu^a Spirit of Laws, 2 y. 8Ya; Caianeo*a Source, Strength, and True Spirit of Laws, 1 y. 8yo.; Ferfrtuon^a History of CiYil Society, 1 y. Byo. ; Lieher*a Legal and Political Hermeneutics, 1 y. 12mo.; •S'ldAer- land*a Concessional Manual, 1 y. 18mo. ; Jeferaon'a Manual of Parliamentary Practice, with a copious Index, 1 y. 18ma ; Branche'a Principia Legis et E2quita^ tis, 1 Y. 8yo.; Beccaria on Crimes and Punishments, 1 y. ]2mo.; De ToeqMeiUU*» Democracy in America, 2 y. Byo.; CoUridge^a Statesman's Manual, 1 y. 12mo.; Story^a Commentary on the Conflict of Laws, 1 y. 8yo.
International Law. — Orottvton the Rights of War and Peace, 1 Y.2io.; Puf. fendorf on the Law of Nature and of Nations, 1 y. 2io; VatteVa Law of Nations, 1 Y. 8vo.; Afarl^n's Compendium of the Law of Nations, 1 y. 8Ya ; ChiUfa Law of Nations, 1 y. 6yo. ; Maekinioah'a Introductory Lecture, 1 y. 8yo.; Ihip9neeam*8 translation of Bynkershoek on the Law of War, 1 y. 8yo. ; Kenfa Commentaries, already named; SchUgel on Neutral Vessels, I y. 8yo.; Azuni on the Maritime Law of Europe, 2 y. 6yo. ; Brinon''a Civil Law, and Law of the Admiralty, 2 y. 8yo.; Jaeobaon^a Laws of the Sea, 1 y. 8yo. ; Wheatofi'a Digest on Maritime Captures and Prizes, 1 y. 8vo. ; Betta* Summary of Admiralty Practice in Southern New York, 1 Y. 8yo. ; EUioVa American Diplomatic Code, 2 y. 8yo.
Constitutional Law. — De Lolme on the Constitution of England, 1 y. 8Ya ; HaHam*a Constitutional History of England, 4 y. Syo. ; Conversations on the English Constitution, 1 y. 12mo., (London, 1828); Constitutions of the United States and of the Individual States, 1 v. 12mo. ; The Federalist, by Hamitton, Madison, and Jay, I v. bvo.; RawU on the Constitution of the U. S., I v. 8vo.; KenVa CV>mment&ries, (before named) ; Story^a Commentaries on the Constitution of the U. S., 3 v. 8vo., and 1 v. 8yo.; SergeanVa Constitutional Law, 1 y. 8yo.; Duwmceau on the Constitution, 1 v. i2mo.; Dufonteau oo the Jurisdiction of the U. B. Courts, 1 Y. 8vo.; Reports of Oses in the U. S. Courts; Cretf* Military Laws of the U. S., 1 v. 8vo.; MordecaVa Digest of Military Laws, 1 v. I2ma;
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BIBLI0ORAPH7. 545
Mdf^field^t PoUtioal Grammar, or BayanVt Brief Exposition of tlie Constitution, 1 V, 12mo.
Municipal Law. — Cooper'' 8 Institutes of Justinian, I v. 8vo.; Schomherg*a View of the Roman Law, 8vo.; Corpus Juris Civilis, 1 v. 2io.; Ellis* Summary of Tay- lor*a Elements of the Civil Law, I v. 8vo.; DomaVs Civil Law, 1 v. 2io.; Bnwn'a View of the Civil Law, (see International Law) ; Bvrke*a Historical Essay on the Laws, &c., of Rome, 8vo. ; Reeve's History of the English Law, 5 7. 8vo. ; BUich- stone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, 2 ▼. tivo. ; AnLhon's Analysis of Blackstone, 1 v. 8vo. ; Bacon's Abridgment of English Law, 8 v. 8vo. ; Dalrym. pU on Feudal Property, 1 v. Svo. ; LUtUion^a Tenures, 1 v. 8vo. ; Cokeys Commen. tary on Littleton, 3 v. 8vo. ; Cruisers Digest of the Real Law, 3 v. 8va ; Phillips* Law of Evidence, 4 v. 8vo. ; Gould on Pleading, 1 v. 8vo. ; Ver plank on Con- tracts, 1 V. 8vo. ; Story on Bailments, 1 v. 8vo. ; AbbotVs Law of Merchant Ships and Seamen, i v. 8vo.; CAt£/v on Bills of Exchange and Promissory Notes, 1 ▼. Syo. ; Livermore*s Law of Principal and Agent, 2 v. 8vo. ; Phillips on Insu- rance, 2 V. 8vo. ; CoUyer on Partnership, 1 v. 8vo. ; Story on Equity Jurisprudence, 1 V. 8vo.; Hoffman's Practice of the Court of Chancery, (N. Y.,) 3 v. 8vo.; Ben- thumbs Rationales of Punishment and of Reward, 2 v. 8vo.; Russell on Crimes and Misdemeanors, 2 v. 8vo. ; Livingston's System of Penal Law, 1 v. 8vo. ; Beck's Elements of Medical Jurisprudence, 2 v. 8vo. ; Dane's Abridgment of American Law, 9 V. 8vo. The numerous Laws of the individual States we can only notice in genera] terms. (For a List of Law Reports, see Hoffman's Legal Study.)
Political Economy. — Smith's Wealth of Nations, 2 v. 8vo., or Joyce's Abridg. ment ; Rieardo's Political Economy and Taxation, 1 v. 8vo. ; Say's Political Eco- cal Economy, 1 v. 8vo.; M^CuUoch's Principles of Political Economy, 1 v. 8vo.; MaUhus on Population, and on Political Economy, 3 v. 8 vo. ; Ganilh's Economic Politique, 1 v. 8 vo. ; Starch's Economic Politique, 6 v. 8va ; Vethake's Political Economy, 1 v. 8va; Tucker's Theory of Money and Banks, 1 v. 12mo.; RaguH oa Currency and Banking, 1 v. 12mo.,; Carey on Wealth, and on Wages, each 1 v. 8vo.; Gouge's History of Paper Money and Banking in the U. S., 12mo.; Neioman's Political Economy, 1 v. 12mo. ; airs. Mhrcet's Conversations on Politi- cal Economy, 1 v. i2mo.; Wayland's Political Economy, 1 v. 12mo.
IV. DEPARTMENT THEOLOGY.
General Works. — The Encycloposdia of Religious Knowledge, 1 v. 8vo.; Buck's Theological Dictionary, 1 v. 8va ; Hannah Adams' View of Religions, 1 V. 8vo. ; R, Adams' Religious World Displayed, 3 v. 8vo. ; Evans' Denominations of the Christian World, I v. ISmo. ; Taylor's Physical Theory of Another Life, 1 V. 12rao.
Paganism.— Afiss Robin's Elements of Mythology, 1 v. 18mo.; Calmel'a Dic- tionary of the Bible, 5 v. 4to., and his Dissertations, 3 v. 4to. ; Christmas' Uni- versal Mythology, 1 v. 12mo.; Faber's Origin of Idolatry, 3 v. 4to.; Bryant's An- cient Mythology, 6 v. 8va; Richardson's Dissertations, (in reply to Bryant,) 1 v. 8vo.; PrichartPs Egyptian Mythology, 1 v. 8vo.; ChampoUion's Antiquitite de TEgypte, 2io., in pr<^ess; Bell's Pantheon, 2 v. 4to.; Tooke's Pantheon, 1 v. 12mo.; Coleman's JV^tholc^ of the Hindus, 1 v. 4to.; Transactions of the Asiatic Society, and Sir Wm. Jones* Works ; Du Perron's Systeme Theol des Perses, 2 v. 4ta, (Acad, des Inscriptions) ; Schedius De Diis Germanis, 1 v. 12mo.; Biggins' Celtic Druids, 1 v. 4to.; Keightley's Fairv Mythology, 2 v. 12mo.; Jar- vis' Religion of the N. American Indians, (N. Y. Hist. Coll.)
MoHAUEDANisM. — Salens Translation of the Koran, 2 v. 8vo.; Maracci's Refutt- tio Korani, published with the Arabic Koran, 1 v. 2io.; Bohovius on the Turkish LitUTffy, 8vo.; Prideaux' lAfe of Mahomet, 1 v. 8vo.; Bush's Life of Mohammed, 1 v. I8mo., (Fam. Library ;) Mill's History of Muhammedonism, 8vo. ; Taylor's History of Mohammedanism, 12mo. ; Forster's Mahometanism Unveiled, 2 v. 8vo.
Judaism. — Biblia Hebrea, Michaelis, Vanderhooghfs, or Hahn's edition ; Tal-
Digitized by
540 APPBITDIX.
Hebrew Commonwealth, and his Biblical Archaeology, each 1 y. 8vo. ; Prilerux*9 Connection of the Old and New Testament, 3 v. 8vo.; 7\irtier*t Sacred History, and Milman*a History of the Jews, 3 v. 18mo^ (Family Library;) Immc^M Ceremonies, &c., of the Jews, 8vo. ; Levi's Ceremonies, and Account of the Misb. na, 1 T. 8vo. ; JohUon't Instruction in the Mosaic Religion, 8yo. ; LevPM Prayers used by the Polish and German Jews, 6 ▼. 8vo. ; Pinto's Prayers of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, 2 v. 4to. ; Allen on Modem Judaism, 1 ▼. Svo.
CHaiSTiANiTY. General History. — Jeremy Taylor*s Life of our SaTionr, 1 v. Bwo. ; BUinVs Lectures on the History of our Saviour, 2 v. 12ma; Cove's Lives of the Apostles, 1 V. 8vo., and his Lives of the Fathers, 3 ▼. 8va ; JBusebitM* Ecdeaiaflfi. cal History, (to the time of 0>nBtantine,) 1 v. 8vo. ; Bingham's Origines Elcdesi. astioB, 8 V. 8vo. ; Covers Primitive Christianity, I v. 8vo.; BurUm^s History of the (early) Church, 1 v. 12mo.; Waleh^s History of the Popes, 1 v. 8vo.; Bowers'' doi, 6 ▼. 4to. ; Ranke*s do^ 2 v. 8va ; Prideoux^s Synopsis of Oiuncils, (Litrodnctioii to Histories,) 4ta ; BumePs History of the Reformation, 4 v. 8vo. ; Blunts da,
1 T. 8vo. ; M^Crie^s Reformation in Italy, and in Spain, each 1 v. 8yo. ; Fsx*s Acts and Monuments, or Book of Martyrs, 3 v. 2ia ; MoiAnm*s Ecclesiastical Histofy, S v. 8ya: Milner's History of the Church of Christ, 2 v. 8va; Palmer's Ecdesi. astical History, 1 v. 8vo.
Biblical Divinity,— The Bible. (See Marsh's History of Translations of the Scriptures, 4 v. 8vo.); De Rossi's Variae Lectiones Veteris Testamenti, 5 y. 4lou; Patrick^ Amald, Lowth, Whitby, and Lowman's Critical CJommentary, 6 v. 4ta; Seott\ Henry's f or Clark's Commentary; Jenks* Comprehensive OMnmentary, (chiefly Henry's,) 5 v. 8va; D'Oyly and Hhnt's Commentary, Hobart*s editian,
2 y. 4to.; Critici Sacri, 5 v. 2ia; PoU Synopsis, 5 v. 2io.; CeuR<l*t Dictionary of the Bible, 5 v. 4to^ or Robinson's Abridgment, 1 v. 8va; O^stofi't Collections of Pertinent Texts, 1 v. 8vo. ; Home's Introduction to the Holy Scriptures, 4 or 2 y. 8ya; Harris' Natural History of the Bible, 1 v. 8yo.; Brown's, Butlerworth'a, or Cntden's Concordance; Emesti's Elements of Interpretation, 1 v. 12mo.; Newton on the Prophecies, 2 y. 8va; Lowth's Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, 2 y. 8va; Doddridge's Family Expositor of the New Testament, 6 or 1 v. 8ya; BloasufieWs Notes, 2 v. 12mo.; Barnes on the Gospels, 2 v. 12ma; Hodge on Romans, 1 v. Qwo,; Stuart on Hebrews, 1 v. 8vo.; Maeknight on the Epistles, 1 v. 8vd.*
ApoU^etUTheology.—Paley's Natural Theology, I v. 12mo.; Butler's Analogy of Retigion, Natural and Revealed, 1 v. 8vo. or 12mo.; the Bridjfewater Treatises, 12ma or 8vo.; Paley's Evidences of Christianity, 1 v. 8va; Leslie's Short and Easy Method with the Deists, 1 v. 8vo.; Lardner's Credibility of the Gospel His. tory, 10 V. 8vo.; Watson's Apology for the Bible, 1 v. 18mo., and for Christianity,
1 y. 12mo.; Sumners' Evidence of Christianity from its Nature, 1 v. 12nKiL; Soame Jenyn's Internal Evidence, 1 v. Svo.; Keith's Demonstration, and Evidence from Prophecy, each 1 v. 12mo.; Campbell on Miracles, 1 v. 12ma; Paley's Horn Pauline, 1 v. 8yo.; Dick oa Inspiration, 1 v. 12mo.; Verplanck's Essays on the Evidences, 1 v. 8yo.; Wilson's Evidences, 1 v. Svo.; Lsland*s View of Deistical Writers, 2 v. 8vo.
Practical Theology. Seeker's Works, 6 v. 8vo.; Sherlock's Works, 4 y. 8yo.; Bp. Hall's Works, 2 v. 8vo.; Leighton's Works, 2 v. 8va; StJlvaine's Sermons,
2 v. 8vo.; Otoen on Temptation, and on Spiritual Mindedness, eadi 1 v. 15hna; Chalmers on the Application of Christianity, 1 v. 8va ; Betkune's Fruits of the Spirit, ] V. 8vo.; JMtss Hannah More's Works, 2 v. 8vo.; Tst^s Holy Living and Dying, 1 v. 8vo. ; Law's Serious Call, 1 v. 8yo.; Doddridge's Rise and Progreaa, 1 y. 12ma; Baxter's Saints' Rest, 1 v. 12ma; Banyan's Pilgrim's Progress, 1 v. 12mo. or 8vo.; Keaeh's Travels of True (godliness, 1 v. 18ma; Biekerstetk on Prayer, and on the Lord's Supper, each 1 y. 18mo.; BrowneWs Religion of the Heart and Life, 5 v. 12ma
Sectarian Polity.— ** Orthodox Confession" of the Greek Chuieh; SmUk on the Greek Church, 1 v. 8yo.; PUOow's (Plato's) Greek Church in Russia, 1 y. 12mo.
* In Patristic Theology^ we can only mention Wdkt^s Apostolical Fathers, I v. 8vo. ; Reeves' Apologies, 2 v. 8vo. ; and the Library of the Fathers, now in progress. (Somb p. 149.)
Digitized by
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 547
The Roman Breyiary and Missal, each 1 v. ISmo. or 18mo.; Concilii Tri.
dentin! Decreta, 1 v. 12mo.; Pather PauVa (Sarpi's) Council of Trent, 2 v. 4to.; MiU ner^s End of Religious Controversy, 1 v. 8vo.; Barrow on the Pope's Supremacy, 1 ▼. 8to.; Bp, Gibion's Preservative against Popery, 3 v. 2io.; Bp, Taylor'^B Dissua- sive from ropery, 1 v. 8vo.; SltGavin^s Protestant 2 v. 8vo.; Edgar* s Variations, of Popery, 1 v. 8vo.; and BosaueVs Histoire des Varientes,4 v. 8vo.; £!ssays on Ro-
manism, 1 v. 12mo SeotVa Luther and the Lutheran Reformation, 2 v. 12ma
The Book of Common Prayer of the Pr. Episcopal Church; Homilies to be
read in Churches, 1 v. 8vo.; CoUiefa EccL History of Great Britain, 9 v. 8vo.; Jew- eWa Apology, 1 v. 12mo.; and HobarVa Apology, 1 v. 8vo.; Sauihey^a Book of the Church, 1 V. 8vo.; Hooker*a Eccl Polity, 3 v. 8vo.; Potter on Church Gk>vem.
ment, 1 v. 8vo.; White^a Comparative View, 2 v. 8vo. Bc^iie and BenneWa
History of Dissenters, 4 v. 8vo Confession of Faith or the Presbjlerian
Church in the U. S^ 1 v. l8mo.; Calvin^a Institutes, 3 v. 8vo.; Knox'a Reforma- tion in Scotland, 1 v. 8va; History of the Westminster Assembly, 1 v. 12mo.; DicVa Lectures on Theology, 2 v. 8vo.; Ridgeley*a Body of Divinity, 1 v. 8vo.;
Miller on the Ministry, 1 v. 8vo The Cambridge and Saybrook PUtforms,
1 V. 12mo.; Neafa History of the Puritans, 5 v. 8vo.; DtoighVa Theology, 5 v. 8vo.
The Baptist Confession of Faith, 1 v. 18mo.; Hinton^a History of Baptism,
1 V. 12mo.; GiWa Body of Divinity, 1 v. 8vo.; R. HalVa Works, 3 v. 8vo. ; A. FuU
ler''a Works, 2 v. 8vo The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, 1 v. 18mo.; Banga* Historv, 3 v. 12mo.; WataorCa Theological Institutes, 2 v. 8vo.; Wtaley'a Works, 7 v. 8vo.; J. Fletcher* a Works, 4 v. 8vo.
Channing*a Writings on Unitarianism ; Unitarian Tracts, 8 v. 12mo. ;
Prieatley*a Writings; and Bp. Horaley*a Tracts, in reply BaUou*a Wri- tings on Universalism; UniversaUsm as it is, 1 v. 8vo Barclay* a Apology
for the Quakers, 1 v. dvo. Swedanhorg*a Writings.
SECOND PROVINCE.— ETHNOLOGY.
CoUier*a Historical, Geographical, Genealogical, and Poetical Dictionary, 4 v. 2io. (London, 1727;) Bigland'a Geographical and Historical View of the World, 5 v. 8vo.; ljavo\8ne*a Complete Genealogical, Hist. Chronol. and Geographical Atlas, 1 V. 2io. (Phil. 1820,) and the American Supplement, 1 v. 2io ; Akedo^a Dictionary of Geography, History, &-c. 5 v. 4to. ; McCulloch*a Geograph. Statist, and Historical Dictionary, 1 v. 8vo.; Lempriere\ or Anthon*a Classical Die- tionary, each 1 v. 8vo.
V, DEPARTMENT. — GEOORAPHV.
Gephbral Works. — Olney, Mitchell, Smith, Woodbridge, and Worcester's GJeo- graphies for Schools ; MitehelVs Greographical Reader, Iv. 12mo. ; Emeraon*a Out- lines of Geography and Historv, 1 v. l2mo. ; Matte Brun*a Universal Geography, 4to. or 6 V. 5vo. ; Goodrich*a Pictorial Geography, 1 v. 8vo. ; Murray*a iSicyclo- pesdia of Geogrraphy, 3 v. 8vo.; The London Gazetteer, 1 v. 8vo.; or Edinburgh do. 6 V. 8vo. ; Brooke* a Universal Gazetteer, 1 v. 8vo. ; Williama* Universal Gazet- t«er, 12mo. ; Blair*a History of Geograph^p^, 12mo. (London, 1784 ;) D*AnmlU*a Ancient Geography, 2 v. 8vo. and AUas, 2io. ; Strabo*a Rerum Geographicarom,
1 v. 2io. ; Orbis Antiquae Tabulae Geo. secundum CI. Ptolemaeum, 1 v. 2io. ; Butler*a Gieographia Classica, and Atlas of Ancient Greography, each 1 v. 8vo. ; RennePa Works on Ancient Geography ; ArrotDa7nith*a (^neral Atlas, 1 v. 4to. ; Tanner'a New American Atlas, 1 v. 4to. ; HaWa General Atlas, 1 v. 2io. ; Vander- mdlen*a Atlas Universelle, 400 maps ; Atlas of the Society ibr the Promotion of Usefril Knowledge, 2io. in progress.
General Voyages and Travels. — Hdckluyta* Navigations, 2 v. 2io. ; Pvrehaa* Pilgrims, 5 v. 2io.; Pinkerton*a Collection, 17 v. 4to.; Circumnavigation of the Globe, 1 V. 18mo. (Fam. Lib). ; HatDkeau)orth*a Account of Voyages, 3 v. 4to. ; An- #©»'» Voyage, 1 v. 4to. or 8vo. ; Bougainmlle*a Voyage, 1 v. 4to. or 8vo. ; Cook*a Voyages, 4 v. 8vo. ; La Ptrouae*a Voyage, 2 v. 8vo. ; Vancouver*a Voyage in the North Pacific, 6 v. 8vo. ; Wilaon*a Missionary Voyage, 1 v. 4to. ; Porter*a Cruise in the Pacific, 2 v. 8vo. ; StevmrVa Visit to the SooIJi Seas, 2 v. 12mo. ; Reynolda and Ruaehenberger^a Voyages around the World, each 1 v. 8vo. ; Vojrage of the Beagle,
2 V. 8vo.; Clarke* a Travels, 11 v. 8va
D.igitized by
548 APPENDIX.
Asiatic and Australian Gboorapht. — Mvrray^t Acooont of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, 2 v. 8vo. ; UrquharCs Spirit of the EJast, (chiefly on Asiatic Tur- key,) 2 V. 12ino. ; Volney^s Travels through Syria and Egypt, S v. 8vo. ; Burek- hardVs Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, 1 v. 4to. ; Stepkeng' Incidents, in Effypt, Arabia, and the Holy Land, 2 v. 12mo. ; ArundeVs Discoveries in Ana Minor, 2 v. 8vo. ; Southgate^s Tour through Armenia end Persia, 3 v. 12ina ; Niebuhr^g Travels through Arabia, 2 v. Bvo. ; Krpple^a Travels in Babylonia, dtc
1 V. Bvo. ; ChardifCg Travels in Persia, &.c. 2io. ; Porin^a Travels in Persia, &c
2 V. 4to. ; Morier'a do. 2 v. 4to. ; Burneg' Travels in Bokhara, 2 v. 12ina ; Elphin^ aione'a Embassy from Delhi to India, 1 v. 4to. ; Heber*a Journeys throorii India,
3 V. 8vo. ; MaUolm^g Missionary Travels in S. E. Asia, 1 v. Bvo. ; i^mef* Embaasy to Ava, 3 V. 8vo. ; iSStoiin/oa's Account of Macartney's Embassy to China, 3 v. 8va; EUig^a Proceedings of Amherst^s Embassy, I v. 8va ; Davig^a Description of China, 2 v. 13ma ; BelVa Travels from Petersburgh to Pekin, 2 v. Bvo. ; OsAey^a Expeditions into New South Wales, 1 v. 4to. ; MiteheWa do. 1 v. 8vo.
European Gkography. — Addiaon'a Journey from Malta to Greece, Constanti. ttople, &.C. 2 V. Bvo. ; CAatettubriand*a Travels in Greece, Palestine and Egypt, 2 v. Bvo. ; Siephena* Incidents in Greece, Turkey, Russia, and Poland, 2 v. 13ma ; EuHace^a Classical Tour in Italy, 2 v. 8vo. ; Sudnkums^a Travels in Naples and Sicily, 2 v. Bvo. ; Townaend^a Journey in Spain, 3 v. Bvo. ; SUdeWa Year in Spain, 3 V. 12mo.; Cuahine*a Reminiscences of Spain, 2 v. 12mo.; Moor€*a Views of So- ciety, Bvo. and his Journal in France, 2 v. Bvo. ; Carter'a Letters from Europe, on France, Great Britain, &c. 2 v. 8vo. ; Humphreya* Great Britain, France and Bel- ffium, 2 V. 12mo. ; Mavor'^a British Tourist, 5 v. 12ma ; SUlimfih'a Travels in Eng. land, dDc. 2 v. Bvo. ; Cooper'a Sketches of Switzerland, 2 v. I2mo. ; Ruaaell^a Toor in Germany and Austria, 1 v. Bvo. ; DwighVa Travels in Germany, 1 v. Bvo. ; Me. De StaeVa Germany, 2 v. 12mo. ; Coxe*a Travels in Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, 3 v. 8vo. ; Laing^a Residence in Norway, 2 v. Bvo. ; and his Tour in Sweden, 2 v. Bvo. ; Discoveries in the Polar Seas and Kegions, (Fam. Lib.)
African Grographv. — Discovery and Adventure in Africa; and Lander's Africa, (Fam. Lib.) ; The French Expedition in Egypt, 23 v. Bva and 13 v. 2iow ^ates, dec ; RuaseWa Egypt, 1 v. I2mo. ; Lane*a Modem Egyptians, 2 v. Bva ; Travels of Ali Bey (or Bwiia) in Morocco, Egypt, dtc. 2 v. Bvo. ; Bruet'a Travels in Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia, 6 v. Bvo. ; NordtrCa Travels in Nubia, &c 1 v. 3io. ; RuaaeWa Nubia and Abyssinia, (Fam. Lib.) ; Park'a Travels into the In- terior of Africa, 1 v. 8vo. ; Denham*8y Clapper fon^a and Lander'* a Travels in Cen> tral Africa, each 1 v. Bvo. ; Lnird and OldJieUPa Voyage up the Niger, 1 v. Bvo. ; VaiUanVa Travels in S. Africa, 5 v. Bvo. ; CampbeWa Travels in S. Africa, 1 v. Bvo. ; Alexander*a Expedition into S. Africa, 2 v. l2mo.
Amkrican Geographv. — DavenporCa Gazetteer of North America, 1 v. Bvo. ; Prince Maximilian' a Travels, in progress ; Discoveries on the Northern Coasts of America ; and Discovery and Adventures in the Polar Seas, (Fam. Lib.) ; Voy. ages and Discoveries of the Northmen, (Danish,) 1 v. 4to. ; //fame's Journal to tho Northern Ocean, 1 v. 4to. ; Mackemif.^a Vojrages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceana, 2 v. Bvo. ; Franklin a Journeys to the Polar Sea, 1 v. Bva ; Roaa and Parry* a Voy- ages, respectively, to the Frozen Ocean, each 1 v. Bvo. ; Seomhy^a Voyages, 2 v. Bvo. ; Maekenzie*a Iceland, 2 v. Bvo. ; Charlevo\x*a History and Description of New France, (Canada,) 2 v. Bvo. ; Bonchetti*a British Dominions in North America, 2 v. 4to.; Smith* a Description of New England, in 1684, 2 v. Bva; Carver'^a Travels, Intr. of N. A. 1 v. Bvo. ; Lewia and Clark*a Expedition to the Pacific Ocean, 2 v. Bva; Pike* a Expedition, ] v. Bva; Long* a Expeditions, 4 v. Bvo.; SchoolcrafVM Travels, 1 v, Bvo. ; Parker'a Tour to the Rocky Mountains, 1 v. 12ma ; Irvinft^a Astoria, 2 v. Bvo. ; and his Rocky Mountains, 2 v. 12ma ; Murray^a Travels in N. America, 2 v. Bvo. ; BwighVa Travels in New England, 4 v. Bva ; StuarCa Three Years in the United States. 3 v. 12mo. ; FlinVa Vidley of the Mississippi, 2 v. Bva; Judge HaWa Notes on the West, 1 v. l2mo. ; Foote^a Texas and the Texians, 2 v. 12mo. ; Humboldl*a New Spain and Equinoctial Regions, 4 v. Bvo. ; and his Per- sonal Narrative, 7 v. Bvo. ; PoinaeiCa Mexico, 1 v. &a ; Thompaon^a Off. Visit to Guatimala, I v. 12mo.; 2>unA> Residence in Central America, 1 v. Bva; UUoa*a Voyages to South America, 2 v. Bvo. ; TVrmiaix Compana* CoUection de Voyages, Slc, Inedites, Bvo. in progress ; TVrry't Equatorial Regions, 1 v. 12ma ; Uiuma'a
Digitized by
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 549
Visit to Columbia, 1 v. 8vo.; Walsh's Notices of Brazil, 2 v. 8vo.; Von Spix and Martius^ Travels in Brazil, in progress ; Head's Notes of the Pampas, 1 v. 12mo. ; Mier*8 Travels in Chili and La Plata, 3 v. 8vo. ; Robertson's Four Years in Para- guay, 2 v. 12mo. ; and Letters on Paragujiy, 2 v. 12mo.
VI. DEPARTMENT. — CHRONOGRAPHY.
Tytler*8, Lardner's, WiUard's, Goodrich's, (Parley's,) and Worcester's General Histories for Schools ; Durivage^s Cyclopaedia of History, 1 v. 8va ; The Great Universal History, 69 v. 8vo. ; Slavor*s Universal History, 25 v. 12mo. ; AnquetWs Universal History, 9 v. 8vo. ; Ramsay's Universal History, 12 v. 8vo. ; Midler^t Universal History, 4 v. ISmo. ; PriesUey^s Lectures on History, (Analytical,) 2 v. 8vo. ; SchlegeVs rhilosophy of History, 2 v. 8vo. ;* BossueVs Introduction to Uni- versal History, 2 v. 18mo. ; Newton's Chronology, 1 v. 4to. or 8vo. ; Hates' Analysis of Chronology, 3 v. 4to. ; Strauss' Stream (or Chart) of History, ed. by Hitchcock ; Darkey's Mnemonika, 1 v. 12mo.; Pinkertoh's Essay on Medals, 2 v. 8vo.; Tresor de Numismatique, &.c. 20 v. 2io.
EuclassicChronography. — RoUin's Ancient History, 2 v. 8vo. ; Heeren's States of Antiquity, 1 or 3 v. 8vo.; Wilkinson's Manners, &c. of the Ancient Egyptians, 3 V. 8vo. ; (sec Judaism) ; Herodoivs^ tr. by Beloe, 1 v. 8 vo. ; Thucydides' Pelo- ponnesian War, tr. by Smith, 2 v. 8vo. ; Xenophon's Affairs of Greece, tr. by Smith; and Expedition of Cyrus, tr. by Spclman, 2 v. 8vo.; Pdybius' General History, tr. by Hampton, 2 v. 8vo. ; Gillies' History of Ancient Greece, 4 v. 8vo. ; MUfard's do. 6 v. 8vo. ; Goldsmith's '^o. abridged, and RusseWs Greece, for Schools, 1 v. 12mo. ; Potter's or Robinson's Archaeologia Graeca, (Grecian Anti- quities,) 8vo.; Gronotius' Antiquitates Graecorum, 13 v. 2io.; Clinton's Fasti Hel- lenlci, 2 v. 4to.; Hoove's Roman History, 4 v. 4to; Catrou and Rouelle's do. 6 v. 2io. ; RoUin's History of Rome, 16 v. 8vo. ; Ferguson's Roman Republic, 1 v. 8vo. ; Gibbons' Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 4 v. 8vo.; Sismondi's Fall of do. 1 V. 8vo. ; Niebuhr's History of Rome, 2 v. 8vo. ; Sallust's Histories, tr. by Rose, 1 V. 12mo. ; Livy's History of Rome, tr. by Baker, 6 v. 8vo. ; Caesar's Wars in Gaul, tr. by Dimcan, 2 v. 8vo. ; Tacitus' Works, tr. by Murphy, 4 v. 8vo. ; Diony. sius of Halieamassus' Roman Antiquities, tr. by Spelman, 4 v. 4to. ; Adams' or Kennel's Roman Antiquities, 1 v. 8vo. ; Gravius' Antiquitates Romanorum, 12 v. 2io. ; Goldsmith's Rome abridged, and RusseU's Rome, for Schools.
Oriental Chronograph Y. — Criehton's History of Arabia, (Fam. Lib.) ; Russell's Ancient and Modem Egypt, (Fam. Lib.) ; Greenhow'a History of Tripoli, 1 v. 8vo,; Shaler's Sketches of Algiers, 1 v. 8vo.; Jackson's Account of Morocco, 1 v. 12mo. ; Benezet's History of Guinea, I v. 8vo. ; Ellis's Madagascar, 2 v. 12mo. ; Manor's History of the Ottoman Empire in Asia, 1 v. 8vo. ; Russell's History of Palestine, (Fam. Lib.); Fraser's Account of Persia, 1 v. 12mo.; Malcolm's History of Persia, 2 v. 4to.; Robertson's Disquisition concerning Ancient India, 1 v. 8vo.; Gleig's British Empire in India, 1 v. 12mo.; ilfaurtce'* History of Hindostan, 5 v. 4to. ; and his Ind. Antiquities, 6 v. 8vo.; Raynal's Settlements in the East and West Indies, 5 v. 8vo.; Mills' British India, 6 v. 8vo.; Marsden's Sumatra, 1 v. 4to.; Raffle's Java, 2 v. 4to.; Davis' History of the Chinese, (Fam. Lib.); Gutxlafs Chinese History, 2 v. 8vo.; Medhurst's China, 1 v. 8vo.; Kaempfer's Japan, 2 v. 2io. ; SieboUfs Japan, in progress.
European Chronography. — Hallam's View of Europe during the Middle Ages, 1 V. 8vo. ; RusseWs History of Modem Europe, 3 v. 8vo. ; Ali»on's Recent History of Europe, 10 v. 8vo. ; Guizol's History of Civilization in Europe, 1 v. 12mo. ; Howe's Greek Revolution, 1 v. 8vo. ; Percival's History of Italy, 2 v. 8vo. ; Sismon- di's Republlques Itallennes, 16 v. 8va; or the abridged translation; Machiavelli's Florence, 1 v. 4to. ; Guicciardini's Civil Wars in Italy, 10 v. 8va ; Gianonne's Naples, 2 v. 2io. ; Venetian History, (Fam. Lib.) ; Mariana's History of Spain, 9 v. 2io. ; Veriot's Revolutions of Spain, 2 v. 8vo. ; and of Portugal, 1 v. 8vo.; Irving's Conquest of Granada, 2 v. 12mo. ; Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella, 3 v. 8vo. ; Robert9on*u Reign of Charles V., 3 v. 8vo.; Soutkey's Peninsular War, 3 v. 8vo.;
• We repret to see that Von Rotteck's General History of the World, 4 v. 8?o., re- cently published, though in some respects valuable, rejects the Mosaic Scriptures as fabalous.
70
Digitized by
550 APPENDIX.
Napier^t do. 6 v. 8vo. ; HenauWa Abridgement of Uie History of France, 3 v. 8va ; SismondVa Histoire des Francais, 25 v. 8vo. ; Thvanua {De TAoti*t) Own Times,
3 V. 2io.; DavUa^a Civil Wars in France, 2 v. 4to.; Sully^s Memoirs, 5 v. ]2ma; Voltaire* a Louis XIV. 2 v. 12ma ; Thiera' French Revolution, 3 v. 8vo. ; JominVa Vie Politique et Militaire de Napoleon, 1 v. 8vo. ; RuaaeWa France, for Schools ; KeighUetfa History of England, 3 v. 6va; Turner* a Anglo Saxons, 2 v. 8vo.; Hume, Smollett and BiaaetVa History of England, 15 v. 8vo. ; Rnpin and TimdaCa do. 5 V. 2io. ; Htnry'a do. 12 v. 8vo. ; HaUanCa Constitutional History of England,
4 V. 8vo. ; Clarendon' a Rebellion, 6 v. 8vo. ; Oodwin^a Commonwealth, 4 ▼. 8va; Southey*» Naval History of England, 1 v. 12mo. ; Maekintoah^a England, 1 v. 8vo. ; Tytler*a Scotland, 7 v. 8vo. ; Moore*a Ireland, 2 v. 12mo. ; RuaaeWs England, for Schools ; Gratia n* a Netherlands, and his Switzerland, eadi I v. 12ma ; Vunham''8 Ciermanic Empire, 3 v. 12ma ; Pfialer*a Histoire de TAllemagne, 10 v. 8va ; SchiU ler'a Thuty Years* War, 2 v. 8vo.; Coxe^a House of Austria, 5 v. 8vo.; Frederick ike OreaVs Own Times, 1 v. 8va ; and his Seven Years* War, 2 v. 8va ; WhemUm*8 History of the Northmen, I v. Sivo. ; Dunkam^a Denmark, Sweden, and Poland, I2mo. (Cab. Cycl.) ; Vertot'a Revolutions in Sweden, 1 v. 8vo. ; VoUaire'a Charles XII. 1 V. l2mo.; Thoke^a Russia, 2 v. 8vo.; Coxe^a Russian Discoveries, and Con- quest of Siberia, 1 v. 4to.; MalUl'^a Northern Antiquities, 2 v. 8va
Ajtuican Chronooraphy. — Irving^ Life and Voyages of Columbus, 3 v. 8vo.; Robertaon'a History of America, 2 v. 8va; Herrera^a G^nered History of America, (to 1725,) 6 V. 8vo.; DeU^ldi'a Antiquities of America, 1 v. 4to.; Ranking* a Re- searches on the Mongol Conquests in America, 1 v. 4to.; BoueheUe^a History and Topography of Canada, 3 v. 4ta; Haliburton^a Nova Scotia, 2 v. 8va; Burke'a European Settlements in America, 2 v. 8vo.; Grahame*a History of the United States, 4 v. 8vo.; Ramaay^a United States, 3 v. 8vo., and his Am. Revolution, 2 V. 8vo.; BanerofVa History of the United States, 3 v. 8vo.; PUkin^a History of the United States, 2 v. Hvo.; MarahaWa Life of Washington, 5 v. Bvo., and
Slates, or 2 v. 8vo.; Bottd'a War of Independence, 3 v. 8vo.; the Madison Papers, v. 8vo.; Brackenridge'a Late War, 1 v. 12mo.; Morton^a New England*s Memo, rial, 1 V. l2mo.; Cooper*a History of the U. S. Navy, 2 v. 8vo.; HaU% Froat^a, and RuaaelVa United States, for Schools; Barbaroux^a Histoire des Etats Unis, 1 V. 18mo.; CaatiUo*a Conquest of Mexico, or New Spain, 2 v. 8va; Mtinos't New World, 1 V. 8vo. ; Clavigero'a Mexico, 3 v. 8va ; Milla* History of Mexico, 2 v. 8va ; Forbea* California, 1 v. 8vo.; Dupa\x*a Palenque, &c., 3 v. 2ia; Lord Kingabo^ rough'' a Antiquities of Mexico, 7 v. 2io.; Jttarroa' Guatemala, 1 v. 8vo.; Edwards' British West Indies, 2 v. 8vo.; Brown* a St Domingo, 2 v. 12mo.; Colombia, 2v. 8vo., (London, 1822); Simon'a Conquistas de Tierra Flrme, 1 v. 4to.; Oviedo^s Conquista de Venezuela, 1 v. 2io. ; Alcedo*a and OareiUuo*a Peru, 1 v. 2io., (Spa- nish); Paxo*a and Nuiiea* United Provinces of La Plata, 1 v. 8vo.; Molina*a His- tory of Chili, 2 V. 8vo.; Southey^a History of Brazil, 3 v. 4ta (The Histories of the different States of our Union, we have no room to name.)
▼U. DEFARTBCKNT — BIOGRAPHT.
Lempriere*a Universal Bio^phy, 2 v. 8va; Blake* a Bibliographical Dictionary,
1 V. 8vo.; PlatVa Universal Biography, chronologically arranged, 5 v. 8va; Prieal- ley* a Chart of Biography; Aikin^a General Biography, 10 v. 4to.; Dictionnaire Univcrselle de Biographic, 52 v. 8vo.; and Supplement, in progress; Mra. Haya* Female Biography, 6 v. 12mo.; Mariin'a Biog. PhiL, or Lives of Philosophers,
2 V. 8vo.; Milizia*a Lives of Architects, 2 v. 8vo.; Cunningham*8 Lives of Eminent Painters and Sculptors, 2 v. 12mo.; SlrvtCa Biographical Dictionary of En. gravers, 2 v. 4to.; BarretVa Alchemystical Philosophers, 8vo.; Godwin*a Necro- mancers, 1 V. 12mo.; Maeg\lliioray*a Zoologists, (to Linnffius,) 12mo.; Celebrated Travellers, 3 v. 12mo., (Fam. Lib.); Clark's Introduction to Heraldry, 1 v. 12mo.; and History of Knighthood, 2 v. 8vo.; Porny*a Heraldry, 1 v. 8vo.; EdmondmnCa Complete Body of Heraldry, 1 v. 2io.; OuiUim^a Heraldry, 1 v. 2io.
EucLAssic Biography. — Lempriere*a Classical Dictionary, 1 v. 8vo.; Ccrmack^a Ancient Philosophers, 2 v. 12mo.; Diogenea Laertiua* Ancient Philosophers, 2 V. 8vo.; NoeVa Dictionnaire des Personnages de T Antiquity, 1 v. 8va; KennU^a Grecian Poets, 1 v. 12mo.; Cruaiua* Roman Poets, 2 v. 12ma; Pluiarch^a Lives, 6 v. 8vo.; Cornelius Nepoa* Excellent Commanders, (chiefly Grecian,) 1 v. 8vo.;
Digitized by
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 551
Quiniut CurtiuB^ Alexander the Great, 2 v. 12ina; Wii/tam** do, 1 v. 12ina, (Fam. Lib.); De La Ihur't Histoire d'Epaminondas, 1 v. ISmo.; Daeier^$ Vie de Pytha^re, 2 v. 12mo.; Xenophoh'$ Memorable Things of Socratefl, 1 v. 12mo.; Middleton^s Life of Cicero, 3 v. 8vo.; Berwick's Scipio Africanus, Valerias, Pom- ponius, and others, 1 v. 8vo.; Suetonius* Lives of the Twelve Ceasars, 1 v. 8vo.; Elton's Roman Emperors, 3 v. 12mo.; Coott's Life of Julius CoBsar, 1 v. 12mo. ; Daeier*s Marcus Antoninus, I v. 8vo.; Herodian's Commodus, 1 v. 12mo.; Fie- chier*s Theodosius, I v. 8vo.; Mahon*s Belisarius, 1 v. 12mo.; Schomberg^s Maece- nas, 1 V. 12mo. (See Christianity, Gen. Hist).
Oriental BiOGRArmr. — BouUiinvilier^s Life of Mahomet, 1 v. 8va; (see Mo- hamedanism); History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat, 1 v. 6vo.; De La Croix's History of Genghiscan, (Jenghis Khan,) 1 v. 8vo.; Memoirs of Baber, (Muham- med,) Emperor of Hindostan, 1 v. 4to.; Memoirs of Abdolkurreem, 1 v. 8vo.; Me- moirs of Ameerood, (Ameer Khan,) 1 v. 8vo.; ScotVs Memoirs of Eradut Khan, 1 V. 4to.; Elliot's Life of Hafiz, (Remut Khan,) 1 v. 8va; Belfour's Life of Hazan, (Mohammed Ali,) 8vo.; History of Hyder Aii, 2 v. 12mo.; Fraser's History of Naider Shah, and the Moghol Emperors, 1 v. 8vo.; DavenporVs Ali Pasha, 1 v. 8vo.
European Bioorapht. — Dover's Eminent Sovereigns of Modern Europe,
1 v. 12mo.; Mrs, Jameson's Female Sovereieiis, 2 v. 12mo.; James' Foreign States- men, 1 v. 12mo., (Cab. Cycl.) ; Roscoe's Italian, Spanish, and German rfovelists, 3 v. 12mo.; Litta's Celebrated Families of Italy, 2 v. 8vo.; (see Christianity, Gen. Hist.); Roscoe's Leo X. 4 v. 8vo., and his Lorenzo de Medici, 3 v. 8vo.; CampbeWs Petrarch, 1 v. 8vo.; Northcote's Titian, 2 v. 8vo.; Duppa's Raffael, 1 v. 8vo., and his Michael Angelo, 1 v.4to.; Farneworth's Machiavel, 2 v. 4to.; Quintana's Cele- brated Spaniards, 2 v. 12mo.; Roscoe's Cervantes, 1 v. 8vo.; Holland's Lope de Vega, 2 V. 12mo.; Turpin's France lUustrd, 6 v. 4to.; James' Charlemagne,
2 v. 18mo. (Fam. Lib.); Norvin's Histoire de Napoleon, 4 v. 8vo.; Memoirs of Sully, 5 V. Svo., and De Retz, 3 v. 8vo.; Life of De Thou, (Thuanus,) 1 v. 8vo.; Condorcel's Life of Turgot, 1 v. 8vo.; Memoirs of Talleyrand, 2 v. 8vo.; Butler's Fenelon, I v. 12mo.; Standish's Voltaire, 1 v. 8vo.; Wain's La Fayette, 1 v. 8va; Camden's Biographia Britannica, 5 v. 2io.; Burke's British Peerage, 1 v. Svo.; British Lawyers, Military and Naval Commanders, Statesmen, Poets, &c., 12ma, (in the Cab. Cyd.) ; Meadley's Algernon Sydney, 1 v. 8vo. ; i^RvLSsell's Cromwell, 2 V. 18mo., (Fam. Lib.); Coxe's Duke of Marlborough, 2 v. 4to.; Wellinf[ton'9 Despatches, 5 v. 8va; Southey's Nelson, 1 v. 12mo.; Wiiber/orce's Life and Cor- respondence, by his Sons, 5 v. 8vo. ; Prior's Burke, 1 v. 8vo.; Brougham's Eminent Statesmen, 2 v. l2mo.; Teignmouth's Sir William Jones, 1 v. 8va; Burnet's Lord Hale, 1 V. 12mo.; Montague's Lord Bacon, 1 v. 8vo.; Gilpin's Iiatimer, 1 v. 8vo.; Scott's Life of T. Scott, 1 v. 12mo.; Heber's Life and Journal, by his Widow, 2 V. 8vo.; Gillies' Whitefield, 1 v. 12mo.; Hutchinson's Biog. Mcdica, (English,) 2 v. Svo. ; BosweU's Johnson, 2 v. 8vo., or 12 v. 12mo.; Prior's Groldsmith, 1 v. 8va; Lachhart's Scott, 2 v. 6vo., and his Burns, 1 v. 12mo.; Brewster's Newton, 1 v. 18mo., (FauL Lib.); Davy's Life, by his Brother, 2 v, 8vo.; Dover's Frederick II. of Prussia, 2 v. 8vo.; Memoirs of Prince Eugene, 1 v. 8vo. ; History of Maurice, Count Saxe, 2 v. 12mo ; Life of Blucher, I v. 8vo.; Bouters' Life of Luuier, I v. 8vo.; Waterman's Life of Csdvin, 1 v. 8vo.; Butler's Erasmus, I v. Svo., and his Grotios,
1 V. 8vo.; Memoirs of Goethe, 2 v. Svo.; Life of Schiller, 1 v. 12mo.; Boerhaave's Life, 1 V. 8vo.; Brown's Northern Courts, 2 v. 8vo.; Harte's Gustavus Adolphufl,
2 V. 8vo.; Meredith's Bemadotte, 1 v. Svo.; Stoever's Linneus, 1 v. 4to.; Palmer's Sobieski, 1 v. 8vo.; History of Stanislaus, 1 v. 12ma; 7btt/iiiin*« Socinus, 1 v. Svo.; Life of Peter the Great, 1 v. iSmo., (Fam. Lib.) ; Tooke's Catharine II., 3 v. Svo.; De La Verne's Souvarof., (Suwarow,) 1 v. 8vo.; Memoirs of Baron De Tott, 2 v. Svo.
American Biography. — Belknap's American Biography, 2 v. Svo. ; Allen's Am. Biographical and Historical Dictionary, 1 v. Svo.; EUiot's Biographical Diction, ary, (of N. England,) 1 v. Svo.; Thatcher's Indian Biomphy, 1 v. ISmo^ (Fam. Lib.); fitoarJfcs* Library of American Biography, 12 v. vimo,;Judson's Signers of the Declaration of Independence, 1 v. Svo.; Weems', Marshall's, and Sparks' Lives of Washington; Sparks' Writings of Washington, 12 v. Svo.; Clarkson's William Penn, 2 vTSvo. ; Wirt's Patrick Henry, 1 v. Svo. ; Tudor's James Otis, 1 v. Svo.; Sparks' Life of Franklin, 2 v. Svo., and Writings, S v. Svo.; Jay's Life, by his
Digitized by
552 APPENDIX.
Son, 2 V. 8va ; Tueher^a JcfTeraon, S ▼. 8va; Randolpk*s CorresDondenoe < M>n, 4 V. 8vo^ and Lee*a Rcmarlu, 1 v. Svo. ; &tark$^ Morris, 3 v. 8to. ;
s ofJefSer-
Gerry, 2 v. 8vo. ; Quincy*t Life, by his Son, I v. 8vo. ; Sedfremek'B Livingston, 1 V. 8vo.; Lee^s Lives of A. and R. H. Lee, 1 v. 8vo. ; Wheaton'a Pinknej, 1 v. 8va ; Johff8on*8 Life of Greene, 2 v. 4ta ; HafniUon*a Life, by his Son, 2 v. 8va ; Ham- phrty*8 Putnam, I v. 12mo. ; Horrtfs and Weems' Marion, each 1 ▼. l2mo.; Amui* Works and Life, 1 v. 8vo. ; Hosack'a De Witt Clinton, 1 v. 4to. ; WiUnnaon'a Me- moirs, 3 v. 8vo. ; Davis* Burr, 2 v. 8vo.; Incidents of President Dwight, I v. ISmo. ; Memoirs of Whcelock, I v. Syo.; Holmet' Life of Stiles, 1 v. 8vo.; Colden's Fulton,
1 V. 8vo.; Barton'a Rittcnhouse, 1 v. 8vo. ; Galfs Life of West, 1 v. 8vo.; HoUieih*s Memoirs of Bolivar, 2 v. 12mo.; Memoirs of Gen. Miller, in Pern, 2 v. 8vo.
VIII. DBPARTMENT— CALLOGRAPHT.
Laharpe^a Cours de Litteratore, 16 v. 8vo.; D*HautpouVa Coiirs de Litt^ratnre,
2 V. 12mo. ; SismondVa Literature of the South of Europe, 4 v. 8vo. ; F. SchlegeVa History of Literature, Ancient and Modem, 2 v. 8vo. ; Dunlop'a History of Fie tion, 3 V. l2mo.
EucLAssic Callographt. — Valpy's Family Classical Library, 52 v. ]2ma, or Harpers* Reprints; Homer^a Iliad, and his Odyssey, both tr. fcr^ Pope, and by Cowper ; HeaioiPa Works, tr. by Cooke, 1 v. 12mo. ; JEschylua* Tragedies, tr. by Potter, 2 V. 12roo. ; Sophoclea* Tragedies, fr. by Francklin, 2 v. I2mo. ; Euripidea' Tragedies, tr. by Potter, 3 v. 12mo. ; WesVa Pmdar, 2 v. 12mo. ; Fawkea' Theocri- tus, 1 V. 8vo. ; Xenophon^a Cyropaedia, tr. by Astley, 1 v. 8vo. ; Demosthenea* Ora- tions, tr. by Leland, 2 v. 12ma; Collectanea Greca Minora, 1 v. 8vo^ and Ma. jora, 2 v. 8vo. ; VirgiVs JBneid, tr. by Dryden ; and his Georgics, tr. by Sothobj ; Luean*a Pharsalia, tr. by Rowe, 1 v. l2mo. ; Horace*a Poems, tr. by Dr. Francis, S V. 18mo. ; Ovid' a Metamorphoses, tr. by Dryden, 2 v. 12mo.; JuvenaVa Satires, tr. by Gifford, 2 v. 8vo. ; Terenee^a Comedies, tr. by Colman, 1 v. 8va ; Cieero^a Ora- tions and Epistles, tr. by Guthrie, 2 v. 8va ; Pliny'a Epistles, tr. by Mefanoih, 2 V. 12mo.
Oriental Callographt. — The Moallakat, (Arabian Poems,) see Sir W. Jones* Works, 4to.; the Arabian Nights* Entertainments, tr. by Lane, 3 v. 8vo.; Sody'a Gulistan, tr. by Gladwin, 1 v. 8vo. ; FerdoaVa Poems, tr. by Champion, 1 v. 4ta ; D'oollah'a Bahar Danuch, tr. by Scott, 1 v. 12mo.; the Tooti Nameh, 1 v. 8vo.; Bakhtier Nameh, I v. 12mo. ; MorreWa Tales of the Genii, 1 v. l2ino. ; Weber'a Tales of the East, 3 v. 8vo. ; NizamVa Laila and Majnoon, 1 v. 8v.; the Bhagvat Geeta, tr. by Wilkins, 1 v. 4to. ; Viahnu Sarman'a Hitopadesa, and Calidaa* Sacon- tala, tr. by Jones, 1 v. 4to.; Kinderaleifa Hindoo Literature, 2 v. 8vo. ; the Fortunate Union, 1 v. 12mo. ; the Orphan of China, 1 v. 12mo.
European Callograpjiv. — SiamondVa Literature of the South of Europe, 4 V. 8vo. ; Dante^a Divina Commcdia, tr. by Cary, 3 v. l2mo. ; Taaad'a Jerusalem Delivered, tr. by Wiffen, 2 v. 12mo.; Taaao'a Aminta, 1 v. l2ino.; GuarinVa Pas- tor Fido, 1 V. 12mo. ; Arioalo'a Orlando Furioso, tr. by Rose, 4 v. 8vo. ; Petrareh*M Rime, 2 v. 8vo., and his Triumphs, tr. by Boyd, l2mo. ; the Chronicle of the Cid, tr. by Southcy, 1 v. 4to. ; Cervantes' Don Quixotte, tr. by Smollett, 4 v. 12mo. ; Camoena^ Lusiad, tr. by Micklc, 2 v. 12mo. ; ViUemaiii'a Cours de Litt^rature Fran^aise, 2 v. 8vo, ; VoUaire^a Henriad, tr. by Smollett, 1 v. 12mo. ; Racine, Cor- neille, and Molierc ; Dulard, Le Brun, and Lamartine ; Fenelon*a Telemachua, 1 V. 12ma; Le Sage'a Gil Bias, 4 v. 12mo.; Si. Pierre^a Paul and Virginia, 1 V. 12mo.; Aikin^a Letters on Englfsh Poetry, 1 v. 12mo.; Southey, Aikin, and Frost's Select British Poets, 3 v. 8vo. ; Spenoer*8 Fairy Queen, 5 v. 8vo. ; MiUon*M Paradise Lost, 1 v. 8vo. ; Pope^a Poetical Works, 1 v. 8vo. ; Thomaon*a Seaaona, I V. 12ma ; Young^a Night Thoughts, 1 v. 12ino. ; Cowpera Poems, I v. 8vo. ; CampbeWa Poems, 1 v. 12mo. ; Rogera* Poems, 1 v. 8vo. ; Buma' Poems, 1 v. 8vo. ; WordatDoHh^a Poems, 1 v. 8vo. ; ScotCa Poems, 1 v. 8vo. ; Byron'a Select Poems, 1 V. 8vo.; Soutfiey^a Poems, I v. 8vo. ; Skokapeare; Richardaon^a Clarissa, 7 V. 12mo.; Johnaon'a Rassclas, 1 v. 12mo.; GaldamitlCa Vicar of Wakefield, 1 v. l2mo. ; Mackenzie' a Man of Feeling, 2 v. l2mo. ; Mrs. Radeliffe^a Mysteries of Udolpho, 2 V. 12mo. ; Miaa Edgeumth'a NoveU, 10 v. 12mo. ; Miaa Porter^a Scottish Chiefs, 2 v. 12mo. ; Sir Walter ScotVa Novels, 27 v. 12mo., or 5 v. 8vo. ; Bulver^a Rienzi, Pompeii, and Athens, each 2 v. 12mo. ; Jamea' Novels, 12mo. ; The Specta-
Digitized by
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 553
tor, 8 V. 12mo., or 2 v. 8vo.; The Tatlcr, 6 v. 12mo.; The Rambler, 3 v. 12mo.; The Gaardi&n, 3 v. 12mo.; Broum's British Cicero, or Selections of Speeches, 3 V. 8vo.; Klop8tock*8 Messiah, 2 v. 12mo.; Goethe's Herman and Dorothea, 1 V. l-2mo.;Schiller*8 Wallenstein, 1 v. 12mo.; Goethe^a Faust, 1 v. l2mo.; Pesta. lozzVs Lienhardt and Gertrude, I v. 12mo. ; Edwards and Park's Selections from German Literature, 3 v, 12mo. ; MenizeVs German Literature, 3 v. 12mo. ; Taylor'' s German Poetry, 3 v. 8vo. ; Bowring's Specimens of Russian Poets, 2 v. 12mo.
American Caixograpiiy. — ^The Poets of America Illustrated, 1 v. 12mo. ; Bar- low* sColnmhiBLd, 2 v. 12mo.; Diri^Af'tfC-onqucst of Canaan, 1 v. 12mo.; TrvmbuU's Mc Fingal, 1 v. 8vo. ; PercivaCs Poems, I v. 8vo. ; Halleck's Poems, 1 v. 8vo. ; Bryant's Poems, 1 v. 12mo. ; Mrs. Sigourney'8 Poems, I v. 12mo. ; Willis' Poems, 1 V. I2mo. ; Hillhouse's Tragedies, 1 v. 12mo. ; Sprague's Writingrg, 1 v. 8vo. ; Dana's Buccaneer, 2 v. 12mo. ; Pier font's Airs of Palestine, 1 v. 12mo. ; Long- felUnt's Voices of the Night, 1 v. limo. ; Brown's Wieland ; and his Ormond, each 2 v. I2mo. ; Cooper's Novels, 12mo. ; Bird's Novels, 12mo. ; Kennedy's Novels, I2mo. ; Irving's Works, I2mo. or 8vo.; Miss Sedgewick's Writmgs, 12mo.; Webster's Speeches, 1 v. 8vo. ; E, Everett's Speeches, ] v. 8vo.; Dr, Channing's Discourses and Reviews, 8vo. ; Williston's Eloquence of the United SUtes, 5 v. 8vo.
THIRD PROVINCE.— PHYSICONOMY.
General Works. — HuUon's Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary, 2 v. 4to. ; Mrs. SomerviUe's Connexion of the Physical Sciences, 1 v. 8vo. ; Young's £!ssay on the Powers and Mechanism of Nature, 1 v. 8vo. ; Gregory's Economy of Nature, 3 v. 8vo. ; Delafond's Dictionary of the Wonders of Nature, 1 v. 12mo. ; Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences, 3 v. 8vo.; Reports of the British As- sociation, 10 V. 8va
IX. DEPAHTMENT. — MATHEMATICS.
Montucla's Histoire dea Mathematiques, 4 v. 4to. ; Bossut's History of Mathe- matics, 1 V. 8vo. : Dupin's Mathematics Practically Applied, I ▼. 8vo. ; Mutton's Mathematics, 1 v. 8vo. ; Davies' Mathematical Works, 8vo. ; Lacroix's Mathe- matical Works, 8vo. ; Bourdon's Works, 8vo. ; Young's Mathematics, 8vo. ; Ore- gory's Mathematics for Practical Men, 1 v. 8vo. ; Barrow's Mathematical Lectures, 1 v. 8vo. ; Simms on Mathematical Instruments, 1 v. 8vo.
Arithmetic. — Colbum's, Smith's, Keith's, Green's, and-Davies* Arithmetics, and Emerson's First, Second, and Third Parts, for Schools ; Leslie's Philosophy of Arithmetic, 1 v. 8vo. ; Legendre's ITieorie des Nombres, 1 v. 4to. ; Bezout's Arithmetique, 1 v. 8vo. ; Bonny castle's Arithmetic, I v. 8vo. ; White's Mental Arith- metic, 1 V. 8vo.; Hassler's Arithmetic, 1 v. 12mo.; Barlow's Theory of Numbers, 1 V. 8vo. ; Butler's Arithmetical Questions, 1 v. 12mo. ; Burritt's Multiplier, or In- terest Tables, 1 V. 18mo. ; Rowlet's Interest Tables, 1 v. 4to. ; Crelle's Rechentafebi, (Multiplication and Division Tables,) 2 v. 8vo.
AiiOEBRA. — Bailey's, Colburn's, Harney's, Bridge's, and Davies' Algebras for Schools ; Newton's Arithmetica Universalis, I v. 8vo. ; Clairaut's Elemens d' Al- gebre, 1 v. 8vo.; Maclaurin's Algebra, 1 v. 8vo.; Simpson's Algebra, 1 v. 8vo.; Euler's Elements of Algebra, 2 v. 8vo. ; Lacroix's Algebra, 1 v. 8vo. ; Davies' Bourdon's Algebra, 1 v. 8vo. ; Day's Algebra, 1 v. 8vo. ; Young's Algebra, edited by Ward, I v. 8vo.* ; Meier Hersch's Algebraic Problems, 1 v. 8vo. ; Brigg's Arith- metica Logarithmica, and Trigonometria Britannica, 1 v. 4to. ; Taylor's Loga- rithmic Tables, 1 v. 4to. ; Callet's Tables, 3 v. 8vo. ; Hassler's Tables of Loga- rithms, 1 V. 12mo.; Vega's Logarithms to 10 places, 1 v. 2io.; Bagay's Tables Astronomiques, (with Log. sines, &c. for each second), 1 v. 4to. ; Westphal's Lo- garithmische Tafeln, 1 v. 4to. ; Dobson'n Anti-logarithmic Canon, 1 v. 2io. ; La- croix's Calcul des Probabilities, 1 v. 8vo.; De Morgan's Treatise on Probabilities, 1 V. 12mo.
Geometry.— WaZJfcer'tf, Grund^s and Bonnycastle's Geometries for Schools ; ^ti- elid't ~ - - - -. - ^ ~ . ^ . .
4to.; Geometry,
Digitized by
554 APPENDIX.
1 ▼» 12mo. ; Pieret's Plane and Solid Geometry, 1 ▼. 12mo. ; Gregwy'a Practical Geometry, 1 v. 8vo. ; Young'a Elements of Geometry, 1 v. 8vo. ; HutUm's Mensura- tion, 1 V. 8vo. ; Ballard's Gauging Unmasked, 1 v. 8vo. ; Hawnetfe Mensuration, 1 V. 12mo. ; Monges^ Gi^oractric Descriptive, 1 v. 4to. ; CtozeCs Descriptive Geome- try, 1 V. bvo. ; Davies^ Descriptive Geometry, 1 v. 8vo. ; Darsies* Perspective, Shades and Shadows, 1 v. 8vo.; Jopling*8 Isoperimetrical Perspective, 1 v. 8va ; Adams* Geometrical and Graphical Essays, 1 v. 8vo. and plates.
Anctlom ETRT. — Biot''B Analytic Geometry, ed. by Davies, 1 v. 8vo. ; Farrar*8 Analytical Geometry, 1 v. 8vo. ; YiMng''B Analjrtical Geometir, I v. 8vo. ; Leslie^s Geometrical Analysis, 1 v. 8vo. ; Simpsmi'a Geometry, and Construction of Pro. blems, 1 v. 8vo. ; Simp$on*$ Trigonometry, 1 v. 8va ; Legendre^a Trigonometry, (in Davies* Geom.) 1 v. 8vo. ; Haaalar^a Trigonometry, 1 v. l2mo. ; Grtgortfa 1 rigo- nometry, 12mo. (London) ; Peirce*a Trigoncmietry, 1 v. 8vo. ; Kelly* a Spherics, 1 y. 8vo. ; Simpaon*s Conic Sections, 1 v. 8vo. ; RobertaofCa Conic Sections, 1 v. 8vo. ; PeaeocWa Conic Sections, 1 v. 8vo. ; Bridge's Conic Sections, I v. 8vo. ; Laenrix*M Application de TAlgebre ^ Geometric, 1 v. 8vo. ; Gummere*a Stirveying, 1 v. 8vo. ; Da-oies* Surveying, 1 v. 8vo. ; Flint's Surveying, 1 v. 8vo. ; Jamitson'a Treatise on the Construction of Maps, 1 v. 8va ; EastmarCs Topography, 1 v. 8vo.
Rheometry. — Newton's Method of Fluxions, 1 v. 4to. ; Simpson^s Treatise on Fluxions, I V. 8vo. ; Maclaurin^s Treatise of Flujcions, 2 v. 4ta ; Landen^s Residual Analysis, 1 v. 4to.; Saunderson'a Method of Fluxions, 3 v. 8vo. ; Cousin'a Le<^ons de Calcul Diff. et Integral, 2 v. 8vo. ; Waring^s Meditationes Analyticae, 1 v. 4io.; Vinct*a Principles of Fluxions, 1 v. 8vo. ; Laeroix Traits du Calcul, &c. 3 v. 4ta ; and Traits Elementaire, 1 v. 8va ; Legendre^s Exercises sur le Calcul Integral, 3 v. 4ta; Lagrange's Lemons sur le Calcul des Fonctions, I v. 8va; Lagrange^B Thterie des Fonctions Analytiques, 1 v. 4to. ; EuUrs' Introduction It TAnalyse In. finitesimal, 2 v. 4to. ; CkirnoCs Reflexions sur la Metaphysique du Calcul Infini. tesimal, 1 v. 8vo. ; Woodhouse on Isoperimetrical Problems and the Calculus of Variations, 1 v. 8vo. ; BoucharlaVs Calcul Diff. et Int 1 v. 8vo. ; Farrar's DiC and Integral Calculus, 1 v. 8vo.; Dames' Calculus, 1 v. 8vo.; Vottng^t Diffe- rential Calculus, and his Integral Calculus, each 1 v. 8vo.; Meier Herack^9 Tables, 1 v. 8vo.
X. DEPARTIIENT. — ACROPHYSICS.
Gencral Works. — Newton^s PhilosophisB Naturalis Pnncipia Mathematica, edited by Leseur and Jacquier, 4 v. 8vo.; HerseheWs Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, 4 v. 12mo. ; AmoiVs Elements of Physics, general and medi- cal, 2 V. 8va ; BiaCs Traite de Physique, 4 v. 8vo. ; PouHUVs fUements de Physique et de Metdorologie, 4 v. 8va ; Person* s Physique, 8vo. in progress ; Euler^s Let. ters on Natural Philosophy, 2 v. 12mo. ; Robison's System of Mechanical Philoso. phy, 4 V. 8vo. ; Oregory's Natural Philosophy, 2 v. 8va ; CavaUo's Elements of Nat or E2xperimental Philosophy, 2 v. 8vo. ; Adams* Lectures on Nat Philosc^y, 5 V. 8va ; Farrar*s Ck>urse, 4 v. 8va ; Olmsted's Natural Philosophy, 2 v. 8vo. ; Young*s Natural Philosophy, 2 v. 4ta or 1 v. 8vo.; Johnson's Scientific Class Book, 3 ▼. 12mo. ; Mrs. MareeVs Conversations on Natural Philosophy, edited by Blake and Jones ; and Grund*s, Comstock's^ Blair*s, and Olmsted's for Schools.
Mechanics. — Wallis* Mechanica, 1 v. 4to.; EtUer*s Mechanica, 2 v. 4ta; Emerson* t Principles of Mechanics, 1 v. 8vo.; Atwood on Rectilineal and Rotary Motion, 1 V. 8vo. ; Ferguson*s Lectures on Mechanics, 2 v. 8vo. ; Bridge*8 Me- chanics, 1 v. 8vo. ; Vinct*8 Mechanics, 1 v. 8vo. ; Gregory's Mechanics, 3 v. 8va ; Farrar*s Mechanics, 1 v. 8vo.; Renu)iek*s Mechanics, 1 v. 8vo.; Young^t Mechanics, 1 v. 8vo. ; MUlington's Mechanics, 1 v. 8vo. ; Boueharlat*s Mechanica, tr. by Courtenay, 1 v. 8vo.; Franeoeur*s Traits Elementaire de M^canique, 1 T. 8vo. ; Pronij's Le9onB de M^canique Analy tique, 2 v. 4to. ; Lagrange's Mtea. nique Analytique, 2 v. 4to. ; Poisson's Traite de Mteanique, 2 v. 8vo. ; Kater*s Mechanics, and Lardner*s Hydrostatics and Pneumatics, each 1 v. 12mo., (Cab. CycL) ; Jameson's Mechanics of Fluids, 1 v. 8vo. ; Pierce's Acoustics, 1 ▼. 8va
Astronomy. — Blake* s, Grund'Sy and Olmsted's Astronomies for Schools; BurritVs Geopaphy of the Heavens, (for Schools,) 1 v. I2mo. and Atlas ; Mrs, Somerville*s IVlechanism of tlie Heavens, 1 v. 18mo. ; BaiUy's Histoire de TAstro- nomie Ancienne et Moderne, 4 v. 4to.; Ptolmey's Magna Constructio, (Alma-
Digitized by
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 555
gest) 2 V. 2io. ; Newton^ a System of the World, 1 v. 8va ; Z>. Gregory's Elements of Astronomy, 2 v. 8vo. ; FergusoiCs Astronomy made easy, 1 v. 8vo. ; Bonny- caatU*$ Introduction, 1 v. 8vo. ; O. Gregory*B Treatise on Astronomy, 1 v. 8vo. ; Ftnce't Astronomy, 3 y. 4to. ; Woodhouse^B Astronomy, 2 v. 8vo. ; Delambre*9 Astronomie, 3 y. 4to. ; La Landers Astronomic, 3 y. 4to. ; Francoeur*8 Uranogra- phie, 1 y. 8ya; and Astronomie Pratique, 1 y. Byo.; La Plact'a Systeme du Monde, 5 y. 4to ; and his M^canique Celeste, tr. by Bowditch, 4 y. 4to. ; Her- aeheW$ Astronomy, 1 y. 12rao.; Brinckley'a Astronomy, 1 v. 8yo. ; Gummerf*e^ Norton's, and Olmsted's Astronomies, 1 v. 8yo. for Colleges ; Pearson's Practical Astronomy, 3 v. 4to. ; Mason's Practical Astronomy, I v. Uvo. ; Santim's Element! di Astronomia, 2 y. 4ta ; Mayer's and Maskelyne's Tables and Catalogues ; The Nautical Almanac ; the Yahrbuck, and the Connaissance des Temps, each 8vo. (continued annually); BesseVs Tabuls Regiomontanse, 1 y. 8yo. ; Beer and Maedler's Selenographia, 1 v. 4to. with Map ; Bode's Uranographia, 2 y. 2io. ; London Astron. Society's Transactions; Littrow's Astronomical Works, and Skumaeher*s da
Optics. — De Dominis de Radiis Visus et Lusis, 1 y. 2io. ; Kepler^s Dioptrica, 1 y. 4to.; Baptisia Porta's Magia Naturalis, 1 v. 2io.; Kireher^s Ars Magna Lncis et Umbne, 1 y. 2io.; Newton's Optics, 1 y. 4to.; Bovguer^'s Trait6 d*Optique, I y. 4to. ; Smithes Complete System of Optics, 2 v. 4to. ; Priestly on Vision, Li^ht, and Colours, 1 y. 4to. ; Adams on the Microscope, 1 y. 8yo. and Atlas ; and on Vision, 1 y. 8yo. ; Maevicar's Inquiries concerning Light, 1 v. 8yo.; Farrar*s Optics, 1 y. 8yo.; Brewster's Optics, edited by Badie, 1 y. 12ma; BartUWs Optics, 1 y. 8vo. ; Coddin^n^s Optics, 1 y. 8yo. ; Lloyd on Light and Vision, 1 y. 8yo. ; HerseheWs Treatise on Light, 1 v. 12mo. ; Young's Cities, 1 y. 8yo. ; DeUzenne^s Notes sur la Polarization, I y. 8yo.
Ceraunics. — Franklin's Experiments and Obseryations on Electricity, 1 y. 4ta ; Priestley's History of Electricity, 1 y. 4to. ; Beecaria on Artificial Electricity,
1 y. 4to. ; CavaUo on Electricity, 3 y. 8yo. ; Cuthbertson's Practical Electricity and Galyanism, ] v. 8yo. ; Singer's Elements, I y. 8yo. ; Thompson's Outline of Electricity and Heat, 1 y. 8yo. ; Farraday's Experimental Researches, 1 y. 8yo. ; BeequerelSur L*Electricit^, &4i^ 7 v. 8vo. ; Bostoek*s History of Galyanism, I y. 8yo. ; GiloerVs Physiologia de Magnete, 1 v. 4to. ; MicheU on Artificial Magnets, 1 y. 8yo.; CavaUo on Magnetism, 1 ▼. 8yo. ; Brewster's Mafirnetisin, 1 y. I2mo. ; Scmreshy's Magnetical Investigations, 1 v. 8yo. ; Barlow's Magnetical Attractions, 1 v. 8ya ; Gauss' De Magnete, 1 y. 8yo. ; Roget on Electro-Magnetism, (Lib. of Use. Knowl.) ; Sturgeon's Electro-Magnetism, 1 v. 8yo. ; and his Annals, (periodical) ; Leslie's Experimental Inquiry on Heat, 1 y. 8yo. ; Lardner's Treatise on Heat, 1 y. 12mo. ; Redjield on American Storms, 1 y. 8yo. ; Heidi's Law of Storms, 1 y. 4ta ; Dalton'o Meteorological Essays, 1 v. 8yo. ; Daniels' Meteorology, 1 y. 8vo. ; Forster's Die tionary erf" do., 1 y. 8yo.; Espv's Philosophy of Storms, 1 y. 8yo.
Chemistry. — Comstock's, Lincoln's, Jones' (New Conversations,) GruntPs, and Gale's, for Schools; Boerhaave's Chemistry, I y. 4to.; Lavoisier's Elements,
2 y. 8yo.: Davy's Chemical Philosophy, and his Agricultural Chemistry, each 1 y. 8yo. ; Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 1 v. 8yo. ; Thomson's History of Chemis- try, 2 y. 12mo. ; and Chemistry of Organic Bodies, 2 y. Svo. ; rurner** Chemistry, 1 y. 8vo. or 12mo. ; Faraday's Chem. Manipulation, 1 v. 8vo. ; Berselius' Traits de Chimie, 8 y. 8yo. ; including Use of the Blowpipe, 1 v. 8yo. ; Chriffin on the Blow- pipe, 1 y. 18ma ; Dumas' Chimie, 5 v. 8yo. ; Rose's Analytical Chemistry, 1 y. 8yo.; Berthier's Analyse par la voie seche, 2 y. 8vo. ; Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy, 1 v. 8vo. ; Hare's Elements, I v. Svo. ; Silliman's Elements, 2 v. 8yo. ; Webster's Chemistry, I y. 8ya; Beck's Manual, 1 y. 12mo.; Renwick*s fUements, 1 y. 12mo. ; Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 1 y. Svo.
XI. DEPARTMENT IDIOPHTSICS.
Good's Book of Nature, 1 y. 8yo.; White's Natural History of Selbome, 1 y. 12mo.; Aikin's Natural History of the Year, 1 v. 12mo.; Blumenbaeh's Ele- ments of Natural History, 1 y. 8vo ; Goldsmith's History of the Earth and Ani- mated Nature, 3 y. 8yo. ; Buffon's Natural History, 12 y. 8yo. ; or abridged in 5 y. OP 2 v.; Linnaus' System of Nature, tr. by Turton, 7 y. Svo.; Mudie's Popular Guide, 1 y. 12mo. ; SmeUie's Philosophy of Natural History, 1 y. 8vo. ; Brown's
Digitized by'
£56 AFrKXMX.
Tajr^.nnT, 'on f^v^parin^ wprntnrw^, 1 t. Hbol; DiiriMBiiii Al* S<ifce» Na- tor- ^ ■«, *^i T. "^o.
B<r7A%r.^£«irWa'«, Blakyg, and CMw'ari's, fer Scfeau; WiWru9m^9 linwi f$pr.ei^-a FbAUrum. J v. ^-rot ; ajvl Introd^ct>Da to Botaar. 1 r. ?vo. ; De Cmnidif^m U^riv.tU of thf: ytMiUjmr/f.j of PUnU, 2 T. '^ol; JmsMum't Gtnexm PlaatanBB,
2 r. 'Tto, ; LtndU^'B Intrvi'M'tMn V> the Natural Sfjatftm, 1 r. ^o.; SUH'b Sqeace of Botaaj, 1 t. 12i3o.; 6rV«y« Botanr, 1 ▼. l^now; XmUmlTt Botaaj, 1 t. 12bhl; /.««*• hfAzitj, 1 T. ^'.o.; Cmdrnm'* Eocjciapmdia, of Plaata, 1 t. evo.; Emtm'm ManaaJ of I^^nj. 1 t. I^om.; />f CmrnddUT* Prodramiift S^alenatk Nalaialia, in prorr* m, ; hm4iukrr*t OerMcra PlanUrara kc Ord. NaL 2 v. txa, ; Mie^mx" XoftJb Am^ncaa Hytva, 4 r. '^o.; Brmmm^t SrHa Amerieaiia, or ForsI Trees «f the U. MaX^^. I ▼. ^To.; Bmn^m'f BoCaikr. 1 tI rrow; and his Floim Amoicana, 3 t.4Io.; Eat^m and Wright** North Aiupncan BoUnj, I w. 6tol; SmiimWt G^aom of North Ainerican Plant*, i! r, l^ino. ; Torrey't and Grmf9 Floia of the Nortfacrm and Middle ?^te«, 2 t, rfro.; Bigtlmc't American Mtdical Botanj, 3 r. 4tOL; Bmr- Un'B do^ 2 r. 4to. ; ELlUtCt BtAMny of th# Southern Sutea, 2 x'. oto. ; ibehmmx* Flora Ajnericana, 2 t. )?to. ; Pmnch'g do^ 2 t. ^ttol
Zoounr.. — Triwnmer^M Natural Hi«torj, fat Scfaoob; BiagUy't Annnal Biopim- phjr, 3 r, ^to. ; 8imt*9 General Zoolo^, 6 ▼. 8tol ; PUmumg'a Fhiloaopbj of Zoofe. fjf 1 T. 8ro.; Cvrirr'tf Animal Kin^^doia, fM^Mortrie** trmuiatiaB,) 4 t. Sm,: CameT*9 R^jrne Animal, illaatratf.d, in proficaa; and fan Owinma Foonlea, 10 r. ero. ; GUdfuBti' Fetre&dcn, 'Ger^) 2 r. 2ioL ; Pmrkuuom'9 Organic Rnnann,
3 V. 4to, ; BuekUnd on Orjranic Remains. 1 r. 4ta ; Coara^a Foa^ of the Medial Tertiary of the U. S^ 1 ▼. isxo.; Gankti<i of the Zoological aocietj, 2 r. 8fo.; Bewiek'9 General Hietory of Qaidrnpeds, 2 r. ^o. ; or Peimaaf^a doi, 2 t. 4to. ; Godman'9 American Natural History, 3 r. 8to.; H9rlmm*9 Fanaa Americuia, f American Qiiadruprds,) 1 t. ^va; Mo9i*fu*9 Ornithological Dictionafy, 1 t. 8tol; Le99on'i Omithoio|rie, 2 v. 8vo.; Latkom'9 General Synopsis of Krda, 10 ▼. 4tou; Wil9on'9 American Ornitholofry, 9 ▼. 2io.; and Boiiaparte*s Supplement, 4 t. 21a ; GoodrickU Abridgment of Wilson, 1 ▼. l2mou; AttdubamU Birds of America,
4 r, 2io.; and Ornithological Biography, 5 t. Sra; NuUaW9 Onufhokgy of the V. Sutcr, 2 ▼. Hvo. ; Temminck't Omitholoine, (Fr^) in progreas ; DvmmmmU Natmal History of British Fishes, 5 v. 8vo. ; Bioch'9 Ichthiokwy, 9 ▼. 2ioL, (Ger.) ; AMm99ix^ Poissons Fonsiles, in progress, 2io.; Cuvier and FaZencieiuie's iCsL NaL dea Poissons, 20 t Hvo, ; Aga99it' Poissons d'Ean Donee, 1 ▼. 2ia ; Smia'9 Fiafaea of Massachusetts, 1 v. I'ioio.; Holbrook^9 North American Herpetology, 5t. 4t0L; Crcuek*9 Introduction to Lamarck's Conchology, 1 t. 4to.; Ijammra^9 Animaox sans Vcrtebrcs, 10 ▼. 8vo.; IVyott's Manual of Conchology, 1 v. 8va; Con. rad*« Unionidie, 2 t. 8va ; Haldeman'9 Limniades, I ▼. 8vo. ; Gtaffr9^9 Histoire dee In<iectcs, 2 v. 4to. ; Fahrieuu^ Entomology, (Geromn,) 5 v. Svol ; JCirfty and Spenee't History of Insects, 4 t. 8ya ; Say's Entomology, 3 v. 8tow ; H^ealvoo^a Entomology, 1 v. 8to.
MiFneaALOGT^ — Conversations on Mineralogy, and ComaioekU Mineralogy, lor Schools ; AfoAt* Treatise of Mineralogy, 3 ▼. 8vo. ; Hauy*9 Traits de Mineralo-
r'e, 5 V. 6vo.; Werner on Fossilii, 1 v. &ro,; Kirwan*9 Elements of Mineralogy, V. 8vo. ; Jame9on'9 System of Mineralogy, 3 r. 8vo. ; PAtiips* Introduction, and his Outline of Minerau)gy and G«ology, each 1 v. 12mo.; T^lomaoa's Outline of GeologT, Mineralogy, and Chemical Analysis, 2 t. 8 vo. ; UreU Dictiooary, see under Chemistry ; CUavfland'9 Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology, 2 t. 8vo, Shepard*t Descriptive Mineralogy, 2 v. 8vo.; Dana*9 Mineralogy, 1 ▼. 8fo.; Sowerbif^9 British Mineralogy, 5 ▼. 8va ; Robin9on*9 Catalogue of Am. Minerals, 1 ▼. 8vo.; PinkerUm*» Petraloiry, a Treatise on Rocks, 2 ▼. 8voi ; Allan'9 Mine. raloflTi 1 V. 8vo.; BeudavVa Mineralogie, 2 y. 8vo.; BrtUkaupC9 Mineralogy, (Ger.) 2 v. 8vo. ; Del Rio'e Orictognosia, (Span.) 2 v. 8to.
GcoLooY. — Com9toek% Mather^ or HilchcockU Geology, for Schools ; LueW9 Elementary Geology, 1 y. 12mo. ; HutUm'$ Theory of the Earth, 2 y. 8yo. ; Play. fair'a Geology, 1 v. 6vo. ; Humlidldi''9 Geognostical Essay on the Superposition of Rocks, 2 V. bvo. ; Cuviefe Essay on the Theory of the Earth, 1 y. 8ya ; and his Discourse on the Revolutions, ^, I v. ]2mo.; BakeweW9 Introduction to Geolo- gy, 1 V. 8vo.; BucklanfTi Geology and Mineralogy, 2 y. Svo.; De La BecAe*s (teological Manual, 1 v. 8vo.; his How to obserye Geology, 1 v. Idmo.; and his
Digitized by
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Geological Essays, I v. 8vo. ; LyeWt Principles of Geology, 2 v. 8vo. ; ManteWt Wonders of Geology, 2 v. 12mo.; MaeuUoch*s System of Geology, 2 v. 8vo.; Phil- lipt* Geology, 2 v. l2mo. ; De BeaumotWt Description GeoL de la France, 2 v. 8vo.; Conybeare and PhiUipt' (Seology of England and Wales, 2 v. 8vo. ; Murchison'a Silurian System, 2 v. 4to. ; HUchcoek^9 Surrey of Massachusetts, 1 v. tivo. ; JacA;. son's, Roger $\ and other Surveys ; Maclure't Observations, 1 v. 8vo. ; Dauheny*s Description of Volcanoes, 1 v. ^o. ; Boa$e^» Primary Geology, 1 v. 8vo. ; BrontCs Lethea Gieognostica, 2 v. 4to.
XII. DEPARTMSNT — AKDR0PHT8ICS.
Oknxral Works. — For6e« and C(moUy*s Medical Dictionary, 4 v. 8vo. ; R^per toire des Sciences Medicales, in projerress ; Hooper' 9 Medical Dictionary, 1 v. 8vo.; Dungl\9on^t Medical Lexicon, or Dictionary, 1 v. 8vo. ; Blaek'8 Historical Sketch of Medicine and Surgery, 1 v. 8vo.; SprengeV$ Histoire de Medicine, 7 v. 8vo.; CabanVg Revolutions of Medical Science, 1 v. 8vo. ; Priehard'» Researches into the Physical History of Man, 2 v. 8vo. ; Combe* $ Constitution of Man, 1 v. 12mo. ; Hotaek't Lecture on Medical E>lucation, 1 v. 8vo. ; Beck*9 Medical Jurisprudence, 2 V. 8vo. ; OrJUaU Medicine Legale, 2 v. 8vo.
Amdronomt. — AlcotVa House I live in, GrUcom^t Animal Mechanism, and Smiih't Class Book of Anatomy, for Schools ; /feyioarcTs, Coatea\ or Conuioek^B Physiology, for Schools ; BeW» Anatomy, 2 v. Svo., and Engravings ; Wttter*s System ^Anatomy, 2 v. 8vo. ; Homer* 9 Special Anatomy, 2 v. 8vo., and Practical Anatomy, 1 v. 8vo. ; PaxtoiCs Anatomy, 2 v. 8vo. ; the London Dissector, or Guide to Anatomy, 1 v. 12ino.; CloqueVo Anatomie de I'Homme, 5 v. 2io.; Monro*9 Anatomy and Physiology, 3 v. 8vo. ; Biehafs Anatomy and Physiology, 4 v. 8vo.; OUver*9 Physiology, 1 v. 8va ; Boatock^o Physiology, 3 v. 8vo. ; Mugendie's Phy
sidogy, 1 V. 8vo. ; DunglieorCt Physiology, 2 v. 8vo. ; RieheramPa Physiology,
1 V. 8vo. ; Barclay*9 Inquiry concernin&r Life and Organization, 1 v. 8vo. ; Dar^ wifC9 Zoonomia, 2 v. 8va ; Combe*9 Physiology, 1 v. 8vo. j MuHer^9 Physiology,
2 V. 8va ; Bailey*9 Morbid Anatomy, 1 v. 2io. ; BeU on the Brain, 1 v. 4to. ; Gall and Spurxk§im*9 Anatomic du Cerveau, &.C., 4 v. 4to., and plates ; Mackenzie on the Eye, 1 v. 8va; Kramer on the Ear, 1 v. 8vo.; Goddard on the Nerves,
1 V. 4to. ; Laennee on the Chest, 1 v. 8vo. ; Dougku on the Muscles, 1 v. 8vo. ; Goddard on the Arteries, 1 v. 4ta; W%lliam9 on the Lungs, 1 v. 8vo.; Hope on the Heart, 1 v. 8vo. ; HuiUer on the Blood, 1 v. 8vo. ; Boyer on the Bones, 1 v. 8vo. ; Brodie on the Joints, 1 v. 8vo. ; Rueh on the Voice, 1 v. 8vo.
Pharmaoologt. — ParW Pharmacologia, 1 v. 8vo. ; CuUen*9 Materia Medica,
2 V. 8va ; Woodville*9 Medical Botany, 4 v. 4to. ; (see Botany ;) Bigelow^e Materia Medica, 1 v. 8vo. ; Barton*9 Lectures on Materia Medica and Botany, 2 v. 12mo. ; Chapman^9 Materia Medica and Therapeutics, 2 v. 8vo. ; Eherlt'9 Materia Medi. ca and Therapeutics, 2 v. 8vo. ; the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Dispensa. tories, 8va ; Eclectic Dispensatory, 1 v. 8vo. ; Wood and Backers Dispensatory, 1 v. 8vo. ; the Pharmacopeia of tne U. S., 1 v. 8vo. ; Dungli9orC9 Therapeutics, 1 V. 8vo. ; Orfila on Poisons, 1 v. 8vo. ; Chriatuon on Poisons, 1 v. 8vo.; WiUich on Diet and Regimen, 1 v. 8vo.; BeU on Baths, 1 v. 12mo. ; Brande on Mineral Wa- ters, 1 V. 8vo. ; HamiUon on Purgatives, 1 v. 8vo.; MacuUoeh on Malaria, 1 v. 8vo.; Druggist*s Manual, 1 v. 8vo. ; Merat and De Lens* Dictionnaire de Matidre Medi- cale, 5 V. 8vo. ; Dictionnaire des Drogues, 3 v. 8vo.
TuxRBOLOGT. — BucharC9 Domestic Medicine, 1 v. 8vo. ; Coates* Domestic Medi- eine, 1 v. 8vo. ; DunglUon on Hygiene, 1 v. 8vo. ; Kitehiner*9 Art of Prolonging Life, 1 V. 12mo.; Hinpocratea' Aphorisms, and his Prognostics, I v. 12mo. ; Suden- kamU Medical Works, 2 y. 8vo. ; CulUn*9 First Linns, 2 v. 8vo., and his Nos<3ogy, 1 V. 8va; J3roion*« Elements of Medicine, 1 v. 8vo. ; Good*9 Study of Medicine, 5 and 2 v. 8vo. ; EberWe Practice of Medicine, 2 v. 8vo. ; Thomao* Modern Prac- tice of Physic, 1 v. 8vo.; Gregory* 8 General Practice of Physic, 2 v. 8vo.; Rush*$ Medical Inquiries, 2 v. 8vo. ; Jaekaon*9 Principles of Medicme, 1 v. 8va ; Hoeaek^o Nosology and Practice, 1 v. 8vo. ; Mackintosh*^ Practice of Medicine, 2 v. 8vo. ; Stokeg da, 1 v. 8vo. ; Chravee* do., I v. 8vo. ; Broueeaie* Pathology, 1 v. 8vo. ; Bt- ehaVt Pathology, 1 v. 8vo. ; CruveiXhier*8 Anatomie Pathologique, 2io., in pro- gress; /fill/ on Dia^osis, 1 v. 8vo.; EUi8* Medical Formulary, 1 v. 8va; Gallup*$ Institutes of Medicine, 1 v. 8vo.; Armairong on Fevers, 2 v. 8vo.; Louia on Yel-
71
Digitized by
558 APPEITDIX.
low Fever, 1 v. 8vo.; Thompson on Inflammation, 1 v. 8vo.; Clarke on Consumption, 1 V. 8vo.; Johnson on Liver Complaints, 1 v. 8to. ; Raytr^o Maladie des Reins, 2io^ in progress; Bell and Condie on the Cholera, 1 v. ovo.; Hancock on Pestilence, 1 V. 8vo.; Gallup on Epidemics, 1 v. 8vo.; Baleman on Cutaneous Diseases, 1 V. 4to. ; Cheyne on Dropsy, 1 y. 12mo.; Scudamore on Gout and Rheumatism, 1 V. 8vo. ; Esquirol on Insanity, 2 v. 8vo. ; Deweeg on Females, 1 t. 8vo., and on Children, 1 v. Svo.
Chirurgery. — Cooper^s Surgical Dictionary, 1 v. Svo. ; Cooper'* s First Lines of Surgery, 2 v. Svo. ; AhernBiky*9 Surgical Works, 3 v. Svo. ; BelVo System of Sur- gery, 4 V. Svo. ; DetaulVs Surgery, 2 v. Svo.; Liston^a Practical Surgery, I v. 8vo.; Gibson's Surgery, 2 v. Svo. ; Bougeray^s Minor Surgery, 1 v. Svo. ; Edwards^ Sur- gical Anatomy, 1 v. 12mo. ; Tavemier^s Operative Surgery, 1 v. Sva ; Bourgay and Jacobus Anatomic Chirurgicale, 2io., in progress ; Soyer*s (Euvres Chimrgi- cales, 11 V. Svo.; A. Cooper'' s Lectures, ed. by Lee, 3 v. Svo.; Bell on Wounds,
1 V. 8%'o. ; Guthrie on Gun Shot Wounds, 1 v. Svo. ; Larry*s Military Surgery,
2 V. Svo. ; Harris* Dental Surgery, 1 v. Svo. ; Coster'' s Manual of Surgical Opera- tions, 1 V. 12mo. ; Denman's Midwifery, ed. by Francis, 1 v. Svo. ; Dewees* do,
1 V. 8va ; Velpeau's Midwifery, 1 v. Svo. ; ilf«^»' Philadelphia Practice, 1 v. 12mo.
FOURTH PROVINCE— TECHNOLOGY. General Works. — Hasen^s Panorama of Professions and Trades, for Schoob ; BigelotD*s Technology, 1 v. Svo. ; Crabbers Universal Technological Dictionary,
2 v. 4to. ; Martinis Circle of the Mechanical Arts, 1 v. 4to. ; Imisoh's School of Arts, 2 V. Svo.; Letois^ Phil. Commerce of Arts, 1 v. 4to.; Smithes Mechanic, or Practical Inventions, 2 v. Svo. ; Joumd of the Franklin Institute ; Mackenzie^t 5000 Receipts, 1 v. Svo.; Ure*s Dictionary of the Arts, 1 v. Svo.; RoUin on the Arts and Sciences of tlie Ancients, 4 v. Svo. ; Whitens History of Inventions and Discoveries, 1 v. Svo. ; Beekman*s History of Inventions, 3 v. Svo. ; Dumas'' Chimie Appliqude aux Arts, 5 v. Sva ; Dictionnaire Technologique, 22 v. Svo. ; Diction- naire de Plndustrie Manufacturidrc, 10 v. Svo. ; PrechtPs Woerterbuch, 14 v. Svo. ; Jacobson^s Technologischcs Woerterbuch, 6 v. 4to. ; Encyclop^die des Arts ct Me- ti^rs, 15 v.2io.
XIII. DEPARTMENT — ^ARCHITECIINICS.
RondtleVs Art de Batir, 5 v. 4to. ; Borgnis* M^canique Appliou^ aux Arts, 8 v. 4to. ; Christian's Trait6 de M^canique IndustricUe, 4 v. 4to. ; Doulioi's Cours El^mentaire do Construction, 2 v. 4to. ; Sganzin's Cours do Construction, 4to., and plates, in progress.
Hylurgv.— 7Vfdf^o/<i on the Strength of, Cast Iron, 1 v. Svo.; Duleau's Ess&i sur le Resistance du Fer Forg6, 1 v. 4to. ; Pelouze's Art du Maltre de Forges,
2 V. 12mo.; BonnoCs Detail General des Fers, Pontes, Serrurerie, &c., 1 v. Sva; Cot- tinghani's Smith and Founder's Director, 1 v. 2io. ; Williams* Mineral Kingdom, (on Mining,) 2 v. Sva ; Heron de Villefosse de la Richcsse Minerale, 3 v. 4to., and plates; Kar stents Allgemeine liQttenkunde, 5 v. Svo., with plates, (on Metal- I'^gy) » Brard's Exploitation des Mines, 1 v. Svo. ; Delivs do., 2 v. 4to. ; Prony sur la Pouss6e des Terres, 1 v. 4to.; MaynieVs Pouss^ des Terres, &c., 1 v. 4to.; Shaw*s Operative Masonry, 1 v. Svo. ; Pelouse's Art du Briquetier, Chaufbumier et Charbonnicr, 1 v. 12mo. ; NiefuUson^s Treatise on Stone Cutting, 1 v. Svo. ; De Nuelle*s Traits Particulier de Ma^onnerie, I v. 4to. ; Valise's Traits de la Coupe des Pierrcs, 1 v. 4ta ; Treussart sur les Mortiers, 1 v. Svo. ; JUten on Mortars, 1 V. Svo. ; Barlow on the Strength and Stress of Timber, 1 v. Sva ; Chapman on the Preservation of Timber, 1 v. 8\'o.; Tredgold's Elementary Principles of Car- pentry, 1 V. 4ta ; Nicholson''s Carpenter's New Guide, 1 v. 4ta ; Benjamin*s Prac- tical House Carpenter, 1 v. 4to. ; Segur on Tanning, 1 v. Svo.
Machinery. — Nicholson's Operative Mechanic, 2 v. Sva ; Gregory's Mechanics,
3 V. Svo. ; Babbage on Machinery, 1 v. Svo. ; Leupold*s llieatrum Machinarum, 5 V. 2io. ; Enc. Metropolitana, Art Manufactures, 1 v. 4ta ; Hachette*s Traitfi des Machines, 1 v. 4to. ; Lanx et BitaneourVs Composition des Machines, 1 v. 4to. ; Coulomb's Machines Simples, 1 v. 4to. ; Brians' Millwright's Guide, 1 v. Sva ; Banks on Mills, 1 v. Svo.; Buchanan on Mill Work, 3 v. Sva; Smeaton on the Powers of Wind and Water to turn Mills, 1 v. Svo. ; PoneeleVs Traits des Roues
Digitized by
BIBLIOGRAPHT. 559
HydranliquM, 1 v. 4to.; PartingtoiC* Account of the Steam Eoffine, 1 v. 87a; Stuart* 8 Anecdotes of Steam Engines, 3 ▼. 16mo.; Lardner on the Steam Engine,
1 V. 8vo.; Renwick on the Steam Engine, 1 v. 8vo.; Trtdgold on the Steam Engine, 2 v. 4to.; Galloway' g History of the Steam Engine, 1 t. 8vo.
Architecture. — WiUnns* Civil Architecture of Vitruvius, 2 v. 4to.; WareU Palladio's Architecture, 1 v. 2ia; Chambers^ Civil Architecture, 1 v. 4to.; StuarVs Dictionary of Architecture, 3 v. 8vo. ; NichoUon'i Dictionary of Architecture,
2 V. 4to.; Stuart and Revett^s Antiquities of Athens, 5 ▼. 2io.; Ram Raz on the Architecture of the Hindus, 1 v. 4to.; Durandl't Parallel of Ancient and Modern Edifices, 1 v.2io.; Pugi/Ct Gothic Architecture, 2 v. 4to.; KendaWt Gothic Archi- tecture, 1 v. 8va ; Elme$* Lectures on Architecture, 1 t. 8vo. ; BiUington''$ Archi- tectural Director, 1 v. 2io.; Aikin$on*9 Gothic Ornaments, 1 v. 2io.; NichoUon'a Principles of Architecture, 3 v. 8vo.; Shawns Architect, 1 v. 4to.; BenjamWt Am. Builder's Companion, 1 v. 4to.; HavHand*$ Builder's Assistant, 3 v. 8vo.; Lou- don'B Encydopcedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, 1 v. 8vo. ; Tred^ goUPt Principles of Warming and Ventilating Public Buildings, 1 v. 8vo.
ViATBCTURE. — (For Surveymg, see Ancylometry, p. 554). Mahah'$ Civil f^ufi- neeriuF, 1 v. 8vo. ; MiUington^a Civil Engmccrin?, 1 v. 8vo. ; Delaistre^B Encydo- pedie de Tlng^nicur, 4 v. 8vo. ; and Science dc rlagdnieur des Ponts et Chauases,
2 T. 4to.; Smealon's Reports on Civil Engineering, 4 v. 4to.; Beautemps-Beau- pri8* Topography and Hydrography, 2 v. 8vo.; Blunt and Sleventon'i CivU En* gineer, 2io., in progress; Corditr sur la Construction dcs Routes et Canauz,
1 V. 8vo. ; Peronnet sur les Ponts et Canaux, 1 v. 4to., with plates ; M'Adam on Road Making, 1 v. 8vo.; Girard sur les Grandcs Routes, 1 v. 8vo. ; ParneWg Treatise on Roads, 1 v. Bvo.; Gauthey's Traite de la Construction de Ponts,
3 V. 4ta ; Drewry on Suspension Bridges, 1 v. 4to. ; GwiU on the Equilibrium of Arches, 1 v. 8vo.; Gordon on Locomotion, 1 v. 8vo.; Wood^a Practical Trea- tise on Rail.Roads, 1 v. 8vo.; Pambour on Locomotive Engines, 1 v. 8vo.; Gary's Inland Navigation of Great Britain, 1 v. 4to.; AndreoasVt Canal de LanjBruedoc,
2 y. 4to.; Prony*» Architecture Hydraulique, 2 v. 4to. ; Belidor^t Architecture Hydraulique, 2 v. 4to, ; Storrow on Water Works, 1 v. 12mo.; DeeesaarVa Travaux Hydrauliques, 2 v. 4to.; Public Works of Great Britain, 1 v. 2io.; Slevenaon^s Civil Engineering of North America, 1 v. 2io.; Tanner^a Canals and Rail.Roads of the U. States, 1 v. 8vo.; Cher>alier*a Voies de Communication auz Etats Unis, 2 V. 4to. ; Public Works of the United States, 2io., in progress.
Navitecture. — CharnocVa History of Marine Architecture, 3 v. 4to.; Dupiii'a Architecture Navale, 1 v. 4to.; Mortau'a Ingdnieur des Constructions Navales, 1 V. 4to. ; Gicquel-Deaiouchea* Dimensions dcs Batimens de Guerre, 1 v. 8vo. ; Montgery sur les Na vires en Fer, 1 v. 8vo. ; Sutherland' a Ship Builder's Assistant, 1 ▼. 4to.; AnneaUy*a New System of Naval Architecture, 1 v. 4to. ; Blackbume on the Science of Ship Building, 1 v. 4to.; StalkarlVa Naval Arcliitecture, 1 v. 2io.; Crewze'a do., 1 v. 4to.; Stetle'a Ship Builder's Assistant, 1 v. 2io.; Stppinga on Ship Building, 1 v. 8vo.; Beaufoy'a Nautical Experiments, 2 v. 4to.; Euler*g Theory of the Construction and Properties of Vessels, tr. by Watson, 1 v. 8vo.; Bouguer'a Traite du Navirc, 1 v. 4to.; Gordon^a Principles of Naval Architecture, 1 V. 8vo.; Heathcole on Stay Sails, 1 v. 8vo.; Packenham on a Substitute for Lost Rudders, 1 t. 8vo.; Forfait dc la M&turc des Vaisscaux, 1 v. 4to.
Navioation. — Falconer^a Marine Dictionary, 4to.; BexouVa Traits de Naviffa. tion, 1 V. 8vo.; DuhourgutCa do., 1 v. 4to.; Darcy Liver*a Seamanship, ed. by No. rie, 1 V. 8va; BlunCa Theory and Practice of Seamanship and Naval Tactics, 1 v. 8vo.; Rolnnaon*a Navigation, 2 v. 8vo. ; Norie'a Practical Navigation, 1 v.8va; Dtty*a Math. Principles of Navigation, 1 v. 8vo.; Bowdilck'a Practical Navigator, 1 V. 8vo.; Maury^a Navigation, 1 v. 8va; Prony sur le Calcul des Longitudes et Latitudes 1 v. 4to.; Mackay on Longitude, 2 v. 8vo.; Bagay'a Tables Astrono. miques et Hydrographiques, 1 v. 4to. ; Mendoza Rioa' Nautical Tables, 1 v. 4to. ; the Nautical Ahnanac^ 8vo.; BlunVa Am. Coast Pilot, 1 v. 8vo.; Parkar^a Tele- graphic Signals, 1 v. 8vo. ; Bdcher''a Nautical Surveying, 1 v. 8vo.
XIV. department— chreotecbnics. General Works. — Pin^a Microcosm, or Picturesque Delineation of the Arts, Agriculture, Manufactures, &c., of Great Britain, 2 v. 2io.; Batlow on tlie Manu^
Digitized by
560 APPENDIX.
factures and Machinery of Great Britain, 4ta; UreU Philoeophy of Mann&ctnFeft, 1 T. 8vo.; Cuthu$k*9 American Artist's Manual, 2 ▼. Byo,
AoRiccTLTUitE. — Loudon*$ Encyclopedia of Agricnlture, 1 ▼. Sva; CohtmeUa^t Husbandry, 1 ▼. 4to.; Adamt^ New System of Agriculture, 2 v, Bvo.; Brown'*a Treatise on A|rriculture and Rural Affiiirs, 3 y. ^a; HunttrU GeOrgical Essays, 6 y. 8yo.; PsrEtnson's Experienced Farmer, 1 y. 8yo.; Loean^t Fourteen Ezperi- ments on Rotation of Crops, 1 y. 8vo. ; Sinclair*^ Code of Agriculture, 1 y. 8yo.; 31iy/or'« Arator, or Agricultural Essays, 1 y. 12mo. ; Ruffin on Calcareous Ma- nures, 1 ▼. Bvo.; W\Uiam90tC9 Agricultural Mechanism, 1 y. 8va; DavtfB Am. cultural Chemistry, 1 v. 8yo. ; CkaptaV$ do., 1 v. 8vo. ; Liebyr^a do^ 1 y. 8vo. ; The Complete Farmer, N. Y., 1 y. 8ya ; Fe9$enden'» American Farmer, 12ma ; BueCa Agricultural Essays, 1 y. 8vo. ; Hayward^s Science of Agriculture, 8va ; Wtggtn*t American Farmer's InstructOT, I y. 8vo.; Cruickshank*9 Practical Planter, on Wood Plantations, 1 y. 8vo.; Daere on Salt as a Manure, 1 y. 8vo.; John- gtone on Draining Land, 1 y. 8yo.; Bakewell on Wool, 1 y. 8ya; lAvintrtton on Sheep, 1 y. 8yo.; Lawrence on Cattle, 1 y. Svo.; Fiinl on Horses and Farriery, 1 y. 12mo. ; Dennts' Silk Manual, 1 y. 12mo. ; D^Homergue't do^ 1 y. I2ma; Dan^ dolo on Silk, 1 y. 8va
HoRTicuLTURK. — LoudoiC$ Encydoposdia of Gardening, 1 y. 8yo. ; Hayvwrd^g Science of Horticulture, 1 y. 8yo.; NicoH'*$ Villa Garden Directory, 1 y. 12mo.; Walpole on Modem Gardening and Pleasure Grounds, 1 y. 4to. ; Prince on Hor. ticulture, 1 y. 12mo., and on the Vine, 1 v. 8vo. ; M*Mahon*$ Gardener, 1 y. 8vo. ; Feasenden^a American Gardener, 1 y. 12mo.; Sayer'^e American Fruit and Flower Garden Companion, 1 v. 12mo. ; Bridgeman^a Gardener's Assistant, 1 y. 12ma ; BuiaCa American Flower Ghtrden Directory, 1 ▼. 8vo. ; OUfin*a Hints on Land- scape Gardening, 2 y. 8to. ; Foraythe on Fruit Trees, 1 y. ovo. ; Harrison on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees, 1 v. 8vo. ; Caxe on fSuit Trees and Ci- der, 1 y. 8vo. ; Feaaenden*a American Orehardist, 1 v. 12mo. ; Ht^^a Orchar^Ust's Companion, 4to., in progress.
BoMicuLTURE. — BradUy'a British Housewife, 2 y. 8ya; Kitckenor*a House- keeper's Manual, 1 v. iSmo.; Carter*a Frugal Housewife, 1 v. l2mo.; Lealie'a Young Housekeeper, 1 v. l2mo. ; Daviea* Innkeeper's Guide, 1 y. 12mo. ; Bneha- nan on the Economy of Fuel, 1 v. 8vo.; Kitchenor^a Cook's Oracle, 1 y. 12ma; Ude*a French Cook, 1 y. 12mo.; Dalgairna' Picture of Cookery, 1 v. I2ma; NutW Imperial Cook, 1 y. 12mo. ; ViarVa Cuisinier Royal, 1 y. 8yo. ; the Cook's Own Book, 1 y. 12mo. ; RajfU'a Cookery, 1 y. 12mo.; Lealie*s Cookery, 1 v. l2mo.; AccunCa Culinary Chemistry, 1 y. 12ma; Edlin on Bread Making, 1 y. 12mo.; NtUia* Complete Confectioner, 1 v. 12mo. ; HacuUoeh on Making Wine, 12mo. ; Aecum on Brewing, 12mo. ; Domestic Cookery, 1 y. 12mo.
Vestiture. — Bamea* History of the Cotton Manu^ture in Great Britain, 1 <y. 8ya ; Cfueat on the Britisn Cotton Manufactures, 8yo. ; Vre'a PhUoeophy of Manufactures, 1 v. 8to.; the Carding and Spinning Master's Assistant, Glas^w, 1 y. 8to.; Gray on Spinning Machinery, 1 v. ova; Duncan on the Art of Wearing, 1 y. 8yO. ; Bronaon*a Family Directory for Weaving and Dyeing, 1 v. 12ma ; B«r- thoUei on Bleaching, 1 v. 12mo. ; BerlhoUet on Dyeing, ed. by Cre, 2 v. 8va; Du- maa sur le Teinture, 2 y. 8vo. ; Bancroft on Permanent Colours, 2 y. 8vo.; Cooper on Dyeing and Calico Printing, 1 v. 8vo. ; Manuel du Fabricant d'BHoffes Impri- m6es, 1 v. 18mo. ; et du Fabricant d'Indiennes, 1 v. ISmo, et du Fabr. de Draps, 1 v. 18mo., et du Fabr. de Chapeaux, 1 y. 18mo. ; a Treatise on the Silk Manufac- ture, Philadelphia, 1 y. 12mo. ; Reea* Principles and Practice of Boot and Shoe Making, 1 v. 12mo. ; Manuel du Bottler et du Cordonnier, par Morin, 1 v. IBmo.; Manuel du Bonnetier, 1 v. 18ma
Furniture. — Manuel du Porcelainier, &c^ 2 v. 18mo.; KunekeVe Glassmacher- kunst, 1 v. 2io. ; L'Art de la Verrerie, 2 y. 8yo.; Lardner^a Cab. Cyclopedia on the Manufacture of Porcelain and Glass, 1 y. 12mo.; iVteoTt Lapidarv, or History of Precious Stones, 1 y. 8vo.; Cumminga* Elements of .Clock and Watch Work, 1 y. 4to.; Reid on Clock and Watch Making, 1 y. 6va; I^rriaon on Bells, 1 v. Svo. ; Bramah on the Construction of Loclu, I v. ,8va ; Fry on the Construc- tion of Wheel Carriages, 1 v. 8vo. ; CoUingham'a Smith's Director, or Patterns for Ornamental Iron and Brass Work, 1 v. 4ta; CkippendaU*a Cabinet Maker's Director, 1 v. 2io.; HaWe Cabinet Maker's Assistant, 1 y. 4to.; King's Cabindt
Digitized by
BIBLIOORAPHT. 561
Maker's Sketch Book, 2 v. 4to. ; Hope'$ Designs of Funuture, 1 ▼. 3io.; SmUkU Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Guide, 1 t. 4to. ; Manoel duTapisier, 1 v. ] 8ma CoMMiacK. — ^The Book of Commerce, for Schools; Ander9on*8 Origin of Com. merce, 6 v. 8yo. ; Dearborn on the Commerce of the Black Sea, 3 t. Bvo. ; Mae- phertan'B History of Commerce, 4 v. 4to. ; M^Kannoehie'9 Commerce of the Pacific Ocean, 1 y, 8yo.; Martinet Trade of England, 1 v. Bvo.; PUkin^t Commerce of the United Stotes, 1 v. Bto.; TibUit on a Home Market, I y. 8yo.; Rdrdantx' Eoro- peaii Commerce, comprising Tables of Money, Weights, Slc^ 1 y. byo. ; Kelly** Universal Cambist, on Coins, Weights, Measures, dtc, 2 y. 4to. ; Adanu* Report on Weights and Measures, 1 y. Bvo.; Ftmter^* Merchant's Manual, 1 y. 8yo.; UPCuUoek's Conmiercial Dictionary, 3 y. 8yo.; BerUharn'M Defence of Usury, 1 y. 13mo. ; BenneVt Book.Keeping, 1 v. 8yo. ; Mar$h*9 Book-Keeping, 1 y. 8yo.
Zy. DEPAKTMENT — ^MACBBTfiCNICS.
Gknxral Woexs. — Duane*$ Military Dictionary, 1 y. 8yo.; Cooper** Military Cabinet, 3 y. 12mo.; Vegetiuo de Re Militari, 1 y. 8va; Chambray*9 Philosonhie de la Guerre, 1 y. 8iya ; Doitv'i Essay de Bibliologie Militaire, 1 y. 8yo. ; Afor- decaVs Military Laws of the 17. S., 1 y. 8yo. ; Mnconi on Courts Martial, 1 y. 8ya ; MaeartkuT on Military and Nayal Courts Martial, 2 y. 8ya ; MachiaveV* Art of War, 1 y. 8yo. ; RogmaVo Considerations sur PArt de la Guerre, 1 y. 8yo. ; JIfkJ. /ct-*s Art of War, 3 y. 8yo.; JaminVs Art de la Guerre, 3 y. 8yo.; La Roeheay* mon'9 Art de la Guerre, 4 y. 8yo. ; Carrion NUa» sur I'Histoire Gtoerale de PArt Militaire, 2 y. 8yo. ; Dupin^o View of the Military Force of G. Britain, 2 y. 8yo.; Sttinte-ChapelU^o Histoire des Institutions Militaires de France, 3 y. 8yo.
HopusTics. — OroBe*$ Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons, 2 y. 4to.; Meyrick'o Ancient Armour, 3 y. 4ta; Loloo*^ Antiquity Militaires, 1 y. 4to.; PoretzdorfAt Pyrotechnie Militaire, 1 y. 8yo. ; MoreV* Traits des Feuz d' Artifice, 1 y. 8vo.; Cutbuoh'o Pyrotechny, 1 y. 8yo.; Thompwn on Gunpowder, 1 y. 8yo.; Braddock on do^ 1 y. 8yo.,' Renaud sur la Fabrication de la Poudre & Canon, 1 y. 8yo.; CoUy sur la Fabrication des Armes Portatiyes, 1 y. 8ya; Dartein sur la Fabrication des Bouches ii Feu, 1 y. 8ya ; Monge*9 Description de PArt de Fabri. quer les Canons, 1 y. 4to. ; Prival du Service des Armies en Campagne, 1 v. 8yo»; Jaekoon on the Formation, Discipline, and Economy of Armies, 1 y. 4ta ; Lemiire de Corvey des Partisans et des Corm Irreguliers, 1 y. 8yo.; LabaunWo Manuel de rOfficier d'Etat Major, 1 y. 8va ; OoumVe Manuel de PHabillement, 1 y. 8to.
Geotacticsw — JElian^o Tactics and Military System of the Grecians, 1 y. 4to.; Foiard'9 Notes on Polybius, 1 y. 2ia; MiUheWt Essay on Tactics, 1 y. ]2mo.; SeoU*$ Infiwtry Tactics, 3 y. 12mo. ; Cooper* o Instructions for Militia and Volun* teers, 1 y. 12mo. ; LeloutereVo Manoel de POfficier d'Infanterie, Paris, 1 y. 8yo. ; TorrenM* Field Exercises, 1 y. 8ya ; Montmorency* $ Lance Exercise, 1 y. 4to. ; LaUemand*s ArtilD^, 2 y. 8vo.; Ander$on'*$ Instruction for Field Artillery, 1 y. 8ya; Oaooondi^s Aide-memoire d'Artillerie, 2 y. 8yo.; Lamy*o Traits des Batteries, 1 y. 8yo.; Poumet sur PArt de Pointer, 1 y. 12ma; Adye^o Pocket Gunner, 1 y. 18ma; Whittingham*» Cayalry Manceuyres, 1 y. 8yo.; HtrrieB* In. stmctions for Cayalry, 1 v. Svo.; Laroehe-Aymon'o Traits de la Cayalerie, 1 y. 8ya; Cayalry Tactics, printed by order of the War Department, 3 v. 12mo. ; CampbeWg Instructions for Light In&ntry and Riflemen, 1 v. 18mo.; Beauval'o Seryioe des Tirailleurs, 1 y. Svo.
Fortification. — Gay de Vemon*9 Science of War and Fortification, 2 y. 8ya ; MoAan's Field Fortification, 1 y. 8va ; Vauban'9 Attaque et Defense des Places, 3 y. 8va; Bousmard:*9 Eesai General de Fortification, 3 y. 4to.; Belidor*9 Science des Ingenieurs, 1 v. 4to. ; Carnal de la Defense des Places Fortes, 1 v. 4to. ; Chtnu mara^9 M^moires sur la Fortification, 2 y. 8yo. ; Mdmorial de POfficier du Genie, 10 y. 8va ; Pa9ley*9 Military Instruction, 3 v. 8yo. ; Tkelkti'o Field Engineer, 2 y. 8yo. ; MonUdemberVo Fortification Perp^uiiculaire, 7 y. 4ta ; Mouzi^o Traite de Fortification Souterraine, 1 y. 4to.; Landmann on Mines, 1 y. 8ya ; Douglaoo on Military Bridges, 1 y. 8yo. ; Instruction sur les Campemens, Paris, 1 y. 8ya
Steatbqt. — BuUno'o Systftme de Guerre Modeme, 1 y. 8vo. ; Prince Ckarleo* Principesde la Strategic, 3 y. 8yo. ; Duehateau sur les MaooBuvres Strat^giques, 1 y. 8yo. ; GflfMttZto Par&it Martehal, 1 y. 4ta; OrimareV9 Fonctions des G^n^rauz, 1 y. 8vo.; Jomtnw' Traits des Grandes Operations Militaires, 1 y. 8ya; LeUane
Digitized by
562 APPBNDIX.
d^EguUly oonocmant lea Attaques Nocturnes, 1 v. 8vo. ; Jwrry on the Marches and Movements of Armies, 1 ▼. 8vo. ; Lloyd's M^muires MUitairea, 1 v. 8vo. ; SckiUer'a History of the Seven Years* War, tr. by Blaquidre, 2 v. 8va ; Dumat* Fr^ciB des Evdnemens Militaires, de 1799 jusqu'en 1814, 19 v. 8vo.; JominVs Guerre de la Revolution Frangaise, 15 v. 8vo. ; Napier' 9 History of the Peninsular War, 6 V. 8vo.
NAvrTACTics. — JanuB' Naval History, 6 v. 8vo. ; Charnoek'9 History of Marine Architecture and Naval History, 3 v. 4to. ; CampbeWt Lives of the Admirals, 4 v. 8vo. ; Blunt on Seamanship and Naval Tactics, 1 v. 8va ; A System of Naval Tactics, London, 1 v. 8vo.; Clcrk^B Essay on Naval Tactics, 1 v. 8vo.; and Douglass* Naval Evolutions, in reply, 1 v. 8vo. ; Whitens Naval Researches, on the AcUons of Grenada, Chesapeake, &c^ I v. 8vo. ; Skin's Naval Battles, 1 v. 4to. ; Inman's Naval Gunnery, 1 v. 8vo. ; Douglass* do^ I v. 8vo.; Congreve on Mounting Naval Ordinance, 1 v. 4to. ; Fulton's Torpedo War, 1 v. 4to. ; Delafon on Navu Courts Martial, 1 v. 8vo. ; Truxton's Duties of Officers of Ships of War, 1 v. 2io. ; Blaekbums on Ship Building and the British Navy, 1 v. 4to.; Edytaa the Equip- ment, &c^ of Ships of War, 1 v. 8va ; ToUen's Naval Text-Book, 1 v. 8vo.
XVI. DEPARTMSNT CALL0TECHN1C8.
General Works. — Bromley's Philosophical and Critical History of the Fine Arts, 2 V. 4ta ; DaUawoy's Anecdotes of the Arts in England, 1 v. 8va ; Hod. son's Cabinet of the Arts, 1 v. 4to.; Memes* History of Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture, 3 v. 12mo. ; Dunlap's Arts of Design in the U. S., 2 v. 8vo. ; WiU' kelman's Hietoire de PArt Ancieu, 2 v. 4to.; RaezinskVs Histoire de PArt Modeme en AUemagne, 2 v. 4to, and plates ; The Artist's Repository, or E*ncyclopedia of the Fine Arts, 4 v. 8vo. ; (Euvres de Visconii^ 15 v. Svo,
Printing. — Astle's Origm and Progress of Writing, 1 v. 2io.; />eaiie*s Penman- ship, 1 v. 4to.; PeaU's Graphics, 1 v. 12ma; Gould's Stenography or Short- Hand Writing, 1 v. 18mo. ; Meerman and MiddleUnCs Origin of I^inting 1 v. Svo. ; Palmer's General History of Printmg, 1 v. 4to. ; 7%oma«* History of Printing in America, 2 v. 8vo.; Van Winkles Prmter's Guide, 1 v. 12mo.; Johnson's Type l^aphia, 2 V. 8vo. ; Adams on Tjrpography, 1 v. 12mo. ; Saunders' Author's Print- mg and Publishing Assistant, 1 v. I2mo. ; Savage on Decorative Printing, 1 v. 4to.; Brightly on Founding Stereotype, 1 v. 8va ; AmelVs Bibliopegia, or Book- binding, 1 V. 12mo. ; Oltley on the Early History of Engraving, 2 v. 8vo. ; Per- rot's Manuel du Graveur, 1 v. 8vo. ; Landseer's Lectures on Engraving, 1 v. 8vo. ; Johnson on Wood Engraving, 1 v. 8vo.; Senef elder's Lithography, 1 v. 4to.; HuUmandeVs Lithography 1 v. 4to. ; Tudot's do., 1 v. 18ma
Paintino. — Bomen's U. S. Drawing Book, and J. R, Smith's Elementary Drawing Book, 1 v. 2io., for Schods; Brou>n''s Practical Perspective, 1 v. 4to. ; Thylor^s Linear Perspective, 1 v. 8vo. ; Edward's Perspective, 1 v. 4to.; Thenol*s Perspective, 1 v. 8va ; Camper on the Connection between Anatomy and Painting, &c., 1 v. 4to. ; Craig's Lectures on Drawing, Painting, and Ezigraving, 1 V. 8vo. ; Fuselis' Lectures on Painting, 1 v. 4to. ; Janus' Schools of Painting, (two works,) each 1 v. 8vo. ; Orme on Coloring and Landscape Painting, 1 v. 4to. ; Orme on Transparencies, 1 v. 4to. ; Reynolds* Discourses on Painting, 2 v. 8vo. ; Leo- nardo da VineVs Treatise of Painting, 1 v. 8vo. ; PUkington^s Dictionary of Pain- ters, 2 V. 8vo. ; Grose's Rules for Drawing Caricatures, 1 v. 8vo. ; HasseWs Spe- culiun, or Drawing in Water Colours, 1 v. 8vo.; Andretos on Flower Painting, 1 V. 4to. ; Hogarth's Analysis of Beauty, 1 v. 8vo., and plates ; Musie Francais, 5 V. 2io. ; The Orleans Gallery, 2 v. 2io. ; Angerstein's Collections, 3 v. 4to. ; The British Gallery, 2 v. 4to. ; The Dulwich Galkry, 2 v. 2io. ; The Dresden Gallery, (German,) 2io., in progress.
Sculpture. — Dallaway's Statuary and Sculpture among the Ancients, 1 v. 8va ; Flaxman'a Lectures on Sculpture, 1 v. 8vo. ; Calcografia delle piu' belle Statue Antiche in Roma, 1 v. 4to. ; Hervey's lUustratians of Modem Sculpture, 1 v. 2ia ; Burrow on the Elgin Marbles, 1 v. 8vo. ; Hamilton's Engravings fl-om Ancient Vases, 4 v. 2io.; Tassie's Catalogue of Ancient and Modem Engraved Gems, 2 v. 4to. ; Worlidge's Antique Gems, 1 v. 4to. ; Deuchar's Gems, 3 v. 2io. ; Canovd*s Works, 2 v. 8io.; Thorwaldsen's Works, ((Serman,) 2 v. 4to.; Musis Francais, (sec Painting,)
Digitized by
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 563
Music— Bumey*« General Historj of Music, 3 v. 4to.; Busby^t Dictionary of Music, 2 V. 8vo.; and his Greneral History of Music, 2 v. 8vo. ; Beethoven's Traits d* Harmonic et de Composition, 1 t. 8vo. ; Feti» sur la Musique, 1 v. 8vo.; Essai sur la Musique, 4 v. 4to. ; CaleotVa Musical Grammar, 1 v. 12ma ; Choron*9 Principes de Composition, 1 v. 4to.; ShieUTB Introduction to Harmony, and Supplement, I t. 2io.; Burroughs* Thorougfh Bass Primer, 1 v. ISmo.; Martim di Contrappunto, 1 v. 4to.; Starp's Introduction to Vocal Music, 1 v. 8vo.; Stanhope on Tuning-, 1 v. 8vo. ; Lhtbourg on the Violin, 1 v. 12mo. ; Ballard on Guitar Playing, 1 v. 4to.; Young on the Phenomena of Sounds, 1 v. 8vo. ; Aviaon on Musical Expression, 1 v. 8vo. ; HandeVe Works, 2io. (numerous) ; Hay- den*9 Works, 4to. ; MoxarVs do., 4to. ; Beethoven's Works, 4to. (nimierous ;) Ros- sini's Works, 2io., (numerous) ; CherubinVs Works, 2io.
Aroics. — John's Gymnastics, tr. by Beck, 1 y. 8vo.; SuUzman's Gymnastics fox Youth, 1 V. 8vo.; Walker's Maiily Exercises, 1 v. ISfmo.; the Boy's Own Book,
1 V. 12mo.; Berenger's History and Art of Horsemanship, 2 v. 4to.; DanieVs Rural Sports, 2 v. 8vo.; Blaines' EncyclopsBdia of Rural Sports, 1 v. 8vo.; M* Ar- thur on Fencing, 1 v. 4to. ; Mosel^'s Essay on Archery, 1 y. 8yo. ; Frost's Art of Swimming, 1 y. 8yo. ; Walton's domplete Aiigler, 2 y. i2mo. ; Davy's Salmonia, or Days of Fly Fishing, 1 y. I2mo. ; Gallini's Art of Dancing, I y. 8yo. ; Blasts* Art of Dancing, 1 y. 8yo. ; Hoyle's Games, 1 y. 18ma ; PhUidor's Studies of Chess,
2 y. 8yo. ; Sarratt on the Game of Chess, 2 y. 8yo. ; Leiris on Chess, 1 y. 8ya ; the Girl's Own Book, 1 y. l2mo.; the Young Lady's Book, 1 y. 12mo.
Digitized by
Digitized by
INDEX.
Aaaon, 348. Abacus, 445. Abassides, 211. Abattis, 495. Abbas, 213, 256. Abdomen, 410. Abelard, 263. Aberration, 360. Abijah, 249. Abo, 17a
Abraham, 140, 348. AbsoesBes, 428. Abscissa, 335. Absorbent Vessels, 410. Absorption, 360. Ababekir, 137, 210, 255. Abulftragius, 255. Abyssinia, 180, 216. Academic School, 21. Acalepha, 383. Acanthopiterygii, 380. Accent, 44. Accidence, 45. AodiMtres, 379. Aooc>ant Book, 484. Aoephala, 381. Acfaaia, 173. Achsan League, 207. Achilles, 206, 251. Adimet, 213. Achromatic Lens, 360. Add, 369.
Acotyledonous Plants, 389. Acrophjsics, 34, 342. Acrosofia, 30. Acrostic, 281. Action, 121. ActinoloffY, 383. Adalbert, 148. Adam, 248. Adams, 273. Adams and Liberty, 310. Addison, 266. Addition, 317. Address, 282. Adelines, 394. Adehmg, 41. Adenology, 410. Adiectiye, 45. AdjectiTe colours, 475. Adjutant, 499. Adjutant-General, 505. Aiuninistntors, 119. Admiral, 513.
Admiralty Courts, lOa Admiralty Law, 105. Adolphus Frederick, 231. Adowa, 181. Adrian, 253. Adverb, 46. Advocate, 103. AdynamitB, 423. iEneid, 286. iGolic Dialect, 56. Aerial Perspectiye, 525. JBschines, 251. uEschylus, 251. .fisculapius, 418, 425. .^800,251. iEsthetics, 73. Affinity, 369. Afghanistan, 168. Afica, 178, 216. African Association, 217. African Greography, 178. African History, 211, 216. African Islands, 183. African Languages, 67. Agathodsmon, 161. Ages, in Literature, 280. Agesilaus, 251. Agincourt, 223. Agriculture, 17, 459, 461. Agricultural Implements, 462. Agrippa,253. Ahab, 249. Ahaz, 249. Ahaziah,249. Ahmed Abdallah, 214. Alaric, 209. Alaska, 185. Albategnius, 255. Alberoni, 260. Albert, 228, 269. Albigenaes, 154. Albucasis, 255. Albugo, 429. Albumen, 372. Albuquerque, 214, 261. Alchemy, 367. Alcibiades, 351. Alcohol, 414. Alcoran, 13a Ale, 472.
Alemannic Dialect, 63. Alembert, 262. Alexander Balas, 350. Alennder, of Russia, 232, 273. 72
I Alexander III., Pope, 219. Alexander the Great, 217. Alexander's Feast, 302. Alexandria, 179. Alexandrian Library, 211. Alfaden, 136.
Alfred the Great, 171, 334. Algebra, 322. Algebraic Division, 333. Algebraic Multiplication, 333. Algiers, 180, 211. Algorithm, 317. Alhazen, 255. Ali, 137, 210, 255. Ali Bey, 211. Aliments, 420. Alkali, 369. Allegheny, Mts., 186. Allegory, 72. Allegation, 321. Alluvial Formation, 400. Almagest, 161. Ahnagro, 189, 261, 277. Al Mamun, 255. Al Mansor, 211, 213, 255. Alphonso I., 222. Aloes, 415. Alp Arselan, 213.
Alps, 174, na
Altitude, 355.
Altona, 177.
Alum, 371.
Aluminium, 370.
Alvarez, 260.
Amadis, 295.
Amadis de Gaul, 298.
Amalfitan Table, 109.
Amazon, 189.
Amazonia, 189.
Ambassadors, 104.
Amber, 363.
Ambrose, 150.
Amenti, 130.
America, 183.
American Callograpfay, 310.
American Chronography, 233.
American Desert, 18a
American Flag, 310.
American History, 233.
American Language, 6a
Amerigo Vespucci, 233.
Ames, Fisher, 273.
Amhara,181.
Amharic Language, 6a
Digitized by
566
IlfDEX.
Aminta, 295.
Ammonia, 370, 414.
Ammunition, 490.
Amputation, 427.
Ampte-e*8 Classification, 31, 33.
Amphibia, 376, 379.
AmphictFonic Council,106,206.
Amroo, 355.
Amsterdam, 176.
Amuratb, 212.
Amusement, 74.
Amygdaloid, 397.
Ana,^82.
Anacrean,25l.
Anaffram, 282.
Anak>gous Tens, 78.
AnalogT, 81.
Analysis, ExhaiwtiTe.
Analytic Chemistry, 372.
Analytic Geometry, 332.
Analytic Method, 82.
Anam, 169.
AnapMt,48.
Anatomy, 404.
Anaximander, 251.
Anchors, 456.
Ancient History, 201.
Ancient Writings, 516.
Ancylometry, 332.
Andes Mts., 190.
Andhuras, 214.
Andrade, 166.
Andrew, 145.
AndronomjjT, 404.
Androphysics, 34, 402.
Aneurism, 428.
Angas,133.
Angiology, 409.
Angle, 328.
An^la, 182.
Animal, 375.
Animal Magnetism, 420.
Anne of England, 225, 265.
Annulate, 382.
Anson, 193.
Antara's Life, 290.
Anthony, 208, 253.
Anthracino, 395.
Anthropology, 36.
Antidotarium, 413.
Antidote, 417.
Anticlimax, 73.
Anticlinal Axis, 398.
Antimony, 371,417.
Antiochus, 250.
Antiphonal Singing, 532.
Antiquary, 305.
Antirthenes, 21.
Antithesis, 72.
Antoninus, 253.
Anubis, 131.
Anwar Boheili, 291.
Aorta, 409.
Apelles, 252.
Aphelion, 352.
Apis, 131.
ApoUo, 132.
Apologetic Theology, 150.
Apostrophe, 73.
Apothecaries' Weight, 416.
Apothecary, 412.
Apothegm, 282.
Apennine, 173.
Apocenoses, 424.
Apoplexy, 423.
Apron in Architecture, 446.
Apsides, 352.
Aquarium, 469.
Aquatinta, 520.
Aqueducts, 450.
Aqueous Humour, 361.
Aquinas, 263.
Aquitania, 174.
Arabesque, 445.
Arabia, 167.
Arabians, 210.
Arabian Biography, 255.
Arabian Calfograpby, 289,
Arabian Nighte, 290.
Arabic Alphabet, 52.
Arabic Language, 51.
Arachnides, 382.
Aramaean Mythology, 131.
Araucanian Language, 67.
Araucanians, 240.
Arbitrary Law, 98.
Arbours, 468.
Arc, 829.
Arc, Joan of, 262.
Arcadia, 173.
Arcadia, Sidney's, 305.
Arcadius, 209.
Archnoloffy, 145, 197.
Archangel, 178.
Archery, 537.
Archeus, 403.
Archimedes, 252, 327.
Architechnics, 34, 431.
Architecture, 443.
Architrave, 444.
Aremaic, 50.
Areopagus, 116. ,
Argand Lamp, 479.
Argent, 245.
Argentme Republic, 191, 240.
Argics, 536.
ArgUlite, 397.
ArgoliB, 172.
Argonautic Expeditioii, 206.
Argonautics, 284.
Argos, 206.
Arprument, 79.
Anmanes, 131.
Ariosto, 259.
Aristides, 251.
Aristippus, 21.
Aristocrat, 101.
AristoUe, 21, 404.
Arithmetic, 316.
Arithmetical Progression, 321.
Arithmetical Proportion, ^0.
Arius, 147, 150.
Arkansas, 186.
Arkwright, 267.
Armada, 222, 225.
Armenia, 166.
Arminianism, 155.
Arminius, 268.
Armoric Language, 65.
Armory, 244.
Arms, 244.
Arms of an army, 505.
Arnold, 228.
Arracan, 169,
Arsenic, 371, 417.
Arson, 120.
Artaxerxes, 205, 250.
Arte Magna, 322.
Arteries, 410.
Arthrology, 382.
Article, 45.
Articulata, 382.
Artigas, 241.
Artillery, 499.
Artillery Tactics, 501.
Arte of War, 485.
Aryabhatta, 322.
Asa, 249.
Asdepiades, 418.
Ashantee, 181.
Ashur, 204.
Asia, 165.
Asia Minor, 166, 206.
Asiatic Geography, 165.
Asiatic History, 210, 212.
Asiatic Turkey, 166.
Aspramonte, 295.
Assumption, 191.
Assumpsit, 121.
Assyria, 166.
Astarte, 131,
Asthma, 424.
Astracan, 171.
Astral Lamp, 479.
Astringents, 414.
Astrology, 351.
Astronomical NavigalioD, 458.
Astronomy, 350.
Atecama, 191.
Atahualpa, 240.
Athanasius, 150.
Athens, 173, 206.
AUilete, 537.
AUae, Mts. 180.
Atmoephere, 349.
Atomic theory, 343.
Attachis, 104.
Attack of Places, 497.
Attelane Fables, 287.
Attica, 173.
Attic Dialect, 56.
Attila, 209.
Attorney, 103.
Audumbia, 135.
Aureng Zebe, 214, 257,
Digitized by
INDSX.
667
Auride, 409.
Aurist, 429.
Aiisgrarius, 148.
Austmliuiia, 194.
Australia, 194.
Austria, 177.
Austrian Sucoession, 9S4, 938.
Autobiography, 243.
Autographies, 198, 347.
Autos Sacramentaies, 296.
Avenzoar, 255.
Average, 109.
Averroes, 255.
Ayes, 376.
Aviceima, 255.
Azimuth, 355.
Azores, 183.
Aztec Laiuruage, 67.
Azuni, 108.
Baal, 131.
Babel, 200.
Baber, 214, 257.
Babylon, 204.
Babylonia, 166.
Babylonian Biography, 250.
Babylonian Captivity, 202.
Babylonian Histories, 285.
Bacchus, 133.
Bacharia, 170.
Back ground, 525.
Bacon, Francis, 344.
Bacon Roger, 267.
Bactriana, 170.
Baden, 176.
Baffin, Capt 184.
Ba^ad, 167.
Baggage Train, 506.
Bahar Danuch, 291.
Bainbridge, William, 274.
Bajazet, 256.
BaJd,256.
Balance of Trade, 122.
Balbec, 167.
Balboa, 184.
Baldwin, 209.
Bali language^ 53.
Balista,488.
BaHze, 188.
Balloons, 455.
Balsam, 415.
Baltimore, 186.
Bambarra, 181.
Banda Oriental, 241.
Band wheels, 440.
Bank notes, 124.
Bankok, 169.
Bank of oars, 508.
Banks, 125,
Banquette, 494.
Baptism, 150.
Baptists, 157.
Barak, 249.
Barbarous lansuages, 66.
Barbaroesa, 212.
Barbary, 180.
Barbary States, 211.
Barber of Seville, 300.
Bards, 242.
Barium, 370.
Barlow, Joel, 276.
Barometer, 350.
Barouche, 480.
Bars in music, 534.
Barthelemy, 263.
Bartholomew, 146.
Bartolomeo, 260.
Barton, B. S., 276.
Bartram, John, 276.
Barytinea, 394.
Basalt, 397.
Basil, John, 232. [506.
Basis of operations, (in war,)
Basle, 176.
Basque language, 61.
Bastions, 494, 495.
Batrachia, 380.
Batrachomyomachy, 284.
Battalion, 499.
Battering-ram, 493.
Battery, 495.
Battle, 507.
Battle-axe, 488.
Battlements, 494.
Bavaria, 176.
Bayard, 262, 399.
Bayle, 263.
Bayonet, 489.
Beauty, 74.
Beelzebub, 132.
Beethoven, 271.
Behring, 166.
Belfagor, 295.
Belgica, 174.
Belgium, 175, 227.
Belisarius, 209, 254.
Belisarius, Goldom*8, 295.
BeU, Dr., 93.
Bell, Sir Charles, 406.
BeUes Lettres, 37.
Beloochistan, 168.
Belshazzar, 204.
Benalcazar, 239.
Benares, 168.
Benedict, 258.
Benevolence, 90.
Bengalee language, 53.
Benguela, l&.
Benin, 181.
Berber language, 67.
Bergmann, 271.
Berkeley, 83.
Berlin, 177.
Berme, 494.
Berne, 176.
BemooiUi, 264, 338.
Berosus, 250.
BerthoUet, 264.
Berzelius, 271.
Beton,449.
Beverages, 471.
Beys, 211.
Beza, Theodore, 363.
Biafra, 182.
Bible, 148, 149.
Biblical Criticism, 148.
Biblical Divinity, 148.
BibUcal Ezegctics, 149.
Biblical Hermeneutics, 149.
Bibliography, 24.
Bile, 111. ^
Biledulgerid, 180.
Billets, 246.
Billiards, 538.
Bill of exchange, 110, 483.
Bill of lading, 109.
BiU of Rights, 111.
Bimana, 378.
Binomial theorem, 325.
Biography, 18, 34, 242.
Biography, Ancient, 248.
Biography, Oriental, 254.
Biography, European, 257.
Biography, American, 272.
Biom, 183.
Birmah, 215.
Birman Empire, 169.
Birmingham, 175.
BirsNimrood,201.
Bismuth, 371.
Bissextile, 200.
Black, Jos., 267.
Black Knights, 308.
Blackstone, 265.
Blake, Robert, 265.
Blazon, 244.
Bleaching, 475.
Bleeding, 423.
Blenheim, 226.
Blockade, 107.
Block printing, 517.
Blood-letting, 426.
Blood-vessels, 409.
Blowpipe, 392.
Blucher, 269.
Blumenbach, 270.
Boarding a vessel, 519.
Bodleian Library, 35.
Body Plan, 452.
Bogota, 190.
Bohemia, 177.
Bohemian language, 65.
Boileau, 263.
Boiler, 442.
Boleslas, 231.
Bolingbroke, 265.
BoUvar, 239, 277.
BoUvia, 191, 240.
Bombay, 168.
Bonaparte, Joeeph, 233.
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 334^ 3(t3.
Bones, 406.
Bongola,180.
Bonifaoe, 358.
Bonnet, 495.
Digitized by
566
JITDCX*
ffffnm^t^n Institnte, S9l
Book binding, 530.
Book keepinjp, 484.
Boodhium, 135.
Boom, 453.
Borax, 371, 415.
Bordeaux, 174.
Borem,405.
Borneo, 193, 194.
Boron, 370.
BoMu, Joan, 361.
Bosoovich.
Boejesmui Lui|^aage, 68.
BoMoet, 363.
Boston, 186.
Botanical Gardening, 468.
Botanical Terminolocry, 384.
Botany, 383.
Botany Bay, 194, 317.
Botta,259.
Bottomry, 109.
Bourbon Dynasty, 334.
Bourbon, 183.
Bourdaloue, 363.
Bou^nviUe, 193.
Bouatrophedon, 56.
Bowditcb, Dr., 376.
Bowsprit, 453.
Boyaux, 497.
Boyer, 338.
Boyle, 367.
Brabant, 175.
Brace in Music, 534.
Brachiopoda, 381.
Brahm, 133.
Brahma, 134.
Brain, 408.
Brandenburg, 177.
Brandy, 473.
Brass, 434.
Brazil, 189, 33a
Brazilian mts. 189.
Bread, 471.
Breaking the Line, 513.
Breakwater, 451.
Breastplate, 143, 488.
Breastwheel, 441.
Breccia, 397.
Bremen, 177.
Breslau, 177.
Brian Boroihm, 336.
Bribery, 130.
Brick.making, 436.
Bricoles, 501.
Bridges, 448, 449.
Bridgwater*B Canal, 448.
Brig, 454.
Brigade, 499.
Brigandine, 488.
Brigantioe, 454.
BriUiant points, 534.
Brindley, 367, 448.
Bristol, 175.
Britain, 175.
British America, 185.
British Aisoeiatiaii, S3. British CaUography, 301. British Provinces. British Spy, 313. Broad-side, 511. Broad-sword Elzerdse, 539. Brocade, 476. Brokerage, 331. Bromine, 370. Bronchi, 411. Bronchitis, 433. Bronze, 435. Broussais, 430. Brown, Dr., 83. Brown, Gen., 374. Bruce, 179, 336. Bruises, 437. Brunswick, 177. Brutus, 308, 353, 353. Buckingham, Duke of, 365. Bucolics, 387. Budhu, 135.
Buenos Ayres, 191, 340. Bularchus, 523. Bunker's Hill, 335. Burglary, 130. Burgundy, 337. BurUtmaoui, 363. Buminf Lenses, 357. Bums, Robert, 366. Burrampooter, 170. Bushel, 484. Bushuana, 183. Bustamente, Gen., 337. Busts, 537. Butler, 150, 366. Butlery, 473. Buttresses, 447. Byron, Capt, 193. Byron, Lord, 366. Byzantine £hnpire, 309.
Cabal, 144. Cabinet, 104, 113. Cabinet work, 480. Cabiri, 131. Cables, 456. Cable's length, 513. Cabot, John, 183. Cabral, Alvarez, 189. Cabul, 168. Cachexie, 434. Cadenoe,44. Cadiz, 174. Cadmium, 371. Cadmus, 41, 306, 350. CsBsalpinus, 405. Cesar, 308, 353. Cestus,537. Caffraria, 183, Ca£fre Dialects, 6a Cainan, 348. Cairo, 179. Caisson, 449, 49L Cakes, 471.
Cakmus, 516.
Calavar, 313.
Calbongas, 183.
Calcareous Stones, 485.
Calcinaticn, 416.
Calcium, 370.
Cakulus, 337. [323.
Calculus of Probabilities, 81,
Calculus of Variatioos, 33a
Calcutta, 16a
Calderon,361.
Calimdar Months, 300.
Calibre, 490.
Calicoes, 475.
Calico Printing, 475.
CaUdas,357.
Caliphs, 310.
Calisthenics, 537, 540.
CaUography, 34, 379.
Callography, Ancient, 383.
CaUography, Oriental, 38a
Callography, European, 393.
Callography, American, 310.
Callotechnics, 35, 514.
Calomel, 371, 415.
Carries, 361, 363.
Calvert, 154.
Calvin, 363.
Calvinism, 155.
Calyx, 385.
Cambisl Laws, lia
Cambistry, 483.
Camlvic, 474.
Cambridge, 175.
Cambyses, 305.
Cameo, 537.
Camera Obscura, 357, 361.
Camillus, 308, 353.
Camoens, Louis de, 361.
Cams, 440.
Canaan, 305.
Canada, 334.
Canals, 448, 450.
Canal of Lanfuedoe, 175.
Canaries, 183.
Candaulee, 306.
Cannoneer, 501.
Canova, 360.
Cantata, 38L
Canterbury T&les, 301.
Canton, 169.
Canute, 331, 364.
Cape Breton, 186.
Cape of Good Hope, 317.
Capetian Dynasty, 333.
Cape Town, 183.
Cape Verd Islands, 183.
Capias, 131.
Capillary Attraction, 349.
Capital, 13a
Capital Punishment, 103.
Caponnier, 497.
Captain, 499.
Caraocas,190,339.
Canmus, 307.
Digitized by
IITDEX.
660
CanVMirio, 960.
Carbon, 370.
Carborat, 369.
Cardinal YirtoM, 87.
Carding Machine, 474.
Cards, 538, 540.
Caribbee "Laagwkge^ 67.
Carinthia, 177.
Camaria,37a
Carnatic War, 215.
Carpathian Moontains, 177.
Carpentry, 437.
CariNjt Weaving, 476.
Carpa8,407.
Carraeci, 260.
Carriage, Gun, 490.
Carriages, 480.
Carronade, 489.
Carteret, 184.
Carthage, 178, 205.
Carthagena, 174.
Cartouche, 50.
Cartridges, 491.
Carving, 529.
Cascable, 489.
Case,5ia
Casemates, 496.
Cash Book, 484.
Casimir III., 232.
Caspimn, Mare, 16a
Cassander, 207.
Cas8el,17a
Cassiopeia, 355.
Cassius, 208, 253.
Casting, 530.
CasUe of Indolence, 301.
Castor Oil, 415.
Catalepsy, 423..
Catapult, 48a
Cataract, 429.
Categorical Propositions, 78.
Ckt^ries, 77.
Catharine of Russia, 232,272.
Cathartics, 413.
Cathedrals, 447.
CathoUc League, 22a
CatQ,253.
Catoptrics, 356, 358.
Cattle, 465.
CaulicolaB, 44a
Cavalry, 499.
Cavalry Tactics, 502.
Cavendish, Sir T., 192.
Cayenne, 190.
Cazembe,182.
Cecrops, 20a
Celebes, 217.
Cellini, 260.
Celtic Languages, 64.
CelsuB, 254, 425.
CentUoquio, 29a
Central America, 238.
Central Europe, 175, 227.
Centre of Gravity, 347.
Centrifugal Force, 355.
Centripetal Foroft, 355.
Century, 49a
Cephalopoda, 381.
Ceratina?, 394.
Ceraunics, 361.
Cerealta, 471.
Cerebrum, 408.
Certainties, 81.
Cerumen, 4529.
Cervantes, 261.
Cetacea, 379.
Cetubum, 141.
Cevennes, 174.
Ceylon, 168.
Chacabttco, 240.
Chaldea, 166.
Chaldee, 50.
Chalicins, 394.
Champollion, 203.
Chancery Law, 99.
Charade, 282.
Charges d* Affaires, 104.
Chariot, 480.
Charlemagne, 220, 223.
Charlemagne and his Peers,
29a
Charles V., 222. Charles of England, 225, 265. Charles of France, 262. Charles of Sweden, 231, 271. Charlotte Town, 18a Charon, 130. Charter Party, 109. Chase, 489, 5ia Chateaubriand, 264. Chaucer, 266. Chelonia, 380. Chemical Arts, 432. ChemistiT, 16, 367. Cheops, 203. Cheselden, 267. Chess, 53a 540. Chevaux-de-frise, 495. Chevron, 245. Chiaro, Oseuro, 524. Chie^ in Heraldry, 244, 245. Chili, 191, 240. Chimborazo, Mt, 190. China Ware, 47a Chinese Biography, 257. Chinese Callo^aphy, 292. Chinese Empire, 169. Chinese Language, 54. Chinese Architecture, 445. Chinese Tartary, 170. Chinese Wall, 169. Chin-India, 169, 215. Chippewayans, 185. Chirograpliy, 517. Chirurgery, 425. Chloride, 369. Chlorine, 416. Chnoub,130. Chocolttte, 471. Choice of Hercules, S86,
Choir, 447. Cholera, 424. Cholula,18a Chondropterygii, 381. Chosru and Shirin, 291. Chreotechnics, 34, 459. ChrisUbel,304 Christ, 144. Christiad, 187. Christian Church, 145. Christian Era, 198. Christian I., 230, 271. Christiania, 17a Christianity, 144. Christians, 145. Christians, 15a Christina, 231. Christopher, 271. Chromium, 371. Chronography, 34, 19a Chronography, Ancient, 201. Chronography, Oriental, 211. Chronography, European, 217. ChronMrraphy, American, 233. Chronotogy, 198. Chronometers, 479. Chrysostom, 150. Chuquisaca, 191. Chute d*un Ange, 300. Chyle, 410. Chyme, 410. Cicero, 253. Cider, 472.
Cid, Tales of the, 29& Cimbebas, 182. Cimhrica Chersonesus, 177. Cincinnati, I8a Cindnnatns, 208, 252. Circassia, 171. Circle, 329. Circuit Courts, 114. Circumference, 329. CircumvaUation, 497. Cirrhopoda. CivU Code, 117. Civil Code of Louisiana, lia Ciril Engineering, 447. Cival Law, 99. Clair.Obscuro, 524. Clapperton, 179. Clarendon, Earl o( 265. Classes, in Botany, 387. Classes in Nat Hist 374. Classic Architecture, 445. aassic MytholGeT, 132. Classification of SInowledge, 2a Classification Explained, 32. Clavicula, 407. Cleft, 535.
Clemens Alezandrinus, 150. Clemens Romanus, 149. Clement, 25a Cleopatra, 250. Clec^iatra, Ciqitive, 300. aimates, 163.
Digitized by
570
INDEX.
Climai:, 72. Clinicfl, 418. CUnton,DeWitt,S73. ainton, Geon 273. Clocks, 479. CloUilngr, 93, 479. COovis, ^3. Club-fbot, 428. CkMl Measures, 399. Cobalt, 371. Cobbe, 181. Cochin China, 169. Cochin Chinese Language, 54. Cochrane, Lord, 277. Cock-pit, 511. Coooon, 382, 476. Code, 99.
Code of Honor, 89. Code Napoleon, 117. Codex, 116. Codro8,207. Coffisr 0am, 449. r Wheels, 440.
Coins, 198, 483. Colbert, 262. Colbertism, 122. CoUc,424. Coligny, 262. CoUatinns, 252. CoUoquy,282. Cologne, 177. Colombia, 239. Cobmbiade, 299. Colonel, 499.
Cokmisation Society, 217. Color of Minerals, 392. Coloring, Art of, 525. Colors, Water, 525. Columbus, 183. Column, 444. Combattant, 246. Comedy, 281. Comets, 353. Commerce, 17, 459, 480. Commercial Law, 105, 109. Commissary General, 492. Commodore, 512. Common Law, 99. Common Roads, 449. Compass Needle, 365. Composing, 518. Composite Order, 446. Composition, 80. Compound Proportion, 79. Compound Proposition, 79. Compounds in Chemistiy, 368. Conception, 78. Conchology, 381. Concionero General, 296. Conde Lucanor, 297. Condi, 262. Condiments, 420. Conditions of Ezisience, 374. Condoroet, 264.
Conductors, 364 Cone, 330. Confectionary, 47 1 . Confederation of the IUmM,229. Confenion of Augsburgh, 155. Confucius, 135, 215, 257. Conglomerate, 397. Congo, 182.
Congregationalists, 156. Congress, 112. Congruity, 74. Conic Sections, 333, 335. Conjugal Duties, 89. Conjugate Hyperbolas, 336. Conjunction, 47. Conquest of Kasan, 309. Conrad, 22a Conscience, 88. Consentes, 132. Consolato del Mare, 109. Cnnstantine, 146, 209, 253. Constantinople, 172, 209. Constellations, 354. Constitutio Carolina, 117. Constitution, 99, 111. Constitutions of Clarendon,110. Constitutional Law, 110. Construction, 17. Consuls, 105, 20a Consumption, 422. Consumption of Wealth, 125. Continental Congre«^ 111, 235. Continents, 165. Contraband Articles, lOa Contract, 119. Contradictories, 79. Contraries, 79. Conundrum, 282» ConTentional Law, 98. Convex Surface, 331. Conveyance, 17. Conviction, 74. Cook, 184, 193. Cookery, 469, 470. Coordinates, 335. Copenhagen, 177. Copernicus, 272. Copper, 371, 434. Copperas, 371.
Copper Plate Engraving, 519. Coptic Church, 153. Coptic Language, 49. Copula, 7a Cordilleras Mts., 188. Cordova, 174. Corea, 169. Corinne, 301. Corinth, 173.
Corinthian Order, 443, 446. Coriolanus, 208, 252. Cork, 175. Cornea, 361. Corneille, 263. Cornice, 444. Cornish Language, 65.
Corol,385.
Corona, 446.
Coronet, 246.
Corporation, lia
Correggio, 260.
Corrosive Sublimate, 417.
Cortex, 184, 261, 276.
Corvette, 510.
Cosine, 334.
Cosmdogy, 33, 36.
Cotopaxi Mt, 190.
Cotton, 465, 482.
Cotton Manufaetnre, 474.
Couchant, 246.
Couching, 429.
Council of Chaloedon, 147.
Council of Constance, 319.
Council of Nice, 147.
Council of Trent, 153.
CounseUor,.103.
Counterpoint, 532.
Counterscarp, 494.
Countervallation, 497.
Course of Literature, 279.
Courts of Justice, 103.
Covenanters, 156.
Covert.w^, 494, 49a
Cowper, William, 266.
Cow pox, 422.
Cranium, 40a
Cranks, 440.
Cranmer, 266.
Crape, 47a
Cream of Tartar, 371.
Creative Arts, 514.
Credit, 482.
Creosus,20a
Cre8s;r,223.
Crimmal Law, 99.
CriUcism, 37, 70.
Croatia, 177.
Croatian Language, 65.
CronsUdt, 178.
Cross Lights, 524.
Crown, 246.
Crown, (Coin,) 483.
Crows, 509.
Crusades, 219.
Crustacea, 382.
Crystal, 391.
Crystallme Lens, 361.
Crystal Mts., 182.
CrystaUography, 390.
Ctenoidians, 381.
Cuama, 182.
Cufic Characters, 52.
Cuirass, 48a
CnUen, William, 267, 420.
Culprit Fay, 311.
Cultivation of Vegetables, 464.
Culverts, 450.
Curricle, 480.
Curried, 47a
Curtain, 496.
Customs, 125.
Digitized by
lETDBZ.
571
Catleiy, 478. Cavier, 364. Cycle, 22. Cyclic Poeta, 984. Cycloidal Pendulum, 346. CydoidiuiB, 381. Cy elope, 132. CyUnder, 330. Cylinder, Steam, 443. Cylindrical Projection, 333. Cymatium, 445. Cymbals, 480. Cynic School, 31. Cyrene, 180. Cyreniac School, 31. CyropiBdia, 92, 285. Czar, 332.
Dacia, 173.
Dactyl, 48.
Dactyls, 446.
Daffur, 135.
Dahomy, 181.
Dahnatia, 177.
Damascus, 167.
Damask, 476.
Dampier, 193.
Dancing, 540.
Daniel, 249.
Danish Callography, 30a
Danish Language, 64.
Dante, 259.
Danton, 36*2.
Dantzic, 177.
Danube, 176, 177.
Dardanos, 306.
Darftir, 181.
Darius, 305, 350.
Dauphiny, 174.
Davila, S&9.
David, 203, 349.
Davis, John, 184.
Davis's Quadrant, 455.
Davy, Sir H., 367, 364
Dead Reckoning, 457.
Dead Points, 534.
iDearbom, 480.
Dease,184.
Death of Abel, 306.
Deborah, 349.
Debouching, 507.
Decalogue, 140, 143.
Decatur, 374.
Decimal Fractions, 330.
Decimal Notation, 315.
Declaration of Independence,
335. Declination, 354. Defence of Places, 497. Defendant, 131. Defiladed, 495. Defiles, 506. Definitions, 78. De Kalb, 374.
Delagoa Bay, 182.
Delaware Language, 67.
Delhi, 168.
Del Norte, River, 188.
Delphi, 173.
Delphine, 301.
Demetrius, 350.
Demilune, 494, 496.
Democracy, 101.
Democritus, 353, 404.
Demosthenes, 351.
Demotic Characters, 50.
Demur, 131.
Denham, 179.
Denmark, 177, 330.
Denominate Numbers, 318.
Dentals, 43.
Dentils, 446.
Dentist, 439.
Dentifi-ice, 439.
Dermis, 409.
Deme, 180.
De Ruyter, 368.
Derschawin, 373.
Descartes, 83,364,332.
Descriptive Astronomy, 352.
Descriptive Botany, 388.
Descriptive Greology, 401.
Descriptive Geometry, 327,331 .
Descriptive Mineralogy, 393.
Descriptive Poetry, 280.
Detachment, 506.
Detritus, 400.
Deucalion, 206.
Dew Point, 367.
Dewtas, 134.
Dexter Chief, 244.
Dha Argiouxat, 290.
Diacritical Signs, 51.
Diagnostics, 418.
Diagonal, 329.
Dialogue, 383.
Diameter, 339.
Diana, 133.
Diaphoretics, 413.
Diaphragm, 409.
Diarrhoea, 433.
Diaz, Bartholomew, 179, 261.
Diatonic Scale, 532.
Dice, 538, 540.
Dicotyledonous Plants, 388.
Didactic Composition, 74.
Didactic Poetry, 280.
Dido, 205.
Didone Abbandonata, 295.
Diega Cam, 179.
Diet, 93.
Dietetics. 430.
Diet, German, 176.
Differential Calculus, 338.
Digestion, 416.
Dilemma, 80.
Diluvial Formations, 400.
Dionysiacs, 284.
Di<^ics, 356, 359.
Dip, in Geology, 398.
Dip, (MagneUc,) 365.
Diplomacy, 104.
Discount, 321.
Discours, 282.
Dislocation, 427.
Dispensatory, 413.
Disquisition, 383.
Distillation, 416.
Distemper Fainting, 535.
Distribution of Terms, 78.
Distribution of Wealth, 123.
District Courts, 114.
Ditch, 493.
Dithyrambs, 383.
Divan, 389.
Divina Commedia, 394.
Divinity, 145.
Divisibility, 343.
Division, 318.
Dnieper, 178.
Dniester, 178.
Docks, 45L
Doctrines of Christianity, 150.
Doctrines of the Jews, 142.
Doctrines of the Mohamedans,
138. Doddridge, 266. Dofirafield Mts., 178. Doge, 230. Dolce, Carlo, 360. Dolphins, 489, 509. Domenichino, 360. Domestic Animals, 465. Domestic Duties, 89. Domestic Economy, 469. Domiculture, 469. Dominic de Guzman, 154. Donmus, 358. Don, 178. Donjon, 494. Don Quizotte, 397. Don, Roderick, 331. Doria, 359. Doric Dialect, 56. Doric Order, 443, 445. Dormant, 346. Double Entry, 484. Double Speeder, 475. Doubloon, 483. Douro, 174. Dover's Powder, 415. Drains, 449, 463. Dragoons, 499. Drake, Sir Francis, 192. Dramatic Poetry, 381. Drawbridge, 493. Drawing, 533. Drawing Frame, 475. Dredging, 451. Dresden, 176. Dress Making, 476. Dronthiem, 178. Dropsy, 434. Druids, 136.
Digitized by
572
IVOKX.
Dnrden, Jofan, 366.
Dabliii,175.
Dncat,483.
Dans Sootos, 22,365.
Duodeciino, 531.
Dutch Lan^fiuge, 64.
Diitchmui*t Fiiesifle, 313.
Dutch School, 533.
Diitiei,135.
Dir«rft,136.
Dwigfat, T., 375.
Dwina,178.
Dyke, in Geology, 398L
l^jmainict, 345, 347.
l^jmamic Theory, 343.
I^eentery, 433.
I^spepm, 433.
Etf,409.
£tfth,353.
Earthy Materiak, 435.
Eastern Africa, 183.
Easter, 143.
East India Company, 315.
East Main, 185.
East Persia, 168.
Ebionites, 146.
Ebro,174.
Ecdesiastical Histonr, 145.
Ecclesiastical Law, 99.
Echelons, 50a
Echinodermata, 383.
Echinus, 445.
Eclectic School, 31.
Eclipse,353.
Ecliptic, 354.
Edda,308.
Edentata, 379.
Edict of Nantes, 155.
Edict of Worms, 154
Edinburgh, 175.
Edri8i,S5.
Education, 93.
Edward, 335, 364, 365.
Edwards, John, 375.
Egbert, 834, 364.
Egypt, 179.
Egyptian Alphabet, 49.
Epptian Mythology, 130.
Eleatic School, SO. ElectriciU, 363, 363. Electric Machine, 364. Electrics, 364. Electrode, 365. Electro-Magnetism, 366. Elegiac Poetry, 280. Elements, Chemical, 36a Elenchtic Theology, 153. Elenchus in Orbe, 80. Elijah, 349. EUot,375. £lisha,349. £lisont,130.
|EUjdrVitB,367. EUsabeth, 235, 333. Ellipw,336. Ellipsis, 47. Ehnanicus, 355. Elocutioo, 70. Elsinore, 177. Elysium, 133. Embargo, 107. EUnbraoeny, 130. Embrasures, 495. Emetics, 413. EmissiTC Theory, 35a Emmett, T. A., 275. EUnphasis, 44. Empire of Japan, 170. Enamel, 439. Encampment, 50a Encaustic Painting, 533. Encyclopedias, 2a Engineer, 447. Engineering, 493. English Lamruage, 63. En^^ing, 517. Eugma,283. Enoch, 34a Enos,34a Entablature, 444. Enthymeme, 80. Entomo]p^,383. Ento«M,383. Enunciation, 7a Envoys Extraordinary, 104. Epea Ptertienta, 43. Ephesiaca,385. Epichirema, 80. Epic Poetry, 380. Epicurean Sect, 21. Epigsa, 39a Epiglottis, 411. Epigram, 381. Epiffraphica, 19a
Spinaph Epifepsy,
434.
Epilogue. 381. Epirus, 173. Epischescfl, 434. Episcopalians, 15a Epitaphs, 380. Epopeia, 380. Epsom Salts, 371, 415. Equador, 190, 339. Equation, 334. Equinoctial Points, 354. Equihiteral Triangle, 338. Equilibrium of JFluids, 34a Equity, 99. £!quipments, 491. Equivalents, 369. Equivocation, 80. Erasmus, 36a Eratosthenes, 161. Erethismi, 433. Eric, 331. Ermine, 345. Eruptive Diseases, 433.
Erythreum Mare, 167.
Ers Mountains, 17a
Escarpment, 398.
Esoovar, 179.
Eseutcheoii, 344.
Esquimaux Indiana, 185, 333.
Esquimaux Language, Ca
Essay, 283.
Essenea,144
Estate, 119.
£ste,25a
Estotiland, 183.
Etching, 519.
Ethelbald, 26^
Ether, 414.
Ethka,87.
Ethiopia, 178, 183.
Ethnology, 33, 159.
Etiology, 4ia
Etna, 173.
Etymology, 44.
Eucharist, 150.
Eudassic Biography, 24a
Eochssic Chronograpl^, 201.
Eudassic Callography, 283.
Eadid,21,252.
Euclid's Elements, 327.
EudQxua,327.
Euler, 27a
EulogT,243.
Euripides, 251.
Europe, 171.
European Biography, 257.
European Callography, 293.
European Chronography, 317.
European Geography, 171.
European Languages, 55.
Eusebius, 14a 150.
Eustachiua,405.
Eiltogva, 393.
Evangelical Union, 22a
Evecbon,355.
Evdina,305.
Evidence, 81.
Ehridenoes of Christianity, 150.
Evolution, 321.
Evolutions of the Line, 501 .
Exanthemata, 433.
Exchange of Wealth, 124.
Excise, 135.
Exdtation, 75.
Executive Power, 113.
Executors, 119.
Exercise, 93.
Exhortation, 75.
Elxordium, 75.
Expedition of Igor, 309.
Explication, 75.
Explosion of Steam Boilers,
454. Extension, 343. Extensors, 40a Extreme Unction, 153. Ezekiel, 349. Exra, 141, 349.
Digitized by
INDEX.
573
Faber, J 29.
Fabius, 252.
Fables, 282.
Fabricias, 252.
Facade, 444.
Fahrenheit, 270, 362.
Fairies, 136.
Fairweather, Mount, 185.
Fairy Queen, 301.
Fallacy, 80.
Farce, 281.
Farming, 461.
Farriery, 465.
Fates, 1.33.
Fault in Mines, 398, 435.
Faunae, 376.
Faust, 307.
Febre8,421.
Febrile EKseases, 421.
Feeders, 450.
Fellatahs, 181.
Fellenberg, 92.
Fellowship, 321.
Felting, 476.
Fencing, 539.
Fencing Land, 463.
Ferdinand of Germany, 269.
Ferdinand of Spain, 221, 228.
Ferdusi, 256.
Fertilizing the Soil, 464.
Fess, 244, 245.
Feudal Laws, 117.
Feudal System, 110.
Fevers, 421.
Fez, 180, 21 L
Fezzan, 180.
Fibrin, 372.
Fibuh^ 407.
Fiefii, 117.
Field Fortifications, 494.
Field Sports, 538.
Figures of Speech, 72.
FifiTure of a Syllogism, 79.
FiGal Duties, 89.
Fine Arts, 17,514.
Fmgal and Temora, 302.
Fiidand, 178.
Fire Arms, 489.
Fisher, A. M., 279.
Fishing, 539.
Fkig Ship, 512.
Flanders, 175.
Flanks, 496.
Flasque, 245.
Fleet, 508.
Flemish School, 523.
Fleury, 262.
Flexors, 408.
Florence, 173.
Florentine School, 522.
Florida, 237.
Floridian Language, 67.
Florm, 483.
Flower Garden, 466.
Fluid, 343.
Fluorine, 370.
Flute, 479.
Flux, 392.
Fluxions, 315, 337.
Fly Leaves, 520.
Fohi, 215.
Foils, 539/
Folio, 521.
Fontauie, 263.
FontencUe, 263.
Fontcnoy, 223.
Foremast, 453.
Foresters, 312.
Foreshortening, 524
Forging, 435.
Formation, in Geology, 398.
Form of plants, 385.
Form, (in Printing,) 518.
Formosa, 169.
Fort, 493.
Fortification, 493.
Fossil, 389.
Foundations, 444.
Fountain, 467.
Fractions, 3 J 9.
Fracture, 427.
France, 174.
Francia, Dr., 241.
Francis, 229, 262, 269.
Franconian dialect, 63.
Frankfort, 177.
Frankish Empire, 227.
Franklin, Benjamin, 273, 362.
Franklin, Sir John, 184.
Franks, 223.
Fraternal Duties, 89.
Frederick Barbarossa, 228.
Frederick of Denmark, 271.
Frederic, VI., 230.
Frederick the Great, 269.
Frederick William, 230.
Frederickton, 186.
Freetown, 181.
French and Indian Wars, 235.
French Callography, 298.
French Language, 60.
French Revolution, 224.
Frftrcs Ennemis, 300.
Fresco, 525.
Friction, 347.
Friendly Islands, 195.
Friendship, 90.
Frieze, 444.
Frigate, 510.
Frisii, 176.
Frobisher, 184.
Fructification, 385.
Fulton, R., 276.
Furies, 133.
Furnaces, 435.
Fumeaux, 193.
Furniture, 477.
Fuses, 491.
Fusils, 246.
Futtocks^ 453.
73
Gaelic Language, 64.
Galaxy, 354.
Galen, 252, 405, 419.
Galicia, 177.
GalUee, 167.
GalUeo, 259, 352.
Galinea, 394.
Gall, 83.
Galley, 518.
Galleys, 508.
Gallia Cisalpina, l73.
Gallinacess, 379.
Gallon, 484.
Galvanism, 364.
Galvanometer, 366.
Games of Chance and Skill, 540.
Ganges, 168.
Ganglia, 408.
Ganoidians, 381.
Ganuputyus, 134.
Garonne, 174.
Garrison, 493.
Gassendi, 264.
Gases, 349.
Gasteropoda, 381.
Gaston de Foix, 262.
Gastroliury, 285.
Gates, Horatio, 274.
Gauls, 174.
Gauze, 475.
Gaya Ciencia, 296
Gazelle, 289.
Gaznarides, 213.
Geber, 255.
Gehenna, 139.
Gelatin, 372.
Gremara, 144.
Gems, 478.
Genealogy, 243.
Genera, 374, 388.
General, Anatomy, 406.
Geneva, 176.
Genghis Khan, 212,214, 316.
Genii, 138.
Genius, 73.
Genlis, Madame de, 264.
Genoa, 173, 220.
Grenseric, 209.
Greognosy, 395.
Geography, 18, 34, 160.
Geography, Asiatic, 165.
Geography, European, 171.
Greography, African, 178.
Geography, American, 183.
GeoffTaphy, Oceanic, 192.
Geology, 395.
Geometrical Progression, 321.
Geometrical Proportion, 320.
Geometry, 327.
George of England, 326, 365.
Georgia, 171.
Georgics, 287.
Geotactios, 498.
Grerman Alphabet, 63.
Grerman Callography, 306.
Digitized by
574
INDEX.
German Langiufe, 63.
German SchooirS23. ^
Germanic ConMeration, 176,
Germany, 176, 227.
Gerry, Elhridffc, 275.
Gertrudo of Wjoming, 303.
Gesner, 375.
Gesticulation, 76.
Ghent, Peace of, 237.
Ghibelinea, 220.
Ghiznec, 168.
Gibbon, Edward, 266.
Gideon, 249.
Gilanes, 179.
GUbert,Dr.362.
GilBlaa,301.
GUding, 479.
Gin, 472.
Giorgiooe, 260.
GiroD il Cortew, 295.
Glacis, 497.
Gladiators, 537.
Glasgow, 175.
Glass, 371, 47a
GUober*s Salts, 37K
Glossology, 33, 40.
Glottis, 411.
Gly^ography, 530.
Gneiss, 397.
Gnomic Poetry, 384.
Gnostics, 146.
Goa,169.
Godfh}y, of Bosilkni, 263.
Godfrey, T., 276.
Godfrey's Qnadfant, 455.
Goethe, 270.
Gold, 371.
GMen Boll, 110.
Golden Nomber, 30a
GoDdar, 181.
Goniometer, 391.
Gonnerille, 192.
Gonsal^o, 260.
Gonzago, 240.
Gorgons, 133.
Gormo,230.
Gothic Langnages, 62.
Gothic Styled Architecture,
443 447. Gotteilbergi 178. Gottsched, 270. Gout, 422. Governors, 115, Governor in Machinery, 442. Gracchus, 253. Gracefulness, 74. Graces, 133. Grafting, 468. Grains, 465. GraUatoriffi, 379. Grammar, 17. Grammar, Classified, 43. Grammar, Genera], 42. Grandeur de Dieu, 299. Grandison, Sir C, 305.
Grand Jury, 103. Grand Tactics, 503. Grand Year, 351. Granite, 397, 436. GranuUtion, 428. Graperies, 468. Grape Shot, 491. Graphology, 43. Grasses, 465. Gratitude, 90. Graver, 519. GraviUtion, 343. Gravity, 34a Graywacke, 397. Great Britain, 175. Great VaUey, 401. Grecian Biography, 350. Grecian CaUography , 283. Greece, 172, 206. Greek Alphabet, 56. Greek Catholic Church, 153. Greek Language, 55. Greene, Nath.^ 274. Green-houses, 467.. Greenland, 184. Gregorian Calendar, 200. Gregory. 150, 258. Grenade, 491. Grotius, 26a
Grounds of Judgment, 81. Guardant, 346. Guards, 506. Guatimak, 168, 33a Guatimozin^ 237. Gnebres, 131. GneUB,220>. Gueriefce,270. Guesclin,269. Guiana, 190, 239. Guicciandini, 259. Guido Reni, 260. Guinea, (coin,) 483. Guinea, 181. Guinea Dialects, 67. Guise, Henry of, 262. Gules, 245. Gulistan, 391. Gun^eck, 510. Gunners, 501. Gunpowder, 468, 490. GttsUvus Vasa, 231, 271. Gutturals, 43. Gymnasium, 536, Gymnastics, 536,539. Gypsum, 435.
Hacon,231. Hades, 132. Hiematica, 421. HaBmorrhagin, 423w Hafiz,256. Hagedorn, 270. Hagiographa, 141. Hague, 176. Hsil Columbia, 310.
Hainan, 169.
Hales, Alex., 265.
Hales, Dr., 199.
Hale, Sir Matthew,865*
Halifax, 186.
Halinea, 394.
Haller,26a
Halo, 360.
Halyards, 454.
Hamasah,289.
Hamburg, 177.
HamUcar, 206.
Hamilton, Alex., 374.
Hancock, John, 273.
Handd, 271.
Hannibal, 206.
Hanno,161.
Hanover, 176.
Hanseatic League, 481.
Hapsburg, 229.
Harbor Lnprovements, 450.
Hardness of Minerals, 399.
HardvTare, 47a
Harmattan, 164.
Harmony, 533.
Haroon al Rasheed, 313^ 355.
Harp, 479.
Harquebuss, 489.
Harriot, 322.
HarrisQD, W. H., 375.
Hartag, Dirk, 193.
Hartshorn, 371.
Han Mis., 17a
Harvanl,J.,375.
Harvey, 405.
Hastati,504.
Hastings, 225.
Hatchway, 453.
Hats, 47a
Hauberk.
Hauy, 264, 390.
Havana, 18a
Hayden, 271.
Hayti, 188, 23a
Header, 43a
Heame,184.
Hebe, 133.
Heber, Reginald, 26a
Hebrew Alphabet, 51.
Hebrew Language, 50.
Hebron, 205.
Hegira, 137.
Hehnet, 246, 48a
Hehnmthology, 383.
Helvetic Republic, 237.
Hengist, 224.
Henry of England, 325, 265.
Henry of France, 262.
Henry, Patrick, 273.
Heoo-oo-tay, 216.
Heptarchy, 224.
Heradide, 206.
Heraclitus, 252.
Heraldry, 34a
Hermann and Dorothea, 306.
Digitized by
IUDBX.
575
Hermes, 26, 43. Hermetic Art, 367. Hemhuters, 158. Herodotus, 161, 303, 251. Hcrophilus, 405, 418. Herpetology, 379. Herschell, 267. Hervas, 41. Hesiod, 251. Heaee Cassel, 177. Hesse Darmstadt, 177. Hezekiah, 202, 249. Hibemia, 175. Hicksites, 158. Hieratic Characters, 50. Hierogrlyphics, 49. Hillel, 249. HimmalehMt8.,]68. Hindoo Architecture, 445. Hindoo Bion'aphy, 2i56. Hindoo CaUogrraphy, 291. Hindoo Mythology, 133. Hindoostan, 168, 214. Hindostanee Language, 53. Hippocrates, 252, 327, 403,
404, 418. Hispania, 173. Hisponiola, History of, 238. History, 18, 196. History Ancient, 201. History Oriental, 211. History European, 217. History American, 233. Jmstriones, 287. Hitop^desa, 292. Hoang-Ho, 169. Hobart, 275. Hobbes,83. Hoffarth, William, 267. Hohem ZoUem, 230. Holbein, 268, Hold, 510. Holland, 176. Holstein, 177. Holy rood, 447. Homer, 251. HomflDopathy, 420. Honorins, 209. Hopital, 262. Hopkinson, T., 275. Hoplistics, 487. Hoplitai, 504. Horace, 254. Horeb, 167.
HorizoDtal Projection, 331. Horology, 479. Horses, 465. Horse-power, 442. Hortensius, 253. Horticulture, 466. Horus, 131. Hosack, Dr. 276. Hoeea,249. HoiJiouses, 467. Hottentot Language, 68.
Hottentots, 182. Houris, 139.
House-keeping, 469, 470. House of Commons, 111. Howitzer, 489. Hudson, Henry, 184. Hudson's Bay Company, 234. Hugh Capet, 223, 262. Huguenots, 155. Hulakoo Khan, 213. Hull of a Vessel, 453. Humboldt, 270. Hume, 83, 266. Hungary, 177. Hunter, John, 267. Husbandry, 461. Huss, 154, 269. Hutchinson, 273. Hutton, 267. Huygens, 268. Hyafmea, 394. Hycsoe, 203. Hyder Ali, 215. Hydrica, 345, 348. Hydrogen, 369. Hydrophobia, 424. Hydrostatics, 34a Hygienics, 420. Hygrometer, 367. Hylurgy, 433. Hyperbola, 336. Hyperbole, 72. Hypochondriasis, 423. Hypogaea, 393. HypoUienuse, 328. Hyix>thetical (Nropositions, 76. Hysterics, 424.
Iambus, 48.
Icelandic Language, 64.
Iceland Moss, 41 £
Ichthyofegy, 380.
Idea, 78.
Ideas, 82.
Idiographie Mineralogy, 391.
Idiophysics, 34, 373.
Idyl, 280.
Ignatius, 149.
Iliad, 284.
Ilion, 206.
Illyria, 177.
Illyrian Language, 65^
lilyricum, 172.
Imagination, 86.
Imitation, 74.
Imitative Arts, 514.
Imperial Canal, 169.
Imprisonment, 120.
Ind-American Mythology, 136.
Independents, 156.
Independent Tartary, 170.
Index Rerum, 13.
Indians, 233.
Indian Wars, 235.
Indiction, 200.
Indies, 168.
Indra,134.
Induction, 77, 81.
Induction Electric, 364.
Inertia, 343.
Inez de Castro, 298.
Infallibility of the Church, 153.
Infant Schools, 97.
Infante, 222.
Infantry, 499.
Infantry Tactics, 499.
Inferior Planets, 353.
Infernal Judges, 133.
Inflammations, 421.
Information, 74.
Infusoria, 383.
Innocent, Pope, 258.
Inoculation, 419.
Inquisition, 154, 219.
Insecta, 376, 382.
Inspector General, 505.
Institutes, 116.
Institutes of Medicine, 418.
Insurance, 321.
Intaglio, 527.
Integral Calculus, 340.
Interest, 321.
Internal Fiies, 480.
International Law, 105.
Interrogation, 73.
IntervJ, 533.
Intrenchments, 494.
Involution, 321.
Iodine, 370.
Ionian Islands, 173.
Ionic Dialect, 56.
Ionic Order, 443, 446.
Ionic Sohod, 20.
Ipecacuanha, 414.
Iphigenia, 307.
Irehuid, 175, 226.
Irensus, 150.
Iris, 361.
Irish Language, 65.
Iron. 371.
Irony, 72.
Iroquois Language, 66.
Irawaddy, 169.
Irritability, 403.
Isaac, 140,248.
Isaiah, 249.
Ishmael, 140.
Isis, 130.
Islam, 137.
Ismail Sophi, 213.
Isocrates, 251.
Isosceles triangle, 328.
Isoporrika, 3461
Ispahan, 168.
Israel, 140.
Isthmus of Suez, 178.
Italia Liberata, 294.
Italian Biography, 258.
Italian Calk>grapliy, 294.
Italian Language, 58.
Digitized by
576
IVDBZ.
[U]ia Propria, 173. [talian RepaUica, 220. ItaUc SchooU 20. Ulj. 173, 220. iturbide, Aognstm, 237. [vuhoe, 305.
facob, 140, 240. fa^neUonida, 309. fainaa, 135.
laica, 168, 23a fames the Greater, 145. fames the Less, 145. lames of En(f buid, 225, 265. fames of So^iand, 226. famy. 256. fanizaries, 213. fanofl, 133.
Fapanese Lanfoafe, 54. Tataa, 135^ faandica, 424. fava, 192, 217. ravelin, 468. Tay, J<jm, 273. fcddo, 170.
^efferwm, Thomas, 273. fehan Ghire, 257. Fehoaaphat, 249. Tehu, 249. fephthah, 249. tephthah's Daughter, 311. feroboam, 202, 249. Jerome, 150, 269. ferusalem, 167, 209. ferosalem, Delivered, 294. ressieo, 264. Jesuits, 154,219. ^etteaux, 467. tetties,451.
fewish Biomphy, 248. rewish ScrTptnres, 141. ^ews, 140. ^ohn, AposUe, 146. 'ohn of Enghuid, 225, 265. 'ohn of Poland, 272. Fohn, Pope, 256. ^ohnsonf273. loinery, 437. fones, John Paul, 274.
ODson, Ben, 266. foseph. 140, 246. FoscphuB, 249. foshua, 141, 246. fosiah, 249. fubilee Year, 143. fudaimi, 140. fodat lacariot, 146. fudgment, 78. rudffes, 103, 113.
jcial Power, 113. fulian Calendar, 200. fulian Period, 200. Jupiter, 132. Jurisdiction, 104.
urisprudenoe, 17, 98.
Jury, 103. Justice, 90. Justin Martyr,U50. Justinian, 209/254. Jutland, 177. Juvenal, 254.
Kali.Yug, 134, 199.
Kant, 83, 269.
Karaites, 144.
Keel, 453.
Keelson, 453.
Keepers, 365.
Kenmoo, 181.
Kenneth Mac Alpine, 226.
Kepler, 270, 352.
Kerat,16a
Kerrum Khan, 214.
Khadijah, 137.
Khaled,255.
Khorasan,213.
Kiang Ku, 169.
Kidneys, 411.
Kingdoms of Nature, 373.
Kingston, 166.
Kircher, 270.
Kitchen Gardening, 468.
Klopstock, 270.
Knees of Ships, 453.
Knights of the Round Table,
296. Knistenaux, 185. Knots, 457. Knowledge, 19. Komer, 270. Koran, 137. Kosciusko, 232, 272. Krusenstem, 272. Kublay Khan, 216.
Labials, 43. Labrador, 185. Lace, 474. Lacediemon, 173. Lactantius, 150. Lactoals, 410. Ladislaus, 232. La Fayette, 263. Lagrange, 264. Lahore, 169. Lamaism, 135. Lamartine, 264. Lamech, 248. Lancaster, Mr., 93. Lander, John, 179. Land Tax, 125. Landscape Gardening, 467. Language, 40. Language, Universal, 42. Languages, 17. Languedoe, 174. Langue d*Oc, 60. Langue d*Oui, 60. La reyrouse, 263. Laplace, 264.
Lai^and, 178.
La PUta, 191,240.
Larboard Tack, 511.
Larceny, 120.
Lartius,252.
Larvc,382.
Larynx, 411.
Las Partidas, 59.
Lassa, 170.
Latent Caloric, 363.
Lateran Council, 154.
Latimer, Hugh, 266.
Latin language, 57.
Latitude, 354, 458.
Lattakoo, 182.
Trfindannm, 415.
Lavalle, Gen., 278.
Lavata,26a
Lavoisieff, 264.
Law, 98, 141.
Lawn, 474.
Lawrence, James, 274.
Laws of Combination, 368L
Laws of Crimes, 120.
Laws of NatioDs, 106, 107.
Laws of Oleron, 109.
Laws of Persons, 1 1 8.
Laws of Procedure, 120.
Laws of Property, 119.
Lay of the Last Minstrel, 304.
Lazarilla de Torme^ 297.
Lead, 371, 435.
Leaden Tablets, 516.
League of Smakalden, 155.
Leather, 476.
Leaves of Phuita, 385.
Lebbeus, 146.
Le Brut, 298.
Ledger, 484.
Lee, R. H., 273.
Legato, 534.
Leger Lines, 534.
Leghorn, 173.
Legion, 498.
Legislative Power, 102, 112.
Legislatures, 115.
Lehman, 395.
Leibnitz, 270, 337.
Leila and Meinoun, 291.
Lemberg, 177.
Lenses, 359.
Leo I., 258.
Leo III., 218.
Leopold, 227, 269.
Leonides,207.
Leon, Louis de, 961.
Leon, Ponce de, 184.
Leprosy, 424.
Lessing, 270.
Letters, 262.
Leuwenhoek, 268.
Levant, 167.
Lewis of Fkance, 262.
Lexicology, 44.
Lexingtiui, 235.
Digitized by
IITDEX.
677
Leyden Jar, 364. Lias, 399. Liberia, 181. Libraries, 23. Libya, 180. Libyan Desert, 180. Lichteafeis, 185. Lieoo-panff, 216. Light, 356. Lights, 524. Lima, 190. Limber, 490. Lime, 436.
Line in Geometry, 328. Linen Manu^ture, 474. Lines of Operation, 506. Linguistics, 40. Liniers, 240. 278. LinniBos, 271, 375, 384. Linwoods, 312. Lisbon, 174. Lister, 375. Literature, 24. Lithography, 517, 520. Liturgy, 156. Liver, 411. Liverpool, 175. Livingston, 273. Livy, 253. Loadistone, 365. Loango, 182. Lobena,4l4. Locke, 83. Locks, 448, 450. Looomofive Engine, 450. Log, 457.
Logarithms, 323, 326. Logic, 77. Log Line, 455. Loke, 136. Lombardo-Venctia, 220.
Lombards, 220.
Lombard School, 523.
Lorabardy, 173, 177.
London, 175.
Longimetry, 328.
Longinos, 252.
Longitude, 354, 458.
Longomontanes, 271.
Looms, 474.
Lophobranchi, 381.
Lorcnz Stark, 307.
Lorraine, Claude, 264.
Lothaire, 228.
Louis IX^ 223.
Louisburg, 234.
Loub d*Or, 483.
Louisiana, 236.
Lowjer Guinea, 182.
Lozenges, 246.
Lubec, 177.
Lucca, 173.
Lucque, Hernandez, 154.
Lucretius, 254.
Lugdunensis, 174.
Luke, 146.
Limar Caustic, 371, 415.
Lunation, 353.
Lungs, 410. ^
Lusiad, 297.
Lusitania, 174.
Lustre of Minerals, 392.
Lutherans, 155.
Luther, Martin, 154, 269.
Luxemberg, 175.
Lycurgus, 207.
Lydia, 206.
Lyell, 396.
Lymph, 410.
Lyons, 174.
Lyre, 479.
Lyric Poetry, 280.
Lyrical Ballads, 302.
Lysander, 207, 251.
Lysias, 251.
Maccabees, 203. Macedonia, 207. Maceration, 416. MachetechnicB, 34, 485. MachiavelU, 259. Machichoulis, 494. Machine, 438. Machinery, 438. Machine Paper, 520. Mackenzie, 184. Mackenzie's River, 185. Mackintosh, 266. Madagascar, 179, 183. Madarias, 183. Madison, 274. Madras, 168. Madrid, 174. Madrigal, 281. Maelstrom, 178. Maese, 176.
Magadhi Language, 53. Magadoxa, 183. Magazine, 510. Magdalena, 190. Magellan, 189, 192,261. Magic Lantern, 361. Magna Charta, 110. Magna GroBcia, 173. Magnesium, 370. Magnet, 362. Magnetism, 365. Mahmoud, 214. Mainmast, 453. Main Spring, 479. Mahabharat, 214. Maize, 465. Malacca, 169. Malacology, 381. Malacoptenygii, 380. Malay Language, 53, 68. Malaysia, 193. Malek Shah, 213. Malte Brun, 269. Mamelukes, 211.
Mammalia, 376. Management of a Discourse.
75. Manchester, 175. Manco Capac, 239. Mandeville, 166. Mandingo Lanjruage, 67. Mandingoes, 181. Manetho, 203, 250. Manganese, 371. Manks Language, 65. Manheim, 176. Manoeuvres of Fleets, 512. Manslaughter, 120. Mantchoo, 216. Mantchooria, 170. Manual, 501. Manual Exercise, 500. Manual Labor System, 97. Manufactures, 17, 459. Manure, 464. Marat, 262. Marathon, 207. Maravis, 182. MarcelluB, 252. Marches, 506. Marco Biozarris, 258. Mariana, 161. Marine Deities, 133. Marine Insurance, 109. Mariner's Compass, 363. Marine Telegraph, 521. Maritime Law, 105, 108. Marius, 208, 253. Mark, 146. Maria Theresa, 229. Marion, Francis, 274. Mar&raret, 230. Marlborough, Duke of, 265. Marriage of Figaro, 300. Mars, i32. Marseilles, 174. Marsha], 103, 244. Marshall, John, 273. Marshallmg of Arms, 246. Marsupiala, 378. Martel, Charles, 223. Martial Law, 99, 115. Martial, 254.
Martyrs, Chateaubriand's, 299. Mary of England, 265. Maseles,246. Masonry, 436. Masora, 141. Massaniello, 308. Massilon, 263. Mast, 453. Mastersingers, 307. Mastodon, 399. Matchlock, 489. Mathematical Geography, 161. Mathematics, 16, 34, 314. Mather, Cotton, 275. Matter, 342. Matthew, 146.
Digitized by
578
IHDEX.
Mauritius, 183.
MauMlufl, 206.
Mavrocordato, 258.
MaximiUan, 228, 269.
Maypo, 240.
Mayer, 270.
Mazology, 378.
Mazarin, 262.
Measles, 422.
Measure, in Music, 534.
Measure of Planes, 329.
Mecca, 167.
Mechanical Arts, 432.
Mechanical Powers, 347.
Mechanics, 345.
Mecklenburg^, Schwerin, 177.
Medals, 198.
Medical Jurisprudence, 404.
Medici. 259.
Medicine, 16, 402, 412, 416.
Medina, 167.
Medulla Oblongata, 408.
Me^raric School, 21.
Megatherium, 3^.
Meghaduta, 292.
Mehemet Ali,211.
Melancthon, 155, 269.
Mela, Pomponius, 161.
Melinda,183.
Melodrama. 281.
Melody, 533.
Memoirs, 243.
Memoty, oo.
Memnon,203.
Memphis, 179. Mendana, 1
. 184, 193.
M«iuloia,940,961,378. Bfoiesis, 199. Mennonites, 157. Menou, 133. Mental PhUosophy, 89L Mental Sciences, 17. Mercantile Law, 99. Mercantile Rules, 321. Mercantile System, 122. Mercator, 26a Mercator*s Sailing, 457. Mercury, 132. Mero^gian Dynasty, 223. Mesopotamia, 166. Mesra, 138. Messenia, 172. Messiad, 306. Messiah, 144. Messiah, Pope's, 302. Metalepsis, 73. Metallic Chemistry, 370. Metallic Materials, 434. MetaUiftctures, 478. Metallinea, 394. Metallurgy, 433, 435. Metamorphic Rocks, 398. Metamorphoses, 287; of In. sects, 382.
MeUphor, 72.
Metaphysics, 36, 82.
Metastasio, 259.
MeteoiWogy, 366.
Metellns, 253.
Methodists, 157.
Method of Indivisibles, 337.
Methuselah, 248.
Meton, 252, 351.
Metonic Cycle, 200.
Metonjrmy, 73.
Metopes, 445.
M^tromanie, 300.
Mettemich, 269.
Mexican Languages, 67.
Mexico, 188, 237.
Mezzotinto Engraving, 520.
Miaco, 170.
Mica Slate, 397.
Middle Lat Sailing, 457.
Middle Tints, 524.
Midshipmen, 511.
Michael Angelo, 260.
Michaux, 384.
Microcosm, 402.
Microscope, 357.
Midas, 206.
Mieczyslas, 231.
Milan, 220.
Mills, 439.
MUtiades, 251.
MUton,266.
Mina, 260, 277.
Minaret, 445.
Mineral, 389.
Mineralogy, 389.
Minerva, 132.
Mines, 494.
Miniature, 599.
Mining, 435.
Ministers, 104.
Minnesingers, 306.
Minstrels, 242.
Miranda, Gen., 239, 277.
Miracles, 151.
Mishna, 144.
Missolonghi, 173.
Missions, 148.
Mississippi, 186.
Missouri, 186.
Mitchell, S. L., 276.
Mithras, 131.
Mithridatcs, 41.
Mitre, 143, 246.
Mixed MathemaUcs, 314, 342.
Mizenmast, 453.
Mizraim, 203.
Mnemonics, 37.
Moallacat, 289.
Modal Propositions, 78.
Modelling, 528.
Modena, 173.
Moeris, 203.
Moesia, 172.
Mohamed, 137, 210.
Mohamedanism, 137.
Mohs,270. •
MQliere,263.
Molluscs, 381.
Moloch, 132.
Molucca, Isles, 194.
Mombas, 182.
Momentum, 346.
Monarchy, 101.
Monastic System, 148.
Moneutal, 78.
Money, 124.
Monochrome, 522.
Mongolia, 170.
Monoootyledonous Plants, 389«
Monomaiehy, 309.
Monopoly, 123.
Monrovia, 181.
Monsoons, 164, 366.
Montanabbi, 255.
Montaigne, 264.
Montecuci^, 269.
Montesquieu, 263.
Montezuma, 237.
Montevideo, 191,241.
Montgomery, 274.
Month, 200.
Montmorency, 262.
Montreal, 186.
Mood in Logic, 79.
Mood of Verbs, 46.
Moon, 353.
Moors, 180,922.
Moral Beauty, 74.
Moral Law, 142.
Moral Philosophy, 87.
Moral Sense, 88.
Moral Sublimity, 73.
Moravia, 177.
Moravians, 158.
Morea,172.
Morgan, Daniel, 274.
Morocco, 180, 212.
Morphia, 372.
Morris, Robert, 273.
Mortars, 489.
Mortar, 436.
Mortgage, 119.
Mortices, 437.
Morveau, 264.
Mosaic Work, 525.
Mosambique, 2 1 7.
Mo«3ow, 178.
Moses, 140, 248.
Moslems, 137.
Moeque, 139.
Motasim, 255.
Motazalites, 139.
Motle)r Assembly, 311.
Mouldings, 445.
Mounds, 493.
Mount Blanc, 176.
Mourning Bride, 304.
Mourzouk, 180.
Moxa,428.
Digitized by
INDEX.
579
MozBrnbiqaOf 183.
Moxart, 271.
MuiexnxL, 139.
Mufti, 139.
Mole Jenny, 474, 475.
Multiplication, 318.
Multiplication Table» 316.
Mumps, 4S22.
Munich, 176.
Municipal Law, 116.
Murat, 262.
Murder, 120.
Muriatic Acid, 370.
MnriUo, 261.
Muscat, 167.
Muflchenbrock, 268.
Muscles, 407.
Muses, 133.
Music, 531.
Musical Composition, 535.
Musical Instruments, 479.
Musical Notation, 534.
Musical Productions, 535.
Musk, 415.
Muslins, 475.
Mustapha, 213.
Mutual Instruction, 93, 97.
Mutules, 445.
Mylitta, 131.
Myolo|ry, 407.
Mysteries, 296.
Mysteries of Udolpho, 305.
Mythobgy, 129.
Nabonassar, 904.
Nabopolassar, 204.
Naddodr, 171.
Nadir Shah, 214.
Nankin, 169.
Nantes, 174.
Napier, 267.
Napier's Analogries, 335w
Naples, 173.
Napoli, 173.
Narbonensis, 174.
Narcotics, 414.
Narra^ansett War, 235.
Narrative, 74.
Nasals, 44.
Nassir Eddin, 256.
Natiian,249.
Nation, 105.
National Institute, 22, 23.
Natural History, 16, 373.
Natural Key, 534.
Natural Law, 98.
Natural Philosophy, 16, 342.
Natural Religion, 127.
Natural Theology, 150.
Naufragio, 297.
NaumachiflD, 537.
Naval Armament, 510.
Naval Engagements, 511.
Naval Signal 509.
Naval T&ctics, 508.
Navarino, 173. Nave, 447. Navigation, 455. Navitactics, 508. Navitecture, 451. Navy, 508. Nebuchadnezzar, 204. Nebulas, 354. Necho, 204. Necker, 262. Necrology, 243. Negative Electricity^ 364. Nehemiah, 249. Neitii, 130. Nelson, 265. Nelson River, 185. Nephtiiys, 131. Nepos, 243. Neptune, 132. Neptumon Theory, 396. Nero. 253. Nerva, 253. Nerves, 408. Nervous. Fluid, 403. Nervous Diseases, 423. Nestorian Church, 153. Nestorius, 147. Netiierlands, 176, 227, Neuralgia, 423. Neurol<^, 408. Neutrality, 108. New Brunswick, 234. Newfoundknd, 234. New Grenada, 190, 239. New Guinea, 68, 194. New Hemhut, 185. New Nortii Wales, 185. New Orleans, 186. New Soudi Wales, 185. Newspapers, 517. New Style, 200. New Testament, 149. Newton, 267. 322, 337. New World, 233. New York, 186. New Zealand. 194. Nicholas, 232. Nickel, 37L Nicolaitans, 146. Niger. 181. Nightmare, 423. Nigritia, 181. Nile, 179. Nimrod, 204. Nineveh, 166, 204. Nitre, 371. Nitric Etiier, 415. Nitrogen, 369. Niutche, 216. Noachian Deluge, 200. Noah, 248. Nodes, 352. Noel, 179. Noetica, 30. Nominalists, 21.
Nomology, 34. 98,
Non.metallic Chemistry, 368.
Noology, 33.
Normal Surgery, 427.
Norman Lesley, 312.
Nomas, 136.
Northern Africa, 179.
North America, 183.
Northern Europe, 177.
Northern War, 231.
North Georgian Islands, 185.
Norway, 178.
Norwegian Language, 64.
Nosology. 418.
Notation, 317.
Nott, 135.
Noun, 45.
Nova Zembla, 178.
Nova^ Scotia, 234.
Novels. 116. 281.
Novelty, 74.
Novum Organum, 29, 77.
Nubia, 180.
Numa Pompilius, 207.
Numeration, 317.
Numerical Equations, 326,
Numismatics, 198.
Oak, 437. Oberlin, 92. Obi, 171.
Oblique Angles, 32a Oblique Attack, 507. Occam, 22. Ooeipnt,406. Ooeanica, 192. Oceanic Languages, 68. Oceanic History, 217. Ooe«is,164. Octave, 533. Octavo^ 521. Oculist, 428. Odfer, 177. Odes, 280. Odoacer, 209, 220. Odyssey, 284. (Edipus TyrannuB, 285. Oersted, 271, 366. Offerings, 143. Ogee, £l5. Ogyges, 206. O'Higgins, 240, 27a Ohio ttiver, 186. Oil Painting. 523. 01af,23L Oldenburg, 177. Old Style, 200. Old Testament, 141. Olivarez, 260. Olympia, 173. Omar, 210, 213, 255. OntologT, 36. OoUte, 399. Ootay, 2ia Opera, 281, 533.
Digitized by
&S0
INDEX.
Ophidia, 360.
Ophiolo^, 379.
Ophthalmia, 422.
Opium, 415.
Oporto, 174.
Optics, 356.
Or, 245.
Oradea, 283.
Orange, Prince of, 26d.
Orange River, 182.
Oration, 262.
Oratorio, 533.
Oratory, 70.
Orbit, 352.
Orchan, 212.
Orchards, 468.
Order of Battle, 512.
Orders in Botany, 387.
Orders in Nat Hist^ 374.
Ordinaries, 245.
Ordnance, 489.
Orellana, 189.
Organ, 479.
Organic Chemistry, 371.
Organic Remains, 375.
Organization of Armies, 504.
Orpnon, 77.
Oriental Architecture, 445.
Oriental Biography, 254.
Oriental CaUography, 288.
Oriental Chronography, 210.
Oriental Languages, 49.
Origen, 150.
Ormoco, 190.
Orion, 354.
Orismology, 44.
Orleans, 174.
Orlop-Deck, 510.
Ornaments, Heraldic, 246.
Ornithology, 379.
Oromastes, 131.
Orthoepy, 43.
Orthographic Projection, 332.
Orthography, 43.
Orthology, 43.
Oryctognosy, 389.
Osiris, 130.
Osmerinea, 394.
08mia,298.
Osteology, 406.
Ostirridii, 229.
Ostrogoths, 220.
Osymandias, 203.
Otaheite, 195.
Other, 171.
Othman, 210. 212, 255.
Otho, 148, 220.
Otho, 228.
Otis, James, 273.
Oudenard, 226.
Oudney, 179.
OutUers, 398.
Ovid, 254.
Overshot Wheel, 441.
Owyhee, Isle of, 195.
Oxalic Acid, 417. Oxcnstiem, 271. Oxford, 175. Oxide, 369. Oxygen, 369.
Psans, 283.
Pacz, Gen. 239, 277.
Pachydermata, 379.
Paganism, 129.
Pagoda, 445.
Pagoda, (Coin,) 483.
Pame, R. T., 276.
Painting, 521.
PaixhanGun,501.
Pakieotherium, 399.
Palaestra, 537.
PaUtals, 43.
Pale, 245.
Paleontology, 395, 397.
Palermo, 173.
Palestine, 167.
Palcy, 150.
Palisades, 495.
Palladio, 260.
Pallas, 272.
Palmipedes, 379.
Palmyra, 167.
Pampas, 191.
Pancratium, 537.
Pancreas, 411.
Pandects, 116.
Panegyric, 286, 288.
Pantagruel,301.
Pantocracy, 101 .
Pantolo^ry, 13.
Pantonume, 281.
Papal Power, 218.
Paper, 516.
Paper Making, 520.
PapiUe, 409.
Papyrus, 516.
Parabola, 336.
Paracelsus, 419.
Parade, 496.
Parade Ground, 492.
Paradise Lost, 301.
Paraguay, 191, 241.
Paraupomcna, 284.
Parallax, 356.
Parallelogram of Forces, 346.
Parallel Sailing, 457.
Paralysis, 423.
Paramaribo, 190.
Parapet, 494.
Parasclena, 360.
Parchment, 516.
Paregoric, 415.
Parental Duties, 89.
Parhelia, 360.
Paris, 174.
Park, 179.
Parliamentary Rules, 102.
Parma, 173.
Parry, 184.
Parser, 53 Parsing, 47. Parthian Empire, 205. Participle, 46. Partnerships, 118. Passant, 246. Passerinoe, 379. Passover, 143. Pastoral Poetry, 280. Pastoral Theokey, I52L Pastor Fido, 295. Pastourelles, 298. Patagonia, 192. Patella, 407. Pathology, 4ia Patriarcha, 100. Patriarchs, 140, 147, 248. Patriotism, 90. Patristic Theology, 149. Paul, 146.
Paul and l^rginia, 301. Pauses, 76.
Paymaster Generml, 492. Peale, 276. Pearla8h,371. Pediment, 444. Pedro I., 277. Pehlvi, 53. Pekin, 169. Pelagius, 147,221. Pelasgians, 206. Pelasgic Languages, 55. Pella, 145. Peloponnesus, 172. Peloponnesian War, 207. Peltastai, 504. Pelusium, 179. Penance, 153. Pend-Nameh, 291. Pendulum, 348. Penn, William, 273. PenUteuch, 141. Pentatiilon, 537. Pentecost, 143. Penumbra, 524. Pequot Wars, 235. Perception, 85. Perceptive Powers, 85. Percy, 265. Perfection Divine, 91. Pericarp, 385. Pericles, 251. Pericranium, 407. Peripatetic School, 31. Perihelion, 352. Perjury, 120. Pemambuco, 189. Peroration, 76. Perry, O. H.274. Persecutions, 146. Persepolis, 168. Persia, 168, 213. Persian Biography, 256. Persian Caltography, 290. Persian Language, 53.
Digitized by
INDSX.
581
Personal Duties, 88. Persqnific^tioii, 73. Perspective, 523. Perspectograph, 534. Persuasion, 75. Peru, 190, 339. Peru-Bolivia, 5240. Penirian Bark, 419. Pestalozzi, 268. Petard, 491.
Peter the Great, 233, 273. Petit Juries, 103. Petitio Principii, 80. Petrarch, 259. Peutinger Table, 161. Phaeton, 480. Phalanx, 498. Pharisees, 143. Pharmacology^ 412. Pharmacopeia, 413. Pharmacy, 412, 416. Pharsalia, Lucan's 386. Pharynx, 410. Phidias, 253. Philadelphia, 186. PhiUp of France, 263. Philip, II., 223. PhiUp, 146.
Philip of Macedon, 207. PhUippi, 172. Philippics, 286. Philippine Islands, 194. Philo, 249. Philology, 40. Philopoemen, 251. Philosopher's Stone, 367. Philosophy, 19. Phikvophy, Political, 100. Phipps, 273. Phlebotomy, 426. Phlegmasis, 421. Phloffiston, 368. Fho<Son, 251. Phcenicia, 167,205. Phoenician Language, 51. Phonetic Characters, 49. Phonology, 43. Phosphorescence, 392. Phosphorus, 370. Phrenics, 82. Phrenology, 83. Phtha, 130. Phthisis, 422. Physical Astronomy, 355. Physical Education, 93. Physical Geography, 162. Physical Geology, 400. Physical Optics, 359. Physician, 402. Physiconomy, 32, 313. Phydcs, 342. Phytology, 383. Phytonomy, 385. Piast, 331. Fia8tie,48a.
Piazza, 444.
Pickles, 471.
Piers, 449.
Pike, Gen., 274.
Pilaster, 444.
Pile, 444.
Pinacography, 525.
PinaooUieca, 525.
Pinchbeck, 435.
Pindar, 251.
Pine, 437.
Pinnacle, 447.
Piracy, 109.
Pisces, 376.
Pisistratus, 251.
Pistils, 385.
Pistol, 489.
Pistole, 483.
Piston, 443.
Pitt, Waiiam, 265. Pittinea, 394. Pius, Pope, 219, 258. Pizzarro, 261, 277. P]acoidians,38]. Plaintiff, 121. Plane, in Geometry, 328. Plane Trigonometry, 334« Planets, 352. Planimetry, 328. Plan of Operation, 505. Plantation, 467. Plants, 383.
Plants, Growth of, 386. Plaster, 530. Plastic Art, 527. Plate, 479. Platinum, 371. Plato, 21, 403. Plautus, 254. Plectognathi, 381. Plesiosaurufl, 399. Pliny, 254. Plutarch, 243. Pluto, 132. Plymouth, 234. Pneumatics, 345, 349. Pneumatology, 36, 82. Pneumonitis, 422. Po, 173.
Pochonchi Language, 67. Poen.king, 215. Poetic Foot, 48. Poetry, 18, 280. Poictiers, 223. Point, in Greometrv, 328. Point of View, 523. Poisons, 417. Poland, 178.
Polish Gallography, 309. Polish Language, 65. Polite Literature, 37. Politics, 98.
Political Economy, 131. PoUtical Philosophy, 100. PoU Tax, 125. 74
Polo, Marco, 166. Poly bins, 251. Polycarp, 150. Polychromes, 522. Polyedron, 330. Polygon, 328. Polynesia, 194. Polypi, 383. Poly-olbion, 302. Polytheism, 130. Pomerania, 177. Pompeii, 209. PompcT, 208, 253. Pondicherry, 169. Poniatowski, 232, 272. Pontoons, 497. Pontoppidan, 271. Pope, Alex., 266. Pope of Rrnne, 147. Popes, 258. Porosity, 343. Porphyry, 397. Port au iSrince, 188. Portcullis, 494. Porter, 472. . Portfires, 491. Pori-holes, 509. Portico, 444. Port Royal, 43. Portugal, 174, 233. Portugal, Sovereigns o£^ 261. Portuguese Gallography, 297. Portuguese Language, 60. Posen, 177.
Positive Electricity, 363. Postern, 497. Potamon, 21. Potash, 371. Potassium, 370. Potatoes, 465. Potenoe, 245, 508. Potemkin, 272. Potsdam, 177. Pottery, 478. Pound Weight, 484. Pound Sterling, 483. Poussin, 264. Power.loom, 474. Powers of a Number, 321. Powers, Theory o^ 325. Pozadas, 241. Pracrit Language, 53. Practical Astronomy, 355. Practical Optics, 360. Pragmatic Sanction, 228. Prague, 177. Praxiteles, 252. Precipitate, 369. Predicate, 78. Preposition, 46. Presburg, 177. Presbyterians, 156. Presbytery, 15a Prescriptive Laws, 99. President of U.S., 113.
Digitized by
582
lirD£Z.
Priuii,S06.
Priestbood, 142.
Primsce, 109.
Primarj Rocks, 396. [234.
Prince Edward*! Iibnd, 186,
Prince MacctuATelli^s, 100.
Prince WiHiam'e Land, 185.
Principia, Newton's, 352.
Principes, 5U4.
Principles of Adjudication, 103.
Principles of Administration,
104. Principles of Commerce, 481. Principles of Elocntion, 76. Principles of Legislation, 102. Printing:, 516, 518. Printing Paper, 520. PriTateer, 109. PriTative Terms, 78. ProccM, 121. Probabilities, 81. Prodoction of Wealth, 122. Proem, 75. Profile, 522. Prolonge, 501. Probgoe, 281. Prometheus Boood, 285. Promise, 119. Praooan,46. Proof; 519. Propensities, 84. Property, 119. Prophets, 141, 249. Prophetical Books, 14L Proposition, 78; Proserpina, 133. Prosody, 47. Protestants, 155. Prothonotary, 103. ProCogine, 397. Provencal 60. Provence, 174. Proverb, 282. Prussia, 177,229. Prussian Blue, 37L Psammetichus, 204. Psiloi, 504. Psychology, 33, 69. P«ychonomy, 32, 39. Pterodactylus, 399. Plaropoda,381. Ptolemies, 204. Ptdlemy^ 161, 250, 252. Public Education, 96. Poevrredon, 241. Pnffendorf, 106, 269. PiUaski,272. Puhnonary Artery, 409. Pttltowa, 231. Pan, 282. Pmictnation, 48. Pnnic War, 208. Punishments, 103, 120. Papa, 382. PnpU,oftheEye,36L
Pore Mathematics, 314. Purgatory, 153. Puritans, 157, 234. Putnam, Israel, 274. Pygmalion, 205. Pyramid in Geometry, 330. Pyramids, 203, 445. Pyrenees, 174. Pyrexiae, 421. Pyritittea,394. Pyrotechny, 490, 539. Pyrrhic, 48. Pyrrho,2L Pyrrhus, 207. Pythagoros, 20, 327. Pytbeas, 161.
Quadrant, 458. Quadratic Equation, 324. Quadrivium, 28. Quadrumana, 37^. Quakers, 158. Quarrying, 436. Quarter Deck, 453. Quarter-master, 492. Quarto, 521. Quebec, 186, 233. Quichua Language, 67. Quicksilver, 371. Quiloa,I82. Quincy, Josiah, 273. Quinia, 414. Quinsy, 422. Quintilian, 253. Quiros, 193. Quito, 190, 239.
Rabbinic Language, 51. Rabbinists, 144. Rabelais, 264. Races of Men, 164. Rack, in Machinery, 440. Racine, 263. Radiated Caloric, 363. Radical Sign, 325. Radius, in Anatomy, 407. Radius, in Geometry, 329. Radius Vectors, 355. Ragner Lodbrog, 230. Rail-Roadi, 449. Rainbow, 360. Raking, 512. Raleigh, 265. Ramayana, 292. Rampant, 246. Rampart, 496. Ramsay, Dr., 276. Randolph, Peyton, 273. Raphael, 260. Rash, 422.
Ratchet Wheelb, 440. Rattlings, 454. Ray, 375, 384. Realists, 21. Reasoning, 77.
Rebus, 282.
Rectilinear Furores, 329«
Redan, 495.
Redoubt, 495.
Reflective Powers, 86L
Reflected Lights, 524.
Reflectors, sSa
Reformation, 148, 154, 219.
Refraction, 356, 3S9.
Regiment, 499.
Regiomontanus, 270.
Regno Animal, 375.
Rcgulus,252.
Rehoboam, 202, 249.
Reid, 83.
Relievos, 527.
Religion, 127.
Religious Duties, 91.
Religious Education, 96.
Remonstrants, 155.
Repeating Circle, 45&
Replevin, 121.
Representation, 100.
Representatives, 112.
Reptiles, 379.
Republic, 101.
Republic of Cracow, 178.
Reserve, 507.
Reservoirs, 450.
Resinous Baectricity, 363.
Resistibility, 34a
Rest, 94.
Restorationists, 157.
Retina, 361.
Retreat, 507.
Revealed Reli^on, 127.
Revelation, 128.
Revolution, English, 225.
Reynolds, 267.
Rhaxes,255.
Rhea, 103.
Rheometry, 337.
Rhetoric, 70.
Rheumatism, 422.
Rheutinea, 393.
Rhine, 176.
Rhodian Laws, 109.
Rhomboid, 329.
Rhombus, 329.
Rhone, 174.
Rhyme, 48.
Ribs of Ships, 453.
Rice, 465.
Richard, 225.
Richard of England, 265.
Richardson, 184.
Richelieu, 262.
Ricochet, 494.
Ridicule, 74.
Riding, 53a
Ridley, 266.
Riego, 260.
Rienzi, 259.
Riga, 17a
Right Ascension, 354.
Digitized by
INDEX.
583
Rifphts of War and Peace, 106. Rigrging of Ships, 453. RimmoD, 131. Rio Janeiro, 189. Rittenhoase, D.,276. RiTadavia, 241. Rivera, 241.
River ImproTements, 450. Roads, 448. Robbery, 120. Robertson, 266. Robespierre, 262. Rocky Mts., 186. Rodentia, 379. Rodolph, 227, 269. RoUin, Charles, 263. Romaic Dialect, 57. Roman Biosrraphy, 252. Roman Callomphy, 286. Roman Cathie Church, 153. Roman History, 207. Roman School, 523. Romance, 18, 281. Romance of the Rose, 298. Romanoero, Gen., 296. Romano, 25a Roman Numerals, 316. Romanoff, 232. Romantic Poetry, 280. Rome, 173, 207. Romulus, 207, 252. Root of a Number, 321. Root ofa Plant, 384. Roots, Theory of, 325. Rosary, 469. Roeas, 241,27a Roses, Wars of the, 225. Ross, Capt, 184. Rosetta Stone, 50. Rouble, 483. Rouen, 174. Round Bodies, 330. Roundlets, 245. Rousseau, 263. Rowing, 538. Rubins, 268. Rudder, 453. Rule of Three, 320. Rules of Position, 321. Rnminantia, 379. Runic Alphabet, 62. Rupee, 483. Rural Deities, 133. Rural Economy, 461. Rush, Dr., 276. Russia, 178, 232. Russian Alphabet, 66. Russian America, 185. Russian Church, 153. Russian Language, 65.
Sabbatical Year, 143. SabeUius, 147. Sabianism, 137. Sabines, 207.
Saoontala, 292.
Sacraments, 150.
Sacrum, 407.
Sadducees, 144.
Sadi, 256.
Sadoc, 249.
Saggars, 478.
Sagrifizio, 295.
Sahara, 180.
Sailing, 538.
Sailing-master, 511.
Sails, 453.
St Anthony's Fire, 422.
St Augustin, 148.
St Bartholomew's Eye, 224.
St Boniface, 148.
St Denis, 14a
St Elias, Mount, 185.
St Lawrence River, 185.
St Patrick, 148.
St Petersburg, 178.
St Pierre, 264.
St. Salvador, 188.
St. Vitus's Dance, 434.
Saivas, 1.34.
Saladin,211.
Salamis, 207.
Sal Ammoniac, 371.
Salient, 246.
Saliva, 411.
Sallu^ 253.
Saltier, 245.
Salts, 369.
Salt of Lemons, 371.
Salvator Rosa, 260.
Samanides, 213.
Samarcand, 170.
Samaria, 167.
Samson, 249.
Samuel, 249.
Sanchoniathon, 250. ,
Sanctorio, 362.
Sanctuary, 142.
Sandstone, 397, 436.
Sandracottus, 213.
Sandwich Islands, 195.
San Martin, 240, 277.
Sanscrit Languages, 52, 53.
Santa Anna, 277.
Santa Cruz, Gen., 240, 278.
Santander, 277.
Santiago, 191.
Sappers, 497.
Sappho, 251.
Saracens, 210.
Sardanapalus, 204.
Sardinia, 173.
Sarmatia, 178.
Saros, 351.
Sarpi, 259.
Saiagossa, 174.
Sarto, 260.
Sate, 130.
Satellites, 353.
Satin, 476.
Satiric Poetry, 280.
Saturn, 132, 133.
Satyricon, 28a
Saul, 202, 249.
Sauria, 380.
Saviour, 145.
Savoy, 221.
Saw.Gin, 473.
Sawyers, 451.
Saxe Weimar, 177.
Saxon Alphabet, 63.
Saxon Language, 62.
Saxony, 176.
Scansores, 379.
Scandinavia, 178.
Scandinavian Mythology, 135.
Scantling, 437.
ScapcGoat, 143.
Scapements, 440.
Scaptinea, 394.
Scapula, 407.
ScarBng, 437.
Scarlet Fever, 422.
Scenography, 332.
Sceptic School, 21.
Scheele, 271.
Schildberger, 166.
Schiller, ^0.
Schism of the West, 219.
Schlegel, 270.
Scipio Airicanus, 208.
Scipio Asiaticus, 253.
Scholastic Philosophy, 21.
School of the Soldier, 499.
Schools of Philosophy, 19.
Schooner, 454.
Schuyler, 274.
Sclavonia, 177.
Sclavonians, 232.
Sclavonic Languages, 65.
Sclerotica, 361.
SoQlia,284.
Scorpion, 488.
Scotia, 445.
Scotland, 175, 226.
Scott, Sir Walter, 266.
Scribes, 144.
Scrofula, 424.
Sculpture, 527.
Scurvy, 424.
Seamanship, 456.
Seals, 247.
Seasoning, 437.
Sebastian, 261.
Secant, 329.
Secondary Rocks, 399.
Secretaries, 104.
Secretaries of Legation, 104.
Secretive Diseases, 424.
Sectarian Polity, 152.
Sedatives, 414.
Seeds, 385.
Seghalien, na
Segment, 329.
i3egur,263.
Digitized by
iS4
IllBBX.
Seiant, 246.
Seine, 174.
Seleucus, 205, 250.
Selenium, 370.
Selim,2l2.
Seljoohf, 212.
Semaphore, 521.
Semitic Languages, 50.
Semiramis, 204.
Senate, 112.
Senator, 112.
Seneca, 254.
Senegambia, 181.
Sennaar, 180.
Sensation, 85.
Senses, 85.
Sentiments, 84.
Septuagint, 141.
Sequeira, 166.
Serapis, 131.
Seraswatee, 133.
Serfs, 117.
Serjeant, 499.
Servius TuUius, 208.
Sesoetris, 203.
Seth,248.
Sette Giomate, 295.
Seven Sacraments, 153.
Seven Years* War, 229.
Sexagesimal Notation, 317.
Sextant, 458.
Shading, 524.
Shadows, 524.
Shaft, in Mines, 435.
Shaft, in Machines, 440.
Shahabodien, 214.
Shah Nameh, 290.
Shakspeare, 266.
Shaktus, 134.
Shastra, 133, 992.
Shechinah,]42.
Shee-hoang.tee, 215.
Shee King, 293.
Sheep, 466.
Sheer plan, 452.
Shee-tsong, 216.
Shee.tsoo, 216.
Sheets, 454.
SheUs,471.
Sheriff, 103.
Shield, 244, 488.
Shiites, 139.
Ship, 454.
Ship Building, 451.
Ship oftheLme, 508.
Ships of War, 510.
Shoa Efat, 181.
Shooting, 539.
Short Hand, 518.
Shot, 491.
Shrouds, 454.
Siam, 169.
Sibillants, 44.
Siberia, 170.
Sibylline licaves, 303.
Sicilian Vespers, 331.
Sicilies, 173.
Sicyon, 306.
Siderial Astronomy, 354.
Sidney, 194,265.
Sienite, 397.
Sierra Leone, 181, 217.
Sieve of Eratosthenes, 316.
Sigfrid, 148.
Sigismund, 228, 233, 371.
Signals, 512.
Signature, 520, 534.
Sihon, 170.
Silesia, 177.
Siliceous Stones, 435.
Silicon, 370.
Silk Manufacture, 476.
Silloi, 285.
Silver, 371.
Silvius, 405.
Simile, 72.
Simple Equation, 334.
Simpson, 184.
Simon, 141, 146.
Simon Peter, 145.
Simoom, 164.
Sinai, Mt, 167.
Sinciput, 406.
Sine, 334.
Singhasana, 292.
Single Entry, 484.
Sinister Chief; 244.
Sirocco, 164.
Sirventes, 298.
Sismondi, 268.
Sitka, 185.
Siva, 134.
Skating, 538.
Skeleton, 406.
Sketch Book, 312.
Skin, 409.
Skyldingians, 308.
Skirmish, 507.
Slave Trade, 109.
SUver, 475.
Sloops, 454.
Slnbbing, 475.
SmaUPox,433.
Sme, 130.
Smeaton, John, 267.
Smelting, 435.
Smith, Capt^ 273.
Smith, WiUiam, 275.
Smyrna, 167.
Snags, 451.
Snake Root, 414.
Soapstone, 436.
Sobieski, 232, 272.
Social Compact, 100.
Social Duties, 90.
Societies, 22.
Socinians, 157.
Socrates, 20.
Socratic School, 20.
Sodium, 370.
Sodom, 305.
Soil, 464.
Solar System, 350.
Solicitor, 103.
SoUd Angles, 330.
Solids, 328.
Soliloquy, 282.
Soliman, 211.
Solomon, 202, 349, 256.
Solmization, 533.
Solon, 207.
Somaulia, 183.
Songaria, 170.
Sonnet, 281.
Sophistry, 80.
Sophocles, 251.
Sophonisba, 295.
Sorbefacienta, 413.
Sorbonne, 263.
Sorites, 80.
Sorrows of Werter, 306L
Sothic Period, 351.
Soudan, 181.
Sound, 350.
Sources, 134
Sources of Commerce, 483.
South America, 189.
Souza, 238.
Sovereign, 483.
Sovereign Pontiff; 218.
Spain, 173.
Spanish Biography, 260.
Spanish Callography, 296.
Spanish Language, 59.
Spanish Succession, 222, 334.
Spar Deck, 510.
Spasmi, 434.
Spear, 488.
Species, 374.
Specific Gravity, 349.
SpecUtor, 305.
Spectrum, 357.
Speculum, 29.
Spenser, Eximund, 366.
Sphere, 330.
Spherical Projections, 333.
Spherical Segment, 331.
Spherical Triangle, 331.
Spherical Trigonometry, 334.
Sphragistics, 198, 347.
Spinning Jenny, 473.
Spinning Frame, 475.
Spirit of the Laws, 100.
Spitibergen, 178.
Spondee, 48.
Splanchnology, 410.
Spleen, 411.
Spurzheim, 83.
Spy, Cooper's, 313.
Squadron, 503, 508.
Stael, Madame de, 364.
Staff, in Music, 534.
Staff Corps, 505.
Stahl, 370.
Stamboul, 313.
Digitized by
INDEX.
5S5
stamen, 385.
Stanza, 280.
Starboard, 511.
Starlings, 449.
Stars, 354.
State Rights, 114.
Statesmanship, 98, 104.
States of the Church, 173.
Statics, 345, 346.
Statute, 99.
SUtutes, 115.
Statistics, 160.
Statistics of Europe, 171.
Statues, 527.
Stays, 454.
Steamboat, 454.
Steam Engine, 439, 442.
Steam Navigation, 452.
Steel, 434.
Stem ofa Ship, 453.
Stenography, 518.
Stephen, 218, 258.
Stcreographic Projection, 332.
Stereometry, 328.
Stereotype Printing, 517, 519.
Sterinea, 393.
Stem of a Ship, 453.
Sternum, 407.
Steuben, 274.
Stewart, 83.
Stimulants, 413.
Stockhohn, 178.
Stocks, in Ship Building, 453.
Stoic, 21.
Stomach, 410.
Stone Cutting, 436.
Stone Ware, 478.
Strabo,161,252.
Strata, 398.
Strategy, 503.
Stretcher, 436.
Strength of Materials, 437.
Striking Distance, 507.
Strontium, 370.
Structures of the Body, 406.
Stuart, 226, 276.
Sturlason, 271.
Stuttgard, 176.
Style, 71.
Styles of Architecture, 443.
Styria, 177.
Stylobate, 444.
Stylus, 516.
Subalterns, 79.
Suboontraries, 79.
Subject, 78.
Sublimation, 416.
Sublimity, 73.
SubtracUon, 318.
Suckinff Pump, 349.
Sucre, Gen., 277.
Sugar Cane, 465.
Sugar ofLead, 371, 417.
SuBy, I>ukeof,2tfl.
Sulphur, 370.
Sumatra, 217. Summer Houses, 467. Summit Level, 450. Summons, 121. Sun, 352.
Sunda Islands, 193. Sunna, 139. Suphis, 203.
Supremacy of the Pdpe, 153. Supreme Court, 114. Suwarrow, 272. Surajah Dowlah, 215. Surface, in Geometry, 328. Surgery, 425. Surgeon Greneral, 492. Survejring, 449. Sweden, 178. Swedenborg, 271. Swedenborgians, 158. Swedish Language, 64. Swedish Callography, 308. Swedish Revolution, 231. Sweetmeats, 471. Swerga, 134. Sweyn,230. Swimming, 538. Swine, 466. Switch, 450. Switzerland, 176> 227. Sword, 488. Sword Exercise, 503. Sydenham, 267, 419. Syllogism, 79. Symptomatology, 418b Syncope, 423. Synecdoche, 73. Synclinal Axis, 398. Syndesmology, 407. Synod, 156. Synod of Dort, 155. Synonyms, 45. Syntax, 47. Synthetic Method, 82. Syria, 167, 205. Syriac Language, 51. Systematic Botany, 386. Systematic Greology, 397. Systematic Mineralogy, 393. Systematic Theolo^, 152. System of Nature, 373. Syzigies, 355.
Tabernacle, 142. Tabernacles, Feast of, 143. Ta<9itu6, 253. Tack, 456. TacUcs, 498. Talbot, John, 265. Tales, 281. Talleyrand, 263. Talmud, 144. Tamerlane, 213. Tampico, 188. Tamul Language, 53. Tananarivou, lS3.
Tangent, 329, 334. Tannmg, 476. Tao-tzee, 135. Tarascan Language, 67. Tare and Trett, 321. Targums, 144. TarSar, 123. Tarraconensis, 174. Tarsus, 407. Tartar Languages, 52. Tartary, 170. Tartarus, 132. Tartuffe, 300. Task, Cowper's, 303. Tasman, 192. Taste, 73. Tasso, 259. Taxation, 125. Taylor, Brook, 338. Taytsong, 216. Taytsoo, 21 a Technology, 32, 430. Tecum Umam, 238. Teeth, 406, 429. Teheran, 168. Telegraph, 517, 521. Telemaque, 299. Telescope, 357. TeU, WiUiam, 268. Temperature, 93. Tempering, 434. Tenaille, 497. Tendon, 407. Tenne, 245. Tenons, 437. Tense, 46. Teraphim, 527. Terence, 254. Term, 77. Terra Firma, 239. Terre-pleine, 495. Terrestrial Globes, 161. Territories, U. S., 187. Tertiary Rocks, 399. Tertullian, 150. Testament, New, 149. Testament, Old, 141. Tdte-de-pont, 506. Tetrachords, 532. Tetrachys, 316. Teutonic Knights, 229. Teutonic Language, 62. Texas, 187, 237. Thales, 20, 327. Thanatopsis, 310. Thaut, 26, 41, 250. Thebes, 173, 179. Thebaid, 287. Theiinae, 394. Thekla, 309. Theodicy, 36. Theodore, 232, 258. Theodoret, 150. Theogony, 284. iWogy, 18, 34, 127, 144.
Digitized by
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INDEX.
Theory of Equitions, 396. Theory of Government, 101. Theory of Music, 533. Therapeutics, 413. Thercology, 418. Theriaca, 285, 413. Thermo-Electricity, 366. Thespis, 285. Theasalonica, 172. Thessaly, 173. Thibet, 169. Thomas, 146. Thorax, 409. Thorwaldsen, 271. Thousand Nigrhts, 291. Thracia, 172. Thucydides, 251. Thummim, 143. Tiara, 246. Tiberius, 253. Tibia, 407. Tide Mills, 441. Tides, 163.
Tie in Carpentry, 437. Tisanes, 250. Tigr*, 181. Tigr^ Laniraaire, 681. Tilbury, 4%. Tilly, 269. Timbttctoo, 181. Timothy, 146. Timothy Grass, 465. Tin, 371, 435. Tinctures, 245. Tintoretto, 260. Tippoo Saib, 215. Titans, 132. Title, 119. Titian, 260. Ontus, 14& 253. Tobacco, 465. Tobolsk, 171. Tojrrai, 255. Togrul Beg, 212. Tompkins, Daniel D., 275. Tone, in Coloring, 525. Tonics, 413. Topical Surgery, 428. Topogr. Geography, 164. Topography, 449. Tooti Nameh, 291. Torricelli, 259, 346. Torrismondo, 295. Tort, 121. Tortoise, 493. Toms, 445. Touch, 365. Tournament, 537. Tourniquet, 426. Towers, 491. TozicologT, 417. Tracery, 447. Trachea, 411. Trade, 480. Trade-winds, 163, 366.
Tragedy, 281. Trajan, 253. Tranquebar, 169. Transepts, 447. Transit Instruments, 355. Transition Rocks, 398. Transoms, 490. Transubstantiation, 153. Trapezoid, "329. Trap Rock, 397. Traverse, 121. Traverses, 497. Traverse Sailing, 457. Treaty, 99. Treaties, 115. Trepan, 427. Trestles, 449. Triangle, 334. Triarii, 504. Tribunes, 208. Tribonian, 254. Trieste, 177. Triglyphs, 445. Trigonometry, 314, 333. Tripoli, 180. Triremes, 508. Tristia, 287. Triumvirate, 208. Tristram Shandy, 305. Trivium, 29. Trochee, 48. Trojan War, 206. Tropes, 72. Tropical Year, 353. Troubadours, 298. Trouveurs, 298. Trover, 121. Troy, 167, 206. Troy Weight, 416. Trumpet, 479. Trumpets, Feast of, 143 Tub Wheel, 441. Tuggurt, 180. Tulunides, 21 1. Tunis, 180, 212. Tunnel, 450. Tupac Amaru, 240. Turenne, 262. Turgot, 262. Turkey in Europe, 172. Turkish Biography, 256. Turkish Callography, 290. Turkish Language, 52. Turnip, 465. Turnout, 450. Tuscan Order, 446. Tuscany, 173,221, Twelve Apostles, 145. Twelve Tables, 116, 20a Two SiciUes, 221. Tycho Brahe, 271. l^chonic System, 352. Tympanum, 409. Types, 518. Typhon, 131.
Typhoons, 164.
Tyrol, 177.
Ulcers, 428. inna,407. Ultima Thole, 161. Ulysses, 251. Ummerapoora, 169. Undershot Wheel, 441. Undulatory Theory, 357. Unison, 533. Unitarians, 157. United Netherlands, 227. United Provinces, 227. United States, 186. Unity, 75.
Universal Bishop, 218. Universalists, 157. Universal Gravitation, 346. Universal Pn^Msitions, 79. Univocal Term, 78. Unleavened Bread, 143. Upangas,133. Upavedas, 133. Upholstery, 480. Upper Guinea, 181. Upsal, Kings of, 231. Uraeuay,19],241. Uru Mountains, 170. Uranus, 132. Urim, 143. Ursa Major, 354. Usher, 199. Usbecks, 170. Uses of Reason, 81. Usong Hassan, 213. Usury Laws, 124. Utility, 122. Utopia, 305. Uzziah, 249.
Vaccination, 419. Vacuum, 350. Vair, 245. Vaishavas, 134. Valdivia, 240, 27a Valens, 209. Valentinian, 209. Valhalla, 135. Valkyrias, 136. Valve, 442. Vancouver, 184. Vandals, 221. Vandyck, 26a Vanishing Point, 524. Van Noort, 193. Van Rensselaer, 274. Van Tromp, 268. Varangians, 232. Variation, 365. Variola, 422. Varix.42a Varro,242.
Digitized by
INDEX.
587
Vasoo De Gama, 166, 179,361.
Vassal, 117.
Vatican, 24.
Vattel, 106.
Vedas, 133.
Vegra, GarcUaso de la, 361.
Vem, 409.
Vein, in Geology, 398.
Velaaoo, 311.
Velasquez, 261.
Velites, 504.
Velvet, 476.
Veneration of Images, 153.
Veneering, 480.
Venezuela, 190, 239.
Venetian School, 523.
Venice, 17a
Ventricle, 409.
Venus, 133,2201
Verb, 46.
Vermilion, 371.
Verandahs, 44&
Verdigris, 371.
Vermes, 376.
Vemet, 264.
Verse, 280.
Versification, 47.
VertebroB, 407.
Vertebrata, 37&
Vertical Proiectioii, 331.
Vespasian, 253.
Vestitnre, 472.
Vesuvius, 173.
Viatecture, 447.
Vicar of Wakefield, 305.
Vicramadibra^ 214.
Victoria, 26is;.
Vienna, 177.
Vieta,322.
Vicyra, 154.
Vinci, Leonardo da, 260.
Vindelicia, 177.
Violin, 479.
Virgil, 253.
Virtue, 87.
Viscera, 410.
Visconti, 259.
Vishnu, 134.
Visigotiis,220,221.
Vision, 73.
Vision of Judgment, 311.
Vistula, 177.
Visual Rays, 523.
Vitrefactures, 478.
Vitreous Electricity, 362.
Vitreous Humor, 361.
Vitriol, Oil of. 369.
Vitriols, 371.
Vltrurius, 254, 345.
Vladimir, 232.
VladisUus,272.
Voice, 411.
Voice of Nature, 311.
Voices of the Night, 311.
Volga, 170, 178.
Voltaic Circle, 365. Voltaire, 263. Voltigeurs, 499. Volutes, 446. Voo^tec,216. Vrihatcatha, 292. Vulcan, 132. Vulcanian Theory, 396. Vulgar Fractions, 319. Vuhiar Surgery, 426.
Waldemar, 230. Waldenses, 154. WaUd, 211.
Wallachian Language, 59. Wall of Antonine, 175. WaU of Hadrian, 175. Walpole, Robert, 265. War, 17. Warakah, 137. Warren, 274. Warsaw, 178. Warwick, 265. Washington, 236, 274, 275. Waste Book, 484. Waste Wiera» 450. Watches, 479. WaterkMi, 224. Water Power, 440. Water Sports, 538. Watt, James, 267. Watts, Isaac, 266. Wax Figures, 529. Wayne, Anthony, 274. Wealden Rocks, 399. Wealth, 122. Wealth of Nations, 122. Weather-gage, 511.
Weber, 271.
Wedgewood, 362.
Weeks, 199.
Welch Language, 64.
Welding, 434.
Wellin^n, 265.
Werner, 270, 396.
West, Benj., 276.
Western Africa, 181.
Western Asia, 205.
West Indies, 188.
West Indies, History of, 238.
Westphalia, 177.
Whiskey, 472.
White, W.
Whitesmith, 435.
Whoopmg Cough, 424.
Wickliffe, John, 154.
Wieland, 270.
Will, 87, 119.
WiUiam of England, 225, 265.
William of Orange, 227, 268.
WiUoughby, 171.
Windmill, 441.
Wind Power, 441.
Winds, 133.
Windward, 456, 511.
Wine, 472.
Wing Dam, 451.
Winthrop, John, 273.
Wirtemberg, 176.
Wise Men of Greece, 351.
Wistar, 276.
Wit, 74.
Wittenagemote, 110.
Witt, John de, 268.
Wool, 482.
Woollen Manu&ctuie, 475.
Wolfe, 234.
Wollaston, 364.
Wolsey. 265.
Word, Compound, 44.
Works and Days, 284.
Worship of Images, 148.
Worship of Saints, 153.
Wounds, 427.
Wren, Christopher, 267.
Writing, 517.
Writing Paper, 520.
Written Laws, 99.
Wulstan, 171.
Xavier, Francis, 154. Xenophon, 251. Xerxes, 205, 250. Ximenes, 260. • Xylography, 518, 519.
Yard Measure, 484. Yards of Ships, 453. Year, 22. Yegros, 241. Yenisei, 171. Ymir, 135. York, 175. Young, Thomas, 267. YpsUanti, 258.
Zaire, 182, 300. Zanguebar, 182. Zanguebar Dialects, 68. Zaroo, 179. Zecchin,483. Zechariah, 249. Zedekiah,249. Zend, 52. Zendavesta, 26. ZeniUi,356. Zenophanes, 20. Zeno, 21, 251. Zerubbabel,249. Zinc, 371, 435. Z'mzendorf,158,311. Zodiac, 354. Zone of a Sphere, 330. Zones, 163. Zoology, 375. Zoonomy, 377. Zoroaster, 26, 250. Zuinglius, 268. Zunmiaraga, 154.
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